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MASSACHUSETTS

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

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Bulletin No. 221 December, 1924

THE SMUT DISEASE OF ONIONS

By P. J. Anderson and A. Vincent Osmun

This bulletin records six years' experiments on the control of smut, the most
destructive disease of onions in New England and presents practical recommenda-
tions based on these experiments. It also includes an account of the origin, liistory
and economic importance of the disease and the development of the causal organism.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST, MASS.

3600-2-4-25 Order No. 817

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S^i-^LS

THE SMUT DISEASE OF ONIONS

By P. J. Anderson and A. V. Osmun

INTRODUCTION

Commercial onion growing in Massachusetts sixty jears ago was confined to the
eastern part of the state, centering especially in Essex county about the Danvers
section. But continuous cropping brought diminishing yields year by year until
the growers found that they could no longer produce a profitable return on onions
even in that fertile section. New land must be found, and the industry shifted
gradually to the w-est until now practically all of the Massachusetts domestic supply
of surplus onions is produced in the Connecticut Valley. The fertile acres of the
Danvers section, famous onion center since colonial days, are no longer planted to
onions.

When we inquire into the reasons for the diminishing crops and the westward
shifting of the industry we find that the most important contributing factor was the
increase in the prevalence and destl-uctiveness of smut until the toll which it took
wiped out the profits. A field once thoroughly infested wdth smut was permanently
eliminated from profitable onion growing, and since no method of checking the
disease had been discovered at that time, the inevitable result was the migration of
the industry from a section so largely planted to onions.

The Connecticut Valley region, however, did not long escape. Year by year,
smut became more prevalent; fields were being planted to other crops and the his-
tory of Danvers was in a fair w^ay to be repeated along the Connecticut, when the
formaldehyde method of controlling smut was discovered and the industry saved
for the VaUey.

But the formaldehyde method as worked out by the pathologists of twenty years
ago was far from satisfactory. The formulas of application which they recom-
mended were cumbersome and the machiner}^ inadequate. The writers were unable
to find a single grower in the Connecticut Valley who was applying the formaldehyde
according to the rates of dilution and distribution which were recommended by the
pathologists. Finding these inconvenient, the practical growers modified them in
various ways to suit themselves. The results obtained were more various than the
rates of apphcation. Some were successful; many had partial control; others ruined
the crop. Lack of uniformly successful results caused many to condemn the method
and either to plant the fields to less profitable crops or to omit the formaldehyde and
tend the onion crop at a reduced profit or an actual loss.

Such was the situation when the waiters began their investigation of onion smut
in 1918. The whole field of control seemed ripe for a reworking.

It was necessary that a formula of applying the formaldehyde be determined and
standardized for Connecticut Valley conditions, a formula which should be practical
for the grower and at the same time could be depended on to control the disease and
not cause serious injury to the onions. The machine for application must be im-
proved. The beha\ior and hfe-history of the smut fimgus tliroughout the whole
year must be carefully studied Mith the special object of finding a better method of
combating the disease. Many other minor problems were yet unsolved.
^ During the last six years the investigation has been prosecuted in the laboratory
^nd greenhouse during the ^\anter and in the fields of the onion growers of Sunder-
-tand, Amlierst and Leverett and on the Experiment Station farm during the growing
,— «eason. It was essential that the field control experiments be continued through a
— aeries of years on different (arms because it was found that the season and other

%

^vironmental conditions influenced the results of the treatment and it was desira-
ble to develop a method which would be suitable for every year under a wide range
of conditions. The vriters believe that after six years of experimenting they are
ready to publish definite recommendations. In the present bulletin there are also
presented the experiments and data on which the recommendations are based, along
with the results of some other accessory hnes of investigation on onion smut.

HISTORY OF THE DISEASE

Onion smut is probably a disease of American origin, although its history previ-
ous to 1857 is unknown. Onions have been cultivated and used by all the civilized
races of the world in all ages. Starting with the inscriptions on the pyramids, there
is an enormous amount of ancient and modern literature on all phases of onions and
onion culture, but it contains no mention of smut or any trouble which might be
interpreted as smut previous to the middle of the 19th century, when it was first
found in New England. If smut is of Old World origin, this omission is certainly
nothing short of remarkable. Is it not more probable that it occurred in an incon-
spicuous way on some other closely related American plant and thence passed over
to the onion which it found to be a more suitable host? To be sure, we have no
published record of its occurrence on any othel- American plant (except for one
record of a wild onion, Allium Nfv-idense, in the Far West); but when one recalls
that new diseases and new hosts of disease organisms are being discovered every day,
and that it may occur on its wild host plant only as an inconspicuous seedhng dis-
ease, this does not seem to be a serious objection. The fact that the disease has
been found on twenty-six other species of plants of the same genus not previously
reported as affected by smut (p. 8) indicates that all of the host plants of the onion
smut have not yet been found.

The first pubhshed record of the existence of onion smut which the writers have
seen is in the Proceedings of the Essex Institute for 1857 (31: 207, 211-214)*.

Since this interesting article seems to have escaped the notice of other students
of the disease t and is in a rather inaccessible publication we quote it in full. At a
field meeting of the society at Beverly, Mass., on June 24, 1857_, a letter was read by
the secretary from Mr. J.W. Proctor, t a Danvers farmer. Tliis letter according to
the report of the secretary, Mr. Wheatland,

"treated of the smut of the onion and of a maggot, which attacks that vegetable,
threatening serious injury to the onion crops. He considered that at least half the
estimated crop of the present season would be lost. This letter was referred to a
committee consisting of Messrs. S. P. Fowler, George D. Phippin, and Henry F.
lung, in order that it might make the necessary investigation, and report on the
subject at some subsequent meeting of the Society."

At the next meeting, which was held at Wenham on July 10, 1857, Mr. Geo. D.
Phippin of Salem, made the following report on onion smut:

"As to the second agency found so destructive in the cultivation of the onion
your committee report that the smut found growing in the leaves of the onion plant
has been examined under the microscope; but the specimens used were so imperfect
that no information of a decisive character has been obtained. It is evident that
the smut of the onion is a parasitical fungus which originates and develops itself
within the cellular tissues of the leaves looking in some stages of growth like the fila-
ments of a Botrytis. It makes its appearance on the first leaf and descends toward
the root destroying the texture and rendering the leaf spongy and streaked with a
black dust. Perhaps then it may originate from the use of too much putrescent

♦Numbers in parenthesis refer to bibliography in the back of this bulletin. Numbers after the colon
give the page on which statements referred to may be found.

tAll the writers on onion smut who have mentioned the matter at all (Farlow, Thaxter, Stone, Walker,
Cornu, et al.) quote as the first published record, the observation of Ware (51), 12 years later. Probably a
more thorough search through the agricultural literature of Essex County just previous to 1S57 would reveal
earlier allusions to smut

JTen years previous to this date Mr. Proctor, who appears to have been an onion grower of considerable
prominence, presented "An Essay on the Cultivation of the Onion" before the Essex Agricultural Society
(33) in which he gave considerable attention to the pests and enemies of the onion, but no mention is made
of smut. The fact that a practical, keen observer lils:e Mr. Proctor had never seen smut leads us to believe
that it was not present at that early date in the Danvers section.

matter in the soil, helped toward development by a peculiar low and damp atmo^''
phere. The use of muscle-bed mud for culture of onions is well known but we have
not ascertained whether such manuring is liable to the fly or not. An overmanured
soil made so by too much putrescent animal or vegetable matters could be treated
with lime ashes or charcoal, which by helping to absorb the ammonia would check
the fermentary process so favorable to the growing of fungi of every kind.

"It would be interesting to ascertain whether this particular species of smut
is to be found upon the leaves of the wild garlic (Allium canadense) for it may be
that a more succulent condition of the cultivated plant as in our field onion, may be
more susceptible to this disease from the high culture which it obtains. Such para-
sitic plants destructive to crops, indicate the tendency toward extinction of a par-
ticular variety, and the remedy may lie in changing the seed or by inducing some
newer form not liable to be thus affected."

The next published record of the disease is in the appendix of the 17tli annual
report of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture (51:10) in which is printed an
address bj^ Mr. Benjamin P. Ware, a Marblehead farmer, before the Essex Agricul-
tural Society on September 29, 1869. He states that smut is "very destructive,
turning the most promising fields ... to scenes of desolation," and that it "so im-
pregnates the land with its spore as to render it unsafe to plant onions for several
years on land thus affected." In view of our present knowledge of the long time
required for impregnation of the land, these statements indicate that smut was not a
new disease in Essex County in 1869, but that it must have existed for many years.
There is evidence according to Thaxter (44:131) that it occurred in Connecticut as
early as 1860, although there is no published record. In his report of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture for 1869 (7:224) the commissioner, Mr. Horace Capron,
devotes a page to onion smut, but mentions no locality except Massachusetts.
From this, one judges that it was not known to occur in other states at that time.
In the U. S. Commissioner's report for 1872, (43:193) Mr. Thomas Taylor, the
microscopist, mentions a field of four acres in Swampscott where the disease was so
bad that the field was aljandoned. In the same report, he published the first figures
of onion smut spores. The first accurate scientific description of the disease and its
causal fungus is by Farlow (14: '64) in the appendix of the report of the Massachu-
setts Board of Agriculture for 1876. He states that at that time it was not known
to occur anywhere except in Massachusetts and Connecticut and presents convinc-
ing evidence that it was of recent origin.

Summing up all the evidence in regard to the origin of smut we may say that in
all probability it e dsted on some native American plant closely related to the onion
and first made its appearance on the cultivated species about 1850 in New England.

From New England it has spread to all of the onion-growing regions of the north-
ern United States, but is not known to occur in the southern states. In 1889 it was
known to be present in Ohio and Pennsylvania (44:135) and in Vermont (25:141),
New Jersey in 1890 (20:352), New York, previous to 1869 (37), Iowa, about 1900,
(30:216) and reached the Pacific coast about 1911 (6:187). The date of introduc-
tion into other states is not recorded, but at present it is known to occur in Indiana,
Illinois, Wisconsin, Missouri, North Dakota, Delaware, Kentucky, Tennessee, West
Virginia, Kansas and Minnesota.

It is probable that it spread from America to Europe and other parts of the
world. It was reported from near Amiens, France, as early as 1872 (12:40), from
southern France in 1877 (34:379) and from the neighborhood of Paris in 1879
(10 :51) . It is said by Frank (17 :186) to have been found the same year in Germany
near Leip7ig, but ZilUg (54:298) questions this since he fuids the first official report
of its occurrence in Germany in 1909. If it occurred in Germany during the inter-
vening years it must have iDeen very inconspicuous. Zillig (1923) states that in
that country it sometimes causes a loss of 60 per cent of the crop. The first pub-
lished record of smut in England was in 1919 (13:168) but there is evidence that it
occurred in the British Isles as early as 1900 (52:443). Walker (49:15) reported it
as common in Holland. It has also been reported from Denmark. The wi'iters
were also informed by Dr. Ito of the Sapporo Experiment station that it is not un-
common in Japan. The losses from smut in countries other than America have not
usually been considered serious.

V, LOSSES FROM SMUT

Onion smut has caused — and is now causing — great losses to the onion growers
because :

1. Many acres of land best suited for the growing of onions have had to be
turned to the growing of other crops because the land was so impregnated with smut
that a good crop of onions could no longer be grown.

2. It costs just as much to tend a crop where smut has reduced the stand as it
does to tend a full stand but the returns are less. The diminished yield frequently
leaves no margin between cost of production and the selling price.

3. The price of chemical, special apparatus and extra labor for application of
chemical, where preventive measures are used, must be added to the production
cost.

The Plant Disease Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture
(32:210) estimated the loss from this disease in the United States in 1918 at 754,000
bushels. In individual fields in Massachusetts losses may vary from 0 to nearly
100 per cent.

At attempt to calculate the losses in dollars would be conditioned by so many
modifying factors that it would necessarily be the merest guess and no such attempt
will be made by the writers. It is, b}^ all odds, the most important disease of onions
occurring in America, and time or money spent in controlling it is well worth while.

SYMPTOMS

The first signs of smut appear on the young seedlings within two or three weeks
after the seed are planted. In fact, the very first recognizable indication of disease
has been observed here (1:131) within ten days from the date of planting. The
cotyledon (or seed leaf) wliich is the first part to appear above the ground is marked
by a slight cUstortion and swelling instead of being perfectly straight as is the case
with a healthy plant. A few days later, when one holds the plant up to the light
and looks through it, he sees a dense black, opaque, elongated area (or several of
such) inside the seed leaf. Many of these weakened plants "damp off" and fall at
this stage. Even if they do not damp oli they gradually shrivel and die if the attack
is severe. If one crushes these dead cotyledons he finds them filled Mith a black
powder (spores). The heaviest loss in an infested field is during this cotyledon
stage; the grower notices that his rows become thinner day by daj^, until only a
fraction of the seedlings which came up remain standing. If, however, the initial
attack was not very severe the plants do not die in the cotyledon stage but the
successive leaves develop and in many cases are perfectly healthy, the disease having
been sloughed off with the cotyledon. But usually smut will appear as long dark
streaks in each of the succeeding leaves. Such plants remain stimted and the leaves
are short, brittle, and distorted (Fig. lA). They continue to die in various stages
of development throughout the summer. Very few of them develop bulbs of any
size. Even if they continue to live until time of harvesting, they are never stored
because in the last stages they develop "bottom rot" and are thrown out. As the
diseased plants grow larger, the black smut pustules (or lesions) also increase in size.
They may be several inches long or extend throughout the entire length of the leaf.
As the leaf becomes old and dried these lesions spht open and the spores fall out
(Fig. lA). Frequently they rupture to the inside of the hollow leaf. On the bulb
itself, the pustules are raised and appear gray as one looks at the black mass through
the white covering of the scales (Fig. IB). When the outer scales die the black
spores fall out into the soil (Fig. 1). The appearance of a row of diseased onions as
compared with a row of healthy onions is shown in Fig. 2.

THE CAUSE OF SMUT

Smut is produced by the growth inside the tissues of the onion of a parasitic
fungus of the order Ustilaginales. The spores of this fungus were first distinguished
and figured by Taylor in 1872 (43:193 and Fig. 29), but the first accurate description
is by W. G. Farlow of Harvard University in 1876 (14:175). C. C. Frost of Brattle-
boro, Vt., had previously examined it and found that it belonged to the smut genus,

Note failure of diseased plants to develop normLl bulb" Healthy on.on for comparison.

Fig. 2. -Formaldehyde treatment for smut. 2 rows .n center received no formaldehyde.

Urocystis, and had sent some specimens to Farlow with the appended name Uro
cystis cepulae (cepulae means of the little onion). Farlow adopted Frost's name and
published a description but indicated Frost as the author of the species (althou');h
the latter apparently never made a description). Some of the European writers
(e.g. Cornu and Franlc) quote Farlow as the author. It is usually referred to as
Urocystis cejndae Frost.

Shortly after Farlow described this as a new species there was considerable dis-
cussion among students of fungi as to whether this really was a new species or
whether it was identical with some previously described smut. No smut fungus
had been described previously from the cultivated onions but some had been
described from wild species of the same genus and from closely related genera of the
Lihaceae. Thus Urocystis magica was described from Italy on Allium magicum.
Farlow, in his second paper (15:114) expresses the opinion that U. cepulae is identical
with U. magica Pass. Another closely related smut is U. Colchici Schlecht which
occurs on Allium rotundum and a number of species of the Liliaceae outside the
genus Alhum. Farlow pointed out the differences between U. Colchici and U.
cepulae and considered them as distinct. Cooke (9:634) however, considers the
difference insufficient for specific rank and calls the onion fungus U. Colchici var.
cepulae. Magnus (28:348) also considered U. cepulae as distinct from U. Colchici.
Scliroeter and Winter (Die Pilze, p. 121, 1884) would unite all the above species
under U. Colchici. Magnus and Cornu agree with Farlow in keeping the two dis-
tinct. Chnton in his monograph of the North American Ustilagineae (8:451) says,
"There has been some discussion whether the American species is distinct from
Urocystis Colchici and Urocystis mcigica of Europe, the latter species also occurring
on species of AUium. The three while very closely related are distinct. The
species described here {U. cepulae) differs from both in having smaller spores and
spore balls and also from U. Colchici by rarely having more than one spore in a ball."
Another species of Urocystis on Allium is U. Allii (Belham) Schellenberg on Allium
svhhirsutum. The writers have not examined this species, but both Liro and
ScheUenburg regard it as distinct from U. cepulae. Inoculation experiments by
Anderson showed A. subhirsutum to be one of the few species of Allium which are
immune to U. cepxdae.

Liro (27) has recently merged the genus Urocystis with the older genus Tubur-
cinia because he was unable to distinguish any morphological differences between
them and has proposed the name Tuhurcinia cepulae (Fr.) Liro as the correct name
for the onion pathogene. This change has been adopted by European writers but
as yet has not appeared in American literature. In both of these genera, the spore
— more commonly called the "spore ball" — is not a single cell but is composed of a
globose ball of a number of cells permanently bound together. In Tuburcinia all of
these cells are fertile, i.e. capable of germination, while in Urocystis only the central
ones are fertile while the peripheral ones are sterile and called accessory cells. In
opposition to this usual conception Liro maintains that no such distinction exists,
but that in all these species there is a covering layer of sterile cells. When Fries
erected the genus Tuburcinia, the first species which he placed under it was T. Oro-
banches, the spore baU of which is composed of 1-3 larger central cells surrounded by
a compact layer of smaller, flatter cells. Contrary to the opinion of most previous
students of this genus, Liro considers the smaller outer cells as the sterile accessory
cells and therefore, that this spore ball differs from that of ordinary species of Uro-
cystis in no way. From examination of slides of Fries' original specimen kindly
furnished by Dr. Liro, the writers were able to confirm Liro's conclusions in regard
to the relative size of the cells ; but it should be kept in mind that the separation of
the genera is not based on differences in size of central and peripheral ceUs but on
their ability to germinate. Microscopic examination of these slides did not disclose
any difference in the outer cells which would prevent germination. Brefeld (Unter-
such. A.D. Gesammtg. d. Myk. Heft. 12:180 and PL XL 1895) has published excel-
lent figures of the germination of the spores of Tuburcinia primulicola, a species very
similar to T.Oroba7icIies,eLiid he shows the peripheral cells germinating in large num-
bers. He was unable to find any sterile cells outside of those wliich germinated.
Liro does not mention any germination studies and there is no record in the Utera-
ture that the germination of the spores of T. Orobanches has been observed. Until
the germination of these spores has been studied, and until there is some concord of

opinion among mycologists as to the constancy of the sterile laj^er of covering cells,
we prefer to retain for the onion smut organism the name wliich has been in contin-
uous use for the last fifty years.

The true onion smut fungus TJ. cepulae Frost, does occur, however, on other
species of Allium. Chnton (8:451) reported it on specimens of A. Nevadense from
Nevada. In England the disease is said to be more severe on leeks (A . Porrum) than
on onions (13:170) and was reported from France on this host as early as 1881
(29:277). Quite recently (55:57) Zillig has reported that he was able to infect A.
fistuhsum L., A. globosum Red., A. odorum L. and A. Porrum L.

One of the writers, before he was aware that ZiUig was working on the same
problem in Germany, began a series of inoculations by planting seed of all obtain-
able species in soil which v/as very heavily infested with U. cepulae. Records taken
every week after the plants came up gave the total percentage and severity of smut
infection for each species. A full de,scription of these experiments and the results
are pubhshed elsewhere (4). Briefly, it was found that out of 39 species which were
tested, 8 proved to be immune to smut, while 31 showed varying degrees of suscepti-
bihty. Thirteen species were just as susceptible as the common onion in that the
disease affected them in just the same way throughout the season. In five others it
caused heavy mortahty in the cotyledon stage but did not persist tlu^oughout the
season. In 13 others the cotyledons were sometimes affected, but the plants rarely
if ever died from the effects of smut. These results lead us to beheve that if the
numerous other species — there are some 250 species in the genus — were tested in the
same way, a large proportion of those which reproduce by seeds would be found to
be susceptible. (Many species escape the disease by reproducing only by bulblets.)

Within the species AUmm Cepa, the cultivated onion, there are numerous varie-
ties, but up to the present there are no data or observations to indicate that any of
them show any degree of resistance to smut. It has been stated at various times,
however, that the white varieties are somewhat more susceptible than the red or
yeUow ones. Walker and Jones (50:236) tested several varieties, and Whitehead
(52:449) tested 21 varieties of onions and 11 varieties of leeks {A. Porrum) but none
was foimd which showed resistance. Anderson (4) tested 54 varieties of cultivated
onions but found no significant indication of resistance among them.

Morphology and Life-History of the Smut Fungus*

If one examines microscopically the dusty black mass from the leaves or bulbs,
mentioned above, he will find that each particle of dust is a spore (chlamji-dospore)
of the fungus which causes smut. It is a compound spore composed of one large
central brown cell, to the surface of wliich are attached 15-40 smaller hemispherical
cells (see Fig. 3A). The dark central cell is the fertile cell, while the numerous
smaller surrounding cells, which are transparent, but with a brownish tint, are the
sterile cells (pseudospores or accessory cells).

The spores get into the soil either by the rupturing of the sorus (pustule) or by
decay of the infected part of the onion which has fallen to the ground. In the soil
they may germinate at once or after a few weeks or months, or they may remain for
years before germination occurs. In either case they grow into long slender branch-
ing tubes (the myc ehum) and in a favorable soil tlfis growth may be sustained for
many years even though onions are not planted again on the same field. The
mycelium does not produce other spores (sporidia or conidia) but it may break up
into short pieces which are able to lie dormant for long periods and then germinate
on the return of favorable conditions. The soil becomes so infested with spores,
mycehum and these detached mycehal segments that without preventive measures
onions can no longer be raised on it.

Method of germination of the spores. In a previous publication Anderson (1 :10S) has
described the process of germination as it occurs during the first few months after ma-
turity of the spores. Briefly it is this: A globose hyaline body, at first no larger than one
of the sterile cells but later" becoming as large as the fertile cell, develops on the surface
of the fertile cell (Fig. 3B). From this body one to eight germ tubes grow out (Fig.

*In a previous publication from this station (1) the reader will find more detailed information on the full
life history of Urocystis cepulae. In the present publication the seasonal life-cycle is outlined very briefly.

\<tcy ( "^i^ /i

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rig. 3. Germination of onion smut spores. A. A fresh spore before germination. B - Q. Succes-
sivelv older stages of germination of spores three months after maturity. Camera lucida drawings.
R-U. Successive stages in the germination of spores after ripened in soil for three years. Photo-
micrographs.

3C-Q) and by elongation, branching and septation form a dense mycelium without any
indication of sporidia. Subsequent to the publication of these results, smutted leaves
were placed in damp soil in test tubes where they were kept for three years. At the ex-
piration of that time the spores were again tested for germination by the same method
as was used in the previously reported tests. The process of germination was now found
to be quite different from that which took place during the first three months after matur-
ity. Most of the sterile cells had now colJapsed and no longer presented the plump
appearance which they have on fresh spores. Germination began within 2-5 days after
the spores were sowed on the cold agar plates. The first striking difference was that
there was no large globose body developed on the face of the fertile cell, but a single
slender tube grew out directly from the central cell (Fig. 3R-U). Occasionally two tubes
seemed to come from the same place, but the second one may have been merely a branch
of the first arising very close to the surface of the spore. Usually the germ tube remained
simple and unbranched until it had reached a length of 20-30 times the diameter of the
spore. Then it became septate and branched sparingly. The protoplasm disappeared
from the older cells but remained dense in the advancing tip cells. No sporidia were
observed at any time even when the further development was examined daily until
masses of mycelium a half -inch or more in diameter were formed. All the further devel-
opment and behavior of the mycelium was the same as previously described after the
germination of the spores according to the first process. The process of germination of
these "after-ripened" spores is very similar to that described by Thaxter (44:142) and
Whitehead (53) except that both of them found sporidia. The difference in germination
between fresh spores and after-ripened spores is susceptible of various interpretations,
but none will be atteznpted until after further investigations have been made.

It is commonly stated in the literature on onion smut that the clilamydospores
live for many years — any number up to 25 may be found — in the soil and then germ-
inate to infect the seedlings when onions are again planted. Such statements are
erroneously based on the observation that smut recurs on a certain piece of land
which has not been planted to onions for that particular number of years. It seems
more probable that the smut is carried through those years in the form of mj^celium
living on the organic matter in the soil. Another possibility is that the spores or
other organs of the fungus may ha\ e been washed or carried in some other way from
fields where onions had been grown in the interim. During the season of 1923 smut
occurred in destructive form on a plot of land on the experiment station farm which,
as the records showed, had not been planted to onions in at least 40 years, but this
plot was adjacent to another field where onions had been grown during many years.
A similar case is reported by Whitehead (52:444). There are numerous ways in
which it could be spread from one field to another, e.g., by surface washing, wind,
tools, animals, direct spread of the mycelium, workmen, etc.

From the soil the mycelium enters the very young seedlings by boring directly
through the epidermis. Infection may occur only during a very limited period
while the epidermis is tender. The exact length of this period was determined by
Walker and Jones (50:238) and by Anderson (1:120). Walker and Jones found
that "the plants became iimnune . . . between the nineteenth and twentj^-fourth
days after sowing, when the cotyledon had about attained its full growth and as the
first leaf was emerging." Anderson found that they were no longer susceptible
after the 17th day under greenliouse conditions, but that "the period of suscepti-
bility is not limited bj^ the number of days diu-ing which the seeds have been in the
soil, but by the length of time required for the seedling to pass tlirough certain
stages of development" and that "susceptibility begins to diminish from the time
that the knees emerge from the ground and little if any infection occurs after the
first leaf has emerged from the side of the cotyledon." Thus the conclusions from
these two investigations — carried out at the same time, but entirely independently,
were identical — that all infection occurs before the first leaf is developed — a period
wliich may be rouglily stated as 3 weeks after planting. Walker and Jones very
ingeniously demonstrated that immunity after this period depends on the maturity
of the tissues of the cotyledon or the successively developed leaves each of which in
turn forms a protective sheath about the base of the next developing leaf.

As soon as the infecting mycelium has passed tlirough the epidermis of the
cotyledon, it spreads rapidly in all directions, deri\'ing its food from the cells of the
young onion. After growing for a period of 5-10 days the mycelium forms dense
knarls between the cells of the host plant and then the knarls are transformed into
masses of black spores which have been previously described. It must not be

9

understood, however, that the mycehura from a single point of infection grows
throughout the whole length of the cotyledon. On the contrary, a single mycelium
probably never extends more than a quarter of an inch from the point of infection
and the ripe sorus is developed at that point. If there are a number of sori in the
cotyledon — which is usually the case — they are the result of the same number of
separate infections. Very long sori in the cotyledon are the result of anastomosing
shorter sori.

Just at the junction of the young cotyledon and the first root there is a slight
swelling known as the root joint. Immediately^ above this is the growing point, — a
region of less than a half inch, — from which place all new leaves start. This point
remains stationary throughout the further development of the onion bulb. If an
infection occurs near the growing point the mycelium reaches tliis rapidly dividing
tissue and as each leaf grows up it carries with it some of the infecting myceUum
which spreads and sporulates in the leaves. When an onion once becomes infected
in the growing point, it never recovers. If, however, the cotyledon is infected only
in the upper part the mycelium does not reach the growing tissues and the disease
is sloughed off with the cotyledon and the plant develops normally.

RELATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Most plant diseases vary greatly in prevalence and severity according to the
season. Certain kinds of weather favor them, others retard them. They ruin the
crop one year and are entirely absent during other years. Onion smut, however,
differs from most common diseases in this respect: It is about the same every year.
Some growers thinl<; they find it more severe during a dry year; just as many others
think a wet year favors it. The writers ha^■e had occasion to watch the course of the
disease for many years but have never noticed any marked difference in its severity
from year to year on the same field. Walker and Jones (50:240) conducted con-
trolled experiments in the greenhouse to determine the effect of variation in the
moisture of the soil on the percentage of smut infection and concluded "that soil
moisture does not function as a factor limiting infection with onion smut witliin the
limits at either extreme where good germination and growth of the host occur."

A similar experiment was conducted by the writers at the Massachusetts Experi-
ment Station in which the seedlings were grown in pots of naturally infested soil
kept at moisture contents at intervals of 2 per cent, from 12 to 40 per cent, of the
dry weight of the soil. Below 12 per cent, this soil was too dry for good germina-
tion, while at the upper limit it began to dechne rapidly from 34 per cent. Within
this range the smut loss was almost total. Above 34 per cent, there was a decline
in the percentage of infection, but the soil was very muddy and it is not likely that
any grower would plant onion seed in soil so wet as this. It is conceivable, however,
that rains immediately following the planting might keep the ground so wet that
infection would be reduced, but probably the loss of germination on account of wet
soil would more than counterbalance the gain from decreased infection. The prac-
tically identical results of these two experiments conducted independently in Wis-
consin and Massachusetts indicate that the moisture condition of the soil in the
spring is without influence on prevalence of the disease during that year.

Neither is there any indication that a warm spring in the Connecticut Valley is
any more or less favorable than a cold one. All the onions here are planted in the
early spring before the soil becomes very warm. Wallcer and Jones (50:247) con-
ducted experiments on the effect of soil temperature on infection and concluded
"that a high percentage of infection maybe expected up to 25° C. ( = 77°F.) above
which there is a rather abrupt reduction, leading to complete inhibition at 29° C.
( = 84° F.). There appears to be no lower limit of temperature for infection within
the range where onion seeds will germinate and normal growth occur." They ex-
plain the absence of smut from the southern onion regions, e.g., Texas and Louisiana,
as due to the fact that in those regions the seed is planted in late summer when the
soil temperatiu-e is too high for infection to occur.

The temperature experiments of Walker and Jones were also duplicated at the
Massachusetts Experiment Station and the results were practically the same.
Onion seed germinated at all temperatures between 8° and 35°C., but the percentage

10

drops off rapidly above 27° and is much retarded below 13°. It required 33 days for
the plants at 8° to show above the surface of the soil. The optimum is between 15°
and 27°. Smut was not entirely absent at any temperature tried, but the percent-
age dropped off suddenly and rapidly above 27°. Below 27° there were no signifi-
cant differences at any temperature. There seems to be no lower Mmit of infection
within the range of germination of the onion seeds. This suggests the possibihty
that smut might be avoided or diminished by delaying the planting here until the
soil became warm. Late planting, however, is not conducive to good crops in the
Connecticut Valley and, in addition, this method has been tried (50:237) here with-
out any beneficial effect.

It is apparent from the results of the experiments just mentioned that the only
soil temperatures which could influence prevalence of smut would be from 27°C.
(81°F.) upward. Does the soil of the Connecticut Valley onion region ever ap-
proach such liigh temperaitures during the infection period, i.e., approximately dur-
ing April and May? We have no local continuous seasonal records for the soil, but
since all im^ection occurs witliin the upper inch of soil we may approximate it from
the air temperature records during those months. The soil temperature during the
heat of the day, to be sure, may rise several degrees above that of the air, but we
may allow a latitude of ten degrees or more and stiU reach some conclusion.
Weather records at Amherst for the ten-year period 1915-24 show the mean hourly
temperature for the month of April to be 45.8°F. and for May, 56.5°F. Even
though the soil temperature in parts of the field were 20° higher than that of the air
— which is beyond reasonable limits for any length of time — it would still not be
high enough to limit infection. As far as Massachusetts is concerned then, soil
temperature seems to be as unimportant as soil moistiu-e.

We may conclude, therefore, that variations in weather conditions are without
effect on the severity of smut infection. There is, on the contrary, verj^ good evi-
dence that certain soil factors may have a deciding influence. A survey of the
Connecticut Valley region shows that fields are very unevenly infested. Onions
always suffer most in certain fields. In the same field, certain spots are very
heavily infested while other parts of the field suffer httle. The location of these
spots remains approximately the same year after year although the whole field is
planted to onions each year and the treatment of all is the same. Such a condition
cannot result from any lack of opportunity for the fungus to spread. It can appar-
ently mean only that there is some soil factor wliich is right for the growth of or
infection by the fungus in that part and not in the other parts of the field. Investi-
gation with the object of determining this factor (or factors) is now in progress at
this station, but it has not progressed to the point where any conclusions can be
drawn.

PREVENTION OF SMUT

Wlien the ravages of smut first began to attract attention of New England onion
growers (1850-75), it was thought to be connected in some way mth the character
of manures apphed to the soil, guano being held especially responsible. Remedies
were therefore sought through change of fertiUzers. Thus Horace Capron (7:224)
suggests: "A remedy for tliis disease must be sought by using less manure, or
manures which are less stimulating and afford less nitrogen for the fungus to feed
upon. Alkahne manures are very destructive to the fungus. Wood ashes, hme,
gypsum and seaweed are very efficacious."

Taylor (43:195), who first made a study of the spores and laid stress on their
presence in the soil as a means of carrying the disease over winter and spreading it
about, recommended that they be destroyed and the disease thus controlled, by
burning heaps of dry weeds and rubbish on the infested fields. This recommenda-
tion was repeated by various writers during the next fifteen years, but it does not
appear from the hterature that anybody tried it. Walker (47:6) has recently
recommended burning the onion tops after harvest and the avoidance of returning
onion refuse to the soil.

Farlow (14:174) was the first to suggest rotation of crops as a means of control.
He was led to beUeve from the statements of growers that the spores do not live in
the soil more than four years and thought that if a smut-infested field were planted

11

to other crops for four years, it would then raise a smut-free crop of onions. He did
not think that the spores were carried by wind and in order to prevent the carrying
of spores to uninfested fields, he recommended thorough cleaning of all tools which
had been used on smut-infested land. Thaxter (44:138) on the other hand, finds
that a badly infested crop of onions was grown on a field wliich had not been planted
to onions for twelve years. Sirrine and Stewart (37:149) find in regard to the value
of crop rotation: "it is the common experience of onion growers that even an occa-
sional change of the crops for one or two years gives appreciable relief; and it is our
belief that a systematic rotation of crops would very considerably reduce the amount
of loss from smut." Farlow was also the first to recommend that all smutted onions
be pulled during the growing season while the crop is being weeded, and that they
be removed from the field and burned. It is not recorded in literature that this
method was tried by any grower.

The first accurate experiments of any value on control are those of Thaxter
(44:146) who was at that time mycologist of the Connecticut Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. He appUed various dry chemicals to the soil in the drills to see
whether any of them would prevent infection of the seedlings by the fungus. The
chemicals used were copper sulfate, iron sulfate, sodium sulfide, potassium sulfide,
potassium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium hyposulfite and flowers of sulfur. Air
slaked Ume was tried also in combination with some of them. The mixture of air
slaked lime and flowers of sulfur gave a fair percentage of control. The others
injured the germinating seeds, or were of little or no value in preventing smut, or
their use was impracticable. He repeated the experiments the following year
(45:103) and again was able to increase by a ratio of about 5:1 the number of onions
which could be raised on badly infested land, by the use of flowers of sulfur. Thax-
ter, himself, however, was not very enthusiastic in his recommendation of the
method and two years later his successor, Sturgis (41:14) writes concerning it: "It
seems probable now that the measure of success attending this treatment will
hardly warrant its extended adoption."

The sulfur-hme treatment was thoroughly tested by Sirrine and Stewart (37 : 152) ,
their field experiments extending over a period of five j^ears. As a result of all their
experiments they conclude (37:145) "that the yield of onions on smutty land may
be greatly increased by the apphcation of 100 pounds of sulphur and 50 pounds of
air-slakecl lime per acre in the driUs at the time of sowing the seed. In several
instances the yield has been increased at the rate of more than 15,000 pounds per
acre as compared with untreated plats. Sulphur alone has considerable value as a
preventive of smut, but seems more efficient when mixed with lime. The sulphur
and lime should not be applied broadcast as they appear to have no effect on the
smut when applied in that way. The sulphur-lime treatment is recommended
whenever the loss from smut is as much as one-third of the crop."

Thaxter (44:146) found that infection occurred only in the very young seedhng
stage. Thus, when the plants were started in sterile soil and then transplanted to
the field, they never suffered from smut. Sturgis (42:176) made extensive field
tests of this method and demonstrated that it was an absolute preventive of smut.
It was also recommended by Sirrine and Stewart (37:145). This most effective of
all methods of control has not been adopted by onion growers in general because the
amount of labor and time required for transplanting is so great as to render it im-
practicable where onions are grown on a large scale.

Burying of the surface soil has been tried with some success, but the labor in-
volved is excessive (37:149).

The use of larger quantities of seed on smut infested land has been tried (37:149)
but as pointed out by Sirrine and Stewart "there comes a time when it is impossible
to obtain a stand no matter how much seed is used." Such a method is also imprac-
tical on a field which is unevenly infested, because the onions are too thick on
lightly infested parts of the field and laborious thinning is necessitated.

In 1900 Selby (35:76) began experiments in Ohio, using the hme and sulfur
treatment as recommended by Thaxter, various other chemicals, quick hme and for-
maldehyde. After the first year's experiments (1900) he abandoned all but the
formaldehyde and the quick lime since they alone gave promising results. All the
ex'periments were on seed sowed very thickly (about 40 pounds per acre) for the
production of sets. During the second year he used only the quick lime and the

12

formaldehyde or a combination of the two and obtained a considerable degree of
control. In regard to his method of apphcation we quote from his summary (36 :51) .

"To apply formalin, use at rate of one pound commercial formahn in 25-30 gallons
of water (1 oz. to 1^-2 gals.) and apply with drip attachment on seed drill at rate
of 500-700 gallons of solution per acre for onion set seeding (about K-M as much
for field onions) or apply with sprinlder upon the scattered seeds until well mois-
tened, then cover with earth promptly.

"Apply ground quick lime or stone hme, better the former, at the rate of 75 to 125
bushels per acre just before seeding, on the freshly prepared soil. If applied by
drill, harrowing will not be required; if broadcast, harrowing shoulcl precede
planting."

Stone (39) recommended formaldehyde at the rate of 1 lb. to 30 gals. (1-240) or
1 oz. to a gal. of water (1-128). With the improved tank which he describes in
detail he found that about 1200 ft. of drill could be treated with one gallon of the
solution.

Within recent j^ears all other methods except the apphcation of formaldehyde
have been abandoned, since this has given good results and is the most convenient.
Various concentrations of the solution and quantities per acre or given length of
row have been recommended. The most recent and thorough investigations have
been those in Wisconsin by Walker (47) . After experiments of several years' dura-
tion he recommended the use of formaldehA^de* at a dilution of 1-128 apphed at the
rate of 200 gallons per acre, or one gallon to about 185 feet of drill (1-128-2960, or
approximately equal to our 1-128-3000 formula).

In England, Wliitehead (52:444) recently made control experiments in which he
treated the seed with various percentages of sulfuric acid and, with paraform, other
experiments in which the soil was treated with soot and salt, paraform, bleaching
powder, lime, nitrate of soda, sulfiu* and hme, calcium cyanamide, carbon bisulfide
and formaldehyde. In the summary of the work he recommends only formaldehyde.
We may briefly summarize the methods of control which have been recommended
in the past and their present status :

1. Modification of the fertilization of the land has been of no avail. We do not
believe, however, that the possibilities of this field of investigation have been ex-
hausted.

2. Removal or destruction of diseased onions or refuse is wasted time.

3. Rotation of crops is of little, if any, value because of the length of time during
which the fungus lives in the soil and because of the facihty with which it may be
introduced from neighboring fields. It is also not economically practicable on high-
priced onion land.

4. Search for resistant varieties has yielded nothing up to the present, but
should be continued.

5. Burying the surface soil is too expensive to merit consideration.

6. Sterihzation of the entire field by heat or chemicals is also too expensive.

7. The use of larger quantities of seed is ineffective.

8. The use of transplanted seedlings is an absolute preventive, but suchfa
method of culture is considered too laborious by growers of the Connecticut Valley
region.

9. The use of sets is just as sure a preventive. This is being practiced more ex-
tensively every year, not only because of the smut situation but also because of less
damage from thrips and of larger yields. The early harvesting of the crop, however,
has distinct disadvantages from the storing and marketing standpoint. _ ^-^ i^^

10. Chemicals other than formaldehyde have proved worthless, injurious, or at
best, very much inferior to that chemical. Sulfur and lime have given the most
promise, but are no longer used.

11. The use of formaldehyde is the only treatment which is now recommended
or extensively used. The principal objections to the formaldehyde method are—

(1) the use of large quantities of water which greatly increases the labor
at planting time, and

(2) danger of injury to the seed.

*Walker also tried (48:323) the sulphur and lime method described by Sirrine and Stewart but found it
inferior to the formaldehyde method "both as to efficiency in controlling the disease and ease of proper
application."

13

It was with the object of reducing these difficulties to the practical minimmn that
field experiments were undertaken by this station. The problem was to find a
formula of application* in which the water should be reduced to the lowest possible
amount, but without serious damage to the germinating seeds.

The Cowls Farm Experiment, 1919

This experiment was located on a field so heavily infested with smut that the
loss was almost complete during the preceding year. Three formulas were used,
1-64-3200, 1-96-3200 and 1-128-3200. The rows were 150 feet long, two untreated
rows alternating with each plot of four treated rows and the whole series in triplicate,
thus giving a total of ISOO feet of row treated according to each formula. Plots
were planted on April 22. The soil was fairly moist when planted; there was only
a slight precipitation during the next week, but the month of May was very rainy.
No diffe ence between the rows was apparent when they first came up but within a
short time the treated rows looked greener and were thicker because of the dying of
the smutted plants in the untreated rows. This dwindling continued throughout
the summer as more of the smutted onions died and disappeared. On June 2, the
number of onions in measured lengths of the rows was counted. Also the percentage
of smut among those standing was determined. From an inspection of these data
(Table I) it is apparent that there had been a large shrinkage from smut before that
date and that half, at least, of those still standing in the untreated rows were
smutted. Smut was not ehminated from the treated rows but it was so reduced in
amount that the rows were too thick for the growing of bulbs of good size. During
August thrips did serious injury, causing the tops to die prematurely. The bulbs
on the check rows were much larger than on the treated rows because, after most of
the seedlings died, they were far apart and had thus opportunity to grow larger.
Very few of the diseased onions were still standing at harvest time and most of them
were rotted at the base. Only rarely did one attain a diameter of one inch. The
number of sound bulbs in each row was counted as they were piilled. After they
had dried for a few days, each plot was also weighed separately. The data is sum-
marized in Table I (p. 27). The comparative yields of treated and untreated rows
are also shown in Fig. 4. The difference between the results secured hy any of the
three formulas is not large. Any of the three shows a gain of over 250 bags (100
lbs. in a bag) per acre. The control secured by the use of any one of the formulas
was satisfactory.

If one prefers to measure the efficiency of the treatment by the gain in pounds,
the 1-96 formula was somewhat the best. If, however, he wishes to consider the
number of healthy oniors at harvest time as the basis of comparison, the 1-128
formula is somewhat better, f

♦Formaldehyde {i.e. the 32-40 per cent, solution of the gas in water) cannot be applied in the concen-
trated form to the seeds in the row because even a very small quantity prevents the seeds from germinating.
It is therefore necessary to dilute it with water. The first question to be answered then is: how much
should it be diluted? This is the first variable in the experiments but this variable depends in turn on a
second variable viz. the rate at which the diluted solution is to be applied to the row. For example, a 1-50
dilution is excellent if a gallon of it is applied to 700 feet of row but disastrous when applied to 200 feet and
worthless when applied to 1400 feet. The numerical expression of these two variables is called the ''form-
ula of application." For all of our experiments it is written in terms of pints of formaldehyde — pints of
water— feet of onion row. To illustrate: the formula 1-.5O-3000 means one pint of formaldehyde is diluted
to 50 pints with water and the 50 pints of diluted solution applied to 3000 feet of onion row. Thus the
first and second figures expre.ss the rate of dilution while the second and third figures express the rate of
application of the diluted solution to the row in terms of pints of solution and feet of row. In the literature
on onion smut control the rate of application is commonly expressed as so many gallons per acre of onions.
This is undesirable because we do not treat acres but rows, i.e., the amount of solution should be propor-
tionate to the number of feet of row and not to the area of the field. The number of feet of row in an acre
varies according to the distance between the rows. Different growers plant the rows at dififerent intervals.
Even in the restricted area of the Connecticut Valley one may find fields of onions planted at 12, 13, 14 or
15 inches and none of them is uncommon. In other sections of the country under different methods of cul-
ture other intervals are used . In order that results obtained at one place may be compared with those from
another, it is desirable that formulas be expressed according to length of row treated and not acres. It
should also be kept in mind that a direct comparison cannot be made between the results of the use of two
formulas in which both variables are fluctuating at the same time: One must remain constant while the
other is being changed.

■f Methods nf calculating the results: The writers have given considerable thought and attention to the

question of the most accurate method of calculating and comparing the results obtained by the use of the

different formulas of application. The methods which we have tried — most of which are in use by other

investigators — are: .

, 1. By counting the number of smutted seedlings when they are in the cotyledon stage. This method is

14

Fig. 4.— Formaldehyde treatment for smut. Yield from 4 treated rows (A), compared with 4 ur
treated rows (B).

Station Farm Experiment, 1919

The experiment on the Cowls farm was duphcated as regards treatments, but
on a smaller scale, on a badly infested plot on the Station farm.

The check rows gradually dwindled throughout the summer while the stand on
the treated rows remained excellent. No differences between the results obtained
by the use of any of the three formulas could be observed. Through a mistake, the
onions of this plot were harvested in the absence of the writers and final data on
yield were not obtained. Unquestionably, however, they would have paralleled the
yield data for the Cowls farm.

Greenhouse Experiments, 1919-20

During the winter a greenhouse bench 4 x 16 feet was filled with soil from a
badly infested field. Three crops of onions, raised in succession, were treated with
formaldehyde of different formulas. Commercial formaldehyde was applied at the
rate of one pint to 2400, 2800, 3000 and 3200 feet of row. Dilutions from 1-8 up to
1-128 were used. Without presenting all the data, we may state the tentative
conclusions at which we arrived as a basis for the field experiments of the following
year :

1. The percentage of control was not appreciably greater when one pint of
commercial formaldehyde was apphed to 2400 or 2800 feet of row than when applied
to 3000 or 3200 feet.

2. Concentrated formulas such as 1-48-2400, 1-32-2800 and stronger cause
serious injury and cannot be used.

3. The most important indication of the series was that within wide limits, the
amount of dilution is not a factor of any great importance as far as control of smut is
concerned.

C. A. Clark Farm Experiment, 1920

This experiment was on land in Sunderland where onions had been grown for 40
or 50 years. The soil, however, was not as thoroughly infested as that on the Cowls
farm used during the previous season. The part selected for experiment included
30 rows, 267 feet long, 12 inches apart, seeded at the rate of 7 pounds per acre. The
plots were seeded May 3, the soil at that time being wet and heavy after a backward

inaccurate because it makes no distinction between those which are badly affected and will die and those
which are slightly affected and may produce good onions. Also we have found that it is impossible to dis-
tinguish all the diseased plants because many of the lesions are below the surface of the soil.

2. By counting the percentage of smutted plants among those which are standing at sorne definite
period in the early summer, hut after the cotyledon stage. This was done in the Cowls farm experiment just
described and is commonly used by other workers on onion smut. This method is worthless because it does
not count tliose which have already died from the disease and disappeared. We have repeatedly noted that
seedlings begin to die within three weeks nftcr planting and the mortality is then heavy for a few weeks.
When a young plant dies it shrivels and decomposes so quickly that no trace of it can be found after a very
few days. Obviously such plants cannot be taken into consideration in calculating by this method

3. By removing and counting the plants as fast as they succumb to smut. This requires a thorough in-
spection about twice a week for a period of some four weeks, after which all diseased plants may be pulled
since it is certain that they will not recover. This is certainly the most accurate method, but under field
conditions involves so much labor that it is precluded. We have, however, used it in greenhouse experi-
ments with satisfaction.

4. By counting and comparing the number of healthy bulbs in the row at harvest time or shortly before.
This does not assume that all onions which have disappeared from the rows during the summer have suc-
cumbed to smut, but that all other agencies which would destroy the plants previous to this time would
operate equally on all the rows. Therefore, the benefit derived by the grower can be determined by direct
comparison of the figures thus obtained. From the experimenter's standpoint it is not quite satisfactory
because it does not take into consideration the number of plants which were prevented from germinating
on account of the use of formaldehyde of a certain formula. In the experiments of the last season we have
determined the amount of such injury by comparing the number of plants which came up and then comput-
ing the control on the basis of those which remain. This fourth method has been used throughout the ex-
periments here as being the most nearly accurate practical method of compaiing the results obtained by a
given treatment.

5 By comparing the yield of onions in pounds or bushels. This method is inacctirate because, as every
onion grower has observed, the onions in a thin row (such as they are when thinned by smut) being further
apart, are larger than in a thick row; therefore, bulb for bulb, are heavier. This difference, however, rep-
resents the gain in weight secured by growing bulbs further apart, and in no case could be interpreted as
having any relation to the application of formaldehyde. If larger bulbs are desired, the result could be
much more economically obtained by planting a smaller quantity of seed per acre while using the formalde-
hyde. This fifth method was used by the writers during the field experiments of 1919 and 1920 and the
final weights are included in the tables, but they should not be considered as accurately gauging the results
of the experiments.

15

spring. Also it rained within 24 hours after the seed was planted and the entire
season was rainy.

The formulas used in this experiment require a few words of explanation. Since
there was considerable smut in the treated rows during 1919 it was thought best to
cut down the distance treated with one pint of the commercial formaldehyde from
3200 to 3000 feet. This also had the advantage of being approximately the same
rate of application as was being used in the other states; therefore, our results could
be more readily compared. The formulas 1-48-3000 and 1-32-3000 were added to
see whether a more concentrated solution would give better control without injury
under field conditions. In order to test the effect of increasing the length of row
treated with one pint of commercial formaldehyde, the formulas 1-50^000 and
1-50-5000 were added. From the standpoint of the growers, the 1-50 dilution is
the most convenient because most of them use 50 gallon barrels for drawing the
water and they all have gallon jugs or cans. It is, therefore, a simple matter to add
a gallon of the commercial solution to each barrel of water.

Observations on the course of the disease throughout the summer coincided with
those of the previous season. The percentage of smutted plants was not counted
during the growing season for reasons previously stated. All the onions were pulled
and counted on September 4. A week later they were topped and weighed. The
data taken are recorded in Table II (p. 27).

In interpreting the results of this experiment the fact that the soil was very wet
at the time of planting must be taken into consideration. The important influence
which this factor exerted was understood only after the experiments of later years.
We may draw the foUo'^ing conclusions from the data presented in Table II:

1. The highest percentage of control was secured by the use of the concentrated
solutions: thus, the 1-64-3000 was the best*, but not much better than 1-32-3000
and 1-96-3000.

2. No advantage was gained by the extreme dilution and use of the large amount
of water required for the 1-128-3000 formula. Three of the other formulas gave
better control and others were not much inferior.

3. The decided drop in the percentage of control secured by the 1-50-5000
formula indicates that (during a wet spring) the amount of formaldehyde was in-
sufficient. It resulted in a fair amount of control — 40 per cent, increase over the
untreated plots — but much below the benefit secured by the use of more formalde-
hyde per acre. The 1-50-4000 formula gave good control, but the yield was not
quite so high as for some of the others.

The poor showing made by the 1-48-3000 formula is unexplainabie in view of
the good showing of the formulas just above and just below it.

The Kuzmeski Farm Experiment, 1920

The field on which this experiment was located is in Leverett and was seriously
infested only in spots. The seed was planted May 3, the soil moisture conditions
being aboL\t the same as previously noted for the Clark farm. Only two formulas
were used, viz., the 1-96-3000 formula which approximated the formula which gave
the best control during the preceding season, and the 1-50-5000 formula previously
mentioned in the account of the C. A. Clark farm experiment. Eight rows, each
436 feet long, 13 inches apart, were treated with each formula, and four rows were
left untreated as a check. Data for this experiment are recorded in Table III (p.27).

The results shown in the table confirm the conclusion from the Clark farm ex-
periment that the use of one pint of formaldehyde to 5000 feet of drill is insufficient
for the control of smut during a wet spring. Entirely satisfactory control was ob-
tained by the use of the 1-96-3000 formula.

C. A. Clark Farm Experiment, 1921

The experiment of 1920 on this field was practically duplicated during the season
of 1921 but with the addition of some more concentrated formulas. The soil, how-

*In tnis conneotion, it may be noted that Walker (48:324) during two years out of his four years' ex-
periments secured liis highest yields by the use of the 1-64 dilution, while during the third year, 'it was
such a close second to the 1-128 dilution that the difference was almost negligible. Despite these results,
he recommended the 1-128 dilution.

16

ever, was dry and there was no rain for at least two days after the seed was sowed on
April 13. The weather continued cold and the seed came up very poorly. When it
did come up there was a strildng difference between the treated and untreated rows.
The checks were much thicker and appeared so thi'oughout the season. There was
a very obvious injury from the formaldehyde, irrespective of the formula used. The
writers were informed by onion growers who were in a position to know the facts of
the case, that growers all through the section had the same trouble with formalde-
hyde during 1921 and that many fields of onions were plowed under because of the
reduced stand.

No jneld data were taken in 1921 because the onions were harvested by mistake
in the absence of the -Ra-iters and no records were kept.

After the experience of 1921 it was decided that further progress in the search
for the best formula could not be made until the factors which cause formaldehyde
to injure were determined. The investigation of this problem was not finished
until 1922, but since it has an improtant bearing on the subsequent experiments,
we shall consider the findings at this time.

Formaldehyde Injury

At first it was thought that the injury of 1921 was due to some difference in the
composition of the chemical. Samples from all available sources were therefore
collected, including among them samples of the same material which we had used
during the previous years and which had not caused injury. Chemical analyses of
the samples by Dr. Holland of the Chemistry department, revealed no differences in
composition which were of sufficient size or character to warrant a suspicion of their
toxic effect. The manufacturers assured us that there had been no change in the
method of manufacture of formaldehyde. The most apparent difference was in the
percentage of methjd alcohol contained in the various samples. The sixteen sam-
ples were next tested simultaneously on onion seed sowed in greenhouse benches,
using for each the formulas 1-50-5000, 1-50-3000, 1-100-3000 and lea\'ing un-
treated rows between the plots. In order to see what effect variation in the per-
centage of methjd alcohol would have, samples containing known percentages from
0.4 per cent, to 16 per cent, alcohol were included in the tests. Without discussing
the results in detail, they may be briefly stated as follows: —

1. The source of the formaldehyde was without influence on the percentage of
plants which came up.

2. Variation in the percentage of methyl alcohol made no difference.

3. With all samples and every formula used, formaldehyde retarded germina-
tion for a day or two and

4. With all samples and formulas, formaldehyde prevented the germination of a
certain percentage of the seed, this loss being more apparent when a more concen-
trated solution was used or where the quantity of the solution was increased.

The results of these ex^periments eliminated the possibility that the losses of
1921 were referable to difference in the character of the formaldehyde.

Since there had been no differences in the formulas or method of apphcation of
formaldehyde nor in the treatment of the soil in 1921, there appeared to remain only
the character of the season itself as a possible explanation of the trouble. The
character of the spring weather could obviously affect the soil — where the injury
occurs — in two ways: (1) in the percentage of moistiu-e and (2) in the temperature.
Experiments were undertaken with the object of determining to what extent the
percentage of injury is influenced by variation in the percentage of moisture in the
soil. The effect of the soil temperature on injury has not been determined as yet.

These experiments have been described in detail in a previous pubhcation (2).
For our present pin-pose it will be sufficient to quote from the summary of that
paper:

"Wlien a concentrated formula like 1-50-3000 is used, the amount of injury
depends on the moisture condition of the soil. Injury varies inversely as the per-
centage of moisture.

The amount of injury may be reduced by diminishing the amount of the solution
apphed per unit of row, but the percentage of smut control is probably also reduced.

The amount of injury in a dry soil may be reduced by increasing the dilution of

17

the formaldehyde without at the same time reducing the actual amount of formal-
dehyde per unit of row.

The amount of injury can be predicted from the moisture condition of the soil
on the day of planting. It is not affected by weather conditions during the subse-
quent days.

The grower could save time and labor by changing his formula according to the
soil condition at the time of planting.

More seed should be appUed when formaldehyde is used."

The final results of the formaldehyde injury investigation were not available
before the experiments of 1922 were started. Hence the soil moistm-e and the per-
centage of loss from formaldehyde injury were not determined.

C. A. Clark Farm Experiment, 1922

The experiment was repeated on the same field during 1922. Twenty-six rows
500 feet long, 12 inches apart were sowed at the rate of six pounds of seed per acre
on April 26. The soil was dry and no rain fell during the next week which was
windy, cool and dry. Different samples of formaldehyde were tried in which the
percentage of methyl alcohol was extremely small (4 per cent.) or very high (16 per
cent.). Also comparative tests were repeated with the 1-128-3000, 1-64-3000,
1-50-5000, and 1-50-4000. Formaldehyde injury was e\ndent when the seed came
up but unfortunately no records of its comparative extent or of the soil moistxire
conditions were made. The onions were harvested on August 25. The ^deld data
are recorded in Table IV (p. 28). It will be noted from this table that the results
are quite different from those obtained in 1920 on the same field (cf. Table II). The
highest yields were secured with the dilute formula, 1-128-3000, while in 1920 it was
the concentrated formulas, 1-32-3000 and 1-64-3000, which gave the highest
yields. In 1920, the 1-50-5000 gave the lowest yield while in 1922 it was next to
the best. This difference can be easily explained, however, in view of the difference
in the moisture conditions of the soil at seeding time. The low yields obtained by
the concentrated formulas like 1-50-3000 in 1922 were due to reduction of the stand
through formaldehyde injury when the soil was very dry. They do not indicate a
lack of control because, when less formaldehyde was used (1-50-5000) the yield was
increased.

As to the effect of the methyl alcohol, the data show a much larger yield through
the use of formaldehyde with a low percentage of methyl alcohol. Up to the pres-
ent, however, the writers have not had opportunity to repeat this test and would
hesitate to draw any conclusions from the results obtained on these two rows during
one season.

Kuzmeski Farm Experiment, 1922

This was on the same field as was used in 1920. On April 25 when the seed was
sowed the soil was very dry and continued so for the next week or more. The exper-
iment included 16 rows, 220 feet long, 13 inches apart, seeded at rate of four pounds
per acre. The observations throughout the summer coincided with those made on
the C. A. Clark farm the same season. Smut was serious only in spots; therefore,
the harvest data do not really show how complete was the control (since all the
onions in the entire row were counted and therefore considerable stretches of row
where there was httle smut to control were included). In the worst places hardly
any onions remained standing in the check row while there was a normal number in
the treated rows. Only one dilution was used on this field but it was applied to the
row at three different rates. The final results (presented in Table V (p. 28) con-
firm the conclusions drawn from the C. A. Clark farm experiment of the same year;
viz., that the largest yield is obtained by using the 1-50-5000 formula, during a sea-
son when the seed must be sowed in a dry soil. The difference is due to formalde-
hyde injury and not to lack of control of smut.

The Objects of the Field Tests of 1923

Differences in yields secured by the various formulas in 1922 were the results of
variation in (1) the control of smut and (2) the number of seeds prevented from

18

germinating by the formaldehyde. The oresenop of ih... +

mterpretation of the yields very uncertain A i^.ff.^ ^^"^ variables made the
of 1923 to determine to what Ltent each of theS"? .7' ""^^^ ^^ ^^'^ experiments
variation in yield. This was accomphshed bf S de Sn -" 'f^^^'^^^ for the
chemical injury. During the tliird or fourth weJfn Tl^^^ ^-^*^^* °f *he
thought that practically all the plants whiXwnili ^^^^' planting, when it was
any of them had disappeared froS smut or dZn?n r.1 ""^ '^'f ^^^^le and before
row was determined h respective ofTLetLrS^^^^ * r' "'^^^ "^ P^^^*« ^^ ^^«^
son of these with the untreated ro^ deteTiWTd t£ .^^ ^"^^P^"'

The relative amount of loss from smut wfs dSStn • a ^^u""^ °^ .*^^ chemical loss.
the number of sound bulbs from tTif nTmber ofTel

injury. It is not thereby assumed that aU thp nllft! i -^l^ ''.^^ ^'''^P^^ chemical
kiUed by smut but that other aTenci^factLd^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ interim were

to check up under field conditions the inflnp^nT? ^-i "" l*^^ '■°^'"- ^^^^ i^^ order
percentage of moisture inlheZnonelnc^^^^^ T'^""'' ^* P^^^i^S «^^e, the

experimental field on the day of plantLg. '''^^'' ™ calculated for each

Allen Clark Farm Experiment, 19 S3
This experiment was located in North Amhpr^f nn lor,^ i. •■, - <■
smut at one end but very lightly at the otht Tf T ^and heavily infested with

13 niches apart, seeded It the ratf of sh ptnds p rtc'i e' tVp'"'' '?? ^'''}'''f'
moist, containing 17 per cent water wifh f ^oJT +? ' -. ^^^® ground was fairly

dry weight. It was pTanSd on Inrimid t W ^^ 'T''^^ ^^-^^ P^^ ^^^*- ^^ ^^^
29th. The rain probably came sSon Zouit!^?}'^^^ T""' °^ *^^ 28th and
Inspections while the onions wei^comiS^un ^ ^^'' '"'u^*' °^ *^^^ treatment,

lings at the end of a montl shTwed Tp pL?" i '^^^P^rison by counting the seed-
On September 4, wL^ "^0111^" tSe rtTtn /""^^ ^"^^^Sible in this field,
of each row on the more heaZ inf^^^^^^^^ *^" '""^^ b,^lbs in 100 feet
presented in Table VI (p 28) are .hnH+ li / ^ t^u '^^'"^ counted. The results,
neither extremely dry nm- ex? emelv wet tI H^^* *?' '?.''^^^ ^^^^^ ^^'^ '^''^ ^^s
formulas of medLi dilution (^64-3000 1^5 STo^wI^' ^f.' ''T'^T'^ '^'
tion was medium (l-50-400o\ Knn^ ^/+i f V' y^'^""^ *^® ^^te of distribu-

1-50-5000 was leait sa^iJSy . "" The Iptran^^^^^^^ ^°"*^°^i Y /^^

ha vesting is shown in Fig. 2. appearance ot the field four weeks before

Kuzmeski Farm Experiment, 1923

pounds per acre on Anril 9 t^^ ""n"^ ^^ '^'^'^" ^P^^*' needed at the rate o six

during t^e daTand tr uUeed^n' da^TnT ^"''^ ^7 ""^•^"?^- ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^
for a week. The moisture waSpiZ f P wf ''PP^'' ^^^^"^ '^ *^e same condition
the dry weight of the soU All cnSd^tf *■ ""'"'^ *^f ?)'^*^y? ^^^P^^^^^ 45 per cent, of
dehydi injmy. "^^ conditions were ideal for a high percentage of formal-

lingf X^fttTsTuc^^^^^^^^^^ '''^'''^ T ^^^. T^«-g the number of seed-

all that was p7edicted Oi^lpn P 'T.l"P' «h?^"^d ^^^^t the injm-y was certainly
counted. The dataon thf. piT ^*^' ''''^^'' °^. ''°^^^^ ^^^^^s remaining were
These dat-i shnw +W +? experiment are summarized in Table VH (p 29)

5000 formulfca^sed^^h^^^^^^^^ "-^^ all formulas used. Tl7l-50-

tion wasXuted 1 1 00 tw ^ *\^*7'^' 20 per cent. Even when the solu-

practlll fi^^muk e^ "^ ^^ P^^,^^"*- Jt\^' doubtful whether any

this loss. Under these condft in n^^I \ '' kTT 1'^ f.^ditions which will ehminate
and increase the atl^ro^^Ten^^^^^^^^^^^^^ '

Station Farm Experiment, 1923

siste™'f 40 row? 1??nM^^ "^ ^"f'"^ f'^ experiment of 1919 was located. It con-
pounds per acT' The oTwTvP "^^ ^^ ^'f ^°^^' ^?^^^ °^- ^P^^^ 26 at rate of sh
per acre, i he soil was very dry and remained so for 48 hours after planting.

19

The moisture was 12 per cent, and the retentive capacity 64 per cent, of the dry-
weight. Such a condition was favorable for a high percentage of formaldehyde
injury and when the onions came up the injury was apparent. The percentage of
chemical loss was determined on June 1 and the yield data were taken on August 30.
The data, presented in Table VIII (p. 29) show that the highest gain was obtained
by the use of the 1-50-5000 formula and the next by the 1-64-3000 formula. The
injury caused by the 1-50-3000 formula was so severe that there was an ultimate
loss even though smut was controlled very effectively. On such a soil the 1-50-5000
formula is undoubtedly the best.

Conclusions from all of the Formaldehyde Experiments

After five years of experimentation, the writers came to some fairly definite con-
clusions in regard to the control of onion smut with formaldehyde. These conclu-
sions, which will now be briefly stated, are supported by the data which have just
been presented.

1. Smut can be controlled in any field in the Connecticut Valley and during any
season by the use of a formaldehyde solution.

2. Extreme dilutions such as one part of formaldehyde in 128 parts of water,
involving the use of a large amount of water, extra labor and inconvenience, are not
necessary under the conditions which prevail here.

3. Within fairly wide Unfits, the control of smut is not dependent on the dilution,
but on the actual amount of formaldehyde applied per unit distance of row. Thus,
the concentration is not fimited by lack of control, but by danger of injury to the
seeds.

4. Any formula for the application of formaldehyde which is strong enough to
control smut, also causes a certain percentage of the seeds to fail to germinate. This
injury is especial^ noticed when the soil is very dry at planting time.

5. Formaldehyde injury varies inversely with the moisture content of the soil,
and directly as the concentration of the solution and the amount of such solution
applied per unit length of row.

6. The grower may reduce the loss from formaldehyde to a very small percentage
and at the same time get better control of smut by changing his formula of appUca-
tion according to the moisture conditions of the soil on the day when the seed is
planted.

7. From the standpoints of (a) profitable (but not necessarily maximum) pre-
vention of smut, (b) minimizing the labor of drawing water, (c) ease of mixing the
solution, (d) maximum reduction of the weight of water which must be carried on
the drill, and (e) avoidance of severe chemical injury, we recommend the following
as the most practical method of application:

// the soil is very dry, use the 1-50-5000 formula; if fairly moist, the 1-50-^000,
and if wet, the 1-50-SOOO formula.

Or this might be expressed to the grower thus :

Put one gallon of formaldehyde into a 50-gallon barrel and fill to the top with water.
If soil is very dry, apply at rate of one barrel to one acre of onions {IS inches apart). If
the soil is medium moist, apply l}i barrels, and if wet and heavy, 1% barrels per acre.

8. On a dry soil the amount of seed per acre should be increased.

The Formaldehyde Tank for the Onion Drill

The formaldehyde solution is appUed to the row from a tank attached to the
seeder. Various kinds of tanks and methods of regulating the flow of the solution
from them have been used and described by previous investigators (5:161).

In order that the control of smut be effective and injury reduced to the minimum
it is important (1) that the rate of flow be uniform and (2) that the operator have
som.e means of knowing just how much solution he is applying. These two require-
ments were doubly important for our experimental work.

In order that the data obtained might be rehable, a machine was needed which
would distribute evenly and with a fairly high degree of acciuacy any desired quan-
tity of solution on a stated length of row. For this purpose the regulating appara-
tus on all of the machines which have been described before was found to be worth-

20

Fig. 5. — Mechanical drawing showing details of formaldehyde tank construction.

Fig. 6.- Sectional view of union in outlet pipe, with disk and washers in place.

less. None had a valve which could be set so that the operator would know when
he started across the field how much solution would be apphed per hundred feet.
Actual tests of the different types of tanks showed considerable variation in the flow
depending on how full the tank was. A 14-quart tank described below required
more than twice as long to dehver the last quart as it did the first. The one-gallon
copper tank first constructed by Stone (Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 21) — which
is still in the possession of the Station — was tested and showed a difference in time
of 15 per cent, between the first and last point. None of the tanks previously
described has any method of correcting this error. None of them has any provision
for eliminating the error due to variation in the speed of the operator. In short,
there were so many sources of error and variation in all of the machines described
up to the present that they were found to be utterly unsuitable for accurate research
studies and a new tank and method of regulation had to be devised. The one which
was finally evolved after experimenting with many different modifications is illus-
trated in Fig. 5 and described below.*

The tank itself (Fig. 5A) is a 14-quart cubical galvanized iron box attached be-
tween the handles of the drill just back of the seed box. The bottom of the tank is
not flat but has a shght slope to a lowest point at the rear from which the solution
is conducted through a 3^-inch pipe (E) to the stopcock (K) and to the union (F).
From there it is led through a ^-inch flexible block tin tube (G) and distributed on
the seed and soil just back of the seed spout and in front of the coverers. The valve
(K) is operated by a 34-iiich iron rod (R) from the rear end of the handles. It has
nothing to do with the regulation of the flow but merely starts or stops the stream
at the ends of the row or wherever desired.

The rate of flow from the tank is regulated by a series of brass disks with central
apertures of graded sizes. A disk is held in place between rubber washers in the
union of the outlet pipe (Fig. 6). Any number of these simple brass disks may
be quickly cut out with tin shears from a sheet of brass. A hole is drilled through
the center of each disk and this is enlarged with a rat-tail file to the proper size for
the delivery of a gallon of solution in the previously calculated number of seconds
which the operator wishes to use. The number of seconds required to deliver a
gallon of solution is then stamped on the disk (Fig. 6). The size of the aperture
needed depends on the formula of apphcation which the operator wishes to use and
the rate at which he walks. The number of disks which the experimenter or grower
needs depends on the number of formulas he wishes to use, and the number of men,
of different speeds of walking, who expect to push his drill. In our own experi-
mental work seven different formulas of apphcation were being tested and the drill
was pushed at different times by three operators, the first one walldng 4 feet per
second, the second one 43^ feet per second and the third one 5 feet per second. Thus
before the experiments were completed there were 21 disks. The operator could
quicldy find the proper disk by reference to a table attached to the side of the tank
(Table 1).

TABLE 1.

Indicating the Disks of the Onion Drill to be Used According to the Speed

of Workman and Formula Desired

Formula

4 Ft. per Sec.

4:li Ft. per Sec.

5 Ft. per Sec.

1- 50-3000

120

106

96

1- 50-4000

160

142

128

1- 50-5000

200

178

160

1- 32-3000

188

167

150

1- 32-4000

250

222

200

1- 64-3000

94

83

75

1-128-3000

47

42

37.5

♦The authors are glad to acknowledge the very helpful cooperation of Professor C. I. Gunness and
Professor J. L. Strahan of the Department of Rural Engineering, whose aid in the solving of some of the
mechanical difficulties and the preparation of mechanical drawings, has been invaluable.

21

To illustrate: If the operator found that he walked at the rate of 43^ feet per
second and he wished to use the 1-64-3000 formula, a glance at the table would tell
him to insert in the union the disk stamped with the figure 83. Such a large num-
ber of disks will be needed only by the experimenter. The practical grower would
not have occasion to use more than two or three and could make them as desired.
This method of regulation was found to be very satisfactory and has the advantages
of (1) permanent accuracy; no variation with wear or play; (2) cheapness and ease
of construction within the reach of any grower; (3) simphcity; no complicated
mechanism to be frequently out of repair; and (4) great elasticity, since a disk may
be quickly made to suit any desired rate of flow.

The next modification was made for the purpose of correcting the variation in
flow due to difference in head of the liquid as the quantity in the tank diminishes.
AU of the tanlcs which the writers have seen described have loose-fitting Uds in the
top through which the solution is poured to fill the tank. As the solution flows out
through the outlet pipe the space which it leaves in the tank is immediately filled
with air which comes in around the hd. Such an arrangement makes the rate of
flow entirely dependent on the height of the water in the tank and as a result, the
flow is much more rapid when the tank is full than when it is nearly empty. In
order to determine the extent of such variation, the 14-quart tank just described
was filled and the water permitted to run out with the lid loose or removed entirely.
The time required for delivering each of the successive quarts was determined with
a stop watch and the average of three tests is indicated in Table 2 :

TABLE 2.
Rate of Flow of Each Successive Quart of Liquid from 14-Quart Tank (Open)

Quart

Seconds

Quart

Seconds

1

17.7

8

24.3

2

18.8

9

25.2

3

19.2

10

26.9

4

20.0

11

29.3

5

20.5

12

32.3

6

21.6

13

34.6

7

22.8

14

39.4

Thus, the operator who started with a full tank would be putting on the first
part of the treated row double the amount which he put on the last part. The re-
sulting control or injury would naturally show a similar variation. Data derived
from the use of such a tank cannot be accurate. The variation in even the small
tank described by Stone has been noted above. In order to make our control data
reUable it was absolutely essential that this variation be eliminated. After consid-
erable experimentation this was finally very successfully accomplished by modifying
the tank thus: Instead of a loose-fitting Ud, a screw cap (B), of 2-inch diameter
(such as is commonly used on an automobile radiator) is used for closing the opening
in the top. When screwed down with the shoulder against a rubber washer, this
makes the top air-tight. A stand-pipe (D) parallel with and as high as the side of
the tank is connected with the air vent (C) by means of an elbow.*

In this way, atmospheric pressure is maintained at the level of the vent (C) and
consequently a uniform flow of solution is obtained irrespective of the height of
water in the tank. The effective head producing the flow is always equal to (H).
In order to prove that the flow is uniform, the outflow of each successive quart was
timed just as described above but with the air-tiglit cap screwed down, and (with
the No. 150 disk in the union) every quart from the first to the 14th flowed out in
just 373^ seconds.

*In a later model this stand-pipe is built inside the tank and is simpler in construction but the principle
is the same.

22

Two other modifications of minor importance have been added. In the enlarged
base of the stand-pipe there is a fioat (M), which consists of a hght hollow brass
cy Under which has a "play" up and down of one inch. Attached to the top of this
float is a slender brass wire stem (N) passing up through the narrow part of the
stand-pipe and projecting an inch above the top of it when the float is up, just even
with the top when the float is down. When the stream is running from the tank
and everything is in order, the float is down and the stem does not appear above the
top. If, however, there is any leak in the top of the tank or the operator has for-
gotten to screw down the cap, i.e., if the tank for any reason is not air-tight, the
water rises in the stand-pipe to the level in the tank, the float remains up and the
projecting stem warns the operator that something is wrong. The float is thus a
safety device and not an absolutely essential part.

The second modification is a very smaU pipe (L) about two inches long inserted
on the upper side of the outlet pipe. This was added when it was discovered that
for each of certain intermediate disks there were two distinct rates of flow. If the
pipe below the union became immediately filled with water when the stream was
turned on, it continued to come out in a steady stream and we had the faster rate of
flow. Under these conditions the effective head would be (P) in the diagram. But
at other times, even with the same disk, air gained access to this pipe and the water
dribbled out. Then we had the slow rate of flow due to the head (H) . Either flow
remained constant but one never knew when he opened the valve which speed he
would have. This difference in flow was ehminated when air was admitted to the
outlet pipe through the small opening and pipe just mentioned.

With this improved tank just described all chances of error due to variation are
eliminated except one. Variation in the rate of application might arise from varia-
tion in the speed at which the workman pushes the drifl; e.g., he might walk more
slowly when he was tired or in softer land, etc. Numerous tests of the speed of
different workmen at various times have convinced the writers, however, that a
man's speed is remarkably constant and the error from this source is small. Never-
theless, it would be a distinct improvement if even this small error could be elimi-
nated and the practical grower would be saved the trouble of measuring his speed
and calculating the disk which he should use. This could be done if the apparatus
were so constructed that the amount of solution delivered was proportionate to the
distance traveUed {i.e., to the number of revolutions of the drill wheel) and not de-
pendent on the length of time during which the valve is open. Then the rate of
application would be entirely independent of the speed at which the drill was pushed.
Such a regulating apparatus, geared to the drill wheel, is mechanically possible and
its construction has been planned at various times by the writers. The construc-
tion has been abandoned for various reasons but principally because it would be too
complicated and expensive and therefore less suitable for the average onion grower.
For all practical purposes, and even for a fairly high degree of accuracy for experi-
mental work, the apparatus described above is quite satisfactory.

MATERIALS OTHER THAN FORMALDEHYDE

One objection to the use of formaldehyde is the danger of injury to the seed
under certain soil conditions which have been chscussed previously. Although this
can be largely avoided by changing the formula of appMcation to suit the soil con-
dition, growers cannot always be depended on to attend to this and some losses from
this source are inevitable. It would be much better if we had a substitute which
would give just as good control as formaldehyde, but without the attendant seed
injury. In a search for such a substitute the writers have experimented with a list
of chemdcal preparations, including Kalimat, Pythal, Fm-fural, Semesan, Uspulun,
Germisan and several disinfecting powders manufactured by the Du Pont Company
and by the Corona Chemical Division of the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company. All
of these were found to have some merit in decreasing the amount of smut, but for
the most part the control was inferior to that secured by formaldehyde. KaUmat,
however, is a notable exception. It was tested for two years in the field and in the
greenhouse in pots where the soil moisture was controlled. These experiments and
the results are described in detail in a separate pubhcation (3). It is sufficient here

23

to present the data on the experiments of 1924 (Table IX, p. 29) and the conclu-
sions from the results of the two years' experiments.

"In all tests during the last two years, kalimat has controlled onion smut just as
well as formaldehyde. It is superior to formaldehyde, however, not on account of
its fungicidal properties but on account of its comparative safety when used in con-
centrated solutions or when used in very dry soils. Under these same conditions
formaldehyde frequently causes serious injury.

"The claim of the manufacturers that the percentage of germination is increased
by the use of kaUmat would seem at first to have some support in the data presented.
Of the 14 comparisons between treated and check rows, 10 show that there were more
seedUngs on the treated than on the untreated rows. This does not necessarily
mean, however, that kalimat stimulated germination of the seeds; it may have
merely killed off some organisms which naturally destroy the seedlings before they
reach the surface of the soil.

"The only objection to the use of kalimat is that it is rather expensive at present.
It may be obtained for about SI. 00 per pint. In larger quantities, however, it
could probably be obtained at a lower price. If any considerable demand for it
should be developed, the cost of production will be lowered or other substances em-
bodying the same protective principle will appear on the market.

"Of the formulas tried, probably the 1-50-4000 could be recommended as giving
excellent control and as being economical of labor and material. This would require
about five quarts of kahmat per acre of onions when the rows are thirteen inches
apart. In extremely dry soil the same amount applied in greater dilution might
have some advantage."

Uspulmi. This is a patented German chemical preparation marketed in the
form of a purpUsh gray powder, readily soluble in water to form a purple solution.
The active fungicidal principle is orthochlorphenol. In prehminary greenhouse
ex-periments 1 per cent, and 2 per cent, were tried in the formulas 1-50-3000, 1-50-
4000, 1-50-5000, 1-100-3000, 1-100-4000 and 1-100-5000. Fair control was
secured with all formulas but the best with 1-100-3000. In the field experiments
of 1924 the formulas of 1-50-3000 and 1-100-3000 were each used on one row 70
feet long. The percentage of control was just as high as that secured by kalimat or
formaldehyde. There was no e\-idence of seed injury or stunting and the percentage
of germination was higher than on the check rows. The results were sufficiently
promising to warrant the further testing of this substance. The results will be
described more in detail after further tests under different conditions.

Germisan. Tliis is also a German patented disinfectant marketed in the form
of a powder but to be used in solution. It has been tried only in our field experi-
ments of 1924 and in the formulas 1-50-3000, 1-50^000 and 1-50-5000. All form-
ulas gave increased germination and good control of smut. The weakest formula
gave just as good control as the others. These results look promising, but we hesi-
tate to make any recommendations until the material has been tried under other
conditions.

The other chemical solutions tried gave a percentage of control much lower than
formaldehyde.

Dry Chemicals. If some effective and comparatively cheap substance could be
found which could be applied as a dry powder it would present certain advantages
over solutions: (1) it would ehminate the labor of drawing barrels of water to the
field, (2) it would make the drill easier to push because of ehmination of the weight
of the water, (3) it would ehminate the danger of clogging the seed spout and pack-
ing wheel with mud, and (4) machinery for application would probably be simpler
and cheaper.

A number of these dry preparations have been tried by the writers but only one
up to the present has given a high enough percentage of control to encourage further
trials. This is a powder prepared especially for this kind of work by the Corona
Chemical Division of the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company and furnished to the
writers under the label "Corona 640." In the prehminary greenhouse tests, this
gave better control than any of the others and was, therefore, selected for the field
tests of 1924. This was in badly infested soil but at the end of the season the row
to which this material was apphed contained as many healthy onions as any of the
rows treated with the other preparations. There was also an increase in the number

24

of seedlings which came up. Further investigations are now in progress to deter-
mine whether the results will be repeated under different conditions and to perfect
simple machinery for application.

LITERATURE ON ONION SMUT

1. Anderson, P. J. Development and pathogenesis of the onion smut fungus.

Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 4:99-133. 1921.

2. Anderson, P. J. The relation of soil moisture to formaldehyde injury of onion

seedlings. Phytopathology 13:392-403. 1923.

3. Anderson, P. J. Controlling onion smut with Kalimat. Phytopathology

14:569-574. 1924.

4. Anderson, P. J. Comparative susceptibility of varieties of onions and species

of AUium to Urocystis cepulae. Jour. Agr. Res. (in press). 1925.

5. Anderson, P. J. and A. V. Osmun. An improved formaldehyde tank for the

onion drill. Phytopathology 13:161-168. 1923.

6. Barss, H. p. Onion smut control. Oreg. Agr. Expt. Sta. Crop Pest and

Hort. Rpt. (1915-20) 3:187-191. 1921.

7. Capron. Horace. Diseases of the onion. U. S. Com. Agr. Rpt. (1869) 8:224.

1870.

8. Clinton, G. P. North American Ustilagineae. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc.

31:329-529. 1904. {U. cepulae on p. 451).

9. Cooke, M. C. Onion smut. _ Card. Chron. 7:634. 1877.

10. Cornu, M. Le charbon de I'oignon ordinaire (Allium Cepa) , maladie nouvelle,

originaire d'Amerique, causee par une Ustilaginee {Urocystis Cepulae Far-
low). Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 89:51-53. 1879.

11. Cornu, M. Maladies nouvelles pour I'Europe, a propos d'une Ustilaginee

{Urocystis Cepulae Farlow) parasite sur I'oignon ordinaire (AUium Cepa).
Bui. Soc. Bot. France 26:263-267. 1879.

12. Cornu, M. Observations sur la maladie des oignons {Urocystis Cepulae

Farlow). Bui. Soc. Bot. France 27:39-42. 1880.

13. Cotton, A. D. Onion Smut : A disease new to Britain. Jour. Eng. Bd. Agr.

26:168-174. 1919.'

14. Farlow, W. G. The onion smut. Abstract of returns of the agricultural

societies of Mass. (published with Agr. of Mass. 24 (1876) but paged
separately) :164-176. 1877.

15. Farlow, W. G. Notes on some common diseases caused by fungi. Bui.

Bussey Inst. 2:114 and 238. 1877.

16. Fernald, H. T. and A. V. Osmun. The control of onion diseases and thrips.

Mass. Agr. Col. Ext. Circ. 5. 1916.

17. Frank, A. B. Notiz uber den Zwiebelbrand. Bot. Centbl. 1:186. 1880.

18. Gregory, C. T. The relation of rain to the formaldehyde treatment of onion

smut. Phytopathology 12:155-156. 1922.

19. Hallier, E. Der Brandpilz der Kuchenzwiebel, Urocystis Cepae. Wiener

lUustrirte Garten-Zeitung 5:519. 1880.

20. Halsted, B. D. Fungous disease of various crops. N. J. Agr. Expt. Sta.

Rpt. (1890)11:345-366. 1891.

21. Halsted, B.D. Experiments with onions. N. J. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. (1897)

18:300-302. 1898.

22. Halsted, B. D. Artificial introduction of onion smut. Bui. Torrey Bot.

Club 26:74. 1899.

23. Halsted, B. D. Experiments with onions. N. J. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt.

(1898) 19:319, 320. 1899. See also (1899) 20:392. 1900 and (1896)
17:352. 1897.

24. Jagger, I. C. Diseases of vegetables. West. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Proc. 60:140-

147. 1915.

25. Jones, L. R. Onion smut. Vt. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. (1890) 4:141. 1891.

26. Jones, L. R. Investigation of plant diseases. Wis. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui.

240:47. 1914. See also 250:36. 1915.

27. LiRO, J. Ivar. Ueber die Gattung Tuburcinia. Ann. Univ. Fenn. Aboensis

Ser. A. T. 1, No. 1:1:153. Turku. 1922.

25

28. Magnus, P. Bemerkung zu A. B. Frank's Notiz uber den Zwiebelbrand.

Bot. Centbl. 1 :348. 1880.

29. Malbranche, M. Le Charbon des Oignons. Bui. Soc. Bot. France 28:277-8.

1881.

30. Pammel, L. H. and C. M. King. Four new fungous diseases in Iowa. Iowa

Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 131:216-220. 1912.

31. Phippin, George D. Report on the onion disease. Proc. Essex Inst. (1857)

2:207, 211-215. 1862.

32. Plant Dis. BuL. Crop losses from plant diseases, 1918. Sup. 6:210. 1919.

33. Proctor, J. W. An essay on the cultivation of the onion. Trans. Essex Agr.

Soc. (1847) :86-92. 1848.

34. ScHROETER, J. Bemerkungen und Beobachtungen uber einige Ustilagineen.

Cohn's Beitr. Biol. Pflanz. 2:349-383. 1877. (Polycystis Colchici on
p. 378-9).

35. Selby, a. D. Onion smut. Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 122:71-84. 1900.

36. Selby, A. D. The prevention of onion smut. Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui.

131:47-51. 1902.

37. Sirrine, F. a. and F. C. Stewart. Experiments on the sulphur-hme treat-

ment for onion smut. N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 182:145-172.
1900.

38. SoRAUER, P. Urocystis Cepulae. Handbuch d. Pflanzenkrankheiten 2:333.

1908.

39. Stone, G. E. The control of onion smut. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 52.

1915. Also Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. (1908) 21, Pt. 1:48, 49. 1909.

40. Sturgis, W. C. Common fungous diseases and their treatment. Conn. State

Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 111:14. 1892.

41. Sturgis, W. C. Diseases of the onion. Conn. State Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui.

115:14, 15. 1893.

42. Sturgis, W. C. Transplanting as a preventive of smut upon onions. Conn.

State Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. (1895) 19:176-182. 1896.

43. Taylor, Thomas. Onion bhght and smut. U. S. Com. Agr. Rpt. (1872)

:193-195. 1874.

44. Thaxter, R. The smut of onions {Urocystis cepulae Frost). Conn. State

Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. (1889) 13:129-153. 1890. _

45. Thaxter, R. Further experiments on the smut of onions. Conn. State Agr.

Expt. Sta. Rpt. (1890) 14:103-104. 1891.

46. Vaughan, R. E. and J. C. Walker. Onion smut. Wis. Hort. 10:133-145.

1920.

47. Walker, J. C. Onion diseases and their control. U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui.

1060:1-23. 1919.

48. Walker, J. C. Experiments upon formaldehyde drip control of onion smut.

Phytopathology 10:323-327. 1920.

49. Walker, J. C. Observations on the cultivation and diseases of cabbage and

onions in Europe, 1922. Plant Dis. Reporter Sup. 32:1-33. 1924.

50. Walker, J. C. and L. R. Jones. Relation of soil temperature and other fac-

tors to onion smut infection. Joiu-. Agr. Res. 22:235-261. 1921.

51. Ware, Benj. P. Experience of a practical farmer. Abstract of retm-ns of the

agricultural societies of Mass. (pubhshed with Agr. of Mass. 17 (1869)
but paged separately) :10. 1870.

52. Whitehead, T. Experiments on the control of onion smut. Jour. Min. Agr.

Eng. 28:443-450. 1921.

53. Whitehead, T. On the hfe history and morphology of Urocystis cepulae.

Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 7, Pt. 2. 1921.

54. ZiLLiG, H. Ustilagineen in Sorauer's Handbuch d. Pflanzenkrankheiten

4:298-299. 1923.

55. ZiLLiG, H. Unsere heutigen Kenntnisse vom Zwiebelbrand {Tuburcinia

cepulae (Frost) Liro). Centbl. Bakt. (Abt. 2) 60:50-58. 1923.

26

APPENDIX

TABLE I.
Cowls Farm Experiment, 1919

100 Ft. of Row on June 2

100 Ft. Harvested September 15

Treatment
Formula

Stand-
ing
Onions

Per

Cent.
Smut

Total
Gain in
Healthy

Plants

Number
Onions
Har-
vested

Gain

in
Bulbs

Weight

in
Pounds

Gain

in
Lbs.

Gain in
Pounds
per Acre

1- 64-3200
1- 96-3200
1-128-3200
Untreated

2120
2256
1923
1325

11.3

12.8
17.7
50.4

1222

1308

825

773
844
936
177

596
667
759

105

116

112

39

66
77
73

26 ,400
30 ,800
29 ,200

TABLE H.
C. A. Clark Experiment, 1920

Feet of

Row
Treated

Average Harvest for 100 Ft.

Treatment
Formula

No. of

Bulbs

Harvested

Gain
Over
Check

Weight

of Bulbs

Harvested

(Pounds)

Gain in

Pounds

Over

Check

Gain in

Pounds

per Acre

1-128-3000
1- 96-3000
1- 64-3000
1- 48-3000
1- 32-3000
1- 50-4000
1- 50-5000
Untreated

1068

1068

1068

1068

534

534

534

2136

736
769
782
686
758
694
615
435

301
334
347
251
323
259
180

120
121
122
117
125
114
108
78

42
43
44
39
47
36
30

18 ,295
18,731
19,166
16,988
20 ,473
15,682
13 ,068

TABLE IIL
Kuzmeski Farm Experiment, 1920

Treatment
Formula

Feet of
Row

Treated

Average Harvest for 100 Ft.

Percentage

of

Increase

Number of

Bulbs
Harvested

Gain in

Bulbs

Over Check

1-96-3000
1-50-5000
Untreated

3488
3488
1744

849
610
356

493
254

137

72

27

TABLE IV.
C. A. Clark Experiment, 1922

Average of 100 Feet

Treatment

Percentage

Feet of

Percentage

Formula

Methyl
Alcohol

Row
Treated

No. Bulbs
Harvested

Gain in

Bulbs

Over Check

of
Increase

1- 50-3000

6-14

2000

230

54

30

1- 50-3000

.4

1000

288

112

64

1- 50-3000

16.

1000

234

58

33

1- 50-4000

6-14

2000

238

62

35

1- 50-5000

6-14

2000

285

109

62

1- 64-3000

6-14

1000

268

92

53

1-128-3000

6-14

1000

303

127

72

Untreated

3000

176

TABLE V.
Kuzmeski Farm Experiment, 1922

Treatment
Formula

Feet of
Row Treated

Average Harvest for 100 Feet

Percentage
of Gain

No. of
Sound Bulbs

Gain in Bulbs
Over Check

1-50-3000
1-50-4000
1-50-5000

Untreated

880
880
880
880

580
576
699
377

203
199
322

53
53

85

TABLE VL
Allen Clark Farm Experiment, 1923

Treatment

Feet of

Average Harvest for 100 Feet

Percentage

,

Formula

Row Treated

No. of
Sound Bulbs

Gain
Over Check

of Gain

1- 64-3000

1132

737

611

485

1- 75-3000

1132

733

607

482

1- 50-3000

1132

565

439

350

1-100-3000

1132

677

551

437

1- 50-4000

1132

721

595

472

1- 50-5000

566

339

213

169

Untreated

1698

126

28

TABLE VII.
Kuztneski Farm Experimsnt, 1923

Feet of

Row
Treated

Per Cent.

Chemical

Loss

Average Harvest on 100 Feet

Treatment
Formula

No. of
Sound
Bulbs

Gain
Over Check

Per Cent.

Shrinkage

June 1 to

Sept. 3

1- 50-3000
1- 50-4000
1- 50-5000
1- 64-3000
1- 75-3000
1-100-3000
Untreated

1744
1744
1744

872

872

S72

2616

57
51
20
41
32
36

299
262
338
285
356
314
307

- 8

-45

31

-22

49

7

29
33
38
40
35
36
62

TABLE VIII.
College Farm Experiment, 1923

Treatment
Formula

Feet of

Per Cent.

Per Cent.

Final Gain

Row

Chemical

Shrinkage

Over Check

Treated

Loss

June 1 — Aug. 30

per 100 Feet

1- 50-3000

300

70

25

-31

1- 50-4000

300

49

39

23

1- 50-5000

300

30

33

95

1- 64-3000

300

72

28

63

1- 75-3000

150

60

31

7

1-100-3000

300

48

40

22

Untreated

975

73

TABLE IX.

Comparison of Kalimat and Formaldehyde in the Field Tests of 1924
Each Row 70 Feet Long

Chemical

Formula

Number
of Rows
Treated

Average Number

of Seedlings

Which Came up

per Row

Average

Sound Onions

Harvested

per Row

Check

12

539

122

Kalimat

1- 50-5000

8

544

340

Formaldehyde

1- 50-5000

8

538

309

Kalimat

1- 50-4000

8

625

432

Formaldehyde

1- 50-4000

8

525

331

Kalimat

1- 50-3000

4

516

380

Formaldehyde

1- 50-3000

4

469

285

Kalimat

1-100-3000

4

593

331

Formaldehyde

1-100-3000

4

416

293

29

MASSACHUSETTS

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 222 March, 1925

EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF APPLE SCAB AND BLACK
ROT AND SPRAY INJURY IN 1924

By W. L. DoRAN

This bulletin reports the results obtained, during the past season, in the
study of the control of apple scab and black-rot. Incident to the
main problems there have been comparisons of spraying and dust-
ing, and observations on many related subjects. The difficulty
which led to such widespread injury from apple scab, previous
to the initiation of this work in 1921, was in the spray calendar,
particularly with reference to the prepink and pink sprays
or dusts. Greater care in these applications seems to be
absolutely essential in any thoroughgoing attempt to
control this destructive disease.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to —
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF APPLE SCAB AND BLACK
ROT AND SPRAY INJURY IN 1924.*

By W. L. DoRAN

'i'he experiments of 1924t were planned with the object of securing further
data on the comparative efficiency of several materials and schedules in con-
trolling apple scab caused by Venturia inaequalis. In addition to this, some
attention was given to black-rot caused by Physalospora cydoniae, with a view
to increasing our knowledge of its economic importance, seasonal occurrence,
and control in Massachusetts. Data were also secured which, it is believed, will
assist orchardists in reducing the severity of spray injury on fruit and foliage.

Materials and Methods.

At Middlesex Fruit Farm, Gravensteins having a spread of about 35 feet and
a height of about 25 feet were sprayed, and Baldwins having a spread of about
30 feet and a height of about 25 feet were dusted. At both Harvard Fruit Farm
and Pine Crest Orchard only Mcintosh trees were used. At the former orchard
these trees are eight years old and about 15 feet in height and diameter, and at
the latter orchard they are 11 years old and larger in proportion.

At Harvard Fruit Farm and Pine Crest Orchard, Friend sprayers were used
with a pressure of about 200 pounds. At Middlesex Fruit Farm an Arlington
X L Sprayer was used with a pressure of about 150 pounds. At Middlesex
Fruit Farm two spray rods were used. Spray guns were used at Pine Crest
Orchard and at Harvard Fruit Farm, two at the former and one at the latter.

At Middlesex Fruit Farm liquid lime-sulfur, 1 gallon in 50 gallons, was used;
and in the other orchards di'y lime-sulfur, 4 pounds in 50 gallons, was used.

Lead arsenate was present in all sprays or dusts in the usual proportions for
the pink and calyx applications and for the application about two weeks after
the calyx.

The Bordeaux mixture used was of the 3-10-50 formula.

Dry-mix sulfur-lime was made up to contain 8 pounds of sulfur, 4 pounds of
hydrated lime, and y2 pound of calcium caseinate in 50 gallons of spray, as
described by Farley.**

The copper dust used contained 11 per cent monohydrate copper sulfate. The
sulfur dust used contained 90 parts or 85 parts sulfur, and 10 parts or 15 parts
lead arsenate in 100 parts. Niagara Sulfo-dust without arsenic was used for
all applications except those specified above as receiving an arsenical.

The dusting was done with Niagara power dusters. In dusting, the halves of
the application were not "split," that is, at each application each tree was
dusted from two sides. The dusting was done either early in the morning or in
the evening, in order to have the foliage moist and to avoid wind.

Two Mcintosh orchards were dusted and two Mcintosh orchards were sprayed.
An orchard of Gravensteins was sprayed and an orchard of Baldwins was dusted.

All plots were sprayed or dusted at least four times. The dates of applica^
tions were as follows in the Mcintosh orchards: prepink. May 5-7; pink. May
14-17; calyx, May 31— June 2; fourth, June 11-16; fifth spray, July 14; fifth
dust, June 30 — July 1; sixth dust, July 14-15; seventh dust, August 9-11. On
the other varieties, the applications were made at about the same time, although
in the case of the preblossom and calyx applications, the Gravenstein orchard
received treatment a few days before the Mcintosh, and the Baldwins a few days
after the Mcintosh. '

* Acknowledgment. This work was done with the co-operation of the Nashoba Fruit
Producers' Association, in the following orchards : Mr. Albert Jenks' Middlesex Fruit
Farm, West Acton ; Mr. Stephen W. Sabine's Pine Crest Orchard, Groton ; and Mr.
Philip H. Babcock's Harvard Fruit Farm, Harvard. In scoring the fruit, assistance was
given by Professors A. I. Bourne, B. D. Drain, J. S. Bailey, and W. H. Thies of Massachu-
setts Agricultural College. Mr. W. P. Wharton furnished rainfall records.

t For results of earlier experiments in Massachusetts, see : Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul-
letins 214 and 219.

•• Farley, Arthur J. Dry-mix sulfur lime. New Jersey Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 379. 1923.

Relation of the Weather to Infection and to Disease Severity.

There was rain on nineteen days in May, and ascospores were ejected on each
of these days. The combination of rain, viable ascospores, and susceptible host
tissue resulted in a condition most favorable to scab infection. In 1924, asco-
spores were mature and beginning to be discharged earlier with reference to the
condition of apple bud development than in 1923. In Baldwin orchards where
no spray was applied before the pink application considerable piimary infection
was permitted.

The precipitations for June and July were below the normals for these
months. Rain feU on eleven days in June and on seven days in July. As a
result of the dry summer, scab control was not difficult, and the year was charac-
terized by scab infestation of average rather than exceptional severity. This
would seem to indicate that rainy weather before and during the period of
flowering may not have any greater influence on the percentage of scabby
apples at picking time than has the rainfall of the summer.

Not more than 7.0 per cent of the fruit on any check plot developed black-
rot. The rarity of black-rot and frog-eye leaf spot was presumably the result
of the relative dryness of the weather in June and July, for the rainfall was
abundant in May and was not below normal in August.

Scab Infection on Leaves.

On June 9, after the trees had received prepink, pink and calj'x applications,
accessible leaves were scored for scab lesions. This was only ten days after
the first scab infection of the season was found, and the count therefore gives
us a very fair indication of the relative success of the several treatments in
preventing the primary infection. The results are given in Table I.

In all orchards there was somewhat less scab on trees dusted with copper-lime-
arsenic dusts at the prepink and pink applications than on trees dusted with
sulfur. This difference, it should be added, practically disappeared later in the
season.

There was at this time less scab infection on the leaves of sprayed trees than
on the leaves of dusted trees, due probably to the moi'e rapid removal of the
dust by the frequent rains in May.

Lime-sulfur solution (with or without spreader), Bordeaux mixture and dry-
mix sulfur-lime were practically equally successful in preventing the primary
infection.

Set op Fruit as Affected by Scab and by Fungicides.

Scab infection on pedicels resulted in the early fall of many flowers and young
fruits on check trees at the Harvard Fruit Farm. Flowers were counted on
marked limbs in each plot at this orchard, and on June 30 the fruits which had
set on these limbs were counted. In sprayed or dusted plots from 3.0 to 5.0 per
cent of the flowers had set fruit and on cheek trees from 0.9 to 1.5 per cent of
the flowers had set fruit. The fungicides, by preventing pedicel infection,
increased the set of the fruit.

Control of Scab on the Fruit.

These results are given in Table II. In considering scab control, it is first
of all necessary to take into account the degree of scabbiness of fruit on check
trees. The percentages of scabby fruits on check trees in the several orchards
were as follows:

Pine Crest Orchard (check for sprayed plots) 69.4

Pine Crest Orchard (check for dusted plots) 45.8

Harvard Fruit Farm (check for sprayed plots) 81.0

Harvard Fruit Farm (check for dusted plots) 84.2

Middlesex Fruit Farm (check for dusted plots) 50.2

Results in the sprayed plots. — Four applications of lime-sulfur solution with-
out spreader may be regarded as the standard treatment. With this treatment
at Pine Crest Orchard there was 1.2 per cent scabby fruit, and at Harvard Fruit
Farm, 0.2 per cent scabby fruit. This adds to the evidence, already abundant,
that lime-sulfnr is a dependable fungicide against apple scab.

The protection aflEorded by lime-sulfur without the calcium caseinate spreader

is so nearly complete that it is not surprising to find the use of the spreader
without benefit in scab control. In fact, at both Harvard Fruit Farm and Pine
Crest Orchard there was slightly less scab where no spreader was used than
on plots where it was used. It is certain that the addition of the spreader to
lime-sulfur-lead arsenate does not increase the efficiency of the fungicide in
preventing apple scab.

A fifth application of lime-sulfur solution was applied to certain plots the
middle of July because black-rot as well as scab was under observation, although
neither the weather conditions nor the prevalence of scab indicated any neces-
sity for it. This application followed six weeks of dry weather, and there was
less than 2.0 per cent scabby fruit on the trees. The fifth application did
not prove necessary since the protection given by four applications, as revealed
at picking time, could hardly be excelled. In August, 1924, there was rain on
a greater number of days than is normal for the month, and we may conclude
that the necessity for a late application for scab control is affected less by the
rainfall of August than by the degree of scabbiness attained by the tree in June
and July,

Dry-mix sulfur-lime did not control scab as thoroughly as did lime-sulfur.
In one orchard, in the plot sprayed with dry-mix sulfur-lime 8.8 per cent of
the apples were scabby, and in the plot sprayed with lime-sulfur there were 0.2
per cent scabby apples. In another orchard there was 3.5 per cent scabby fruit
in the dry-mix sulfur-lime plot, and 0.2 per cent scabby fruit in the lime-sulfur
plot. Evidently on varieties as susceptible to scab as Mcintosh, dry-mix sulfur-
lime is not equal to lime-sulfur in protecting against scab.

The substitution of Bordeaux mixture for lime-sulfur for the prepink and pink
applications gave practically perfect protection against scab, but the use of lime-
sulfur for all applications gave protection essentially as good. Since, as is
brought out elsewhere in this report, Bordeaux mixture costs somewhat more than
lime-sulfur, and since Bordeaux mixture, even when used only for the prepink
and pink applications, is more likely to cause fruit russeting than is lime-sulfur,
the use of Bordeaux mixture at all seems to be a practice of rather doubtful
value.

Besults in the dusted plots. — In both Mcintosh orchards the percentage of
scabby apples was slightly less in the plots on which copper dust was substi-
tuted for sulfur dust for the first two applications, than in the plots dusted with
sulfur at all applications. But this difference was too small to be important.

In each orchard there were four plots dusted with sulfur four, five, six and
seven times respectively. The increase in the number of applications beyond
four or five did not result in any consistent increase in protection against scab.
The average percentage of scabby apples on plots dusted with sulfur four, five,
six or seven times was as follows: Baldwins 6.9, Mcintosh (Pine Crest Orchard)
3.2, Mcintosh (Harvard Fruit Farm) 3.8. When the fifth application was
made, about June 30, 10.0 to 15.0 per cent of the leaves were scabby. The in-
frequency of rains thereafter made later apx^lications unnecessary.

Injury to Leap and Fruit by Sprays and Dusts.

Leaf Injury. — Leaf injury was more pronounced on Mcintosh than on Graven-
stein or Baldwin. Leaves on cheek trees, which of course received no spray
or dust except arsenate, were all large, flat, and uniformly green with no pale
margins. Leaves on trees dusted with sulfur had practically the same appear-
ance as leaves on cheek trees, that is, they were entirely uninjured and showed
no tendency to curl or for the leaf margin to become pale. Leaves on trees
sprayed with lime-sulphur-lead arsenate were somewhat curled, spoonshaped, or
cupped. Many had pale yellowish-green margins, with some marginal burning .

The addition of calcium caseinate spreader to lime-sulfur-lead arsenate spray
did not reduce the injury to the leaves.

The foliage of trees sprayed with dry-mix sulfur-lime was not injured as
much as that on trees sprayed with lime-sulfur. In fact, there was practically
no visible injury on leaves sprayed with dry-mix sulfur-lime,

A fifth application of lime-sulfur resulted in no more leaf injury than was
present on plots sprayed four times. Injury occurred when the calyx and
fourth summer sprays were applied. When these applications were made, the

spray dried on trie foliage in about twenty minutes and the temperature was
between 55° and 67° F. These conditions are not such as are popularly regarded
as conducive to spray injur>'. Nevertheless, spray injury as above described
did occur when lime-sulfur-lead arsenate spray was applied.

Another type of spray injury, also practically confined to trees sprayed with
lime-sulfur, consisted in the killing of leaf tissue under and around scab lesions.

Spray injury to the fruit as revealed at picking time. — Fruit russeting was
much more severe on Gravenstein than on Mcintosh or Baldwin. (See Table

in.)

The addition of calcium caseinate sjjreader to lime-sulfur-lead arsenate spray
resulted, in the case of Gravenstein, in a reduction of about 50 per cent in the
amount of russet. When this spray was used without spreader, 16.0 per cent
of the apples were russeted; when used with spreader, 8.4 per cent of the
apples were russeted. The addition of the spreader was evidently of very
considerable benefit but by no means did it prevent all russeting; for there
was nearly four times as much injury, even where the spreader was used, as
there was on the check plot. On Mcintosh plots sprayed with lime-sulfur there
was so little russeting, either Math or without the spreader, that no benefit
from the use of the spreader was evident.

The substitution of Bordeaux mixture for lime-sulfur for the prepink and
pink applications resulted in more russeted fi-uit than when lime-sulfur was
used for all applications. In the Gravenstein orchard there was 13.1 per cent
russeted fruit where Bordeaux mixture was used and 8.4 per cent on the plot
on which lime-sulfur was used for all four applications. Similarly, in the
two Mcintosh orchards there were 14.7 and 13.5 per cent russeted apples on
plots receiving the preblossom applications of Bordeaux mixture, and 0.2 and
0.4 per cent russeted apples, respectively, on plots where lime-sulfur was used
for all applications.

With the substitution of copper dust for sulfur dust for the preblossom
applications in the two Mcintosh orchards, there were 11.1 per cent and 5.0
per cent russeted fruit. The percentages of russeted fruit in these two orchards
in plots dusted with sulfur for all applications were 0.8 per cent and 0.6 per
cent respectively. In the Baldwin orchard the difference was not as great:
there was 2.2 per cent russet where sulfur dust was used, and 4.0 per cent
russet where copper dust was substituted for the prepink and pink applications
But on Mcintosh, especially, there is evidence that even for preblossom appli-
cations copper dust is more likely to result in russeted fruit than is sulfur dust.

There was practically the same percentage of russeted fruits on plots sprayed
four times with lime-sulfur as on plots which received a fifth application of
lime-sulfur (about the middle of July).

Apparently, late applications of sulfur dust are as safe as the earlier ones,
for there were no consistent or significant differences in the amount of russeting
of fruit on plots dusted four, five, six or seven times.

Black-Rot and Frog-Eye Leaf-Spot.

In April and May large numbers of the pycnospores of the causal fungus
were found on the surface of the bark of cankered limbs. Such limbs were
sprayed in the laboratory with Bordeaux mixture or with lime-sulfur, and
spores so treated would not germinate although 95 to 100 per cent of spores
from limbs not sprayed germinated. This means that the preblossom applica-
tions must have disinfecting values, in that they kill such of the spores of this
fungus as are at that time exposed on the surface of the bark of cankered twigs
and limbs.

The first frog-eye leaf -spot was observed June 9. There was a slight increase
in the number of these leaf -spots up to July 25, but there was no increase after
that, at least on the marked branches used for earlier counts. On July 21, in
the Baldwin orchard, 9.0 per cent of the accessible leaves on check trees, and
an average of 3.0 per cent of the accessible leaves on all dusted plots had frog-
eye leaf -spot.

In neither of the Mcintosh orchards or in the Gravenstein orchard was there
more than 0.5 per cent black-rot on fruits in cheek plots at picking time. Only

in the Baldwin orchard was there enough black-rot to enable us to secure any
information as to relative efficiency of the several treatments in controlling
this disease. In this orchard 7.2 per cent of the fruit on check trees, 2.0 per
cent of the fruit on the plot dusted with copper dust followed by sulfur dust,
and an average of 0.9 per cent of the fruit on all plots dusted with sulfur dust
showed black-rot infection. The infection on the check was of course light, but
we have some indication of the protection against black-rot given by the dust
treatment.

Cost op Dusting and Spraying.

This includes the cost of materials and the cost of labor, but not the cost of
equipment. The cost of treatment for one tree for the season is given in Table
IV.

The labor involved was performed by two men and two horses at each
orchard, except Middlesex Fruit Farm where but one horse was used. Further
details as to size of trees and labor are given under the section on "Methods
and Materials."

On the Gravensteins of the Middlesex Fruit Farm, 690 gallons of liquid and
seven hours of labor were required to spray 100 trees. To dust 100 Baldwins
here required 50 minutes and 127 pounds of sulfur dust. At Harvard Fruit
Farm, 100 trees were sprayed in two hours, using 160 gallons of liquid. One
hundred trees of this size were dusted in 33 minutes, using 75 pounds of sulfur
dust. At Pine Crest Orchard, 100 trees were sprayed in two and three-fourths
hours, using 360 gallons of liquid. One hundred trees at this orchard were
dusted in 35 minutes, using 110 pounds of sulfur dust.

Although liquid lime-sulfur was not used at Harvard Fruit Farm or Pine
Crest Orchard, it is also included in the record of costs for purposes of com-
parison.

A study of Table IV makes it evident that our cheapest method of protec-
tion is to spray with liquid lime-sulfur. Dry-mix sulfur-lime is more expensive,
although the difference is not so great if dry rather than liquid lime-sulfur
is considered. Bordeaux mixture is intermediate in cost between dry and liquid
lime-sulfur. Use of the spreader necessarily increases the cost.

As to whether sprajdng or dusting is cheaper depends on the facilities for
spraying, the distance from the water supply, the size of the spray tank, the
size of the trees, and how many applications of dust are considered necessary.
Five applications of dust were enough in 1924. This being the case, it was
as cheap to protect by dusting as by spraying at Middlesex Fruit Farm. At
the other two orchards, with smaller trees and less time spent in going for
water, protection proved somewhat cheaper by spraying than by dusting, pro-
vided that our cheapest spray material is considered.

In most orchards where dry lime-sulfur and spreader is to be used, it is
probable that the cost will not be far from that of dusting.

Summary.

The primary infection of the leaves was prevented equally well by lime-sulfur,
Bordeaux mixture, and dry-mix sulfur-lime. The primary infection of the
leaves was prevented more completely by spraying with lime-sulfur than by
dusting with sulfur.

The prevention of pedicel infection by the fungicides improved the set of
fruit.

On Mcintosh plots sprayed with lime-sulfur four times, there were 1.2 per
cent and 0.2 per cent scabby apples; while on their respective check plots there
were 69.4 per cent and 81.0 per cent scabby apples.

The addition of calcium caseinate spreader to lime-sulfur-lead arsenate spray
did not result in increased protection against scab.

A fifth application of lime-sulfur did not increase the protection against
scab afforded by four applications. The necessity for a late application for
scab control is probably affected less by the rainfall of August than by the
degree of scabbiness attained by the tree in June and July.

Dry-mix sulfur-lime did not control scab on Mcintosh as completely as did
lime-sulfur.

The substitution of Bordeaux mixture for lime-sidfur for the preblossom

applications gave practically perfect protection against scab, but the use of
lime-sulfur for all applications gave protection which was essentially as good.

Sulfur dust gave satisfactory control of scab. In Mcintosh orchards there
was an average of 3.5 per cent scabby apples on plots dusted with sulfur, while
on the cheek plots there was an average of 65.0 per cent scabby apples. No
proof was secured that it is necessary to substitute copper dust for sulfur dust
for the preblossom applications.

Lime-sulfur-lead arsenate spray caused foliage injury, and this was not pre-
vented by the addition of calcium caseinate spreader. Leaves on trees dusted
with sulfur or sprayed with dry-mix sulfur-lime were not visibly injured.

The addition of calcium caseinate spreader to lime-sulfur-lead arsenate spray
resulted in a reduction of about 50 per cent in the amount of russeted fruits
on Gravensteins.

There was a larger percentage of russeted apples on plots on which Bordeaux
mixture or copper dust was used for preblossom applications than on plots
sprayed with lime-sulfur or dusted with sulfur at all applications.

In the Baldwin orchard, there were three times as many leaves with frog-eye
leaf-spot on check trees as on trees dusted with sulfur. In this orchard, 7.2
per cent of the fruit on cheek trees became infected with black-rot and the
disease was present on 0.9 per cent of the fruit dusted with sulfur.

The costs of various treatments are recorded and compared. The costs of
spraying and of dusting are not very far apart.

Table 1.— Scab on Leaves

Per cent

Variety*

t Treatment

Scab

f Checls

■1 Copper dust, prepinU and pink : sulfur dust at calyx application

24

Baldwins

7

L Sulfur dust

H

f Check

27

Mcintosh

•1 Copper dust, prepink and i)ink : sulfur dust at calyx application

8

L Sulfur dust

14

Check

45

Sprayed with Uonleaux. prepink and pink ; calyx application of

lime-sulfur

1

Mclntosli

1 Si)raye(l with lime-sulfur-lead arsenate, without spreader

1

1 Sprayed with lime sulfur-lead arsenate with spreader

1

[ Sprayed with dry-mix sulfur-lime

2

r Check

\ Copper dust, prepink and pink ; sulfur dust at calyx application

30

Mcintosh

4

[ Sulfur dust

7

Check

34

Sprayed with Bordeaux, prepink and pink ; calyx application

of lime-sulfur

1

Mcintosh

1 Sprayed with lime-sulfur-lead arsenate, without spreader

1

1 Sprayed with lime sulfur-lead arsenate with spreader

1

( Sprayed with dry-mix sulfur-lime

3

• Separate orchards indicated by brackets.
t Up to June 9, through calyx application.

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1/

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 223 March, 1925

MILK SUBSTITUTES IN THE REARING
OF YOUNG CALVES

By J. B. LiNDSEY AXD J. G. Archibald

Dairy farms located adjacent to their market, as are most of those in Massa-
chusetts, usually find it more profitable to sell fluid milk than to sell cream
and use the skim milk in growing young stock. The relatively high price
of fluid milk has been an incentive to better the grade of stock kept on our
dairy farms, while the same cause has made it unprofitable to rear calves from
this high grade stock. Unless a substitute for milk, to be used in rearing
calves, can be found, one of the great advantages of high grade producing
stock on our dairy farms cannot be realized. It was to meet this need that
the work here reported was initiated. The bulletin presents the report of seven
different feeding trials with forty-five different animals.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST, MASS.

MILK SUBSTITUTES IN THE REARING

OF YOUNG CALVES.

by

J. B. LiNDSEY AND J. G. ARCHIBALD.

Introduction.

The problem of rearing calves for the first four to six months of their lives
without the liberal use of whole or skim milk has been studied by many agri-
cultural investigators. Where plenty of whole and skim milk are available
it is a relatively simple matter, provided one understands the technique of calf
rearing, which includes cleanliness in care and feeding and close observation
to prevent overfeeding. Much depends on the calf itself; some are thrifty
and require but little attention, while others are delicate and finicky, and re-
quire constant attention and considerable skill to bring them through their
babyhood.

In the three southern New England states most of the product of the dairy
herd is sold as whole milk, hence very little of either whole or skim milk is
available for feeding purposes. In northern New England, where creameries
are still in operation and skim milk and pasture are available, large numbers
of dairy cows should be raised to supply the needs of the dairymen farther
south. Even were this jDractice followed to a greater extent than it is at
present, dairymen could still be found throughout southern New England de-
sirous of raising more or less of their own stock. They have been and are
still confronted with the difficulty of finding a suitable substitute for the rel-
atively expensive milk.

It is not the intention in this publication to review in detail the work of
the many investigators who have studied the problem, but rather to state
briefly the different types of substitutes that have been fed and the results
secured, and in addition to give a brief summary of our own more recent study
of the subject.

In most of the older investigations reported, skim milk was used extensively,
supplemented with numerous substances such as cod liver oil, coconut oil,
flaxseed jelly, starch, rolled oats, etc. Some form of oats, either crushed, rolled,
whole, or oat meal, seems to have been the most universal supplement and to
have given the best results. The problem, however, with skim milk unavailable
is to find some substitute that will take its place and produce thrifty calves.

The substitutes used in more recent studies can be grouped under four gen-
eral heads :

1. Calf meals compounded from cereal grains, oil seeds and oil cakes, and
leguminous seeds.

2. Meals similar to those in (1) supplemented with such animal proteins
as blood flour and skim-milk powder.

3. Manufactured milk by-products, such as skixQ-milk powder, malted mUk
residue, semi-solid buttermilk and buttermilk powder.

4. Infusions of clover hay, of flaxseed, and of such meals as bean meal and
linseed oil meal.

43

The feeding trials with these various mixtures have been carried on at widely
separated points, under varying conditions and in many cases with an insuffi-
cient number of animals; so that it is not possible to state positively which
type of substitute has given the most satisfactory results. The success of the
different types as measured by daily gain in weight of the calves has varied
from fair to excellent, largely due, no doubt, in most instances, to differences
in the vigor of the individual calves. In general fair growth has been pro-
duced, the average being about a povind to a pound and a quarter daily. The
few trials that have been made with the materials in Group 3 indicate that
they are more suitable for calves up to six or eight weeks of age than are
meals made from grains. Considering their source this is what would naturally
be expected. In Groups 1 and 2 linseed meal and some form of oats seem
to have been universally used. Obviously no statement as to comparative costs
can be made. That depends on current prices and materials locally available.

Recent Experiments at tJiis Station.

Our own more recent investigation of the problem commenced in the fall
of 1921, and is still in progress. This article reports results up to June,
1924, at which time seven different substitutes had been given a trial and forty-
five calves had been more or less successfully raised.

In formulating our substitutes the following essentials have been taken into
consideration :

1. Variety and completeness of protein.

2. Sufficient carbohydrate to balance the ration satisfactorily.

3. Plenty of vitamines.

4. Sufficient mineral matter.

Method of Feeding.

Our method of feeding has been planned so as to have the calves weaned
from whole and skim milk as early as possible. The calves are left with their
dams only twenty-four hours, at the end of which time they are taught to drink
whole milk from a pail. The milk fed to them is always from one of the
lowest testing Holstein cows in the herd, and the maximum fed is six quarts
daily. When the calf is a week to ten daj's old the whole milk is gradually
replaced by skim milk. If it is a vigorous animal it will be receiving skim
milk entirely by the end of the second week. When the calf is from two to
three weeks old the skim milk is gradually replaced, a quart at a time, by a
gruel made from the meal which it is desired to give a trial. The gruel is
made by mixing the meal with water in the projDortion of 3% ounces of meal
to each quart of water. It is stirred up with, a little cold water first so lumps
will not form, and then the correct amount of warm water is added, and the
gruel fed at blood heat, never cold or very hot. Skim milk, while it continues
to be fed, is mixed with the gruel at feeding time. By the time the calf is
a month old it is receiving only two or three quarts of skim milk daily and
this is gradually withdrawn so that before it is two months old it is weaned
from milk entirely. Ten quarts of liquid is the average maximum fed.

This schedule cannot be blindly adhered to, because calves differ greatly in
their individual appetites and ability to stand the changes in feed, but it serves
as a general guide. The calves have been taught to eat rowen and dry grain
as early as possible. Most of them have learned to eat these feeds at about
four to five weeks of age.

The feeding trials have in every instance been discontinued at four months
of age as it is considered that by that time the critical period of the calf's ex-
istence has been passed. All calves have been weighed weekly and their prog-
ress carefully noted.

44

The calf meals have been mixed as needed in one hundred pound lots and
carefully sifted to remove all lumps and foreign material. A detailed account
of the nature of the various substitutes and the results obtained with each, is
given in the following pages. A summary of the work appears on page 49 •

Calf Meed No. 1, composed of:

Ground rolled oats 45 lbs.

Soluble blood flour 20 *'

Linseed meal 10 "

Corn starch 14 "

Com sugar 5 "

Alfalfa flour 5 "

Calcium chloride V2 "

Salt y2 "

Total 100 lbs.

The chief source of protein in this meal was soluble blood flour, a high grade
product, readily soluble in water, specially prepared for animal feeding by
the United Chemical and Organic Products Company of Chicago. The rolled
cats and linseed meal were used because experience has shown that they are
of great value in calf feeding. The starch and sugar furnished a large part
of the carbohydrate of the ration, and in addition the sugar gave the meal a
sweet taste. Alfalfa flour was included as a desirable source of vitamines and
protein. Calcium chloride furnished additional calcium in a readily soluble
foim.

Seven calves were raised on this meal, a group of four during the winter of
1921-22, and another group of three in 1924. The first group made an average
daily gain of 1.25 pounds, and required 284 pounds of dry feed for 100 pounds
of gain. Strangely enough the second group did not do nearly so well, making
an average daily gain of 0.57 pound and requiring 494 pounds of di-y feed
for 100 pounds of gain. Two of them (Nos. 73 and 74) made so little growth
and were so unthrifty that at three months of age they were changed over
to Meal No. 6 (see page 47 for cornposirion of this meal) to see if it would
l^roduce any more favorable results. No. 73 responded at once and made an
average daily gain of 1.28 pounds during the fourth month of his life, as com-
pared with 0.42 pound daily gain previous to the change. No. 74 did not
respond at all and had to be put on a skim-milk diet to save him. No reason
other than individual vigor of the calves can be assigned for the great differ-
ence in the two groups. With one possible exception all of them were strong
and hearty when dropped. The figures for the whole lot are: average daily
gain — 0.96 pound; dry feed required for 100 pounds of gain, 374 pounds.

Calf Meal No. 2 consisted of:

Ground rolled oats 45 lbs.

Skim-milk powder 20 "

Linseed meal 10 "

Corn starch 14 "

Corn sugar 5 "

Alfalfa flour 5 "

Calcium chloride ^ "

Salt 1/2 "

Total 100 lbs.

This meal was similar to Meal No. 1 except that its chief source of protein
was third grade skim-milk powder obtained from the Men-ell-Soule Company,
Syracuse, New York. Four calves were raised on it and all made good growth,
the average daily gain being 1.19 pounds; dry feed requii'ed for 100 pounds
of gain — 316 pounds.

45

Calf Meal No. 3, composed of:

Ground rolled oats 35 lbs.

Soluble blood flour 5 "

Skim-milk powder 15 "

Linseed meal 10 "

Corn starch 19 "

Corn sugar 5 "

Alfalfa flour 10 "

Calcium chloride V2 "

Salt V2 "

Total 100 lbs.

This meal combined the chief protein sources of Meals 1 and 2; also the
starch and alfalfa flour were increased five pounds each, the rolled oats being
reduced ten pounds. This change was made for two reasons, (1) it was thought
that the alfalfa flour constituted an excellent source of vegetable protein, of
vitamines, and of ash, and (2) for the sake of economy. At the time the meal
was formulated rolled oats was selling for four cents a pound while starch
was less than two cents a pound and alfalfa flour was two and a half cents.

Four calves were raised on this meal; two others did not thrive on it at all
and it was deemed best to dispose of them. Of the four raised, two did rea-
sonably well and the other two made very poor growth. The average daily
gain was 0.77 pound and the dry feed required for 100 pounds of gain was
349 pounds. It is evident that this meal was not suitable as a skim-milk sub-
stitute. Thinking that the trouble might have been due to the increase in
amount of alfalfa flour, this ingredient was cut down to five pounds, the
amount used in Meals 1 and 2, and the rolled oats increased to forty pounds.
The corn sugar was discontinued and five more pounds of corn starch sub-
stituted for it. The meal, which was designated as Calf Meal No. 3 (modified),
then consisted of:

Ground rolled oats 40 lbs.

Soluble blood flour 5 "

Skim-milk powder 15 "

Linseed meal 10 "

Corn starch 24 "

Alfalfa flour 5 "

Calcium chloride I/2 "

Salt 1/2 "

Total 100 lbs.

Three calves were raised on this modification of Meal No. 3. They made
slightly better growth than did those on the original meal, but required con-
siderably more food for an equal amount of gain. The average daily gain
was 0.89 pound, and the dry feed required for 100 pounds of gain was 381
pounds.

Calf Meal No. 4 was composed of:

Ground rolled oats 14 lbs.

Soluble blood fiour 10 "

Skim-milk powder 10 "

Linseed meal 10 "

Coconut meal 10 "

Peanut meal 10 "

Milk sugar 30 "

Alfalfa fiour 5 "

Calcium chloride i/^ "

Salt 1/2 "

Total 100 lbs.

46

The principal difference between this meal and the preceding ones is in the
source of the carbohydrates. In an attempt to more closely resemble milk,
milk sugar was substituted for all of the starch and part of the rolled oats.
Also ten pounds each of coconut and peanut meal were included to give a
higher fat content and in the case of coconut meal to supply more of Vita-
mines "A" and "D."

Four calves were raised on this meal and, taking into consideration the fact
that three of them were delicate to begin with, they made very fair growth,
the average daily gain being 0.99 pound, and the dry feed required for 100
pounds of gain being 303 pounds. At prevailing prices of milk sugar this
meal was too expensive, but it indicated possibilities which should not be dis-
regarded.

Calf Meal No. 5:

This meal was not prepared to feed as a gruel, but as a dry grain for the
control lot of calves which received skim milk, and was not consumed in any
quantity until they were 5 to 6 weeks old. It was also fed as dry grain for
two lots of calves that received modified skim milk as the liquid portion of
their diet. It was composed of:

Ground whole oats (not rolled) 30 lbs.

Flour middlings 20 "

Corn meal 191/2 "

Linseed meal 10 "

Coconut meal 10 "

Peanut meal 10 "

Salt 1/2 "

Total 100 lbs.

Results secured in feeding this meal will be discussed under the heading of
skim milk and modifications of skim milk.

Calf Meal No. 6:

This meal was formulated as a result of our experience with the other meals
over a period of two years. It consisted of:

Ground rolled oats 20 lbs.

Soluble blood flour 10 "

Skim-milk powder 10 "

Corn starch 19

Red dog flour 15 "

Linseed meal 10 "

Coconut meal 10 "

Alfalfa flour 5 "

Calcium chloride -,2

Salt 1/2 "

Total 100 lbs.

It is in many respects similar to Nos. 1, 2 and 3. Red Dog flour was sub-
stituted for a portion of the rolled oats for considerations of economy and
to make a little more variety. Coconut meal was included for the same reason
as in Meal No. 4. Peanut meal was not included because of difficulty in ob-
taining it.

Six calves were raised on this meal. None of them made very good growth
at first. Later four of them did very well, but two of them (67 and 68) con-
tinued to do so poorly and refused so much of their feed that it was decided
to remove from the meal for these two, the coconut meal, which it was thought
might be the particular ingredient they objected to. After this change they
made somewhat better growth. The average daily gain for all six was 1.02

47

pounds, and the dry feed required for 100 pounds of gain averaged 326 pounds.
As already noted (p. 45) Calf No. 73 when changed from Meal No. 1 to this
meal showed a marked improvement in growth.

Skim Milk.

As a standard with which to compare results from our numerous substitutes
skim milk was fed to six calves. The maximum amount fed to any one calf
was 12 quarts daily. The calves were all weaned to skim milk during the
second week of their lives, except that two quarts of whole milk were given
daily until eight weeks of age in order to supply a little milk fat. Additional
mineral matter was supplied in the form of mineral mixture No. 1 (one part,
by weight, salt, to two parts calcium carbonate), three grams of this mixtm'e
being added to each quart of skim milk fed. The calves were tdught to eat
dry grain in the form of Meal No. 5 when about 4 to 5 weeks of age.

All six calves made excellent, some of them phenomenal growth, which was
to be expected. The average daily gain was 1.68 pounds; one calf made daily
gains of over two pounds. The amount of dry feed required for 100 pounds
of gain was 251 pounds.

Skim-milk powder and corn starch.

The dried milk industry has of recent years developed very rapidly. Ac-
cording to Hunziker* there were forty-seven concerns producing skim-milk
l^owder in the United States in the year 1919, and their total output was over
thirty-three million pounds. A considerable quantity of the output is so-called
"third grade," unsuited for domestic or bakers' consumption but suitable for
animal feeding. This can be had at a reasonable price and as it solves the
transportation and storage problems of liquid skim milk its value for calf
feeding is worthy of thorough study. As already noted we have used more
or less of it in all our formulae, as high as 20 per cent in Meal No. 2. During
the summer of 1923 a somewhat different method of feeding it was given a
trial.

A gruel consisting of two parts of skim-milk powder to one part of corn
stard'; was fed to seven calves, the maximum amount to any one calf being
nine quarts of the gruel. The corn starch was added to the 'milk in order to
widen the nutritive ratio, and thus protect the protein from being used as a
source of energy.

The weaning procedure and other details were identical with those followed
for the calves raised on Meals 1 to 6 except that two quarts of whole milk
were fed daily until the calves were eight weeks old. The dry grain for this
lot and the next one was Meal No. 5. The gruel was prepared m the following
manner :

3I/2 ounces skim-milk powder

1% ounces corn starch

1/10 ounce mineral mixture No. 2 (equal parts by

weight salt and calcium carbonate)
1 quart water.

The skim-milk powder and starch having been weighed out beforehand, the
necessary amount of cold water was measured out and the starch stirred into
it slowly and carefully, care being taken to have all lumps broken up. The
starch and water mixture was then heated slowly and with constant stirring
to a temperature about 170° -175° Fahrenheit, but not higher than 175° Fah-
renheit. The mixture was then cooled to 140° Fahrenheit and the skim-milk
powder and mineral mixture slowly stinred in. When the gruel had cooled
to blood heat it was ready to feed. This method of preparation insured a
uniform gniel free from lumps, and the solids did not settle out on standing.
Several gallons of the mixture were made up at one time and it kept well,
being quite sweet twenty-four hours after mixing if kept cool. The calves

*Otto y. Hunziker, Condensed Milk and Milk Powder, 3d edition, 1920, p. 278.

48

drank the gruel readily and althovigh they had some digestive disturbance in
the foi-m of scours this was not any more marked, nor as much so as in the
case of many of those raised on the different meals. All of them made good
growth, notwithstanding the fact that four of them were delicate at birth.
The average daily gain was 1.34 pounds and the dry food required for 100
pounds of gain was 280 pounds.

Liquid skim milk and starch.

In order to cheek the skim-milk powder against liquid skim milk, a second
lot of four calves was fed on a gruel prepared in a manner similar to the
above except that liquid skim milk was used, the starch and mineral mixture
being stirred into the skim milk which was then heated to about 150° Fahren-
heit, not higher. All the calves made very good growth, the average daily
gain being 1.35 pounds, and the dry feed required for 100 pounds of gain
was 277 pounds, results almost identical with those obtained in feeding the
skim-milk powder and starch. This would indicate that skim-milk powder
can be successfully substituted for the liquid article.

The question was raised as to whether the calves coiild readily assimilate
the starch added to the skim milk. The good growth secured with both lots
of calves (eleven in all) indicates that they were able to utilize it quite well.
Tests for starch were made on their droppings. In only two instances was
any found, and both of these were delicate calves at birth.

The accompanying table summarizes the results which have been given in
detail in the foregoing pages.

SUMMARY OF GAINS PRODUCED ON VARIOUS SKIM-MILK SUBSTITUTES

a

o

.s

£?-S

o

1-1

GQ

'3

rO M

-M

o

"3

to

•3.Sf

■a a)

C

-^S,

2

Material

O

CSiH

o a

0=3

a

O

O K

^a

Remarks

V U

0=l-l

o

o„

©1

O 03

a

00 •

°l

■few)

yi t»i

3

> rt

> ?

® 2

o 2

o^

o ?y

^

-^B

<^

OS

feS

o'S

Ors

Lh.

Lbs.

Cts.

( 1st lot did well

I 2d lot did very poorly

Calf Meal No.

1....

7

0.96

374

$15.39

$22.56

1.6

$6.30

Calf Meal No.

2

4

1.19

316

14.39

20.58

1.3

5.10

Made good growth

Calf Meal No.

3

4

0.77

349

16.55

15.72

1.4

5.40

Did not grow very well

Calf Meal No.

3,

Slightly better gains

modified . .

3

4

0.89
0.99

381
303

18.17
22.67

19.80
27.19

1.4
2.4

5.40
9.90

than those on Meal 3

Calf Meal No.

4

Made very fair gains

Calf Meal No.

6

6

1.02

326

15.62

19.32

1.3

5.10

Made very fair gains

Skim milk

(check lot)

6

1.68

251

(14.29*
(16.91t

28.54

1.6$

Excellent growth

Skim milk and

starch ....

4

1.35

277

17.67

29.25

2.0$

Very good growth

Skim milk powder

and starch

7

1.34

280

20.32

33.38

2.5$

.... 1 Very good growth

*With skim milk at 1% cents a quart.

tWith skim milk at 2 cents a quart.

tThe dry grain fed to these three lots was Meal No. 5, which cost at current prices
approximately $2.50 a hundred. All costs are figured from prices current in September,
1924.

Discussion of the Results.

In the first place the results of the several trials, as summarized in the pre-
ceding table, confirm our previous knowledge relative to the superior value
for growth of skim milk for young calves, providing it can be had at a rea-
sonable price (1.5-2.5 cents a quart). Even at 1.5 cents a quart, the food
cost of growing calves to four months of age is considerably above that of
the calf meaJs; but on the basis of growth produced, the food cost is about

49

the same as for the several meals. Onlx, however, wlien liquid skim mil'v is
not available at such prices should calf meals or skim milk powder be sub-
stituted.

In the second place our studies show that calves can be raised on various
skim milk substitutes together with a minimum of skim milk, and fairly good
growth secured. Care has to be taken not to overfeed. Manv of the" calves
thus grown are apt to look rather rough and not as smooth as skim milk calves
After they have reached the age of 6-8 months this difference generally dis-
appears. The average amount of skim milk consumed by the calves raised
on the various meals was 211 quarts, as compared with an average consump-
tion of 1046 quarts by the calves in the check lot which were raised on skim
milk and dry grain and hay. Those fed skim milk and starch consumed on
an average 912 quarts of skim milk. The calves reared on Meal No 6 re
ceived an average of only 108 quarts of skim milk each.

It must be admitted that the dairyman who raises a few calves at a time
it he does not have skim milk available, will have to depend upon the manu-
facturer for his calf meal mixtures. The manufacturer can secure and blend
the different ingredients more cheaply than the small feeder; hence the results
ot station studies along this line are likely to be passed to the dairy farmer
through the manufacturer.

The work has shown quite conclusively that skim-milk powder is a promising
substitute. This material is fairly easily obtained, can be readily prepared
tor tending, and at present prices costs very little more than liquid" skim milk
ihe addition of starch spares the amount of milk powder, but slightly increases
the cost of the gam. Because in the processes of drying the skim milk, it is
rif^ .1 ^^ ^ Fahrenheit or above for a considerable time, it would appear
that the danger from disease germs is likely to be remote.

Finally it may be remarked that success in calf rearing is dependent not onlv
on the teed used but on several other factors which are:

(a) A vigorous calf at. birth,

(b) Clean pens and clean feeding utensils.

(c) Regular feeding hours.

(d) Special attention to the individual peculiarities of each calf.

(e) Milk or gmel always fed at the same temperature— blood heat or there-

abouts.

(f ) Care to prevent overfeeding. If the calf refuses part of his allowance

let him go hungry at the next meal, or if he starts to scour cut his
ration m half for the next twenty-four to thirty-six hours.

(g) Sunshine, fresh air and exercise. Access to pasture if possible after

the calf is six months of age; at least an open vard to run in, except

m severe winter weather.
The above bulletin is a report of progress only. The studv of skim-milk
powder and of milk substitutes for young calves is being continued along
somewhat different lines and any pronounced progress will be reported.

Practical Suggestions.
On the basis of the work reported in this bulletin, we are not prepared to
recommend any particular combination of ingredients going to make up a calf
meal mixture. Combinations No. 2 (see page 45) and No. 6 (see page 47) have
done fairly well. As already stated, the most promising substitute investi-
gated has been skim-milk powder and a combination of the powder with corn
starch.

If skim-milk powder is used as a substitute for liquid skim milk, it is sug-
gested that one pound of the powder and a scant even teaspoonful of salt be
fed to each gallon of water. The milk powder and salt should first be stin-ed
with a small quantity of cold water to avoid lumping and after a creamy con-
sistency has been secured the necessary amount of lukewarm water should
be added, the mixture well stirred and thus fed. Do not feed the solution cold.
If skim-milk powder and starch are fed, mix as follows:
1 lb. of dry skim milk
1/^ lb. of corn starch
Level teaspoonful of salt.

50

Five ounces ot this mixture should be added to each quart of watei'. The
method of mixing consists in adding to the powder a small quantity of cold
water and thoroughly stirring in order to avoid lumping. After a creamy
consist eiK-y is secured, add the necessary A\ater, stir and heat the mixture to
150 "-^ Faln-enheit and allow it to cool to blood heat before feeding. An amount
sutficienr for one or two days can be mixed at one time, but before feeding, it
should be Avell stin-ed and heated until it is lukewarm.

COMPOSITION OF CALF MEALS

M;ilciial

\Vater

Ciilf Meal No. 1 9.02

t'alf Mwil No. 2 8.93

( 'alf Meal No. 3 S.56

<'alf Meal No. Z, iiiodilicd 9.76

Calf M(al No. 4 (5.49

Call' Mral No. .5 10.18

< 'alf M'.'n\ No. ti 10.71

Skini-milk powdor and starch gruel 88.90

Skim milk and starch gnicl 88.70

Dry Matter Basis*

Nitrogen-

Ash

Protein

Fiber

free
Extract

Pat

4.27

32.24

2.(51

56.62

4.28

4.7.-)

18.12

2..51

70.10

4.52

4.!t8

21.87

2.68

67.00

3.46

4.H7

22.40

2.42

65.98

4.52

4.GS

27.35

3.84

.59.40

4.73

•1.40

21.02

(5.71

61.07

6.79

.->.22

24.(54

3.54

61.88

4.72

s.o.-.

20.72

iioiie

71.26

trace

(!.99

18.38

none

74.42

trace

*Iu case of the tir.v meals to reduce roughly to normal water basis, ib'duct 10 per cent,
and for the skim milk and starch gruels, deduct 90 per cent.

A study of the chemical composition of the several meals shows that they
contain, when ready to feed, about 10 per cent of moisture, 4-5 per cent of
mineral matter, 2-3 per cent of fiber, 60-70 per cent of exti-act matter (largely
■tnrch), and 4-6 per cent of fat. The protein percentage in the several meals
\aries widely — from 18 per cent in case of ]MeaI No. 2 to 32 per cent in case
of No. 1. We have no positive knowledge as to the best percentage of this
ingredient, but on the basis of our experience believe that 18-24 per cent should
prove satisfactory. Tiie fiber percentage should be kept as low as ]iossible,
especially in a meal that is to be used in the gruel form during the first feAv
months of the life of the calf. A reasonable amount of fat is desirable. It
is doubtful if 5 to 7 per cent is at all excessive.

51

6000. 4-7-'25. Order No. 1473.

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 224 March. 1925

THE COSTS OF MARKETING THE APPLE
CROP OF 1923

Bv LoRiAN P. Jefferson

Knowledge of costs is a necessary antecedent to control over them. In-
creasing competition from other producing regions makes it necessai-y that
Massachusetts orehardists know their costs, and be prepared to reduce them,
or to give better marketing service, in order to maintain the strategic position
which is and should continue to be theirs. The study which this bulletin re-
ports was initiated, therefore, as an attempt to determine the factors of cost
which Massachusetts orehardists must meet in getting their product from the
tree to the market which they serve.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST, MASS.

5,000. 4-24- -25 Order No. 1620.

THE COSTS OF MARKETING THE APPLE
CROP OF 1923

By LoRiAN P. Jkffeuson

This study was undertaken in order to determine the costs of jiutting apples
on the market, what grades may be marketed with pi'olit, the margin over costs
of marketing returned to the grower from sales by various methods, and the
type of container most desirable.

Information was collected by personal visits to growers, 65 individual reports
being obtained lieside that from the Nashoba packing house.

No attempt was made to secure data from all growers in any section, but
those groM^ers visited were representative. Data were obtained in four sec-
tions of the state— Franklin County; Granville, a small and comparatively
new area near the Connecticut line in Berkshire County; the Newbury section
in the northeastern corner of the state; and an extensive area centering about
Littleton, but including many widely scattered growers of Middlesex and Wor-
cester Counties.

The data used were sometimes taken from records, bills of sale, etc., kept
by the grower, and sometimes — more often indeed — they were thoughtful esti-
mates of the producer. Most of those visited gave such estimates for at least
a part of the information sought, although many had some sort of record on
which the figures were based. These figures were carefully tabulated, omitting
the few questionable returns.

It was found that, owing to wide ranges in the reports, averages were not
always representative of the expenditures for various items. In these cases
the most common cost was used as typical. Hence the tabulation suimnarizing
the costs must be considered merely as a fairly representative list of costs.
All averages are weighted except when otherwise stated.

No attempt was made to discover the cost of growing the fruit. It must
therefore be recognized that the "margins" or "returns" considered throughout
the study are to be regarded as profits only after the costs of growing are
deducted from the "margin over cost of marketing."

One grower said that apples could not be sold at a profit unless the price
obtained was more than $3.50 a barrel. Another said that it cost $2.00 to
grow and market a bushel of apples. Obviously a wide range exists in the
individual costs of production as well as in the costs of marketing. A dif-
ference of 83 cents a bushel appears between the two cases cited.
Grades.

The law of the state provides for three grades of apples — Fancy, A and B
— and an ungraded class. In reality, the ajoples known as ungraded are of
two kinds : those which are sold as they come from the trees, culls only having
been removed; and the inferior grade which remains after Fancy, A and B
grades — any or all of them — are taken out. The term "ungraded" as applied
to this inferior lot of apples is a misnomer, and some other designation should
be devised.

The growers visited reported 214,153 bushels of apjjles sold from the crop
of 1923. Seventy-five per cent of these were sorted and graded. The grades
appeared in the following proportions :

Grade

Bushels

Per Cent

Fancv

17,640

8.1

A

68,816

.32.1

B

29,273

13.7

Ungraded

90,062

42.0

True

52,007

24.3

Inferior

38,055

17.7

Cider

8,362

3.8

Of the apples which were graded, 13 per cent were Fancy; 51 per cent were
A's; 22 per cent were B's; while 14 per cent were the inferior stock, called
"nn'-raded," left after the higher grades were sorted out. Some few of the
growers graded into all grades, but most of them did not. Sixteen per cent
report apples of the Fancy grade; 41 per cent sold apples of A grade; 27
per cent sold B grade; and 17 per cent sold ungraded stock which remained
after the higher grades had been sorted out.
Methods of Sale.

Probably the most important single factor in determining the price received
for apples is the method of sale. Obviously, whether the highest price means
also the greatest profits depends upon costs of production and costs of mar-
keting.

Several methods of sale were found in current use among the growers vis-
ited :

L To the buyer, who comes to the orchard or packing shed, usually pro-
vides his own containers, and may be a huckster, a jobber or a wholesaler.
This method is common throughout the state.

2. To the wholesaler, to whom the apples are usually delivered by the
gi'ower.

3. On commission, the rate of commission varying from 7 per cent of the
selling price for apples which are exported, to 12 per cent which is the com-
mon rate on the Worcester market.

4. To the retailer, the grower generally paying the delivery charges, al-
though in at least one instance the retailer buys the entire crop of the grower
and hauls it away on his own trucks, a distance of 30 miles.

5. Cooperatively, there being one cooperative packing association and one
cooperative roadside market selling apples.

(i. At retail, at the door or at a roadside market maintained by the grower.

7. From door to door, probably the most expensive method of sale.

8. At a farmers' market. One grower only reports sales by this method
and his fi-uit is sold chiefly to retailers and hucksters.

Sale to buyers who come to the door is probably the most common way of
selling throughout the state, 55 per cent of the growers visited selling all or
part of their crop to buyers at the door. Some of the buyers are hucksters
and sell in various cities throughout the state. Some are wholesalers and some
few are retailers. Frequently the fruit is bought ''orchard run" at the farm
and the grower has no resjaonsibility for it after it is picked and hauled from
the orchard. Most of these buyers seem to make the best bargain possible
with each individual grower, having neither fixed price nor fixed terms of
purchase, and these terms may differ widely in any community. Particularly
is this true in the western part of the state. One grower sells his apples on
the trees, the buyer picking, sorting and packing them and hauling them to
the station. Another grower picks his apples, hauls them to the packing shed,
supplies one packer, while the buyer supplies one or two. Sometimes the
grower furnishes two or three packers and boards another who is hired by
the buyer. The grower may or may not deliver the apples f.o.b. his loading
station.

The same variations appear in the prices paid by these buyers, who some-
times request the growers not to reveal the price paid. The range of prices
for the different grades of the crop of 1923 varied as follows :

A $3.00 to $5.00, per bbl. with eight different prices.

B $2.75 to $3.60, per b])l. with five different prices.

Ungraded $1.00 to $4.00, per bbl. with twelve different prices.

]\Iore than half the apples reported for this study by Franklin County
growers are sold absolutely ungraded; while but 6 per cent are sold as the
inferior* lot, misnamed ''ungraded," remaining after the better grades are
sorted out.

With the exception of those who sold their apples on the tree, the growers
who sold to these buyers always paid two items in the cost of marketing —
picking and hauling from the orchard to the packing shed. From this point,

varj'ing bargains were made by the buyers. They did all or any part, com-
monly one-half, of the sorting, grading and packing; they furnished the con-
tainer in some eases, while in others it was furnished by the grower; either
the buyer or the grower hauled to the station, as was agreed. The freight
was generally paid b}' the buyer.

The reasons for this undesirable situation seem to be:

1. The distance from market. Most of the orchards lie at a considerable
distance from the large markets in the western part of the state, and the
small markets are soon over-stocked. The haul to Holyoke or Springfield is
long — 40 miles at the least, and for some of the growers it is 50 miles or more.
On account of the hills this haul is more difficult than one of the same mileage
in a more level section. It is more convenient and less expensive to sell to
a buyer at the door, or at least at the nearest shipping point.

2. Custom undoubtedly has some influence in the matter. For years these
buyers have come to Franklin County for the apples they handle, and the
growers have formed the habit of selling by this method.

3. The size of the individual crop probably influences to some extent the
method of sale. The average crop in Franklin County is about 2200 bushels,
and 45 per cent of the growers reporting sell yearly less than 1700 bushels
each. The average crop in the eastern section of the state is nearly twice as
large as that in the Franklin County area.

In Worcester and Middlesex Counties the methods of sale are various, but
chiefly apples are sold to buyers at the farm, cooperatively, to retailers, and
on commission. The most interesting method is the cooperative sale by the
Nashoba Apple Packing Association, which maintains two packing houses,
one in Littleton and one in Bolton.

The apples were picked and hauled from the orchard by the grower. They
were hauled to the packing house by the Association at a flat rate of 5 cents
a bushel, regardless of distance. Sorting, grading and packing costs were
reported as 30 cents a bushel, but this included some items which should have
been charged to supplies. The actual cost of the labor of sorting, grading
and packing was possibly not more than 25 cents a bushel.

The packed box was then hauled to Boston for 12 cents and delivered to
one commission merchant who handled the entire output of the Association.

There was a very small charge for labels and advertising. With commis-
sions the total costs of the Association amounted to an average of $1.08 per
box.

Over half, 51 per cent, of the growers report that they sell by one method
only; 27 per cent sell by two methods; 18 per cent use three methods, while
four, five and six methods are used by one grower each.

Two growers sell their crops on the tree and have no further responsibility.

Buyers who come to the orchard purchase the entire crop of 30 growers
reporting. Nine growers sell to wholesalers, 20 on commission, 23 to retailers,
7 to hucksters, 7 cooperatively, 9 at retail at the door or at roadside stands,
6 sell from door to door, and one at public market.

Total Costs.

The items of cost which appear in the marketing of apples may be listed
as follows, but it is obvious that very few growers would incur each of these
expenditures :

Picking
Sorting
Grading
Packing
Container

Boxes, with risers
Barrels
Baskets
Cooperage

Heading of barrels

Nailing of boxes

Paper

Hauling container to orchard

Hauling container to packing shed

Hauling from farm to market

Hauling from farm to station

Hauling to storage

Hauling from storage

Freight

Storage

Selling
It will be noted that the costs of marketing are here considered as beginning
with the cost of picking and including all actual expenditures till the fruit
is in the hands of the first purchaser, whether he be buyer, wholesaler, re-
tailer or consumer. These costs vary greatly with different growers and to
a certain extent vfith. the locality.

Picking.

The most common cost of picking a bushel of apples, as reported by the
producers visited, was about 8 cents in 1923. The range of costs for this
operation was from 3 cents to 20 cents. Of the 62 reporting, 31 paid less
than 10 cents a bushel for picking, 14 paid from 10 to 14 cents, and 17 paid
from 15 to 20 cents. The average cost w-as between 10 and 11 cents a bushel.
Sorting.

Sorting, grading and packing costs vary even more widely than the picking
costs, the range being from 3 cents to 42 cents a bushel. The average cost
was 13 cents; 43 per cent of the growers report this charge as less than 10
cents, 31 per cent paid between 10 and 14 cents, 11 per cent paid between 15
and 20 cents, while 13 per cent report that it cost more than 20 cents a bushel.
The most common cost was 8 1/3 cents.

It must be recognized that these figures include all types of sorting, grading
and packing; those that are merely put into the container as well as those
that are sorted, graded, wrapped and packed, the utmost attention being given
to each detail. Obviously there must be wide differences between costs. Four-
teen per cent of the apples sold (ungraded) were reported as having cost an
average of 5 cents a bushel for such sorting and packing as was done. This
is 37 cents less than the highest charge reported.

Storage.

Comparatively few growers stored apples and only 15 of these were able
to give costs of storage. The range of this charge was from 3 cents to 32
cents a bushel, but includes farm storage as well as hired cold storage, the
farm storage being estimated on the basis of interest on the cost of the storage.
The average cost of storage per bushel of apples stored was 23 cents. This
average is much increased by the costs of a few growers, as one-third of those
reporting storage costs paid less than 10 cents a bushel.

Containers.

More than half the costs of marketing apples in Massachusetts may often
be charged to the container. The average price of barrels to 45 growers, who
sell in this way, amounts to 23 cents per bushel sold. The prices reported
ranged as high as 85 cents a barrel including cooperage and deliver^^ Some
growers buy second-hand barrels when these are obtainable, and some report
that the barrels are returned by the retailer or the consumer.

Boxes cost an average of 21 2/3 cents as reported by 30 growers, and the
most common price is 22 cents. Baskets are reported in several sizes, holding

2 quarts, 4 quarts, 8 quarts, 14 quarts, 28 quarts, a half-bushel and a bushel.
The cost of baskets averages, for the 23 growers who report their use, about
26 cents a bushel.

The one grower who reported sales in 2-quart baskets paid at the rate of
48 cents a bushel for these containers. Four-quart baskets cost an average
of 32% cents a bushel. Selling in baskets containing 14 quarts meant an
average expenditure of 23 cents a bushel for containers, while baskets holding
28 quarts cost an average of 17 cents a ])ushel. Baskets containing a bushel
cost an average of 13 cents.

One instance was found where the containers, "barrel crates," were the
property of the buyer, who charged the grower 25 cents each for their use.
The grower had, however, provided storage space for these crates between
seasons, and for this service the buyer allowed him 12^2 cents per crate. This
amounted to nearly 3 cents a bi;shel cash outlay for containers.

The type of container most desirable seems to depend upon the grading
done. Ungraded apples are probably more suitably packed in barrels, while
graded fruit may better be packed in boxes. Baskets seem to be used for
retail trade particularly.
Selling Costs.

The cost of selling varies greatly with the method of sale. The most ex-
pensive methods being, apparently, from door to door and at roadside mar-
kets, but accurate data as to these methods are very difficult to obtain. Quan-
tities thus sold vary from day to day with a consequent change in selling
costs per unit.

Selling on commission is most commonly at a rate of 10 per cent of the
selling price, although exported apples are sold for 7 per cent commission,
and rates here run as high as 15 per cent. Sales in Worcester are reported
at 12% per cent. The average cost of selling on commission was 19 cents
a bushel.

The selling costs of 106 lots of apples sold varied from 4 cents to 90 cents
a bushel. The most common cost was 10 cents a bushel, 11 per cent of the
lots reported showing this selling cost. The average cost of all these lots
was 18 cents a bushel.

There were in addition 36 lots, most often the entire crop, sold to buyers
who came to the door, relieving the grower of all selling costs except for the
time required to bargain with the buyer. For the purpose of this study,
there is no cost of selling included for the lots of apples so sold.

The average selling costs on all lots reported, 142 in number, was nearly
14 cents a bushel, but this figure has little significance in view of the wide
variation in individual costs. The weighted average selling cost was 18.6 cents
per bushel.
Transportation.

The cost of hauling from orchard to packing shed is most commonly about
2 cents a bushel, 34 per cent of the growers rej^orting this cost, while 77 per
cent report a charge of less than 5 cents a bushel for this item. The highest
cost reported is 12% cents a bushel.

More of the crop is hauled to market by truck and wagon than is shipped
by freight. The cost of hauling to market ranges from 3 cents to 33 1/3 cents.
The most common cost is 15 cents; 42 per cent of the growers report this
cost to be either 15 or 16 cents, while 39 per cent haul their apples to market
for less than 15 cents a bushel.

The most common cost of delivery at the station is 5 cents a bushel, the
range being from 5 to 11 cents.

Two-thirds of the growers use motor trucks, mostly privately owned, bur
a few are hired. The average length of haul by truck is 20 miles, practically
always to market, though a few haul by truck to their railroad stations, de-
livery being thence made by freight. Wagons are used by the remainder of
the growers, and three report that they use both, depending upon the weather.
The average wagon haul is 4 miles and the haul is commonly to the station.

A few, however, report that apples are hauled by wagon to nearby markets.
Wagons are used almost entirely in the western part of the state where the
hills sometimes render hauling by truck a difficult matter.

The average haul for all vehicles is about 15^/^ miles, while the most common
haul is less than 10 miles. The average haul by wagon is about 4 miles at
an average cost of $.0169 for hauling one bushel one mile. The average haul
by truck is 20 miles, at an average cost of $.0092 a mile for each bushel
liauled.

The mileage cost per bushel hauled by truck less thart 10 miles is $.0136,
nearly ^4 cent less than by wagon.

For distances varying from 10 to 24 miles, the trucking cost per bushel
averages $.009 per mile, while for distances of 25 to 43 miles (the greatest
reported) the average cost is $.0053 per bushel per mile.

The most common cost for trucks lies between ^2 cent and 1 cent per mile
for a bushel, while the most common cost for wagons lies between 1 cent and
IV2 cents. One-fifth of the trucks carry a bushel a mile for less than V2 cent,
while 8% per cent report cost exceeding 1^2 cents a mile for each bushel
hauled. The highest cost reported was slightly more than 5V^ cents, which
appears in both truck and wagon costs. The lowest cost was reported for a
truck hauling a distance of 30 miles for 15 cents a barrel, $.0016 a bushel
per mile. The most common length of haul by truck was 30 miles at an
average cost of $.0058 per bushel per mile. The average cost for all vehicles
is practically one cent a mile for each bushel handled.

Transportation costs for trucks amounting to nearly the same figure are
reported from the eastern and western parts of the state. Few wagons are
used in the eastern section, except for hauling from the orchard to the pack-
ing shed.
Cider Apples.

Cider apples included culls and apples from wild trees unfit for other use.
These were sold mainly at local cider mills, although some few growers make
and sell their own eider. Cider apples brought an average price of about 17
cents a bushel, but they are sold mostly by the hundredweight.
Prices and Margins.

Following is a comparison of the prices and margins over costs of mar-
keting received for the various grades by diiTerent methods of sale. The three
methods most commonly employed among the growers visited are here pre-
sented, since the great part of the apples reported were sold by these methods.

It is notable that in every case sales to country buyers showed the lowest
prices and lowest margins over costs of marketing. Sales of Fancy apples
to retailers brought the highest margins over costs of marketing. Sales of
A's on commission brought the highest price for this grade, and sales on com-
mission averaged the highest prices and the highest margins.

The true ungraded apples brought the highest prices for this grade when
sold on commission, but a small quantity of inferior ungraded sold to a re-
tailer brought the highest margin over costs for this grade. This was due to
the fact that the retailer supplied the container and hauled the apples from
the farm, making the actual expenditures of the grower very small. However,
the price received was not as high as for those of the same grade sold on
commission. Ungraded apples returned lower prices and margins over costs
of marketing by all methods of sale than did graded fruit.

The influence of low grades of a product upon the prices received for the
higher grades is difficult to calculate, but it is the opinion of many growers
and dealers that the low grade apples might be kept off the market with profit
to the grower. It is doubtful, for example, if the margins over the costs of
marketing ungraded apples, when sold to country buyers particularly, cover
costs of production. In 1923 it is certain that some growers lost on B grade
apples, and others made little or nothing by selling this grade. Some few
growers made their low grade apples into eider which was sold at a roadside
market.

8

Average Prices, Costs of Marketing, and Margins over Costs of Marketing.

Margin

Average

Cost of

over Cost

Bushels

Price

Marketing

of Marketing

FANCY

To country buyer
To retailer
Commission

1,224

180

9,636

A

$1.67
2.12
2.07

GRADE

$ .53
.38
.45

$1.14
1.74
1.62

To country buyer
To retailer
Commission

14,697
13.824
18,495

B

1.23
1.93
2.20

GRADE

.49

.81
.98

.74
1.12
1.22

To country buyer
To retailer
Commission

3,594
5,280
9,201

1.34
1.51
1.56

.60
.63

.88

.74

.88
.68

UNGRADED— INFERIOR

To country buyer
To retailer
Commission

12,535

225

19,414

.91
1.08
1.90

.41
.10*
1.06

.48
.98
.84

UNGRADED— TRUE

To country buyer
To retailer
Commission

27,980
8,300
2,000

.88
1.10
1.92

.39
.40
.84

.49

.70

1.08

*Sold at door, buj^er furnishing container and hauling away.

A comparison of the prices and margins over costs of marketing for all
graded atopies and for those vingraded which are merely picked, sorted and
packed is of interest. Ail graded apples, including the so-called ungraded
remaining after other grades are removed, brought an average price of $1.79
per bushel, with an average margin of $1.03. The true ungraded apples
brought an average price of $1.03 with a margin over costs of marketing of
57 cents a bushel, practically half the margin on all graded apples. Omitting
the inferior grade, the graded apples brought an average price of $1.88 with
an average margin of $1.08 per bushel.

According to the data tabulated, B grade apples sold to country buyers
brought a higher average price than did A's sold by the same method. This
may be explained by the fact that comparatively few apples of B grade were
sold by this method, tending to give undue weight to any unusual instances;
and that some lots of apples brought the same price for A and B grades.

In the case of ungraded apples, it is noticeable that the country buyer paid
more for the inferior class than for the true ungraded. This may, perhaps,
be explained by the probabilitj^ that the growers who grade their apples care-
fully do so because they are better acquainted with market conditions and
are therefore in a position to make a better bargain with the buyer.

Information secured with reference to the expenditure of labor necessary
to pick, sort, grade and pack showed that there is a wide variation in labor
as in money costs. The average number of bushels reported picked in a day
is about 48, although orchard conditions have a marked influence in the matter.
Sorting, grading and packing, which are usually considered as one item, av-
erage a little higher, one worker packing about 54 bushels a day. Llany gi'ow-
ers, however, estimated that the labor costs of this item are about the same as
for picking.

9

It is almost impossible to give the cost in labor of other items, such as
liauling and storing, because the work is done so intermittently that the amount
of time required per bushel or the amount of work done in a day is difficult
to estimate.

A tabulation of the average or most common expenditures for the various
items entering into the costs of marketing will serve as a summary.

Operations Cost per Bushel

Picking $ .10

Sorting, grading and packing .13

Container .23

Hauling from orchard .02

Hauling to station .05

Hauling to market .15

Selling .19

Typical costs of marketing apples hauled to market $ .87

Storage .23

Hauling from storage .05

Typical costs $1.15

The study leads to certain definite conclusions.

1. Sale to country buyers is the least profitable method of sale.

2. It pays the grower to grade his apples. How closely this ma.y profitably
be done depends, obviously, upon the character of the crop.

3. Sales on commission returned, to the growers reporting, the highest
average prices and the highest average margins over costs of marketing. These
sales were made in some cases throughout the season, thereby taking advantage
of the season of highest prices. The 10,000 bushels sold cooperatively were in
this group. Some other methods, e.g., sale to country buyer, dispose of the
crop early in the season, when prices are likely to be low.

. UBRA^V Of THE

AiVtHERiV, iAA^a.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 225 DECEMBER, 1925

YELLOW PICKLE IN GREENHOUSE
CUCUMBERS

By VICTOR A. TIEDJENS

Contribution from the

MARKET GARDEN FIELD STATION

of the

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

Yellow pickles on greenhouse cucumber plants are due to a physiological
disoraer causing the fertilized pickles to ripen prematurely. Any environ-
mental factor that reduces the amount of food material in the plant may
result in a condition favorable to the formation of yellow pickles. In-
adequate light, insufficient nitrates, excessive set, surplus water, poor
drainage, or a serious attack of animal or pl^nt parasites may all con-
tribute to a premature ripening of cucumbers. The remedy is primarily
the prevention, elimination, or correction of those conditions that tend to
devitalize the plant.

/»

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

YELLOW PICKLE IN GREENHOUSE CUCUMBERS

By VICTOR A. TIEDJENS

Perhaps no other problem causes greenhouse cucumber growers more
concern than the appearance of a large number of yellow pickles when
the vines should be yielding at their maximum. Whenever plants are weak-
ened from disease, poor growing conditions, or a heavy set, yellow pickle^
is always present. Some growers attribute it to degenerated seed, some
regard it as mosaic, while others ascribe the condition to lack of pollina-
tion by bees. Observations on self and cross-fertilized cucumbers for two
generations lead to the conclusion that these assumptions are to a certain
extent correct, but the condition is due to many more causes than any
one group is usually willing to admit.

Yellow pickles may be the result of one or more causes such as too
heavy a set, poor pollination, the method of growing (whether string or A
trellis is used), insufficient soil nutrients, animal or plant parasites, or
conditions that weaken growth and stunt the plant.

The Condition Called Yellow Pickle

Reference is made to yellow pickle as a condition because it is usually
secondary and is brought on by one or more causes. As a rule yellow
pickle manifests itself on small cucumbers on old diseased vines, or heavily
set vines wliich are in the first set. Occasionally the condition is found in
cucumbers from six to eight inches long if the plant has experienced a sud-
den shock or "set back." Ordinarily, in the condition known as yellow
pickle, the cucumber does not grow beyond a length of four inches. After
growth is stopped the cucumber becomes yellow near the stem end, the
yellow color gradually spreading toward the tip if decay -does not set in
first. Some make suflicient growth to mature a few viable seeds. If suf-
ficient growth has not been made to develop viable seed, the cucumber
wilts and gradually dries up.

If it has been fertilized, the yellow pickle may remain on the vine from
four to six weeks before it drops off. This condition has been called pre-
mature ripening, but differs from that of a normally maturing cucumber in
that the yellowing of the mature cucumber becomes visible over the entire
surface, the stem end being less pronounced in color than the remainder
of the cucumber, a condition directly opposite to that found in yellow
l)ickle. Plants may have from one to six or more of these yellow pickles
at one time, depending on the set of the plant. A plant having a heavy
set may develop only half of the pistillate flowers into marketable cucum-
bers, in which case the other half becomes yellow, the proportion of 3^ellow
pickles to normal cucumbers depending on the vigor of the plant. A weak
plant may mature only one of many pickles fertilized, in which case the
percentage of yellow pickle will be very high; whereas, although a strong
)>lant under the best growing conditions may not mature all its pickles if
the set has been exceptionally large, the percentage of yellow pickle will
be relatively small.

1. There is some confusion in the use of the two terms "yellow" and "white"
pickle. The condition here referred to as yellow piclvle may result from any one of
several physiological causes and manifest itself in a premature yellowing of the pickle.

4 M/\SS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 225.

Thf. Relation of FRtiiT Set to the Deveiopinient of Yei.i.ow Picki.e

A cucumber plant grows in cycles with reference to prodvicing pistillati:
fiowers. After a large number of pistillate flowers have been produced,
that is, one on each node up to the first ten nodes of the stem, only stam-
inate flowers are produced for a number of new nodes higher up, fol-
lowed by another group of pistillate flowers. Thus a "set" usually fol-
lows the removal of a number of large cucumbers from the vine. Usually
more pistillate flowers are produced in one set than the plant will mature,
and some of them must be sacrificed. Under greenhouse conditions, where
all the flowers are in a favorable position to be visited by bees, a very
large percentage of the female flowers set fruit. If conditions are ideal
for good growth, the plant may be able to mature a complete set. Usually,
however, a few of the cucumbers formed on the first few nodes of the
plant are a day or two ahead of the others and develop normally, while
the later pollinated pistillate flowers make very little growth until the
first formed cucumbers have been picked. If growing conditions are un-
favorable so that several weeks are required to grow the market size cu-
cumber, the pickle becomes stunted and, even though conditions later be-
come favorable, it does not grow. Instead a newly pollinated flower may
start and as a result the small pickle is prematurely ripened. It may have
a few viable .seeds or it may not have grown sufficiently to develop any
seed. The pickle turns yellow, a condition which many growers have at-
tributed to a parasitic disease. An infection of a plant by an organism is
probably the most important cause of yellow pickle on normal plants.

The condition cited above very definitely manifested itself in self-pol-
linating work on old plants' which had set a number of fruits. A study
was undertaken of certain characters existing in a mixed lot of cucumbers
grown in the station greenhouse. Self-pollinated flowers, on plants al-
ready having a number of pickles set, invariably developed yellow pickle;
and not until every pollinated flower and developing cucumber were removed
from the plant was it possible to get the plant to produce any self-fer-
tilized fruit. On the other hand, when the first flowers of the plant were
self-pollinated the fruit developed and matured, indicating that self-pol-
lination was nut the determining factor.

Yellow pickle was very much in evidence on plants used for seed pro-
duction in breeding work. As many as eight pistillate flowers on a plant
were selfed, but only three or four matured while the others remained
for several weeks without growing, and then turned yellow. It was not
uncommon to find five or six yellow pickles on these i)lants because of the
time required to mature the early pollinated fruit.

Since, in the production of seed, the mature cucumber must remain on
the vine much longer than that which is picked for market, much more
food material is required and the plant is not able to carry as much
maturing fruit as if all were picked green. Under such conditions yellow
pickle is very mucli in evidence.

Generallj' yellow pickle is associated with old vines, but the plants in
the above experiment were in their first set. This brought out the fact
that yellow pickle is a jjremature ripening of pollinated flowers at a time
when the plant is carrying a heavy load. The second set ctime along after
the mature seed cucumbers were removed. The fruits from this .set produced
good marketable cucumbers while the yellow pickles were still hanging

YELLOW PICKLE IN CUCUMBERS. 5

on the vines. A few that liad not turned yeUow failed to grow aftei
standing still for sucii a long time, and finally dried up without becoming
yellow. The flowers from which these yellow pickles developed were self-
pollinated on .Iu!?e 21, 1925. The pickles did not begin to turn yellow
until August M, L')2.5, 48 days later. Some of them were three to four
inches long and a few had some viable .seeds.

Relation of Pollination to the Development of Yellow Pickle

Many cases of yellow pickle can be attributed to lack of pollination.
However, with certain varieties, when a pistillate flower is not pollinated,
its growing period is much shorter, and the pickle very seldom grows over
two inches. Often it does not have the characteristic yellow color found on
the larger pickles. In the case of the English variety it is possible to
mature large encumbers without pollination, but this is not the case in
the ordinary varieties used in a study of this problem. Yellow pickle.',
were found, however, on English vines which already had three or four
mature cucumbers.

Interest in the yellow pickle problem prompted the bagging of a large
number of pistillate flowers to prevent visitation by insects. None of
these flowers developed pickles over tw(t inches long. The color was a
grayish yellow and in some ca.ses almost white. Some of these decayed in
a short time, while others dried up and drojjped off, u condition differing
from that described abo\e.

The Relation of Method of Growing to Yellow Pickle

Two methods of growing cucumbers in greenhouses are generally prac-
ticed; namely, the "A" trellis method, and the string method. Where the
"A" trellis is used, fewer plants are necessary and these develop more
normally than with the string method. With the string method the plants
are closer together, and are pruned so that each branch has only one or
two nodes, the main stem being twined around the string which extends
Irom a wire near the top of the house to the base of each plant. The
l)revalence of yellow pickle depends somewhat on the method that is used.

The number of pistillate flowers formed is largely determined by heredi-
tary factors. Thus, there will be as many pistillate flowers on the main
stem and first two nodes of the branches whether the plants are grown
(ill strings or trellises. In the string method, a large amount of leaf
surface is removed in i)runing, thus curtailing the amount of food the plant
tan manufacture and store. Such plants cannot develop as many of the
pistillate flowers as those on the "A" trellis where very little pruning is
done. Also, the plants are crowded more in the string method and less
soil nutrients are available to each plant. Tliis means that there are likely
to be more yellow pickles on the string plants under uniform conditions
of growth. This has been commonly oi)served, but not proved by tests
under controlled conditions.

Relation of Parasitic Diseases to Yellow Pickle

As was stated in the introduction, yellow or white pickle resemble;,
symptoms of mosaic. It is also common to find yellow pickles associated
with diseases produced by animal or i)lant jjarasites, but the yellow pickle
with which we are here concerned does not come within the category of any
of these diseases. When plants are affected with disease their health is

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 225.

impaired to the extent tliat they cannot mature their fruit and grow new
foliage ;i.s normally growing i)lants can and conseciuently the fruit is pre-
maturely ripened. As cucumber plants grow older, especially with the
string method, they shade each other more,^ind for that reason the lower
leaves either drop off naturally or succumb to disease. Under such con-
ditions the plants are unable to carry to maturity the fruit which was pol-
linated when they were in a fairly healthy condition, and consequently
many yellow pickles appear.

Soil Conditions and Yei^i.ow Pickle

Ordinarily the soil in a greenhouse is so well manured^ that if it is
handled properly there will be suft'icient soil nutrients present to carry a
crop of cucumbers from nine months to a year, or as long as the vines
are able to produce a paying crop. There are, however, certain conditions
caused by poor drainage which tend to shorten the growing period of a
plant, and materially cut down the yield. After cucumbers are trans-
planted, a period of soil saturation with water follows so that the plants
are continually growing in a wet soil, which is usually too wet for healthy
growth. If good drainage is provided, as in benches, little damage will
result. If no drainage is provided, the soil becomes water-logged,
oxygen is excluded and practicall\' no nitrification takes place. The plant
does not receive suft'icient nitrates to make a healthy growth and a large
number of yellow pickles results. Even if compost manure or fertilizer
is ai)plied on the to]i of the ground and ke])t moist, the plant will not
function projjcrly as long as the soil is in a water-logged condition. This
undoubtedly has much to do with the longer growing period of cucumbers
when grown in benches.

The cucumber plant needs a large (luantity of water, but it will not
thrive if the roots do not receive sufficient air in the presence of too much
water in the soil. Greenhouse growers claim that plants wilt if the soil
is not thoroughly wet down. This is true, but they will wilt even though
more than the necessary amount of water is added, the reason being that
the plants have received so much water from the time they were set in the
beds that the root system is not large enough to balance the upper part
of the plant. The roots remain near the surface and will not branch out
and down for water and food. They are near the surface where there
is air. It is the same condition found in a poorly drained field. If plants
wilt during hot dry weather, growth is interrupted to the extent that many
tucunibers become stunted and produce either nubbins or yellow pickles.
Proper watering after transplanting will prevent much of this trouble.
An excess of water from the time the seed germinates makes a soft plant
which requires a large amount of water. It is impossible to give such a
plant sufficient water during hot dry weather to ]irevent it from wilting, be-
cause the root system is not large enough to replace the water that is
given off by the leaves. Undoubtedly, cucumbers grown with less water
from the start are more lignified (less soft), have stift'er cell walls, and
do not droop as readily even when there is a slight water deficit.

This condition of the soil has considerable influence on the health of
the plant. The number of yellow pickles will lie influenced by the con-
dition of the plant.

YELLOW PICKLE IN CUCUMBEiFt^>

The Relation of Deforwed Cucri>rBEus to Conditions Causing
Yellow Pickle

The cause of nubbins and deformed cueunibers is usually attributed to
the fact that the flower was improperly fertilized or that the seed is de-
generating. Both answers seem improbable in the light of certain observa-
tions on both healthy and diseased plants. There are plants so genetically
constituted that they produce only nubbins or deformed cucumbers. But
many plants later in life produce nubbins and deformed cucumbers which
earlier jiroduced number one cucumbers only. In this case we cannot at-
tribute .the condition to heredity. When nubbins are produced on green-
house grown cucumber plants that are as freely visited by bees as plants
producing number one cucumbers, we hesitate to attribute the result to
a lack of pollination. It would be supposed that hand pollination should
overcome the trouble, but experience has shown that resorting to such a
method is no assurance that the cucumbers will be normally formed. There-
fore we are led to think that the physiological balance of the plant is upset
to the extent that fertilization is abnormal. This assumption, however,
cannot be proven at the present time, ^\'hen a jilant is weak and an in-
sufficient supply of food is a^■ailable to nourish, the newly pollinated
flowers, the time when any given flower is pollinated may have some in-
fluence on the shape of the fruit developing from it. The number of grow-
ing cucumbers on a plant is undoubtedly a contributing cause of the pro-
duction of nubbins and deformed cucumbers. By observation it has been
noted that the condition of the fruit indicates the conditions under which
it was produced. That is to say, if a plant is in good health and sets six
cucumbers on six succeeding days, they may all start to grow. If some-
thing tends to cut down the food supply, four of the cucumbers, depending
on time of pollination and position on the plant, may continue to grow
uninterruptedly, while the other two stop growing until more food material
is available. If two of the four cucumbers are picked the remaining two
may resume growth. However, the plant is producing new foliage and
new flower buds while cucumbers are maturing. If no new pistillate
flowers have been formed, the two small cucumbers may grow and form
cucumbers, the upper half of which will be small, while the tip half wili
be quite bulgy and will contain a large number of viable seeds.l However,
if new pistillate flowers have been pollinated on the plant, they may re-
ceive the support of the plant and grow while the two small cucumbers
either ripen into nubbins with a few viable seeds or become yellow pickles.
This condition applies only to plants which under normal conditions pro-
duce cucumbers of good shape.

The Application to Puacitce

Cirowers ask as to what can be done to avoid yellow pickle. The better
control is, obviously, prevention. When all the yellow pickles and mature
cucumbers are removed the plants put forth new growth and develop pistil-
late flowers, providing abundant su])ply of reciuired nutrients and foods
manufactured by the leaves is available. If the plants are kept healthy and
vigorous at all times they will carry more pistillate flowers to maturity.
Growth must be continuous and rapid. The presence of a number of

1 The seeds from a number of self-fertilized cucumbers of this shape have produced
plants which bore perfect normally shaped cucumbers.

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 225.

maturing fruits suppresses many of the newly pollinated pistillate flowers
und causes their fruit to become yellow when there are insufficient nutrients
or food materials to allow rapid development of fruits present. Uniform
night temperatures with moderate watering and an occasional light ap-
plication of a nitrogen fertilizer to keep the plants growing, reduces yel-
low pickle to a minimum.

All cucumber houses should be well drained to i)revent the soil from
becoming water-logged. The young plants should be lightly watered to
make them send out a good root system. The soil should be watered in
such a way that the water will not stand on top of the ground. A sprinkler
system is better than a liose without a nozzle, because not so much water is
applied and it soaks into the soil better. The plants should be watered
wJien it is necessary. They should not be watered as a matter of daily
routine. The objective should be to get a good vigorous, healthy, fast-
growing plant that will mature a large number of fertilized flowers.

Nubbins and deformed cucumbers should be removed from the vine as
soon as it is apparent that they will not be well shaped cucumbers, since
if once deformed they can never develop into a salable form. If they are
left on the vine in the hope that they will develop into good cucumbers,
they merely drain the strength of the plant and prevent it from developing
normal fruit. Much less vitality is needed to produce a normal cucumber
of salable size than is used to carry a nubbin to maturity, since in the for-
mer the seeds are small and undeveloped while in the latter the fruit ripens
and seeds are fully developed. The removal of a maturing cucumber results
in further production of pistillate flowers, and consequently further fruit
production. It is a slight task to remove the nubbins when the vines are
being trained or pruned.

Pruning should be a daily rather than a monthly practice. Much less
damage is done if the growing tips of branches are pinched off than if
seven or eight nodes are allowed to form on the branches and are then
cut off with a knife. A large amount of sugar is made by the leaves of
these branches and if they are cut off suddenly a starvation effect is
brought about, the physiological balance of the plant is upset, and a large
number of nubbins or yellow pickles will be produced.

PUBI,1CAT10N OF THIS i")oCliMKNT

APPROVKO BY THE

COJMMISSIOX OX ADSIINISTRATmN ANO FINANCE

4,000 3-'26 Order 4442

c/

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 226 JANUARY, 1926

RESEARCH SERVICE

TO THE

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY

PROGRESS REPORTS

This bulletin contains ten papers summarizing the more practical aspects
of some of the experimental work of the Station that is of interest to
fruit growers. More complete reports of some of this work may appear
later in separate publications. The subjects reported upon are as follows:

The Apple Situation Lorian P. Jefferson and Hubert W. Yount

The Value for Massachusetts of Some of the Newer

Varieties of Apples J. K. Shaw

Diseases of Fruit in Massachusetts in 1925 William Doran

Orchard Insect Pests of 1925 A. I. Bourne ^^

Pruning Young Apple Trees J. K. Shaw

Effect of Stock on Scion J. S. Bailey

Progress of Nursery Tree Inspection J. K. Shaw

The Codling Moth in Massachusetts A. I. Bourne *^

Tests of Lime-Sulfur Solution and Some of Its

Substitutes against San Jose Scale A. I. Bourne

Some Results from Spraying with Scalecide A. I. Bourne

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

VGRICIJLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST, MASS.

THE APPLE SITUATION

BY LORIAN P. JEFFERSON AND HUBERT W. YOUNT

During the summer of 1925 a study of the Massachusetts apple industry
was conducted as a part of an all New England study under the auspices
of the agricultural experiment stations. The purposes were to discover
the numbers and varieties of non-bearing and bearing trees by ages; to
learn certain facts with regard to orchards and orchard practice; to deter-
mine the quantities and grades sold of each variety, and the methods of
sale and the prices received.

The data were collected through personal visits to commercial orchard
owners tliroughout the state. A tentative minimum of 100 bearing trees
was fixed as determining a commercial orchard, but smaller orchards were
considered if evidently of commercial importance. Approximately 1750
growers were visited, complete information on both trees and production
being secured from about 1700.

The results of the study can not be fully stated here, but the following
facts and figures give a summary of the situation as shown by the survey,
so far as number of trees and plantings are concerned. It should be borne
in mind that these figures relate only to orcliards of commercial importance
and do not include the trees in thousands of small farm orchards.

The owners of the orchards visited reported a total of 967,000 trees,
over 600,000 of which were in bearing. More than seventy-five varieties
were reported, but the principal ones together with the number of trees
in each table are shown in Table 1. The Baldwin is by far the most im-
portant variety, having 45 per cent of the bearing trees and over 50 per
cent of the commercial crop.

The Mcintosh ranks second with 117,000 bearing trees or 20 per cent
of the total, and 13 per cent of the apples grown. Nearly 85 per cent of
the bearing Mcintosh are under fifteen years of age, which accounts for
the relatively low yield. In view of this fact and the large number of trees
not yet bearing, the production of Mcintosh apples may reasonably be
expected to increase 100 per cent within the next ten years. Only 28 per
cent of bearing Baldwin trees are under fifteen years of age, but there
will probably be an increase of about 20 per cent in Baldwin production
within the next decade. The early varieties such as the Transparent and
Duchess are relatively unimportant both as to number of trees and pro-
duction. Only about 5 per cent of all bearing trees fall within this class.

The Wealthy is third in importance so far as bearing trees are con-
cerned, but the Gravenstein. with nearly the same number of trees, pro-
duces almost twice the crop. Coupled with the fact that many Wealthy
trees are fillers, this gives the Gravenstein third place as a commercial
^ ariety.

New Plantings

The past ten years have been years of very heavy plantings, over
460,000 trees being .set during this period. The plantings of Baldwins
and Mcintosh have been about equal. Since 1920, however, there has
been a decrease in the rate of planting. From 1914 to 1919 approximately
95,000 Mcintosh and 70,000 Baldwin trees were planted. During the

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY

11

period since 1!)20, there have been onh' 61,000 Mcintosh and 55,000
Baldwins planted, a relative decline in planting, for the five-year period,
of 35 per cent for the Mcintosh and 20 per cent for the Baldwins. Plant-
ings of all varieties have declined 20 per cent in the same period.

Of the winter varieties, the Delicious shows the greatest percentual in-
crease in plantings, some 36,000 trees of this variety having been set in
the last ten years, practically all being permanent. Other winter varieties
have been planted in considerable numbers, the Wagener being a favorite.
The older varieties, such as Greening, Spy and Russet, are rapidly disap-
l)earing, few new plantings being reported.

Fillers

The Wealtiiy is the variety most commonly planted as fillers. Out of a
total of 34,000 bearing Wealthy trees, 15,000 were reported as fillers to be
cut within the next five to eight years. In the younger plantings over
two-thirds of the Wealthy are fillers. Relatively few Mcintosh have been
set as fillers, and where this was done some years ago, growers are cutting
out the permanents and leaving the Mcintosh. Wagener is also popular
as a filler, nearly all the Wageners planted being used for that purpose.
Duchess and Transparent have also been used in some quantities, about
one-third of the bearing trees of these varieties being fillers.

Table 1. Number of Bearing and Non-Bearing Trees
of Leading Varieties, 1925,

Variety

Non-Bearing

Bearing

Perm'ent

Filler

Total

Perm'ent

Filler

Total

Summer Varieties:
Transparent ....

Astrachan

Williams

Duchess

Other

5,095
5,458
2,141
5,148
971

1,648
631
108

3,898
79

6,743
6,089
2,249
9,046
1,050

6,673
7,003
4,567
7,149
1,795

2,811
398
590

3,836
64

9,484
7,401
5,157
10,985
1,859

Total

Fall Varieties:
Gravenstein ....

Wealthy

Mcintosh

Other

18,813

20,447

11,3,56

111,656

7,381

6,. 364

392

18,0.59

5,188

481

25,177

20,839

29,415

116,844

7,862

27,187

28,. 525

19,987

112,980

15,029

7,699

60

15,147

4,432

2,643

34,886

28,585

.35,134

117,412

17,672

Total

Winter Varieties:

Baldwin

Spy

Delicious

Greening

Other

1.50,840

108.085

3,161

31,457

2,116

18,773

24.120

200

5

1,228

1,.391

174,960

108,285
3,166

32,685
2,116

20 . 164

176,521

277,-338

7,608

9,. 325

11,. 304

67,844

22 , 282

1,228

145

45

242

2.181

198,803

278,566

7,753

9,. 370

11,546

70,025

. '""■

163,. 592

2,824

166,416

373,419

3,841

377,260

Grand Total j 333 , 24.5

33,308

366 , 5.53

.577,127

.33,822

610,949

12

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 226.

Table 2. Number of Trees hx Age Group, 192.5

Age — Years

Perm'ent

Filler

Total

Non-Bearing:
Under .5. . .

5-9

Old

Total . .
Bearing:

Under 10. .

10-14

15-19

20-29

30 or over .
Unclassified

Total . .

180,482

150,470

2,293

21,. 545
1 1 . 763

3.33 , 245

85,883
164,993

60,351

55,991
133,133

76,776

.577,127

33,308

11,256

19,997

2,114

.391

15

49

202,027

162,233

2,293

366,553

97 , 139
184,990

62,465

56,382
133,148

76,825

33,822

610,949

Table 3. Number and Age of Trees in Summer, Fall and Winter
Varietj' Groups.

Age — Years

Summei

Fall

Winter

Total

Non-Bearing:
Under 5. . . .

5-9

Old

Total..
Bearing:

Under 10...

10-14

15-19

20-29

30 or over. .
Unclassified

Total . .

15,141

9,987

49

25,177

9,602
13,215
3,964
2,433
3.658
2,014

34,886

93 , 490

81.363

107

174,960

55,970
89,206
20,448
11, .306
9,023
12,850

198,803

93,396

70,883

2,137

166,416

31,567
82,569
38.053
42,643
120,467
61,961

377,260

202,027

162,233

2,293

366,553

97,139.
184,990

62,465

56,382
133 , 148

76,825

610,949

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY. 13

THE VALUE FOR MASSACHUSETTS
OF SOME OP THE NEWER VARIETIES OF APPLES

By J. K. SHAW

The question of the best varieties of apples for planting will never be
settled. Wiiile it is true that we have too many varieties and that nearly
every fruit grower has in his orcliard varieties that never should have been
planted, j'et no variety is perfect and the alert grower is constantly on the
watch for something better. Then too, conditions are constantly changing
and a variety that is quite satisfactory now may not meet the demands of
the situation a few years hence. The man who anticipates the opportunity
of a new variety and plants it early will receive the largest rewards; but
on the other hand one who plants largely of a new variety that does not
fulfill its early ]>romise may suffer material losses. The choice of varieties
is a most important question, for mistakes are not easily corrected.

Several varieties are now on trial in Massachusetts, and the following
comments based on observations in the Experiment Station orchards and
on the experience of others in this and other states is offered for the in-
formation of orchardists. •

Cortland

The Cortland is a cross of Ben Davis and Mcintosh originated at the
New York Experiment Station. It has been considerably planted in New
York where it seems to be meeting increasing favor. The supply of
nursery trees lias been limited, but nurserymen are now propagating them
in greatly increasing numbers and liberal supplies of yearling trees are
now available. More than 35,000 trees of this variety were certified by
the Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association in 1925.

Cortland is naturally compared with its parent Mcintosh. Our ex-
perience indicates that in Massaciiusetts it will hang to the tree much bet-
ter than Mcintosh and need not be picked until at least two weeks later.
It matures in storage later and will keep from one to two months longer.
It stands handling distinctly better. Its susceptibility to Scab is no
greater and may be a little less. The hardiness, vigor and growth habit
of the tree are very satisfactory. It comes in bearing early and bears an-
nually while young, and the fact that both parents tend to be annual
bearers encourages the belief that it will keep up this habit very well
with age.

It has the same white tender flesh as the Mcintosh but is distinctly
inferior in flavor. It lacks the spicy richness of its parent variety. It is,
however, a good apple, probably equal and possibly superior to Baldwin.
In appearance, while a handsome well colored apple, it is hardly equal to
Mcintosh and it appears to be less uniform in size and shape. Our .judg-
ment is that it will not replace Mcintosh in New England though it will
find a place in extending the Mcintosh season.

Dklicious

The Delicious has enjoyed an increasing favor over wide areas as a
high class des.sert apple. It is worthless for cooking purposes, unless for
pies, so that fruit not attractive for fruit stand trade is aood onlv for

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 2-.>6.

cider or similar uses. It has been considerably planted in Massachusetts,
and its behavior is variable. In the Experiment Station orchards it tends
to run small and of rather poor color after a few years' bearing. It
bears heavily biennially. It seems to be more generally successful in
Norfolk, Plymouth and Bristol counties than in the rest of the state. In
western Massachusetts it does not do very well.

The tree is vigorous, upright spreading in habit and considerably hardier
than Baldwin. It makes a rather dense head but after it reaches bearing
age it is not objectionable in this way.

Probably the Delicious is more uniformly successful in otlier sections
than it is in New England. If this is true it is doubtful if it ever attains
here a place comparable with that of Baldwin and Mcintosh. Possibly in-
creased knowledge may lead to better management that will overcome its
tendency to run small on mature trees. Thinning and nitrogen applica-
tions in midsunmier may prove to be means to this end.

It follows that Massachusetts growers should use some caution in plant-
ing Delicious, at least until means of attaining uniformly high quality
are more certainly known. No one may wisely plant it unless he is pre-
l)ared to grow it skillfully so as to produce a high quality product that
will meet the demand for a fancy dessert fruit. It is not a variety for
a careless grower.

GoLDEx Delicious

Much interest has been excited about the Golden Delicious, due to the
txtensive advertising it receives from the nursery firm introducing it. As
grown in the Middle West it is a handsome waxen yellow apple of ex-
cellent quality. The tree is vigorous and begins to bear at a remarkably
early age. It is apparently very" productive. The apple hangs well to
the tree and keeps and stands handling very well. In the humid climate of
New England it does not seem to attain this clear waxen color, it is a more
dull yellow and a little inclined to russet. It is doubtful if it attains the
size it does where the growing season is longer.

Most of our New England markets have a distinct prejudice against
yellow apples. This may be foolish, but it must be taken into considera-
tion by fruit growers. Probably the extensive advertising this variety is
receiving will go far towards overcoming this prejudice, but unless it suc-
ceeds better than preliminary observations indicate we cannot compete
successfully with Golden Delicious grown in other sections where it at-
tains greater attractiveness and possibly better quality.

Red Bud Sports

Many cases are known where a single branch on a tree normally bearing
striped or splashed apples has produced fruit of a distinctly nmre intense
red color, and this character is uniformly transmitted by buds taken from
these branches. In other respects it is generally exactly like the parent vari-
ety. Many such "bud sports" of the Gravenstein have appeared in this state
and elsewhere, and Rome, Twenty Ounce and other varieties show them oc-
casionally. None of these red sports has attained very great favor with
growers.

Recently a bud sport of the Delicious has been brought strongly to the
attention of fruit men under the name of Starking. It is beyond doubt a
true red bud sport of distinctly deeper color than Delicious usually has.

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY. 15

yet well colored Delicious may equal Starking in color. The deeper color
of the new variety ought to be an advantage and if it is equal to Delicious
in all respects, as may reasonably be expected, it may largely replace the
parent \ ariety.

Another red sport is the Red Spy, a solid red variation of the Northern
Spy. It is reputed to be exactly like the old variety except in color. There
is a question if it is more attractive in appearance than the best of Spies,
yet it is well worth a trial by the patient fruit grower who wants to grow
Spy.

Many red sports of Gravenstein have appeared, not all alike. One of
the most recent ones is distinctly redder than others, being equal to the
best colored Williams. As eastern Massachusetts is about the only fruit
growing section, outside of California, that grows Gravenstein, this red
sport should appeal to our growers who desire higher colored fruit.

DISEASES OF FRUIT IN MASSACHUSETTS IN 1925

BY WILLIAM DORAN

The Department of Botany of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experi-
ment Station recei\es many requests for information on the identification
and control of plant diseases. On such correspondence and on farm
vi.sits by the staflP, is based this estimate or composite of the occurrence
and severity of fruit diseases in 1925. As is developed below, fruit diseases
in general probably caused less loss than usual.

SrnAY Schedule and Spray Materials

In most connuercial orchards in Massachusetts the spray schedule on
Mcintosh consists of the following applications: pre-pink, pink, calyx,
first post-calyx, and (in some orchards) a second post-calyx. Baldwins
and other varieties considered less susceptible to scab, are given the pink,
calyx, and first post-calyx application. In the case of "off-years" when
certain varieties are not bearing, the number of applications is much re-
duced or perhaps none is given.

The favorite material is liquid or dry lime-sulfur. A few orchardists
are partial to Bordeaux mixture for the pre-blossom applications. Those
who own dusters are using sulfur dust for all applications or for the calyx
and post-calyx applications only, depending on the sprayer for pre-blossom
applications. Wettable sulfur (such as dry-mix sulfur-lime) is preferred
by a few. Calcium caseinate spreader (such as "Kayso" or "Spracein") is
generally used in the lime-sulfur-lead arsenate combination.

Scab of Apple

Mo.st orchardists are familiar with the fact that the first infection of
apple scab may occur when spores are ejected from the dead leaves in
which the fungus has passed the winter. In 1925, in the Nashoba area,
such spores were first ejected between April 29 and May I. In this same
region, this critical date was April 26 in 1921, May 2 in 1922, May 3 in
1923 and May 3 in 1924. It is thus seen that for five successive years
this date has occurred about May 1 and within a range of eight days. We
would expect it to be slightly earlier in southeastern Massachusetts and

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 226.

somewhat later in the highlands of Worcester County and the counties to
the west, exclusive of the Connecticut Valley.

Apple scab this year was on the whole of average, or perhaps slightly
less than average, severity, as indicated by the condition of the fruit on
unsprayed or poorly sprayed trees. Good spraying gave practically com-
plete protection even on Mcintosh and other susceptible varieties. AVest
of the Connecticut Valley there was a light infection on Baldwins. In
the Connecticut Valley, the disease became conspicuous later than usual
and in some orchards was regarded as severe on Mcintosh and Delicious.
There was evidence that the second post-calyx application on Mcintosh
gave some increased protection. In eastern Massachusetts some orchard-
ists had as much scab on Baldwins as on Mcintosh, or more. This was,
l^erhaps, due to the fact that in many orchards the Baldwin received only
one pre-blossom application while the Mcintosh had two, and to the fact
that many of the Baldwins are old and tall trees and consequently more
difficult to spray well. In most orchards scab became conspicuous on the
fruit in July and continued to increase until into September.

Spray Injury

The occurrence of spray injury is affected by the materials used, the
manner of application, the susceptibility of varieties, and the weather at
the time of and following the application. This being the case, it is not
surprising to find that there was serious spray injury this year in some
orchards and none at all in others.

In some orchards there was considerable spray injury on the fruit of
Baldwin. But the most severe injury was on Mcintosh, fruit russeting
proceeding so far as to cause the fruit to crack. Leaf injury, in the form
of curling, yellowing, or burning of leaf margins was in some cases asso-
ciated with fruit russeting. This was easily confused with a condition
which occurred on the leaves of certain young and unsprayed trees where
the leaves showed a brown or blackened margin, probably caused by the
liigh temperatures and drying winds to which these leaves were subjected
during their period of development before the tissues hardened.

Spray injury as it occurred this year has been ascribed to the use of
the spray gun, to the high temperatures which prevailed during the spray-
ing season, to the use of fungicides containing copper, and to arsenical
injury. The worst spray injury brought to our attention occurred in
orchards which received pre-blossom applications of Bordeaux mixture or
cojiper dust, with sulfur fungicides used for the calyx and post-calyx ap-
jilications. Evidence was secured in 1924 that even for pre-blossom ap-
plications copper fungicides are less safe than are sulfur fungicides. As
recorded by the present writer in Massachusetts Agricultural F.xperiment
Station Bulletin No. 222, there was an average of 14 per cent russeted
Mcintosh apples on plots which received pre-blossom applications of Bor-
deaux mixture, and less than 1 per cent on plots which received pre-blos-
som applications of lime-sulfur. This year, there was of course some
sprav injury in certain orchards where only sulfur fungicides were used.
Some of this may have been due to the use of a spray gun close to the
trees and to the unusually high temperatures during the spraying season.
During the first ten days of June the temperature was very high, with the
maximum above 90° F. for four days in the eastern half of the state. In
tlieir .study of foliage injury by arsenical sprays, Fernald and Bourne

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY. 17

found (Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. No. 207) that it is not safe to spray
the apple when the temperature is 90° F. and the relative humidity above
67 per cent. It is therefore reasonable to ascribe some of the injury this
year to arsenical burning, for this temperature and humidity combination
was reached or exceeded during the spraying period in early June.

Black Rot

Black rot of the fruit of the apple was not generally serious this year,
although certain individual growers considered it more serious than in
1924. It was reported on Baldwin, Greening, and Yellow Transparent, and
was most common on Baldwin. Black rot was not serious even on fruit
which showed severe spray injury. This is of interest since in some sea-
sons black rot has been associated with or has followed blossom-end in-
jury due to the calyx spray.

Black rot canker is the most common of the limb cankers, but in most
commercial orchards it is not serious. It is often present on old Baldwins,
and failure to spray and prune such trees properly results in its rapid in-
crease in severity. Occasionally this disease causes serious loss in young and
apparently well cared-for orchards, but such a condition is exceptional in
this state.

Cedar Rust of Apple

This disease was practically absent or existed only in traces (and then
on Wealthy) in the Nashoba district. Most orchardists have seen to it
that red cedars were removed. There was light infection on Wealthy and
Banana in western Massachusetts. The sporidia or spores by which this
fungus passes from cedar to apple require water for their dissemination,
and during that period in spring when this ordinarily occurs the rainfalt
was deficient.

Sooty-mold and Fly Speck

This disease was of no great importance this year. It was observed in
a few instances on Baldwins and Greenings. It occurred more or less
throughout the state, but, except on unsprayed and unpruned trees, it was
of no consequence. Ordinarily there is more of this disease in the eastern
than in the western part of Massachusetts. It may often be seen on drop
ax^ples which have remained long on the ground even when not evident
on the fruit on the tree.

Baldwin-Spot

This disease, which also goes under the names of stippen or bitter-pit,
is well known to orchardists. Unfortunately its cause and control are
obscure.

Baldwin-spot was of somewhat more than average severity this year.
In many orchards this was the "off-year" for Baldwins, and the disease
was generally associated with a light crop and consequently larger fruit.
It was not conspicuous in orchards where the fruit was smaller. The oc-
currence of the disease has an evident relation to alternate bearing and
to thinning. Baldwin-spot may occur on other varieties, but tills year it
was called to our attention only on Baldwin and Stark.

Fire Blight of Apple and Pear

In eastern Massachusetts fire blight occurred about as usual in most
orchards, alt4iough from a few orchards there were re^iorts ot its being

18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 226.

on the increase, especially on Gravenstein and M'agener. In well cared-for
orchards the removal of the more susceptible hosts has helped to reduce
the menace of this disease.

In western Massachusetts, where the disease on the whole was not of
great importance, it was present in a few Baldwin and young Wealthy or-
chards. In a few orchards in the Connecticut Valley it was serious, much
more so than in the orchards of eastern Massachusetts with which we are
familiar.

Fire blight on pear occurred throughout the state in varying degrees
of severity, from serious in some orchards to none at all in others. It was
more general on odd or unimportant varieties than on the standard or com-
mercial varieties. It was observed that unnecessary pruning of healthy
trees is likely to be followed by an increase in fire blight.

Othei! Diseases of Pear

Pear scab was severe in some unsprayed orchards, and if the pear in-
creases in commercial importance here, more attention will need to be
given to protection against this disease.

Black rot was reported in a few cases on Bosc pears.

Diseases of Peach

Leaf-curl of the peach was not as bad as usual this year. The ordinary
dormant spray of lime-sulfur gave practically complete control, but in
certain orchards where this application was not given, the disease was
severe.

Brown rot of peach (and plum) was generally present although varying
in severity in different orchards. In general, severe orchard infection was
not apparent, and the ordinary use of sulfur fungicides, either sprays or
dusts, gave a good control. But rotting of the fruit in the market due
to this disease was often very bad. Brown rot was more severe on early
than on late varieties of peaches. In some cases it was very severe on plums.

Miscellaneous Diseases

Downy mildew of grape was more than usually common. If grapes
increase in commercial importance in this state, this disease will be one
of the principal enemies of the crop. Fortunately, control by copper
fungicides is not ordinarily difficult.

Mosaic of raspberry is of general occurrence. Its effects are becoming
more conspicuous each year. The most practical action to take against
it consists in the purchase of plants known to be free from the disease.

A root-rot of strawberries was rather common on second-year beds in
early summer. Various soil fungi were found associated with it, but it is
believed that they were only weakly parasitic and that the primary cause
was connected with lack of soil moisture.

ORCHARD INSECT PESTS OF 1925

BY A. I. BOURNE

Perhaps the outstanding feature of the first part of the season was the
early transition from winter to spring conditions. This was so marked
that at the close of March it was estimated we stood fully two weeks in
advance of the normal seasonal development. Although this progress was

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY. 19

soinewlijit slowed up by unfavorable weather conditions encountered in
iVpril and May, yet this initial advance was not wholly lost throughout the
rest of the season. Sensitive as we have found insects to be to varying weath-
er conditions, it was but natural that we should expect them to commence
their activities at a correspondingly earlier date. This is what actually
hai^pened.

Orchard Plant Lice began hatching during the last week of March, the
earliest record since ]92L Reports from all parts of the state showed
them present in unusual abundance. In some orchards they were out so
early that the dormant oil sprays nearly wiped them out. They remained
\ery abundant until the long-drawn-out period of cold, unfavorable weath-
er the latter part of April, after which they practically disappeared from
the orchards. Many growers found so few plant lice that they omitted
the nicotine from the pink and calyx sprays. There were occasional small
local outbreaks reported late in the season. These were confined chiefly
to young trees, and even then were not a serious factor.

Leaf hoppers, so prevalent in 1924, were practically absent from orchard.s
this season. In many cases, where a year ago it was possible to find
thirty or more young hoppers on a leaf, this season it was almost impossible
to find any. In some orchards where for years they have been considered
to be one of the worst pests, they were almost entirely absent this season.

One pest which was still rampant, and offers as yet no sign of relief,
was the Apple Tent Caterpillar. From all parts of the state, it was re-
Ijorted as at least as abundant as last year. It is certainly true that, from
Worcester County west, this insect is still on the increase. While it was
in great abundance on roadside trees and on uncared-for apples in pastures,
it also had worked into the orchards, and its control often became a real
factor to be considered. Careful attention to this pest in the pink spray
was found to control it.

The European Red Mite, in the early part of the season, did not appear
to be very abundant. The widespread use of oils the previous spring had
apparently so reduced it in numbers that many growers did not give it
special attention. During the late summer, in the eastern part of the
state especially, a rather heavy infestation developed, which increa.sed
rapidly so that, by the middle to last of August and into September, con-
siderable bronzing of foliage resulted. This appeared to some extent in
other parts of the state, especially where oil sprays had been omitted in
the spring. Some growers expressed the opinion that this heavy attack
of mites, late in the season, caused an early dropping of fruit.

No reports of any serious abundance of Red Bugs were received, nor
did personal visits to the orchards bring to light any cases of severe injury.
Apparently, over the state as a whole, it was either considerably below-
normal in abundance, or else so well controlled by the spray program fol-
lowed that it was checked almost at the outset.

The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer continued to be a very serious fac-
tor especially in some of the orchards in the western part of the state,
although found to be present to some extent in orchards in other sections.
This insect does not appear to fluctuate as do many of our pests, but holds
very regular in abundance year after year. When it offers any real prob-
lem, careful and repeated "worming" of the trees over a period of years
enables the grower to gradually bring it under control, or at least material-
ly reduce its abundance.

20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 22G.

The Apple and 'J'horn Skeletonizer in its first two broods proved to be
slightly less abundant than usual. It has been our experience, in Massachu-
setts, that the worst trouble has come from the larvae of the brood matur-
ing the last of July and early in August. This season, this brood was
much smaller than usual, and little or no injury was noted. The generation
of larvae which came to maturity in early September proved, however, to
be unusually large, and a considerable amount of late skeletonizing re-
sulted all over the state. Coming so late in the season, this caused ver\
little concern, and few, if any, of the growers deemed control measures
to be necessary.

Over the state as m whole, the San Jose scale appeared to cause little
damage. For the last few years, however, complaints of an increasing
local abundance have come in from many points in the state. In some
orchards it has de\ eloped into a real problem for the grower to face. The
rapid spread of the Red Mite and consequent increased use of oil sprays
in the dormant season have very often automatically solved the problem
of the control of this scale. When, as frequently happens, a grower finds
scale in any amount on his harvested fruit, he should use prompt measures
for control in his orchard. Oyster-shell Scale is very generally present in
practically all of our orchards, but seldom, if ever, is found in destructive
abundance.

Early indications, borne out as the season developed, were that the
Gyp.sy and Brown Tail Moths, if present at all in the orchards, were in
such small numbers that they constituted no real problem for the growers
Treatment of the overwintering egg masses of the Gypsy Moth was prac-
tically the only real control measure required.

This year the Plum Curculio began to appear in the orchards ver.y
close to the time of the calyx application. This was some two weeks
earlier than it appeared in 1924. From the first it gave every indication of
even greater abundance than in 1924. While in the best cared-for orchards
its injury was held within moderate bounds, this insect still stands as one
of the most serious of our orchard pests. It occurs with such regularity,
year after year, that unless unusually hard hit, the grower has come to
take it for granted, and therefore it is difficult to estimate accurately its
relative abundance. It is, without any question, everywhere a serious pest;
causes a large annual loss to the growers; and as yet is still far beyond
successful control.

The Codling Moth was iiiore abundant than usual over the state as a
whole. Through the large fruit growing section in the eastern part of th»:r
state, it was often reported to have been the worst pest of the season.
There was a considerable amount of early "side worm" injurj^ from late
hatching larvae of the first brood. In late summer, there was a very
general and unusual amount of damage from second brood larvae. A
study of the spray program followed by many of the growers showed
very clearly that, where the calyx spray is carefully applied, growers are
able to eliminate "blossom end" injury almost completely. Where one or
two post-calyx applications have been made to cover fruit and foliage at
the time the young larvae are hatching and infestation of the fruit taking-
place, it has been found possible to secure a very large measure of con-
trol. This past season an unusually large second brood developed, which
caused )uuch late "side worm" trouble. This was undoubtedly due to a

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY. 21

very great extent to tlie fact tliat the first brood larvae matured and
began leaving the fruit to spin cocoons, earlier than usual. Consequently
a larger percentage pupated and formed second brood moths. It should
be noted that growers who made one or two post-calyx applications of
spray or dust, and followed these with an application early in August,
suffered very slight loss from "side worms," either early or late. It is in-
creasingly evident that, for the control of this pest, attention to the post-
calyx applications is as necessary as to the calyx spray itself.

In late summer there appeared in all parts of the state an unusually
heavy attack of the Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm. Others of the
northern fruit growing states encountered a similar outbreak. The attack
was somewhat uneven in its intensity^ although no particular region of the
state entirely escaped. It developed to serious proportions rather late
in the sunmier, and, of the chief commercial varieties, the Wealthy ap-
peared to suifer the worst, while Mcintosh and even Baldwin in some cases
were severely attacked, and one case of severe injury to Ben Davis was
reported. This outbreak appeared so suddenly that many growers were
unaware of its serious nature until the fruit began to be harvested and
moved into the market; one result of which was that the market becam.?
rather suspicious, particularly of Wealthies. Whether this insect will be
jjresent in such numbers another season, it is impossible at this time to
forecast. Growers should keep a sharp lookout in their orchards next
season for the appearance of the adults, to determine the danger of attack.
Careful disposal of cull fruit after a season of such unusual abundance is
particularly stressed, to offer the least opportunity for the concentration
of maggots in or near orchards.

The season was not marked by any serious outbreak of what may be
classed as lesser fruit pests. Pear Psylla was present to the usual extent,
but rareh" in serious numbers. The Peach Tree Borer, largely because of
the success of the Paradichlorobenzine treatment, has been reduced to a
pest of but secondary importance. Fall Webworm was present in about
normal abundance. When the fruit came to be harvested and graded,
there was found to be an unusual amount of late injury by the Lesser
Apple Worm and Red-banded Leaf Roller. Tliis was noticeable on Bald-
wins especially.

The season was marked, however, by local outbreaks of some insects
not usually found in abundance.

Early in the season, from several points in northwestern Worcester
County, Climbing Cutworms were found to have been unusually abundant.
On young trees especially, their injury was often severe. Young opening
buds were devoured by these larvae, which from their habit of feeding at
night and hiding by day gave no inkling of their presence until much oi
their damage was done. Manj' small, recently set trees were completely
denuded of buds; others, not so severely attacked, lost such a proportion
of buds that they were able to make but a feeble start, and were checked
more or less through the season. Less severely injured trees were usually
able to overcome this early setback and make a fairly normal growth. In
some cases, not only were the buds completely devoured, but the hungry
cutworms gnawed the tender bark just around them, clear in to the wood.

Somewhat later in the season, a few cases were noted of Click Beetles
also gouging into buds and opening flowers. This injury, too, was most
noticeable on young trees, but in no case as severe as that noted above,
caused bv Cutworms. .

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 22G.

Early in June, reports of an outbreak of Pear Midge were received frou!
points in Plymouth and Barnstable counties. As far as could be learned,
this was not general, but was confined to local outbreaks in that region.
Where the pest was reported, however, it was found to be causing severe
damage. In some cases, over 50 per cent of the crop was estimated to
have been attacked. Clapp's Favorite and Beurre Bosc were the two
varieties specifically mentioned as being the most severely infested.

During late September and early October, there was discovered some
injury to fruit caused by the so-called Dock False Worm. In one orchard,
at least, larvae of this Sawfly were found to have bored into the fruit in
considerable numbers. This was noted especially on Baldwins. Through
the summer this insect feeds mainly on species of dock, sorrel, etc., and
attacks fruit only in the fall when it seeks quarters for hibernation. The
larvae bore in' J the fruit, making small round holes which soon show a
slightly sunken, discolored ring on the surface of the apple. Inside the
fruit these burrows run well toward the core, usually enlarged slightlj
toward the inner end where the small, light green larvae may be found.
These entrance holes in the apples, while somewhat larger than those made
by the Codling Moth, are probably often mistaken for those of that insect.
As this insect is primarily a pest on different varieties of weeds, clean
culture is obviously the best protection against it. In all probability this
insect will seldom, if ever, become a serious pest in orchards. It is well
for the grower, however, to be aware of its presence.

Taking the season as a whole, without any question the fruit growers'
main troubles were caused by mid-season and late Codling Moth injury,
the Plum Curculio and the Railroad Worm. Some of the pests commonly
found in abundance were this season practically absent. On the other
hand, one or two species, not usually found in numbers enough to warrant
any attention from the growers, were encountered in considerable local
Eihundance.

A survey of insect conditions made in the main fruit growing section
of the state brought out very clearly the emphasis which should be given
to careful and properly timed spraying. In spite of the diversity of insect
attack which fruit growers encountered, it is significant that those who
gave closest attention to spray or dust applications reported their orchards
and fruit remarkably free from injury by insects. This was most notice-
ably trtie of those who gave particular attention to the post-calyx and mid-
season applications.

PRUNING YOUNG APPLE TREES

BY J. K. SHAW

In the spring of 1916 an orchard of 600 one-year-old trees of Baldwin,
Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Mcintosh and King were set ten
feet apart, for an experiment in pruning with especial reference to head
formation. Six different methods of pruning were arbitrarily chosen and
consistently followed for a period of nine years. It is the purpose of this
paper to present some of the conclusions reached from this experiment, that
may be of value to the fruit grower. A more detailed report of the
technical aspects of the experiment is in preparation.

MASSyVCHUSETTS APIM-E INDUSTRY.

23

The pruning methods chosen were as follows: —

1. The wdiips to be cut back at planting and the new growth cut back
about one-half, the cutting back to be less severe in succeeding years.
They were to be thinned out each year the same as the other types of
pruning. The purpose was to produce a globular shaped tree, headed back
annually.

2. Trees to be cut back at planting as in 1, and to be thinned out the
same but not headed back. The purpose was to produce a globular head-
ed tree not cut back.

3. The trees to grow without any pruning whatever except the remova)
of suckers and water sprouts.

4. The trees to be set without cutting back and the leader allowed to
grow to a height of 7 to 8 feet and then suppressed if necessarj'. They
vvere to be thinned out annually the same as the other types of pruning.
The purpose was to produce a modified leader tree.

5. The trees to be set without cutting back, but to have all shoots
excejjt the leader headed back in later years, but a little less severely than
the cut-back globular trees. The purpose was to produce a central leader
tree.

(). The trees to be pruned as in 5, but without cutting back. The pur-
pose was to produce a central leader tree without cutting back.

All trees except the unpruned were to be thinned out to about the same
density, and two of the lots were to have the new growth cut back each
year.

These five types of pruning were expected to produce, more or less
successfully, three types of trees: — the globular headed tree generally pre-
ferred in Massachusetts, the modified leader type, and the central leader
type. In 1922 when the type of tree was pretty well fixed, an estimate of
the degree of success reached in securing these types was made, and the
results are shown in Table I.

Table 1. Degree of success in attaining the expected type of tree.
(Number of trees)

Rather Un-

F"airly

Highly

Failure

successful

Successful

Successful

Successful

Globular cut back ....

0

0

5

26

68

Globular not cut back.

0

0

6

29

64

Modified leader

0

4

17

32

45

Central leader cut back

16

14

19

19

29

Central leader not cut .

24

2.3

26

17

10

back

This classification is, of course, wholly arbitrarj' and another observer
might have classified them somewhat differently. Certain generalizations
may, however, be quite safely made. It is evident that the globular headed
tree may be more certainly secured than the central leader type and that
cutting back the branches helps to produce a leader tree. The trees classed
as failures were well formed trees and not by any means failures as
orchard trees, but they did not have in any degree a dominant central
leader. There was some difference in the five varieties used. Spy and
Mcintosh were rather more tractable than the other varieties, partly owing

24

MASS. iiXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 226.

to winter-killing in the severe winter of 1917-18 which injured many Bald-
wins and Rhode Island Greenings and a few Kings. Several trees among
the Baldwins, Spies and Kings were killed back to the snow line or
severely checked by killing the wood while the bark and outer thin shell
of wood remained alive. This doubtless interfered with the rise of water
and checked growth for a year or two. Where they were killed back to
the snow line a strong shoot arose in many cases and a good leader tree
resulted.

The unpruned trees generally assumed a modified leader type and have
naturally developed rather thick tops with many branches coming oul
of the central trunk.

Cutting back young trees is generally advocated, one object being to
secure low headed trees. In 1919 measurements were made of the height
of the lowest branches on these trees. The maximum difference between
the average of trees cut back at planting and those not cut back was only
about seven inches, a diflPerence that is of no significance in mature trees.

An argument for cutting back frequently advanced is that it makes the
tree, including the cut back branches, more stocky. It is now generalh'
recognized that any increase in stockiness arises from shortening the
branch and not from increased diameter. In the fall of 1923 the four
largest branches on each tree of the Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings
and Mcintosh trees were measured four inches from the trunk. The
relative size of these branches is shown in Table 2, the unpruned trees
being taken as 100.

Table 2. Relative size of branches of trees receiving different types of

pruning.

Rhode Isl'd

Baldwin

Greening

Mcintosh

Average

Unpruned

100

100

100

100

Globular cut back

121

123

139

128

Globular not cut back

144

131

139

138

Modified leader

114

103

118

112

Leader cut back

114

91

108

104

Leader not cut back

128

126

113

122

It will be seen that cutting back the side branches has not increased
their diameter; but on the contrary, in all except the Mcintosh, they are
smaller on the cut back trees. The principal factor governing the size of
the main branches is their number. The fewer branches there are the
larger the four principal branches may grow; that is why all the pruned
trees (except the cut back leader Rhode Island Greening) have larger
main branches than the unpruned trees. It also explains why the four
largest branches on the globular trees are larger than those on the leader
trees; there are fewer additional smaller branches to compete.

After the growing season of 1921, when the trees had completed nine
seasons growth, the height and spre;id of the trees were measured, and the
average of all varieties for the se\er;il methods of pruning is shown in
Table 3.

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY.

2,1

Table 3. Average size of trees at nine years old (feet).

Spread

Globular cut back. . .
Globular not cut back

Unpruned

Modified leader

Leader cut back

Leader not cut back. .

11

8

14

8

14

I

15

1

12

4

1.3

.5

Thi.7 table shows that the leader trees are only a little taller than the
jilobnlar trees. It is perhaps true that there will be more difference when
the trees come in bearing, for the scaifold limbs of the globular headed
trees may bend down witli loads of fruit.

Cutting' back the globular iieaded trees has made them a little shorter
and botli these and tiie cut back leader trees have less spread than the
trees not cut back. It is now generally considered that pruning dwarfs
trees, but these figures indicate that the rather light pruning practiced here
has not dwarfed the trees much except where cutting back was practiced.
Thinning out the top leaves the remaining foliage better exposed to the
light and this may compensate for the reduction in leaf area from pruning.

Tlie practice of cutting back new shoots annually on young trees was
formerly quite generally advocated for young trees. Ou.r experience witli
this orchard would lead us to avoid cutting back except where it is desired
to dwarf one or more branches so that they will not outgrow other parts
of the tree.

Bl.OOiM AND YlELU

This orchard has not produced much fruit. None has been borne by the
Northern Spy trees, and product of the Kings is negligible. The first
crop of the other varieties was in 1922 and there has been a light to
moelerate crop each year since. The Mcintosh trees have naturally borne
the most, averaging over 41/2 bushels per tree for the four years total crop.
The average percentage of bloom and the total yield per tree is shown in
Table 4. The most significant fact brought out is the effect of annual
cutting back. It has decreased bloom in every case and decreased yield
in all cases excejit the globular Mcintosh. Probably the differences be-
tween the dift'erent types of pruning, not involving cutting back, and in-
cluding the unpruned trees, are of no great signilicance. While the tops
of the unpruned trees are pretty thick, no marked inferiority of the
fruit in either si/,e, color or quality has yet appeared.

The one-year whips set without cutting back made -a very poor growth
the first season. Most of them sent out two or three side branches not
over a foot long. The second year these trees sent out additional branches,
and, had it not been for the limitation imposed by the plan of the ex-
periment, might all have been developed into strong well formed trees.
Indeed, they are more satisfactory than are many commercial orchards.

26 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 226.

Table 4. Bloom and yield, 1922-25 inclusive.

Average percentage
of bloom

Total yield,
pounds per tree

Bald-
win

R. I.

Green-
ing

Mcin-
tosh

Bald-
win

R. L

Green-
ing

Mcin-
tosh

Total,

all

varieties

LInpruned

Globular cut back

Globular not cut back. . .

Modified leader

Leader cut back

Leader not cut back

4

1

'2

4

1

2

13
10
17
18
16
24

29
13
21
31
18
28

48
17
42
41
9
32

5.5
34
51
52
32
34

197
160
141
256
140
223

300
211
234
349
181
289

The trees cut back at setting sent out three or four strong shoots.
Generally one of these might have been developed as a leader had the
plan of the experiment allowed. It is felt that a one-year tree may be
out back at planting or not as the planter desires, but if cut back at set-
ting one shoot should be chosen and maintained as a leader for a few
following years. In order to do this the other branches will require cut-
ling back. If it is not cut back, growing conditions must be favorable and
one should not be discouraged if rather poor growth is made the first
season; it may be expected to be as large as, or larger than a cut back
t7ee after two or three years.

During the three or four years while the leader is developing, several
permanent scaflPoId branches should be selected. These may well be a
foot apart even if on oppt^site sides of the trunk, for if too close they
will check the growth of the leader. Not more than two or three satis-
factory candidates for main scaft'old branches can be expected during the
first season of growth.

These scaffold branches should not be cut back except as necessary
to keep them about the same size. To insure this equality will require
some pruning, especially of the older, lower branches. Cutting back will
be more effective than thinning out where it is desired to hold back a
branch. It will be generally understood that the.se main branches should
be well distributed around the tree as well as along the leader, in order
to produce a tree equally developed on all sides.

The remaining branches not desired for permanent scaft'old limbs may
be cut out where they are too plentiful or cut back if necessary to keep
them smaller than the permanent branches. They may then contribute to
the growth of the tree and some of them may serve for a few years as
fruiting branches, being removed wdien the growth from the permanent
scaffold branches weakens them by stronger growth and consequent shad-
in.g.

It is probably safe to urge that as little pruning as possible be given
the growing tree and that only for the purpose of directing growth.
"We cannot in any practical way stimulate the growth of one part of the
tree beyond the rest. The only way to keep the various parts of the tree
symmetrical is to prune the part that is growing too fast. Probably cut-
ting back is more effective than thinning out, when one is forced to check
the growth of a branch that is outgrowing its neighbors.

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY. 27

Always one must prevent the development of equal forks. By this
is meant forks of two or more branches of approximately equal size.
Such unfortunate conditions are frequently found where a young tree is
cut back at planting and the several branches that arise from the shortened
trunk are allowed to develop equally. Sooner or later one or more of
these branches splits off with a load of fruit, seriously damaging the
tree. This condition is prevented if the side branches are kept subordin-
ate to the leader by pruning or perhaps removing some of them. Similarly
one must deal with equal forks wherever they appear in the tree. One
branch should be cut back severely or entirely removed, and the earlier
it is done the better.

EFFECT OF THE STOCK ON THE SCION

By J. S. BAILEY

The variability of seedling root stocks for the apple and the desirabilit.y
of having trees propagated on vigorous roots have been recognized for
years. But not until recently has experimental work been started to
seek out desirable root stocks and practical methods of propagating them.

This is a report of progress of work being done at the Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station to ascertain the effect of several stocks
on various scions and to find a hardj, vigorous, uniform stock suitable
to be used in the propagation of our common commercial varieties.

To show the extreme variability in yield of apple trees propagated on
seedling stocks, the following data have been taken from reports of the
Pennsylvania and West Virginia Experiment Stations. Table 1 gives the
total yield in bushels from 1908-1918 of individual trees in a York orchard
planted in 1888 in Pennsylvania. The orchard was in sod and the trees
whose yields are included in the table were all treated alike and had no
fertilizer. The arrangement of the figures in the table corresponds to the
location of the trees in tlie orchard.

7 bu.

35 ])u.

17

Some Grimes trees in a West Virginia orchard show even more striking
contrasts. Of two trees growing side by side and getting exactly the
same treatment, one yielded a total of 36 bushels and the other 8 pounds
for a ten-year period. Still another pair yielded 38 bushels and 2 bushels
for the ten-year period.

The Maine Exi^eriment Station has concluded from data collected over
a long period of years that in any one year 3.5 per cent of the variation
in yield is due to seedling stocks and 65 per cent to soil differences.

With the object of eliminating the 35 per cent of variation due to
seedling stocks, the Massachusetts Experiment Station started in 1912
an experiment to grow a number of varieties on known roots. That is,
trees were started on seedling roots and after roots had been sent out from
the scion, the seedling roots were cut off. These scion rooted trees were
then used as the stocks in this experiment.

After the stocks had been obtained the orchard now known as the
Root and Scion Orchard was planted in 1915. This orchard consists of
over 1100 trees. The main part of the orchard, 685 trees, consists of the
following top and root varieties:

Table 1

13

1)U.

1.

1)U.

16

bu.

5

bu.

24

41

50 bu.

41

34

20

30

31

49

37

25

15

25

14

17

28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 226.

Top Varieties Root Varieties

Red Astrachan Own rooted

Mcintosh Ben Davis

Yellow Transparent Bough (Sweet)

Baldwin Northern Spy

Wagener Red Astrachan

Tolman Wagener

Wealthy

Oldenburg (Duchess)
Yellow Transparent
English Paradise

The balance of the orchard consists of various other varieties on a num-
ber of different stocks.

The growth of the trees has already gi\en us some striking results.
Figure 1 shows the average trunk diameter in 1924 of the six main
\arieties on ten different stocks.

The first thing noticeable in this figure is the larger growth of Lhc
own rooted trees of the more vigorous varieties, — Red Astrachan, Mcin-
tosh and Baldwin. Special attention is called to Mcintosh on its own
roots, which is much superior to Mcintosh on any other root. See Fig. 3,
Plate I.

In contrast to the good growth of the own rooted trees, notice the
very poor growth of all varieties on Oldenburg roots. This poor growth
has been consistent throughout the experiment. It is probably due almost
entirely to a lack of vigor of the stock although incompatibility of stock
and scion may have had some influence also. Fig. 4, Plate I, shows a
Mcintosh tree on Oldenburg roots. Compare this with Fig. 3, Plate I.

The Northern Spy has always been considered a desirable stock in
this country where it has been grown on seedling roots and then used
for top-working. In .South Africa and Australia where it has been used
as a root stock to resist the attacks of woolly aphis, it is considered a
dwarfing stock. In Fig. 1 it shows up as being fairly vigorous. Trees
on this .stock grew much more vigorously in 1923 and 1924 than pre-
viously. The weak growth of trees on Northern Spy during the first few
years was probably due to Hairy Root, a form of Crown Gall with
which most Northern Spy stock was infected. It is probable that the
Northern Spy is a vigorous stock after it has grown sufficiently to over-
come the effects of Hairy Root.

Crown Gall is not confined to the Spy stocks. Most of the others
are infected more or less with some form of it. Data will be collected
later to determine how nuicJi it has affected the results.

The Bough stocks show up in Fig. 1 rather better than the Northern Spy
stocks. This difference will probably be reversed in the next few years.
as the Bough stocks have behaved just the reverse of the Northern
Spy. They were the easiest to root of any of the stocks and grew so
well the first few years that they got a big start over most of the
others. But the past two or three years the trees on Bough stocks have
been slowing down in their growth as compared with those on most of
the other stocks.

Tolman trees on their own roots are really not as poor, after they ger

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY

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started, as Fig. 1 indicates; for during the years 1923 and 1924 they
made more growth than Tohnan trees on any other roots. The dif-
ficulty lies in getting the Tolman roots started. This was the hardest
of any of the varieties to root from the scion, and therefore was under
a great handicap when the trees were set.

The English Paradise stocks have not done as well as Fig. 1 indicates.
They made a fairly rapid growth at the start but slowed down very
noticeably during 1923 and 1924. The tops are small and in some cases,
such as with Tolman, show a very characteristic shape. (See Fig. 5,
Plate II.) Notice the flat spreading character of the top. Compare this
with the upright growth of Yellow Transparent on the same stock (Fig. 6,
Plate II.)

In regard to the effect of the different stocks on bearing, no conclusions
can be drawn at the present time as the trees have not borne enough
crops to determine what their actual performance will be. Figure 2
shows the average total yield for the years 1922, 1923, and 1924.

This figure shows four things in regard to earliness of bearing. First,
the dwarfing stock, English Paradise, brought most of the varieties into
earlier fruiting than any of the other stocks. Second, Oldenburg stocks
have not brought any of the varieties into early bearing. This is because
the tendency toward late bearing, due to lack of vigor, completely out-
weighs the tendency toward early bearing, due to the dwarfing effect.
Third, Mcintosh on its own roots has borne earlier than Mcintosh on any
other root. This is due to the exceeding vigor of the Mcintosh roots which
have brought the tree to bearing maturity more quickly than any other
roots. Fourth, the Northern Spy root has had the effect of a dwarfing
stock on Mcintosh and brought it into early bearing. As has already been
pointed out, the growth records show that this dwarfing effect is not
permanent.

From this work it is concluded that the effect of the stock on the
vigor of the scion depends on (1) the vigor of the stock; (2) the readi-
ness of rooting of the stock, though this is only temporary; and (3) "the
degree of success of union between the stock and scions."

It follows, then, that a uniform vigorous hardy stock which can be
propagated by vegetative means is needed to replace the seedling stock
now in use for the propagation of apple trees. This problem has been
taken up by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Penn-
sylvania Experiment Station, as well as by the Massachusetts Experiment
Station.

In the spring of 1924 this Station imported from the experiment station
at East Mailing, England, 800 stocks of 17 types. These types had been
selected from apple stocks commonly grown on the European continent.
They range from very dwarfing stocks to free growing standard stocks,
all of which, it is said, can be vegetatively propagated by means of mound
layers. Some of these imported stocks were used for increasing the supply,
and others were budded to Mcintosh and Wealthy in August, 1924. It is
hoped that among these stocks one or more will be found which fills
the requirements of a good stock.

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY.

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;J2 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 22(5.

THE PROGRESS OF NURSERY TREE CERTIFICATION

BY J. K. SHAW

The certification of varieties of fruit trees for trueness to name rests
on the possibility of recognizing varieties by the trees in the nursery row.
Tliat varieties could be so recognized has long been more or less well
known to nurserymen.

Special studies of varieties of apple trees were begun at this station
about 1912, in connection with the project for the study of the Inter-
relation of Stock and Scion in Apples. By 1920 the writer had become
convinced that it was possible to detect misnamed trees in the nursery row
with practical certainty. In June, 1921, a meeting was called to consider
the possibility of certifying nursery trees and thus minimize or eliminate
the misnamed tree that had been a source of considerable loss to fruit
growers of Massachusetts and other states, also to nurserymen and tree
dealers. At this meeting were representatives of the Department of Po-
mology of the College and Station, the State Department of Agriculture
and the Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association. The possibilities of
certification were discussed and a tentative plan of operations outlined.
At a meeting held at Amherst in August, 1921, the Massachusetts Fruit
Growers' Association voted to sponsor this plan, and it was first put in
operation in September, 1921, and has been continued on a constantly
enlarging scale each succeeding year.

For the first two years, work was done in Massachusetts nurseries only.
It soon appeared that little ]irogress could be made unless the work was
extended to nurseries outside the state, because only an insignificant por-
tion of the trees planted in the state are grown here. Consequently ar-
rangements were made in 1923 to certify trees for a western New York
firm that sells a considerable number of trees to Massachusetts growers.
In order to avoid a possible charge of favoring any particular nursery-
men, certification was offered in 1924 to any nursery desiring it, and this
policy has since been followed. The following table shows the development
of the work:

Year

1921
1922
1923
1924
192.5

Totals 369346 14362

The nursery firms now cooperating in the certification work sell i
large proportion of the trees bought by Massachusetts growers. It is
therefore possible for any grower in the state to buy trees with this in-
creased assurance of their being true to name. Too much stress should
not be laid on the number of trees refused certification. While it is
certain that practically every one of these was not true to the nursery
record or label, many of them were known to the nurserymen and would
not have been sold under wrong names; in most cases, however, it was a
surprise to the nurserymen to learn of these misnamed trees. On the

Number of

Number of Trees

Number of Trees

Firms

Certified

Refused Certification

1

2.580

267

2

8437

435

3

65910

905

6

125609

3505

13

166810

9250

Plate I.

;?. Mfliitosli on its own roots.

Fig. k McInto.sh on 01denl)urg roots.

(Figures 3 and t are on approximately the same scale. Tlie api)arent ditterence
in the size of the screen is dne to the fact that in Fienre \ tlie screen was Iield
considerahlv fartlier from the tree than in Fiaiirc :i.)

Plate II.

l^'ic. 5. Toliiian on Knali.sli Paradise rooth

Fk; (». Yellow Transparent on Englisli Paradise root,*^

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY. 33

other iiancl, we liave no means of knowing how many mistakes may be
made in digging and sliipping the trees. Such errors are absolutely el-
iminated with certified trees. Many more trees have been examined than
certified and the misnamed trees among these are included in the above
table.

Certification is carried on by the Massachusetts Fruit Growers' As-
sociation. The Experiment Station has no official connection with it though
it has given moral support and cooperation. Any nurseryman desiring
certification may apply to the Association and an agent qualified to dis-
tinguish varieties \ isits the nursery during the late summer or early fall
and personally examines the trees. To such as are found to be true
to name a lead seal is attached by drilling a one-sixteenth inch hole through
fi branch, or in case of one-year trees through the trunk. The name of
the variety (usually in abbreviated form), the word "certified" and on
the reverse side the letters "M. F. G. A." and the year in which the work
was done are stamped on the seal with a hand seal press. All trees certi-
iied by the Masscichusett.f Fruit Growers' Association bear tins lead seal.
The work of attaching seals is done by employees of the nursery, working
in gangs of four. One gang will seal from 2,000 to 4,000 trees per day.
The cost of the work is met by the nurserymen. It has varied greatly
with conditions, but with the larger jobs has probably been from $18 to
$25 per thousand trees certified, including the cost of attaching seals.

For the first two years only two-year apple trees were certified but
later one-year trees were included. The number of varieties has gradually
increaoed until now nearly forty are included. Pear and plum varieties
were taken on in 1925 though only a few trees were certified.

All nurseries examined thus far have contained trees not true to name,
but the proportion has varied from less than 1 per cent to more than 10
]ier cent. As the work in any one nursery continues the number of mis-
named trees naturally decreases, but new mixtures may' appear from year
to year.

This plan of certifying trees to be true to name is not infallible. It
depends upon the human eye and brain and they are not perfect. Th*"
chances of error are, however, slight and it is confidently believed that the
number of errors made is insignificant. No such cases have yet been
brought to the attention of the Association. Variety^ certification is in
operation in Canada and in California and is under consideration in other
states. It is believed that it is the best plan of eliminating the misnamed
tree yet brought forward. Every nursery^ firm starting the work has con-
tinued it in succeeding years.

THE CODLING MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

BY A. I. BOURNE

The codling moth is one of the worst insect pests with which orchardists
of Massachusetts have to contend. In spite of thorough and careful spray-
ing, the annual loss from its ravages continues very high.

The life history of the codling moth in Massachusetts has been approx-
imately known for years, and general methods for its control practiced;
yet fruit growers have been annually confronted with very consider.ible
losses which have come mainlv from so-cilled "side worm" injury. Such

1923

1924

1925

:-Iay 3

May 3

April 24

June 26

July 11

June 20

8-24 days

12-23 days

8-24 days

>]ay27

May 24

May 12

Tune 2-4

May 26-30

May 16-18

Juno 20-24

June 22 27

June 3-9

July 2

July 24

July 3

5-10 days

4-12 days

4-11 days

34 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 226.

a condition of affairs led the Station to engage in a study of the insect,
with particular reference to determining the proper timing of the "cover"
sprays following the calyx spray.

It was at first supposed that this "side worm" injury was due almost al-
together, if not entirely, to second brood larvae. Consequently attention
was at first directed toward determining the approximate date when this
brood appeared, and also its relative size and importance. As the project
developed, it became evident that a more accurate knowledge of the entire
life history of the insect was necessary, if a satisfactory solution of the
problem was to be reached. Beginning with 1923, therefore, the complete
seasonal history of the insect has been followed. Some of the more im-
portant events in the life history of the insect, as recorded for the three
seasons, are summarized in the following table: —

Table 1. Development of the Coddling Moth, as recorded in 1923, '24 and '2-5.

Beginning of spring pupation
Date of last pupation
Duration of pupa stage
Emergence of first moths
First period of maximum emergence
Second period of maximum emergence
Date of last emergence
' Duration of egg stage

Emergence of second brood moths -July 20-Aug. 29 July 21-Sept. 2 July 11-Aug. 28

Period of greater emergence Aug. 3-6 Aug. 4-9 July 31-Aug. 12

Appearance of second brood larvae Aug. 1-Sept. 6 Aag. 2-Sept. 17 July 24-Sept. 12

Comparison of the dates of the development of the insect, as shown in
Table 1, with tiie seasonal development of the apple during the three-year
period is noted below: —

Table 2. Comparison of the seasonal development of the apple with that of

the codling moth.

Apple Developmext Codling Moth Developmext

Blossom buds showing pink Beginning of pupation

Pre-pink spray

Moths appearing (1-6 days before

calyx spray)
Calyx spray First period of maximum appearance

of mo til
3-4 weeks later Second period of maximum

(2-3 weeks in 192-5) emergence of moth

In general the weather conditions prevailing during 1923 and 1924 were
\ery similar, particularly as regards the frequently recurring periods of
cold and unfavorable weather in May. These retarded the normal advance
of the season and caused a corresponding slowing up of development on the
part of the codling moth. In 192.5 insect activities conmienced fully a
week to ten days earlier than in the two previous years, and held this ad-
vantage throughout most of the season. This difference is reflected in
Table 1 above, where it will be noted that the dates of various steps in
seasonal development of the insect for 1923 and 1924 were nearly the same,
while in 192.5 they were about ten days earlier. It naturally followed that
first brood larvae began to mature and leave the fruit that much earlier
than usual, so that a larger proportion formed pupae and emerged as
.«<econd brood moths.

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY. 35

During the last three years it has been possible to follow the seasonal
development of the insect in the eastern part of the state, through the
assistance of Mr. A. N. Calkins of Harvard. Thus far there has been
found to be very slight difference between the two points, a matter of
two or three days in either direction being the most thus far noted.

In a survey of the results to date, certain outstanding facts are sig-
nificant. There have been, each year, two widely separated and distinct
periods of abundance in the emergence of first brood moths. The first
coincides very closely with the time of the calyx application. By careful
spraying at this period, growers have been able to practically eliminate
"blossom end" injury, and cut down very largely the danger of a serious
second brood.

In the last three seasons there has been a second great peak of abundance
which, from our records, may contain the greater part of the total emer-
gence. This second peak in 192.3 and 1924 occurred three or four weeks
after the first. In 192-5 the period was shortened by the extremelj' hot
weather early in June. The main damage caused by the codling moth
at the present time appears to be largely due to this irregularity in the
emergence of moths and consequent long-drawn-out appearance of first
brood larvae. This causes the early "side worm" injury which has been
so prevalent in late years.

It is clear that any spray to be effective under such conditions mu.st be
timed so as to kill a maximum number of larvae before they enter the
apple, and emphasizes the need of the cover or post-calyx spray. This
needs to be applied very thoroughly since we have found that young
larvae, on their waj' to enter the fruit, will feed to some extent on the
foliage. In the years 1923 and 1924, this would have properly been ap-
plied about four weeks after the calyx spray. In 192.5, due to the speed-
ing up of development from the hot week in June, this spray would have
been timed about three weeks after the cahx spray. It is worthy of
note that those growers who sprayed during or just after that week re-
ported very clean fruit in those blocks treated.

As our knowledge of the habits of this insect develops, more than one
spray during this period may be found advisable, to give continuous pro-
tection during the long period over which infestation of fruit may take
place. A survey of some orchards in the main fruit growing sections
of the state brought out the fact that growers who made two or more
applications of either spray or dust at two-weeks intervals after the calyx
application reported early "side worm" injury almost negligible.

Growers have come to believe that the calyx and one or two cover
sprays after the calyx will so control the pest that the probability of a
serious second brood can be ignored. Ordinarily this may prove true. In
192.5, however, there developed a comparatively large second brood,
throughout the state, with a serious amount of late "side worm" injury,
due very largely to the reasons mentioned earlier in this paper.

From the data at hand, this second brood appears at about the same
j)eriod every year, regardless of whether the season has been "early" or
not. If the grower depends on a single application aimed to control the
pest at this stage, dusting or spraying early in August would appear to
give him best results. Some growers this season made an application at
this time, and succeeded in reducing late "side worm" injury in those
blocks very successfully.

For successful control of this pest, from our present knowledge of its
life history and habits, certain steps are essential: —

36 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 226.

1. A thorough application of the calyx spray. This is very important.
L'pon it depends freedom from "blossom end" injury, and lessening the
danger of a large second brood.

2. The cover or post-calyx spray is almost equally important. It de-
mands even more care from the grower as to the proper time of ap-
plication. Upon this depends protection over the long period during which
larvae are appearing, and relief from early "side worm" injury.

The exact date for this spray, and the number of applications that
may be necessary cannot be stated absolutely. These must be determined
each season, as they are governed largely by weather conditions From
the experience we now have, two applications at intervals of two weeks
after the calyx spray have given excellent results. A third application may
be advisable should the season be imusually "early."

3. If the season is "early," there will be the probability of a large
second brood. The bulk of this brood apparently comes about the first
of August each year, whatever the type of season up to that time. With
a brood of such size as that of 192.5, a special application in early August
is necessary to avoid .serious late "side worm" injury.

TESTS OF LIME-SULFUR SOLUTION AND
SOME OF ITS SUBSTITUTES AGAINST SAN JOSE SCALE

BY A. I. BOURNE

While under eastern conditions, at least, lime-sulfur solution has long
been recognized as the standard dormant spray for the control of
San Jose scale, yet fruit growers are much interested in the various dry
powders now offered as substitutes for the concentrated solution. Trans-
portation charges are less, there is no danger of freezing and no loss from
leakage. Used in strengths recommended, these dry powders furnish less
polysulfide sulfur than does the concentrated liquid used at standard dilu
tion of one part to eight parts of water.

This situation led the Experiment Station to undertake a test of these
different materials with the purpose of finding whether the dry materials
are effective, and how dilute the liquid concentrate may be used and still
be effective, for scale control.

,\11 the materials used in the tests were of standard brands purchased
in the open market. A chemical analysis of each brand was made, as
shown in Table J.

Table 1. Polysulfide sulfur and free sulfur in the materials tested.

Polysulfide Free or Inert

Sulfur, Sulfur,

Per cent. Per cent.

Lime-sulfur solution (33°+Beaume) 25-)- —

Dry lime-sulfur 55-|- 6

Sodium sulfur compound 41-)- 3

Barium sulfur compound 21-)- 15

The materials were u.sed at the strengths recommended by the manu-
facturers for scale control, and printed on the label or the container;

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY.

37

;ind were applied in liberal amounts to insure a thorough covering of all
parts of the trees.

The materials were applied each year as "delayed dormant" sprays, and
results were determined by microscopic examination of sprayed and un-
sprayed trees, the number of dead and living scales present being recorded,
(founts were made a few weeks after the sprays were applied, but well
before the time of appearance of the crawling young. During the course
of the tests more than 10,000 scales were counted, this being the basis
upon which conclusions were drawn as to the effectiveness of the different
iriaterials and dilutions.

Preliminary tests the first season indicated conclusively that dilutions
of the liquid concentrate of 1 : 16 or beyond would not give satisfactory
control of the scale. Further tests at or beyond this dilution were there-
fore omitted. The results of the three seasons' tests are summarized as
follows:

Table 2. Results of tests with various sulfur sprays for the control of

San Jose scale.

Scale dead.
Per cent.

Lhue- sulfur solution

97
97
97
95
94.-95
86-87

Dry lime-sulfur

Sodium sulfur compound

Barium sulfur compound

93
92-93

90-91

Unsprayed check 74-75

It was noted, during the three seasons, that there was considerable vari-
ation in the percentage of scale which lived through the winter. This
ranged from about 21 to 28 per cent, and seemed closely associated with
the type of winter experienced. For the three-year period, the average
winter mortality was close to 75 per cent, which figure is doubtless about
what we may expect to occur under Massachusetts conditions.

This difference in the percentage of scales which died during the wmter
caused some variation in the estimates of relative efficiency of the sprays,
from one year to another. Over the entire period, the relative contro'
\ahie of the different sprays as compared with the untreated checks i
shown in the following table:

Table 3. Relative control value of the different sprays.

Effective Control,
Per cent.
Lime-sulfur solution 1:8 88

1:9 88

1:10 88

1:11 80

1:12 80—

1:14 50 -f

38 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 226.

Dry liiiie-sulfur 72

Sodium sulfur compound 70-72f

Barium sulfur compound 60-64

From' tlie above, it is evident that in tliese tests the liquid lime-sulfur
concentrate diluted 1:10 proved equally effective to the 1:8 strength.
There was a distinct falling off with, the 1:11 and 1:12 strengths, and a
sharp decline in killing efficiency at the 1:14 dilution. The dry liuie-sulfur
and sodium sulfur compound proved about equally effective, but did not
give quite as good a kill as the 1:12 dilution of the concentrate. The
barium sulfur compound fell considerably below the two others in killing
eft'iciency, and proved but little better than the concentrate at 1:14.

In no case did any of the dry sulfides equal the concentrated lime-sulfur
solution, 1:8 or even 1:12, in killing the scale. It is evident, therefore, that
the dry materials must be used at strengths higher than those recommended,
to bring their killing efficiency up to that of lime-sulfur solution. There
are two drawbacks to any such plan:

1. Any material increase in dosage will bring the co.st of the dry mater-
ials to a very high figure as compared to that of the lime-sulfur solution.

2. There is experimental data to show that the efficiency of the dry
materials increases as the dosage grows higher, only up to a certain point.
Beyond this, the accumulation of insoluble matter is so great as to offer
difficulties in application. Straining out this insoluble matter would
doubtless relieve this difficulty, but would require an additional step in
the preparation of the spray.

There has been for some time a feeling, which has led to considerable
discussion, that equal amounts of the liquid lime-sulfur and of some of
the dry sulfides, based on the active principles they contain, are not equal
in killing efficiency

On the basis of the polysulfide sulfur content of each of the materials
used in these tests, we find the amount of polysulfide sulfur present in
.50 gallons of spray to be as follows:

Lime-sulfur solution

Dry lime-sulfur

Sodium sulfur compound

Barium sulfur compound

Comparing these figures with the table above showing the effectiveness
of the materials in actual field tests, it is evident that the dry materials
had a killing power much nearer that of the lime-sulfur solution than their
polysulfide sulfur content would lead one to suppose; and further, that any
increased dosage should be figured on the actual performance of the differ-
ent materials in the field, rather than on a comparison of their chemical
content alone.

It is along such a line that further work remains to be done.

From the above tests and the information we now have on these mater-
ials, certain conclusions are evident:

I. Under Massachusetts conditions, the commercial lime-sulfur solution,

Polysu

Ifide sulfur in

50

gallons

of

spray, lbs.

1: 8

15

1:10

12

1:12

10.5

1:14

9

6.6
5
3

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE IND^TSTRY. 89

(■/ ihorouijhhj applied, may be used at a 1:10 dilution and still maintain its
high efficiency against scale.

2. At the strengths recommended by their manufacturers, none of the
dry products has given as satisfactory control of scale as has the concen-
trated lime-sulfur solution, even when applied weaker than the usual
dilution.

3. The dry materials iiave shown, in actual field tests, a higher degree
of effectiveness as compared with the lime-sulfur solution, than a com-
parison of their chemical content of polysulfide sulfur would lead us to
ex]iect.

•i. The dry lime-sulfur and the sodium sulfur compound were about
ecjually effective, and greatly superior to the barium sulfur compound.

5. Great concentration of the dry materials is impractical from the
standpoint not only of cost, but also of application, owing to the large
amount of insoluble matter accumulating in the tank.

It should be clearly understood that the above statements refer to the
concentrated lime-sulfur solution and the dry sulfides purely from the
standpoint of their efficiency as dormant sprays for the control of San
Jose scale, and have no bearing on any fungicidal value which the ma-
terials may possess.

SOME RESULTS FROM SPRAYING WITH SCALECIDE

BY A. I. BOURNE

For many years the question of oils for spray purposes has held the
attention of fruit growers everywhere. Because of their effectiveness
against San Jose scale, oil sprays have been used quite extensively, in
spite of the fact that, when not properly prepared, severe injury often
followed their use. This condition, at first inimical to the use of these
sprays, made comprehensive research studies necessary. These have been
organized under the sponsorship of the Crop Protection Institute.

The main lines of endeavor in the investigation as conducted in Massa-
chusetts lia\e fallen into two general classes.

1. A study of both immediate and cumulative effects of Scalecide upon
various types of fruit trees common to Massachusetts orchards.

2. A study of the effect of Scalecide upon various insect and other
]^ests, ]iriniaril\' those of orchard trees, and necessarily limited to the
species common to this region.

The study of the different phases of plant stimulation or other cumula-
tive effects following the continued use of Scalecide has not yet reached
the point where definite conclusions can be drawn. Certain results, how-
ever, along the line of the insecticidal value of this material, which our
tests have brought out to date, can be briefly reported.

Applied as dormant sprays in the spring against the winter eggs of the
I'uropean red mite, with results drawn from counts of 20,000 to 2-5,000
mites of different stages, Scalecide and other materials showed the follow-
ing relative control values, as compared with unsprayed checks:

Dormoil (a western type oil) 99 per cent

Scalecide 98-99 per cent

Sunoco 97 per cent

Rex oil emulsion 89 per cent

Lubricating oil emulsion 2% 90 per cent

4,0 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 226.

In every test Scalecide lias given very nearly perfect control of the
overwintering eggs, when applied as a dormant or delayed dormant spray
in the spring. One test made with this material applied in the fall gave
a degree of control considerably less than that from spring application.

Against the overwintering egg masses of apple tent caterpillars, while
not yielding such striking results as noted above, Scalecide has caused a
very substantial reduction in hatch. In view of the increasing abundance
of this pest throughout Massachusetts during the past few years, this
beneficial effect of Scalecide is of considerable significance.

A study of the effect of this spray upon the early spring infestation of
apple aphids has not been as comprehensive as might be desired, due to
the scarcity of material thus far available. Results to date have indicated
a very definite reduction in the numbers of plant lice, from a spring ap-
plication very nearly ajiproximating the time of hatching of the eggs; i.e.,
the so-called "delayed dormant" period. Ajiplication as a purely dormant
spray yielded very slight control of the subsequent hatch.

Spring application of Scalecide on pears yielded a very material check
upon the infestation of pear psylla as based on the comparative number of
eggs deposited upon unsprayed and sprayed trees. In one season there
was found to be a reduction in infestation amovmting to over 90 per cent
on trees sprayed with Scalecide as compared with unsprayed rows along-
side. The following season favorable weather conditions in early spring
allowed early activity on the part of the psylla, and some eggs had been
deposited before the spray was applied. Subsequent counts of eggs on
sprayed blocks indicated a control of better than 8.5 per cent. Fall appli-
cations did not yield any striking control.

Tests made during one spring, using vScalecide diluted 1 to 20 on a
small planting of ornamental spruce, against overwintering stages of the
spruce gall louse, resulted in very satisfactory control of the insect and no
injury to the trees.

Tests with the oyster-shell scale yielded negative results. Except for
causing a possible slight delay in appearance of the newly-hatched young,
there was very slight effect noted following the sprays. The difference in
amount of hatch between imsprayed trees and those given the oil, if any
existed, was not enough to be measurable.

In every instance the material was found to possess excellent physical
qualities. It "flowed" from the container without difficulty even when the
weather was cold, a feature which favorably impresses any grower who has
had experience with oils. In preparation for the spray, the material offered
no difficulty, mixed readily with the water, and required only moderate
agitation. It formed a very stable solution from which there was little
or no oil separation, even upon standing for a considerable period.

It should also be noted that, in all of our tests covering three seasons'
work with Scalecide applied to several varieties of apple, pear, cherry,
plum and peach, covering over two hundred trees, there has been discov-
ered no in.stance of injury which was in any way attributable to the spray
applied.

PlTBI.lCATlON OF THIS DoLTAIKNT
APPROVED BY THK

Commission ox .\dmixistration .\xn Fix\N'tE

>6 Order 444:1

lass ' College

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 227 FEBRUARY, 1926

THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY
ONION INDUSTRY

PROGRESS REPORTS

OF

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

This bulletin contains four papers summarizing the experimental work
of the Station which is of special value to onion growers. The subjects
reported upon are as follows:

The Present Status of the Connecticut Valley

Onion Industry Lorian P. Jefferson

Fertilizers for Connecticut Valley

Onions A. B. Beaumont and O. E. Street

Onion Blight or Downy Mildew A. Vincent Osmun

A Study of the Life History and Control of

the Onion Thrips A. I. Bourne

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST, MASS.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY
ONION INDUSTRY

By LORIAN P. JEFFERSON

Tliree crops of onions are grown in the United States, early, intermediate
and late. The chief competitors of Massachusetts in the jd reduction of
late onions are New York, Ohio and Indiana. The states of Colorado,
Idaho and Minnesota are coming into prominence as onion growing states,
but as yet they ship comparatively few onions to eastern markets. Acre-
age in Massachusetts decreased from 4,560 acres in 1922 to 3,190 in 1924,
but in 1925 rose again to 3,820 acres. Production, despite reduced acre-
age remained about the same, practically 1,250,000 bushels: but the
crop of 1925 was reported as 1,580,000 bushels. This indicates either an
improvement in cultural methods and in care of the crop at harvest time,
or an unusually favorable season.

Owing to recent very unfavorable conditions in California, Ohio and
Massachusetts particularh', the total acreage of late onions in the United
States was reduced some 14 per cent in 1925. The total of 37,450 acres
is the lowest planted for several years.

Onion growers have recently been disturbed by the quantities of foreign
onions arriving on our markets. Side by side with home-grown onions
the foreign product usually commands a higher price. Inquiry among
dealers, however, indicates that these onions are mostly used for different
purposes. Of milder flavor, the foreign onions are chiefly used raw in
salads and sandwiches.

Boston, the chief market for Connecticut Valley onions, receives large
quantities from other sources. During the four seasons, 1921-1924, ship-
ments from Spain and other foreign countries constituted an average of
13 per cent of the receipts in Boston.

The Connecticut Valley supplied 47 per cent, and New York shipped an
average of 15 per cent of the receipts. However, a significant feature is
the fact that New York shipments increased from 3 per cent in 1921 to
36 per cent in 1924. These arrive in quite regular shipments during the
same season as Massachusetts onions.

Freight rates on onions are still favorable to Massachusetts onions on
tlie Boston market, as compared with New York and Mid-Western states.
'I'lie freight rate on 100 pounds of onions from central points in the Mid-
Western onion region to Boston, varies from 55 to 69 cents, while from
New York points from which onions are shipped probably 35 to 40 cents
per 100 pounds is a fair average rate^ onion production being widely dis-
tributed throughout the state. The rate from the Connecticut Valley is
201/2 cents. If, despite the greater freight charges, growers of the Middle
West and New York can compete with local onions on the Boston market,
it indicates either lower costs of production or onions of superior quality.

Prices received for the 1924-25 crop were practically the same for New
York and Massachusetts onions..

The accompanying tabulation presents figures for acreage and produc-
tion in Massachusetts, and in three states which are her chief competitors
in the production of late onions, with totals for the entire late crop in the
Ignited States.

44

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 227.

Acreage and Production of Onions in

Massachusetts and Chief Competing States, 1921-192.5.

Acreage.

1921

1922

1923

1924

1925*

Massachusetts

4,500

4,560

3,360

3,190

3,820

New York

7,280

7,740

7,550

7,600

8,640

Ohio

5,080

5,680

5,760

6,240

2,860

Indiana

4,180

5,620

6,300

6,910

4,580

Total late crop

in United States

43,560

47,320

46,720

46,580

37,450

* Estimates.

Production (Bushels).

Massachusetts

1,250,000

1,254,000

1,284,000

1,244,000

1.528,000

New York

2,184,000

2,090,000

3,156,000

3,192,000

3,300,000

Ohio

1,143,000

2,272,000

1,457,000

2,184,000

698,000

Indiana

1,108,000

2,321,000

2,218,000

1,728,000

1.411,000

Total late crop

in United States

9,446,000

12,927,000

12,867,000

12,561,000

12,578,000

FERTILIZERS FOR CONNECTICUT VALLEY ONIONS

By A. B. BEAUMONT and O. E. STREET

Witliin the hist third of a century the Massachusetts Agricultural Kx-
perinient Station has conducted a number of experiments with the onion
crop. These studies have dealt with problems of soil fertility, use of fer-
tilizers, plant diseases, insect pests and marketing. In this paper, ex-
periments dealing primarily with soil fertility and fertilizers are reviewed.

Field experiments here reported were conducted on the Station grounds
at Amherst. The soils on which onions have been grown vary from fine
to very fine sandy loam, contain a small to fair amount of organic matter,
are slightly to strongly acid, and occur at elevations of 200 to 250 feet
above sea level. The field experiments are divided into two groups for
discussion. The first or early group extended over the period 1894 to
1917. This is the larger group. The second group was started in 192.'5
on the lower portion of the new Station farm known as the Brooks Farm.
Tliis second group of experiments is presented first.

After a conference with some of the leading onion growers of the Conn-
ecticut Valley, constituting an Advisory Committee on onions, field ex-
periments planned to answer the following questions were laid out:

1. Cover crops: Is it practicable to grow cover crops in onion fields
of the Valley? If they can be grown have they any value in respect to
hastening maturity of the crop and maintaining fertility? What crops can
be grown?

2. Lime: How much lime is necessary for best results with onions? Are
large amounts injurious?

3. Fertilizers: (a) What is the best ratio of ammonia, phosphoric acid
and potash in mixed fertilizers for onions? (b) Is there any advantage in
applying fertilizers at diiferent times within the season instead of all at
the beginning?

CONNECTICUT VALLEY ONION INDUSTRY 45

4. Varieties: ^^'hat \arietie.s of onions are best suited to the Connecti-
cut Valley? Do varieties run true to name? Can desirable varieties be
maintained under Valley conditions? What are the best sources of seeds
and sets?

Since the experiments have rug only one year, and since tlie attack of
mildew coming August 8 practically ruined most of the crop, only progress
and incomplete results can be reported. It can be stated:

(1) That timothy, red and crimson clovers can be grown as cover crops
in onions, if seeded immediately after the last shove hoeing and not later
than July 26. These crops made considerable growth before the ground
froze. Biennial sweet clover made poor growth as a cover crop.

(2) Moderate applications of lime, equivalent to one ton ground lime-
stone, gave small increases in yields of onions. Large applications, up to
seven tons per acre, showed no additional advantage.

(3) Complete fertilizers rather high in phosphoric acid and fairly high
in potash gave the best results. Rate of application was 2500 pounds per
acre. That fertilizer having the ratio of 1:3:2 for ammonia, phosphoric
acid and potash gave the best yield. The fertilizer had the grade of
•i-l 2-8.

(4) Concentrated complete fertilizers carrying a total of 32 per cent
l)lant food can be used for onions. The 8-16-8 grade was used.

(5) No advantage was gained by the application of fertilizers at dif-
ferent times throughout the growing season instead of all at the begin
ning.

(6) Source of seed is an important consideration in the selection of
seed stock. This was strikinglj^ brought out by the diffe.-ence in resistance
of certain stocks to the attack of the mildew.

In considering this brief report of progress of this second group of field
experiments with onions it should be l)orne in mind that on some points
tlie results are not conclusive but merely indicative. Further, the land on
which the plots are located had received very little cultivation for a num-
ber of years. It is probable that several years will be required to put it
into a condition that is representative of our typical onion land.

The earlier group of field experiments had for their main objective in-
formation as to the kind of fertilizer materials required to grow a good
onion crop. This objective was the one common to many field experiments
conducted throughout the country during the period of early development
of agricultural experiment stations. It was not known at the time the
experiments started, whether one needed to feed the onion a single or a
mixed ration of fertilizers; or which if any one of the plant food nutrients
is the most important; whether lime is necessary for onions; etc. Some of
these and other questions of plant feeding were answered by the earlier
experiments.

The results are summarized as follows:

(1) On Connecticut Valley soils that have been cropped for a number
of years, onions cannot be successfully grown unless a complete fertilizer,
or one carrying ammonia, phosphoric acid and potash, at least, is used.
There is still unanswered the question as to the necessity of sulfur, but
since it is ordinarily present in a complete fertilizer the question is not
at present very important.

(2) Fertilizers carrying ammonia entirely in the form of certain chemi-
cals were found to be as good as those carrying ammonia in organic form

46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 227.

only. The significance of this fact may, liowever, be questioned, and for
two reasons: (a) as used, neither treatment produced a large crop; and
(b) the usual practice of combining organic with inorganic nitrogen ,was
not included in the experiment.

(3) Nitrate of soda proved to be better than sulfate of ammonia as a
carrier of ammonia when there was a deficiency of lime in the soil. Most
of our Valley soils are deficient in lime. If lime is supplied in sufficient
amounts, ammonium sulfate is as good as nitrate of soda for onions.

(4) Moderate applications of lime in practically all cases were matched
by increased yields of onions. This response to lime was particularly
marked when ammonium sulfate and muriate of pot.ish were used in
combination. Moderate applications (1 to 2 tons) to onions lose most of
their effect witiiin four years.

(5) There is little choice between muriate and sulfate of potash as
carriers of potash for onions unless there is a great deficiency of lime,
when the sulfate is preferable.

(6) Onions have responded well to fertilizers carrying a large propor-
tion of soluble phosphates. A high proportion of phosphoric acid reduces
but does not do away with the need of lime.

(7) From the standpoint of fertility, onions can be grown successfully
with large (30 tons) applications of manure. Fertilizers used in addition
to the manure have no additional advantage.

There are three conclusions common to the groups of experiments worthy
of emphasis.

1. For continuous growth of onions on Connecticut Valley soils a com-
plete fertilizer is necessary.

2. Complete fertilizers having a high ratio of phosphoric acid give
best results with onions.

3. Moderate and frequent applications of lime are necessary for onions
on Valley soils.

There appears to be little if any necessity of a choice of carriers for
ammonia, phosphoric acid or potash provided practice is in accordance
with these three conclusions.

ONION BLIGHT or DOWNY MILDEW

By A. VINCENT OSMUN

This disease caused widespread damage to the onion crop of the Con-
necticut Valley in 1924 and 1925. The first authentic report of its oc-
currence in Massachusetts was in late August, 1924. It is probable, how-
ever, that it has been present within the state for a much longer period,
as it was reported many years ago from Connecticut, Vermont and New
York. Our growers have indeed long been familiar with a disease known
to them as "blight," the symptoms of which appear not to be different
from those of the disease here under discussion. The disease was first
reported in this coimtry from Wisconsin in 1884.

Onion blight is caused by a parasitic fungus known technically as Peron-
ospora schleideni. This is one of a group of fungi called Downy Mildews,
and hence the name Downy Mildew is often used to designate the disease as
well as the fungus which causes it.

CONNECTICUT VALLEY ONION INDUSTRY 47

Downy mildew attacks tlie onion tops, starting witii a few onions in
different parts of a field, and spreading from these centers of infection.
In its early stages, even before the tissues are killed by its attack, the
mildew may be detected in early morning when the leaves are wet with
dew, or during a rain, as small violet colored patches. In the sun these
patches dry out and collapse, leaving yellowish or white spots. The mil-
dew quickly spreads over the entire leaf which becomes water-soaked in
appearance, collapses and breaks over. The shriveled leaves are soon
blackened by mold. L'sually, new leaves develop following the first at-
tack, and if weather conditions continue to favor development of the dis-
ease, these may also succumb. However, even with the new crop of
leaves the bulb seldom attains full size, and the crop is thus reduced.

Downy mildews characteristically thrive best under moist, cool condi-
tions, and downy mildew of onion is no exception. Periods of rain or
high humidity with low night temperatures occurring between early July
and late September are likely to bring on the disease, and at such times
the fields should be closely watched for the first symptoms. With weather
conditions favoring the disease its spread is very rapid, often considerable
areas becoming affected within a few days and leaves dying within a short
time after infection. It was not uncommon last season to find entire
fields laid low by the disease.

Control measures for onion blight have been worked out. The various
phases of control are based on (I) the ability of the mildew to live over
winter in old onion refuse, (2) influence of environmental conditions and
(S) susceptibility of the fungus to toxic fungicides.

(1) In order to reduce the possibilities of infection from previous
diseased crops, onion refuse should be burned. A three or four year
crop rotation also may be helpful in this connection.

(2) As excessive moisture favors development of the mildew, every
practicable means should be taken to promote the drying oft' of the onion
tops following periods of high humidity. L'^nder-drainage, clean culture,
exposure to prevailing winds, all help in drying oft' a wet field.

(3) Spraying with 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture with three pounds of resin
fish-oil soap added as a sticker is effective if the applications are suffi-
ciently prompt, thorough, and frequent. If spraying is to be the pro-
gram, the weather conditions should be closely watched, as the first ap-
jilication must anticipate appearance of the mildew. All tops must be
tlioroughly covered by the fungicide, and spraying should be repeated at
least once a week or every tliree or four days if weather conditions favor-
ing s])read of the disease are prolonged.

Onion growers are not equipped with adequate spraying machinery, if
indeed such machinery is in existence. Yet there can be no doubt that
downy mildew will continue to attack the onion whenever moisture and
temperature conditions suited to its development occur. Growers must
face this possibility each season and must decide for themselves whether
it will be more profitable to take the loss from possible reduction of yield,
or ai>ply the control measures above outlined.

48 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 227.

A STUDY OF THE LIFE HISTORY AND CONTROL OF THE

ONION THRTPS

By A. I. BOURNE

The onion thrips is, without question, the outstanding insect pest of the
onion. In cases of severe outbreaks, the losses it has caused liave often
been rated as high as 25 to 50 per cent of the crop. The injury, variously
termed blast, white blight, and silver top, results from these minute insects
extracting the plant fluids, by means of their rasping and sucking mouth parts.

Throughout the Connecticut Valley, the main onion growing section of
Massachusetts, this pest has, during late years, become very generally es-
tablished and appears in large numbers annually. Previously, its ravages
were chiefly confined to occasional outbreaks, many times of only local
importance. With the increased acreage devoted to set onions, the thrips has
come to be an annually recurring pest, and gives every evidence of in-
creasing abundance.

Relation of Set Onions to Thrips Injur ij

The very close correlation of the set onion industry to the problem of
thrips injury to onions grown from seed is generally recognized. Set
onions on the average develop several weeks earlier than the crop of seed
onions. Sets, therefore, serve as ideal nurseries for the colonization and
multiplication of the thrips. The insects are thus supplied with an abun-
dance of their favorite food plant, and consequently are able to reach large
numbers comparatively early in the season. From actual counts made in
the field, of the thrips colonized on nearly mature -plants of set onions, it
was found that two to three hundred thrips per plant were about an
average, while five to six hundred were by no means uncommon. The sets
themselves do not as a rule sufl'er .severely from the attack of the thrips,
since, by the time the insects have developed a heavy infestation, the plants
have advanced well toward maturity and accumulated enough leaf surface
to withstand the attack.

Areas given over to sets are often located close to, or even alongside,
fields later planted to seed onions, so that transfer over onto the younger
and smaller plants is easy. This practically assures the later development
of a heavy infestation in the fields of seed onions. Observations have
shown that while there is more or less of a spread from the sets before
they are mature, the great movement takes place when the sets are ready
to be pulled. From our studies of the life history of the insect, it was
learned that the time of this general transfer usually coincides very closely
with the period of greatest reproductive activity of the insect, thus in-
creasing the danger to the fields of seed onions.

There are other sources of possible infestation — refuse and screenings,
weeds, grasses, etc. The list of plants upon which the thrips has been found
to feed includes many garden and field crops, ornamentals, and greenhouse
plants as well as various grasses. While these are of comparatively little
importance as compared M'ith set onions, they do offer the insect ample
opportunity for hibernation and early spring colonization, and explain
why onion fields are often invaded from grass or weedy borders. For this
reason, it is recommended to burn over, in late fall or early spring, grass
and weedy areas bordering on onion fields.

CONNECTICUT VALLEY ONION INDUSTRY 49

Dustintj for Control of Thrips

In tlie Experiment Station study on thrips control, various types of com-
iiiercial nicotine dusts, as well as home prepared dusts, were tested. A
study was made of the comparative efficiency of different strengths of
nicotine in the dusts; and of the form in which the active principle was
present (free nicotine or nicotine sulfate). The influence of weather con-
ditions on the effectivness of the dusts was also studied, to determine the
best time to make the applications. Different methods of applying the
dusts were tried out, as well as the use of auxiliaries (hoods, curtains, etc.)
to confine the dust discharged, prevent drift and so counteract the inter-
ference caused by wind.

Nicotine dusts, even those carrying a comparatively small percentage of
nicotine, readily kill all the insects reached and are effective early in the
season. By applying the nicotine dusts at intervals of about ten days, be-
ginning with the first appearance of the thrips, the insects are held down
sufficiently so that the plants can withstand a moderate infestation. The
cost of such a practice, however, is almost prohibitive. Later in the sea-
son, the nicotine dusts are not satisfactory, since they cannot penetrate
the tight crevices in the axils of the inner leaves, where a very large per-
centage of the thrips congregate.

Study was also made of the recently introduced calcium cyanide dusts.
These possess excellent physical qualities, and the gas given off penetrates
the tiglit crevices in the axils of the inner leaves very successfully, over-
coming the thrips in practically every portion of the plant. The gas is
soon dissipated, however, and a very large percentage of the thrips re-
cover from its effects and resume normal activity. At present the cost of
these dusts is high. These difficulties do not appear to be insurmountable.
If the manufacturers make as rapid progress in the development of these
dusts in the near future as they have in the last two years, calcium cyanide
gives promise of becoming a very satisfactory control.

Sprayinn for Control of Thrips

In a study of the possibilities of sprays for the control of this pest,
tests were made of a long list of materials, including almost every type of
contact spray. Preliminary tests eliminated very many of these as in-
effective or impracticable from one cause or another, and the field soon
narrowed down to include the nicotine-soap combinations and certain oil
sprays.

One of the greatest problems in thrips control is to reach and kill the
insects deep down in the axils of the leaves (chits), where they congregate
in large numbers. On account of the peculiar nature of the plant and the
smooth, waxy surface of the leaves, any spray to be successful must
possess excellent adhesive and spreading properties, as well as insecticidal
value. Oil sprays, while very effective against all thrips actually touched,
showed a very strong tendency to form into drops and roll off the plants
vithout thoroughly covering all the leaf surface, thus forming "islands"
where thrips were untouched by the spray and so escaped. Nicotine sprays
used alone do not have the necessary physical qualities. When they are com-
bined with soaps, however, they constitute a spray which possesses all of
these qualifications to a very high degree.

Lack of machinery has stood in the way of successful use of sprays.
The ordinary types of horse-drawn sprayers cannot be used in onion fields.
The common no/.zles, delivering a cone spray, have not succeeded in fore-

50 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 227.

ing the spray deep down into the narrow space at the base of the inner
leaves. The problem was, therefore, to develop a method of driving the
liquid well in among the close-standing plants and force it down into the
axils of the leaves; also, to find a spray of superior wetting and flowing-
qualities that is toxic to all stages of the insect and has a killing action
rapid enough to overcome the active winged adults.

Nicotine sulfate, the commercial 40 per cent solution, coupled with fisii-
oil soap, was found to answer the requirements of a spray. A small Skin-
ner System irrigation nozzle, modified to deliver the spray at the desired
angle and distribute the pressure evenly, has given good results. This
delivers a thin, flat, fan-shaped spray which, with moderate pressure, is
broken up into a very fine mist. The full force of the discharge is con-
fined to a comparatively small space, so that the spray may be directed
upon the portion of the plant desired, with full advantage of the amount
of pressure, and with little waste of material.

This flat spray, directed upon the plants from the side, caused a vibra-
tion of the young, limber leaves which, in conjunction with the excellent
wetting and flowing qualities of the spray, allowed it to work down into the
tight chits and reach the thrips congregated there. From our experiments
to date, a steady pressure of 125 to 150 pounds has proven satisfactory,
giving a very fine mist and allowing good penetration.

The most satisfactory spraj' formula used was as follows:
Nicotine sulfate ("Black Leaf 40," Nicotine Sulfate 40 per
cent", etc.), V^ pint to 100 gallons (1:1500), Good's No. 3 Totash Fish-
oil Soap, 6-8 pounds per 100 gallons of spray.

The soap used in this formula is soft and "pourable", very easilj'
handled and mixed into the sipraj'. This product is of such uniform con-
sistency that proper dilution can be made by measuring the soap as it is
drawn from the container, thus allowing a saving of time when refilling
the spray tank in the field. The spray made on the above formula had
excellent spreading and "flowing" qualities, and covered the smooth, waxy
surface of the onion tops very readily. The most promising feature was
its tendency to flow down to the base of the stems and into tlie tight crev-
ices, allowing the nicotine to reach and kill the colonies of thrips clustered
there. In addition, the alkali of the soap served as an activator of the
nicotine, thus hastening its insecticidal action.

In field tests at North Sunderland, this spray was applied to a section
of a large field of onions which had become heavily infested from sets
growing alongside. When the sets had been screened and disposed of,
this section of tiie field was sprayed, using a power outfit delivering a
steady pressure of 12.5-150 pounds, with two lines of hose operating. Owing
to the heavy, driving rains and the mildew which had appeared in the field,
some of the plants were broken down, making it difficult to make a
thorough application.

Examination of the field the day following the application showed the
following:

Thrips per Average per Control

100 plants plant Per cent

Sprayed 165 1- 2 97-f-

Unsprayed 5230 52-53 —

Despite the very high percentage of control obtained, a second applica-
tion has been found to be advisable, for restocking takes place very rapid-

CONNECTICUT VALLEY ONION INDUSTRY 51

ly through the hatching of eggs inserted in the leaf tissues. This second
spray should be applied after all the eggs have hatched, and before the
first appearing larvae have matured and left the plants. Because the
nicotine soap spray cuts down very materially larvae hatching for a period
of at least two days after application, the period between the sprays may
safely be extended to seven or eight days.

The Critical Period in Thrips Infestation

The data from field observations and life history studies revealed the
fact that reproductive activity and consequently the rate of increase vary
considerably' during the season.

Infestation is comparatively light and shows no marked increase up to
about mid-July. From that point there is a steadj' increase through that
month, with a sudden rise to the climax of the season about the first of
August. Beyond that point there is a gradual slowing up of reproductive
activity for the remainder of the season.

The critical period as regards thrips infestation, therefore, occurs dur-
ing late July and early August. At this time the insects have trans-
ferred in large numbers from sets and are rapidly developing an infestation
on the fields of seed onions. This source of danger, coming as it does at
the time of greatest reproductive activity on the part of the insect, makes
this point in the season a very serious one for seed onions, and emphasizes
the need of the follow-up spray to check the pest as thoroughly as possible
and give greatest protection to the plants at this particular period.

Conchision

Our studies to date have shown that the chief source of thrips infesta-
tion of seed onions is from nearby fields of set onions, and that the great-
est movement of thrips takes place at the time the sets mature and are
pulled. This coincides with the period of greatest reproductive activity on
the part of the thrips, and comes in late July and early August.

Both from the standpoint of cost and of effectiveness, dusts do not give
satisfactory control. This is true both of the nicotine dusts and of the
newer calcium cyanide dusts, althougli the latter show considerable pro-
mise.

The usual type of spray nozzles proved unsatisfactory for this purpose,
and a nozzle delivering a flat spray has been developed. This delivers the
spray where it is needed, and, with a pressure of 125-150 pounds causes
it to penetrate the axils of the leaves where the greatest number of thrips
congregate.

Nicotine sulfate, 1-1500, with Good's No. 3 Potash Fish-oil Soap added
at the rate of 3-4 pounds per 50 gallons of spray was found to give satis-
factory control. A second spray application, seven to eight days after
the first, has been found advisable to take care of the larvae hatched from
eggs laid in the tissues of the plant.

The usual types of spray machinery are not well adapted to operate
in large fields of onions. The development or adapation of an outfit
which will conform to the particular requirements for the spraying of
onions presents the most immediate problem.

PUBI.ICATIOX OF THIS DoCUMEXT
APrROVED BY THE

Commission on Adiviinistkatiox axd Finance

3000 3-'26 Order 4474,

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 228 MARCH, 1926

AN ECONOMIC STUDY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE INDUSTRY

By HUBERT W. YOUNT and LORIAN P. JEFFERSON

According to the data reported in this bulletin, the task of marketing the
Massachusetts apple crop ten years from now may be nearly double what
it is today. Existing plantings, with no allowance for new plantings, indi-
cate an increase in the apple crop, in the next ten years, ranging from 240
per cent for Mcintosh down to 13 per cent for Wealthy. Were this increase
to come suddenly, or without preparation on the part of growers' organ-
izations, it might be impossible to market the crop to advantage. With
knowledge as to the probable size of coming crops, growers will have not
only a guide to new planting, but opportunity to develop new markets. It
was for the purpose of attaining this dual objective, that the work reported
in this bulletin was undertaken.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST, MASS.

AN ECONOMIC STUDY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS
APPLE INDUSTRY

Bv HUBERT W. YOUNT and LORIAN P. JEFFERSON

Introduction

The apple growers of Massachusetts, in common with those of the other
New England States, have felt for some time the need of more definite
knowledge of the apple industry — the number and ages of trees of different
varieties, and tlie volume of tlie commercial crop. In order to obtain this
information it was determined liy a group representing the Experiment Sta-
tions, State Departments of Agriculture, the New England Research Council,
the Federal Bureau of Agricultural Economics and the New England Crop
Reporting Service, that a study should be made of the apple industry of
New England. The purposes of this study were, specifically:

1. To secure information as to number and age of trees and the trend of
planting.

2. To discover the volume of the apple crop and the amounts put on the
market.

3. To discover the relative importance of each commercial variety.

4. To determine the relative importance of orchards of different size.

5. To discover common orchard practices in different producing areas.

6. To learn the relative importance of apple growing as a source of farm
income.

7. To determine the relative importance of different methods of marketing.

8. To discover the extent to which grading is done.

9. To learn the prices received and the reasons for price differences.

10. To determine available farm storage space and the quantities stored.

11. To determine probable future production.

Methods and Scope

The method employed in Massachusetts was personal interview with each
owner of a commercial orchard. For the purposes of this study a connnercial
orchard was defined as one which contained a minimum of 100 bearing trees.
Exceptions were made in cases where orchards of fewer than 100 bearing trees
were of evident commercial importance, or where there were considerable
plantings of young trees which gave evidence of future commercial importance.

Visits were made to over 2,000 apple growers and complete schedules were
secured from 1,754, which is 7 per cent of the whole number who reported
apple trees in the Census of 1925. The growers visited reported 45 per cent
of the trees and 55 per cent of the production as stated in the Federal Census
of 1925. However, a large part of the production reported to tlie Federal
Census is used on the farm or sold for making into cider, and it is estimated
that the farms included in this survey grow over 75 per cent of the market-
able apples of the state.

Cooperating Aijencies

Cooperating with the Department of Agricultural Economics of the Massa-
chusetts Experiment Station in securing this information, was tiie State

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS

87

^<

Department of Agriculture which contributed tlie sahiry and expenses of two
investigators for field work. The New England Research Council acted as a
coordinating agency, in order to insure the collection of uniform data tlirough-
out the New England states.

CHART 1. Non-bearing and Bearing Trees, 1925

.ySR-liJJ.'

■\ '•■• iw'"" :i^^Sfe: .;i <^'-^

NON-BEIARING

TREES IN MASSACHUSETTS, 1925

1 DOT= 200 TRCES

BLARING

TREES IN MASSACHUSETTS ,i9Z5

i DOT = 2,00 TRLEIS

88 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

Producing Regions

Apple growing in Massachusetts centers in several rather distinct sections,
although apples are grown for home consumption in every part of the state.
These are Franklin County, Connecticut Valley, Nashoba area and Essex
County.

The chief section, lying partly in Middlesex and partly in Worcester coun-
ties and known as the Nashoba area, includes the towns of Littleton, Acton,
Groton, Harvard, Stow, Sterling, Hudson, Boxborough, Bolton and Westford.
Other towns which form a southern continuation of this area are Berlin,
Marlborough, Northborough, Westborough and Millbury. Shirley, Lunenburg
and Fitchburg form a similar group to the northwest. The topography of
this section differs from that in other apple sections of the state, varying
from fairly level to very rolling. The outstanding characteristics of this sec-
tion are numerous small orchards and high production due to good orchard
practice.

The Franklin County section, in the western part of the state, is included
chiefly in the towns of Colrain, Shelbume, Buckland, Charlemont and Ashfield.
Few growers here make apple growing their chief business, as orchards are
mostly secondary to other farm enterprises. The varieties commonly grown
are Baldwin and Mcintosh, with a few Greening and Duchess. This region
is hilly, almost mountainous in parts. Most of the orchards are irregular
plantings on hillsides, trees being set in blocks in but few orchards.

Similar in many respects is the section in Essex County in the northeastern
part of the state. Varieties grown here are chiefly Baldwin, with some Mcin-
tosh and small numbers of other kinds. In both Essex and Franklin counties
most of the orchards are old and production is declining except in a few
towns. It is doubtful if recent plantings in either of these sections have been
sufficient to offset the dying of old trees.

The section in Hampden and Hampshire counties is composed of several
separate areas lying on the hills along the Connecticut Valley. The towns of
Cummington, Williamsburg, Easthampton and Granville form that portion
lying west of the Connecticut River, while Amherst, Belchertown, Hampden
and Wilbraham are included in the section east of the river.

CHART 2. Non-beaxing and Bearing Trees, by Counties, 1925

BADN^TABLLi
BERK5H!eL
BBI5T0L
PLYMOUTH

NOQFOLK

HAMPDEN

E.55ELX

HAMPSHIRE

FQANKLIN

W0DCE5TEB

MIDDLESEX

BE1AI21N6
NONBEA&INQ

CZ3

150 too

THOUSANDS

i50

300

.>50

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS

89

In the southeastern part of the state are scattered areas consisting of a few
specialized towns in Plymouth and Bristol counties. Orchards throughout this
section vary greatly as to size, care and varieties. The orchards are, more-
over, much scattered, some towns having none, while others grow large quan-
tities of apples in orchards of considerable size.

Number axd Age of Trees

A total of nearly a million trees was reported, one-third being not yet in
bearing. Forty per cent of the trees are in Middlesex County, which with
Franklin and Worcester counties produces about three-fourths of the total
crop reported. The ratio of bearing and non-bearing trees varies in differ-
ent sections. Only 24 per cent of the trees of Franklin County were reported
as non-bearing, while in Worcester County 45 per cent are not yet in bearing.
The other important counties fall between these extremes.

The estimated average age of trees reported in Massachusetts is seventeen
years. There are thousands of trees from thirty to fifty or more years of age,
but the great number of trees recently planted reduces the average to this
low figure. According to the reports of the growers, about two-thirds of the
trees are under fifteen years of age. The following table brings out the
pertinent facts concerning age of trees in 192.5.

Table 1. Age of Trees in Massachusetts, 1925

Age

Number of

Per cent

Cumulative

Trees

of Total

Per cent

Under 5 years

202,077

20.5

20.5

5-9 years

259,804

26.4

46.9

10 - 14 years

188,980

19.2

66.1

15 - 19 years

64,966

6.6

72.7

20-29 years

56,382

5.7

78.4

Over 30 years

133,237

13.5

91:9

Unclassified*

79,118

8.1

100.0

Total

984,564

100.0

100.0

* ' 'Unclassified' '

means that the age of the

trees was not known.

Most of these,

however, were old trees.

The period of heaviest plantings was between 1915 and 1920. Although
there has been a decline of 20 per cent from this high period, new plantings
are still being made at the rate of 30,000 to 40,000 trees each year.

Fillers

The number of fillers reported was only 74,000 trees, or about 7 per cent
of the total. These were divided equally between bearing and non-bearing,
as most of the varieties used for fillers bear at an early age. Fillers are
usually cut between the twelfth and fifteenth years, and 95 per cent of those
reported are under fifteen years of age. The age grouping is fairly uniform,
so that approximately 5,000 trees will be cut each year for the next fifteen
years. Several varieties are used as fillers, but about half of those now
planted are Wealthy. The Mcintosh ranks second in importance, but it is
probable that few of the Mcintosh fillers will be removed, since already
Baldwin and Delicious planted as permanents are being cut instead of Mcln-

90

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

CHART 3. Age of Trees, 1925

//U/fB£ff or 7jPS£S
T/^0U3ANOJ

Z73

P£JPC£AfT Of
ALL rC££S

Z7J5

Z5.0

ZZS

ZOO

UA/i?£Q\ S9 fOU fS'fff zoig\ Oy£Q\U/^aASS-

^ ' ^ 30 //^/£P

A/OM3£AJ^/NG BIB S£A/?//^0 fZZ^

tosh. Tlie Duchess, Wagener and Transparent arc all used extensively as
fillers and are of about equal importance. Growers expressed considerable
dissatisfaction with the filler system and it is not being used on many of
the new plantings.

Many growers were unable to state the exact number of fillers, but it is
estimated that the figures given are about 75 per cent correct, which would
bring the total number of fillers to approximately 100,000 trees.

Principal Varieties

Over 100 varieties were reported by the growers visited, the number of each
variety varying from one to several thousand. The number of varieties for
which there is a definite market is limited, and there is a strong tendency on
the part of the larger growers to limit production to four or five standard
varieties. Most of the minor varieties have been planted in small orchards

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS

91

CHABT i. Non-bearing and Bearing Trees of Leading Varieties, 1925.

THOUSANDS OF TBLE.5

100 too

BALDWIN

M'INT05H

WEALTHY

GRAYE.N5TEIN

DELICIOUS

DUCHE55

TPAN5PARENT

WAGNEH

GREENING

A5TRACHAN

NORTHERN 5PY

WILLIAM5

0THER5

W 15 20 25

PEaCLNT OF TOTAL

for family use or by a few large growers catering to a roadside or otiier
specialized trade.

Baldwin

The Baldwin is the most important commercial variety in Massachusetts,
making up 40 per cent of all trees reported. It is found in nine-tenths of the
orchards and its continued popularity is indicated by the fact that nearly half
of the growers have young trees. Of nearly 400,000 Baldwin trees, over 25
per cent are not yet bearing. The average age, nearly twenty-five years, is

CHART 5. Recent Plantings of Leading Varieties, by Five-Year Periods.

r/iOU3ANDS
fOO

/0-/4 YPX V7\

1^^

/f'/z/ro/// Mipu/A/ WEALTHY GP/im^jrm iffi/c/oc/j

92

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

CHART 6. Trees Under and Over Fifteen Years of Age, for Principal Varieties.

TMOUiANOS OF TBLLS

200

400

BALDWIN

li'INT05h

WLALTHY

QPAVEN5TE1N

DEILICIOUS

DUCHLSS

TeAN5PABENT

WA6NEB

QEEEMINQ

A5TBACHAN

NOPTHtCN 5PY

WILLIAMS

OTHERS

UNDLa 15 Wm
OVE.C 15 Q

m/////k

15 ZQ 25

PERCENT OF TOTAL

35

40

relatively high, one-fourth being over thirty years old. A number of these
old trees go out of production each year, but the recent plantings make up
for this reduction. Baldwin plantings during the past fifteen years have been
almost as heavy as those of Mcintosh. Over 50,000 trees have been set during
the past five years, and the plantings for the five-year period previous to 1920
were considerably above this figure. Nearly half of the Baldwin trees are
under fifteen years of age, and allowing for the loss of old trees, it is reason-
able to expect a 50 per cent increase in the crop during the next fifteen
years. The popularity of the Mcintosh will undoubtedly reduce future plant-
ings of Baldwins. The Baldwin crop in 1924 was over 50 per cent of the
entire crop of the State.

Mcintosh

The Mcintosh is the second most important variety grown in the State.
Nearly 25 per cent of all trees are of this variety and the percentage is in-
creasing each year. Of the 240,000 Mcintosh trees reported, about half are
not yet in bearing. Over 90 per cent of the Mcintosh have been planted
during the past fifteen years, which means that only a small number of the
trees now bearing have reached full production. The heaviest planting occurred
from 1915 to 1920, an average of 18,000 trees being planted per year. The
present annual rate of 10,000 trees indicates a 40 per cent decline from that
period. The average age of the bearing Mcintosh was twelve years in 1925.
As these trees mature in the next ten or fifteen years their production will be
greatly increased. In addition, about 120,000 young trees will come into full
bearing during this period. This estimate includes no new plantings and
allows for a loss of 25 per cent of the present young trees. The production
of Mcintosh in 1924 was slightly over 200,000 bushels, about one-seventh of
the total commercial crop. Since the 1924 season was a poor one for Mcin-
tosh, this figure is below the average crop.

More grading is done on the Mcintosh than on any other variety, approx-

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS
CHART 7. Non-bearing and Bearing Baldwin Trees, 1925.

93

BALDWIN

NON-BEARING.
TRLLS IN MA55ACHUSE:TTS, ^QZ5

1 DOT = -100 TRELS

BALDWIN

BElARINGi
TRE.L5 IN MASSACHUSETTS, A9Z5

•1 DOT = -»00 TREE.S

imately half of the 1924 crop being graded. Of this amount, 15 per cent
were sold as Fancy. About two-thirds were A's and the remainder B's,
many growers reporting as much as 75 per cent of their crop as A grade or
Fancy. Prices received for Mcintosh averaged almost double those for
Baldwin, varying with the section of the state, the amount of grading and
the care taken in production.

Ten thousand Mcintosh trees were reported as fillers, divided equally be-

94 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

CHART 8. Non-l)earing and Bearing Mcintosh Trees, 1925.

MCINTOSH

NON-BLAUlNGt
TRttS IN MA5SACHUSE:TT5,^925

A DOT s -too TAEE5

M«-INTOSH

BLARING
TREtS IN MASSACHUSETTS, ^9Z5

4 DOT = ^00 TRE.ES

tween bearing and non-bearing. It is probable, as stated above, that many
growers who reported Mcintosh fillers will not cut them.

Wealthy

The Wealthy is the most important of the minor commercial varieties. Since
the Baldwin and Mcintosh together make up over two-thirds of the total
numl)er of trees, no other single variety appears important when compared

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS 95

with them. There are o^'er 60,000 Wealtliy trees in the state, of which nearly
half are not yet bearing. The Wealthy is planted primarily as a filler, and
nearly 60 per cent of the ]) resent number are used for that purpose. Over 80
per cent of the Wealthy plantings are under fifteen years of age, and the
production of this variety may be expected to decline very little, even with
the removal of fillers. Plantings during each of the five-year periods since
1910 have been about equal and the indications are that the present rate of
3,000 trees per year will continue. Wealthy production amounts to only 5
per cent of the total. About 4-0 per cent of the Wealthies sold are graded,
and 75 per cent of those graded were sold as A's. Disease and insect damage
made some difference in this figure during the past season.

Gravenstein

The Gravenstein crop is much larger than tiie AVealthy crop, although there
are fewer trees. Out of nearly .50,000 trees reported, 40 per cent are not yet
bearing. The Gravenstein has a higher percentage of non-bearing trees than
any other variety except the Mcintosh. Plantings during the past five years
total over 11,000 trees, a decline of 35 per cent from the preceding five-year
period. Two-thirds of the Gravenstein trees are under fifteen years of age,
which indicates a substantial increase in production in the future. The total
production in 1924 of 115,000 bushels, an average of four bushels per tree,
was almost double the Wealthy crop. Two-thirds of the crop was sold un-
graded, but of the amount graded, nearly 80 per cent was A grade.

Delicious

The Delicious is a comparative newcomer in Massachusetts, and of the 42,000
trees reported, over three-fourths are not yet bearing. Recent plantings have
been very heavy; over 60 per cent of all trees of this variety have been set
since 1920. One-fourth of the reporting growers have Delicious trees, usually
in small blocks for experimental purposes.

Growers of this variety report sales difficult for the lower grades, but the
total volume of production is not sufficient to be a real factor on the market.

Duchess

The Duchess is the favorite of the early varieties, although there are only
20,000 trees, about half of which are not bearing. This variety is principally
planted as a filler, 40 per cent of the trees reported being for that purpose.
Plantings have fallen off during the past five years, and the present rate of
1,000 per year seems likely to decrease. Most of the Duchess trees are under
nfteen years of age, since they are early bearing and short lived. Coming on
the market early, production is not an important factor in the general market,
except for competition with early Wealthies.

Transparent

The Transparent is another of the early varieties used as a filler. Of the
16,000 Transparent trees reported, three-fourths are bearing. The rate of
planting has decreased recently, and many growers express the intention of
cutting out these trees. The poor quality of the fruit, its susceptibility to
insect injury and small size are some of the reasons advanced for discontinu-
ing the variety.

96 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

Wagener

This variety has recently come into favor, particularly in large orcliards.
Eighty growers reported a total of 15,000 trees in 1925, 60 per cent of which
were already bearing. About 50 per cent of the plantings are fillers. Most
of the planting has been done during the past ten years, very few trees being
more than fifteen years of age. The favor with which this variety is being
received by the growers indicates that it will be of more importance in the
future.

Greening

The Rhode Island Greening, one of the oldest Massachusetts varieties, is
fast passing out. A total of 14,000 trees was reported, of which only 2,000
were non-bearing. Since most of the bearing trees are old, production per
tree is high and a total of 26,000 bushels was reported. The poor market
for this variety has caused many growers to cut down their trees. The va-
riety is of little commercial importance except in certain sections of the
western part of the State.

Astrachan

This variety, formerly a favorite in the farm orchard, is now of little com-
mercial importance. Nearly half of the 13,000 trees reported are non-bearing,
and new trees are planted at the rate of nearly 3,000 for each five-year period.
The crop is about equal to that of Transparent or Duchess, and comes on the
market at about the same time.

Northern Spy

Only 1 per cent of the total number of trees reported were Northern Spy,
and plantings are growing less. One-third of the 10,000 trees reported were
not bearing, and 70 per cent of the trees are not fifteen years of age. Late
bearing and poor market demand account for the lack of popularity of
Northern Spy among growers.

Williams

This is one of the older early varieties and is popular in a few sections of
the state. Only 7,000 trees were reported, and of this number 2,000 were non-
bearing. Recent plantings of over 1,000 trees for each five-year period indi-
cate some increase, which will probably be offset by the cutting of old trees.
The production of 17,000 bushels compares favorably with the other early
varieties, but is not of sufficient importance to become a factor in the market.

Miscellaneous Varieties

Many other varieties were reported, among them Hubbardston, Wolf River>
Grimes Golden, Tolman Sweet, Pippin, etc., none of which is of commercial
importance.

Size of Bearing Orchard

Tlie size of the producing orchard, measured in bearing trees, varies from
a few trees to as many as 12,000. The average for all the growers visited is
354 bearing trees. Over half report fewer than 200 bearing trees and tlie
most common size is about 150 trees.

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS

97

The size of orchard varies with the section of the state. Hampshire County
has the higliest average with 510 bearing trees. This does not mean that most
of the orchards are larger than in other sections, but that there are more large
orchards. The most common size is the same for all counties, from 100 to
199 trees. Worcester County ranks second in size with an average of 411
trees, while Hampden County, with 192, is low. Norfolk, Bristol and Plymouth
average under 300 trees, indicating few large orchards in those sections.

Ninety-five growers had no bearing trees, but reported young orchards
containing nearly one-fourth of the total number of non-bearing trees. This
group, comprising only 5 per cent of the growers, averages over 900 young
trees per orchard and includes some of the largest single plantings in the state.

Nearly one-fifth of the growers visited own bearing orchards of less than
100 trees. This group of orchards represents blocks of young plantings or old
orchards that are well-cared for and commercially important in their section.
Many of these growers have maintained a relatively profitable farm orchard

CHART 9. Size of Bearing Orchards, 1925.

M/1B£0 OF oecNA/lDS
67S

/>£J?C£A/r 0£AU OPC/fAfi^J

SO.O

O I UWEJi 200 I ZOOSOO \ SOO-fOOO I /000-2000 1 O^Sfi. ZOOO
J/Z£ OF OfiC/^AffO //y NUAf3£J2 OF 3£AQ/A/G TjP££J

for years and are gradually increasing their plantings. This is indicated by the
fact that they reported only 3 per cent of the bearing trees, but nearly 16
per cent of the non-bearing trees.

Recent plantings have been very heavy on small orchards and nearly half
the non-bearing trees were reported by men having fewer than 500 trees.
Nearly three-fourths of the trees not bearing have been planted by men with
comparatively small bearing orchards, or by men just entering the business.

A comparison of the ages of trees in orchards of different sizes shows that
those in orchards of 1,000 or more bearing trees are relatively young. Most
of them have been set within the past fifteen years. Old trees are found
chiefly in the small orchards and the production per bearing tree averages
nearly twice that in the large orchards. For this reason the small orchards of
the state produce relatively more of the crop than the large orchards.
Orchards of fewer than 200 bearing trees produce one-fourth of the crop, and
half the commercial production comes from orchards of fewer than 500 bear-

98

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION. BULLETIN 228

CHART 10. Percentage of all Bearing and all Non-bearing Trees in Orchards
of Different Sizes, 1925.

PEacENT or

TOTAL rJ

NONBCAiJINQ im
SEARING CD

UNDEP 200 200-500

5IZL OF OCCHADD

500-1000 1000-aooo

IN BEACIN6 TBEL5

OVER 2000

ing trees. It is evident that the small orchard will be a very important
factor in the future market.

Preference for the different varieties varies with the size of orchard. Tlie
large orchards have fewer varieties, carefully selected witii a view to balanced
farm organization and market demand. In general, tiie percentage of Mcin-
tosh increases with the size of orchard and the percentage of Baldwin de-
creases. Tlie large orchards average one-third Baldwin and over one-half
Mcintosh. There is a tendencj' for large growers to plant only Baldwin and
Mcintosh as permanent varieties, at the rate of two Mclntosli to one Baldwin.
Most of the bearing Wealthy and Wagener trees are in the large orchards as
fdlers, as are a hirge proportion of Duchess trees.

Over two-thirds of the trees in small orciiards with many varieties are
Baldwin. The Mcintosh comprises about one-fourth of the average small
orchard, although there are many which contain none of this varietJ^ Most
of the liearing Gravenstein are also found in small orchards. The conclusion
may be drawn that future increases in Mcintosh production will come largely
from large orchards, while the greater part of the Baldwin crop will be pro-
duced on farms with relatively small orchards.

Sources of Income

Most Massachusetts apple growers do not depend solely upon fruit for
their income. Specialized fruit farms form only a small percentage of the
total number and raise less than 1-5 per cent of the crop. In many cases
fruit growing is a side-line and of secondary importance to the dairy herd.
In Middlesex County fruit furnishes 40 per cent of the grower's income;
dairying supplies 35 per cent; vegetables, 15 per cent; and poultry, 5 per
cent. The remainder comes from a variety of sources. It is significant that

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS 99

in tlie most highly specialized fruit section of the state dairying is almost as
iinjiortant a source of income as fruit.

In the western part of the state, especially in Franklin County, dairying is
more important than fruit, and these two items make up 95 per cent of the
income of the average grower. Sales of hay and wages from outside work
make up most of the remainder. In Hampshire and Hamjiden counties dairy-
ing is more important than fruit, hut poultry, vegetables, hay and other crops
furnish a large part of the total farm income.

On most fruit farins there are not more than two i)rincii)al sources of
income. Fruit and dairying are most common in all sections of the state,
except in the areas close to Boston. In this section more attention is given
to vegetable crops, and fruit and vegetable gardening are the usual combina-
tion. This applies to those sections of Essex, Middlesex, Norfolk and
Plymouth counties within easy trucking distance of Boston and its suliurbs.
In other .sections, fruit and poultry make a profitable combination on the
farm with a moderate size of orchard.

Many specialized growers are combining orchard fruits with small fruits.
Raspberries, currants and strawberries are usually planted, and peaches have
been successful in a few sections.

Orchard Practice

A jiart of the survey was concerned with the usual orchard practices com-
mon among fruit growers in various sections. The results show to what de-
gree scientific methods have been adopted as well as the practices of success-
ful growers.

Pruninff

It was found that 81 per cent of the growers prune every year, although
this figure is to some extent misleading, since many growers replied that they
"prune some every year". Many orchards are practically untouched and from
observation it is estimated that not over two-thirds of the trees are thoroughly
pruned every season. Fifteen per cent of the growers stated that they prune
only occasionally, while 1 per cent do not prune at all.

Cultivation

Over two-thirds of the orchards are in sod and one-third are handled by
clean cultivation or with a cover crop. Many growers reported on more
than one orchard, so that the actual number of bearing orchards in cultiva-
tion is only about 25 per cent of the total. A wide variety of cover crops
was reported, buckwheat, rye and millet being common. The usual practice
is to cultivate the young orchard, l)ut leave it in sod after it begins to bear.

Fertilizer

Three growers out of four apply fertilizer in some form every year. A
wide variety of materials is used, but nitrate of soda is the most conuuon, 60
per cent of the growers reporting its use. Over half of the growers use
barnyard manure. Acid phosphate is used by 7 per cent of the growers, while
4 per cent use a complete fertilizer. Only a few users of sulfate of ammonia
were found. Other growers reported the use of bone meal, wood ashes,
potash, tankage and wool scourings. Three per cent of the growers use no
fertilizer.

100 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

Spraying

Tlie number of sprays varies widely. The calyx spray is almost universal.
Either the dormant or delayed dormant spray is used by 80 per cent of the
growers, the pink by 60 per cent, and the pre-pink by only 32 per cent.
Nearly one-fourth of the growers reported the use of sprays in addition to
those mentioned. The number varied from one to six, used principally for
Mcintosh. Dusting is not popular, only thirty growers now using it, and
several of them expressed the intention of abandoning it in favor of liquid
sprays.

Thinninfi

Twenty-five per cent of the growers do some thinning, but with many it is
not a regular practice. Mcintosh is the variety usually thinned, but all of
the early varieties are thinned to some extent. Only a few growers reported
thinning all varieties. The distance varies with the grower, but one apple to
a spur and keeping the fruit from touching are the usual practices. A few
growers thin to the recommended distance of six to eight inches. The prac-
tice is spreading and many growers are convinced of its value, although
unable to do very much thinning on account of lack of time or experienced
help.

Production

A total production of 1,712,000 bushels was reported, and of this amount
88 per cent was sold as marketable fruit. The farm consumption is relatively
high, due to the large number of small orchards. A small amount of salable
fruit is manufactured on the farms, principally for jellies, apple butter and
similar products.

Over 12 per cent of the total production reported was culls or cider apples.
In Franklin County 20 per cent of the production was culls, ciders or waste,
partly due to poor quality and partly because of the sale of wild apples for
cider. In the better commercial sections, the defective and cull fruit aver-
ages from 8 to 10 per cent of the total. Two-thirds of the culls are sold for
cider, and 13 per cent are made into cider or other apple products on the
farm. A few are fed to livestock and apparently about 3 per cent are
wasted, most of the waste occurring in the poor fruit sections.

Marketing
Grades

Grading in some form is practiced by two-thirds of the growers. Most of
the grading is done by hand, only 80 graders being reported. The favorite
graders are the Pease and Cutler with a few machines of each of a half-dozen
other makes. The number of grades varies with the grower, the amount and
the quality of the crop, the varieties grown, and the custom of the section.
Many growers do not distinguish between sorting and grading, and much of
the grading reported means nothing more than the removal of small and
defective fruit. Three-fourths of the growers sell only one or two grades
of apples. Growers reporting one grade do not sell their defective fruit,
using it on the farm; when two grades are sold, one of them is usually culls.

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS
CHART 11. Production of Principal Varieties, 1924.

101

Thousands of Bushels
300

Percent of Total
60

BaLOW/N M1NT05H fiPAVENJTtIN VlALTHY OTHEBS-EaBLY 0THEB3-UtE

Only 209 growers reported the sale of more tlian two grades, while 23 report-
ed as many as four or more grades.

Massachusetts apples are sold in three graded and three ungraded classes.
The graded classes are Fancy, A and B. The ungraded include one class
from which legal grades have been removed; one from which culls and ciders
only have been removed; and one which includes all apples as they come from
the tree. The usual grades for the growers reporting three grades are A, B
and culls or ungraded. Less than 1 per cent of the growers make a practice
of putting up a Fancy grade. There is a widespread belief that too close
grading is not profitable, and prices received offer some justification for this
belief.

The percentage of each grade varies with the variety.* The following table
shows the distribution into market classes of the crop of 1924. It will be
noted that in every case the highest proportion of apples was sold as "un-
graded, culls and ciders out", and that 65 per cent of all apples were sold
ungraded. Sixty-three per cent of all graded fruit was found to be in A
grade.

By varieties, it is of interest that Delicious apples show the highest per-
centage of Fancy, more than 10 per cent being reported in this class, in con-
trast with less than 3 per cent for all varieties. This is to be accounted for
by the fact that the market demand for this variety is almost entirely for the
better grades. Northern Spy shows a higher proportion of A grade than any
other variety, 36 per cent, and the Mcintosh stands second with 30 per cent
in this grade. Mcintosh likewise has the highest percentage of graded fruit.
Only 35 per cent of the Baldwin crop was reported graded. This variety is
grown largely in small orchards, where comparatively little grading is done.

* Summer varieties include Duchess, Transparent, Williams, Astrachan, etc.
Pall varieties include Mcintosh, Wealthy, Gravenstein.
Winter varieties include Baldwin, Northern Spy, Delicious, Wagener, Greening, etc.

102 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

Table 2. Percentages in Grades of Summer, Fall and AVinter Apples, 1921-

Grade

Summer

Fall

Winter

Total

Graded:

Fancy

2.9

5.4

1.69

2.76

A

24.5

28.9

19.95

22.6

B

9.95

10.1

9.6

9.8

Total

graded

37.35

44.4

31.24

35.16

Ungraded:

A and B

out

L7-5

1.17

1.23

1.24

Culls and

ciders out

52.0

44.4

44.5

45.0

Tree run

7.5

9.2

20.5

16.9

Other sal;

ihle*

1.4

.75

2.22

1.78

Total

unaraded

62.65

55.52

68.45

64.92

* "'Other salable"' includes apjiles used for farm consumption and for farm manu-
facture, exclusive of culls and ciders. These proljably belong largely with
ungraded.

Furthermore, tlie Baldwin commonly produces few aj)ples of the higher grades,
making the cost of grading too high for profit.

Methods of Sale

The method of sale varies with the locality. Fifteen different methods were
reported, but four are outstanding. The commission man is the most import-
ant figure in marketing the crop, and over one-third of all Massachusetts
apples are sold through the various commission houses of the state. Country
buyers, including peddlers, handle nearly one-fourth of the crop, and in some
sections as much as three-fourths. More than 10 per cent is sold outright
to wholesalers and an equal amount goes to retail grocers. Direct sales to
consumers in one of several ways accoimt for most of the remainder of the
crop.

Door to door sales are most common in the Connecticut Valley and the
southeastern part of the state, about 20 per cent of all apples in these dis-
tricts being so distributed, while less than 8 per cent in Middlesex and Wor-
cester counties are sold by this method.

Roadside stands sell about one-fourth of the apples reported in the south-
eastern part of the state, while but 4 per cent in Middlesex, Worcester and
the western counties are sold in this way.

Sales to retailers comprise but 12 per cent of all sales in Middlesex and
Worcester counties, although in some other sections retailers receive as high
as 34 per cent of all apples.

While sale on commission is the most important method for the state as a
whole, its use is by no means uniform. Only 1 per cent in Franklin County
are so reported. Tn the central part of the state where it is used most, an
average of 42 per cent of the apples are handled by commission men.

Sales to country buyers, who may be wholesalers, retailers or hucksters,
are most common in Franklin County, where they receive 65 per cent of the
apples. In the remainder of the state country buyers purchase only 12 per
cent of the apples sold. Two per cent of the apples reported were exported,
and these mostly on commission. Few exporters buy apples outright.

A comparison of methods of sale and varieties of apples shows that of all
apples sold directly to consumers, either at the roadside or from door to door.

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS

103

CHART 12. Methods of Sale Used by Growers, 1924.

40

O/^ \ 7b \^ To K To \ To X TjvfiauGff
Cortnmicjir^ Coi^rrey 2£rA/i£es CouJO/iiCX wmoLE- ' CooPSeA -
3(/Y£ffS ' SALfO. T/y£S

6 per cent are hunimer varieties, 2-1. per cent, fall; and 70 per cent winter
varieties. Of apples sold to retail distributors, 5 per cent are summer, 21 per
cent are fall, and 73 per cent winter varieties. Winter apples comprise 80
per cent of wholesalers' purchases; less than 3 per cent are summer apples,
and 16 per cent are fall varieties. Sales on commission are made up of 54
per cent winter apples, 38 per cent fall varieties and 8 per cent summer
varieties.

Of 1,200,000 liushels on wiiich the methods of sale were reported, 69,000
were summer apples, 326,000 were fall, and 797,000 winter varieties. Table
XIV (appendix) shows that there is considerable difference in the methods of
selling early and late varieties. Large growers produce most of the summer
and fall apples, which are more perishable than the later varieties and must
therefore be marketed as quickly as possible. Over 60 per cent of these apples
are shipped to tiie wholesale markets, nearly half of them to commission men.

Country Iniyers purchase a smaller percentage of early apples than of the
late varieties, because they prefer a storable apple of comparatively low-
grade. Most of the sales to country buyers are Baldwin. A larger propor-
tion of early than of late apples is sold at roadside stands, automobile traffic
being heaviest in the late summer and early fall.

104

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

Prices

A study of prices received for apples of different grades shows that graded
fruit averages more than 25 cents a bushel above ungraded fruit. Local prices
are more valuable to the fruit grower than a general average, and although
price infonnation was obtained for all fruit sold, it is not possible to present
here all the figures obtained. Two sections, consisting of two towns in Frank-
lin County and three towns in the Nashoba area, have been chosen as typical.

In the Nashoba district apples are commonly sold in boxes and the per-
centage of graded fruit is higher than in Franklin County, where most apples
are sold ungraded and packed in barrels. Sales in the Nashoba area are
mostly on commission in Boston, within easy hauling distance. In Franklin
County the most common method of sale is to country buyers who come to the
orchard, make whatever bargain they can with each grower, and buy the
apples at the farm. These differences in method are undoubtedly factors
which contribute largely to the differences in price reported from the two
sections.

Table 3. Average per Bushel by Grades of Leading Varieties,
in Two Selected Districts, 1924

Three Towns in the Nashoba District

Ungraded,

Variety

A

B

Culls and Ciders

Tree

All

Out

Run

Grades

Baldwin

$1.44

$1.18

$1.02

$1.15

$1.26

Mcintosh

2.14

1.81

1.58

1.64

1.95

Wealthy

1.49

1.41

1.37

1.15

1.40

Two Towns in Franklin County

Baldwin

1.12

.91

1.03

.52

1.01

Mcintosh

2.04

1.70

1.57

1.45

1.63

Wealthy

1.33

1.03

1..34

.88

1..06

The accompanying chart. Chart 13, presents the comparison of the prices
and the proportion of graded and ungraded fruit sold of each of the four
leading varieties, Baldwin, Gravenstein, Mcintosh and Wealthy, for the two
sections under consideration. It will be noted that the average prices in the
towns of the Nashoba area run uniformly higher than in the towns of Frank-
lin County for similar varieties and grades, (cf. Table 3). These differences
are caused by accessibility of market, metliods of sale, quality of fruit, and
the amount of grading done, but it is obviously difficult to determine which
has the greatest effect on price.

Baldwins, of which 59 per cent are graded in the towns of the Nashoba dis-
trict, returned an average price of $1.26 per bushel. In the two Franklin
County towns, with 41 per cent graded, this variety brought $1.01 a bushel.
This margin of 25 cents represents the average difference in price for all
grades between the two areas.

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS

105

CHART 13. Amount of Grading and Average Prices Paid to Growers in Two
Typical Sections, 1924.

BALDWIN

ABE A

NA5H0BA
FPANKLIN

NA5H0BA
rCANKLIN

l\IA5H0BA
FBANKLIN

NA5H0E>A
FCANKLIN

PE.RCE.N7 GPADED 0 10 M 50 40 50 60 70 60 90 100

6BADLD

The greatest difference in price between all graded and all ungraded in both
districts is for Mcintosh, amounting to a little more than 50 cents a bushel.
Mcintosh prices averaged from 50 per cent to 100 per cent higher than those
received for any other commercial variety. The Baldwin prices are lower
than those of any other variety, probably because of the quantities available
and the relatively low quality. Prices received for Wealthy and Gravenstein
apples average above those of most winter varieties.

Markets

Massachusetts apples are distributed widely, going by carlots to markets as
far west as Chicago and as far south as Washington. From the reports of
growers it is estimated that 15 per cent of the Massachusetts crop is sold
outside the state, principally in New York.

A large amount of fruit in western Massachusetts is sold to storage com-
panies and other dealers from New York State. The Connecticut Valley
furnishes fruit to Hartford, Providence and New Haven. Providence is an
important market also for the central and southeastern sections, and prices
average higher on Rhode Island markets than on the local markets in those
sections.

Boston is the most important Massachusetts market, receiving over one-
third of the crop. Worcester and Springfield are important markets in the
western part of the state, and are supplied almost entirely from nearby
producing areas. Smaller cities, such as Pittsfield, Holj^oke, Greenfield, Lowell
and Haverhill consume large quantities of apples supplied locally. In some
cities large quantities are sold by growers to retailers, while in others sales
are almost entirely to wholesalers or on commission. Most of the smaller
towns find cities nre partly supplied with local fruit through door-to-door sales.

100 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

Exports

Only 2 per cent of the crop of 1924 was reported as exported. Most ex-
ports are handled on commission, the hazards of the business being so great
that in general the dealers do not care to buy outright for export. A few
growers have exported considerable portions of their apple crop for a good
many years. These men have learned to pack for foreign markets so that
comparatively few "slack" packages appear among their shipments.

Storage

Growers report available storage space for 919,000 bushels, l)ut less than
20 per cent of the available space was used in 1924. The farm cellar is the
usual place of storage, although more storage buildings are Iniilt each year.
Many growers with young orchards intend to build or enlarge their storage
space as their orchards come into full bearing.

Of the 227,000 bushels stored by farmers in 1924, over .50,000 Inishels were
placed in city storage warehouses. Boston handles half of the fruit going
into city storage, but some storage was reported in "Worcester, Springfield,
Greenfield, Fall River and Providence.

The late winter varieties, such as Baldwin, make up the largest part of
fruit stored on farms. These are usually kept until the holiday season or
later. Many growers who supply their local markets from storage holdings,
frequently have fruit on hand as late as March or April. However, the bulk
of the fruit in farm storage is usually disposed of by January.

More Mcintosh are stored each year, and they are held for a longer time
than formerly. Most of the storage holdings are sold out by the end of the
holiday season.

Traxsportatiox

Information on methods of transportation shows that at some point in their
distribution 95 per cent of all Massachusetts apples marketed are hauled by
motor truck. This may be all the distance to market, or the haul may be
completed by rail. The same is true of hauls by wagon, which are confined
almost entirely to Franklin County shipments. Over 70 per cent of all Massa-
chusetts apples shipped in carlots during the four years 1920 to 1923 were
from this county.

Future of the Industuy

The future of the apple growing industry in Massachusetts and its profit-
ableness to the farmer depend upon the amount and quality of future pro-
duction. With favorable growing conditions, there is no doubt but that pro-
duction of all of the important commercial varieties will increase each year.
Large numbers of trees are just coming into bearing and yields will increase
with maturity. Many of the large orchards of the state now bearing will not
reach full production for at least ten years, and over 300,000 trees not bear-
ing at present will come into bearing during the period. Barring the possi-
bility of a disastrous winter which may kill the trees, the estimated future
production, together with the number of bearing trees for the leading varieties,
is indicated in the following table.

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS

107

Table 4. Estimate of Future Production of Four Commercial Varieties
of Apples on 1754 Farms in Massachusetts, 1924-1940 (bushels)

Year

Baldwin

McIntosh

Wealthy

Gravenstein

Bearing
Trees

Pro-
duction

Bearing
Trees

Pro-
duction

Bearing
Trees

Pro-
duction

Bearing
Trees

Pro-
duction

1924
1930
1935
1940

280,000
310,000
350,000
375,000

790,000

950,000

1,200,000

1,300,000

118,000
175,000
235,000
250,000

205,000
400,000
700,000
900,000

36,000
38,000
40,000
35,000

66,000
70,000
75,000
70,000

28,000
32,000
35,000
40,000

115,000
140,000
175,000
200,000

Tabli. 5. Estimates of Future Commercial Apple Production
in Massachusetts (bushels)

1754

Farms

Per cent

Year

State

Increase

Four

Total

Total

Over 1924

Varieties

1924

1,200,000

1,500,000

1,750,000

1930

1,560,000

1,950,000

2,275,000

30

1935

2,150,000

2,730,000

3,185,000

82

1940

2,470,000

3,135,000

3,610,000

107

It is estimated that the total commercial crop of the state will increase at
least 100 per cent within fifteen years. The largest part of this increase will
be Baldwin and Mcintosh, and the latter will undoubtedly show the greatest
increase of any variety. In making the above estimates an estimated loss of
from 10 to 40 per cent of the trees was deducted, depending upon the variety
and age group. The largest deductions were made from tiie recent plantings,
particularly of Baldwin. Allowances were also made for old trees dying out,
and for removal of fillers. The estimates for 1935 and 1940 include probable
plantings during the next ten years at a continual annual decrease of 10 per
cent from the present rate. It is probable that by 1935 plantings will not be
sufficient to replace losses of old trees. Annual plantings of at least 30,000
trees are necessary to maintain a million bearing trees.

It is estimated that within ten years 100 of the largest growers of the state
will be producing approximately one-half of the crop. On farms of this type
a high production per tree and high quality are the rule, and this fact has an
important bearing on future estimates of the total crop. Each year will see
a larger part of the commercial crop produced by professional fruit growers,
in orchards planted during the past ten or fifteen years. Production in the
small orchards may be expected to increase on account of recent plantings,
but this increase will be partly offset by the dying of old trees which now
1 rvely make up fhis type of orchard. It is probable that the quality of fruit

108 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

grown in the small orchard will be poorer than that of the large orchard
because less care is given to growing, handling and marketing. Most of the
small growers do not have the time or equipment to produce and pack the
best grades of fruit.

Conclusions

Securing profitable markets for the probable increase in production is a
matter of the utmost importance. One possible outlet is the building up of
new markets outside of New England. Many dealers consider New York
City as a promising market for Mcintosh apples. This varietj' is coming into
favor and there is a growing demand for Massachusetts Mcintosh because of
the excellent flavor and color. A few growers are now selling in Philadelphia,
and further development of this market and others west and south is pos-
sible, especially for Mcintosh.

A larger quantity of high grade home-grown apples, particularly Mcintosh,
is reducing the sale of Western apples on local markets. Doubtless this sup-
planting of Western apples can be carried still further.

According to the Federal Census reports the number of bearing trees in
other New England states is declining, and while recent plantings have been
heavy, they have not been sufficient to offset the dying of old trees. This
decline will probably reduce outside competition on local markets to some
extent.

Exporters report a growing demand for American apples of good grade in
foreign markets. This market should be carefully guarded from apples of
poor quality. Indeed, one method of improving the market generally is by
keeping low grade apples off the market entirely. Some growers find it more
profitable to make apples of B and lower grades into cider and other by-
products than to send them to market. More care in growing, grading and
packing fruit will mean profits instead of losses in the future.

A strong organization of fruit growers for the marketing of Massachusetts
apples should be able to create or find more profitable markets for good
grades of apples. An association of tliis sort could advertise more success-
fully than any individual. Advertising offers possibilities in building prefer-
ences for Massachusetts fruit in local markets; and it is also possible that
through well-planned advertising people may be led to use more apples.

Under present conditions, the careful grower will not plant more trees
until the market situation has been adjusted. Growing high grade fruit
will remain profitable, although it is possible that the increase in crop will
have some effect in lowering prices. Owners of small orchards are urged not
to increase their plantings unless they are prepared to give their trees the
same attention, and produce fruit of the same quality as that grown in tlie
larger orchards.

The growing demand for Mcintosh indicates that there will be little demand
for other native varieties reaching the market at the same time. Prices of
winter varieties will also be affected by the longer storage of Mcintosh.

A study of the apple market, including both domestic and foreign demand,
is now under way and will furnish definite information on the marketing
situation.

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110

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

Table II. Age of Apple Trees in Massachusetts, by Counties, 192-5

Barnstable

Berks

HIRE

Bristol

Essex

Age

Number

Per cent

Number

Percent

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

of

of

of

of

of

of

of

of

Trees

Total

Trees

Total

Trees

Total

Trees

Total

Under 5 years

2.871

52.8

11.864

53.7

5,483

24.1

13,362

20.0

5-9 years

597

11.0

1.630

7.4

4,237

18.7

9,431

14.1

10-14 years

561

10.3

6.333

28.7

8,513

37.6

11.198

16.6

15-19 years

798

14.7

1.883

8.6

3,265

14.4

3.932

5.9

20-29 years

170

3.1

150

.7

517

2.3

2.275

3.4

Over 30 years

260

4.8

198

.9

666

2.9

13.421

20.1

Unclassified

183
5,440

3.3
100.0

10
22,691

100.0

13 284

1Q Q

Total

22.058

100.0

66,903 1 100.0

Franklin

Hamp

3EN

Hampshire

Middlesex

Under 5 years

17.505

16.2

5.210

16.9

11,150

13.8

71,103

20.3

5-9 years

17.988

16.6

5.113

16.6

19,855

24.6

97,560

27.9

10-14 years

17.500

16.2

8.227

26.8

19,146

23.8

58,210

16.6

15-19 years

9.934

9.2

3.875

12.6

6.516

8.1

20,664

5.9

20-29 years

14,141

13.1

3.6.53

11.8

6.808

8.5

20,149

5.8

Over 30 years

17.526

16.2

4.016

13.1

10.500

13.0

59,345

16.9

Unclassified

13.488

12.5

683

2.2

6,598

8.2

23.046

6.6

Total

108,082 100.0

30.777

100.0

80,573

100.0

350.077

100,0

Norfolk

Plymo

UTH

Worcester

Total

Under 5 years

3,793

14.6

3.106

13.2

56,630

22.8

202.077

20.5

5-9 years

8,459

32.5

9.054

38.5

85,880

34.6

259.804

26,4

10-14 years

6,320

24.3

9.822

41.8

43,150

17.4

188.980

19.2

15-19 years

1,653

6.3

828

3.5

11,618

4.7

64.966

6.6

20-29 years

831

3.2

512

2.2

7,176

2.9

56,382

5.7

Over 30 years

1,189

4.5

195

.8

25,921

10.4

133.237

13,5

Unclassified

3.815

14.6

4

18,007

7.2

79.118 8.0

Total

26.060

100.0

23.521

100.0

248,382

100.0

984.564 100.0

Table III. Number of Fillers by Varieties,
Bearing and Non-Bearing, 192.5

Per cent

Variety

Non-bearing

Bearing

Total

of Total

Transparent ....

1.648

2,836

4,484

6.1

Astrachan

631

453

1,084

1.5

Williams .

108

590

698

.9

Duchess .

3.898

4,1.36

8,034

10.9

Wealthy ,

18.059

16.455

34.514

46.8

Mcintosh

5,188

4.432

9.620

13.0

Baldwin

200

1.228

1,428

1.9

Delicious ,

1,228

45

1,273

1.7

Wagener .

4,330

3.095

7.425

10.1

Others

1,068

4.235

5.303

7.1

Total ,

36,358

37,505

73.863

100.0

THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS

111

Table IV. Ajre nf Trees Planted as Fillers, 1925

Per cent

Age

Non-bearing

Bearing

Total

of Total

Under 5 years ....

21,595

21,595

29.2

5-9 years

14,763

11,256

26,019

35.3

10-14 years

22,701

22,701

30.7

15-19 years

3,093

3,093

4.2

20-29 years

391

391

.5

Unclassified

64

64

.T

Total .

36,358

37,505

73,863

100.0

Table V. Principal Varieties of Apples in Massachusetts — Bearing and
Non-Bearing Trees, 1925, with Commercial Production, 1924.

1

Non-Bearing

Commercial

Variety

Total Trees

Trees

Bearing

Trees

Production

Percent

Per cent

Number

Percent

Per cent

Number

of Total

Number

of Total

of Total

Bushels

of Total

Baldwin

387,863

39.4

108,285

29.5

279,578

45.2

788,471

51.5

Mcintosh

235,268

24.0

116,844

31.9

118,424

19.2

205,116

13.4

Wealthy .

65,857

6.7

29,415

8.0

36,442

5.9

66,284

4.3

Gravenstein

49,424

5.1

20,839

5.7

28,585

4.7

114,786

7.5

Delicious .

42,055

4.3

32,685

8.9

9,370

1.5

12,888

.8

Duchess

20,331

2.1

9,046

2.5

11,285

1.8

21,114

1.4

Transparent

16,252

1.6

6,743

1.8

9,509

1.5

20.461

1.3

Wagener .

15,472

1.5

5,751

1.6

9,721

1.6

*

*

Greening .

13,997

1.4

2,116

.6

11,881

1.9

26,079

1.7

Astrachan

13,545

1.3

6.089

1.6

7.456

1.2

22,247

1.5

Northern Spy .

10,919

1.1

3,166

.9

7.753

1.3

13,565

.9

Williams .

7,406

.7

2,249

.6

5,157

.8

17,370

1.1

Others

106,175

10.8

23 , 275

6.4

82,900

13.4

223,031

14.6

Total

984,564

100.0

366.503

100.0

618.061

100.0

1,531.412

100.0

* Production included in "Others"

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THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS

113

Table VIH. Average Number of Trees in Bearing Orchards
of Different Sizes, 1925

Size of Orchard in

Bearing

Non-Bearing

Total Trees

Per cent

Bearing Trees

Trees

Trees

per Orchard

Bearing

0

925

925

1-199

109

116

225

48.5

200-499

310

151

461

67.2

500-999

672

238

910

73.8

1000-1999

1,315

318

1,633

80.5

Over 2000

3,490

856

4.346

80.3

Average — all orchards

354

209

563

63.0

Table IX. Percentages of Trees and Production in
Orchards of Diflferent Sizes, 1925

Per cent of

Per cent of

Per cent of

Size of Orchard in

Per cent of

Non-Bearing

Bearing

Per cent of

1924

Bearing Trees

Growers

Trees

Trees

All Trees

Production

0

5.4

23.9

8.9

1-199

49.4

27.3

15.3

19.8

19.2

200-499

27.4

19.7

23.9

22.4

28.2

500-999

11.5

13.1

21.9

18.6

23.4

1000-1999

3.8

5.8

14.2

11.0

13.0

Over 2000

2.5

10.2

24.7

19.3

16.2

Total

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Table X. Commercial Production of Apples by Varieties,
Graded and Ungraded, 1924 (bushels)

Per cent

V'arlety

Graded

Ungraded

Graded

Total

Baldwin

285,038

503,433

36.4

788,471

Mcintosh

107,439

97,677

52.2

205,116

Wealthy .

28,001

38.283

42.4

66,284

Gravenstein

44,467

70,319

38.7

114,786

Delicious .

•

5,125

7.763

39.7

12,888

Duchess

8,227

12,887

38.9

21,114

Transparent

7.808

12,653

38.2

20,461

Greening .

7,970

18,109

30.5

26,079

Astrachan

7,579

14,668

34.1

22,247

Northern Spy

6.380

7,185

47.0

13,565

WilHams .

8.078

9,292

46,5

17.370

Others

41.778

181,253

18.7

223,031

Total Commercial Production

557,890

973,522

36.4

1.631.412

Total Culls. Ciders and Waste

181.328

Total Production .

1.712.740

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116

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 228

Table XIII. Percentages of Apples Sold by Different Methods,
bv Counties, 1924

Method of Sale

■

.t

_c

B
a;

•a

X

K

M

5

3

c

CQ

1

o

'C

CQ

c
S

a
E

a
E

•o
•o

O

E

2
1

"3

o
H

Door to Door

28.5

6.1

12.3

9.6

8.2

17.0

30.3

6.3

25.8

18.3

9.3

10.3

Roadside .

24.9

14.3

23.4

5.3

2.4

1.0

1.3

3.6

13.5

45.0

1.9

4.3

To Peddler

11.4

4.4

15.7

4.7

13.8

14.0

4.3

6.5

1.6

5.6

To Retailer

29.4

12.3

34.0

15.2

5.2

24.0

6.3

7.5

31.4

28.0

15.8

11.8

To Wliolesaler

1.7

11.0

19.2

9.0

4.6

17.5

7.7

8.7

16.0

10.8

To Country Buyer

1.2

27.4

65.0

11.1

16.6

17.5

5.0

2.1

18.6

18.1

On Commission

5.7

65.5

13.8

6.7

.7

27.2

10.0

47.0

8.9

29.2

33,9

Farmers' Market

.2

1.0

.7

6.4

.5

.6

Co-operatively

.9

2.4

2.1

5.6

2.3

For Export

.7

1.6

.1

3.0

1.5

2.0

Table XIV. Percentage of Summer, Fall and Winter Apples
Sold bv Different Methods, 1924

Method

Summer

Fall

Winter

Total

Direct to Consumer

6.2

6.5

12.3

10.3

Roadside Market .

8.8

6.4

3.0

4.3

Peddler

4.3

3.5

6.5

5.6

Retailer .

11.5

10.0

12.5

11.8

City Wholesaler

6.1

7.4

12.6

10.8

Country Buyer

8.9

11.2

21.7

18.1

On Commission

51.0

46.5

27.2

34.0

Farmers' Market

1.0

.8

.4

.5

Co-operatively

.1

4.7

1.5

2.3

For Export

1.7

2.4

2.0

2.1

^^ L1B«A«Y OF THE

iBSsadmsetts Agrlcidtural folt^gr,

AMHfiRST, MA^d.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 229 APRIL, 1926

SOIL REACTION AND BLACK
ROOT^ROT OF TOBACCO

By P. J. ANDERSON, A. VINCENT OSMUN and W. L. DORAN

Black root-rot is a serious menace to successful tobacco production
in the Connecticut Valley. The causal fungus is found in most tobacco
soils of the Valley. Low temperature during the growing season, and
high lime conditions in the soil, both stimulate its activity. Injury may
vary all the way from complete destruction of the crop, on heavily limed
soils in cold growing seasons, to a damage scarcely noticeable. Not only
does the root-rot depress yield, but it may injure quality of leaf as well.

There are but two known methods of combating the disease: first,
through control of lime conditions in the soil; and secondly, through the
use of root-rot resistant strains of tobacco. This bulletin reports results
of research on the former.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to

Agricultukai. Exi'LnoiENT Station

Amherst, Mass.

26. Order 5173.

SOIL REACTION AND
BLACK ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO

Bv P. J. ANDERSON, A. VINCENT OSMUN and W. L. DORANi

Black root-rot probably causes greater loss to the tobacco growers of the
United States than does any other disease. In the Connecticut Valley, accord-
ing to published records, it has caused varying amounts of damage since 1906.
It was probably prevalent long before that time, Init had escaped attention.
Within the last decade its ravages have been reduced considerably through
improved cultural practices, based on a better knowledge of the effect of cer-
tain environmental factors on the virulence of the disease. Nevertheless it
still takes its annual toll from the crop and, as one of the causes of "tobacco
sick" soils, is an important factor in tobacco production in Massachusetts.

SyMPTOivrs OF Black Root-Rot

The first symptom of the disease which the grower notices in tlie field is
that the tobacco doesn't grow. The plants remain stunted, with narrow, tliick,
tough leaves and either a starved yellow color or, where the nitrogen sujjply
is high, a \ery dark green color commonly called "black" by the tobacco man.
On hot days the leaves wilt and "flag" more quickly than healthy tobacco
plants. The dwarfed plants "top out" prematurely. Only rarely is a field
equally affected in all parts. Usually there are "patches" from a square rod
to several acres in extent, where the tobacco is short while in other parts of
the field ihe growth is normal. In the diseased "patches" the plants are fre-
quently very uneven in growth.

From the above ground symptoms, however, it is not possible for even an
expert to be sure that this is black root-rot. Other troubles such as brown
root-rot, lack of fertilizer, or water-logged soil may produce the same appear-
ance. One must dig the plants and wash the soil from the roots to see the
lesions which are the unmistakable signs of black root-rot. Normal young
roots are white, but on a diseased plant many are black (brown at first),
either throughout their length or frequently only in segments, with other
segments appearing normal. Most of the ends of the small roots are black,
indicating that in digging the plant, the root broke at this point and the de-
cayed end was left in the soil. The tissue of the smaller roots is rotted
through, but on the large roots tliere occur enlarged, rough, scurfy lesions
which may or may not kill the interior tissues. Frequently the tap root is
entirely rotted off at the bottom and there is an increased number of laterals.
This results in a brush-work of intermingled brown, black and white small
roots just above the blackened end of the main root. The brown lesions are
caused by the same organism {Thielavia basicola Zopf)2 which later produces
the black ones, the color depending on the age of the lesion. The character
which distinguishes this disease from all other tobacco diseases is the coal
black color of parts of the roots. I'lie reduced root system is unable to se-

1 During the first year of this investigation the work was conducted bj- G. H. Chap-
man, formerly research professor of Botany jit this Station.

2 McCormick (Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 269. 1925) considers this Th,cl,iiiv;>sh haskola
(Berk.) Ferraris.

BLACK ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO |j9

cure sufficient water and soil nutrients for normal growth of the above ground
parts of the plant, hence the dwarfed slow growth and "flagging"' on hot days.
Black root-rot may also occur in the seed-beds, where it exhibits the same
symptoms, viz., slow growth, yellow or "black" color of leaves, "flagging,"
and black rotted roots. Many of the plants also die. The beds look very
uneven.

Previous Investic.ations

In the first experiment station publication which recorded and described
the disease in the Connecticut Valley, Jenkins and Clinton (5:7)3 stated:

"It is not definitely known whetiier an acid, alkaline or a neutral soil is
best adapted to the growth of the fungus, which we know can grow in the soil
itself apart from the tobacco root, but it is reasonable to suppose that this
factor may have its influence."

Later (5:8):

"One of the growers whose fields suffered severely was inclined to lay it to
the excessive use year after year of potash fertilizers, which gradually accun)u-
lated in the soil, and especially to the use of the carbonate of potash."

The first, and up to the present date the most important, contribution on
the relation of soil reaction to root-rot was a brief circular by Briggs (1)
describing results of experiments in Connecticut in 1907. His conclusions ar^
best summarized in the following statements which we quote:

"The results of the writer's investigations thus far indicate that the tobacco
is much more severely injured by tlie fungus on fields where tlie soil has been
made alkaline by the long-continued use of large amounts of lime, ashes anf'
fertilizers containing carbonate of potash."

"In all cases it was found that the plots on which carbonate of ])otash wa"^
used gave the smallest plants and the lowest, yields. The use of lime with
the carbonate of potash still further diminished the yield. The use of car-
bonate of potash and lime with cottonseed meal and ground fish gave a yield
of but 900 pounds per acre. This yield was 200 pounds less to the acre than
when no fertilizer was used and was only a little more than half the yiel'^
obtained from some of the other plots."

In pot experiments he found that:

"In soils free from root-rot, the use of 1 per cent of lime gave a better
growth of tobacco than where no lime was used. This shows that the lime
does not injure the tobacco directly .... The use of hydro-chloric acid, on
the other hand, increased the yield by about 10 per cent although this acid
carries no plant food .... The root systems of the plants in all the pots to
which lime or carbonate of potash was added were badly diseased .... The
roots of the plants grown in acid-treated soil were perfectly clean and white,
and entirely free from the fungus."

All of Briggs' experiments were with naturally infested soils from fields
where the soil acidity had been greatly reduced by use of alkaline fertilizers
and lime. The reaction of the soil was not determined either before or aftc
the treatments which he applied.

Johnson and Hartman (7:53-60) determined the influence of soil reaction
on root-rot by growing plants in pots after adding graduated quantities of

.3 Numbers in parenthesis refer to bibliography at the end of this bulletin. Num-
bers after the colon give the page on which statement referred to may be found.

120 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 229

calcium hydroxide to a naturally very acid soil inoculated with macerated
diseased roots. Acidity was determined in terms of lime requirement accord
ing to the Truog method. From these experiments they concluded that:

" . . . . tiie highest acidity practically eliminated damage from root-rot,
but that heavy infection still occurred in fairly acid soil."

When they inoculated all t!ie soils heavily vvitii spores of the fungus just
before planting, they found that:

"A heavy infestation apparently reduced the efficacy of the acid soils to
nothing, at least in the presence of a susceptible variety. Tlie disease ap-
peared, in fact, more virulent in the most acid soil."

This last experiment indicates that the effect of tlie acid soil is not to
increase the resistance of the plant l)ut to retard tlie development of the
fungus.

Tiiey also tested in tlie field Hic elTcct of application of acid fertilizers and
concluded that:

"For Wisconsin conditions .... application of acid fertilizers to soil, alka-
line or neutral in reaction, will not reduce infection by T. basicola."

Chapman (2) in connection with an investigation of "tobacco sick" soils of
Massachusetts made 300 determinations of the lime requirement of tobacco
soils and correlated tiiem rouglily with the condition of tiie crop and pre-
valence of root-rot. He concludes (2:38) that:

"Soils with a lime requirement up to 3000 pounds CaO per acre are not
producing good crops as a rule and are comparatively free from root-rots.
Those with a lime requirement of from 3000 to 8000 pounds CaO per acre
are in good tobacco condition; but in this group, pathogenic fungi are abund-
ant in the soil, and the plants during certain seasons, are very liable to suffer
from root-rots caused by some of these fungi. Soils with a lime requirement
of 8000 pounds CaO up are usually comparatively free from such fungi, and
even in unfavorable seasons, Itttle disease is foimd."

He explains the relative freedom from root-rot of the soils which show the
lowest lime requirement by assuming that these soils are too alkaline for the
development of the fungus. His results on this point are at variance with
those of Johnson and Hartman. The poor yield is attributed to the unfavor-
able effect of a too alkaline soil on ihe tobacco plant.

Chapman questioned the lime requirement method as a means of measuring
the acidity of the soils.

Need of Fuutheb Investigation

We may suirunarize the results of all the investigations recorded up to the
present: A soil made less acid by the use of lime, carbonate of potash, or
ashes favors the development of black root-rot. When, however, the acidity
is increased, there is a corresponding reduction in amount of root-rot injury
until a point is reached where it is negligil)le. In regard to the particular
degree of acidity which must be attained to escape root-rot and, in general,
the correlation of reaction and infection throughout the soil range, Briggs
gives no information while Johnson and Hartman and Chapman had contra-
dictory results. In view of this situation and the fact that it is now commonly
accepted that the development of fungi is proportionate to intensity of acid-
ity as measured by the liydrogen ion concentration method, rather than the
amount of acidity, as measured by the lime requirement method, there seemed
to be need for further experimentation.

BLACK ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO

121

Two related problems concerned (1) the effect of lime on tobacco in the
absence of root-rot and (2) the eftect of the timothy cover crop.

In regard to the first, it is safe co assume that the growers considered lime
beneficial, else it would not have come into such general use. Briggs found
tluit 1 per cent of lime in disease-free soil increased growth. Hartwell and
Damon (3:437) include tobacco among the lime loving plants. McCall (9)
reports that, on heavy loam soil in Maryland, lime increased the yield of to-
bacco, but that direct applications of lime tended to lower the quality of the
leaf. Hutcheson and Berger (4:7) found that, in Virginia, lime at first gave
a larger yield but the tobacco was coarse and "bony." In the later years of
the experiments, however, they found the tobacco reduced both in quantity
and quality by lime. It is (piite possible tliat in this case the later effects
were due to root-rot rather than to the direct effect of lime. This is true in
other similar experiments where the first effects were good but in later years
there was a reduction. Since in most cases root-rot is not mentioned, one
cannot be sure whether the experimenter was measuring the effect of the
lime or of root-rot. This difficulty renders worthless most of the literature
on the effect of lime on tobacco.

During the last decade, the use of timothy as a cover crop has come into
considerable favor with tobacco growers of the Connecticut Valley. It re-
duces washing and l)lowing of ti)e light soils during the long period between
tobacco crops and also adds considerable humus to the soil. S',>me growers
also have the impression that it reduces black root-rot by neutralizing in some
way the ill effect of lime. When this experiment was begun tiiere were no
published records of experiments to determine the effect of its use on the suc-
ceeding crops of tobacco. It became desirable, tiierefore, to test by accurate
experiments its immediate and cimiulative effects.

The Five- Year Experiment

In 1921 a series of experiments was, therefore, started for the purpose of
answering these three questions:

1. What effect does application of lime have on growth of toliacco in the
absence of root- rot?

2. What is the relation between severity of infection and acidity as mea-
sured by hydrogen ion concentration ?4

3. What is the effect of a timothy cover crop on the yield and quality of
tobacco and on the severity of root-rot?

During the last five seasons Havana tobacco has been grown continuously
on a field of 1.2 acres on the experiment station farm where no tobacco has
been previously raised -for at least 8 years. The soil is apparently of the
Gloucester series. The field was divided into 24 plots of 1-20 acre each
according to the diagram presented in figure I. It will be noted from this
diagram that limed strips of plots alternated with uniimed strips in one direc-
tion; while at right angles, there were duplicate strips of plots (1) without

4 In measuring reaction in terms of hydrogen ion concentration method, a neutral
soil or other substance is designated by the number pH 7, acid substances by the
numbers below 7, alkaline substances by those above 7 up to 14. Thus a soil desig-
nated by 6 is slightly acid; 5, much m.ore so; 4, more than 5; etc. We are not con-
cerned here with the alkaline end of the scale since all our tobacco soils are naturally
acid, and fall within the range from 4 to 7. Even when a large amount of lime is
applied, they do not remain above 7 for any considerable time. The degrees of acid-
ity are usually written pH 5, pll 4.5, etc.

;j22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 229

oover crop (2) with timothy cover crop and (3) with clover cover crop. 5. One-
half of the field was inoculated while the duplicate half was not inoculated.
All cultivation was in the direction of the cover crop strips, thus avoiding as
far as possible carrying the fungus to the uninoculated half.

The limed plots were treated year by year as follows:

1921, ground limestone, 4000 lbs. per acre

1922, precipitated lime (51 per cent CaO), 2000 "

1923, agricultural lime (60 " " CaO), 4000 "

1924, no lime

1925, no lime

The fertilizers applied each year just before setting the plants are described
in the following table.

Fertilizers Used — Pounds per Acre

Material 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925

Cottonseed Meal 1200 1200 1481 11:70 828

Ammonium Sulfate

120

120

62

90

100

Dry Ground Fish

180

180

247

195

200

Acid Phosphate

160

160

Precipitated Bone

120

120

432

276

H. G. Sulfate of Potash

240

240

278

252

280

Ammo-Phos

234

Total rate per acre 2020 2020* 2500t 2083J 1642}

* Plus a (luickly available side dressing at the second hoeing,
t Plus 250 lbs. nitrate of soda per acre applied in July.
i Equivalent to 3000 lbs. per acre of a 5-4-5 fertilizer.

That iialf of the iield wliich was inoculated (see Figure I) was first inocu-
lated in 1921 by setting in it diseased plants taken from a badly infested .seed
bed. In order to secure heavier infection on the inoculated half, a handful
of soil from a heavily infested greenhouse bed was placed in the furrow
where each plant was set in 1922. The inoculated half of the field was again
inoculated just before setting the plants in 1923, when two cartloads of heavily
infested soil from a greenhouse bed were scattered broadcast over it and
harrowed in.

Timothy and clover cover crops were sown after harvesting the tobacco in
1921, 1922, and 1923. None were sown in 1924.

Soil samples for pH determination were taken from all plots each year,
and the hydrogen ion concentrations which were determined are recorded in
Table 1.6 These soil samples were taken before the ground was broken in

5 Since the clover winter-killed every year, its effect if any must be attributed to
the very small growth between sowing and freezing of the soil.

6 These and subsequent determinations were made by F. W. Morse, Henri D.
Haskins, and L. S. Walker, chemists on the staff of the Massachusetts Agricultural
Kxperiment Station. The determinations were made on air dried soils by the Clark
and Lubs colorimetric method. The water extract was made by adding 200 cc. of
distilled water to 20 grams of air-dry soil in a flask and allowing it to stand about 1
hour with frequent shaking. The extract was then filtered by turning the soil mixture
on a small filter in a large funnel. The first portions of the filtrate were returned to
the soil flask until the extract was running clear By this time, the paper was filled
with soil, and the filtration was throiigh soil supported by a small paper. By this
means, any absorption by the paper was reduced to its lowest terms.

BLACK ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO

123

.5 0^

Cfi ^

w

s

TS

hJ

<v

T3

fe

C

o

u

u

;j24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 229

May in 1922, 1923, and 1924, and in April, 1925.

During each growing season observations on growtli were recorded. Im-
mediately after the crop was harvested roots from each plot were examined
for black root-rot.

No yield records were taken in 1921 because of tlie uneven stand, due prin-
cipally to setting at different periods. When the crop of 1922 was harvested,
160 plants from the four center rows of each plot were weighed. These green
weights are recorded in Table I. At the time of harvesting in 1923, 192-t-, and
192-5, the tobacco from each entire plot, except for the borders, was hung,
stripped, and cured separately. The weights of cured leaves are tabulated
by plots in Table I, and the results summarized in Table II. Sorting records
for the crop of 1925 were made, and the percentage for each grade and
length of leaf in each plot is given in Table III.

The work and results of each of the last four years are presented separately
before discussing conclusions from the whole experiment.

Season of 1922

Throughout the summer it was apparent that (1) the timothy strips were
making a poorer growth than those which had no cover crop or had clover;
(2) the limed plots were making a better growth than the corresponding un-
limed plots both on the inoculated and uninoculated parts of the field; (3)
the inoculated half was not making as much growth as the uninoculated.
These field observations were all substantiated l)y the yield records as given
in Table I and summarized in Table II. This siiows that by liming there was
a. gain of 12 per cent both on inoculated and uninoculated plots; by the use
of a timothy cover crop there was a loss of 13 per cent on the inoculated
and 18 per cent on the uninoculated half; and finally that the inoculated half
was 15 per cent lighter all through than the uninoculated' half. After cutting
the tobacco, some of the roots from each plot were dug and washed. Lesions
were found on practically all of the roots from the inoculated plots, but were
not much worse on the limed than on the unlimed plots. They were located
especially on the large roots at the bottom of th.e stalk where the roots had
to grow through the handful of infested earth that was deposited at planting
time. A few lesions were found on the roots from the uninoculated half.

In 1922 the use of lime was associated with an increase in the yield of to-
bacco, and was not associated with any great increase in the amount of root-
rot.

This year there was a decided loss in weight of tobacco following the tim-
othv cover crop. The percentage of loss from timothy was not as heavy on
the inoculated half as on the uninoculated half.

Inoculated plots uniformly yielded a lighter crop than uninoculated, al-
though examination of the roots did not indicate very severe infection. Most
of the injury was in the region where the handful of infested soil was in con-
tact with the roots and not general over the whole root system.

Season of 1923

About the middle of the summer it became apparent that in the infected
half of the field the tobacco on the limed strips was lagging behind the un-
limed strips in growth. This diiference increased throughout the summer. The

BLACK ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO

125

fact tliat a siiiiilar difference was not apparent on the uninoculated half
indicated that the dwarfing effect was due to the influence of lime on the
root-rot. Wlien the roots were examined it was found that (1) the disease
was very bad on all the inoculated limed plots, (2) the lesions were fairly
prevalent on the roots of the unlimed inoculated plots (but much less so than
on the limed plots), (3) there were frequent lesions on the uninoculated limed
})]ots, and (4) only rarely could a lesion be found on the uninoculated, un-
limed plots.

Tlie results noted in 1923 may be summarized as follows;: In the inoculated
half of the field, the yield on limed plots was 16 per cent less than the yield
on unlimed plots. In the uninoculated half of tlie field, the yield on limed
plots was still 7 per cent more than the yield on unlimed plots, l-ut this was
a drop of 12 per cent from the previous year. On the inoculated half of the
field even the unlimed plots suffered some loss from black root-rot, the yield
being about 8 per cent less than on unlimed plots in the uninoculated j)art
of the field.

In 1923 there was a small loss from the use of timothy, and, as in the pre-
ceding year, this loss was less on the inoculated than on the uninoculated plots.

Season of 1924

It became apparent early in the season that the limed plots were making a
nmch poorer growth than the corresponding unlimed ones. This was particu-
larly striking on the inoculated half, but it was also quite apparent from the
poor growth that there were many places in the uninoculated half where root-
rot was doing serious danage. It was plainly evident that root-rot was no
longer confined to the inoculated end of the lime strijjs but that it was now
present even to the extreme opposite end. A second very apparent fact was
that there were some very good plots of tobacco (unlimed) in the inoculated
])art of the field, showing that the effect of very thorough inoculation was
not lasting wlien the soil condition was not riglit. These observations during
the growing season were substantiated by examination of the roots after the
crop was harvested. It was then found that, irrespective of inoculation, the
number of lesions was very small on all plots which liad not been limed. On
the limed strips, lesions were particularly numerous on the roots from the
inoculated plots; but many of the roots from the other end were in just as
serious condition, while others were relatively free. This indicated that on
the uninoculated limed plots, the infestation was still uneven. Nevertheless
it seemed to be spreading rapidly in these. The cured weights per acre as
given in Tables I and II showed a loss from liming of 17 per cent on the
inoculated plots and 12 per cent on the uninoculated plots.

In 1924, the fourth year of the experiment, the loss from black root-rot on
limed plots was more severe than in the previous years, although no lime was
applied this year.

In the unlimed plots, the amount of root-rot was small, whether or not the
plots were inoculated. The yield on the inoculated plots was only 4 per cent"
less than on the corresponding uninoculated plots.

For the third successive year a reduction in yield was associated with the
use of the timothy cover crop.

126

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 229

Season of 1925

The effect of lime on black root-roL and jield and the effect of timothy cover
crop on yield were ne\er more conspicuous than in 1925, ulthougii no cover
crops had been planted and no lime applied since 1923.

Tiiroughout the season growth was much superior in unlimed plots to
growth in limed plots. It was apparent that on plots which had had a cover
crop of tunothy in- previous years the tobacco was making a better growth
than on plots which had never had a cover crop of timothy. In otiier words,
the depressing effect of timothy which had been observed in previous years
was not in evidence after this coyer crop was omitted for one year. Tl^ere
was no visible difference in growtii between the inoculated and uninoculated
halves of the field. It was evident that, regardless of inoculation, black root-
rot was causing loss in all limed plots.

When the roots from all plots were examined at harvest time, an average of
98 per cent of the plants in all limed plots was found to be severely infected
with black root-rot. In unlimed plots an average of only 14 per cent of the
plants showed symptoms of this disease, and infection on them was slight. The
previous cover crop was found not to affect the amount or severity of black
root-rot. Infection, as revealed by the examination of the roots, was the same
on the inoculated and uninoculated parts of the field. Brown root-rot was
slightly more pronounced on limed than on unlimed plots, but the difference
was small.

The soil in limed plots had, in April 1925, pH values from 6.4 to 7.0. In
all these, plants were severely infected and there were no visible differences
between them as regards infection. The soil in unlimed plots ranged in pH
values from 4.5 to 5.0. Infection in these plots was absent or slight, and there
were no appreciable differences between them.

In 1925 the yield on inoculated plots was no less than the yield on plots
not inoculated. The black root-rot fungus was evidently present in all plots,
but had not become established in unlimed plots because of unfavorable soil
conditions. It had, however, become established in limed but uninoculated
plots. The black root-rot fungus is probably present in all tobacco soils,
but it is evident that it causes no loss in soils having a reaction unfavorable
to the fungus.

The average reduction in yield due to liming (35 per cent) was greater in
1925 than in any previous year of the experiment, although no lime was ap-
plied in either 1924 or 1925. During this two-year period without more lime
added, the soil in the limed strips had, however, become slightly less acid.
The omission of lime for two years on land on which tobacco was grown con-
tinuously did not result in any immediate relief from black root-rot. The
greater loss in 1925 was probably not directly due to any change in the soil
reaction, but to the fact that the soil is becoming more completely infested
with the fun ens.

The injurious action of lime as expressed in black root-rot was not more
pronounced in its effect on yield than on quality and value. This is recorded
in Table III under per cent darks, seconds, mediums, fillers, and brokes. The
average per cent mediums and seconds on limed plots was 6, and on unlimed
plots 22. The average per cent fillers on limed plots was 39 and on unlimed
plots 17.

In 1924, for the third consecutive year, the use of timothy cover crop was
associated with a reduction in yield. No cover crop was sown in 1924. In

BLACK ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO

127

192.5 tlie plots wliich had previously had a timothy cover crop yielded more
tiian plots on which a cover crop had never been grown. The average in-
crease of plots which had had timothy cover crop o^er plots which had had
no cover crop was 17 per cent. The increase following timothy was greater
on limed than on unlimed areas. An examination of roots showed that after
the omission of timothy cover crop for one year there was no significant
difference between the amount or severitj^ of brown root-rot on plots witii
and without timothy cover crop. The depressing effect of timothy cover croj)
on tobacco seems to disappear if the cover crop is omitted for but a single
year.

Discussion of the Five-Yeak Experiment as a Whole

Occurrence of Thielavm in Tobacco Soils and Rate of Infestation

This fungus probably occurs to a limited extent in all of our soils. It has
been shown that it occurs on the roots of nearly a hundred other species of
plants besides tobacco (6). Many of these are common cultivated and weed
plants. Further investigation would undoubtedly show that there are many
other hosts. But even though its host plants were not present — they do not
seem to be necessary — it apparently lives indefinitely in the soil on dead or-
ganic matter. In the examination of tobacco roots from fields which appeared
quite normal and healthy above ground there are usually found occasional
lesions of black root-rot. The reason that most Connecticut Valley tobacco
fields do not suffer severely from black root-rot is not the absence of the
fungus, but the maintenance of a soil condition which is unfavorable for its
rapid propagation. Soil reaction is probably the most influential factor. An
extensive survey of Massachusetts tobacco soils has not been made, but those
which have been tested have been fairly acid with a reaction ranging between
pH 4.5 and 5.8 except where they have been limed within a few years. With-
in this range there seems to be very little spread and the degree of infesta-
tion is light. But when raised above this range by application of lime or
other alkaline substances, conditions are made more favorable to growth of
Thielavia and the soil becomes more heavily infested. Increase in degree of
infestation however is a slower process than has been commonly supposed.
Most investigators of the disease have assumed that when acidity was re-
duced the disease would immediately become serious. In our own experi-
ments it was not until the second year after liming was started that a high
infestation was secured. We have seen a number of cases where growers
have applied lime or wood ashes and the effect the first year was an increase
in the yield of tobacco. It was only in the second or third year after liming
that the trouble became serious. Hutcheson and Berger (4:7) noticed in
their experiments that the first effect of lime was beneficial but its ultimate
effect was to reduce the yield. It has been the common experience of those
who have tried to produce the disease by soil inoculation that their first at-
tempts were unsatisfactory. Since infection of the roots is local, i.e., the
fungus does not travel far from the point where it enters the root, the amount
of damage is in direct proportion to the number of places at which the root
lias been infected by the fungus. The degree of soil infestation must there-
fore be hiffh before the disease becomes serious.

^O^^ MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION P.ULLETIN 229

Similarly it is probable that a return of infested soil to a more acid Cvindi-
tion will not be immediately followed by a great reduction in the amoimt of
black root-rot. The results in 192.5 indicate thai the omission of lime and the
continuous culture of tobacco do not quickly result in the disappearance of
black root-rot injury. Further field work on this point is in })ronres&.

Effect, of Lime on Yield of Tobacco in the Absence of Root-Rot

It has been previously mentioned (p. 121) that certain investigators have
found that the yield of tobacco was increased by liming the soil, and one of
the objects of the work at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station
was to determine whether such was the case under our conditions and if so,
to measure the extent of increase. This was also a necessary preliminary to
drawing any conclusion as to the effect of liming on root-rot. No records of
yields for the first year of the experiment (1921) were made. The records of
the second year show an increase of 12 per cent on both the inoculated and
uninoculated parts of the field. Theoretically, this should have been larger
the first year, since root-rot must have taken a slight toll the second year.
During the third year the loss from root-rot more than counterbalanced the
gain from lime on the inoculated part, and there was a total loss of Ifi per
cent. Even on the uninoculated part, root-rot was beginning to reduce the
gain which would otherwise have been anticipated from liming, but there was
still a final gain of 7 per cent on this half. During the fourth year of the
experiment, root-rot had increased to such an extent that it more than over-
came the benefit of the lime on the uninoculated part, and we had a final
loss even on that side of 12 per cent as opposed to a 17 per cent loss on the
inoculated part. In 192.5 root-rot had increased so nuich that the benefit of
lime was overcome even more and tiie loss was about 35 per cent on both the
inoculated and uninoculated areas. This is a nuicli greater loss than could
have been predicted, since at the previous rate of progress the loss would
have been about 17 per cent.

In answer to the first question which was proposed as the object of this
experiment we may state that the immediate effect of lime in this soil was to
increase the yield. In this case it was 12 per cent the second year. Undouiit-
edly, the degree of increase from liming depends on the reaction of the soil
before application is made. On a soil less acid tlian this, one would hardly
expect the same degree of increase.

Hoza Acid Sliould the Soil Be?

It has again been demonstrated that the ultimate effect of heavy applica-
tions of lime is to increase root- rot and thus reduce yield. The facts that (1)
neutral calcium salts such as land plaster do not produce this effect and (2)
other alkaline substances such as carbonate of potash do produce it, show that
the influencing factor is not the calcium but the alkaline character of the
lime. The less acid or neutral soil thus produced does not render the tobacco
plant more susceptible to attack but it favors the growth of the fungus and
results in a larger number of lesions on the root system. Although there are
probably no tobacco soils free from Thielavia, it is apparent that many of
them, by virtue of their acid reaction, are so nearly free that their infestation
is negligible; while others, by virtue of their less acid reaction, are so heavily

BLACK ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO ^29

infested as to render prclitabJe tobacco growing impossible. The all import-
ant question now is: Just where is the dividing line between safety and
certain loss? Just what degree of acidity must a soil possess in order to be
safe from root rot?

The data on the soil and crop of 1924 are valuable in determining the loca-
tion of the dividing line, because at that time the soil must have more nearly
reached an equilibrium after the treatment of tiie three preceding years, and
because this equilibrium was not disturbed by artificial inoculation or applica-
tion of lime in 1924.. Correlating for that year the root inspection records,
t!ie yield and sorting records and tiie soil reaction records, we find that root-
rot was not serious on any of the twelve ]ilots wliich had an average reaction
of slightly over 5; but that it caused serious damage on all the inoculated
and most of the uninoculated plots with an average of 5.9. By using indi
vidual plot records it may be confined more closely. Especially instructive is
the record of plot 13 which kept a reaction of 5.5-5.6 throughout the three
years and which was inoculated as thoroughly as any other plot in the field
for three years; but on the 4th year only an occasional lesion on the roots
could be found and it was the best plot in the field. Similarly, an inspection
of the individual limed plots indicates pretty severe loss at 5.8.

In 1925, soil reactions were determined in April and in October. The pH
values were found to have changed considerably during the growth of the
tobacco in 1925. This was especially conspicuous in the limed plots, in which
the soil became more acid, probably because of the removal of some of the
lime by the crop. The pH values determined in April are indicative of the
environment in which the crop grew. The reaction of plots without lime was
between pH 4.5 and 5.0, and in these plots black root-rot caused no apparent
loss. Limed plots had pH values between 6.4 and 6.9, and in all of them black
root-rot caused serious damage. There were this year no plots having pH
values between 5.0 and 6.4, and so tiie critical point cannot be located any
more closely than has been done above on the basis of the results in 1924.

Experiments in pots in the greenhouse, which are to be described in a later
paper, have led us to the conclusion that loss from black root-rot occurs
whenever the pH value of the soil is 5.9 or higher, and that loss from black
root-rot does not occur at pH 5.6 or below, except in exceptionally cold soils.

We may therefore conclude that the critical point is somezehere between
b.6 and 5.9. It is apparent however that there cannot be in reality a critical
point but rather a critical region, below which damage from root-rot may be
expected to be little if any, and above which root-rot is almost certain to
cause trouble. There are at lea.st three reasons why this region cannot be
defined more accurately than the limits given above:

1. The transition from a soil reaction unfavorable for growth of Thielavia
to a reaction which favors is a matter of degree — not of plus and minus.

2. During a very warm summer the critical region would probably be
higher since a higher soil temperature reduces the effect of root-rot, as has
been shown experimentally by Johnson and Hartman (7:60). A cold summer
on the other hand would probably depress the critical region toward the acid
range.

3. On compact, poorly drained soil black root-rot is commonly worse than
in looser soil in the same field, due probably to the difference in the rate of
leaching and to lower soil temperature. This also is in accord with the experi-
mental results of Johnson and Hartman (7:80). It is not improbable that

130

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 229

on such a soil the location of tlie critical region would be lower. On the
basis of the yields of the last three years it may be stated that, as the acidity
of the soil becomes less above 5.9, the loss caused by black root-rot becomes
greater. (The upper limit of alkalinity has not been determined.) Plots on
the limed areas in this experiment may be placed in four groups on the basis
of the pH values of their soils. These are correlated with average yields as
follows :

pH 5.9 to 6.1 — yield 1233 pounds

" 6.1 " 6.2 — " 1183

" 6 2 " 6.3 — " 1120

" 6 3 " 6.4 — " 1039

We have, then, quantitative evidence of the increasing injury from black
root- rot which results when by the addition of the lime the soil is made less
and less acid to a point beyond pH 5.9.

Huw Muck Lime Moy De Used with Safety?

If the soil has reached such a pomt, and if it is seriously infested with the
black root-rot fungus, what then may be done? If no further lime is applied
and if tobacco is continuously grown on such soil, the loss of lime by leach-
ing and by removal in the plant will gradually result in a more acid condi-
tion. Of course the loss from black root- rot may be so great as to make to-
bacco growing on such land unprofitable. Continuous tobacco, no further lim-
ing, and the use of acid fertilizers, such as sulfate of ammonia and sulfate
of potash, are all the remedial measures to be suggested at this time. A
quicker method of increasing soil acidity is desirable, and this matter is now
imder investigation.

The Effect of Timothy

Since timothy is extensively used and widely recommended as a cover crop
for tobacco soils, it was assumed at the outset that it was known to increase
the yield of tobacco by virtue of the organic matter which was added to the
soil or the plant food which was saved from leaching through its use. It was
included in the present experiment to see whether it influenced the damage
from black root-rot and as a check against the clover cover crop which was
supposed to increase root-rot because it is a host plant of Thielavia. At the
end of the iirst season, therefore, it was a surprise to find that both the in-
oculated and uninoculated timothy plots showed a reduction in yield — 13 per
cent and 18 per cent on the inoculated and uninoculated plots respectively.
It could not have been a result of the timothy depleting the soil water be-
cause 1922 was an extremely wet year. Losses from the use of timothy both
on the inoculated and uninoculated plots, but in a smaller degree, were also
recorded in 1923 and 1924. Certain plots at times showed small increases
over adjacent plots without cover, but considering the experiment as a whole,
the conclusion is inescapable that the effect of timothy has been to decrease
both the yield and value of the tobacco. This is in agreement with data re-
cently published by Jones (8) who reports an average decrease in yield of 13
per cent associated with the use of the timothy cover crop. The percentages

BLACK ROOT- ROT OF TOBACCO

131

of loss during two of the years were not so high on tlie inoculated as on the
iininoculated plots, but the reverse was true the third year. Certainly there
was not, on the whole, sufficient evidence from either the yield data or the
examination of the roots to prove that timothy iiad any influence on the pre-
valence or severity of black root-rot.

In 1925, after one year's omission of cover crops, the plots which had had
timothy cover crops yielded 17 per cent more than the plots which had never
had cover crop. It would appear from this that the depressing effect of
timothy cover crop quickly disappears and is replaced by a beneficial effect
when the cover crop is not sown for one year. This increase following timothy
after an interval of one year was greater on limed than on imlimed plots.
In this connection it is interesting to consider the previous depressing effect
of timothy on limed versus unlimed plots. For the three years previous to
1925, the average reduction in yield associated with the use of timothy cover
crop was 5 per cent on limed plots and 10 per cent on unlimed plots.

When the roots of the plants on the timothy plots were compared with
those on the adjacent plots without cover in years previous to 1925, it was
found that many of the laterals — especially the lower ones — were brown and
dead. The symptoms were quite typical of the disease which is now com-
monly called brown root-rot. The disease was not entirely lacking in any of
the plots but was certainly more pronounced on the timothy plots. On the
timothy plots which had been limed, black root-rot was also present, and it
was not always possible to separate the influence of the two; but on the un-
limed plots the brown root-rot was unmistakable. Brown root-rot, then, is
apparently one of the causes of depressed yields on the timothy plots. It is
known that timothy in rotation encourages this disease, and it is not surjiris-
ing that we should now find the same effect from timothy used as a cover
crop. This, however, is not a satisfying explanation, because we do not yet
know what brown root-rot is. Whether or not it is caused by soil organisms
or by toxins or malnutrition has never been determined. We are not even
sure that all the tobacco-sick soil troubles which we include xmder the title
of brown root-rot are the same. The only characters they have in common
are the presence of some dead brown roots and consequent reduced growth.

Pure Cultttue FiXPERUiENTs on the
Relation of H-iox Concentration to Growth of Thielavia

From the preceding, it is apparent that the adverse effect of iime on tobacco
is due to the favorable influence of an alkaline reaction on tlie growth of
Thielavia. In order to see whether this conclusion is supported by growth
of the fungus in pure culture, synthetic culture media (Czapek's) were pre-
pared and adjusted to the following reactions: 1.5, 2.0, 3 05, 3.45, 3.8, 3.9, 4.25,
4.55, 5.35, 6.05, 6.2, 7.2, 7.9, 8.55, 8.9, 9.6, 9.9, 11.05, 12.1, and 12.9. The reac-
tions were determined both colorimetrically and electrometrically. Three
series of cultures were made, one in tubes and the others in Petri dishes.
Records of measurements and notes on growth were made at intervals of 3
or 4 days. Briefly summarized, the results were: On all cultures between
6.05 and 12.9 the growth consisted of a dense black mat of mycelium on the
surface and dark hyphae under the agar. Both chlamydo.spores and conidia
were produced in great abundance. Within this range no difference in char-
acter or quantity of growth could be observed. Apparently the reaction was

1.32

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 22!)

optimum throughout this entire range. But below this it was otherwise. At
5.35 the rapidity of growth began to decrease. Below 5.35, all growth on the
surface ceased and even under the surface it was progressively more scanty
down to 3.05. Below this, growth ceased altogether. The production of
chlamydospores also decreased progressively with the scantiness of growth
until there were none at all at 3.05. A few conidia were produced even to
the most acid point where mycelium grew.

Since in pure culture the fungus will grow even at reactions which are more
acid than any tobacco soils, it is pertinent to ask why we do not have loss
from root-rot below 5.5. The answer is probably to be found in the dilference
between conditions which the fungus encounters in a sterile artificial medium
and what it encounters in its natural medium, the soil. In the latter case it
meets keen competition from other soil organisms and it is only the strong
vigorous growers that get the available food and tiirive. But, as was noted
above, Thielavia at 5.35 is beginning to lose its vigor and at more acid ranges
it dwindles to nothing. When in its weakened condition due to unfavorable
reaction it is being crowded out by other organisms better adapted to acid
conditions, it is not strange that Thielavia should iie able to nuike but little
headway at 5.35 or lower. Incidentally it should be kept in mind that Thie-
lavia does occur sparingly on roots m more acid soils, and the lesions are just
as pronounced but are not numerous enough to cause much loss. The critical
point at which vigor of growth begins to diminish is thus lower than (J.Oo
and higher than 5.35. Thus it nuist fall somewhere in iiie region which we
have called the critical region, and the results from the pure culture tests
support those of the field tests.

SUMSIARY

1. The immediate effect of liming an acid soil was to increase the yield of
tobacco.

2. If sufficient lime is added, black root-rot is ultimately promoted, and
there is consequently a reduction in yield.

3. Black root-rot is present in i7iost soils but is more injurious in nearly
neutral soils because the causal fungus, Thielavia baaicold, grows more rip-
idly and vigorously in a nearly neutral medium.

4. In the field under experimentation, black root-rot caused little or no
loss in soils more acid than pH 5.6. It caused severe loss on all soils less
acid than pH 5.9. It should be understood that this critical region between
pH 5.6 and 5.9 is an intermediate zone which may be shifted to a somewh;it
higher or lower position by variations in temperature and compactness of soil,
and by differences in the degree of infestation of the fungus in the soil.
Growth of the fungus in pure culture on media confirmed the results in tlie
field.

5. As the soil becomes less acid above pH 5.9, the loss from black root-rot
increases. The upper limit of alkalinity has not been determined.

6. After repeated applications of lime brought the soil reaction to a point
favorable to the fungus, the omission of Ume for two years, with tobacco grown
continuously meanwhile, did not result in any iinmediate reduction in the
severity of black root-rot.

BLACK ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO

13^

7. If, because of extreme acidity, lime is considered necessary, it should be
applied with great caution and in small applications, always preceded by
determinations of soil reaction in order to avoid approaching too closely the
danger point of pH 5.9.

8. The use of timothy cover-crop was found to have no significant effect
on the prevalence of black root-rot.

9. The use of timothy cover-crop reduced the yield of tobacco for tiiree
consecutive years. This effect was associated with brown root-rot.

10. When timothy cover crop was omitted for one year, the depressing
effect of timothy quickly disappeared and was replaced by a beneficial effect.
In these experiments the yield on plots so treated exceeded by 17 per cent
those without cover crop.

laxEUATuui: Cited

1. Briggs, L. J. The field treatment of tol)acco root-rot. U. S. Dept. Agr.

Bur. Plant Indus. Circ. 7: 5-8. 1908.

2. Chapman, G. H. Tobacco investigations, progress report. Mass. Agr.

Expt. Sta. Bui. 195: 1-38. 1920.

3. Hartwell, B. L. and S. C. Damon. The comparative effect on different

kinds of ])lants of liming an acid soil. R. I. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 160:
407-446. 1914.

4. Hutcheson, T. B. and D. J. Berger. Experiments with briglit toliacco and

other crops grown on bright tobacco farms. Va. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui.
233: 3-19. 1923.

5. Jenkins, E. H. and G. P. Clinton. Root-rot of tol)acco. Conn. Agr. Expt.

Sta. Bui. of Immediate Information 4: 1-11. 1906.

6. Johnson, James. Host plants of Thielavia basicola. Jour. Agr. Res. 7:

289-300. 1916.

7. Jolinson, James and R. E. Hartman. Influence of soil environment on the

root-rot of tobacco. Jour. Agr. Res. 17= 41-86. 1919.

8. Jones, J. P. Havana seed tobacco as influenced by timothy cover crop.

Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 73: 1-3. 1925.

9. McCall, A. G. Fertilizers for Maryland soils. Md. Agr. Expt. Sta*. Bui.

247: 117-151. 1922.

c O

Cured Leaves

Lbs. per Acre

1925

1131
1362
1359

1184
1237
1187

CO 0 cri
Oi 10 Tf
CO 0 r^

CO 0 Cvi
CD 0 TO
t^ 0 CD

1492
1344
1196

1303
1433
1273

0 ce CO

M CO 05
^ » t~

C^l -t 'f
TOO-.-'
W CT. I-

pH
April
1925

9^-^ aScjaAV

IQ sSvjaAv

Zlf aSBJSAv

i_;9-9 aSEjaAv

CD CO O

^ T}i lO

0 (K CO
10 ":(< ^

cr. i^ 0
CD CO w

-* 0 t^

CD CD CD

i^ 00 00

Tf Tf rf

t^ 00 0

T»< Tj< Tt<

1-0 r^ r>.

CO CO CD

■* OS t^

CD CO CO

Cured Leaves
Lts per Acre

1924

TO O 0>
lO C-1 Tt<
Tt< TO Tt<

00 00 00

CD C^l 0
-f 10 CO

0 0 CM

rt TO .-1

^ 0 M*
CM 0 'O

TO lO TO

—. Tj< CD

CM 0 CO
CD TO LO

TO M 00
CD CM 00
"O 0 'f

00 w 1^

t^ ^ 0

CM — CM

TO 1^ r^

^ 0 TO
TO 0-1 -f

ffi « CM

»S 2

TO'S SSCJ3AV

gij aSEjaAy

gO'G a3BjaAv

gg aSEjaAy

0> cq O)

00 0 TO

0 00 0

0 t^ 00

0 0 03

0 CM CO

00 CD 00

00 00 CD

Tfi lO ^

•* lO 10

CD <0 CO

CD LO >0

0 0 -"J*

lO 1.0 -*

lO CD LO

LO lO .0

Cured Leaves

Lbs. per Acre

1923

1231
1372
1358

1590
1457
1670

CD -^ CD
t^ 01 —

03 -^J 01

1599
1373
1.500

1472
1245
14S6

^ 03 -H
^ CO TO
CD CM CM

1132
1245
1415

1886
1316
1401

Lime

in May

1923

^UOfNj

' aj3c jad suo} g
auin
]Ejni|nDij3v

1

auof<[

ajDE :ad suo; z
auiiq

jEjniinDiaSv

K m CM

^S2

95-5 aSBjaAv

909 aSBJSAv

ggg aSBjsAv

(JO'9 aScjaAv

C^l 0 CM

IQ CO 'O

>o i^ 00

10 10 10

CM TO c-1
CD CO CD

I-^ CM 00
10 CD 'O

lO CO CD
lO 10 0

CD TO 0
lO CO 0

^ 0 CM
CD CO CO

000

CD CD CD

Green Weight

160 Plants

Sept. 1922

Lbs.

to ^ 0

OS 0 ^
TO CM TO

<3> 00 r^

Tt( ^ 'jO

TO TO TO

TO TO <33
CM lO -*
TO TO TO

00 •* r^
00 t^ r^

TO TO ■*

00 00 -H

r~ •* 0

TO TO TO

0 CD -H
TO 'O ■*
■^ TO ^

TO ^ ■*
OS OS G^

TO TO TO

—1 00 CO

t^ 00 00

•* TO Tj(

Lime

in May

1922

3UO^

sjon wd uo; \

auiiq

paiBiidi.Taij

1

aj3B jad uoi i

auiiq
pajE^idiDaaj

rc 03 CM

as 2

W^J aSBJSAV

?.1'9 aSBjaAy

Qig aSBMAv

11' g aS-EjaAv

C C-1 ^
iO lO 0

^ CM 0
10 lO i-O

-*< CM c-1 CO >0 ^
10 CO CD lO 10 "O

CO 00 r^ 00 t^ ^
lO 10 10 1 id lO "O

TO 0 >0
10 CD CO

lO 0 TO
lO CD 10

Lime

in May

1921

3i:o>j

a.int; jad suoj ^

auo4saunq

puno.iQ

auojvj

aJDB jad suo; g

auojsauiiq

punojo

Cover

Crop

1921-24

None

Timothy

Clover

Clover

Timothy

None

None

Timothy

Clover

Clover

Timothy

None

None

Timothy

Clover

Clover

Timothy

None

None

Timothy

Clover

Clover

Timotliy

None

3 C

u 2
o z;

+

1 +

'

+

1

+

1

Plot

.-^ C-1 TO

•* iC CD

I^ 00 03

0 -^ CM

TO •* 'O

CD t^ 00

Oi 0 -^

-( CM CM

01 TO "t
M CM CM

BLACK ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO 135

Table II. Summary of Yields for 1922, 1923, 1924, and 1925
Pounds per Acre

1922

1923

1924

1925

Treatments

Green

Cured

Cured

Cured

Average of all limed plots:

Inoculated

7,340

1146

1217

S68

Not inoculated ....

8620

1.579

1356

807

Average of all unlimed plots:

Inoculated

6560

1361

1461

1319

Not inoculated ....

7700

1476

1535

1269

Average of timothy cover plots:

Inoculated

6460

1193

1277

1161*

Not inoculated ....

7320

135-i

1439

1167*

.A.verage of plots without cover crop:

Inoculated

7450

1203

1375

1034

Xot inoculated ....

8960

1450

1472

951

Average of all plots:

■

Inoculated

G960

1253

1338

1076

Xot inoculated ....

8160

1494

1443

1038

Percentage Gain ( + ) or Loss ( — )

From liming:
Inoculated
Xot inoculated

From timothy cover:
Inoculated
Xot inoculated

From inoculation:
Limed
Unlimed

+ 12

—16

+ 12

+ 7

— 13

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— 15

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—34
—36

+ 12*
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Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 230 APRIL. 1926

RESEARCH SERVICE TO
MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY

PROGRESS REPORTS

This bulletin contains five papers summarizing the experimental ^rork
of the Station which has to do with the feeding of farm einimaus. More
complete reports of some of this work have been published in scientific
journals. The subjects reported upon are as follows:

Mineral Matter for Dairy Cows J. B. Lindsey and J. G. Archibald

Skim Milk Powders in the Rearing of Young Calves

J. B. Lindsey and J. G. Archibald

Better Feed from Permanent Pastures Sidney B. Haskell

The Utilization of Feeds by Horses J. B. Lindsey and J. G. Archibald

Improving the Feeding Value of Grain Hulls and Sawdust J. G. Archibald

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

Agricultural Experiment Station

Amherst, Mass.

MINERAL MATTER FOR DAIRY COWS
By J. B. LINDSEY and J. G. ARCHIBALD

IxTRonucTmx

It is a well-known fact that all animals require a certain amount of mineral
matter in their diet. The fondness of all classes of stock for common salt is
so well known that mention of it seems almost superfluous. The sight of a
cow chewing a bone or an old shoe, licking the earth, or gnawing at a fence
rail is familiar to anyone who has ever lived on a farm.

Until recent years, however, comparatively little attention has been paid to
these outward evidences of mineral hunger, because of the belief that the feeds
commonly fed to cows contained sufficient mineral matter (common salt ex-
cepted) for their needs. Gradually it has come to be realized that such is not
always the case and that shortage of available mineral matter, under certain
circumstances, may be a limiting factor in growth and production. The situa-
tion has been well summed up by the late Professor Armsby, who said: "Most
feeding stuffs, and particularly the mixed rations of farm animals, contain
what appear at first sight to be much larger amounts of ash ingredients than

the body requires This is doubtless true of animals living in a state

of nature, but it is a questionable assumption under the artificial conditions
to which many farm animals are subjected."

This point of view has become prevalent only within the past decade. Its
establishment on a firm basis of fact has been due, in large measure, to the
work done in recent years at certain of the experiment stations in this country.
For example, it has been shown that in spite of liberal feeding, heavy milking
cows excrete dally more mineral matter, particularly calcium and phcHrphorus,
than they consume, or are in what is termed negative mineral balance, and it
is only when they reach the advanced stages of lactation (10 pounds of milk
daily) that the reverse is true; that is, that they consume more minerals than
they give out. There is, however, no record of prolonged experiments on the
effect of feeding mineral supplements to milking cows to help out a mineral
deficiency. Realizing the dearth of such information and its importance, this
department instituted such an experiment in the autumn of 1921, which, modi-
fied from time to time to meet changing conditions in the station herd, is
still in progress. This paper is a brief report of the work up to October
1, 192.5.

Plan of the Experiment

The main features of the experiment have been:

1. Feeding fhe whole herd a ration deficient according to prevailing stand-
ards in calcium and phosphorus but adequate in all other respects.

2. Division of the herd into halves as nearly alike as possible, and the
addition to the grain ration of one group, of supplemental calcium and phos-
phorus in the form of special steamed bone meal containing but little animal
matter.

140

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

3. Including in the experiment tlie lieifer calves from the cows in the two
groups and keeping them as far as possihle on the same diet as their dams,
in order to see if any effects of the treatment are more marked in the second
or even in the third generation than in the original animals used.

4. Observation of the effects of the feeding upon:

(a) the general condition and weight of the animals,

(b) growth of heifers,

(c) milk production,

(d) composition of the milk, especially its content of calcium and
phosphorus,

(e) reproduction, under which general heading have been observed:

(1) recurrence of heat,

(2) difficulties in getting cows bred,

(3) number of abortions and retained afterbirths,

(4) condition of the calves at birth and subsequently.

The Herd

The station herd is made up of high-grade Holsteins with a few Jerseys,
and usually numbers, including young stock, eighteen to twenty head. At
present there are nineteen animals included in the experiment, — fourteen
milch cows, one two-year-old heifer, and three eight-months-old heifers.' There
have of necessity been some changes in the herd since the experiment was
started, but of the nineteen individuals originally included, ten are still in the
herd. Since the commencement of the experiment in December, 1921, the
milking herd has had an average annual production per cow of 8000 pounds
of milk, testing 4.21 per cent of fat.

All cows are given a two months dry period during which time they arc
liberally fed, but they are not sent to pasture. They are maintained on dry
feed the j'^ear around, except for a period commencing about June 25 and
ending about October 10, during which time each cow is fed about 25 pounds
daily qf such green soiling crops as oats, millet, sorghum and fodder corn, as
a substitute for a portion of their hay. Ensilage, roots or legume hay have
not been fed during the experiment.

Rations Fed

The rations have purposely been made as poor in mineral matter as a wise
choice of feeds, other factors being considered, would permit. The hay has
consisted principally of timothy, with some red top, blue grass and orchard
grass.

The grain ration has consisted of the following mixture:

Per cent,

Ground oats

391/4

Gluten meal

20

Red dog flour

20

Wheat bran

20

Salt

%

100

' All heifer calves are included in the experiment as soon as old enough to subsist
on hny and dry grain. The age varies M'ith the calf from five to seven months.

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY

14.1

The mineral content of the entire ration was still further lessened by sub-
stituting for a portion of tiie hay, during certain periods of the experiment,
such mineral-poor materials as chopped oat straw, starch, or apple pomace.

The whole herd has been fed as described above for four years, and in addi-
tion, one-half of the herd, known as the "bone meal" group, has received
supplemental calcium and phosphorus in the form of steamed bone meal
specially prepared for animal feeding. The bone meal was thoroughly mixed
with the grain before feeding and the amount for each cow has varied with
her weight and the amount of milk she gives, from three to eight ounces daily,
the aim being to supply aj)proximately a 60 per cent excess over the the-
oretical requirements of each cow. This excess is provided as a safeguard;
for, although little is known about how completely mineral matter in the- form
of ground bone is utilized by the dairy cow, it is safe to assiune that it is only
partially digested and made available.

Results oi' the Experiment

General Condition and Weight of the Cows.

The condition of the animals has been carefully noted by means of observa-
tions made and recorded from month to month. At no time has it been pos-
sible to note any marked diifei'ence in the mature cows. Irrespective of the
group in which they belong they have maintained themselves well. This has
been especially true of the Holstein cows.

Among the young cows and heifers the effects of the low mineral ration
have been much more apparent. Several of them are considerably under-
sized for their age, and jjresent a general unthrifty appearance. Recently
some of them have had very poor appetites, refusing at times both hay and
grain. The young Jerseys seem to have been particularly susceptible, and
while some of the Holsteins have also been affected they have stood up under
the low mineral feeding better than the Jerseys. As with the aged cows the
effects noted have been irrespective of whether they received bone meal or
not, although recently there has been some evidence to favor the bone meal.

AH of the cows that were mature at the commencement of the experiment
have maintained their weights well, there being no significant variation from
year to year in either group.

Growth of Heifers

Study of the growth records of the young stock in comparison with those
of their dams shows that of twelve individuals, six are as large as their dams
were at the same age and six are smaller than the dams were. These two
groups are composed according to breed as fellows:

Large as dam Smaller than dam

Holstein — -1 Holstein — 3

Jersey — 2 Jersey — 3

According to grouping in the experiment chey are divided thus:

142

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

Large as dam Smaller than dam,

Bone meal— 3 (2H & IJ) Bone meal— 3 (IH & 2J)

No bone meal— 3 (2H & IJ) No bone meal— 3 (2H cS: IJ)

So far, then, as growth records go the evidence is about evenly divided,
there being nothing in favor of the bone meal.

Milk prodiiclion

The milk yield has remained at a fairly constant average level all through
the experiment. The average daily yield per cow from year to year is given
V*elow, commencing two years before the experiment was started.

Average daily yield

Year of milk per cow, lbs.

1920 21.87

1921 21.65

1922 22.67

1923 21.56

1924 21.06

1925 22.30

The above record is for the whole herd. Dividing the herd into the two
groups, those that received bone meal and those that did not, we find the
following records:

Year Average daily yield of milk per cow, lbs.

1922
1923
1924
1925

On this basis it would seem that the cows not receiving bone meal were the
better producers. When we subjected our data to careful analysis, studying
the records of the individual cows from year to year, and took into account
the influence of breed, age, and lengtii of lactation on the milk yield of the
two groups, it was found tiiat the evidence is not so favorable to the "no bone
meal" group. In fact, it favors slightly the "bone meal" group of cows.

CoTuposition of the Milk

The milk from each cow in the herd is sampled for five consecutive days
each month. Total solids and fat have been determined in tiie composite
samples each month during the course of the experiment. In addition the
total ash, and calcium and phospliorus content of the milk liave been deter-
mined from time to time, — on an average, about four times a year.

Bone Meal"

"No Bone Meal"

Group

Group

22.20

23.13

19.85

23.00

21.36

20.76

20.65

23.94

Whole Hei

d,

"Bone Meal"

(Dec.

1921 -Oct

192.5)

Group.

Total solids

12.74

12.83

Fat

4.21

4.27

Solids not fat

8.53

8.56

Total ash

0.724

0.722

Calcium (Ca)

0.117

0.118

Phosphorus (P)

0.096

0.093

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY j^g

Average Composition of tlie Milk
since Conunencement of the Mineral Experiment.*

(Expressed as 'percentages of the liquid milk)

"No Bone Meal"
Group.
12.67
4.16
8.51
0.725
0.117
0.098

* These figures have been corrected for difi'erences in tlie relative number of Hol-
steins and Jerseys in each group, otherwise the much richer -Tersey millv might give the
figures a v/rong significance. In the case of total ash, calcium and phosphorus, they
have al.so been corrected for any influence that difference in stage of lactation of the
cows in the two uproups might have. It is well known that as a cow advances in lac-
tation her milk becomes richer. This correction has not been necessary for the total
solids and fat, as they liave lieni determined regularly every month for all cows.

Effect on Reproduction
Recurrence of Heat.

Regarding regularity, the records show the following:
Regularity

Good

Fair

Poor

The average length of time after calving before the first heat has been:

"Bone Meal" group, 37 days

'No Bone Meal"' group, 39 days

The condensed data show that both groups were quite similar in their be-
havior in these respects. In fairness, however, it must be stated that as the
experiment has progressed, the cows that received the bone meal have tended
to come in heat sooner after calving, while the rever.se has been true of those
tliat did not receive bone meal.

Difficulties in Getting Coics Bred.

Considerable trouble has been experienced in getting the cows with calf,
some of them needing the attention of a veterinarian, and having to be served
four or five times before they would hold. Up until the past year or so the
trouble became somewhat more prevalent as the experiment progressed. Since
then, for some unaccountable reason, tiie cows have improved considerably in
this respect. The groups have been quite evenly divided with respect to it,
as the accompanying figures show.

Whole Herd

"Bone Meal"

"No Bone Meal"

15

Group.

7

Group
8

4

3

1

0

0

0

244 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

Average Niiral)er of Times Bred.

Year "Bone Meal" Group. "No Bone Meal" Group.

1922 1.60 1.67

1923 2.25 2.67

1924 2.67 2.57

1925 1.60 1.50

Abortions and Retained Afterbirths.

There have been three cases of abortion and one premature birth in the herd
since the commencement of the experiment. Two of the abortions were in the
"bone meal" group, the other one and the premature birth were in the "no
bone meal" group. Two of the abortions were caused by accidents and it is
doubtful if the other two were due to the effect of the experiment. There
have been six cases of retained afterbirth, of which four have been in the "ho
bone meal" group. Tliis fact may be of some significance, or it may be mere
chance.

Condition of the Calves at Birth and Subsequently.

All calves dropped during the course of the experiment have either been
raised to maturity or kept a sufficiently long time to enable us to form an
accurate opinion as to their constitutional vigor. The following table suni-
niarizes the records.

Con

idition

of

Cal

ves.

Group and Year.

Vigorous

Good.

F

air.

Delicate

Bone meal

1922

1

1

1

1923

2

...

2

1

1921

1

2

2

1925 (to Oct. 1)

2

1

Tota!

' 6

3

5

2

No bone meal

1922

1

1

2

2

1923

2

2

2

1

1924

2

1

1

2

1925 (to Oct. 1)

2

4

1

Total

7

8

6

5

The only result of any significance here is the somewhat higher number of
delicate calves from the "no bone meal" cows. Proportionately the difference
between the groups in this respect is not so great as a first glance at the
figures seems to show, the ratio being roughly 3 to 2 instead of 5 to 2. Also
the delicate calves have with one or two exceptions been from Jersey cows, so
that it is probable that breed characteristics have liad more influence than
has the experimental treatment.

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY

Summary

145

The object of tlie work reported here has been to ascertain what benefit
may lie derived from adding steamed bone meal, with the animal matter
largely extracted, as a source of lime and phosphorus to the ration of dairy
cows.

Tlie entire herd has been fed for four years on a ration low in mineral
matter, particularly in lime. One-half of the herd has had the deficiency
made good in theory by adding bone meal to the grain.

The results in brief are as follows:

1. The experiment has had no appreciable effect on the general condition
of the cows tiiat were mature when it commenced. This has been especially
true of the Holstein cows. The low mineral rations have adversely affected
some of the young cows, as evidenced by their unthrifty appearance and poor
appetite. The young Jerseys show this more than do the young Holsteins,
although there are exceptions in both breeds. For a long time there seemed
to be no difference in general condition between the "bone meal" and the "no
bone meal" group; but recently there has been some slight evidence to favor
the bone meal.

2. The mature cows have not shown any significant changes in weight, Init
about half of the young cows are smaller than their dams were at the same
age. In this respect the evidence is about evenly divided, not favoring either
group.

3. Milk production has been maintained well all through tlie experiment.
The evidence on this point favors slightly the "bone meal" cows.

4. The composition of the milk has not been significantly affected.

5. The reproductive function has been more seriously disturbed than any
other, considerable difficulty being experienced in getting the cows with calf.
The two groups have been quite similar in this respect.

6. Each group has produced about the same proportion of strong, healthy
calves. The "no bone meal" group has had a somewhat higher proportion of
delicate calves, but this may have been due in part to breed cliaracteristics.

Conclusions \xd Recommendations

Our work has led us to the conclusion that while dairy stock, especially
growing heifers, must have an adequate supply of lime in their food in order
to attain maximum des'elo])ment and productive cajiacity, the advantage to be
gained from the practice of supplying lime in the form of steamed bone meal
seemed to lie very slight.

While we have still much to learn on the subject of mineral feeding of
cows, the following recommendations are tentatively made:

1. Supply lime and other minerals in feeds that are naturally rich in ash,
rather than by supplementing feeds low in ash with bone meal or other lime
salts. All the leguminous hays are high in lime, in addition to their very
desirable protein content. Alfalfa hay contains five times as much lime as
does timothy hay. There is as much lime in a ton of red clover hay as in
100 pounds of ordinary bone meal, and it is in what is probably a more de-
sirable form. It is in the choice of roughage that care must be used. The
ordinary grains and concentrates are characterized by relatively low lime and

J 46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

high phosphorus content, so that in so far as ash requirements are concerned
it makes little difference what grain ration is fed.

2. All dairy cows sliould have a dry period of two months, during which
time they sliould be liberally fed on a legume roughage, or on early cut hay
containing clover, or on rowen, as well as on some grain to make up for the
losses in mineral matter during the period of heavy milking. Good pasturage
will also prove very satisfactory.

3. Growing heifers should receive special care with respect to tlie asii
content of their rations. Here again some kind of properly cured legume
or clover-mixed hay is the best safeguard.

4. Put the bone meal and otlier mineral substances on tlie land, rather
than in the manger. Used in this way the yield and ash content of the crop
are likely to be increased and thus indirectly the ash requirements of human
beings and animals will be taken care of.

5. Common salt is the one exception to all the above statements. Animals
sliould have free access to it at all times.

The above recommendations are what many successful dairymen now prac-
tice, and are within the reach of all who wish to improve their feeding prac-
tices in this respect.

NOTE: It is possible that most cows when fresh are in negative calcium
balance; that is, they excrete in the milk and manure more calcium than they
consume. This condition in all probability is more pronounced and continues
for a longer period in case of cows bred for heavy milk production. It has
been siiown recently by the Wisconsin Station tiiat direct sunlight checks this
tendency to a limited extent. Whether the antirachitic vitamin is of pro-
nounced influence in aiding calcium assimilation in case of dairy cows is still
an open question.

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY ^^y

SKIM MILK POWDERS IN THE REARING OP^
YOUNG CALVES

By J. B. LINDSEY and J. G. ARCHIBALD

In our studies of substitutes for wiiole or liquid skim milk in the rearing
of young calves, we have tried both the drum dried and the spray dried skim
miliv powders.

Method of Manufacture of Milk Powders

In the spray process, the liquid milk is forced under high pressure tiirough
nozzles into the upper part of a heated chamber. The fine spray is dried to
a fine powder by the time it reaches tlie bottom of the chambei". Tiie chief
advantage of this process is that the powder is very readily and completely
soluble in water.

In the drum or roller process, the skim milk is fed from a gravity tank onto
steam-heated rolls. It spreads out into a thin film, drying as the rolls slowly
revolve. Tiie dried film is removed from the rolls by scrapers, ground, sifted
and packed. It is somewhat coarser in texture than the spray dried product
and does not dissolve in water as readily. The manufacturers claim that the
process is not destructive to the vitamins in the milk, especially Vitamin C.

Prepakation of Skim Milk Powdeu for Feeding

One pound of the milk powder and a scant even teaspoonful of salt are
added to each gallon of lukewarm water.^ The milk powder and salt should
first be stirred with a small quantity of cold water to avoid lusnping, and after
a creamy consistency has been secured, the necessary amount of lukewarm
water added, the mixture well stirred and thus fed. Enough can be made up,,
if desired, to last twenty- four hours, but it should not be fed cold.

Method of Feeding

Whole milk was fed for the first week after weaning and then the skim
milk solution gradually substituted. Not over nine quarts daily were fed to
each calf and it is better, although not necessary, to continue feeding a min-
imum of two quarts of whole milk daily during the first six or eight weeks
of the calf's life. After the first month, the calf was taugiit to eat rowen
i'.nd a calf meal made up of 30 pounds red dog flour, 30 poimds ground oats,
15 pounds linseed meal, 241/0 pounds of corn meal and V2 pound salt. By
the time the calf reached four months of age it was eating one and one-half
to two pounds of grain daily and a considerable amoimt of hay.

The experiment was ended vvhen each calf reached the age of four months
at which time the milk was gradually removed and dry feeds substituted. It
is preferable, however, in case of promising dairy heifers, to continue giving
some of the skim milk until the animals are five or six months of age, in order
to promote rapid growth.

' If desired, one pound of the milk powder may be used to 5 quarts of water.

148

MASS. EXPEEIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

The Results

Relative Growth, Gains and Costs of Rearing Calves on Skim Milk Powders

Material

Skim milk powder

(dnim process)
Skim milk powder

(spray process)
Liquid skim milk

for comparison

* All grade Holstein calves.

Liquid skim milk was charged at I'/g cents a quart, drum dried powder Ty,
cents and spray dried powder 11 cents a pound (drum dried solution, 1.9 and
spray dried solution, 2.75 cents a quart). The table shows:

Dry matter

Number

Average

required

Food cost

of

daily

for 100

per poimd

Calves*

gain

pounds gain

of gain

Lbs.

Lbs.

Cents

6

1.50

287.79

16.5

6

1.39

277.72

22 2

6

1.68

250.78

14.3

1. That neither skim milk powder promoted
liquid skim milk.

as rapid growth as did tlie

2. That the drum process powder produced slightly better growth than did
the spray process powder. The difference is not great and too much stress
should not be placed upon it. Inasmuch, however, as the drum dried powder
may often be purchased for several cents a pound less, it is to be preferred
for calf feeding.

3. Dried skim milk offers the best substitute for liquid skim milk in the
rearing of young calves. At the present, the price has advanced to 11 cents
for the drum dried and ISyo per pound for the spray dried, which renders
their use of doubtful economic value. The price will vary according to supply
and demand.

BETTER FEED FROM PERMANENT PASTURES
By SIDNEY B. HASKELL

In tlie spring of 1921 the Massachusetts Experiment Station instituted cer-
tain fertilizer experiments on a typical, rock-bound, weed-grown permanent
pasture. The pasture must have been last plowed more than 100 years ago,
in the days of cheap labor and ox team power. A part of the pasture had
once been tilled, had degenerated into pasture, had then grown a crop of wood
and timber; and then after many years had been brought back to pasture in
a century-long rotation. Of clover and blue grass there were but the scanti-
est traces. Running cinquefoil and great clumps of green moss had crowded
out the better types of vegetation.

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY

149

It was under these discouraging conditions that the first fertilizer was
applied, as a top-dressing, in the early sjiring of 1921. A second, more elab-
orate experiment was started in 1922. The fertilizers applied, and the rates
at which they were used, were as follows:

Acid phosphate, 480 and 960 pounds per acre.

Muriate of potash, 80 and 160 pounds per acre.

Ground limestone, 2400 pounds per acre.

Acid phosphate and nuiriate of potasli as above, at
the two different rates.

Space does not permit of extended description of the remarkable effect of
these fertilizers. By 1923 many of the plots had developed a dense growth.
of white clover. Potash was the most effective of any of the treatments; lime
and acid phosphate, used alone or together, were relatively ineffective. Pot-
ash and acid phospiiate combined, especially when used in the limed areas,
showed a distinct advantage over the potash alone. As time has elapsed, the
apparent effectiveness of lime has been increasing; also, but to a less marked
degree, has that of tlie acid phosphate.

Photographic records best portray the remarkable results of this experi-
ment. A camera was suspended over a typical area, and in each of three
successive years an exposure was made of the same portion of the sod. The
upper picture shows the character of the sod as it was before fertilizer was
applied; that in the center, taken a year later, shows the changing vegetation
as produced by fertilizer; and the lower picture shows the results of 1923,
which was definitely a "clover year." The fertilizer here used was the potash
and acid phosphate mixture with lime. Similar results were obtained in the
experimental plots started in 1922; but here, probably on account of more
favorable weather conditions, tlie fertilizer had more rapid effect.

Effect of Fertilizer on Quality oi Pasturage

About the middle of June, 1923, animals were barred for a three weeks
period from the pasture plots fertilized in 1922. Samples of the three weeks'
growth were cut, the product dried, weighed and subjected to chemical anal-
ysis. Results are shown in the following table:

Dry

Matter

per Acre,

Pounds

Protein

Per
cent

Pounds
per Acre

Acid phosphate 960 lbs.; no lime

Acid phosphate 960 lbs.; limestone 2400 lbs. .

Muriate of potash 160 lbs.; no lime

Muriate of potash 160 lbs.; limestone 2400 Its.

No fertilizer; no lime ........

Limestone 2400 lbs

Acid phosphate 960 lbs.; muriate of potash

160 lbs.; no lime ........

Acid phosphate 960 lbs.; muriate of potash

160 lbs.; limestone 2400 lbs

863
1050

676
1023

703

766

1272
1.576

14.17
18.70
20.78
23.29
14.60
17.97

20.56

24.53

122
196
140
238
103
138

262

387

150

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

The greatly increased yield of protein on the best treated plot is most sig-
nificant, with a total production equal to that contained in 2400 pounds of
Vi'iieat bran. The cause of tiiis change is of course the stimulation of clover
and the suppression of the weeds brougiit about by the use of lime and
fertilizer.

TiiK (iRASs Cycle

White clover, however, comes and goes. By the fall of 1924 it had disap-
peared from these plots almost absolutely and been replaced by i)lue grass.
In the spring of 1925 no clover was in evidence, even on tiiose plots whic^h
had been densely carpeted in the summer of 1923. In the early summer of
192.5, however, drouth conditions prevailed, to be broken during the end of
June by generous rains. These conditions favored clover, and by the end of
tliat year it was once more dominant on all of the l)etter fertilized areas.

It is impracticable to translate the above figures into terms of profit and
loss. We have no means of knowing how long a time fertilizer will continue
to show benefit. Yet the fact that large areas have already reverted to forest
shows what nmst happen to existing pastures in case fertilizer be not applied;
or in case the price of milk be too low to make profitable such fertilizer
application.

What Feutilizicks Are Needed.

On the relatively coarse grained, depleted granitic soils of the Station farm,
potash was the plant food most needed. Best growth was obtained with lime.
Acid phosphate applied in addition to lime and potash still further bettered
the yield. The total expense of application of these three materials was, of
course, very heavy. On heavier pasture soils, acid phosphate may be all that is
required. In certain demonstrations west of the Connecticut River, instituted
by the Department of Agronomy, M. A. C, this is indicated most clearly. It
is probable that, where the soil is fairly close grained and has a favorable
moisture supply, acid phosphate, with lime if the soil be extremely acid, will be
all that is required. These of course must be applied as top dressing, which
means that action is certain to be relatively slow.

The fertilizing of pastures is a most interesting field for farm experiments.
There are, however, certain discouraging conditions attending it. Returns
from fertilizer application are always delayed, for only by stimulating white
clover and grass so that it can crowd out the weeds is the better pasture
secured. If the weather be dry, there may be a period of weeks or even of
montiis in which there will be no growth on either fertilized or unfertilized
portions of the pasture. Even when good growth is produced, as should
usually be the case, the fact may not be noticed, for increased forage may be
pastured off as rapidly as it is grown. Yet with all of these uncertainties, the
goal is worth the effort. A pasture which is in a weedy or run-down condi-
tion because of a lack of plant food can be brought back to productive con-
dition only by the use of plant food.

Progressive Change in Pasture Vegetation.

Top — Before Fertilizer was Applied.

Center — One Year after Application.

Bottom — Two Years after Application.

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY ^^^

THE UTILIZATION OF FEEDS BY HORSES
By J. B. LINDSEY AND J. G. ARCHIBALD

Although it is recognized that for many industrial purposes the autoniohile,
auto truck and farm tractor have replaced the horse as a source of power, we
believe that the horse, for a long time to come, will continue to have his place
upon the farm and in certain other lines of industry.

For a number of years studies have been made at this Station of the
digestibility, metabolizable energy and net energy of the ordinary roughages,
grains and by-products likely to be fed to farm and other work horses in
order to ascertain their relative nutritive values.

Units of Measurement.

In order to get at relative nutritive values, we nmst have one or more
units of measurement. Obviously the foot rule or the yardstick would not
serve for such a purpose. The best units we have are (a) chemical analysis
of the feed, (b) its digestibility, (c) its total, metabolizable and net energy
values.

(a) Chemical analysis tells how much of each of the several groups, pro-
tein, fat, carbohydrate and ash, a feed contains but it does not tell how much
of each group the animal can finally utilize.

(b) Digestibility. By digestibility is meant the amount of each ingredi-
ent the animal can digest or so transform that it can be carried into the
blood stream and made use of as food. The solid excreta or feces is the
undigested portion of the feed which, subtracted from the total feed, leaves
that which is digested. The digestioti coefficient means simply the percentage
of the feed or ingredient digested. Thus, if a feed contains 30 per cent or
pounds of fiber in 100 pounds and 1.5 pounds is digested, the coefficient is 50.

(c) Energy. Every food may be regarded as a mass of latent energy.
Digestion liberates this energy and the animal lives and produces, as a result
of the liberation.

Total energy represents all of the energy contained in a feeding-stuff, and
is determined by the use of a complicated piece of apparatus known as a
bomb calorimeter

Metabolizable energy is the total energy less that contained in the feces and
urine.

Net energy is the total energy minus that lost in the feces and urine and
that used in the process of digestion and assimilation.

While the determination of digestibility tells us the amount of a food di-
gested, it does not tell the cost to the animal of the energy expended in the
digestive processes. Comparative digestibility of feedstuffs, however, is a \ery
helpful unit of measurement, but net energy is the more exact. Unfortunately
the present method for determining net energy is very difficult, expensive and
time consuming. The only equipment available in the United States for large
animals is that at the Institute of Animal Nutrition in Pennsylvania, financed
by the National Government. The late Professor Armsby, the director of

152

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

the institute, as a result of his own experiments and tliose conducted in
Europe, deduced a formula for determining net energy, based upon chemical
analysis, total energy and metabolizable energy. In the experiments here
reported, we have made use of this formula after having determined the-
composition and the total and metabolizable energy in each feedstuff, as well
as its digestibility; and it is these two units of measurement — 7iet energy,
expressed in therms', with digestibility as an aid — that we have used in
getting at the relative values of the feeds studied.

METliOlJ OK Fl;OLE))(II:K

Two horses were used in each trial. Eacii feed was analyzed and its total
energy determined. Definite amounts daily were fed, the feces and urine
collected, and the energy contamed in theni determined and subtracted from
the total energy of the feed, wlucii gives the metabolizable energy. By the
application of the formula mentioned above, the net energ)^ was estimated.
In the above procedure we were able also to determine digestibility. Each
actual experiment required about three weeks for its completion, in addition
to a large amount of work in the chemical laboratory and in the calculation
of the results.

Some Results of the Experibient

The Story of Alfalfa.

Two different lots of alfalfa were tested, one grown in New York state
and the other on the Experiment Station grounds. The New York sample
contained 11.7 per cent protein and 3.5.2 per cent fiber, while the Station
sample contained 17.7 per cent protein and 27.5 per cent fiber. It is evident
that the former sample was more mature than the latter.

Average Digestion Coefficients and Net Energy Values

Digestion Coeff

iciENTS (Per cent)

Net Energy
per 100

Material

Nitrogen-

Dry

free

pounds

Matter

Protein

Fiber

Extract

(Therms)

Alfalfa, New York sample

49

66

34

60

14

Alfalfa, Massachusetts sample

53

73

38

62

36

Alfalfa fed to cattle

58

72

46

66

34

(for comparison)

These results indicate that the New York sample was more mature and less
utilized by the horses than the Massachusetts sample; while the net energy
values show that the horses had to expend considerably more energy to digest
the New York, or late-cut sample.

The comparison of the digestibility of alfalfa by horses and cattle, given in
the table, shows that cattle are able to digest alfalfa to a greater degree than
are horses, although the protein is well and about equally digested by both
classes of animals.

1 The therm represents the amount of heat required to raise 1000 kilograms of water
1 degree Centigrade, and is used as a unit of measurement for energy.

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY

153

What the Horses Did with Timothy and Kentucky Blue Grass Hay.

Five of the samples tested were largely Timothy, and contained from 3.86
to 7.68 per cent protein and from 28.9 to 31.7 per cent of fiber. It is evident
that some samples were cut earlier than others. One sample was fine in qual-
ity, was composed mainly of Kentucky blue grass, and contained 7.70 per cent
of protein and 28.35 per cent fiber.

The average digestion coefficients and net energy value are given in the
following table:

Average Digestion Coefficients and Net Energy Values

Digestion Coefficients (Percent)

Net Energy

Material

Number

Nitrogen-

per 100

of

Dry

Protein

Fiber

free

pounds

Sam.ples

Matter

Extract

(Therms)

Timothy Hay

5

47

44

4.3

53

27

(coarse)

Kentucky Blue Grass

1

50

58

47

56

33

(fine)

Timothy Hay fed to

72

o5

47

51

62

43

cattle (for comparison)

It was foimd that the total digestibility of the Timothy varied from 40 to
54 per cent, with an average of 47 per cent, and that the digestil)ility was
inversely proportional to the fiber percentage; that is, the higher the per-
centage of fiber, the lower the digestibility. The net energy varied from 18
to 38 therms per 100 i)ound3, with an average of 27 therms. The sample con-
taining the highest percentage of fiber, 31.68 per cent, contained but 18
therms of net energy per 100 potmds; while the lot which contained only
28.8 per cent fiber had 38 therms of net energy. The teaching is the same as
in the case of alfalfa: namely, that late cutting, high fiber content and low
net energy go hand in hand. The conclusion is clear, that the later the hay
is cut, the less its nutritive value per poimd or ton. Horse feeders prefer
late-cut, coarse haj', not for its high nutritive value but because of its disten-
tion of the intestinal tract and its less laxative effect. They depend largely
upon the grain ration for nutrition, and upon coarse hay as a distributor.

The fine hay was more digestible and had more therms of net energy than
the coarse. The average results with cattle show that they are able to make
better use of Timothy hay tlian do horses.

A Kansas Ration v. a Substitute Ration.

The Kansas ration, so-called, was a combination of alfalfa, (orn and oats,
recommended by the Kansas Experiment Station and the United States
Department of Agriculture, who experimented jointly for a period of 140
days with 17 artillery horses, doing what was termed rapid light draft.

The combination which proved satisfactory in the trials cited was recom-
mended on the ground that a relatively small amount of roughage (alfalfa)
fed with a relatively large amount of corn and oats would require a raininuim

j 54 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

of energy for its digestion; and that the alfalfa furnished the necessary
amount of protein antl was not fed in sufficient amounts to prove injurious.

Ina.s)nuch as alfalfa was but little grown in Massachusetts, we compared
the Kansas ration with a substitute ration composed of Timothy hay, corn,
oats, bran and dried brewers' grains, the latter furnishing the protein lacking
in the Timothy.

The two combinations fed to determine digestibility and net energy require-
ments were as follows:

Kansas Ration Substitute
Ration

Lbs. Lbs.
Alfalfa 8.25

Timothy 9.00

Corn 6.60 1.20

Oats 1.65 2.40

Bran L21

Brewers' grains L80

Totals 16.50 18.61

Chemical Composition

Water

as

Fed

(Per

cent)

Dry Matter B

AS IS

Ration

Ash
(Per
cent)

Protein
(Per
cent)

Fiber
(Per
cent)

Nitrogen-
free
Extract
(Per cent)

Fat
(Per
cent)

Total Energy
per 100
pounds

(Therms)

Kansas
Substitute

13.72
11.42

4.6S
4. 5.5

13 66
11.91

19.30
21.56

5S.^2
58.17

3 . 55
3.80

201.42
203.84

In chemical composition one notices little difference except that the Kansas
ration is lower in fiber and higher in jirotein.

Average Digestion CoelTtcients and Net Energy Values

Digestion Coefficients (Per cent)

Net Energy

per 100

pounds

(Therms)

Ration

Dry
Matter

Protein

Fiber

Nitrogen-
free
Extract

Fat

Kansas
Substitute

63

53

78
65

78
64

54
35

76
59

The horses in each case digested little fiber and the results are not reported.
A study of the digestion coefficients and net energy values shows that the
horses made better use of the Kansas ration.

On the basis of 1000 pounds live weight, the horses in the experiments con-
ducted at the Kansas station were fed, daily, 8.5 pounds of alfalfa, 6.8 pounds

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY

155

of corn and 1.7 pounds of oats wliile doing tlieir work. Tliese amounts
seemed to us quite small, and practical experiments with our own horses, as
well as comparisons with generally accepted standards, confirmed this con-
clusion.

As a result of our digestion and energy study> as well as of practical feed-
ing trials, we have concluded that a combination of alfalfa, corn and oats in
the prftportions indicated above, known as the Kansas ration, proved superior
to a combination of Timothy, corn, oats, bran and dried brewers' grains but
that the amount of the Kansas ration fed per 1000 pounds live weight should
be at least 20 per cent more than recommended by the original experimenters.
The Kansas station emphasized the fact that alfalfa, wlien cut in full bloom
and free from mold, smut and excessive dust, is suitable for horses; and tiiat
one and one-fifth pounds daily per 100 pounds live weight is the maximum
amount to he fed to work horses.

T7-ials ■zc'ith the Cereals.

Experiments were made witli whole corn, cornmeal, corn cobs, oats and oat
hulls. Their chemical composition and total energy value are stated in the
following table. For the sake of comparison the analyses are all stated on ;i
dry matter (water free) basis.

Chemical Composition

Dry Matter B

\SIS

Water

as

Material

Nittogen-

Total Energy

Fed

Ash

Protein

Fiber

free

Fat

per 100

(Per

(Per

(Per

(Per

Extract

(Per

pounds

cent)

cent)

cent)

cent)

(Per cent)

cent)

(Therms)

Corn meal . .' . .

16.81

1.54

10.09

2.59

&2.13

3.65

203.67

Corn, whole ....

13.40

1.38

9.88

3.05

81. 58

4.13

199.58

Corn cobs ....

18.67

1.70

3.14

30.23

64.22

0.72

205.48

Oats, whole ....

10.97

3.35

13.38

10 39

67. 56

5.32

207.75

Oat hulls ....

8.57

6.59

2.52

33.04

.56.83

1.02

197.. 32

The cereals have about the same type of chemical composition; tliat is,
they are relatively low in protein and high in carbohydrate or starchy matter.
Oats contain more protein and fat and decidedly more fiber than corn. Corn
cobs and oat hulls are quite deficient in protein and fat and are made up
largely of fil)er and of complex carbohydrates.

The results given below represent the averages secured with two liorses.

156

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

Average Digestion CoefBcients and Net Energj^ Values

Digestion Coefficients (Per cent)

Net Energy '
per 100
pounds
(Therms)

Material

Dry
Matter

Protein

Fiber

Nitrogen-
free
Extract

Fat

Corn meal
Corn, whole
Corn cobs
Oats, whole
Oat hulls

72
74
25
61
22

71
62

None
75

?

None
None
None
None

85
85
45
72
10

62
51
None
57
i2

117
113

None
118

None

A little study of the figures in the table shows that the two horses digested
the whole corn and corn meal in equal amounts and derived about the same
net energy from them. One would suppose that corn meal would yield rather
more net energy than whole corn because of the energy required for chewing
the latter; but our method of measurement was not sufficiently sharp to detect
the difference. Although the horses were able to digest 25 per cent of the
corn cobs, they did not derive any net energy from them, all the energy
being required for the efforts of digestion; hence we may conclude that the
cob is without food value for horses.

Oats were not as well digested as corn, due to the presence of about 30 per
cent of hulls, which were not digested by the horses in the present trial.
Strange to say, the oats furnished fully as much net energy as the corn,
namely 118 therms. This result is not confirmed bj^ the few trials on record,
which show 93 therms. A further study of the comparative net energy
values of corn and oats for horses is desirable. Oat hulls were digested to
about the same extent by horses as were corn cobs, and did not furnish any
net energy. They are, therefore, without value as a source of nutrition for
horses. The nutritive value of the oat for horses is contained in the groat.

Wheat Bran and JJretcers' Dried Grains.

These materials are well known to all feeders. The question is often
raised as to the value of wheat bran as a horse feed. Brewers' grains, botli
wet and dried, have been used with apparent success by many feeders of
horses. The average chemical composition of the sam]>les tested is stated
below.

Chemical Composition

Water
as
Fed
(Per

cent)

Dry M.4TTER Basis

Material

Ash
(Per
cent)

Protein
(Per
cent)

Fiber
(Per

cent)

Nitrogen-
free
Extract
(Per cent)

Fat
(Per
cent)

Total Energy
per 100
pounds
(Therms)

Wheat tran ....
Brewers' grains

11.74
7.6S

7.25
3 .35

16.79
2S,79

10.95
15.59

59. S6
45 33

5.16
6-26

202.65
229.30

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY

157

Both feeds contain a considerable amount of fiber. The brewers' grains
are rich in protein and fat, the latter ingredient giving this feed its extra
energy value.

Average Digestion Coefficients and Net Energy Values

Digestion Coefficients (Per cent)

Net Energy

per 100

pounds

(Therms)

Material

Dry
Matter

Protein

Fiber

Nitrogen-
free
E.vtract

Fat

Wheat bran
Brewers' grains

52
51

83

77

None
27

61
50

None
46

52

The average digestion cofficients for the two feeds do not differ very niucii.
The horses were able to digest about one-half of the entire dry matter, as
against 62 and 66 per cent by bovines. The protein was well digested but
the animals were unable to make much use of the fiber. The utilization of
Ihe fat in the present experiments seemed uncertain.

The ten single trials with wheat bran gave rather wide variations in co-
efficients as well as in net energy values which indicated that the horses expe-
rienced difficulty in making use of it. We are, therefore, led to conclude that
as a source of nutrition, it is not to be recommended. It may be fed in limited
amounts (1-2 pounds daily) as a component of a ration because of its gentle
laxative effect.

The four digestion trials with brewers' grains gave reasonably uniform
results. It was quite evident that the horses could digest the protein easily
but had difficulty with the fiber. The variations in net energy value are so
great that the average result is not stated. The reason for this is not apparent.
While in many cases, depending upon local conditions and cost, brewers'
dried grains may prove satisfactory as a component of the horse ration, it is
lielieved they can be used to better advantage as a food for dairy stock.

The Utilization of Cottonseed Meal.
Two different lots were fed, testing as follows:

Chemical Composition

Water
as
Fed
(Per

cent)

Dry Matter Basis

Material

Ash
(Per

cent)

Protein

(Per
cent)

Fiber
(Per
cent)

19.69
12.79

Nitrogen-
free
Extract
(Per cent)

Fat
(Per
cent)

Total Energy

per 100

pounds

(Therms)

Cottonseed meal, Lot I
Cottonseed meal, Lxjt II

7.62
8.76

7.10
6.68

37.51
41.27

28.04
31.22

7.66
8.01

224.53

225.44

158

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

The first lot of cottonseed meal was inferior to the second lot. It is evident
that extra cottonseed hulls had been added to it, increasing the fiber to 19.69
per cent, much above the normal.

Digestion Coefficients and Net Energy Values

Digestion Coefficients (Per cent

Net Energy
per 100
pounds
(Therms)

Material and Horse

Dry

Matter

Protein

Fiber

Nitrogen-
free
Extract

Fat

Cottonseed meal

Lot I

Joe

61

84

23

71

90

61

Chub

71

89

65

58

100 •

87

Cottonseed meal

Lot 11

Joe

62

87

3S

36

87

73

Chub

69

84

19

62

93

104

It is hardly fair to average the two lots of meal, as one contains so much
more fiber or hulls than the other. The horse Joe did not utilize the meal as
well as did Chub. Botli horses made excellent use of the protein and fat but
failed to digest the fiber fully. Joe did not secure as much net energy as
did Chub. It would be expected that Lot II, containing less fiber, would
yield more net energy than Lot I, and such proved to be the case. On the
basis of our results, exact figures for net energy cannot be deduced. It is be-
lieved that the data secured with Chub are more relialjle than those secured
with Joe. On this supposition it may be assumed that the tlierms of net
energy in 100 pounds of cottonseed meal will be from 87 to 104. Much,
however, depends upon the percentages of fiber and fat contained in the meal.

Our trials show that horses are able to digest cottonseed me;il fairly weil,
especially tlie protein and fat; and that a liberal amount of energy was
derived from its use, — nearly as much as from corn. Its chief use for the
horse would be as a source of protein, especially for hard-worked horses, to
the extent of from 5 to 10 per cent of the grain ration.

A Word About Linseed Meal.

Two experiments were carried out with this meal, but some of the results
were so uncertain that they are not presented. The protein was quite as
well digested as that contained in the cottonseed meal. The results for net
energy varied widely. The writer would assume, however, that it would not
vary greatly from those secured for cottonseed meal. Earlier feeding trials
with linseed meal mixed with whole corn and oats, to the extent of 20 per
cent, indicated that it did not mix evenly with uncrushed feeds. Horses do
not care for it if fed unmixed, but will eat a reasonable amount readily if it
constitutes part of a mixture. The addition of 5 to 10 per cent of linseed
meal to a grain ration of one or more cereals will furnisli tlie extra protein
needed by hard-worked horses and will be eaten without trouble.

MASSACHUSETTS ANlMvVL INDUSTRY j^g

Percentage Energy Efficiency of Feeds for Horses.

The total energy contained in all feeds tested, expressed in therms, was
205.46 with extremes of 191 and 229, the latter figure being obtained from
brewers' grains which contained considerable fat. The therms of total energy
per 100 pounds of dry matter, for most cattle feeds, will not vary much from
200, except for those having more tiian tlie ordinary amount of fat.

The percentage of energy utilized — net energy — varied widely, from zero
in case of corn cobs and oat hulls to 57 in case of corn. Two samples of
alfalfa showed extremes of from 7 to 18 per cent of energy utilized, with an
average of 13; six samples of Timothy hay from 9 to 19, with an average of
14. The amount of net energy and the percentage of energy utilized in coarse
feeds depends evidently upon stage of growth. Corn was 57 per cent utilized,
oats 57 per cent, cottonseed meal 36 per cent, and wheat bran 26 per cent.

We fail to find on record data of the utilization of energy of individual
feeds by horses. It can be said, however, in general, that the less the per-
centage of crude fiber, and in roughages the less mature the material, the
greater will be the energy available. Armsby has computed the availability
of the energy for ruminants as varying between 5 and 24 per cent for rough-
ages, 46 per cent for corn and hominy meals, and 29 jier cent for wheat bran.

Summary

Tlie results of the feeding trials witli horses, reported in the preceding
pages, may be summarized as follows:

Timotliy hay and alfalfa had about the same net energy value, but different
samples varied widely, depending upon the stage of growth.

Corn cobs and oat hulls were witliout not energy value.

Tiie cereal grains liad substantially the same net energy values — soinewliat
more than did the high-grade nitrogenous concentrates such as cottonseed
and linseed meals.

Wheat bran had a low energy value and as a source of nutrition proved
inferior to other concentrates fed.

The protein in dried brewers' grains was well utilized, but tiie results for
net energy were uncertain. This material is recommended more as a feed
for dairy stock than for horses.

Cottonseed and linseed meals have quite higii net energy values and their
protein is well utilized. They may serve in limited amounts (1 to 2 pounds
daily) as a supplement to the grain ration for hard-worked horses.

The percentage energy utilization varied from 57 per cent in case of corn
to zero in case of corn cobs and oat hulls; the energy in timothy hay and
alfalfa hay was utilized to the extent of from 7 to 19 per cent with an average
of 14 per cent.

The net energy value of feeds depends to a considerable extent upon the
percentage of crude fiber present — the higher the percentage of fiber, the less
the net energy and vice versa. In case of coarse feeds, the later the stage of
growth and hence the more mature the material, the less its net energy value.

The character of fiber influences its digestibility and net energy value.
Fiber in straw and oat hulls is less digestible than in corn bran and in early
cut hay. The more mature a plant, the more woody the tissue becomes, with
an increasingly lessened digestibility.

160

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

IMPROVING THE FEEDINC; VALUE OF GRAIN HULLS
AND SAWDUST

13j J. G. ARCHIBALD

I

FORKWOUD

A great deal of study has been devoted by numerous investigators in differ-
ent countries to improving the digestibility and consequently the feeding value
of straws and other fibrous or woody materials. Straw of various kinds is,
only from 46 to 52 per cent digestible, oat hulls scarcely 40 per cent and
cottonseed hulls 53 per cent digestible, while rice hulls, flax shives and saw-
dust show little if any digestibility. Furthermore, so niucii energy is required
in the digestive processes that these materials, in their natural state, have but
little net energy or actual nutritive value. Attempts to improve the feeding
value by fine grinding, soaking in water and steaming under pressure have
proved to be useless; so also has mixing the fine material with such a palat-
able substance as molasses.

The straws have also been treated with various chemicals such as dilute
sulfuric and hydrochloric acids, lime in the form of the sulfide and oxide,
sodium carbonate and sodium hydrate, both by boiling in open kettles and
under pressure. Many of these methods have greatly improved the feeding-
value of the straws.

Why Wood, Straws, Grain Hulls and vSimilar Fibrous Materials Have
Low Feeding Values.

Plant fibers (crude cellulose) are an aggregation of cell walls of certain
specialized cells occurring in the plant. These cell w\alls become elaborated,
enlarged and strengthened with age until maturity is reached, at which time,
in high fiber plants at least, they constitute the major portion of the indi-
vidual cells, the cell contents or protoplasm having been almost, if not alto-
gether, absorbed or transported to the seeds.

In the early stages of growth, the cell wall consists of pure cellulose and
hemi-cellulose and is soft and reasonably well digested, but as growth pro-
ceeds and maturity is reached, it becomes changed to a compound known as
iigno-cellulose and tlie process is known as lignification. This ligno-cellulose
complex cannot be digested to any extent because tlie digestive fluids cannot
penetrate it. Some silicic acid also incrusts the complex and still further
hinders the action of the digestive fluids and micro-organisms. The action
of chemicals, particularly the alkalies, dissolves out the silicic acid and also,
breaks the bonds holding the cellulose and lignin together, and the cellulose
thus set free can be acted upon and converted into nutritive material. As
a result of the process, the lignin is more or less decomposed but is of little,
if any, nutritive value.

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY

161

Work at the Massachusetts Station.

Experiments with Oat, Barley, Cottonseed and Rice Hulls and Flax Shives.
The normal output of oat hulls by three of the leading oat-niilling concerns
in the United States has been estimated at over 100,000 tons. Data are not
available for the other materials. Ground cottonseed hulls are added in
limited amounts to cottonseed meal, and are also fed extensively in the South,
unground and mixed with one -quarter their weight of cottonseed meaL
Formerly, if not now, they were used as fuel in the cottonseed mills. Rice hulls
and flax shives, ground fine, have been used in low-grade feeding stuffs or dis-
carded by millers and fanners.

Any method wiiich would bring about an increased digestibility of tliese,
and similar by-products, was considered worthy of investigation. Aside also
from the possiltle practical results, it was felt that the facts likely to be
broughl; out would be of considerable scientific significance and open the way
for further study.

Method Employed.

Originality is not claimed for the method used. It was devised by Dr.
Ernst Beckman and employed by him and others during the World War for
improving the value of different straws. Briefly stated, the method consisted
in treating the hulls for three hours, with frequent stirring, with eight times
their weigiit of dilute sodium hydrate (1.0, 1.5 or 3 per cent) after which the
darkened soda liquor was allowed to drain off and the hulls thoroughly
washed with cold water and dried.

Chemical Composition of the Untreated Hulls.

Water
as
fed

Dry

Matter (Per cent)

Material

Ash

Crude

protein

Crude
fiber

Nitrogen-
free
extract

Crude
fat

Oat hulls
Cottonseed hulls
Rice hulls
Flax shives

7.70.
6 93
G.25
6.78

6.33

2.13

19.06

4.09

2.26
4.08
3.02
5.24

33.24
43.99
41.80
53.81

57.24
48.60
35.. 38
35.05

0.93
1.19
0.75
1.81

The analyses show the several substances to be quite low in protein and
fat and high in fiber. The cottonseed and rice hulls, and particularly the
flax shives, are very fibrous in character. The character of the fiber governs
to an extent digestibility, depending upon the exact nature of the linkage
between the cellulose and lignin and possibly upon the chemical nature of
the lignin.

The Action of the Soda (Sodium Hydrate) on the Hulls.

The above materials were treated with dilute sodium iiydrate (1.5 per
cent), as already described. The chemical dissolved out a little of the pro-

162

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

tein and fat and more of the nilrogen-free extract, the total losses varyiiag
from 10 pounds, hi case of tlie coLtonseed hulls, to 25 pounds, in case of the
flax shives, for each 100 pounds of dry material treated. The nitrogen-free
extract lost consisted principally of pentosans, substances similar to starch
and cellulose.

Digestibility of the Treated Materials

After the treatment had been com})leted and the materials dried, experi-
ments were carried out with sheep to determine digestibility.'

Summary of Digestion Coefficients.

Oat Hulls, untreated
Oat Hulls, treated

Percentage increase
Cottonseed Hulls, untreated
Cottonseed Hulls, treated

Percentage increase
Rice Hulls, untreated
Rice Hulls, treated
Flax Shives, untreated
Flax Shives, treated

Total

Crude

Nitrogen-free

Dry Matter

Fiber

Extract

36

52

34

81

91

79

122

73

132

.53

58

59

.5.5

53

68

3

—10

15

very little

very little

very little

29

28

.S8

0-30

0-19

4-33

29

23

38

The results in the above table represent the average for two slieep. 'I'he
action of the soda solution is reported on the total material, designated as
total dry matter, and on the crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract matter.
The other ingredients (protein and fat) were present in such small amounts
as to be without practical significance.

It is clear that the digestibility of the oat hulls as a whole (total dry
matter) was very much improved, and the same can be said for the liber and
extract matter. The cottonseed hulls were not improved by the treatment.
The sheep were not able to digest the untreated rice hulls to any apprecialile
extent, but did digest the treated hulls somewhat. The increase in digesti-
bility was not sufficient to render the treated product of any practical value.
The same can be said of the flax shives.-

On the basis of water free material (dry matter), after making an allow-
ance for losses due to treatment, a ton of oat hulls was increased in digesti-
bility from 725 pounds to 1345 pounds, the digestibility of the crude fiber
from 349 to 732 pounds, and the nitrogen-free extract from 390 to 622 pounds.

It is evident, therefore, that as a result of chemical treatment,^ a marked
increase in nutritive value of the oat hulls has been secured and that such
treatment would be of service in case of a pronounced shortage of cattle
feed. Further study is warranted, in order to devise a method that will

^ For description of method, see Mass. State Agr. Expt. Sta. Rept. 11, pp. 146-149,
1893; also Mass. Agri. Kxpt. Sta. Bui. 181.

^ Barley hulls were also tested but they contained so much of the barley meal as to
render the results valueless.

' A fuller report of these studies has been given in the .Journal of Agricultural
Research, Vol. XXVII, No. 5.

MASSACHUSETTS ANIMAL INDUSTRY jq^^

decrease the cost of treatment so that such materials could be handled
economically in large amounts.

Work with Sawdust.

Sawdust from various woods has been proved to be without value as a food
for domestic animals. Numerous investigations have been made and patents
issued for the conversion of this inert material into a cattle food. The method
of procedure in most cases has been tlie treatment of the sawdust with dilute
mineral acids under pressure, or treatment with alternate portions of acid
and alkali. These processes have resulted in converting more or less of the
cellulose and herai-celluloses into sugars. The cattle foods thus manufactured
have not met with any extensive use, and so far as we are aware, are not at
present on the market. Some time ago, the Forest Products Laboratory of
Ihe United States Department of Agriculture, located at Madison, Wisconsin,
carried on extensive investigations in the conversion of tiie sawdust from
several species of wood into more soluble forms, for the production of in^
dustrial alcohol and as a possible source of cattle food. The Forest Products
Laboratory asked that the Massachusetts Experiment Station cooperate in
making a study of the feeding value of tlie product. The material was pre-
pared by them and shipped to this Station for study.

Method of Preparation.

The treatment consists in cooking tiie sawdust under 120 pounds pressure
with dilute sulfuric acid (1.8 per cent) which converts a portion of the cellix-
lose and allied substances into sugar. The liquor resulting from this treat-
ment, togetiier with water used in washing the residue, is neutralized with
lime, and evaporated under reduced pressure to a thick syrup and then mixed
witli the previously dried residue. The product when ready for feeding is a
dark brown, somewliat powdery meal, with a slight woody odor and a sweetish
woody flavor. The materials sent were prepared from the sawdust of Douglas
fir and white pine.

The work at this station consisted in the making of numerous analyses of
the products, noting their palatability with dairy animals, determining their
digestibility and noting their feeding value for milk production. We present
below tlie results secured.

1. The treated or prepared sawdust is composed of crude cellulose and
Kgnin together with some 28 per cent of sugars.

2. Annuals will not eat the treated sawdust when fed by itself. In order
to promote consumption it is necessary to mix it with other grains. Occa-
sionally an animal will refuse to cat the mixture of which the sawdust is a
component.

3. About 4 pounds daily is all that the mature dairy cow will consume,
especially if it is fed for any length of time.

164

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 230

4. Digestion studies show that the dry matter of the Eastern white pine
sawdust was about 46 per cent digestible, while that of the Douglas fir saw-
dust was about 33 per cent digestible. In the case of the Douglas fir saw-
dust, digestion was confined principally to the sugar formed by the treatment,
while in the case of the white pine sawdust apparently some of the cellulose
was digested also.

5. If the process of treatment could be modified so as to convert a larger
proportion of the cellulose of the wood into sugar, or more completely sep-
arate the cellulose from the lignin, the food value of the material would be
enhanced.

6. On the basis of equal amounts of digestible nutrients the sawdust when
fed to dairy cows produced only slightly smaller amounts of milk than did
corn starch, but it took, on an average, 2.75 pounds of sawdust to equal one
pound of starch. The cows fed on the treated sawdust ration produced rather
less milk, shown more in their milk yield at the beginning of the experiment,
and gained less in body weight, on the treated sawdust than on the starch
ration, all of which is indicative of the fact that, on the basis of equal amounts
of digested matter, the treated sawdust was inferior to the starch.

7. On the basis of the present supply and cost of carbohydrate concen-
trates it is believed that the product as now prepared has no economic value.
Under unusual conditions, as in the case of an extreme shortage of ordinary
feedstuffs, it might be used as a partial substitute for the cereal grains or
starchy by-products.

4,000. 5-'26. Order 5317.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 231 JANUARY, 1927

THE MARKET OUTLET FOR

MASSACHUSETTS

APPLES

By LORIAN P. JEFFERSON

With the certainty that the southern New England apple crop will be
greatly increased in size, perhaps even doubled, within the next ten years,
the need of new outlets for the crop is evident. Massachusetts now
produces two-fifths of the commercial apples grown in New England;
any market stagnation due to failure to find an outlet must inevitably
affect Massachusetts producers. This study, therefore, was undertaken
for the purpose of finding first, where New England apples are now sold,
and secondly, those sections which now receive less than they could appar-
ently easily consume. This study of the foreign and domestic market for
the New Englcind apple is supplemented by a study of prices and of
methods and cost of export.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

THE MARKET OUTLET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES

By Lorian P. Jefferson

This monograph is part of the general study of the economic aspects
of the New England apple industry undertaken by the Massachusetts
Experiment Station. It was arranged in order to determine the competi-
tive position of Massachusetts and New England apples in both domestic
and foreign markets; to analyze the factors which limit the demand; and
to determine, insofar as possible, the measures by which the market may be
improved.

Methods

The information presented was secured by personal interview from
wholesalers, both exporters and those dealing on the domestic market
only, and from retailers. Consumers were reached by questionnaires.
Some were sent by mail, some were secured through the cooperation of
public school teachers. The questionnaires were distributed to certain
pupils who took them home, filled them out with the assistance of their
parents, and returned them to the teacher. Some were obtained through
women's clubs under the supervision of the home demonstration agent of
Hampden County.

In retail stores are included chain stores, fruit stands, self-service and
individual stores. From each was secured information as to volume of
apples handled in a year, sources from which purchased, whether home-
grown or Western apples were handled, varieties preferred, quantities
usually sold, advertising, nationality and occupation of body of customers.
In addition, the investigator formed his own estimate as to the grade of
custom, whether the store handled cheap, medium or first grade products.

The location and character of these stores is shown in the following
table.

Table 1. — Tj-pes of Stores

City Self-Service Chain

Boston 5 8

Brockton 1 16

I,owell 1 0

New Bedford 1 2

Springfield 1 2

Worcester „ _ 0 45

Miscellaneous 0 6

Total 9 79 183 271

Individual

Total

48

61 '

13

30

8

' 1
8 I

5

32

35

74

119

3

9

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 3

While the self-service stores may be either chain or individual stores,
because of their peculiar character they are classed separately. The few
visited in connection with this study were all reported as individual stores.

Classified on the basis of type of trade — cheap, medium and exclusive
— 67 of the stores are ranked as cheap, 204 as medium and 59 as exclusive.
Obviously there is considerable overlapping, many stores catering to more
than one grade of custom.

The table below shows the exact classification of the 266 stores for
which estimates were given.

Table 2. — Stores Reporting Grades of Trade

Cheap - '.. 35

Cheap and Medium 10

Medium 162

Medium and Exclusive 11

Exclusive 26

Cheap and Exclusive 1

All Grades 21

The consumer schedules, about 500 in number, were obtained from all
classes insofar as possible\ According to the occupations of the head of the
family, those reporting were classified into labor, business, professional, agri-
cultural, public service and housekeeping groups. The labor class comprised
47 per cent of all those reporting and incl_uded factory employes, mechanics,
and general laborers. The business group was 24 per cent of the total num-
ber; professional people made up 17 per cent. Those engaged in some form
of agricultural work were 6 per cent of the whole number. The remainder
is evenly divided between public servants and housekeepers, themselves the
heads of their households.

No general diiferences in type of demand are apparent between classes
as such. Differences between localities and differences between nationalities
are more or less apparent.

The author wishes here to acknowledge her indebtedness to the manj'
informants who have given so generously of time and thought to the problems
herein presented. Without their aid this study would have been impossible.

The Division of Markets of the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture
cooperated in the collection of information, loaning the assistance of three
agents of the bureau for the purpose. The Federal Bureau of Agricultural
Economics, through its Boston oflice, also contributed certain expenses inci-
dental to this study.

Acknowledgment is made of the assistance of Mr. Jesse W. Tapp, of the
United States Department of Agriculture and the New England Research
Council, who placed at the disposal of the author a large amount of data on
the prices of apples, and certain charts on that subject presented herewith.

^ While the numbers of retailers and of consumers are comparatively small, much
thought was given to the problem of selection and it is believed that the schedules
obtained from each group are as thoroughly representative as possible.

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

THE DOMESTIC MARKET

The Crop

While total apple production in New England shows little change during
the decade from 1916 to 1925, the trend of the commercial crop is slightly
upward. The commercial crop in Massachusetts, however, shows an increase
of 65 per cent in volume during the same period. More striking is the fact
that the three- year-average, 1923-1925, shows an increase of 114 per cent over
the average of the first three years of the decade. The total crop in New
Yori< shows a slight upward tendency during tliis 10-year period, but there
is littFe change in tlie trend of the commercial crop.

The commercial crop of Washington has increased more rapidly than thai
of any other section, slio-wing an increase of 70 per cent from 1916 to 1925.
The accompanying chart shows the actual fluctuations and the trend of both
the New England and the LTnited States crops for these ten seasons. (Chart
I). The increase in both volume and trend of the United States crop is much
greater than of the New England crop, which indicates tliat the competition
which the New England crop must meet is steadily increasing.

CHART 1. Volume and Trend of Commercial Apple Production in the United States
and New England, 1916-1925

3fo

OilltODS

Ba-rreis
36

'\(o '17 '18 '19 '20 '21 '22 '23 '£A> '25

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 5

Competition of New England Apples

In Table 3 are shown the volume of the commercial crops in New Eng-
land, Massachusetts, and their greatest competitors. New York and Washing-
ton, 1916 to 1926.

Table 3. — Commercial Apple Crop of New England, Massachusetts,
New York and Washington, 1916-1926 (barrels)

Year

New England

Massachusetts

New York

Washington

1916

1 , 663 , 000

.368,000

5,544,000

4,882,000

1917

992,000

225,000

2.058,000

4,620,000

1918

881,000

300,000

5,950.000

4,296,000

1919

1 , 584 , 000

335,000

2,975,000

7,167.000

1920

1,255,000

375,000

6,500,000

5,734.000

1921

1,133,000

172,000

3,-300,000

8,300,000 .

1922

1,068,000

461,000

6,000,000

7,341,000

1923

1,599.000

600,000

4,200,000

9,600,000

1924

2,087.000

675,000

3,738,000

6,275,000

1925

2,064,000

655 , 000

6,250,000

8,570,000

1926 a

2,110,000

880,000

7,032,000

8,500.000

a. Estimates of United States Dept. of Agriculture, Nov. 1, 1926.

In Table 4 are shown unloads of apples in 192.5 in 17 large markets of
the United States outside of New England. It will be noted that the
Northwest supplies the largest proportion of apples in these markets, while
New York stands second. New England contributes barely 2 per cent of
the total and 8 of the markets receive no New England apples. Twenty-
two cities of 34 outside New England, reported by the United States De-
partment of Agriculture, received no apples from New England, and in the

Table 4. — Carlot Unloads of Apples in Selected Markets, by Sources, 1925

Source

Market
(city)

New

New

Middle

North-

England

York

Atlantic a

west b

Other

Total

Atlanta

0

21

159

191

164

535

Baltimore

17

247

156

197

125

742

Chicago

60

968

40

3.123

3,583

7,774

Cincinnati

23

531

163

306

272

1,295

Cleveland

4

788

106

511

161

1,570

Dallas

0

0

0

247

217

464

Detroit

0

258

171

921

776

2,126

Fort Worth

0

0

0

239

127

366

Kansas Citv

0

3

0

835

583

1,421

Louisville

5

237

77

198

.342

859

Minneapolis

0

65

2

191

615

873

New York

550

6,611

1,517

4,589

494

13,761

Omaha

0

19

0

463

285

767

Philadelphia

19

630

665

978

218

2,510

Pittsburgh

34

1,454

370

573

139

2,570

St. Louis

0

54

57

362

1,477

1,950

Washington

0

54

273

188

42

557

Total

712

11,940

3,756

14,112

9.620

40,140

Per cent of Total

2

SO

.9

35

24

100

a. Middle Atlantic includes Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia and West
Virginia.

b. Northwest inchides Idaho, Washington and Oregon.

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

remaining 12 but 2 per cent of the supply during this year was from this
source.

These figures show a comparatively narrow distribution of New Eng-
land apples. Outside New England and New York they comprise so
small a volume of apples unloaded as to be negligible. Apples from New
York were distributed to 1.5 of the 17 markets here listed, and the North-
west shipped apples to each of the markets. Of apples shipped from
New England in 1925-26, 51 per cent were sent to New York, 13 per cent
to Chicago and 3 per cent to Cincinnati. Other markets received even
siaaller proportions.

On the other hand, arrivals of New England apples on the Boston
market comprised about 44 per cent of the total receipts for the seasons
1920-1924. About 15 per cent were from New York and 22 per cent from
Washington. The trend of these receipts is shown in Table 5, which gives

Table 5. — Monthly Carlot Arrivals on Boston Market from Chief Sources,
1920-21 to 1924-25

Massac h usetts

Year

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

Total

1920—21

0

82

129

167

166

72

46

30

205

18

5

0

920

1921—22

9

40

42

49

17

14

7

25

6

0

0

0

209

1922—23

46

211

208

260

165

79

55

43

47

34

7

0

1155

1923—24

0

130

192

222

165

72

S2

91

90

69

23

4

1140

1924—2.5

0

112

233

275

165

101

67

88

85

65

26

0

1217

Average

11

115

161

194

136

67

51

55

87

37

12

1

928

Other

New

Ekgiaud

States

1920—21

0

0

8

20

34

20

14

13

16

5

6

0

136

1921—22

0

20

121

265

223

40

13

11

21

16

9

1

760

1922—23

0

2

9

72

40

8

6

9

6

10

7

1

170

1923—24

0

2

16

102

75

17

18

18

13

14

4

0

279

1924—25

0

0

18

85

126

35

31

25

22

20

4

0

366

Average

0

5

34

109

100

24

16

15

15

13

6

0

341

New York State

1920—21

0

29

66

84

121

55

66

42

73

32

25

7

600

1921—22

19

64

34

58

15

11

7

21

46

59

18

0

352

1922—23

0

0

72

184

108

29

36

24

55

37

40

5

590

1923—24

1

7

32

16

8

11

21

21

26

50

81

37

311

1924—25

1

6

14

14

2

0

1

1

9

15

28

9

100

Average

4

21

43

71

51

21

26

22

42

39

38

12

391

Washington

State

1920—21

0

2

1

56

122

49

42

31

75

56

86

13

534

1921—22

15

0

19

138

173

58

49

74

102

53

24

24

629

1922—23

0

0

0

65

89

91

169

114

80

50

29

3

690

1923—24

0

9

14

182

114

96

121

121

64

100

61

32

994

1924r— 25

1

0

10

30

55

84

13

40

19

24

34

16

326

Average

3

2

9

94

110

76

79

76

68

57

47

18

635

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 7

volumes arriving month!}- from Massachusetts, other New England States,
New York and Washington. New England apples comprised 39 per cent
of total receipts during the first two seasons, but 57 per cent of the total
during the last two seasons.

Apples from all producing sections are received in larger or smaller
quantities on most of the markets of the state. In some of the smaller
cities, such as Greenfield, Westfield, Fitchburg, Newburyport, Athol,
Gardner, etc., local apples are largely used as long as the supply lasts.
Westfield and Greenfield are almost wholly supplied by local apples. Pitts-
field, in the early part of the season, uses only apples grown nearby, but
most of these are brought over from New York State, and peddled from
store to store by the growers. Later in the season, when the condition
of the roads does not permit this, and when the weather has grown so cold
that apples are not longer safe in ordinary farm storage, the wholesalers
supply the retail stores. They also deal more or less in native apples,
but handle considerable quantities of W^estern apples.

North Adams is supplied by New York, Vermont and Massachusetts,
with apples from western New York and the Northwest in the latter part
of the season.

New Bedford and Fall River are markets for many local apples, but
receive more from other sources, much of the local supply being of poor
qualit}', poorly prepared for market. However, the young orchards of the
vicinity are commercial orchards which receive good care and the fruit now
being oifered from them is of good quality, well graded and well packed.

The approximate periods when the different varieties of apples from
the various sources are on the Boston market are presented in the accom-
panying chart. Chart 2. It shows that the chief competition of our early
apples is from the Middle Atlantic states, while New York and Washington
ajiples compete chiefly with our late fall and winter fruit.

Competition of Massachusetts apples with those from other New
England states is not serious. Apples from New Hampshire are of about
the same varieties and quality as those grown in Massachusetts. Some
dealers believe that the New Hampshire fruit has greater keeping quality,
and a few think it takes on better color. On the Boston market Maine
apples do not bring the prices that are paid for apples from the other
parts of New England.

Other Fruits.

Throughout the year bananas and oranges are the strongest competitors
of apples. Bananas arrive on the Boston market in nearly three times
the volume of apples, and the average arrivals of oranges are about 45
per cent greater than arrivals of apples. The following tabulation (Table
6) shows carlot arrivals of various fruits in Boston for the 5 years, 1921-
1925. During these five years apples have comprised an average of 10 per
cent of the arrivals of all fruits on the Boston market.

The latter part of the season apples must meet the competition of
strawberries which are on the Boston market from January to July or
August, depending on the season, but which reach the peak in Blay or
June. Of course this is a less serious competition than that of peaches
and cantaloupes which are in heaviest receipts during June, July and
August, although peaches are on the market till October and cantaloupes
till December.

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

=3 2 *
".5 «

C bl

i; ce CO S

••:= c ^

c^

5*

ic

ra

«

.c

*

ce

o

^^

^

o

«

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 9

The volume of pears received in Boston is much less than those of the
other fruits mentioned, but beginning in July they come into competition
with the summer, fall and winter apples, remaining on the market until
January or later.

Table 6. — Carlot Arrivals in Boston of Apples and Chief Comiieting
Fruits, 1921-1925

5-year

1921

1922

1923

1924

1925

Average

Apples

2,727

2,815

2,928

2,761

2,362

2,719

Bananas

6,880

6,737

5,915

6,609

7,850

6,798

Cantaloupes

1,401

1,702

1,452

1,558

1,699

1.562

Grapefruit

1,219

1,336

1,542

1,510

1,072

1.336

Orani»es

4,055

3,294

4,650

4,427

3.3S7

3.962

Peaches

790

1,279

992

1,202

970

1,047

Pears

505

662

621

491

556

567

Berries

1,070

1,544

1,498

1,802

1,389

1,461

Other a

8,309

10,283

6.793

6,564

7,332

7.856

All Fruits

26,956

29,652

26,391

26,924

26,617

27,308

a. Chiefly grapes and cranberries.

Wholesale and Retail Distribution

It is evident tliat there must be a large distribution of apples from
certain markets in the state, many small markets receiving their retail
supply from these sources. Boston is naturalh^ the greatest distributing
point, supplying the entire demand, except what comes from local or-
chards, in the Eastern end of the state. The volume of these re-shipments
is shown by the fact that the average annu.-d carlot arrivals in Boston
exceed the average annual unloads by about 1,000 cars. Wholesalers in
other markets in this area, Lowell, Lawrence, Brockton, Taunton, buy
through Boston practically all but those apples purchased directly from
local growers. In New Bedford and Fall River wholesalers receive apples
in carlots directly from New York and other sources and fewer through
Boston.

Worcester wholesalers distribute to retailers in the city and in the
small towns in the immediate vicinity. Fitchburg is a distributing center
for a large area, which, however, consumes large quantities of home-
grown apples. Springfield and Holyoke wholesalers do considerable busi-
ness in nearby towns, while North Adams and Pittsfield dealers operate
chiefly within their own markets.

Quantities Purchased by Retailers.

Formerly retailers bought large quantities of apples at a time, stored
them in the best available space and took a chance on the keeping quality.
Today most retailers buy from day to day, or at most two or three times a
week. Many wholesalers, in discussing this matter, used the expression,
"from hand to mouth" to show the small size of retailers' purchases. Some
buy one box or two boxes at a time, while others buy from 5 to 10 boxes
depending on the volume of business done. A few were reported as buy-
ing 2.5 bushels at once. An occasional retailer buys a considerable quan-

10

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

tity of apples — usually barreled winter stock — keeping it in the wholesaler's
storage space till needed.

When retailers buy from the growers they generally buy larger sup-
plies than when they buy from the wholesaler. Most growers plan to sell
their fruit before the weather grows too cold for hauling so that the retail-
ers must generally depend on wholesalers for supplies after the holidays.
This situation is particularly characteristic of markets in the western part
of the state. Growers in this section sell considerable quantities directly
to retailers and comparatively little to wholesalers. Some wholesalers
reported that they do little or no business in apples untM the new year, be-
cause of the competition of the growers' sales to retailers.

Retailers buy from growers, wholesalers and jobbers, and many of
those in the vicinity of Boston who deal in Northwestern boxed apples,
buy on the auction market in Charlestown.

Taible 7 shows the proportion of retailers reporting who buy from
grower and wholesaler in the different markets.

Over half (52 per cent) of the retailers reporting on this item buy
more or less of their supply directly from growers; and 18 per cent buy
from producers all the apples handled. Some retailers will not buy
from the grower because he demands cash, whereas the wholesaler will
usually extend credit.

While 82 per cent of the retailers reporting do business with whole-
salers or jobbers, only 48 per cent buy all their apples from these firms.

Table 7. — Retailers Purchasing from Grower and Wholesaler

From Grower

From Jobber or

From Both Grower

Number

Only

Wholesaler Only

and Wholesaler

Market

Report-
ing

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

Boston

53

3

5.7

41

77 .3

9

17.0

Brockton

22

5

S2.7

15

6S.2

2

9.0

Lowell

9

2

22.2

5

55.6

2

22.0

New Bedford

8

3

37.5

5

62.5

0

0.0

Springfield

32

10

31.3

19

69.5

3

9.3

Worcester

9S

15

15.3

23

23.5

60

61.2

Miscellaneous

4

2

60.0

0

,0.0

2

50.0

Total

226

40

17.7

108

47.8

78

34.5

In some of the markets of the western part of the state particularly,
large quantities of apples are sold by the growers to the retailers. In
Greenfield, for example, there is no wholesaler or jobber of apples, and
there are few apples on the market except those from orchards in Franklin
County. Formerly there were few apples of good qualitj', well graded,
except those from the Northwest. The quality of home-grown apples
has improved and the demand for them has increased accordingly.

Brands

Few Massachusetts apples are sold under a brand. A goodly num-
ber of growers, however, pack apples of such good quality that their names
on box or barrel give sufficient assurance of satisfaction, both dealers and
customers accepting the name as evidence of quality.

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES

11

Most wholesalers who handle apples of specific brands reported that
they buy, not according to the brand, but according to the condition and
price of each lot purchased.

Container

Apples handled by retailers are commonly bought in barrels, boxes,
bushel baskets and 14-quart baskets.

Table 8. — Percentage of Retailers Handling Apples in Each
Type of Container

Number

Barrels

Barrels

Boxes

of

Barrels

Boxes

Baskets

and

and

and

Market

Reports

only

only

only

Boxes

Baskets

Baskets

Boston

55

1.8

95.0

0.0

3.6

0.0

0.0

Brockton

21

85.7

9.5

0.0

4.4

0.0

0.0

Lowell

9

0.0

100.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

New Bedford

8

37.4

12,5

0.0

50.0

0.0

0.0

Springfield

31

70.0

9.7

3.2

12.9

0.0

3.2

Worcester

104

1.9

94.3

1.9

.9

.9

0.0

Miscellaneous

■1

25.0

25.0

0.0

50.0

0.0

0,0

Total

232

20 2

71 6

1.3

6 0

.4

.4

A total of nearly 28 per cent of those reporting handle more or less
barreled stock. Nearly four in every five retailers sell boxed apples,
while but two per cent deal only in apples packed in baskets; these are
dealers in Springfield and Worcester. In some markets, particularly in the
southeastern part of the state, bushel baskets are common. The 14-quart
baskets and smaller sizes, ranging to the 2-quart basket, are in general use
at roadside stands.

Several enterprising growers of the state have in recent years packed
considerable quantities of their best apples, usually Mcintosh, in boxes
holding a dozen. Some of these have been sold at roadside stands during
the fall, some at retail stores, and some have been placed in cold storage
and kept till late in the winter or early spring. These have been popular
in those markets where offered.

It is evident that the preference for boxed apples is growing and
that this preference is moving westward in the state. Boston, Lowell
and Worcester already show an overwhelming demand for boxed fruit.
New Bedford and Brockton still show a preference for barrels, but not so
definitely as does Springfield.

Variety Preferences

Each of the 64 wholesalers reporting sells both fall and winter apples,
but only 40 report the handling of summer varieties. Consumers report
a decided preference for the Mcintosh as an eating apple, 40 per cent liking
this apple better than others. The Baldwin is second choice, more than
25 per cent naming this variety as their choice for eating. Other varieties,
the Fameuse, Northern Spy, Roxbury Russet, Gravenstein come next in
order, with 13 per cent dividing their choice among other scattered vari-
eties.

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

The Baldwin is easily the favorite for cooking purposes, being named
as their choice by nearly 60 per cent of consumers reporting. The
Greening stands second, 19 per cent naming this variety. The Mcintosh,
it is rather surprising to discover, is third choice as a cooking variety,
although it is reported by only 5 per cent of the consumers. The Graven-
stein, also generally considered a table apple, is almost as popular for
cooking purposes as is the Mcintosh.

In New York City the Greening, according to a recent study', is in
greatest demand for cooking, nearly one-fifth of over 3,000 consumers
expressing a preference for this variety. The Baldwin, the favorite cook-
ing apple in Massachusetts, is the choice of only 4 per cent of the reporting
New York consumers. Nearly 35 per cent of these New York consumers
have a definite preference for green apples for cooking, whereas Massachu-
setts housewives prefer red apples for both cooking and eating purposes.

The Mcintosh is the favorite eating apple in New York City as in
Massachu.setts, and this demand is largely among Jewish consumers. In-
deed, in the New York market, it is sometimes called "the Jewish apple."
The demand for Baldwin is about the same as that for Delicious, some
8 per cent of the consumers reporting expressing a preference for these
varieties. The Fameuse apple is best liked by about 7 per cent of the
consumers; but no other variety even approaches these in popularity.

Some growers and dealers have felt concern lest the large plantings of
Mcintosh trees may mean over-production within a few years, but there
seems little fear of this because of the growing popularity of the variety in
practically all markets. New York prefers the Mcintosh apple from New
England because it takes on a better color and has a better flavor than
those from New York orchards. The New York market has also taken
kindly to the Massachusetts boxed Mcintosh in the last two years although
it has been considered as distinctly a barrel market. The wrapped New
England apple has also recently met with favor in New York City, indicat-
ing that the demand in that market for our best apples is increasing.

Dealers report that the demand for eating apples is increasing while
that for cooking apples is steadily decreasing. Formerly housewives did
much more baking of pies and puddings than they do at the present lime,
and used many more apples for these purposes. Today many housewives
bake no pastry. Of those reporting for this study about one in eight uses
no apples for making pies. Bakeries, on the other hand, bake pies for
consumptoin in the home and in public eating places.

The housewife of today serves more salads than did her mother and
her grandmother, and for this purposes eating apples are preferred to the
stricth' cooking varieties.

Consmner Buying — Quantity Purchased

About one-third of the consumers reporting for this study buy a
bushel of apples at a time, and 12 per cent buy by the barrel. These
are mostly in the western part of the state and report also adequate
storage space.

Of those who buy by the bushel, about 8.5 per cent buy from the

> Unpublished data from this study were supplied by Mr. E. R. French of the New
York Food Marketing Research Council.

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 13

grower or at the roadside stands; and 7 per cent buy from the grocer.
Others buy from various sources as happens to be convenient.

Seven in ten of those who buy a barrel at a time deal directly with
the grower and nine in ten buy either from the grower or from the road-
side market. Eight per cent buying barreled apples secure them from
their grocers, while others report buying from several sources.

Over thirty per cent of reported consumers' purchases were by the
peck or by the 14-quart basket, the latter chiefly in .Springfield and vicin-
ity, although there are some baskets sold in Worcester.

Sales by the Pound

There has been in the last few years a marked increase in the buying
of apples by the pound, and a corresponding decrease in purchases by the
peck, bushel or barrel. From the retailer's standpoint practically all
sales are by weight. Sales "by the piece" are the only exceptions. A peck
of apples must weigh 12 pounds in Massachusetts and the retailer weighs
out 12 pounds when the customer orders a peck of apples, or 6 pounds
when a half-peck is ordered. Often the customer orders "2.5^ worth" of
apples, and the retailer adjusts the apples to this amount by weight — 3
pounds, 4 pounds, or 5 pounds "for a quarter."

Retailers reported that the customer seems to prefer to purchase 25
cents worth even though a better bargain be offered at slightly different
amounts. For instance, more apples will be sold if 5 pounds are given
for 2.5 cents than if 6 pounds are offered for 28 cents. It is reported by
retailers that a real bargain at more than 25 cents or less than 25 cents
will cause a falling off in volume of sales, whereas a reduction of the
number of pounds offered for 25 cents will not materially affect the num-
ber of sales.

Sales "by the piece," varying from one apple to a dozen, comprise 3
per cent of all retailers' sales reported. These are largely at fruit stands,
and the price is commonh^ 5 cents each, although sometimes apples are
sold at 3 for 10 cents, or even 10 cents each.

The custom of buying in small quantities has developed because (1)
the storage facilities of the average home, particularly city homes, are
small, and there is not room enough for large quantities of supplies; (2) the
cash and carry system has induced the purchase of small lots by the con-
sumer; (3) apples which have been in cold storage do not keep well when
removed from storage, and the consumer therefore finds it wiser to buy
small lots of these apples.

Factors hi BuyiiKj

One-fourtli of the consumers say that they are guided in their selection
by the condition of the fruit. Size is considered, according to these re-
ports, by but 14 per cent, but it is well-known among retail and wholesale
dealers that there is a decided preference for apples of medium size. Color,
likewise, is named as of importance hy but 7 jier cent of the consumers,
although it is a matter of general information that red apples are the
only ones commonly desired for houseliold use.

The flavor of the apple is taken into consideration by 16 per cent
of those reporting, and juiciness, texture of the flesh, and cooking quality
are mentioned bv a few.

14

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

Seven per cent of the consumers report that they buy by variety; and
an equal number say they buy apples because of their healthfulness.

The grade and pack and brand are reported by a very few consumers
as items of consideration.

Conswmer and Known Varieties

Of the 488 consumers reporting, 35 (7 per cent) report no varieties
of apples which they can identify and 20 name only one variety. The
Baldwin is known to 94 per cent of the consumers reporting, while 77
per cent know the Mcintosh and not quite half know the Russet, the third
best known variety. Not one in three knows the Greening; only one in
five knows the Gravenstein, and about one in six knows the Northern Spy.

Grades Preferred

In order to determine as accurately as possible the grades and sizes
desired by diiferent kinds of retail trade, stores (chain and individual),
hotels and restaurants, fruit stands and hucksters or peddlers were classi-
fied into cheap, medium and exclusive. The following tabulation presents
this information as secured by inquiry from wholesalers.

It is noteworthy that the Fancy grade is in demand only among the
high-grade stores. "A" grade apples are most in demand, 58 per cent
of all types of retail agencies handling them, and 44 per cent of the retail
stores report that they handle this grade alone. Over 60 per cent of the
reported demand of chain stores, fruit stands, hotels and restaurants is for
"A" grade, and 52 per cent of the demand from individual stores is for
this grade. Only 12 per cent of the total demand, as reported by whole-
salers, is for "B" grade fruit. Ungraded lots, with a demand amounting
to 20 per cent, are more popular than "B" grade.

Table 9. — Grades and Sizes Preferred by Diflferent Types
of Retail Trade.a

Number of Times Named

Sizes
(Inches)

Type of Trade

Fancy

A

B

Ungraded

CHAIN STORE

Cheap

0

5

7

9

2 — 2§

Medium

0

24

7

3

2i— 2|

Exclusive

0

15

0

0

2i— 3 +

INDIVIDUAL STORE

Cheap

0

27

15

30

2 — 2J

Medium

0

14

1

1

21— 2 J

Exclusive

5

16

0

1

2J— 3+

HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS

Cheap

0

16

3

12

2J

Medium

0

21

4

8

2i— 2f

Exclusive

8

21

0

3

2i— 3+

FRUIT STANDS

Cheap

0

0

2

1

2 — 2J

Medium

0

21

4

2

2f-3

Exclusive

17

22

0

0

2i— 3+

Total

30

202

43

70

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 15

Reports of cash-and-carry stores show that 66 per cent use A grade
apples, and 27 per cent A grade only. The demand for Fancy apples is
confined to 7 per cent of these stores; 14 per cent want B grade, and 6
per cent want this grade only. The remainder handle any grade or un-
classified. Three per cent report a demand for unclassified only.

The nine self-service stores reporting show that five handle A grade
apples only; one handles both A and B and the other three handle unclassi-
fied apples.

Hucksters buy mostly according to price, with variety, grade and size
of minor importance.

An analysis of the demand as influenced by the nationality of consum-
ers shows that 63 per cent of stores patronized wholly or mostly by people
of native stock want A grade only; while 70 per cent of those with a
patronage largely Swedish, and 55 per cent of those catering largely to
French, use A grade only. The sale of B grade only is reported by 32 per
cent of the stores having mainly American custom and 20 per cent of those
chiefly or partly Irish.

Sizes Preferred

Preferences are very definitely for one size in a container, nearly three-
fourths of those retailers reporting state this choice; 8 per cent prefer
assorted sizes in a container; while 18 per cent express no preference.
Preference for assorted sizes within a container applies mostly to cheaper
varieties and grades of apples, often to those to be used for cooking.

The preference is in general for apples about 2y2 to 2% inches in
diameter. This is the first choice of practically every buyer, but with the
cheapest trade, price controls the purchase as to grade, size and variety.
Table 9 presents the favored sizes reported by different types of trade.

As in the case of grades, so the size of apples purchased by hucksters
is a consideration secondary to price, as they depend chiefly on a glutted
market for their supply, and buy whatever they think they can sell at a
profit.

Practically all wholesalers reported that fruitstand operators wish only
good grades and the larger sizes of apples. As this fact indicates, there
are few cheap fruit stands and these where there is little trading by
hucksters.

Uses of Apples

From information furnished by consumers, it is evident that the follow-
ing statement of proportion of apples used for different household purposes
is fairly typical, although it must be understood that there are many and
wide variations therefrom.

Uses Per Cent Uses Per Cent

Raw , 60 Baking 10

Pies 20 Salad 5

Sauce 10 Other 5

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

Advertising

Little effort seems to be made by most retailers to push the sale of
apples. In general they apparently prefer to make a larger margin of
profit on a small volume of sales rather than put forth the effort necessary
to handling a large volume.

The common method of advertising apples which is used in retail
stores is the mere display of the fruit in the original container. Seventy-
two per cent of the retailers interviewed display apples in boxes, 31 per
cent display a bushel at a time; 30 per cent display them in the window
and now and then one reports that he displays them in a showcase. Some
use bins for display purposes, these being sometimes built in the window.
Occasionally the placard advertising the price states also the variety, and
less often the grower's name is given.

Six per cent of the retailers reporting advertise the brands of apples
they handle. Eleven per cent advertise apples in local newspapers, and 8
per cent advertise them more or less by some sort of circular.

During national apple week, early in October, considerable effort has
been made to advertise Massachusetts and New England apples. The
campaign has been carried on under the leadership of the State Department
of Agriculture, Division of Markets, which has enlisted the cooperation of
chambers of commerce in the markets of the state. Not only the retail
markets, but dry goods, hardware, and other types of stores, have entered
into the movement. Window displays entirely or parth' composed of
apples have been used.

One wholesaler in particular has, for a number of years, advertised
apples throughout the western part of the state, using the side of his big
business block as well as bill-boards at several points on state highways.

The Nashoba Apple Growers' Association, with over 300 members in
the apple district in Middlesex and Worcester counties, and also in southern
New Hampshire, advertises apples by means of billboards marking the area
of what is known as the Nashoba apple district.

Roadside stands advertise apples by means of signs at or near the
stands. Usually these signs announce tlie varieties chiefly sold, particu-
larly Mcintosh; and the name of the grower is sometimes added.

THE FOREIGN MARKET
The World Crop

The volume of the world crop in apples can not be exactly stated,
since returns are not available from all countries, Russia, Belgium and
some others not being reported. However, statistics compiled by the
United States Department of Agriculture include the bulk of the world's
apple crop. These are included in the following table. It will be noted
tliat figures for Canada and New Zealand represent commercial crops only.

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES

17

Table 10. — Apple Production in the Chief Producing
Countries, 1921-1924 (barrels)

Country

1921

1922

1923

1924

NORTHERN

HEMISPHERE a
United States

Total Crop

Commercial
Canada. Commercial
England and Wales
France b
Czechoslovakia
Yugoslavia
Bulgaria
Italy-
Switzerland
Chosen
Japan

SOUTHERN

HEMISPHERE a
Chile
Australia

New Zealand, commercial
Tctal of countries

reporting

33,000,667

21,557,000

4,165,527

2,607,154

2,554,202

2,335,853

2,560

2,742,000

1.113.161

147.628

416.637

55.708

2,182.045

329.871

51.653,013

67,667,333
31.945,000

3,889,541

5,391,670

4,929,986

2,681,386

2,851

3,696,995
149,520
992,023

133,366
2,399,783

489,748

92,324,202

67,614,000
35,936,000
3,838,641
3,609,000
3,416,165
2,838.934
2,098,305

550,667
182,090
459,362

1,947,426
465,633

87,020.223

59,700,333
28,587.000
2,965,492
2,738,000
5,772,929
3,664,354
2,767,528

1.690,333
225,252

521,086
80,045,307

a. Production as reported is for the calendar year in the Northern Hemisphere and
the succeeding harvest in the Southern Hemisphere.

b. Pears and apples for table use included.

The United States grows about 73 per cent of the world crop reported
and our commercial crop amounts to about 30 per cent of this known
volume. Canada is the next largest producer, with a commercial crop
averaging 3,750,000 barrels for the period under discussion. Czecho-
slovakia produced an average of 3,500,000 barrels during the period, the
largest volume for any European country reporting. France grows a
crop of considerable size, but the figures given in this table include not
only those apples for table use, but pears as well.

Although apples are grown more generally than any other fruit, being
cultivated to some extent in most parts of the world, many countries do
not produce enough to meet their own demand and a world-wide apple
trade has developed. A partial summary of this international trade is pre-
sented in the following tables, 11 and 12, which list the chief countries im-
porting and exporting apples. The figures, which were compiled by the
agents of the United States Department of Agriculture, show that m.ost of
the exporting countries also import apples to some extent.

The total volume of imports reported exceeds the total volume of
exports, indicating that there are sources of considerable exports other
tlian those listed.

International Trade

International trade in apples, which amounted to about 7,000,000 bar-
rels annually from 1909 to 1913, has not yet quite reached this pre-war

18

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

level. Of the average for the 5 years, 1921-192.5, the United States con-
tributed 42 per cent and Canada 23 per cent, Australasia about 9 per cent
and France 7 per cent. The remainder is exported by various continental
countries. Table 11 gives export statistics of the principal countries
from 1921 to 1925.

Table 11 — Total Apple Exports, by Chief Countries,
1921-192.5 (barrels)rt

Country

1921

1922

1923

1924

1925

United States

1,936,000

1,648,000

2,959,000

4,120,000

3,347,000

Canada b

1,358,000

1 , 846 , 000

" 1,461,000

1,653,000

1,388,000

Australia c

291,000

582,000

662 , 000

455,000

704.000

France d

150,000

57,000

252,000

1,515,000

422,000

Netherlands

307,000

116,000

251,000

353,000

Italy d

23,000

28,000

404,000

544,000

468,000

Austria d ■

15,000

7,000

10,000

931,000

118,000

Belgium

105,000

187.000

263.000

328,000

Switzerland

,50,000

24,000

16,000

560,000

96,000

Yugoslavia

65,000

35,000

11,000

172.000

82 . 000

Portugal d

55,000

25,000

29,000

55,000

New Zealand

14,000

31,000

41,000

68,000

59,000

Czechoslovakia d

3,000

3,000

5,000

5,000

97,000

Hungary d

300

167,000

Rumania d

1,000

159,000

Total

4,372,000

4,590,300

6,364,000

10,759,000

7,107,000

a. From Commerce Reports, July 26, 1926.

b. Canadian fiscal year begins April 1.

c. Australian fiscal year begins July 1.

d. Apple export statistics include also pears or quinces. These figures are reported

by chief apple importing countries.

Table 12. — Total Imports of Apples, by Chief Countries,
1921-1925, (barrels)

Country

1921

1922

1923

1924

1925

United Kingdom

3.108,000

3,473,000

5,028.000

5,617,000

4,667,000

Germany

28,000

506.000

3,772,000

2,865,000

Canada

273,000

111.000

196,000

172,000

124.000

Sweden

91.000

68,000

154,000

216,000

Denmark

102.000

85,000

137,000

139,000

Norway

80.000

53.000

98,000

58,000

47.000

Netherlands

64.000

58,000

107,000

121,000

Belgium

127.000

30,000

41,000

104,000

Mexico

42.000

33,000

39,000

47,000

30,000

Cuba

34,000

34,000

44,000

41,000

38,000

Argentina

10.000

28,000

59,000

87.000

143,000

Brazil

14.000

14,000

19,000

37.000

59,000

Philippines

11,000

26,000

37,000

53.000

41,000

China

7,000

9,000

15,000

24.000

24,000

Total

3,963,000

4,050,000

6,480,000

10.488,000

8.038.000

The volume of apples exported from the United States varies obviously
with the size of the crop. Domestic markets are, in general, supplied
first, and the surplus sent to foreign markets. When the crop is small the

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES

19

home markets absorb larger proportions, leaving less for export. The total
volume of exports from the United States has ranged from 497,000 barrels
in 1901-02 to 3,511,000 barrels in 1923-24, with an average of over 1,700,000
barrels for the entire period. The table following gives the exports from
the United States for these seasons, 1901-02 to 1925-26.

Table 13. — Volume of Apples Exported from the United States,
1901-02 to 1925-26

Season

Barrels

Season

Barrels

Season

Barrels

1901—02

497,000

1909—10

1,096,000

1917—18

635,000

1902—03

1,981,000

1910—11

1,619,000

1918-19

1,577,000

1903—04

2,308,000

1911—12

1,449,000

1919—20

997,000

1904—05

1,683,000

1912—13

2,299,000

1920—21

2,114,000

1905—06

1,437,000

1913—14

1,285,000

1921—22

826,000

1906—07

1,649,000

1914—15

2,148,000

1922—23

1,393,000

1907—08

1,4.36,000

1915—16

1,466,000

1923—24

3,511,000

1908—09

832.000

1916—17

1,740,000

1924—25
1925—26

3,201,000
3,189,000

Exports have comprised, since the World War, an average of nearly
7 per cent of the commercial crop of the United States. The table below
presents the total commercial production of apples, with the percentage
exported from each season's crop, from 1918-19 to 1925-26.

Table 14. — Commercial Production of Apples in the United States, with
Percentage Exported, 1918-19 to 1925-26

Season
1918-19
1919-20
1920-21
1921-22
1922-23
1923-24
1924-25
1925-26

Bushels
74,229,000
78,477,000

101,715,000
64,671,000
95,835,000

107,808,000
86,103,000
95,927,000

Percentage

Exported

6.3

3.8

6.2
3.7
4.3
9.8
11.1
9.9

European countries offer the chief markets for apples exported from
the United States, the United Kingdom and Germany taking more than
all other countries.

United Kingdom,

The apple markets of Great Britain are supplied in large part during
the fall and early winter by the European crop. During this season the
British markets consume first the home-grown supply, hence the crop in
England is especially significant to the United States exporter, since Brit-
ish markets absorb so large a portion of our exports.

The home-grown apple crop normally supplies from 8,000,000 to 9,000,-
000 bushels for the British market. These are mostly cooking apples.
The small supply of native dessert apples is commonly exhausted by the
beginning of the new year.

20

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

Canada is the chief competitor of the United States in tlie markets of
the United Kingdom, to which she sent during the seasons from 1921 to
1925 an average of 95 per cent of all apples exported. The following table
presents the total exports of apples from Canada from 1900 to 1925.

Tablk 15.— Canadian Exports of A))ples, 1900-01 to 1925-26a
(barrels)

Season

Exports

1900—01

470,000

1901—02

394,000

1902—03

6,33,000

1903—01

1,327,000

1904—05

1,043,000

190,5—06

1,218,000

1906—07

978,000

1907—08

1.629,000

1908—09

1,092,000

Season

E.x ports

1909—10

1,605,000

1910—11

527,000

1911—12

1,664,000

1912—13

1,. 325, 000

191.3—14

947,000

1914—15

1,117.000

1915—16

577,000

1916—17

571,000

1917—18

104,000

Season

Exports

1918—19

405 , 000

1919—20

874,000

1920—21

1,358,000

1921—22

1,285,000

1922—23

1,370,000

1923—24

1,510,000

1924—25

1,371,000

1925—26

1,393,000

a. Compilerl from The Canada Yearbook and the reports of the International Apple
Shippers Association.

Statistics of production in France are incomi^Iete, but in 1924, the
most recent year for which figures are available, a total volume of 5,772,-
929 barrels was grown. This figure, however, includes jiears and peaches
as well as apples, but a careful estimate from the United States Depart-
ment of Commerce places the probable total production of apples in France
as considerably above this figure. During the decade 1903-1913 the aver-
age exports from France to the L^nited Kingdom amounted to 222,000
oushels, and for the period from 1920 to 1921. this average was 617,000
bushels, about 5 per cent of the total importations of the United Kingdom.
Germany received an annual average of 3,916,000 bushels of apples from
France during the decade preceding the war. In 1925 the volume had
regained but 24 per cent of this pre-war average.

Apples exported from Australia and New Zealand are sent almost
wholly to the L^nited Kingdom. The normal crop is between 2,000,000
bushels and 3,000,00 bushels, of which Tasmania grows more than half and
New Zealand some 10 per cent. The bulk of the shipments occur in May
and June, and most of these apples i are shipped to London.

Obviously only the last of the United States apples held in storage meet
the competition of the Australasian crop, and the quality of these apples
is not equal to those grown in the United States. The cost of packing
and carriage to the London market is reported to be $2.00 a case (bushel),
wliich gives a decided advantage to apples shipped from our North Atlantic
])i(rts.

During the season 1925-26 Russia resumed shipping apples to England,
luiving suspended these exports since the beginning of the World War.
In quality the Russian apple is not at present a serious competitor of
American fruit. The Russian crop is, however, said to attain a color
tliat shows the possibility of competition should the Russian grower learn
better cultural methods.

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES

21

Oermany

Germany was, prior to the World War, a large importer of apples,
but only during the past two or three seasons is she receiving again large
shipments from the United States. Importations of apples by the United
Kingdom and by Germany are presented in Table 16. Owing to geograph-
ical changes following the World War, the figures for German importations
are not exactly comparable to the pre-war figures. British importations
of apples from the United States have more than doubled the pre-war
a\erage, while the volume sent to Germany has not yet returned to that
of the decade prior to the war.

Table 16. — British and German Imports of Apples (barrels)

United Kingdom

Germ.xny

Average

Average

Average

Source

1909—1913

1921—1924

Source

1903—1913

1925 a

United States

958,000

1,904,000

Netherlands

297,000

679,000

Canada

1,094,000

1.324,000

Italy-

682 , 000

468,000

Australia

276 , 000

563 , 000

France

1,305,000

422,000

France

74,000

206,000

Belgium

287,000

317,000

Belgium

75,000

111,000

Hungary

167,000

Netherlands

21,000

78,000

Rumania

159,000

Portugal

91.000

41,000

United States

143,000

131,000

New Zealand

41,000

Austria

118,000

Germany

3,000

12,000

Czechoslovakia

97,000

Channel Islands

10.000

2,000

Switzerland

370,000

96,000

Other

14,000

25 , 000

Yugoslavia

78.000

Total

2,616,000

4,307,000

Austria-Hungary
Canada
Australia
Russia

723,000
37 , 000
33,000
11.000

Other

8,000

134,000

Total

3,896,000

2 , 866 , 000

a. Germany imported very few apples from 1920-1924.

France

The demand for American apples in France has been very small.
French markets demand better grades of apples than do British markets.
Since most receipts of American apples in France have been reshipments
from London or Liverpool, the French have not found them equal in size
or quality to their own table apples, iience they have not been popular.

During the season of 1925-26, however, after French apples had
become scarce and expensive, Northwestern boxed apples of good size were
offered on the Paris markets after careful advertising. Certain chain
stores handled them at a reasonable price. This tended to control to
some extent the retail price in other stores and the price asked for good
American fruit was lower than that of the remaining French apples which
■were withered and over-ripe. This served to extend the consumption and
introduce American apples to the French public.

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

South America

While comparative!} few apples are shipped from the United States
to South American countries, the shipments averaging only about 3 per
cent of total exports since the war, the average volume of apples exported
to South America is nearly 125,000 bushels. Most of these are sent to
Brazil, where native fruits are the chief competitors of United States ap-
ples, although some apples are received from Canada, New Zealand and
Portugal.

The demand for American apples comes chiefly from the most pros-
perous classes, largely foreigners. The few available reports show that
prices are high. It seems probable that better shipping facilities, with
proper refrigerator service and efficient advertising might open a wider
market in South America.

Canada

Despite the fact that Canada is herself a large producer of apples,
she ranks third as an export market for United States apples. She
takes about 9 per cent of our boxed exports and 2 per cent of our barreled
apples. Canada also ships some apples into the markets of the United
Slates, although the bulk of her exports is shipped to the LTnited Kingdom.

Sources of Exports

The chief sources of apples exported from the United States are New
England — especially Maine and Massachusetts — New York, Virginia, and
the Pacific Northwest, but it is impossible to determine how many are
exported from any producing section, since records of sources are not
always available. Customs House records may or may not give actual
place of origin, as the shipper may buy apples in the Northwest and ship
them from Boston or New York. Apples grown in Maine are often
shipped from New York, and Northwestern apples have been stored in
Portland, Maine, and exported from that port.

Several of the largest exporters in Boston reported for the season of
1924-25 total exports of about 55,000 bushels of Massachusetts apples. Of
these almost all were boxed apples; only 3,327 bushels were shipped in bar-
rels. These figures probably represent a large part of Massachusetts apples
exported by Boston dealers, although there are a few wholesalers who now
and then export apples as conditions seem favorable, but whose figures are
not available. There is apparently no regular exporter in Massachusetts
outside ©f Boston.

Varieties Exported

A more or less accurate idea of the relative volumes of different vari-
eties exported from New England can be formed from figures provided
by a few individual exporters of Boston. From exports amounting to
18,800 bushels shipped, mostly from Boston, in 1925-26, the following
percentages of varieties are given:

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 23

Variety

Per Cent

Variety

P

er Cent

Gravenstein

22.1

Baldwin

17.7

Early Williams

7.4

Ramshorn

2.07

Wealthy

10.5

Ben Davis

2.3

Mclntosh

224

Odd Varieties
Not reported

4.9
10.1

Since these reports were for the season of 1925-26, in which the foreign
trade in winter apples was injured by the appearance on some ship-
nitnts of arsenic spray residue, it is probable that there is a larger propor-
tion of fall apples than wovild appear in most reasons.

Boxed and Barreled Exports

In the season of 1925-26 about 40 per cent of all apples exported
were boxed. Shipments from Eastern ports were 70 per cent barreled and
only boxed apples were shipped from the Western ports.

The proportions of boxed and barreled apples consumed by different
countries is of interest to the export trade. During the three seasons
from 1922 to 1924, England, Ireland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Brazil
and Argentina increased the proportion of barreled apples from the United
States. Canada, Germany, Netherlands, Mexico, and Cuba show declining
receipts of barreled apples, with corresponding increases in boxed apples.
Germany, despite her irregular imports since the war, shows an increasing
demand for boxed apples. China and The Philippines take few if any
apples in barrels.

The total percentage of boxed apples exported has increased almost
steadily since the season of 1900-1901. During the first five years of the
period, the average was about 5 per cent of the total exports from the
United States. The five years immediately preceding the war showed
that this had risen to 25 per cent, and since the war it has reached an
average of 54 per cent.

Tariffs

Great Britain imposes no tariff on imported apples, but continental
governments impose tariffs varying from 6 cents, the minimum per 100
pounds, for apples in bulk, to $11.00 per hundred-weight for "fresh fruits
in fancy packing" in Belgium. On apples for table use, France imposes
an import duty varying from 21 cents to 85 cents per 100 pounds, while
apples for cider are taxed from 9 cents to 34 cents.

Germany has a new tariff which varies according to the season, im-
posing on unpacked apples a lower rate during the last three months of
the year. This has the effect of restricting the trade in American apples
during that period, because of the obvious impossibility of successful ocean
shipment of unpacked apples. The German tariff on American apples is
33 cents a box and $1.09 a barrel. This places barreled fruit at a disad-
vantage if exported to Germany, but the German market shows a growing
preference for boxed apples, most of the best native fruit being now so
packed. The tariff on Canadian apples shipped to Germany is $1.59 per
100 pounds, Canada not being included in the "favored nation" clause of
German treaties. Hence Canada exports few apples to Germany.

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BUI>LETIN 231

Norway imposes on American apples a duty which is nearly 100 per
cent higher during the last five months of the calendar year than during the
other seven. It is claimed that this is for the protection of the Norwegian
apple growers. This tariff has had the effect of limiting importation of
apples during the latter part of the year, since it amounts to nearly 5
cents a pound, while from January first to July 31st it is about 2.7 cents
a pound. The commercial treaty between Spain and Norway gives
oranges a great advantage in Norwegian markets over imported apples,
the duty imposed on oranges amounting to but $.0012 per pound, with no
seasonal variation. Unless this situation is changed there will be little
opportunity for imported apples in Norway.

Transportation

Several matters of transportation are of importance in connection with
the exporting of apples. Especially should growers who ship directly to
foreign markets be familiar with the routine as to refrigeration, insurance
p.nd costs of handling.

Refrigeration

Refrigerated space varies with the different boats, some having only
ordinary stowage and others having two, three or five refrigerated chamb-
ers. These compartments vary in size according to the space between
decks. It is possible to cool one chamber alone and to maintain a differ-
ent temperature in each chamber. The temperature can be maintained
within two degrees of any point specified. Temperatures are therefore
stated as "34-36," "32-34," etc. Probably 35 degrees is most desirable
for apples.

Since few perishables are brought from European ports to United
States ports, boats westward bound seldom use refrigerated space. Boats
incoming are frequently notified by wireless that certain refrigerated
space of a specified temperature will be needed for the return trip. This
advance notice gives time to get the chamber ready for prompt loading
on arrival at port.

There are no boats in the Atlantic service containing only refrigerated
space; but in the Pacific Coast trade ships wholly under refrigeration are
used to carry part of the apple shipments from the Northwest by way of
the Panama Canal. Obviously one of these ships will carry large quan-
tities and some concern has been felt as to the effect on foreign markets
of tliese large shipments.

Insiirance

Insurance of apples for export covers ordinary marine risks, the
cwner being protected against actual damage or loss, not to exceed the
declared value. The cost of this insurance is ordinarily about one per
cent of the value. There are, in addition, special insurance features for
the protection of shippers of perishable fruits against loss due to prolonga-
tion of the voyage. Such delays arise most often from broken machinery.

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 25

Apples shipped under refrigeration are also commonly insured against
breakdown of refrigeration machinery. At a slightly higher cost the
policy can be written to cover loss from insufficient refrigeration, which
is one of the chief sources of loss to exporters, who are now endeavoring
to secure more satisfactory arrangements with regard to the maintenance
of proper temperatures. The International Apple Shippers Association
and individual exporters are concerning themselves with this matter.

Under ordinary circumstances the condition of apples on arrival at
foreign ports is determined by the condition when shipped and the char-
acter of the pack. Apples of good quality properly packed usually arrive
at the end of the voyage in good condition. Assuming that the variety,
condition and pack are suitable for export, no loss which is not insurable
need be expected.

Costs of Exporting

Export charges are comprised of freight, refrigeration, insurance,
commission and a group of costs known as "consolidated charges" in
British ports. These last are made up of quay or wharf charges, port-
erage, cartage, selling costs, etc. The freight from any North Atlantic
port to any British port, as fixed by the North Atlantic Conference of repre-
sentatives of steamship lines trading with ports of the United Kingdom, is
90 cents a barrel, if shipped in common stowage, or $1.4.0 a barrel if shipped
under refrigeration. Boxes are shipped in common stowage for 30 cents
each, or for 50 cents if refrigerated space is required. Rates on baskets
and fibre containers are comparatively higher, being 25 cents per cubic
foot carried in common stowage, and 35 cents if in refrigerated space.
These higher rates are imposed because tlie steamship companies distrust
this type of container.

The "consolidated charges" are the most variable costs named, chang-
ing witli the changes in labor costs and varying from port to port. During
the two seasons of 1924-25 and 1925-26, these charges were as follows in the
chief ports receiving American apples:

Port Barrel Box

Manchester $.363 $.22

Liverpool 343 .22

Hull 323 .20

Glasgow 363 .20

I,ondon (Surrey commercial docks) 486 .243

London (Tilbury, King George V, and otlier docks) 606 .243

Typical sets of exports charges on barreled and boxed apples, shipped
from New York to Liverpool, which received in 1925-26 one-third of the
apples exported from the United States, are given below:

26

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

Table 17. — Typical Export Charges, New York to Liverpool

Barreled

Boxed

Common

Common

Refrigerated

Stowage

Refrigerated

Stowage

Preight

$1.40

$ .90

$ .50

$ .30

Insurance a

.05

.05

.02

.02

Commission

.35

.35

.14

.14

Consolidated Charges

.343

.343

.245

.245

Total

$2,143

$1,643

$ .905

$ .705

a. Insurance and commission based on assumed valuation of ^5.00 per barrel and $2.00
per box.

These charges are deducted from the price received and the balance remit-
ted to the American shipper. L'^nder ordinary conditions the shipper may
expect returns in about two weeks. Some firms report within a few days
the price at which apples have been sold.

Charges on apples exported to Germany are stated as follows in a
report from a Federal agent stationed in that country: Broker's charge
6 per cent which includes commission, discounts to buyers, credit risks and
•cataloguing for the auction markets. There are additional charges which
include inspection fees, pier expenses and four weeks of free storage to
"buyers. Shippers from New York must calculate for all commissions and
costs, including ocean freight, about 85 cents a box and $2.06 per barrel for
common stowage, and about $1.05 a box and $2.43 a barrel, if refrigerated
■space is required. Total expenses on shipments from the West are about
■$1.38 a box, shipped in cold storage. Insurance amounts to about 4 cents
additional. Obviously, costs of exporting to Germany are considerably
liiglier than on shipments to the markets of the United Kingdom.

Packing for Export

The problem of packing apples for export differs from packing for
domestic markets. Owing to the long ocean haul which tends to cause
shifting of the fruit within the container, the apples should be packed very
tightly or the package reaches the other side in what is known as a "slack"
condition. This is more corpmon with barreled than with boxed apples.
The apples in a "slack barrel" have settled so that they do not come in
contact with the head of the barrel and have received more or less injury
from shifting.

Barrels are tested for slackness and are classified in some markets on
this basis, when offered at auction. The Liverpool auction classifies
barreled apples as "tight," "slack," "slightly wet," and "wet." Other
markets require buyers to judge for themselves as to the condition of the
fruit. Naturally, slack barrels bring lower prices than fruit that is
properly packed. The common discount on slack barrels is from one to
two shillings, although it sometimes amounts to three or even five shillings.

Buyers naturally hesitate to ship slack barrels long distances, and these
apples must therefore be marketed near the port. This restricts distribu-
tion and tends to keep prices down in the large receiving markets. It is,
therefore, greatly to the advantage of the grower who wishes to export
liis apples to pack them securely and, avoid slack packages.

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 27

The causes of slack barrels are chiefly poor barrels, poor packing,
rough handling, and poor or over-ripe fruit. Fewer slacks appear in re-
frigerated fruit than in that which is shipped in ordinary stowage.

The use of shredded paper is not advised by shippers, as the paper
can not be packed tightly enough to prevent shifting of the fruit, especially
if the paper becomes wet. It is better to put in more apples, shake them
carefully down, and press well.

In general it seems to be true that there is greater waste and conse-
quently greater loss on barreled fruit. There is commonly less care in
packing barrels than when apples are packed in boxes; there is more dis-
honesty in the packing of barreled apples, and dishonesty is expensive.

'For the British market packages should not be faced, according to the
advice of the foreign agents of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture. Many British dealers feel that all facing is dishonest and pay lower
prices for packages so packed, even though the entire contents of the pack-
age are exactly the same as the apples on top.

Spray Residue

Growers who offer apples for export need to give special attention
to spray residue. English law forbids the sale of apples which show more
than 1/100 of a grain of arsenic per pound of apples. Fruit showing more
than this amount of arsenic is liable to exclusion from all English ports
or to seizure if landed. Apples which show spray residue should be care -
fully wiped before packing for any market, foreign or domestic.

Brands

Growers or dealers who export apples under a brand find it desirable
to register that brand with government officials in certain countries. In
Brazil and Argentina, in particular, this registration protects the exporter,,
giving him the sole right to distribute his product. Failure to register may
deprive him of this right, since any person, not necessarily the owner, may
register an unregistered brand.

The costs of this registration vary. In Great Britain it costs about
$f^0.00; in Argentina from $65.00 to $85.00, and in Brazil from $75. OQ
to $90.00

Instructions with regard to tlie methods of registering a brand may be
secured by addressing the United States Department of Commerce, Wash-
ington, D. C.

Storage

If apples are placed in cold storage in England, the costs are in-
creased by 10 cents to 13 cents a box, and 40 to 60 cents a barrel, for the
first month and about 14 cents each week thereafter. Handling charges
into storage vary in the different ports, but amount in Liverpool to 8
cents a barrel and 2.2 cents a box, and in London to about 20 cents a barrel
and 6 cents a box.

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30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

Varieties Preferred

The first choice of apples in English markets is for the Newtown
Pippin, which was a favorite of Queen Victoria, and is still known as the
royal apple. However, prices for this variety are usually so high that
consumption is confined to the well-to-do. The Cox Orange Pippin is
also highly esteemed; and the demand being greater than the supply, the
price is high. Frequently these choice apples, wrapped in cotton and
packed in cartons, are used as gifts at Christmas and other seasons.

Most American varieties are salable in Great Britain, but compara-
tively few of the early varieties have been exported because of their per-
ishable quality. Nevertheless, the shipments of these are increasing,
considerable quantities of Gravensteins, Williams and Mcintosh having
been exported during the past season, 1925-26. For the most part ex-
ports are generally confined to later varieties, Baldwin being the principal
one from New York and New England. From Virginia the York Imper-
ial and Ben Davis, and from the Pacific Northwest the Jonathan, Winesap
and Delicious are the chief exported varieties. Table 18 presents facts
as to the preferences of chief European wholesale markets. These are
compiled from "Foreign News on Apples," the reports of the foreign agent
of the United States Department of Agriculture.

It will be noted that the Northwestern varieties, Jonathan, Spitzen-
burg and Winesap are those most generally preferred. The York Im-
perial is liked in almost every British market. The Jonathan is probably
preferred in more European markets than any other American variety,
being reported as a favorite in eleven of the eighteen markets from which
information has been secured. As in our own markets, practically all
foreign markets prefer red apples.

Sizes Preferred

The demand on the British markets is for apples of medium size,
the larger sizes being penalized in some markets by a lower price. In
general the markets in the northern part of the United Kingdom will use
larger apples than will those of the southern part. Even here, however,
the preference is for sizes varying from 2^4 to 2V2 inches, or boxes con-
taining 163 to 180 apples by count\ While apples as large as ISO's will
sell, they are frequently found to bring from 12 cents to 48 cents less per
box. In the markets of the southern part of England and Wales, apples
of 2 inches to 2Vi inches (216 to 234 per box) are preferred by most
consumers.

^ The sizes of apples correspondins; to thf ''count'' of boxed fruit allow a varia-
tion of % inch above or below the stated diameters. A box containing 163 to 200
apples, for example, is supposed to contain apples of 2% inches diameter, but they
may vary from 2 14 to 2 Y-^ inches. The fisrures given below show the counts and ap-
proximate sizes with their allowable variations.
Count Size Count Size

(inches) (inches)

263 )

1.50 )

234 )

2 to

138 )

21/2

216 )

214

125 )

to

113 )

2%

200 )

112 )

188 )

SVi

104 )

2 T4

175 )

to

96 )

'to'

163 )

21/2

88 )

3 Vf,

lunt

Size

(inches)

80 )

72 )

31/4

64 )

to

56 )

3%

48 )

Since grades are fixed liy color and condition as well as by sii-e, it is not possible
to add the corresponding grades to the aliove table. The Massachusetts grading law
requires a certain percentage of color for certain varieties, for the different grades. The
conditions as to blemishes also vary with the grade.

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 31

The reason assigned for this liking for small sizes is that most apples
are sold by the pound. For eating "out of hand," families of model ate
means desire to get about 5 apples to the pound. Obviously these must
be of small size.

Extension of Markets

The possibility of extending the sale of apples in Europe is shown
by the recent experience in Paris, where by judicious advertising and sys-
tematic distribution on the part of wholesalers in Rotterdam, considerable
quantities of United States apples were sold during the late winter and
spring of the season of 1925-26, after the bulk of the French crop was
gone. Since the French like larger apples of better quality than those
chiefly desired on British markets, apples from the United States have
been unpopular in France because they have heretofore reached France
by re-shipments from England. Direct shipments of larger sizes better
graded would doubtless be well received in French markets. It is evident
that barreled apples will not appeal to the French taste, as they are re-
garded as of poorer quality than boxed apples. The apples which sold
so well in Paris in the spring of 1926 were all Northwestern boxed apples
which had been held in storage by Dutch importers.

Much advertising of apples has recently been carried on by English
agencies, but information as to the effect is not at hand.

PRICES

Unless the producer can obtain a fair profit, he can not long grow
a product. Unless the dealer can make a fair profit, he will not long
handle it, and unless the consumer can obtain a product at a fairly reason-
able price, sales are likely to be much restricted. Information with refer-
ence to prices is, therefore, of the utmost importance to producers and
dealers as well as to consumers. For purposes of this study the Boston
market only is considered, and unless otherwise stated, the prices used are
prices of A grade Baldwin apples on the Boston market. Statistics of
prices of apples on foreign markets are, unfortunately, not available except
for brief and irregular periods. It is, therefore, impossible to include a
comparison of domestic and foreign prices.

Price Movements

A study of the movement of prices of apples shows two general types
of fluctuations, based on the length of time considered: (1) the fluctuations
which occur within the season, from the time the first early apples are
placed on the market until the last of the crop is sold; (2) the variations
from year to year, which are caused largely by the size and quality of the
crop. There are price diflferences also in a season between the different
varieties and grades of apples, due to the popularity and supply of cer-
tain varieties and the preference of consumers for certain grades; and this
fact adds to the difficulty of comparing prices from year to year.

32 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

Various factors influence the price of any product, chief of whicii
are the volume of the supply, the quality of the product, the dremand, and
the general level of prices.

No facts are available as to the quality of apples sold in Boston dur-
ing the early part of the period covered by the statistics of production,
IS89 to date, hence the influence of this factor can not be estimated.

Seasonal Fluctuations

With the exception of a few seasons since 1878 the price of apples
has been higher at the end of the season than it was at the beginning. In
general the price fluctuates more or less early in the season and then
rises rather steadily as the season progresses. Now and then the price
shows a decline at the end of the season, and occasionally there is little
or no decline from the beginning to the end of the season.

Since the average price of all varieties and grades of apples gives a
true picture of none of them, it has been deemed best to study seasonal
fluctuations of one variety which is on the market as much of the season
as possible. For this purpose A grade Baldwin apples are chosen, and
the average monthly prices for the period from 1878 to 1924 are presented
in Table 19. For the purpose of comparison, average prices during the
first 25 years and the last 25 years are separated from the rest of the
period. During the 47 years included in the table the average price in
May was $1.43 per barrel above the average for October, nearly fiO per
cent increase during the season. During the last 25 years of the period,
lf'00-25, this increase was not so great, being but $1.39 or 49 per cent,
although the prices ranged higher than in the first 25 years. This smaller
variation between the October and May prices is due to the higher prices
paid for apples during this later period, in accordance with the higher
level of all prices, and to the improved storage facilities of the later years.

Table 19. Average Monthly Prices per Barrel of No. 1
Baldwin Apples

47 years 25 years 25 years

Month 1878-1924 1878-1903 1900-1925

October $2.41 $1.88 $2.82

November 2.56 2.12 2.96

December 2.76 2.31 3.17

January 3.01 2.52 3.43

February 3.27 2.75 3.74

March 3.48 2.93 3.97

April 3.64 3.13 4.10

May 3.84 3.35 4.21

Average 3.12 2.62 3.5S

A\erage increase — October to

May 1.43 1.47 1.39

During the seasons of this period when the common movement was
reversed and the price declined throughout the season, apparently the
prices in the fall were too high and the crop could not be sold at the early

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES

33

" 1-1

to cS ,5
p.© d-;

o e i ho

J .si

*>i« o
O Vi

O to"

<^

34 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

figures. In several of the 47 seasons the prices fluctuated so that there
was no definite movement either up or down.

Fluctuations from Year to Year

Those price fluctuations which are apparent from one year to another
naturally show wider divergencies than do those within a season. The range
for the period of 47 years was from $1.03 per barrel in 1896-97, to $6.71
in 1919-20, with an average of $3.36 per barrel. The low price of
1896 was due to an exceptionally large crop, especially in New England
and New York, and to unusuallj' low prices for all commodities. The
season of 1919-20, as will be remembered, was one of generally high prices-
and of a short apple crop.

In Chart 3 is presented the range of yearly prices of Baldwin apples
in Boston from 1912-13 to 1925-26. The period shows two distinct move-
ments, the first from 1912-13 to 19J8-19 having a comparatively narrow
range between high and low prices of apples of the specified grade, and
numerous fluctuations. The second movement from 1919-20 to 1925-26 is
marked by fewer fluctuations but much wider range of prices. This dif-
ference between the two periods is apparently due to tlie increasing demand
for apples of the better grades.

Baldwin and General Prices

In Chart 4 the index of prices of No. 1 Baldwin apples is compared
with the index of the general price level for the period from 1890 to 1925.
Previous to the war the price of apples fluctuated widely, more often above
than below the level of general prices. During the war the two lines ran
fairly close together; but the last few years have again seen wider fluctu-
ations of the price of apples from the price of general commodities. The
basis in both cases was the average of prices for 1910-1914.

Overproduction or short crops produce fluctuations in the prices of
most farm products. Because orchards come into bearing only after
several years of growth, these periodic fluctuations are much longer than
with most crops. Orchardists should therefore find it profitable to study
Chart 5 which shows the trend and fluctuations of Baldwin prices from
1889 to 1924. The movement in the years since 1913 is somewhat up-
ward, although for the whole period of 36 years the trend is downward.

Baldwin and Mcintosh Prices

Because statistics of production and commercial crops of the different
varieties of apples are not available, it is impossible to offer explanations
of the variations in prices of varieties from one year to another. The
general trends of prices of Baldwin and Mcintosh apples on the Boston
and New York markets lie in the same direction. During the ten seasons
from 1916-17 to 1925-26, the price of No. 1 Mcintosh apples averaged 44
per cent higher on the Boston market than the price of No. 1 Baldwin
apples during the months when the Mcintosh was on the market. Con-
sidering the entire season, the prices of Baldwin apples averaged somewhat
higher, but still much below the Mcintosh. On the New York market the

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES

35

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o

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36

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES

37

price of the Mcintosh has averaged about 55 per cent above that of the
Baldwins during the Mcintosh season.

The season of the Mcintosh has been recently much extended by stor-
age, so that the Baldwin must compete with it for much more of the
season than formerly. Prior to the season of 1922-23, Mcintosh apples
v/ere seldom quoted on the Boston market after the Christmas season.

A large quantity of Mcintosh of the 1925 crop was held in storage
in Boston till late in February. When put on the market they brought
from $2.50 to $2.75 in February to a trifle over $4.00 in April. Baldwin
from cold storage during the same period ranged from $2.38 in February
to $1.88 at the end of March.

A comparison of the prices of Baldwin and Mcintosh apples on the
Boston market appears in Chart 6. From 1916 to 1925 it is evident that
the price of Mcintosh has exceeded b.v a considerable sum the price ob-
tained for Baldwin apples during the period while the Mcintosh was on
the market. It is apparent, also, that during the early years of this
period the average price of Baldwin apples during the entire season was
higher than while the Mcintosh was available. But since 1922 these
prices have run comparatively close together.

CHART 6. Comparison of the Prices of Baldwin and Mcintosh Apples During the

Time when Mcintosh are on the Market and during the Entire

Season, Boston Market, 1916-1925.

Dol la.r*s
per bbl.

8.00

6,00.

4.00-

2.00

.OO

per bbl.

8.00

fe.oo

•— '^^ 'Pncve of No.) BaJdwip entire scdisoo

di\A/in d.

«««« Pp)ce o^ No.i 6a.ldwin dLuring

" 3sr7 sea.

/^.OO

2.0O

1% 19)7 )9I6 W \9££

)92t \?^b m. )9^

. .OO

A similar comparison for the New York market shows a uniformly
liigher premium for Mcintosh apples than on the Boston market and the
s;ime tendency toward uniformity of the prices of Baldwin apples during
the Mcintosh season and during the entire season.

38

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

Price and Size of Crop

The size of crop is a chief factor in determining the price of apples.
For purposes of comparison commercial crops, 1918-1925, have been classi-
fied as average crops, large crops and small crops. On this basis it i«
evident (Chart 7) that prices in a season of average crop may be expected
to rise rather steadily during the early part of the season and then either
remain about stationary or show a slight decline at the end of the season.

CHART 7. Tihe Top Prices of No. 1 Baldwin Apples, per Barrel, at Boston, 1916-
1926, Arranged According to Small, Average and Large Crops.

/vvf\/>.^

oH

^MAY QUOTATIONS INCOMPLETE

y\ts/'

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

I

Feb

Mar. Apr. Mav.

D£Pr OF AOeil ZCON

In seasons of short crops the price rises rather steadily throughout
the season, depending as in all cases somewhat upon the quality of the
crop; the range of prices is likely to be considerably higher than in either
of tlie other classes.

Seasons of large crops show a lower range in prices with a definite sag
during the middle of the season, and perhaps a rise toward the end. II
is obvious that the storage of apples tends to prevent slumps in prices by
more equal distribution of the supply throughout the year.

THE MARKET FOR MASSACHUSETTS APPLES 39

CONCLUSIONS

1. The demand for New England apples is increasing in practically
all markets of the state, this growing demand being greater for eating than
for cooking varieties. During the last few seasons there has been a cor-
responding decline in receipts of apples from outside New England.

2. The demand for apples of good quality and uniform size is also
increasing. Most dealers report little or no demand for anything but A
grade fruit. As corollaries of this fact may be stated, (a) the need of
better orchard practice in order to produce a higher proportion of A grade
fruit; and (b) the demand for an outlet for fruit of poorer grade. How
the latter shall be met is a matter for each grower to determine for him-
self.

ti. Purchases b.y the pound are increasing. Whereas it is a matter
of common knowledge that apples were formerly bought by the bushel
and by the barrel, at present a considerable part of the volume consumed
is bought by the pound or even by the apple. This fact must of neces-
sity intensify the demand for good quality fruit, since customers are
more exacting as to quality when purchasing but a small quantity at a
time.

4. The demand is chiefly for the Mcintosh as an eating apple. Deal-
ers generally believe that only a small part of the possible demand for this
variety is now supplied. In both Boston and New York many regard the
possibilities of the extension of the market as practically unlimited.

5. The Baldwin is the variety chiefly in demand for cooking pur-
poses.

6. The Greening, which is not popular in most markets of the state,
finds ready sale in Fall River and New Bedford, and in some few of the
smaller markets.

7. There is at present comparatively little advertising of New Eng-
lend apples. It is undoubtedly true that systematic advertising and dis-
tribution would bring about larger consumption. Such advertising might
well be a part of the program of dealers, dealers' organizations, growers
and growers' organizations. Successful advertising of California citrus
fruits and of Cape Cod cranberries may serve as examples of efficient
methods.

8. Bananas and oranges are the greatest competitors of apples on
the Boston market.

9. Foreign markets absorb about 9 per cent of the average commer-
cial crop of the United States. It is evident that failure of this outlet
for our apples would result in disaster to the industry. Careful attention
on the part of growers and shippers to the demand of foreign markets is
imperative if the export trade is to be preserved. The competition from
other exporting countries is increasing. If the United States is to hold
her place as an exporter in these markets, it will be done by meeting the
demands of these markets better than they can be met by apples from
other sources. The foreign apple crop, including few dessert apples, is
composed mostly of apples which compete with the bulk of shipments from
the New England states and from New York. The increased use of cold
storage in England will prolong the period when English apples are
available.

40 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 231

10. In foreign as well as in domestic markets there is need of better
sorting and grading of apples, since the foreign demand for fruit of good
quality is also increasing.

11. F'or the foreign market greater care should be taken about arsenic
spray residue, particularly in the case of shipments to the United Kingdom.
Either the late spray now in common use should be abandoned or the
fruit should be carefully cleaned before packing.

12. Careful packing in order to insure placing the apples in good
condition on foreign markets is to be desired. The greatest loss in ex-
porting apples is usually due to slack packages.

13. Because of the better storage facilities, some of the more popular
varieties are on the market for a longer period than formerh% and in con-
sequence prices of other varieties are held to a lower level. The eflFect of
the Mcintosh upon the Baldwin price is the best example of this influence.

14.. Storage facilities likewise tend to decrease the seasonal fluctu-
ations in prices of all varieties.

15. The size of the crop is the chief factor in determining prices of
apples. If the crop is small the price ranges higher than if the crop is
of average size, with a tendency to rise toward the end of the season. If
the crop is larger than the average, the price tends to range lower than
in other seasons, with less variations throughout the season.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 232 FEBRUARY, 1927

EFFECT OF POTASH SALTS
ON CROP YIELDS

By SIDNEY B. HASKELL

Occasionally better table quedity of potatoes, but seldom any signifi-
cant difference in yields; variations in the stand of grass and clover, but
surprising similarity in yields of hay; a distinct difference in the winter-
killing of cane fruits, with consequent large differences in yield; no indica-
tion of sulfur shortage even after thirty years of treatment with little or
no sulfur in the fertilizer, and a similar result with magnesium, — these are
among the more important results of long-continued experiments compar-
ing chemical forms of fertilizer potash, as reported in this bulletin.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

EFFECT OF POTASH SALTS ON CROP YIELDS

By Sidney B. Haskell

The response of a crop plant to the use of fertilizer potash m;iy bo
influenced by a number of factors: — by the kind of plant and character of
the soil; by the condition of the soil as influenced by cropping system
followed; by tillage; by the kinds and amounts of other fertilizers applied;
by the extent to which animal manures have been used; and possibly by the
particular potassium salt applied. Moisture conditions in the soil during
the growing season may have an influence, first on the need of fertilizer
potash, and secondly on the relative value of the different sources; and so
also may the time of the year (early or late in the growing season) in
which the crop is planted or makes its most luxuriant growth.

Data which bear on some of these problems have been accumulated
over a period of many years at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment
Station. Crop yields from three experimental fields contribute to our
knowledge of the need of potash by plants growing under a soil manage-
ment system which does not include the use of animal manures. Data
from other fields add to our knowledge of the relative effect of sulfate
versus muriate of potash, of the possible role of sulfur as an "essential"
plant food, and of the influence of magnesium when applied as an ingredi-
ent nf the fertilizer mixture.

History of Fields

The fields above referred to are known in the Station publications as
the North and South Soil Tests, Field B (comparing muriate with sulfate
of potash). Field G (comparing six different carriers of potash), and Field
A (comparing different sources of fertilizer nitrogen, with an incidental
comparison of muriate of potash with sulfate of potash-magnesia). Full
descriptions of these fields and the experiments carried on have been given
repeatedly in Station publications.^

Soil Conditions

All of the soil of tlie older part of the Experiment Station farm is
classified by the United States Bureau of Soils as the Merrimac. This is
a soil of glacial terrace formation, locally much modified by the action of
wind and water. The surface soil is fairly uniform, but the subsoil may

' Specifically, reference is made to the following:

For the North and South Soil Tests, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. No. 212.

•For Field A, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. No. 204.

For Field B, Mass. State Agr. Expt. Sta. Repts. 1884 to 1894, inclusive; INIass

(Hatch) Agr. Expt. Sta. Repts. 1896 to 1919, inclusive.
For Field G, Mass. (Hatch) Agr. Expt. Sta. Repts. 1900 to 1920, inclusive.

44

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 232

be highly variable. There are also loeal variations whieii occur in areas
too small to receive separate classification. Physical analysis of soil
samples drawn from four of these five fiekls gives the following results :-

Physical Analysis of Soils

V erv

Field

Fine

Coarse

Medium

Fine

Fine

SiJt

Clay

Gravel

Sand

Sand

Sand

Sand

Field G

Surface Soil

0.47

1 . 12

1.58

.-).26

60.64

2 3.. 58

4. 36

Subsoil

1.00

2. 48

2.41

6.6.'-)

48.. 30

29.20

9.96

Field B

Surface Soil

1 . .3.')

.•5.!»8

2,71

.") . 98

62 67

19.72

3 . 56

Subsoil

4.02

6 . .iU

4 16

9.17

->5.r-,o

19.82

1.00

North Soil Test

Surface Soil

0.42

1 . 19

1 'M

7.21

61.83

24.43

3.58

Subsoil

0.68

1 . ;?2

2 1 .')

1,-).71

63 . or,

15.69

1.89

South Soil Test

Surface Soil

1.71

2. 28

1 . .-)2

10.2:}

.54.82

26.70

2.74

Subsoil

3.10

4.40

2. 16

8.99

48.09

30.79

2.46

The surface soil samjiles were taken down to plow depth, tho.se of the
subsoil to a depth of thirty inches. According to the modified scheme ^
of textural classification as developed by Dr. A. B. Beaumont/ these soils
would all be classified as sandy loams.

While the above soils are similar in physical characteristics, yet they
are subject to wide differences in moisture supply. Field G lies in a
hollow, is relatively poorly drained, and has a stiff subsoil of a character
inadequately portrayed by physical analysis. In its moisture relations
Field A is almost ideal, while progressively Field B and the two Soil Tests
are somewhat subject to drouth.

Work on these five fields was instituted years ago — that on the Soil
Tests and Field G under the leadership of former director William P.
Brooks; that on the other fields mentioned, by the late Dr. C. A.
Goessmann.

The Need for Fertilizer Potash

Need for fertilizer potash may be considered as synonymous with plant
response to the application of potash fertilizers. Crops grown in the
Soil Tests above referred to show distinct response to such application.
That such response was influenced by the kind of crop being grown was
evident, but the number of times a given crop was grown was too small to
permit a safe generalization as to the relative potash-foraging ability of
different plants. The following table abstracted from Bulletin No. 212
shows the crop returns per acre from the use of potash under conditions
where manure was not applied: —

The analyses were made by Mr. O. W. Kelly of the Department of Agronomy of this
institution.

? .Tour. Amer. Soc. Agron. v. 18, No. 3, pp. 238-216.

EFFECT OF POTASH SALTS ON CROP YIELDS

4.5

Effect of Use of Fertilizer Potash

South boil Test

North Soil Test

Corn (1

Grain.

Bushels per

Acre

3 crops)

1
1

Grass and Clover (6 crops)
Pounds per Acre

Fertilizer

other than

Potash

Stover,

Pounds per

Acre

Unlimed
Half

Linied
Half

Without
Potash

With
Potash

Without
Potash

With
Potash

Without
Potash

With
Potash

Without
Potash

With
Potash

None

Nitrate of Soda

Acid phosphate

Nitrate of soda and
acid phosphate

14.08
16 39
14.24
21,09

38.22

38,72
47,12
52.19

1393
1680
1545
1820

3399
3192
3796
4019

808
2043
1147
22S5

1017

1872

815

2447

1708
2490
1407
3617

3660

3498
3967

4872

Actual measurement of crop response to fertilizer potash is also made
on Field G. This is tiie best laid out of tiie older field experiments of
tiie Station, witli plots one-fortietii of an acre in area and treatments
replicated five times. Tiie ])]an of a single series out of the five, precisely
similar to tiie other series, is siiown in tlte diagram given below. In
addition to potash sources listed, an eiglitli jilot received at different times
silicate of potash, feldspar and Security Potash Treater Dust. Because
of this varied treatment, results from this last plot are not presented in
tins report. ,

■P

cn

(->

:3

01

a

Q,

01

u

T3

o

r-4

+>

<U

C!

l^

O

U

•N

t-

J3

<0

s:

as

n

-p

a

o

+>

p..

o

a.

Vi

o

>.

■(->

<D

•r-i

b

o

o

■ H

o

—<

CO

■ri

l/i

u

o

The annual fertilizer treatment was as follows:

Nitrate of soda, 250 pounds per acre
Tankage, 270 pounds per acre

Acid phosphate, 360 pounds per acre

In addition, i;J5 pounds per acre of potash (K20) were applied
annually in six different carriers, up to and including 1916, this amount
being reduced in 1917 and succeeding years to 81 pounds per acre. All
the fertilizer was spread in a single annual application, usually broadcast

■id

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 232

before planting save in the case of grass and clover, where it was applied
MS a top dressing. On the nitrate of potash plots the amount of nitrate
of soda was reduced to compensate for nitrogen applied in the potash
carrier.

The testimony of two adjacent experimental fields indicates that crop
yields were not limited by lack of nitrogen and phosphorus. The large
amount of nitrate of soda applied may conceivably have served to decrease
need for applied potash, in which case response to the use of fertilizer
potash was of a diflerent magnitude from tliat which otiierwise might have
been secured.

The weighted per centum yields of all crops grown on potash treated
plots during the progress of the test, excluding only corn stover and the
straw of grains and of soy beans, are as follows (the yields on the no-
potash plots taken as 100): Series I, 112.4 per cent; Series 2, 110.6 per
cent; Series 3, 110.2 per cent; Series 4, 134.9 per cent; Series 5, 131.2 per
ctuf. Variation between series, as indicated by the average response to
potash of all potasli-treated plots within the series, is high. The cause
(A tliis variation is now under investigation. F'or the present we must
a.ssume that each check, in each series, is truly representative of the plots
concerned. This assumption, naturally, cannot be proven.

Varying Response of Different Crops to the Use of Fertilizer Pota&h

The four crops grown a sufficiently large number of times to make
results of value — namely, corn, soy beans, potatoes, and grass and clover —
show a widely varying response to the use of potash. The following
tiible summarizes the data, respectively for Series 1, 2 and 3 on which
potash gave but a small response for most of the crops, and for Series 4
i'nd 5 where the response was larger than tlie average for all crops.

Response of Different Crops to the Use of Fertilizer Potash
No Potash = 100

Series 1, 2, 3 |

Series 4, 5

Whole Meld

Crop

No. of
Compari-
sons

Percentage
Yield

No. of
Compari-
sons

Percentage
Yield

No. of
Compari-
sons

Percentage
Yield

( orn

arain

stover
Soy Beans

seed

straw
Potatoes
Oass and Clover

hay

rovven

10
10

lli

1.'.

21
21

97.7

mr.s
lot .5
liin.o

1U8.9
I29.U

7
7

f)

10

14
14

133.S
176.6

lis 4
165.:.

I££.0
167.8

17
17

17
17
2.')

:ir,

35

109.6
143. S

104.9
104.-2
136.3

113.,j
141 .1

Potash gave a significant increase in yield of potatoes on all series,
differing markedly from soy beans whicli not only did not respond at all
on Series 1, 2 and 3, but which gave response in but a single year, on a
single series (4), for the rest of the field. Tlie yields of both potatoes
and soy beans were at least fair, as will later l)e shown. The inability
()1 the potato to forage for its potash, and the very great ability of the soy
l)ean to make use of the natural supply of the soil, are both plainly
e\ iileiit.

Corn failed to give consistent increase in grain except on the last two

PLATE II. Green Mountain Potatoes.

Top— High Grade Sulfate of Potash, yield 268 bushels per acre
Bottom— Muriate of Potash, yield 216 hushels per acre.
Photograph taken September 16.

One of the years when sulfate was better than muriate.

EFFECT OF POTASH SALTS ON CROP YIELDS

47

scries, and the experience with tlie hay crop was surprisingly similar. With-
out exception, however, the stover responded to the use of potash, and
the rowen crop responded even on Series 1, 2 and 3. Both observation
and photographic record show that, following a new seeding, the first cut-
ting consisted largely of grass; while the second cutting, or rowen, was
mainly clover. Plate I illustrates this dependence of clover, as grown
under the conditions of the experiment, on fertilizer potash.

Comparison of Different Potash Carriers

Comparison is made in tiie following table for corn, soy beans,
potatoes, and grass and clover, all of which crops were grown a sufficient
number of times to make the average results of significance.

Comparison of Different' Potash Carriers
Average Yields per Acre

3 O

o

Ah

o
Z

a

6

X

a!
"3

6

-i

0,'

.2

3

Carbonate of
Potash-
Magnesia

CORN :

Grain, bushels
Series 1, 2, 15
Series 4, 5

10

7

00 9
42.3

58.4
56.3

59 . 6

,58.4

62.6
58 . 0

61.2
53 . 7

57.1
50 . 0

57.1
56.9

Whole Field

17

r,:', . 2

57 . 5

.59.1

61.3

,58. 1

50 0

57 . 0

Stover, pounds
Series 1 . 2. 3
Series 4, 5

10

4408
3029

5708
.5331

5532
5463

.5308

5017

5628
5663

5696
5097

5800
.5531

Whole Field

1 ~

3840

55.53

5.504

51,88

5642

5449

5689

SOY BEANS:

Seed, bushels
Series 1, 2. ;i
Series 4, 5

12
5

26 9
2.5 . 3

23 , 4
27 . 3

27. 1
30 . 3

27.7
29.4

27.4
26.6

28.6
27.9

29.7
30 . 8

Whole Field

17

26.4

24.6

28.0

28.2

27.2

2,S.4

30.0

Straw, pounds
Series 1, 2, ;{
Series 4. .">

12

2163
2172

2007
22.56

2230
2448

21.30
2204

2163
2140

2419
2544

2322

2,588

Whole Field

17

2166

2080

2294

21,52

21.56

24,56

2400

POTATOES: bushels

Series 1 , 2, 3
Series 4, 5

l.o

10

192.0
140.3

216.1
200.7

2,36.7
235.4

233 . 4
234.6

238 . 2
238.6

2,38.1
236.1

243.0

247.5

Whole Field

2.")

171.3

209 9

2.36.2

2,33.9

2,38.4

237.3

244.8

GRASS AND CLOVER:

Hay, pounds
Series 1. 2, 3
Series 4, 5

21
14

468.5
3793

5066
4367

49S2
4489

5263
4376

5095
4767

,5316
5003

4885
4551

Whole Field

3r,

4328

4786

4785

4988

4964

5191

4751

Rowen, pounds
.Series 1, 2, 3
Series 4. o

21

14

1236
836

1392
1117

1499
1356

1648
1477

1593
1404

1749

1 r^r,-,

1688
1511

Whole Field

3.-)

1076

1 282

1442

1,579

1517

1071

1017

Total crop, pounds
Series 1, 2, 3
Series 4, 5

21
14

.■)92 1
4629

6458
548.3

64 Si
.5846

6911
6052

668.S
0172

7065
6558

0574
6061

Whole Field

3.J

5404

6068

6227

6.567

0481

6862

6368

Tiie following facts are outstanding:

I. Kainit was used less successfully than any other source of potash.
On soy beans there was an apparent decrease in crop resulting from its
u.se. This material is es.sentially low-grade. To secure an amount of
potasii equivalent to that in 270 pounds per acre of the muriate, over 1000

48

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 232

pounds of kainit must be applied. Conceivably, too much of soluble salts
may have been applied and resulting injury may have overbalanced in-
creases which might otherwise have been produced.

2. The remaining sources of potash were about equallj' effective.
Differences in yields arising from their use are well within the limits of
experimental error. There were neither markedly injurious nor beneficial
results from the use of any one of these as compared to the others.

Muriate versus Sulfate of Potash

The most important of the comi)arative data just presented are those
which bear on the use of muriate of potash versus the sulfate, these two
being standard sources of fertilizer potash. In addition to these data
tiiere are many from Field B, devoted to a comparison of these two salts.
This field was originally laid out in 1883; and was formally devoted to a
comparison of these salts in 1893, with records from that year which are
considered trustworthy and fairly representative of normal experience.
Fertilizer other than potash consisted of 600 ))ounds per acre of fine ground
bone. At the beginning potash was applied at the rate of 400 pounds per
acre of muriate, or the same quantity of sulfate. These amounts were
reduced in 1900 to 2.'50 pounds per acre; and further reduced in 1917 to 150
poimds per acre. Tiiere were five j^airs of differentially treated plots, not
cropped in definite rotation.

The following table summarizes the more significant results, and
presents averages from Field G for com])arison.

Comparison of Muriate of Potasii with lligh-Crade Sulfate of Potash
Averuiie Yields per Acre

Crop

2

S a

n

3 O

Muriate

Sulfate

SEEDS AND GRAINS

Corn, grain, bus.
Corn, stover, lbs.

B
G
B
G

9

17
9
17

.59 2
.58.1

6295

5642

60,4
.59 . 1

5626

5504

Soy Beans, seed, bus.
Soy Beans, straw, lbs.

B
G
B
G

6

17
6
17

18.9
27 2

2238

2156

21 3
28.0

2346

2294

FODDER CROPS, GREEN

Clover, lbs.
(Rett, Mammoth and Alsike)

B

4

23144

23308

FODDER CROPS, DRY

Alfalfa, total lbs.

B

9

6508

7113

Clover, total lbs.
(Red, Mammoth and Alsike)

B

16

6534

64.53

Grass and Clover, hay, lbs.

rowen, lbs.

G
G

35
35

4964
1517

4785
1442

VEGETABLES AND ROOTS

Asparagus, a lbs.

B

12

4916

3875

(^abbages, lbs.

B

G

10

32387
441.54

,34017
41800

Mangels, lbs.

B
G

.3
1

.38897
35600

.35141
32400

Potatoes, bus.

B
G

9
25

221

238

233
236

S<]iiash, lbs.

B

4

13709

13694

FRUITS

Blaekberries.ii lbs.

B

12

2692

3916

Currants, i) lbs.

B

6

1086

906

Raspberi ies,6 lbs.

B

13

1498

1857

Rhubarb ,6 lbs.

B

14

19021

22916

a One planting.

b Two plantings .

EFFECT OF POTASH SALTS ON CROP YIKLIXS 49

A word of warning may be necessary to guard against attaching undue
significance to dift'erences in crop yields of perennials. The initial error
which may have been caused by unconscious selection of plants is perpetu-
ated through the years. Ileiieated takings of the product of a single
planting do not in such case constitute effective replication of the ex-
periment.

The results as a whole show significant differences in yield arising from
the comparative use of these two salts only in the case of the winter-
tender cane fruits, raspberries and blackberries. There were, however,
certain other differences c\ident from time to time. In some years potato
tops on the muriate plots "went down" a week or ten days earlier than
did those on the sulfate. Raspberries and blackberries showed great
differences in yield following those seasons in which winter-killing was
serious. Whether this was a protecti\e influence of the sulfate of potash,
or a reverse influence of the muriate, is not evident, and is now a matter
()!' study. Growth of cIo\'er on sulfate of jiotash was often better than
on the muriate, but with differences seldom shown in yield owing to the
fact that increased weed growth made up for weight of crop lost when
clover failed. In certain years, also, there was betterment in the table
quality of j)otatoes from sulfate of potash. A number of analyses of
starch were made in an endea^()r to correlate the presence of this carbo-
hydrate and the potash salt used. Dift'erences in starch content were
found to be of little significance and not correlated with the quality of the
tuber.

These relatively minor although sometimes important differential
effects of the several potash salts are difficult to measure. Plates I and 11,
however, show these in a visual way for grass and clover and for potatoes.

Effect of Sulfur

In view of the fact that sulfur is occasionally deficient in soil and when
so deficient ranks as an "essential" plant food, comparison of average
yields under sulfur versus no sulfur treatments is of value. As calculated
from average analyses, there were applied on the sulfate of potash plots
184 pounds per acre of sulfur trioxide annually from 1894 through 1899,
115 pounds annually from 1900 through 1916, 69 pounds annually begin-
ning in 1917. On the muriate of potash plots, however, no sulfur was
u.sed save the very small c^mount contained in the bone, which is estimated
at 1-10 of 1 per cent, or slightly more than half a pound of sulfur trioxide
yearly. We do not know the amount which comes down annually with
precipitation. In any case, this amount must be similar on the plots under
discussion. Average yields of most of these crops as secured during the
course of the experiment have already been given. Owing to lack of
definite cropping system, it is impracticable to measure tendencies by com-
paring crops grown in recent years with those produced at an earlier date,
presumably before sulfur shortage, if any, had become serious. The yields
in the last five-year period prior to changing the concept of the experiment,
representing as they do the influence of twenty to twenty-five years of
sulfur versus no sulfur differential fertilization, do, however, throw light
on the question. There is no evidence that shortage of sulfur has been
reducing yields; nor that the sulfur in sulfate of potash was of significant
value to the crop. The yields follow:

50

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 232

Effect (tf Sulfur on Crop Yields (Field B)
Yields per Acre

Year

Plots

Crop

Muriate

Sulfate

1914

17 and

18

Squash, lbs.

15886

1,3940

IS and

19

Potatoes, bus.

168.0

148.2

191.")

1 1 and

12

Potatoes, bus.

215.2

219.0

17 and

IS

Mangels (roots and tops), lbs.

66520

62782

19 ynd

20

Alfalfa, total lbs.

9358

9552

1916

n and

12

Soy Beans, beans, bus.
straw, lbs.

29 9
.3616

.32.0
3675

17 and

IS

Corn, grain, bus,
stover, lbs.

49. I
4221

52.1
4603

19 and

20

.•\lfalfa, total lbs.

9392

8790

1917

1 1 and

12

Soy Beans, beans, bus.
straw, lbs.

14. 1
3805

14.9
3870

17 and

IS

Mangels (roots and tops), lbs.

21229

18492

19 and

20

Alfalfa, total lbs.

8076

8726

1918

1 1 and

12

Squash, lbs.

15349

18166

19 and

20

Corn, grain, bus.
stover, lbs.

86.6
935S

81.5
7759

Effect of Magnesium

Mention lui.s already been made of the t'oni])ari,s<)n of the so-called
low-grade stilfate of pota.sh with other potash carriers, on Field G. In
addition this jiotash carrier is compared with the muriate on certain plots
of Field A. The followin.c: table summarizes results: —

Comparison of Muriate of I'ota.sh with Sulfate of I'otashMagnesia
Averarfc Yields per Acre

Crop

2
E

°.i

Muriate

of
Potash

Sulfate

of
Potash-
Magnesia

SEEDS AND GRAINS

Corn, grain, bus. '
Corn, stover, lbs.

A
G
A
G

20
17
20
17

71.7
.58.1

6340

5642

73.0
61.3
.5960

5188

Millet, seed. bus.
straw, lbs.

A
A

4
4

27.5

5474

29.8

4881

Oats, grain, lbs.
straw, lbs.

A
A

12
12

1.343
3539

1378
3355

Rye. grain lbs.
straw, lbs.

A
A

3
3

12S7
3530

1347
3587

Soy Beans, seed, bus.
Soy Beans, straw, lbs.

A
G
A
G

8
17

8
17

22.1
27.2

2094

2156

25.3
2S.2

2061

2152

FODDER CROPS, GREEN

Ensilage Corn, lbs.

G

,5

397.54

38822

Soy Beans, lbs.

A

8

14344

13570

FODDER CROPS. DRY

Canada Field Peas and Oats,
hay. lbs.

A

4

6250

5875

Corn fodder, lbs.

A

3

6029

5683

Grass and clover, lbs.

A
G

26
35

5830
6481

5966
6567

Millet hay. lbs.

A

4

94,50

9213

Oat hay, lbs.

A

8

3038

2525

VEGETABLES AND ROOTS

Cabbages, lbs.

G

7

441.54

44629

Potatoes, bus.

A
G

18
25

227.2
238.4

251 5
233.9

EFFECT OF POTASH SALTS ON CROP YIELD 51

On l)otli Field A and Field G an acidulated pliosphate was used as a
source of phosphorus; and in certain comparisons on the former field,
sulfate of ammonia was the source of nitrogen. It is probable that in these
plant food carriers sufficient sulfur has been applied to meet any deficiency
which there may have been in the soil. If this is the case, it follows that
the comparisons in question are at least a fairly adequate measure of the
influence of magnesia. The results of these comparative tests gi'.e no
great support to the contention that jxiagnesium is deficient in our soils,
and iience should be applied in fertilizer form. The experience on FieiJ G,
with potash-magnesium carbonate compared with other potash carriers,
slill further supports this view. It is true that some magnesium may have
been applied in lime; but analytical records show the amount t'> ^'^^■^ been
so small as *) be of no possible significance.

Summary

The more outstanding results of tliese long-standing field experiments
are summarized as follows:

L AVhen used on a sandy loam soil in a cropping system which did
not include the application of animal manures, fertilizer potash was found
to have a significant effect on crop yields.

2. Crops varied in response to use of this plant nutrient. Potatoes
were very responsive; corn less so, but in stover markedly responsive; soy
beans, even on soil known to be potash hungry, were almost independent
of applied potash. L'sed on a mixture of grass and clover, the effect of
fertilizer potash in increasing the proportion of clover was marked.

3. Difference in yield of crops as produced by the comparative treat-
ment with diff'erent potash salts was found to be comparatively small, the
single marked exception being the cane fruits.

4. When used on cane fruits, winter injury to the canes was much
more serious with muriate the source of potash than with sulfate. This
difference was reflected in yield of crop.

5. There was a difference in the quality of potatoes grown on muriate
versus sulfate of potash.

6. Few indications of crop limitation on account of lack of sulfur
were found, even after twenty-five years of cropping with a "no-sulfur"
fertilizer mixture.

7. The iijagnesium of sulfate of potash-magnesium was found to have
little influence on yield of crops.

Publication of this Document Approved by the Commission on Administration

and Finance

3000. 2-'27. Order. 8080.

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

BULLETIN 233 MARCH, 1927

THE CODLING MOTH IN
MASSACHUSETTS

By A. 1. Bourne and W. D. Whitcomb

In an attempt to find how to prevent the so-called "side worm" Injury
of apples, arising from attack of the codling moth, the Experiment Station
has studied the life history of this moth for three consecutive seasons. This
bulletin reports results, and presents graphic illustrations showing the
(lerlods at which infestation leading to side worm injury is most probable.
A spray calendar, with treatments recommended against both insect and
disease, is included.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

Plate I. Life History of the Codling Moth, Showing Different Stages and Injury to
Fruit. (From U. S. Department of Agriculture).

THE CODLING MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

By A. I. Bourne and W. D. Whitcomb

Importance as a Pest of Apples

The codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella L., Order — Lepidoptera; Family
— ^Eucosmidae) is a heritage of the modern fruit grower. Although a native
of southeastern Europe, this insect has now been established in this country
for nearly a century, and its increasing destructiveness has closely paralleled
the development of the commercial apple growing industry in the United
States. Estimates of the annual loss caused by the "apple worm" in this
country approach twenty million dollars and Massachusetts fruit growers pay
a proportionate share. It is generally considered to be the most destructive
insect enemy of the apple in the world, and much of our present knowledge
of orchard spraying has resulted from eflForts to reduce the losses caused by
this pest.

In Massachusetts and other Northern States, the codling moth is less abun-
dant than in warmer regions, but even here it frequently damages 5 to 15 per
cent of the apples in sprayed orchards and 40 per cent or more on neglected
trees.

Food Plants

The apple is the favorite food of the codling moth. All varieties are at-
tacked, but in this State a slight preference is shown for early maturing va-
rieties such as the Williams and Gravenstein. Sweet or mildly acid varieties
like the Delicious and Hubbardston appear to be favored. The Baldwin also
becomes badly infested. This insect also breeds readily in crab apples, wild
apples, and hawthorn fruits. Pears, especially the Bartlett, Clapp's Favorite,
and Seckel are usually so severely attacked as to warrant the use of control
measures. Feeding in peaches, plums, cherries, and quinces is common, par-
ticularly when they are grown adjacent to infested apples or pears. In Cali-
fornia, the codling moth is a serious pest of English walnuts.

Nature of Injury

The larva, or "apple worm" as it is often called, is the only injurious form
of the codling moth. It burrows through the fruit, causing it to ripen pre-
maturely, to decay rapidly, and to be unmarketable as fresh fruit. The
typical wormy apple resulting from the feeding of the codling moth larva in
the fruit needs no description. In Massachusetts, the majority of the first
worms to attack the fruit enter inconspicuously through the calyx cavity and
leave it through the side. The round exit hole is very noticeable. Other
worms, particularly late in the season, both enter and leave through the side,
inflicting promment damage.

56 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 23:3

A less important type of injury is caused by warms which, having eaten
into the side of the fruit a distance of one-eighth of an inch or less, have been
killed by birds, other insects, or poison, or have been dislodged by wind or
rain. Such injury usually heals quickly and is called a "sting". However,
the resulting scar materially reduces the value of the fruit.

Description and Habits

Fruit growers should be able to recognize the codling moth in its different
stages of growth, in order to follow its development tlirough the season and
to understand the fundamental principles of its control.

The Moth. (See Plate I.) The adult moth is comparatively small, the
female having a wing spread of about three-fourths of an inch, and the male
slightly less. The fore wings are brownish gray crossed by numerous dark
lines, giving a characteristic "watered silk" appearance. Near the tip is a
large bronze-colored spot or band. The hind wings are light grayish-brown,
becoming slightly darker toward the margin. Because of its size, color, and
markings, the moth is quite inconspicuous when at rest, and consequently
seldom observed in the orchard.

Of the moths which emerge first in the spring, males slightly predominate
but^ over the season as a whole, the number of males and females is approx-
iriiately the same.

Tlie moths as a rule remain quiet during the day and in cold, wet or cloudy
weather, becoming active at dusk. The number of eggs per female moth
varies greatly and is strongly influenced by sudden changes in temperature.
Although the earliest emerging females may deposit very few eggs, the aver-
age number is twenty to twenty-five. In midsummer when more uniform and
favorable weather prevails, the average number increases to thirty or forty.

The length of life of the moths varies according to sex and, to a consider-
able degree, according to the time of year they appear. In cold weather,
activity is slight and the moths live from two to three weeks. Under favor-
able weather conditions, they become more active and the length of life cor-
respondingly shortens. The average life of spring moths as observed in 1924.
and 1925 according to the time of emergence was as follows:

Date of Emergence Length of Life, Days

Males Females

May 25— June 5 13—16 18—21

June 6— June 15 12—13 14—15

June 16— June 30 8—9 10—12

There is no such wide variation shown by the summer brood of moths where
the average life of the males is eight to ten days, and of the females eleven
to twelve days.

The Egg. Tlie eggs resemble small oval discs, pearly white in color, and
about the side of a pin head. They are deposited singly on the leaves, twigs
or fruit, where they appear as milky white spots (See Plate I.). A few days
after they are laid, the developing embryo is seen as a faint red ring, which
gradually widens and deepens in color. A day or two before hatching, a
conspicuous black spot, the head and thoracic shield of the larva, appears
near the margin.

THE CODLING MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS 57

The Larva. (See Plate I.). The newly-liatched larva is about one-
sixteenth of an inch long, pale greenish-white in color, with a shining black
head much wider than the rest of the body. Upon emerging from the egg,
the young worm crawls about over the leaf surface or fruit, in search of
food and also protection from bright sunlight. If fruit is not immediately
at hand, it usually crawls to the lower side of the leaf close to one of the
main veins and either burrows into the vein or feeds on the leaf tissue close
by, covering itself with a covering of silk. Here it may remain for some
days. Once it reaches a fruit, however, it quickly enters.

The first worms to hatch usually enter the fruit at the blossom or
calyx end. At this time the apples are very small, and the closed calyx
cup offers the best shelter. Later in the season, when the fruit is larger
and the rapidly growing apples often touch leaves, twigs or other apples,
thus offering good chances for concealment, many of the larvae enter the
fruit through the side. When fruit has been scarred by mechanical injury,
the attack of insects or by sprays, the roughened surface also offers good
opportunity for the young larvae with their small jaws to bite through the
skin.

Experiments with larvae fed upon foliage alone, showed that very often
they can survive for a week or ten days, and in some instances for fifteen
to twenty-one days. It was found, however, that these larvae made very
slow growth and there is little likelihood, therefore, that the insect could
carry through to the pupal stage in the absence of fruit.

After feeding for about three weeks, the larvae become full-grown
and eat their way out through tlie side of the fruit. These mature larvae
measure about three-fourths of an inch in length and are white or pinkish-
white in color. This stage of the insect is the one most often seen and most
familiar to the fruit growers. Upon leaving the fruit, the larvae immedi-
ately crawl away in search of a suitable hiding place in which to spin their
cocoons.

Cocoon. (See Plate I.). The cocoons of the overwintering larvae are
very tough, being formed of closely woven silk threads with bits of bark or
trash attached to give added protection. In the spring, when ready to
pupate, the larva usually remodels the cocoon, lengthening it somewhat, or
forming a tube-like passageway to the outside of its hiding place to aid in
the escape of the moth. The summer cocoons are much lighter, more
loosely woven, and somewhat longer than those in which the larvae winter
over. Occasionally cocoons are spun in wormy apples and in the soil near
the base of the tree.

Pupa. (Plate I.). The pupa is formed within the cocoon and is about
one-half inch in length. It is at first light brown in color, but rapidly
darkens. When transformation is completed and the moth is ready to
emerge, the pupa wriggles out through the end of the cocoon, protruding
far enough to allow the moth to escape.

Seasonal History

Overwintering Larvae

The insect passes the winter as a full-grown larva within a tightly-
woven cocoon. In the orchard these are found beneath rough bark and
in crevices or pruning scars on the trees. The larvae also find shelter in

68 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 233

old boxes, in and around packing sheds; in fact, almost anywhere where
fruit is gathered and stored at time of harvest.

The overwintering larvae comprise those first brood larvae which did
not transform to moths the same season, and all of the second brood larvae
which developed in late summer or early fall. The majority of the first
brood larvae spin their cocoons in the orchard, while many of the second
brood larvae are harvested with the fruit and constitute the greater part
of the "worms" which spend the winter in packing sheds and storage houses.

Spring Brood.

Pupation. The first step in seasonal development is the pupation of
these overwintering larvae. This begins about the time the fruit buds of
the apple first show pink, usually the last of April or early in May, and may
continue for six to eight weeks.

The time when a larva matures, or the brood to which it belongs, does
not appear to determine the time of its pupation. Second brood larvae,
maturing in September or October, often pupate as early in the following
spring as do first brood larvae which left the fruit in June. Larvae of the
same brood and age often pupate from two to eight weeks apart. The
last few stragglers to pupate, however, were always second brood larvae.
The time spent in the pupal stage, in the seasons covered by our studies,
averaged twenty-two to twenty-four days for those larvae transforming be-
fore the middle of May. The period gradually shortened as the season
advanced and warmer weather approached. In late May and early June
the insects spent ten to twelve days in the pupal stage before transforming
to moths.

Moth Emergence. Depending somewhat on the season, moths begin to ap-
pear the middle to last of May, at which time, or shortly after, apples are
in full bloom. The period of moth emergence is shorter than that of
pupation since tlie time spent as pupae decreases as the season advances.
Most of the moths appear within five to six weeks, with a few stragglers
emerging in the following week or ten days.

In Massachusetts, there has been a tendency for moths to emerge in
large numbers at two rather widely separated periods. The first of these
falls with regularity close upon the time of the "caljTc" or petal fall spray.
Following this is a period of rather slight emergence for two to three weeks,
with a sharp rise to a second peak of great emergence usually three to four
weeks after the first. Around this second peak is usually the greater part
of the total emergence, a fact which makes it desirable to know each year
when it occurs, so that cover sprays may be accurately timed.

This concentration of moth emergence into two rather widely-separated
peaks appears to be due chiefly to weather conditions. In Massachusetts,
the transition from winter to spring is usually marked by warm and favor-
able weather which hastens all seasonal development. There usually fol-
lows a period of cold, inclement weather which continues sometimes well into
June, when development is slowed up until the approach of more uniformly
warm weather. The insect in all stages is very sensitive to climatic condi-
tions. This explains why in 1925, when a period of very high temperature
was encountered early in June, seasonal development was speeded up very
noticeably and the second peak of moth emergence occurred but two to
three weeks after the first.

THE CODLING MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS 59

Figure 1. Seasonal History of the Codliiig Moth, Amherst, Mass., 1924.

I

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A/\pyA£ l£AI////G fPcJ/T

First Generation.

Oviposition. The period from emergence of the moths until the females
begin laying eggs varies considerably. If the weather is cold, a week
may elapse between these two events. The first moths to emerge in the
spring usually deposit eggs in from five to seven days. In late May and
early June, oviposition begins in from two to four days.

60 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 233

Egg laying usually begins the third to fourth week of May, and may last
until late July. Oviposition corresponds very closely with the emergence
of moths, and is very irregular since it is governed by the temperature at
dusk or in early evening when most of the eggs are deposited. If the
temperature is 60° F. or less at this time, the moths show little activity and
very few eggs are laid. A sudden drop in temperature, or showers in late
afternoon, decreases the number of eggs laid that day. Prolonged cold and
unfavorable weather during the egg laying period greatly influences both
the time and amount of the season's oviposition.

Hatching. In hatching, the young larvae break througli the upper surface
of the egg shell, usually close to the margin. They have never been found
to emerge through the under surface even when eggs are laid on the fruit.
The larvae, therefore, do not bore directly into the fruit witliout crawling
somewhat over tlie surface.

The incubation period of the eggs varies from four to twelve days,
but most of them require six to seven days. The wide variation is due to
the fact that, in this stage, the codling moth is particularly sensitive to cli-
matic conditions and responds very quickly to any sudden rise or fall in
temperature. The close correlation can be seen from the following record
obtained in our studies in 1923.

Daily maximum temperature Eggs hatched in

56°— 65° F. 9—10 days

73°— 80° F. 7— 8 "

85°— 94° F. 6— 7 "

87°— 89° F. 6 "

92°— 97° F. 5 • "

Larval Development. Tlie young larvae, or "worms" may be expected
to appear in about two weeks after the emergence of tlie moths. Their
appearance marks the period when infestation of the fruit takes place.
When it is recalled that moths are emerging over a period of six weeks or
more, it is easy to see the necessity for timely sprays to protect tlie rapidly
growing fruit from infestation.

The length of time spent by the "worms" inside the fruit has been found
to be very uniform year after year. Protected as they are within the fruit,
they are not greatly affected by outside conditions. On the average
twenty-one to twenty-three days elapse from the time the newlv-hatched
"worms" enter the fruit until they emerge as full-grown larvae.

The period during which they mature and are leaving the frijit varies
considerably according to the season. In a typical year, mature larvae
are found about the first week of July. In 1925, an early season, they
were leaving the fruit by the 25th of Jime; in 1926 a backward season, none
were found until July 20.

Among those larvae which transform in the summer, there is much
irregularity in the time elapsing between their emergence from fruit and
pupation. Such wide variation is hard to explain. It appears to be an
individual matter. A few pupate at once upon leaving the fruit. Most
of them transfonn within six to nine days. A number, however, were
found to have delayed for seventeen, nineteen, twenty-eight, and, in one case,
thirty-one days before pupating. Larvae of the same age often pupated one
to two weeks apart.

THE CODLING MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS 61

Pupation. In a normal season, pupation usually commences the second
week of July and continues for a montli or six weeks. The greater part
of it, however, takes place during the third or fourth weeks of July- The
pupal stage lasts on the average ten to twelve days. If the weather is
\ery warm, moths may emerge in six to eiglit days. In a few cases, fifteen
to sixteen days are passed in this stage, and one record was taken in wliich
twenty-six days elapsed before the motli emerged. There is, however, no
such irregularity, at this time, in the duration of the pupal stage as has been
noted in the studies of spring pupation. This is due very largely to the
more stable and uniform weather conditions prevailing during midsummer.

Transforming and Overwintering Larvae. The relative number of first
brood larvae which transform the same season to moths and those which
overwinter, is determined very largely by the time they mature and emerge
from the fruit. This association of date of maturity and degree of pupation
can be seen from tlie following record taken from our life iiistory studies.

Date larvae emerged from fruit Per cent pupating

Last of June to first week of July Approximately 100 per cent.

First week ot July to third week of July Approximately 75 " "

Third week of July to first week of Aug. Approximately 2.5 " "
After first week of August Less than 5 " "

This explains why in an "early" season such as 192.5, when a large
number of larv'ae matured in late June and early July, there followed an
unusually large second brood. Conversely in 1926, a "late" season, mature
larvae were found to be leaving the fruit late in July, and the second brood
proved to be almost negligible.

Moth Emergence. Emergence at this season is more uniform than in the
spring, and there has not been any indication of a second peak of maximum
emergence. The first moths usually appear the third or fourth week of
July and continue to emerge for the next four or five weeks. They are
emerging in greatest numbers during the last week of July and the first
ten days of August. This is fairly constant year after year, however "early"
or "late" the season has been up to that time.

Second Generation.

Eggs. These moths begin to deposit eggs within two to four days after
emergence. As in the spring, the eggs are laid singly upon foliage, twigs,
and fruit, but a much larger percentage of them are deposited directly on
the surface of the fruit than is the case in the first brood.

The time required for them to hatch averages from five to six days, but
there is a slight tendency for this period to lengthen toward the latter
part of August and early September when somewhat cooler weather prevails.

Since young larvae appear in seven to ten days after the first moths
emerge, the greater part of this brood of "worms" appears from August 10
to 20. Stragglers are found, however, until well into September.

Larvae. Upon hatching, the young "worms" lose little time in reaching
the fruit and burrowing into it. Very many of this brood enter through
the side of the apple, usually where it touches a leaf, twig, or other apple.
Second brood larvae, as a rule, remain in the fruit longer than do those in
the spring, especially in late September and in October. Life history studies
showed that the average time spent in fruit was as follows:

62

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 233

Date of Maturing
During August,
During September,
During October,

Time spent in Fruit
20—22 days
28—30 days
35—40 days

These larvae are maturing and leaving tlie fruit in largest numbers from
the first of September to early October. After emerging, the larvae at once
form their closely woven winter cocoons in any convenient place offering
concealment and protection. Witliin these cocoons, they pass through tlie
winter, transforming to moths the following spring. In Massachusetts, tlie
insect has shown no tendency toward any pupation in the fall or toward a
third brood of moths.

Overlapping of Broods. .

A study of the seasonal history of the codling moth shows that in a
typical season there is an overlap of three to five days between the last
emerging spring moths and the first of the summer brood. By the time tlie
last of the spring moths had died, the greater part of the summer brood had
emerged. It is evident, therefore, that moths may be present in an orchard
continuously from late May until the middle of September.

The different life stages are so prolonged that the first larvae to hatch
in the spring pupate before egg deposition is finished. Larvae are hatch-
ing for three weeks or more after pupation has begun. There was found
to be a gap of seldom more than two or three days between the time egg
laying by the spring moths had ceased and the first eggs of the summer
moths are laid, and sometimes they overlap.

It is evident, therefore, that every year some stages, at least, of the two
broods overlap, and consequently there are few days during the season,
after the fruit has set until harvest, when it is not subject to infestation.

Below is shown a comparison of some of the more important stages in
the development of the insect with the seasonal development of the apple,
for the three-year period studied:

Apple Development

Blossom buds showing pink

1 — 6 days before "calyx" spray

"Calyx" spray

S — 4 weeks later (2 — 3 weeks in 1925)

Insect Developmeut

Beginning of pupation

1st moths appearing

1st period of maximum appearance of moths

2d period of maximum appearance of moths

Some of the more important events in the seasonal history of the codling
moth, from the three seasons' study in Massachusetts, are summarized in
the following table:

Beginning of pupation
Date of last pupation

1923
May 3
June 26

1924
May 3
July 11

1925
April 24
June 20

Duration of pupa stage 8-24 days 12-23 days 8-24 days

Emergence of 1st moths May 27 May 24 May 12

1st period of maximum emergenceJune 2-^ ^Fay 26-30 May 16-18

2d period of maximum emergenceJune 20-22 June 22-27 June 3-9

Dat« of last emergence July 2 July 24 July 3

Duration of egg stage 5-10 days

Appearance of 1st brood larvae June 7

tBmergence of 2d brood moths
Period of greatest emergence
Appearance of 2d brood larvae

4—12 days
June 13

4—11 days
May 29

July 20-Aug. 20 July 21-Sept. 3 July 11-Aug. 28
Aug. 3-6 Aug. 4-9 July 31-Aug. 12

Aug. 1-Sept. 6 Aug. 2-Sept. 17 Julv 24-Sept. 12

THE CODLING MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS 63

Control
Natural Enemies.

Two species of tiny hyinenopterous parasites,* wliich live tiie greater part
of their life in the body of the codling moth larvae, have been reared in
Massachusetts. Neither of these is sufficiently abundant, however, to be of
economic importance. Spiders, ants, and various beetles also destroy many
larvae while they are migrating from the fruit, and, in some cases, after they
have spun cocoons. The most active enemies of this pest are birds. Wood-
peckers and nuthatches collect large numbers of larvae from their wintering
cocoons, while other insectivorous species capture many of the "worms"
during the summer.

Unfavorable weather conditions also provide a natural check on the in-
crease of this pest. Severe winter weather, particularly sudden changes
from moderate to extreme cold, has been observed to kill at least 10 per
cent of the wintering larvae, and approximately 2 per cent of them succumb
in a normal winter. Cold, damp weather during moth activity greatly
decreases the number of eggs laid.

Control Methods Other Than Spraying.

There are several operations other than spraying which reduce the damage
caused by the codling moth. They cannot be substituted for careful spray-
ing but are very helpful to any fruit grower who has difficulty in controlling
this pest.

Thinning. In thinning, remove and destroy all womiy ajjples and break
clusters so that no fruits will touch each other. This kills many worms
and eliminates the protection offered by two adjacent apples which is so de-
sirable to young codling moth larvae when entering the fruit. Destroy
the wormy apples rather than leave them on the ground. Feeding to hogs,
burning, or burying under at least a foot of packed soil will do this. Pick-
ing bags are convenient receptacles for carrying them. Some fruit growers
find it profitable to pay a premium for wormy apples at thinning time.

Banding Trees. The habit of codling moth larvae of spinning cocoons
under bark and in crevices has led to the use of cloth band traps. In pre-
paring the trees for banding, scrape all loose bark from the trunk and fill
cracks and holes. A triangular box scraper or sharpened hoe is good for
this work, and if it is done in the winter many hibernating worms will be
killed. The bands are preferably made of burlap cut in strips about twelve
inches wide and folded once lengthwise, being slightly longer than necessary
to extend around the trunk. The bands are placed around the tree at a
convenient height below the large branches, and held in place by two finish-
ing nails which are driven into the trunk and forced through the top and
bottom of the overlapping ends of the band. To trap the summer brood
of worms, put the bands in place July 1 and kill the worms and pupae
under them every eight days until September. To trap the overwintering
worms only, put the bands in place about August 15 and kill the worms

*Ascogaster carpocapsae (Vier.)
Olypta vari/pes Cress.

64 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 233

under them anytime during the winter. Experiments show that about one-
third of the worms can be destroj^ed in this way, the number depending
on the thoroughness with which the scraping and examining is done. Do
not put bands on your trees unless yoti kill the xcorms xinder them.

Bait Traps. Codling moths are not attracted to lights as are many insects.
They may, however, be attracted to certain odors. Recent experiments in
the Northwest have shown an increased control of 12 to 15 per cent where
pans of fermented apple juice were hung in trees in a sprayed orchard. Such
baits are most effective during the maximum flight of the moths which in
Massachusetts occurs from May 15 to September 1. Pans or wide-mouthed
pails or jars are used for containers, and the bait must be kept uniform by
cleaning out debris and renewing to prevent evaporation and dilution. Baits
for the codling moth have not been thoroughly tested in this State and are
recommended as an experiment only.

Disposal of Cull Apples and Protection of Storage. Worms in cull apples
are often the means by which damaging infestations are carried over from
year to year. To avoid this, pick all fruit from the trees and ground, and
dispose of it quickly. Storage bins at cider presses often harbor large
numbers of worms. The bins should be built with a minimum of cracks
and thoroughly cleaned during the winter. Many worms spin winter cocoons
in boxes, barrels, and parts of the packing shed. It is important to keep all
windows, doors, and other openings in the packing shed and storage house
screened or closed during the spring and summer. Boxes and barrels
should be stored in a "moth-tight" place. One instance is known where
more than 3,600 codling moths were collected during the summer at the
windows of a shed containing about 1,000 empty boxes. In addition to in-
creasing the infestation in the orchard, moths emerging from larvae winter-
ing in a shed usually appear later than those in the orchard, and seriously
interfere with effective control by spraying.

Spraying.

Materials. Lead arsenate is the most satisfactory insecticide for the
control of the codling motli. It is manufactured both as a powder and
as a paste. Either one is effective when properly used. The powder is
more conveniently handled and cannot freeze or dry out.

Arsenic oxide is the active agent in lead arsenate, and Federal stand-
ards require at least 12.5 per cent of this in the paste and 25 per cent in
the powder. These requirements are so m'cII guarded, especially in brands
which enter interstate conunerce, that the fruit grower may be assured
that his lead arsenate contains the necessary amount of active poison.

The quantity of lead arsenate to be used for spraying is calculated for
the powder form, and, when the paste is used, twice the amount by weight
is always necessary to obtain the same quantity of active poison.

To control the codling moth, one and one-half pounds of lead arsenate
powder in each 50 gallons of water is recommended. In many parts of the
country, one pound in 50 gallons has proved sufficient but because of the
presence of otlier pests, such as the plum curculio and the gypsy moth, a
greater amount of poison is considered advisable in this State.

Calcium arsenate, magnesiimi arsenate, zinc arsenite, and Paris green have
been used for codling moth sprays but they are either less effective, more
expensive, more injurious, or less available than lead arsenate.

THE CODLING MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS 65

Lead arsenate does not dissolve in ■water but remains as tiny particles sus-
pended in the liquid. When the spray on the trees collects in large drops,
these particles settle to the bottom, and upon drying leave many areas on
the fruit and leaves which have no coating of poison. To avoid this, mater-
ials are added which spread the poison over the fruit in a thin film. Soap
and glue are very effective spreaders, but at present calcium caseinate is the
most practical material for this purpose. The use of a spreader enables the
operator to cover tiie fruit more completely and prevents much of the blotcii-
ing on red fruit which results from overspraying.

Calcium caseinate materially delays the undesirable chemical reaction which
may result when lead arsenate and lime-sulfur are combined, and altogether
its use is justified. (See discussion of spray injury, p. 71.).

Nicotine sulfate has been tested many times as a spray to kill codling
moth eggs and in some cases it improved the control. It is an expensive
treatment, however, and is now discarded as uneconomical. In the last two
years, weak solutions of lubricating oil emulsions have been used experi-
mentally with some success to kill the eggs and small larvae. Oil sprays
are natural spreaders and, when used alone, leave no arsenic residue on tiie
fruit at harvest time. The degree of control which they give, however, and
the possibility of injury to the trees and fruit by summer apjilications of
oil have not yet been satisfactorily determined.

Su(i(/estio7is for Spraying Apples to Control the Codling Moth.

In spraying pay particular attention to the fruit. It must be hit by spray
on at least two sides in order to cover it completely. If combating scab,
plant lice and other leaf-attacking pests at the same time, the foliage must
also be thorouglily covered. Too much spray is sometimes as harmful as
too little, and excessive dripping should be avoided. The best coating is
applied wlicn a line misty spray just reaches the fruit. Mist nozzles regulate
the tjnpe of spray very well but the spray gim must be frequently adjusted
by the handle regulator to give the best results (see Plate II), especially
when no spreader is used. Do not use spray gims when the wind is blow-
ing. Thoronghness in spraying is most important. Every apple should
be completely covered regardless of other factors. About five gallons of
.'jpray are necessary to cover the average fifteen-year old apple tree, but
the amount varies with the size and crop of each tree.

When to Spray Apples to Control the Codling Moth.

Careful timing of sprays is often the key to succes.sful control of tiie
codling moth, and other work should net be allowed to interfere with it.
The proper time to apply tiie calyx spray depends entirely on the develop-
ment of the tree, while the post-calyx sprays are timed in accordance with
the development of the insect. The rate of growth of both trees and insects
varies from j'ear to year, and the exact date or period to apply post-calyx
sprays cannot be accurately predicted in advance. In the following spray
schedule the time to spray, as indicated by the detailed studies of the
codling moth, is determined approximately for the typical year, with the
.suggestion that fruit growers secure each season all available information
concerning the seasonal development of pests to help them time the sprays
more effectively.

66

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 233

In Massachusetts, two sprays, the calyx (No. 3) and a cover, or post-
calyx (No. 4), are usually necessary to control the codling moth effectively,
while a later spray (No. 7) is advisable in seasons when this pest is unusually
abundant.

Figure 2. Dates of Hatching of Codling Motli Larvae, Amherst, Mass.

Small circle indicates approximate time calyx spray was applied.

Small squares show approximate time to apply cover sprays to control codling moth
most effectively according to the seasonal liistory of the insect in 1923, 1924, 1925.

The above dates may not necessarily coincide with those recommended in the
spray schedule, which are based on average conditions and are also influenced
by other pests.

THE CODLING MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS 67

Calyx Spray. This is tlie most important spray to combat the codling
moth in Massachusetts. It is applied between the time when about 90 per
cent of the blossom petals have fallen and the time when the calyx lobes
have closed, a period of seven to ten days depending on the weather.
Plate II shows the appearance of the fruit during this period. Spraying
while the trees are in bloom is unnecessary. For a few days after the petals
have fallen, the calyx lobes are laid back in such a way that the cavity con-
taining the stamens and pistils of the flower is open and can be filled with
drops of poisoned spray, thus forming a mortal barrier to any worm which
attempts to enter the fruit through the calyx cavity at any time during the
season. There are no worms attacking the apple when this spray is applied
but the caljTc cavity offers excellent shelter from wind, sun, and natural
enemies while the larvae are entering the apples, and experiments show that
60 to 80 per cent of them take advantage of this protection.

Cover Sprays. The function of cover, or post-calj'x, sprays is to place
over the surface of the fruit a protective film which will kill codling moth
larvae when they attempt to enter through the side. Theoretically these
sprays should be applied just before the larvae of each generation hatch and
attack the fruit in large numbers, as is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.
In both 1923 and 1924 large numbers of larvae of the first brood hatched
approximately twenty days after the calyx spray was a^Dplied, while in 1925,
due to extremely high temperature, this condition was reached about four-
teen days after the Calyx spray was applied. In 1924, however, cold
weather so effectively delayed development that the greatest number of lar-
vae of that brood hatched about forty-five days after the calyx spray.
From this, it is evident that the most effective time to apply cover sprays
must be determined each year, but that with average development this
period for the first brood larvae will occur about three weeks after the
calyx spray. Figure 2 also shows the time of hatching of the second brood
larvae in the three seasons when this development was studied. In the well-
cared-for Massachusetts orchard, the second brood larvae are usually not
abundant; and the latest spray recommended is No. 7, eight weeks after the
calj-x, in order to combat the apple maggot effectively. This also gives some
protection against the attack of second brood codling moth larvae, without
the danger of arsenical residue on the fruit at harvest time.

Spray Schedule for the Control of Apple Pests in Massachusetts

The following spray schedule will serve as a basis for spraying apples in
Massachusetts. Dusts are not included in this calendar on account of the
fact that many experiments indicate superiority of the spray to control a
heavy infestation of codling moth. In the average orchard, the first four
sprays listed below are advisable. In addition to the four essential sprays,
one or more of the special sprays, Nos. 5, 6 and 7, are necessary when the
pests indicated are unusually abundant, or abnormal weather conditions
make additional protection against them advisable. Fruit growers should
secure all the information possible and then use their own judgment as to
which of these, if any, they may need to apply.

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70 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 233

THE CHOICE OF FUNGICIDES AS AFFECTING THE CONTROL OF
DISEASE AND THE PREVENTION OF SPRAY INJURY

Contributed by W. L. Doran, Department of Botany,
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station

As indicated by the spray calendar, most of the arsenic sprays for codling
moth control must also contain fungicides for scab control.

A good fungicide for spraying apples must be one which will control
scab and cause no more than a minimum of spray injury when combined
with the necessary insecticides. Fungicides which have been used for this
purpose are liquid lime-sulfur, dry lime-sulfur, drj-mix sulfur-lime, sulfur
dust, and Bordeaux mixture. Liquid lime-sulfur is the cheapest of these.
It is dependable for the control of scab. It is used much more generally
than any of the others in Massachusetts. However, each has its virtues and
weak points with which the orchardist should be familiar.

Bordeaux mixture controls scab but is not at all safe to use on the apple
because it so frequently burns or "russets" the fruit.

Dry lime-sulfur may be used instead of liquid lime-sulfur, if desired. It
has been found to be the equal of liquid lime-sulfur for the control of scab.
The ordinary commercial dry lime-sulfur should be used at the rate of 8
pounds in 100 gallons of water. Either liquid or dry lime-sulfur in com-
bination with arsenate of lead may, under some conditions, injure the fruit
and leaves of sprayed trees.

Dry-mix sulfur-lime or, as it is often called, Jersey dry-mix (see New
Jersey Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 177) may be purchased in the commercial form
cr may be made by the fruit grower. It is made by mixing the ingredients
together dry in the proportion of 16 pounds fine sulfur, 8 pounds hydrated
lime, and 1 pound calcium caseinate. Twenty-five pounds of this mixture is
sufficient for one hundred gallons of spray. Dry-mix sulfur-lime is less
likely to injure sprayed foliage and fruit than is lime-sulfur, and for this
reason it is sometimes substituted, especially for the calyx and later applica-
tions. In all except the most severe "scab years," Jersey dry-mix controls
scab satisfactorily. In rainy summers, when scab is severe, a somewhat
more complete control may be expected from lime-sulfur.

The prevention of spray-injury is almost as important as the control of
certain insects and diseases. Spray-injury includes russeting of the fruit
and various degrees of burning and curling of the foliage as a result of the
application of the insecticide and fungicide. But there are certain other
troubles which are sometimes mistaken for spray-injury. Such injury may
occur, especially on trees lacking in vigor, regardless of whether or not
they are sprayed, if when the leaves are young a period of cloudy or rainy
weather is suddenly followed by drying winds and hot sunshine. Under
these conditions the edges or tips of the leaves may be burned. The identi-
fication of injury to foliage, due to the lime-sulfur-lead arsenate combina-
tion spray, is made easier by the fact that the injury, if it occurs at all, is
usually apparent two to four days after the applications are made. Spray-
injury, especially on the varieties Baldwin and Mcintosh, is common follow-
ing the use of the lime-sulfur-lead arsenate combination, and is most fre-
quently associated with the calyx and post-calyx applications.

Plate n.
Illustrations Showing Proper Bud Development for Spraying.

Delayed Dormant

Tn-pink

Pink

Clyx

A good Power Spraying Outfit

Note that the guns are adjusted for two types of spray — the right hand one to reach

top of tree, the left for closer work.

THE CODLING MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS 71

Based on work done by the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion and numerous other experiment stations, a brief summary of the know-
ledge of the prevention of spray-injury is here presented. If these several
factors are observed in practice, spray-injury can be reduced in severity.

If, by well-timed early applications, the leaves can be kept relatively free
from scab, there will be less spray injury than is likely to occur on leaves
which are scabby when sprayed.

A fine mist of spray, with no more than the minimum amount necessary
to wet the leaves applied, and that applied without unnecessary violence, are
conditions least likely to result in spray-injury.

The safest time to spray with the lime-sulfur-lead arsenate combination
is on a cool day when the air is dry and before a rain. The conditions most
likely to result in injury occur on a hot day when the humidity is also high
and immediately following a rain.

Either dry-mix sulfur-lime or sulfur dust is less likely to bum than is
lime-sulfur.

The soluble arsenic, which is one of the causes of spray-injury in the
lime-sulfur-lead arsenate combination, is kept low in amount, making the
spray safer, if calcium caseinate is used. In filling the spray tank, the
calcium caseinate should be put in before either the lime-sulfur or the lead
arsenate, rather than to have the two latter meet and react in the absence
of the caseinate. The fact that the residue in the spray tank is ricli in
soluble and dangerous arsenic, makes it important that there be good agi-
tation and that the spray tank be cleaned frequently.

Summary

The codling moth is one of the most destructive insect pests of the apple,
and is present practically everywhere this fruit is grown.

The apple is the favored food of this insect and all varieties are attacked.
Pears, peaches, cherries, plums, quinces, and walnuts are also infested.

The injury to the fruit is caused by the larvae, or "worms", tunnelling
through it and also causing undesirable scars called "stings".

The inconspicuous gray moths lay from twenty to forty small pearly-
white eggs during the two or three weeks of their life. TI>e eggs are laid
singly on the leaves, twigs or fruit.

Newly-hatched larvae quickly enter the fruit, where they feed for about
three weeks. The majority of the first "worms" enter through the calyx
end of the apple while later in the season many enter through the side.
Young larvae sometimes feed more or less upon foliage before entering the
fruit.

In Massachusetts, the codling moth has one complete generation and a
partial second, annually.

The winter is passed as full-grown larvae within tightly woven cocoons.
These overwintering larvae include a part of the first brood "worms" and all
of the second.

Pupation begins the last of April or early in May, about the time fruit
buds of the apple show pink.

72 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 233

Moths appear by the middle or last of May, and emergence continues for
five or six weeks. Four or five days after they emerge, tlie females begin to
lay eggs although, if the weather is cold or stormy, they may delay longer
before ovipositing.

The incubation period of the eggs varies from four to twelve days, with
six to seven as the average, so that young larvae begin to appear about two
weeks after the emergence of the moths.

Most of the larvae that mature before July 15 transform to moths the
same season. Therefore, the relative number of larvae leaving the fruit
before that time, in any year, determines the size and importance of the
second generation that season.

The greater part of the summer brood moths emerge during tiie last week
of July and first ten days of August, and most of the larvae, or "worms",
of this brood appear from the 10th to the 20th of August. These larvae
remain in the fruit for three to six weeks, emerging in largest numbers during
September and early October.

In Massachusetts, there has been found to be a slight overlapping of the
two generations, so that from the time fruit is set until harvest there are
but few days when infestation may not take place.

Insectivorous birds, predaceous and parasitic insects, and unfavorable
weather conditions provide a natural check to the Increase of this pest, but
they cannot be depended on to give satisfactory control.

Preventive measures such as careful thinning, banding of trees, the use of
l)ait traps, disposal of culls, and protection of storage houses are valuable
as supplementing spraying.

Spraying, on the whole, has proven more effective than dusting. It is the
most important phase of codling moth control and should be thorough and
timely.

The most important sprays in the control of this insect are the calj-x (No. 3
in the schedule) and the post-calyx sprays (Nos. 4 and 7 in the schedule).

Publication of this Document approved by the Commission on
Administkation and Finance.

6,000. 3- '27. Oi-der8311.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 234 MARCH, 1927

THE POISONING OF HONEY BEES
BY ORCHARD SPRAYS

By A. L Bourne uassacIiuseKs Igkalhna/ Col

AMHeasT, MASS.

For many years the question of possible injury to honey bees from the
luse of poison sprays upon fruit trees has been the subject of discussion
and controversy. Recent studies made by the Experiment Station indicate
that there is little danger of killing honey bees by spraying orchards, even
when some bloom is present, if the recommended combination of lead
arsenate, lime-sulfur and nicotine sulfate is used. This bulletin contains
the record of these studies, carried out both in the laboratory and in the
orchard.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

THE POISONING OF HONEY BEES BY ORCHARD SPRAYS

By A. I. Bourne

The importance of honey bees in the pollination of blossoms, thus insuring
the set and yield of fruit, has long been recognized by orchardists, many of
whom own colonies of their own or rent them from neighboring beekeepers
during the blossoming period. The question, therefore, "Does spraying
orchards kill bees?" has been one of vital interest to both fruit growers and
beekeepers ever since the use of poison sprays to combat orchard pests has
become general. It has been the subject of a great deal of discussion and,
undoubtedly, led to considerable ill feeling, yet comparatively little has been
done in the way of actual experiments.

Years ago, before insecticides or methods of using them had become stand-
ardized or any well defined spray schedule developed, growers attempting to
control their numerous pests undoubtedly did much spraying which was ill
timed and dangerous to bees. An investigation was begun by the Station in
1922 to determine whether present day practices, using the common spray
combinations according to the schedule now recommended, would cause any
serious mortality to bees. The work was carried out in cooperation with
Professor N. E. Phillips and, later. Professor M. H. Cassidy who had in
charge the care and manipulation of the colonies and who made the observa-
tions on the behavior of the bees during the experiment.

Laboratory Experiments.

Behavior of bees fed on the common spray mixUire.

Preliminary studies were made in the laboratory to determine whether
bees were attracted or repelled by the combined spray of lead arsenate,
lime-sulfur and nicotine sulfate; whether this combination if fed upon by
bees would prove fatal; and what the symptoms of poisoning were.

A single frame nucleus, without stores, in an observation hive was fed a
mixture of honey and the three insecticides diluted as for orchard spray-
ing, and the reaction of the bees was noted. The temperature during the
experiment was kept about 60°F., a temperature at which bees feed read-
ily, yet do not become too active within the confined space.

For several days after being transferred, the bees were fed a dilute honey
solution, which they readily accepted. During this period the number of
bees that died each day was recorded, to determine the normal daily mor-
tality. The bees were then oflFered a mixture of equal parts of honey and
the spray combination. They were very strongly repelled by this mixture
and only one or two were observed to feed upon it at all. The bees even
showed a strong tendency to move away from that part of the comb near
the feeder. The few bees which had taken some of the mixture were taken
out of the hive and isolated to note their reaction. All of them showed
symptoms of poisoning and died within twenty-four hours.

THE POISONING OF BEES BY ORCHARD SPRAYS 75

The spray mixture witlioul nicotine sulfate proved sligiitly distasteful to
tiie bees. Wiien botli lime-sulfur and nicotine sulfate were left out of the
spray and lead arsenate alone was offered the bees, they showed no reluc-
tance toward feeding, but clustered about the feeder in large numbers and
consumed a liberal amount of the licpiid.

Within twelve hours after the first liberal feeding, bees began to die in
large numbers. The peak of mortality occurred within forty-eight hours,
and the colony was completely exterminated in nine to ten days. Except
when fed the poison mixture, the bees were kept su])plied with dilute lioney
during the run of the experiment.

The record of daily mortality during the experiment is as follows:

Date Dead Bees Date Dead Bees

Dec. 30 1 Jan. 7 140

31 2 8 220

Jan. 1 2 9 85

2 1 10 99

3* 7 11 62

4** 17 12 31

5*** 199 13 7

6 318 14 2

Total 1183

* Pate when honey-spray combination was offered.
** Date when lead arsenatehoney niixttire was offered ( Vi oz.).
*** Date when lead arsenatehoney mixture was offered (% oz.).

From the above it can be noted that in forty-eight hours after the first
feeding of the lead arsenate-honey mixttire, approximately 50 per cent of
the colon}' was dead. The extended period of high mortality indicates that
some of the bees evidently fed upon the poison very sparingly or not at all.
During the latter part of the exjieriment, the normal mortality would be
expected to be somewhat higher, due to the long period of confinement.

Relative to.virity of the (liferent materials.

To determine how toxic each material of the combined sprays was to the
bees, nine lots of bees were confined in cages and offered a mixture of
honey, and the different insecticides used alone and in combination. One
lot was given water alone to serve as a check, and another dilute honey
to show normal length of life.

Bees naturally fed at once on the water and dilute honey mixture. Lead
arsenate did not appear to be at all repellant to them. When it was com-
bined with lime-sulfur, bees fed readily on it. The combination' of all
three materials, however, appeared to be very repellent, and the bees did
not begin to feed upon it until after two or three hours. The mixture of
lime-siilfur and lioney was taken quite readily; of lime-sulfur and nicotine
sulfate was not touched for several hours; while that of nicotine sulfate
and honey was very repellent to the bees. They showed a marked aversion
toward all combinations containing nicotine sulfate, and for a long time
would not feed upon them at all, and even then only sparingly.

The materials used, dilutions, and reactions of the bees were as follows:

76

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION liULLETIN 2.3i

rood
1. Water

2. Water, 1 part
Honey, 1 part

3. Lead arsenate l'/2-50, 1 part
Honey, 1 part

Lead arsenate l'/4-50( ^
Lime-.sulfur 1 -40]
Honey, 1

5. Lead arsenate
Black-leaf "40"
Honey,

6. Lead arsenate
Lime-sulfur
Black-leaf "40"
Honey,

7. Limp-sulfur
Black-leaf "40"
Honey,

8. Lime-sulfur 1-40,
Honey,

9. Black-leaf "40"
Honey,

I'/o-SO)
1-lOOOj

1 V- -50]

1-40 [

• 1-lOOOJ

1-40)
' 1-lOOOj

1 part
1 part

1-1000,

part
part

1 part
1 part

1 part
1 part

1 part
1 part

1 part
1 part

All Bees Dead Reaction of Bees

94 hours Quiet; peak of mortality in 30
hours.

517 hours Fed in normal manner.

70 hours Peak of mortality in 1.5 hours.
Bees fed readily and showed
typical symptoms of arsenical
poisoning.

73 hours Peak of mortality in 20 hours.
Bees fed freely.

24 hours Bees repelled at first, but soon
fed.

27 hours Bees fed after 2 hours.

nor. i,„„,.e Bees fed after 2 hours, but fed
"•■^ hot! IS sparingly.

271 ho\ir.s Bees fed very soon.

Peak of mortality in 24 hours.

370 hours Bees distinctly repelled.

Fed barely enough to maintain
life.

The toxicity of tlie different materials varied greath'. Lead arsenate
alone and in all its combinations was very toxic. Lime-sulfur alone or
combined with nicotine sulfate was far less toxic. Nicotine sulfate alone
was the slowest of all the materials to kill. This was due to the fact that
it was so repellent to the bees that they fed but slightly upon it, and that
the nicotine probably volatilized so tliat much of the toxic principle was
dissipated.

It is significant that lead arsenate in certain combinations was much fast-
er in its killing action that when used alone. The mixture of all three
materials, which is the regular combination recommended for spraying,
proved to be one of the most toxic of all.

Symptoms of poisoning.

Bees poisoned by the combined spray soon became sluggish and, although
able to vibrate their wings slightly, appeared soon to have lost the power
of flight. They began to stagger about, twisting and tossing their abdomen.
Attempts to crawl soon became more and more feeble, the legs appearing
to be paralyzed and unable to support tiie body. There were occasional
periods of violent tossing and spinning about, becoming gradually shorter
and more infrequent. In the last stages, the bees became practically motion-
less except for occasional feeble and spasmodic vibration of legs and an-
tennae. They usually died with abdomen much distended and tongue pro-
truded.

When the bees were poisoned by lead arsenate alone, the symptoms were
practically the same as above except the twisting and tossing about were
more violent.

THE POISONING OF BEES BY ORCHARD SPRAYS 77

When the bees were killed by lime-sulfur, somewhat dififerent symptoms
were noted. The actions of the bees were less violent, and they showed a
tendency to be inactive and sluggish.

Bees poisoned by nicotine-sulfate reacted in much the same manner as
noted following a contact application of nicotine spray. There was very
little violent action. The bees quickly lost control of their limbs and be-
came incapable of any motion except to feebly move legs or antennae.

Mortality in a nucleus colony under controlled conditions.

Feeding tests had shown that, while the combination of lead arsenate,
lime-sulfur, and nicotine sulfate at strengths used for orchard spraying
was distinctly repellent to the bees, it proved to be very toxic even when
taken in small amounts, and its killing action was very rapid. To deter-
mine the reaction of bees toward blossoms sprayed with the combination,
a three-frame nucleus with eggs, brood, and some stores was placed in a
section of tightly screened greenhouse. A thin coating of whitewash on
the glass diffused the sunlight somewhat and also reduced abnormal activ-
ity of the bees. The colony was kept well supplied with fresh blossoms
and allowed several days to become accustomed to tiie surroundings, and
the normal daily mortality determined.

Bloom sprayed with the regular combination was then introduced and
allowed to remain for two days. It was then withdrawn and fresh un-
sprayed blossoms supplied the bees during the rest of the experiment. The
following indicates the daily mortality.

Date

Dead Bees

Date

Dead Bees

^ay 4.

18

May 15

406

5

7

16

202

6

36

17

232

7

17

18

108

8

63

19

115

9

51

20

125

10

39

21

120

n

40

22

120

12*

120

23

128

13*

170

24

120

14

313

25

112

Total 2662

* Days sprayed Ijlossoiiis were offered the bees.

The bees were strongly repelled by the spray and would not even alight
on the blossoms until it had dried. During the next day and until the
sprayed blossoms were withdrawn, the bees were visiting them in numbers,
although they never worked them as freely as they did unsprayed bloom.
The rapid rise in mortality following exposure to the sprayed flowers in-
dicated that bees, altliough apparently reluctant to work sprayed bloom,
nevertheless would do so if no unsprayed blossoms were available. It also
pointed out how toxic the spray is to bees, once they feed upon it. Upon
the sprayed blossoms the bees naturally obtain the poison greatly diluted,
and consequently the toxic effects were noted over a longer period than in
the feeding tests above.

78 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 234

Orchard Experiments.

In Massachusetts, apples are the main orchard crop. Since bees do not
visit the orchards to any extent except when the trees are in bloom, the
two sprays involved are the pink and the calyx. The pink is scheduled to
be applied just before tlie blossoms open, and the calyx when about 90 per
cent of the blossom petals have fallen and before the calyx cups close. The
fruit grower sprays when most of the trees are in the proper condition.
The period allowed for these sprays, however, is limited. If unfavorable
weather is encountered, the pink may not be completed before some of the
blossom buds have opened. In a mixed planting, certain varieties come
into bloom later than others. There is also considerable variation in the
bud development in a single tree. This means, therefore, that for the
calyx spray especially, the grower must often spray when some blossoms
are open. The following experiments were conducted to determine what
effect these sprays ha\e upon bees.

Effect of a late pink application.

A normal ten-frame colony was placed in the center of an orchard several
days before the trees were to be sprayed. A sheet was spread in front of
the hive to facilitate observations on the behavior of the bees, if any should
show symptoms of poisoning.

When the center bud of the blossom clusters had opened and the other
buds were .just separating, the bees were confined and the trees thoroughly
sprayed with the combination of lead arsenate, 1 Vo lbs. to 50 gallons; lime-
sulfur, 1:40; and nicotine sulfate, 1:1000. The bees were then released
and their reaction noted.

Several hours after the spray was applied, a few bees were observed
visiting the blossoms. During the next two days, the bees showed slightly
greater willingness to work upon sprayed bloom, but never did so in large
numbers. The trees soon came into full bloom and tlie bees began working
the blossoms normally.

During the five days following the spray, including one stormy day when
the bees were inactive, less than fifty dead bees were collected on the sheet
ill front of the hive. A few bees collected from sprayed blossoms and
l)laced in cages for observation, in a short time showed typical symptoms of
poisoning and died within twenty-four hours. So far, however, from becom-
ing disabled by exposure to sprayed bloom, the colony within a week was
found to be upon the point of swarming.

The experiment demonstrated that bees wliich actually worked the
sprayed blossoms were poisoned. The trees opened into full bloom so
quickly after tlie time the spray was applied, however, that the bees had
ample opportunity to work bloom containing no poison, so that the loss to
the colony was negligible.

Effect of an early caljx sprai/.

A colony similar to that used in the previous experiment was placed in
a block of twenty-one apple trees in bloom, which the bees worked freely.
A sheet was spread in front of the hive, as before, and the bees were con-

THE POISONING OF BEES BY ORCHARD Sl'RAYS 79

fined wliile tlie spray was applied. The same materials and dilutions were
a])plied as a spray just after the height of bloom had been reached.

Scarcely any bees worked the bloom during the remainder of the day
after spraying, and very few the following day. During the next two days
some bees were observed working the bloom but not as freely as before
the trees were sprayed. Heavy rains and high wind followed, which pre-
vented activity of the bees, and when favorable weather returned there
was little bloom left to attract the bees to the trees.

The colony was kept under observation for ten to twelve days after the
spray was applied, to note any marked increase in mortality. During this
period less than one hundred dead bees were collected. The greatest num-
ber found in any one day was fifteen. Some of the bees collected from the
sheet before the hive entrance showed characteristic symptoms of spray
poisoning. Frequent examination of the colony during the experiment and
at its close showed it to be healtiiy and in normal condition.

In this experiment, as in tiie jireceding, there was evidence of a marked
repellent action of the spray on the bees for at least one or two days, and
at no time after tiie spray was api)lied did tiie bees visit the blossoms in
such numbers as before. Some few bees showed symptoms of spray poison-
ing, indicating tliey had worked the sprayed blossoms. The mortality was
so insignificant, however, as to make it evident that most of the bees availed
themselves of the abundant unsprayed bloom in nearby orchards.

Experiments xcith trees enclosed in tentin(j.

The colonies in the orchard experiments above had in each case failed to
show any serious effects from exposure to sprayed bloom. The combined
spray, while unattractive to the bees, had been found to be very toxic to
them, even when taken in small amounts. It was possible, therefore, that
many of the bees had died or become disabled before they could return to
the hive. Examination had shown but few bees dead or dying beneath
sprayed trees. In an orcliard in grass, however, it was almost impossible
to make an accurate collection.

It has been observed by beekeepers that bees forage over a radius of at
least two miles from tiie hive in search of nectar and pollen. It was pos-
sible, therefore, that the bees in the experiment traveled to other orchards
near by and also tiiat otiier bees were visiting our sprayed trees. The Col-
lege Apiary and one or two private beekeepers were located within this
urea of possible danger.

To determine with greater accuracy the mortality of the bees and also
prevent possible damage to neighboring colonies, the experiment was con-
ducted during 1925 using trees enclosed within tenting.

Four twelve-year-old peach trees were covered with two thicknesses of
tobacco tenting, enclosing an area approximately forty feet square. Cloth
was spread on the ground within the tent to facilitate collection of dead
bees. A colony of bees was placed within this area and allowed several
days to become accustomed to their surroundings.

When considerable bloom had opened, the trees were sprayed with the
combined mixture. Several days later, when the bloom was at its height,
another application was made in order to cover the newly-opened blossoms.
In one spray, lead ar.senate alone was used. When peach bloom had passed,
masses of apple blossoms were supplied the bees.

80

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 234

The daily mortality, the mean hourly temperature during the part of the
day bees were active, the weather conditions and the activity of the bees
during the experiment were as follows:

April

30
May
1
2
3
4
5

No.
Dead
Bees

16
20
109
110
127
94
tif)

4«
1U7
115

118
156
94
81
129
129

186

177

Mean
Hourly
Temp.
" Fahr.

42°

50°
52°
57°
61°
58°
54"
54°

51°
55°
63°
60°
60°
65°
67°
56°
65°
70°

61°

64°

71°
70°

Weather and Activity of Bees

Cloudy (rain) ; little artivity

Cloudy; little activity

Clear; active

Clear; active

Cloudy; fairly active

Cloudy, inactive

Cloudy (little clear) ; inactive

Cloudy; almost no bees active

Cloudy; almost no bees active

Cloudy; almost no bees active

Clear; bees fairly active

Cloudy, rain all day; no bees active

Clear; bees active

Clear; bees active

Clear; bees active

Cloudy, rain; very little activity

Cloudy; very little activity

Clear, later cloudy; very little

activity
Clear, cool wind ; some bees out

and active
Clear, cool v/ind; few bees out

and active
Clear; bees fairly active
Clear; bees fairly active

Remarks

Blossoms opening
Combined spray

Bloom at height
Combined spray

Blossom petals dropping

Bloom about all gone

.Apple blossoms introduced
Lead arsenate alone
Fresh blossoms introduced

Bloom about all gone

Considerable unevenness was noted in the opening of blossoms, so that
throughout the experiment there were always many blossoms not covered
by the spray.

Before the sprays were applied, bees worked the blossoms freely. They
were very strongly repelled by the spray, however, particularly before it
had dried. Several hours after the trees were sprayed, a few bees were
observed to be visiting tiie trees.

Unfavorable weather conditions during the period of the experiment
allowed but brief and infrequent activity of the bees, so that only slight
correlation was shown between the time of spraying and the mortality of
the bees (Fig. 1). The only mortality which could be given any signifi-
cance followed the application of lead arsenate alone. Even then, the
number of bees killed was comparatively small.

The following season ' (1926) the experiment was repeated. A normal
ten-frame colony was introduced into the tent on May 3. The bees were
allowed several days in which to become accustomed to their surroundings
before the daily record of mortality was made. This was possible because
of the fact that the colony was introduced a number of days before the
blossom buds began to open.

Weather conditions were on the whole more favorable for bee activity
than was the case in 1925. In both seasons, however, there was consider-
able unevenness in the opening of bloom, which furnished a continuous
supply of newly-opened blossoms, so that after each spray bees had fresh
unsprayed bloom available.

At the close of the blooming period of the peach, apple bloom was plenti-
ful. The experiment was extended to cover a good part of the period of
apple bloom, which allowed two extra applications of spray. The supply

THE POISONING OF BEES BY ORCHARD SPRAYS

HI

Figrure 1. Daily Mortality of Houey Bees in Relation to Experimental Sprays, 1925.

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of npplc blonin was replenished often enoufrh to insure fresh blossoms upon
Nvliich the bees would work. The combined spray was applied May 15 and
2G, and arsenate of lead alone on May 17 and 22. The heavy rain follow-
ing the first combined spray washed off most of the spray so that a new
application was made the 17th.

The record of daily mortality, mean hourly temperature during part of
day bees were active, weather conditions and activity of bees follows;

Dato

No.

Mean

Dead

Hourly

Bees

Temp.
' Fahr.

May

5

ir,3

56°

6

125

65°

7

67°

^ S

"S4

60°

!)

100

50°

10

66

55°

11

92

54°

12

126

59°

13

237

68°

14

58°

15

114

57°

16

123

56°

17

78

65°

18

325

73°

19

175

67°

20

100

55°

21

64

64°

82 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 234

Weather and Activity of Bees Remarks

Fair, warm ; active A few buds showing pink tips

Coo] wind ; slight activity
Cool wind; very slight activity
Cool wind, cloudy; very slight

activity
Cool wind, cloudy; slight activity
Cool wind, cloudy; very slight

activity
Cool wind, cloudy, some rain;

very slight activity
Fair, cool; slight activity

Fair, warm; very active Blossoms opening

Cloudy, rain; very slight activity
Windy, warm ; active Combined spray

Rain; slight activity
Warmer, cloudy; very slight Lead arsenate alone

activity Bloom all out or nearly so

Clear, warm ; active
Windy, warm ; active

Pair, cooler; active Petals beginning to fall

Fair, warm late in day; slight

activity

22 150 69° Fair, warm ; active Peach bloom over

Apple blossoms introduced
Lead arsenate alone

23 42 58° Cloudy, cool ; very slight activity

24 142 60° Fair, warm ; active

25 236 63° Fair, warm, windy, active

26 107 61° Fair, warm ; active Combined spray

27 174 55° Cloudy, cool ; some active

28 202 58° Fair; active

29 105 64° Fair, warm ; active

30 94 63° Muggy; active

31 78 57° Cloudy, rain, warm ; slight activity

The bees sliowed the same reaction toward tlie combined spray as was
noted in 1925. They were noticeably repelled, particularly while the spray
remained as drops upon the blossoms. No such repellent action was noted
when lead arsenate was used alone. Figure 2 shows the mortality curve of
the bees in relation to the spray applications made.

It will be noted that there was a sharp rise to a high peak of mortality
following the first lead arsenate spray. There was also a sharp rise, al-
though not so great, the second day following the second lead arsenate
spray. The slightly increased mortality two days after the second com-
bined spray may be due in part to the spray but appears to be more closely
correlated with the rise in temperature conditions.

There were four high peaks of mortality reached during the experiment,
as follows:

May 13. 237 dead. Av. temp. 68°F. No spray involved.

May 18. 325 dead. Av. temp. 73'~F. Following lead arsenate.

May 25. 2.36 dead. Av. temp. 63°F. Following lead arsenate.

May 28. 202 dead. Av. temp. 58° F. Following combined spray.

The peaks of the 13th and 25th were practically the same; occurred at
temperatures of only 5° difference and under conditions which would ap-
pear to give no significance to the lead arsenate spraj^ which had been ap-
plied three days previously. There is one differenee, however; the peak of
May 13 was at the culmination of a steadily rising temperature for two
or three days; the peak of the 25th occurred after the average temperature
had fallen for two days and had then risen but a degree or two. Both
peaks, however, followed the resumption of activity of the bees after a
period of but slight activity, lasting one to two days; so that, while the

THE POISONING OF BEES BY ORCHARD SPRAYS

83

Figure 2. Daily Mortality of Honey Bees in Relation to Experimental Sprays, 1926.

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rise of the 25th may have been influenced by the spray, the effect was so
slight as to raise some question. The peak of the 28th so closely matches
the rise of daily temperature, and besides was so little higher than some
other figures reached when no spray was involved, that but little signifi-
cance can be given it.

The high point reached on the 18th was so abrupt, so close to the lead
arsenate spray and represented so great a kill, it must be given some con-
sideration and was the only mortality of any real significance.

84 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 234

Summary

Bees offered equal parts of honey and the regular spray combination
(lead arsenate iVa lbs. to 50 gals., lime-sulfur 1:40, and nicotine sulfate
1:1000) were strongly repelled. This combined spray was, however, very
toxic to bees and very rapid in its action.

Lead arsenate spray with honey was readily accepted by the bees. A
one-frame nucleus which fed on this mixture lost approximately .50 per
cent of its bees within forty-eight hours after feeding. Lead arsenate
alone or combined with any of the other materials was very toxic to bees.

Any mixture containing nicotine sulfate was very repellent to bees and
was fed on but sparingly. In laboratory experiments, this repellent action
persisted for at least forty-eight hours. In the orchard the period was
somewhat shorter, due probably to more rapid volatilization of the nicotine.

Bees in a nucleus, placed in a greenhouse and offered bloom sprayed
with the orchard combination, were at first repelled, but finally worked
the flowers and suft'ered a very heavy mortality; indicating that with no
unsprayed blossoms available bees will work sprayed bloom.

In orchard experiments, contrary to what might be expected from the
above, neither a late pink nor an early calyx spray, applied when there was
considerable bloom on the trees, caused any serious mortality to colonies
located in the sprayed orchards. This was due, in the one case, to the
fact that the trees came into bloom very quickly after the late pink was
applied, thus affording abundance of unsprayed blossoms; and in the other,
to the fact that, since bees have a tendency to forage over a considerable
area, the repellent action of the early calyx spray caused them to work
bloom in nearby orchards.

In the tent experiments, there was no high mortality except immediately
following the application of lead arsenate alone. This was in a measure
due to unfavorable weather conditions. It was also due to uneven opening
of the bloom. There was always a supply of unpoisoned blossoms avail-
able, upon which bees repelled by the combined spray could work. Since
lead arsenate was not repellent to the bees, they were not reluctant to work
bloom upon which it alone had been sprayed, and consequently were
poisoned.

The experiments indicate that, if the recommended combination of lead
arsenate, lime-sulfur and nicotine sulfate is used, spraying should have no
appreciable effect upon colonies not subject to any i-estrictions of flight
This is true even when some bloom is present, unless improperly timed
spraying is carried out on a large scale.

Publication of this document Approved by the Comjwission on
Administration and Finance

5M. 3-'27. Order 8498.

l^ UBRARY or 1

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 235 APRIL, 1927

FARM TAXES AND ASSESSMENTS
IN MASSACHUSETTS

By Hubert W. Yount

The increasing cost of government brings about a two-fold tax problem:
Rrst, equable distribution of the tax burden; second, getting value received
for tax money spent. This bulletin concerns itself primarily with the
former phase of the problem, particularly as represented by assessment
practices in different towns. The second part of the problem will be dealt
with in a later publication.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

SUMMARY.

1. Farm real estate on 214 farms in 1923 was assessed at 53 per cent of
the owners' valuation.

2. The average ratio of the assessed value of farm real estate to the own-
ers' value varies as much as 20 per cent between towns.

3. Farm real estate within the same town was assessed at from 30 per
cent to 100 per cent of the value as reported by farmers.

4. Livestock was assessed at 6-5 per cent of its value as estimated by farm-
ers in 1923. The ratio of assessed to reported values of livestock varied as
much as 60 per cent l)etween neighborinsi' farms.

5. Reports from 133 boards of assessors show wide differences between
towns in the estimated assessed value of land of a similar quality and use.
Differences between neighboring towns are as great as lietween sections of
the state.

6. Similar reports from assessors on the assessment of livestock show little
uniformity, even in adjacent towns.

7. Urban and industrial real estate is assessed at a higher percentage of
value than farm real estate.

8. The percentage of farm income required to pay taxes varies witli the
farm, the town and the season. In 1923 taxes on 207 farms took 9.76 per cent
of the farm income before paying taxes.

9. When computed on a similar basis, taxes take a larger share of the
Massachusetts farmers income than of the incomes received by certain other
industrial or professional classes.

FARM TAXES AND ASSESSMENTS IN MASSACHUSETTS'

By Hubert W. Yount

INTRODUCTION.

Taxes rank third in importance as an expense on Massachusetts farms, be-
ing exceeded only by the costs of feed and labor. The total tax bill on the
average farm amounts to from $150 to $200, and is a direct out-of-pocket cost.
It falls due on a certain date, and in practice is paid all at one time. Furth-
ermore, taxes are not like other costs, since there is apparently no immediate
return. Money spent for labor or feed sliows visible results, but the returns
from taxes are often intangible, and frequently are distributed over a period
of years. This is one reason why there are more complaints about taxes than
about other farm costs. It is difficult for the average citizen to see the dollars-
and-cents value of improved roads, good schools, police and fire protection,
and other government services, especially when he has enjoj'ed these benefits
for a long time. Much of tiie criticism of higii taxes in recent years has been
due to the failure of taxpayers to appreciate the increasing cost of govern-
ment service to which they have become accustomed.

At the outset the problem of farm taxation in Massachusetts presents cer-
tain difficulties. The state is industrial, not agricultural; urban, not rural.
For this reason tax authorities have paid little attention to farm taxes or
farm assessments.

The relative importance of agriculture is shown by tlie following census
figures. According to the United States Census of Wealth, Debt and Taxa-
tion, the total wealth of Massachusetts was estimated at $12,980,839,000 in
1922. According to the United States Census of Agriculture in 1925, the value
of farm property in the state was $293,405,000, divided as follows:
Land and Buildings $254,603,000

Implements and Machinery . 17,044,000

livestock 21,758,000

Assuming the same amount of agricultural wealth in 1922 as in 1925, the
value of all farm property was 2.26 per cent of the total wealth of the state.
The value of taxable farm property was approximately the same percentage
of total taxable property. (1)^

The assessed valuation of towns of less than five thousand jjopulation is
only 9 per cent of the total state valuation, while the city valuation is 74 per
cent. Naturally, more attention has been given to assessments in cities and
large towns. The number of people who pay farm taxes is alco comparatively
small. The 1925 Census reported about 149,000 persons living on 33,000 farms
in Massachusetts out of a total population of 4,144,000. Therefore farm
population is only 3.6 per cent of the total population.

' This is the first of two studies dealing with Farm Taxation, carried on under a co-
operative agreement tietween the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the United
States Department of Agriculture and the ^Massachusetts Agricultural E.xperiment
Station.

^ Figures in parenthesis refer to the Appendix.

A

88 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

On the other hand, farm property is more widely distributed than other
forms of taxable property. Out of the 355 cities and towns of the state, 242
have less than 5000 population, and this group is principally rural. Tlierefore
the problem of assessing property in two-thirds of the towns of the state is
largely a question of the valuation of farm property. In addition, there is
farm property in practically every city and large town.

Taxes Paid by Farmers.

Taxes are compulsory contributions levied against the property or citizens
of a state for the support of government. They should be levied on the tax-
payer in accordance with some accepted principle of justice whicii may be
either his ability to pay, or the benefits he receives from government. In
Massachusetts, taxes are supposedly levied according to the ability to pay.
This ability is measured by income in the case of the income tax, and by value
of property owned for property taxes. For a few public functions, taxes are
levied according to benefits received. Street paving, sewers, sidewalks and
public water supply are in this class, but payments for these items are usually
called special assessments instead of taxes.

Most taxes paid by Massachusetts farmers are for the general support of
local and state governments and are levied according to ability to pay as
measured by the value of property owned. Taxes levied on this basis are
called general property taxes because originally they were levied against all
kinds of property. With the development of corporation, income and other
new taxes, a great deal of property has been exempted from local taxation, so
that Massachusetts really has a modified property tax rather than a general
property tax. In spite of this change, however, property taxes still make up
over 76 per cent of all state and local taxes, including motor registration fees.

The four types of taxes for which Massachusetts farmers are responsible
are as follows:

1. A poll tax of .$2.00 is levied on every male inhaliitant of the state over
20 years of age.

2. The property tax is the most important tax paid by farmers. Under
tills tax all farm and personal property, with certain exemptions, is assessed
at its fair cash value as of April 1 each year, in the town where located, and
taxed at a uniform amount per thousand dollars of valuation, called a rate.

3. The state income tax is a tax levied upon income from certain invest-
ments, and from business and professions. Farmers pay a tax of ly, per cent
on their net incomes over .$2000, with an additional allowance of $500 for a
dependent wife or husband and .$250 for each cliild under 18 years of age.
Interest and dividends received from investments in other than Massachusetts
corporations are taxable at 6 per cent, although there are a number of ex-
emptions of little interest to farmers. Income from the farm business is the
principal item upon which farmers pay income taxes, but jirobably not over
3 per cent of all farmers pay state income taxes.

4. The Federal income tax must be paid on all incomes of $3500 or more if
the taxpayer has a dependent wife or husband, or $1500 if without dependents.
There is an additional allowance of $400 for each dependent child. In 1923
only 244 farmers who received their entire income from the farm paid Fed-
eral income taxes.

In addition to the taxes mentioned above, a large number of farmers pay
a registration fee on automobiles. While this fee is not called a tax, it is a

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS

89

cliarge made by the state for the privilege of driving a motor vehicle, and has
been placed so high that to all intents and purposes it is a tax.

Purposes to Which Taxes Paid by Farmers
are applied.

The purposes to which the above-mentioned taxes apply vary considerablji.
The following table indicates the 1925 distribution of each of the taxes.

Purposes to Which Taxes Paid by Farmers AVere Applied, 1925

Tax Local City or County State United

Town

Poll 100% None

Property 88.24% 5.42%

Massachusetts Income All except cost None

of collection

Federal Income None None

Automobile Registration Fees Nonea Nonea

aCounties, cities and towns receive entire benefits, however.

States

None None

6.34% None

Cost of None
collection

None 100%

100% None

The Amount of Taxes Paid by Massachusetts
Farmers.

No data are available on the total amount of taxes paid by Massachusetts
farmers, but it is possible to make a reasonably accurate estimate by using
the farm values reported by the 1925 census of agriculture. The reported
census values together with estimated assessed values of farm property are as
follows:

Census Value,

1925
$254,603,000
21,758,000
17,044,000

Farm Real Estate
Farm Livestock
Farm Implements
and Machinery
Total

293,405,000

Estimated Assessed
Value 1925 (2)
.$130,612,000
14,349,000
1,200,000 (other than

motor vehicles)
146,161,000

A small amount of household property was also assessed so that the total
estimated assessed value of farm property exclusive of motor vehicles was
approximately $147,000,000 in 1925. The average tax rate of $28.53 per $1000
valuation gave $4,194,000 as the total property tax paid by farmers on farm
property other than automobiles and trucks.

It is estimated that farm automobiles and trucks v/crc assessed at
$10,000,000, (3) giving additional property taxes of $285,000. In addition, the
registration fees amounted to at least $464,000, (4) giving a total estimated
automobile tax of $749,000. A poll tax of $2 was paid by at least 30,000 farm-
ers and farmers' sons, giving $60,000 in poll taxes. Total fa*rm taxes including
property, automobile and poll taxes are approximately $5,000,000, according
to above estimates.

No data are available on the amount of income taxes paid by farmers to
the state and Federal governments, but it is probable that such taxes are paid
on income from sources other than the farm. Therefore, $5,000,000 may be

90

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

taken as the best estimate available of total taxes paid l)y Massachusetts
farmers. The average taxes are therefore about $156 per farm for 32,000
farms (5).

This average is low, due to the large number of small farms or farms of
low value. In a questionnaire sent out to assessors by the Bureau of Agricul-
tural Economics of the United States Department of Agriculture in 1926, it
was found that taxes on 243 farms distributed through 53 towns averaged
$340 per farm in 1925. The following table shows actual taxes per farm ex-
clusive of automobile registration fees. Since the acreage of the farms re-
ported is from 30 to 50 per cent above the county averages, the tax per farm
is typical only of the larger farms.

Table 1. — Taxes on Identical Massaciiiisetts Farms, 1924 and 192-5.'/

.-' 1 eraae

N

umber

of

Average

Average tax

per rent

Farms wi

th

■ No.
of

No.
of

Acres
per

per Farm

1925 lax
of 1924

Hifiher

Lower

Same

County

Towns

Farms

Farm

1924

1925

lax

Taxes

Ta.xes

Ta.xes

Barnstable

2

10

56,9

$185.96

¥206.35

110.96

10

Berkshire

8

37

190.2

173.58

178.86

103.04

23

14

Bristol

3

15

79.1

355.22

295.46

83.18

10

5

Dukes

3

13

82.6

109.40

115.11

105.22

8

5

Essex

5

25

90.0

351.01

352.94

100.55

6

9

10

Franklin

2

10

98.8

158 41

159.88

100.93

3

1

6

Hampden

2

S

106.1

391.04

392.13

100.28

3

5

Hampsnire

1

.5

207.2

82.66

92.13

111.46

5

Middlesex

S

36

105.1

981.32

1018.91

103.83

18

13

5

Nantucket

1

3

140.0

120.51

140.75

116.80

3

Norfolk

1

4

34.5

327.12

346.68

105.98

4

Plymouth

5

23

60.2

204 95

199.70

97.44

14

9

Worcester

12

54

133.8

205. 12

203.27

99.10

21

26

7

Total

53

243

115 0

336 30

340 28

101 18

128

82

33

Total

omitting

Middlesex

County

45

207

116 7

224 12

222 25

99 16

110

69

28

oData collected by Bureau of Agricultural Kcononiics, United States Department of
Agriculture, from local town assessors.

If Middlesex County is omitted from the average, due to the large number of
greenhouses and market garden farms reported, the average tax per farm
on the remaining 207 farms was $222.

ASSESSED VALUATIONS.

Since property taxes are levied upon the value of property owned, the de-
termination of such value is the basic problem in our system of taxation. The
property taxes levied on any individual property change for only two re;isons.

1. A change in the amount of taxes raised by the city or town ;

2. A change in the assessed valuation of the property.

Most Massachusetts farmers live in towns where public expenditures are
voted in open town meeting. Therefore each voter has a voice in determin-
ing the amount spent by his community. He has less to do with determining
the assessed value of his property, since he is usually not consulted in the
matter. The local board of assessors places a valuation on property, and

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS 91

while there are legal methods by means of which improper assessments may
be changed, the process of getting an abatement is not easy.

Accurate valuations are dependent upon careful judgment, broad knowl-
edge of local property values, and knowledge of the things which make local
property valuable. Assessments will be fair and equitable only to the extent
that the local assessors have the necessary knowledge, are honest and pains-
taking, and have the courage to apply their knowledge and judgment to all
taxpayers alike.

According to law, "all property, real and personal, situated within the com-
monwealth, and all personal property of the inhabitants of the commonwealth
wherever situated, unless expressly exempt, shall be subject to taxation." Such
property shall be assessed at its "full and fair" cash value as of April 1 each
year. In order to assist the assessors, taxpayers may bring in sworn lists of
their property and its value, which the assessors must accept as true, except
for the valuation.

In Massachusetts the board of assessors, usually consisting of three men, is
much more powerful than similar township boards in states outside of New-
England. In practice, very few peojjle turn in lists of their property and the
assessors must therefore list and value all property. They also act as a board
of review and have power to revise assessments upon complaint of the tax-
payer. They perform the same functions as the auditor in other states in levy-
ing or assessing the tax, that is, apportioning the total tax to be raised among
the various persons and properties assessed. It has been said that the Massa-
chusetts boards of assessors "perform the functions and have the powers of
assessors, auditors, equalizers, local boards of review, and local boards of
appeal." ^

With all of these powers combined in the same group of men, it is likely
that some injustice will occur. Inequalities in assessments are not easily cor-
rected where assessors pass judgment on their own valuations as boards of
review or in actions for abatement. Consequently the following inequalities
in assessment are likely to occur:

1. Property may be undervalued throughout the town.

2. The ratio of assessed to true values may vary greatly between towns.

3. The ratio of assessed to true values may vary greatly between indi-

vidual property owners in the same town.

4. Certain types of property may be relatively over- or undervalued.
.5. Some property may not be assessed at all.

Undervaduation.

Although the law specifies that property shall be taxed at its full and fair
cash value as of April 1, in most towns assessed values are considerably
below market value. According to estimates of various tax authorities, prop-
erty for the state as a whole is not assessed at more than 75 per cent of its
actual value. In the United States Census of 1922 on Wealth, Debt and Taxa-
tion, it was estimated that Massachusetts property was assessed at 77.6 per
cent of fair value. This figure was based on estimates by state and local
authorities.

According to law, savings banks are not authorized to loan upon the secur-
ity of real estate more than 60 per cent of the value of such real estate.
However, it is a common occurrence for bank loans to exceed the assessed

' United States Bureau of the Census. Digest of State laws relating to Taxation and
Revenue, 1922, p. 179.

92 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

value of the property. Commenting upon this situation in a special letter to
assessors under date of February 9, 1926, the Tax Commissioner says:—
It is plain in such cases that either the officers of the bank or the
assessors have grievously erred. There seems to be a widespread be-
lief that assessors generally do not begin to value property at "its
full and fair value." It is strikingly evident that investment boards of
savings banks, who deal with at least 40 per cent of all real estate
in Massachusetts, in the shape of mortgages, pay no attention what-
soever to valuations placed by assessors The assessors' valua-
tions are seemingly held in low esteem. The only course left open
when the Courts and the Legislature indicate a feeling that assessors
are not valuing property at its full and fair cash value, is for the
assessors themselves to set their house in order by making a real effort
to value property in accordance with the law and by so doing not only
fulfil their oath of office, distribute more equally the burden of taxa-
tion, but as well bring back to a position of respect the valuations
made by assessors.
AVhile it is true that assessed values are often below first mortgage loans, it
is not fair to assume that savings bank loans should be only 60 per cent of
assessed values. The basis on which the savings bank loan is made is not
always the same as that on which assessments are made.

In the smaller towns, especially, under-assessment is the rule rather than
the exception. Few assessors admit assessing at less than 60 per cent of
actual value, but property in most towns and cities is assessed below 75 per
cent of its cash value, and in some cases at about half value. This is par-
ticularly true where tliere are few actual sales to guide tlie assessors in esti-
mating a fair value.

The Basis of Appraisal.

Assessment is merely appraisal for purposes of taxation. Appraisals by
assessors, savings banks, land banks, real estate agencies, and property owners
are all for the purpose of determining "value."

Evidently value varies with the individual appraiser. Three things are
usually considered in determining "fair value."

1. Present market value or the possibility of resale.

2. Productive value, based on earning power.

3. Speculative value, or probable value in the future.

The man looking for a farm on which to make a living is interested in the
productive value of the property. He does not care about resale value or
future speculative value. The bank making a loan on property must consider
resale value in addition to productive value. Practice varies with the bank,
but some banks also consider the character and reputation of the borrower,
and to some extent the probable increase in the value of the pro]ierty on
which the loan is made. They must also consider the possibility of foreclosure
and the price at a forced sale. Assessors do not consider speculative value,
and sale value is not always a good basis for assessments. Too many current
sales anticipate future values and are consequently above productive value.
Productive value appears to be the most important factor considered by
assessors; at least, assessed values appear to follow productive values closer
than sales values, although both are considered in making assessments. In
any case, assessed values are evidently less than either sales values or valua-
tions of property owners, due to differences in the basis of appraisal.

There are certain difficulties connected with the accurate appraisal of
farm property in Massachusetts. The numerous types of farming make gen-
eral rules impossible, since each farm must be considered as an individual

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS

93

business. Dairying is tiie most common farm enterprise and yet there are
thousands of farmers who specialize in orcharding, small fruits, poultry
cranberries, tobacco, onions and market gardening. Many farms combine two'
or more enterprises, which adds to the diiRculty of assessment. Such a wide
diversity of farm interests means a similar diversity in farm incomes, costs of
production, land values, and consequently, taxes.

The topography of the state and the quality of the land are both dis-
turbing factors. There are fertile valleys and rolling uplands in close prox-
imity to swamp or rocky waste. There are many instances where market
garden land worth from .$200 to $1000 per acre is located within sight of
land worthless for any agricultural purpose. The last agricultural census
shows that of a total land area of over 5,000,000 acres, only 46 per cent is in
farms, and of the land in farms only 29 per cent is classified as crop land
Ihe average farm is made up of:

Crop land 28.8 per cent

Pasture land 37 q

Woodland not pastured 26.7

Other land 75

If all farms were average farms, assessment would be comparatively easy
but the amount and quality of the above types of land vary for every farm
for every town, and for every |ection of the state.

Of the pasture land, more than one-half is wooded, so that 47 per cent of
the land on the average farm is woodland. Onlv 30 per cent of the total
It'T.rL"^" ''' cultivated, including tillable pasture land. It is apparent
that the 70 per cent of land not cultivated, much of it brush and waste that
does not produce lumber or even fire-wood, creates a very definite tax prob-
lem in itself. ^

Assessment of Farin Real Estate.

Farm real estate is assessed at a lower percentage of value than manv
other classes of property. Sales records are perhaps the best indication of
actual values where there are a number of sales over a period of years, but
sufficient sales data were not available for analysis. Consequently, owners'
valuations have been used with corrections as indicated. The following table
shows the relation between values as reported by owners and assessed values
of farm real estate on 214 farms in 8 towns for 1923 and for 41 farms in 2
towns for 1922. The values in 8 towns were obtained from farm management
records, while in two towns figures were secured through personal interview
with the farm owner. The farm management records were obtained by a rep-
resentative of the college who worked with the farmer in determining a fair
value for his farm. Where the reported values were out of line with neigh-
boring property, they were corrected by the farm management extension
specialist based upon his knowledge of the community. These values were
secured for more than one year in four of the towns, so that they represent
the best information obtainable on farm values in the several towns

Town No 1 is the only town of the group in which there have been a suf-
ficient number of farm sales to check the figures given

Most of the sales were of a speculative nature, several being for the develop-
ment of a new summer colony, and all sales reported were above conservative
^^^^^^^^fovnre^^^ Assessed values were taken from the assess-

94

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BUIJ.ETIN 235

ment records in the various towns. The towns are distributed over five coun-
ties as follows: Berkshire County, Sheffield and Hancock; Franklin County,
Shelburne, Heath, Conway and Ashfield; Worcester Count}', Sterling; Middle-
sex County, Littleton and Boxborough; and Hampden County, Granville.

Table 2. — Relation between Owners' Value and Assessed Value per Farm of
Farm Real Estate in Massachusetts.

Tov

m

1923

Number

Owners'

Number

Tax Rate

of Farms

Value a

1

f 29.50

42

$12,145

2

22.50

22

8,571

3

21.30

19

5,894

4

23.50

29

7,428

5

24.50

25

4,872

6

26.00

20

6,100

7

25.00

47

8,610

8

21.50

10

12,450

Total

or Average

214

8,407

1922

1922

1922

9

27.00

22

5,514

10

28.00

19

6,321

Total

or Average

41

5,888

Ratio of

Assessed

Assessed to

Value

Owners' Value

(Per cent)

$ 7,588

024

5,053

58.9

3,342

56.7

3,989

5S.7

2,547

52.5

2,764

45.3

3,682

4^.7

5,224

41.9

4,455

53.0

1922

1922

2,760

50.1

3,80 :

60.2

3,245

55.1

aOwner's value in each case is the owner's estimate of the value of his property, in
some instances corrected by consultation with the farm management agent collect-
ing the facts.

Assessed values averaged slightly more than one-half of owners' values, but
the percentage varied with each farm, and with each town, the maximum dif-
ference between towns being over 20 per cent. The differences between towns
are shown graphically in Charts 1 and 2, in which each bar represents one
town. The ten farms in Town No. 8 were assessed at 41.9 per cent of owners'
value, but it is doubtful if this number was large enough to be a fair sample.
The differences between towns are well illustrated by Towns No. 1 and 7, both
of which are good farming towns, and in which the samples taken included a
majority of farms in each town. According to the table, farms in Town No. 1
were assessed at 19 per cent more of the owners' value than in Town No. 7,
which means that on farms of equal value, with equal tax rates, taxes in Town
No. 1 were 46 per cent higher than in Town No. 7. A farm worth $10,000 is
assessed for $4277 in Town No. 7; in Town No. 1, the valuation is 46 per cent
higher or $6247. This means that with the tax rate at $25.00, taxes are $156
in Town No. 1 compared with $107 in Town No. 7. The difference in taxes
was exaggerated in 1923 by a tax rate for Town No. 1 which was 18 per cent
higher than that of Town No. 7. The high percentage of assessed value com-
bined with the high tax rate meant that for this one year taxes in Town No. 1
were approximately 72 per cent higher than in Town No. 7. This situation
was a temporary one, however, as the tax rate in Town No. 1 has been falling
since 1923.

The other towns of the table do not vary a great deal from the average, but
the variations are sufficient to make a noticeable ditTercnce in taxes. It is not
to be expected that all farmers pay equal taxes on similar property; this
would necessitate equal tax rates, and taxes and tax rates depend upon the

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS

95

CHART 1. The Relation Between Average Assessed Valuation and Owners' Valua-
tion of Farm Real Estate in Eight Massachusetts Towns, 1923.
Eaoh bar represents the average value per farm of farm real estate in one town.
The dark portion of the bar shows the average assessed valuation of real estate per
farm in each town. See Table 2.

THOUSANDS OF
DOLLARS

\z

10
8
6
4
2

■ Ml 111 1 ■ I

Z 4

Town Number

CHART 2. The Ratio of Assessed Valuation to Owners' Valuation of Farm Real
Estate in Eight Massachusetts Towns, 1923.
Each bar shows the average percentage of owners' valuation at which farm real
estate is assessed in the individual town. See Table 2.

PtRCElNTAGE

100

96

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

town expenditures. It is to be expected, however, that property of approxi-
mately similar character and value will be assessed at the same figure in every
town. The high percentage of assessed to owners' value in Town No. 1 is due
partly to the numbers of farms and village homes used for residences by city
workers, partly to the exaggerated market value of land in orchards, and
partly to the general revaluation of property brought about by heavy expendi-
tures for highways and schools.

The principal effect of differences in the ratio of assessed to owners' value
as shown above is to cause towns with high assessed values to pay more than
their share of state and county taxes. If all property within a town were
assessed at a uniform percentage of fair value, the difference between towns
would not be important so far as town taxes were concerned. The local tax
rate per $1000 of assessed valuation depends largely upon the amount of
money voted at the town meeting. The amount is first voted and then levied
against available assessed property. The state and county taxes are appor-
tioned in a different way, but the amount per town depends upon the assessed
valuation. The following illustration will make this clear.

Actual Value of Taxable Property
Ratio of Assessed to Actual Value,

per cent
Total Assessed Valuation
Town Tax

Tax Rate based on Town Tax
State tax at $2.00 per $1000

Assessed Valuation
Town and State Tax
Tax rate based on State and Town Tax
Rate per $1000 on Actual Value

In actual practice the State Tax Commissioner attempts to equalize state
taxes in such cases by equalizing the property valuations. As there is no
available information on the extent to which property is undervalued in any
given town, equalizations are onlj' approximate.

The tax requirements of various towns are more uniform than assessment
practice. Therefore it is to be expected that where there is considerable dif-
ference between the ratio of assessed to owners' value, the towns assessed at
a low percentage of value will have a relatively high tax rate. The table
above shows this to be the case if we except Town No. 1, which had been
■reassessed and Town No. 8, in which the number of farms was too small for
I fair sample. For the remaining towns the relation is as follows:

Ratio of Assessed
to Owners' Value
Town Tax Rate (Per cent)

6 $26.00 p.3

7 25.00 4^.7
5 24.50 5S.5
4 23.50 53.7

2 22.50 58.9

3 21.30 56.7

It is apparent that low tax rates are accompanied by a high ratio of assessed
to owners' value. Unusual appropriations in any given year throw the tax

Town A

Town B

$2,000,000

$2,000,000

40

60

800,000

1,200,000

20,000

20,000

25.00

16.66

1,600

2,400

21,600

22,400

27.00

18.66

10.80

11.20

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS 97

rate for any given town out of line; but on the average, high tax rates in
rural towns are a fair indication of underassessment.

Inequalities in Assessment between Farms.

Inequalities in assessments between farms within the same town are of much
more importance than inequalities between towns. It has been shown that dif-
ferences between towns cause higher or lower state and county taxes, but have
little effect on the total tax paid by the individual farmer. Assessment dif-
ferences between farmers in the same town are reflected in high or low taxes.
The ratio of assessed to owners' values varies more between neighboring farms
than between towns. Thus in Town No. 7 where assessments were 43 per cent
of owners' values, individual farms were assessed at from 25 to 80 per cent
of their values. The range was still greater in Town No. 1, being from 37 to
more than 100 per cent, three-fourths of the farms being assessed between 40
and 80 per cent of owners' value. The other towns show similar variations.
Table 3 and Charts 3 and 4 show the number of farms assessed at varying
percentages of owners' value for Towns No. 1 and No. 7 as well as for 184
farms in six towns. It will be noted that while there are wide differences
within each town, assessments in Town No. 7 are uniformly lower than in
Town No. 1. The sunmiary for six towns includes farms from towns in which
assessed values are relatively high and low, and may be regarded as fairly
typical of the state. The range from less than 20 per cent of owners' value
to more than 100 per cent is greater than is likely to exist within any one
town, and it is probable that both the very high and very low assessments are
due to errors in the data. Omitting the extremes, over 85 per cent of the
farms are assessed at from 30 to 80 per cent of owners' value. Such a range
within a town means that for every $100 in taxes paid by the farmer assessed
at 30 per cent of fair value, the farmer assessed at 80 per cent would pay $266.

Table 3. — Farms Grouped According to the Ratio of Assessed to Owners'
Valuations of Farm Real Estate

atio of Assessed

Number of Farms

to Owners'

Valuation

To

wn No. 7

Town No. 1

Total for

(Per cent)

Six Towns

10.0 - 19.9

0

0

3

20.0 - 29.0

7

0

8

30.0 - 39.9

11

3

23

40.0 - 49.9

14

8

43

50.0 - 59.9

10

11

43

60.0 - 69.9

2

7

31

70.0 - 79.9

2

8

24

80.0 - 89.9

1

3

7

90.0 - 99.9

0

1

1

100.0 -109.9

0

1

1

Total

47

42

184

The remedy for such inequalities is frequent revaluation and more careful
assessments based on definite knowledge of factors affecting property values.
In too many rural towns assessed values have not been changed for years;
in some cases not for generations. An instance was recently reported where
the assessment of a farm in southeastern Massachusetts had not been changed

98

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

CHART 3. The Relation Between Assessed and Owners' Valuation of Farm Real

Estate for 184 Farms, Showing the Number of Farms Assessed at

Different Percentages, 1923.

£ach dot on the chart shows the number of farms, the real estate of which was

assessed between certain percentages of the owners' valuation. Most farms were

assessed between 40 and 59 per cent of the owners' valuation.

NUnBtR OF
FARMS

42
36
30
24
IS

•

20-29 A0-A9 60-69 aO-S9 100-109

PERCENT A55E5SED VALUE OF OWNERS' VALUE

CHART 4. The Relation Between Assessed and Owners' Valuation of Farm Real

Estate for Two Towns, Showing the Number of Farms Assessed at

Different Percentages in Each Town, 1923.

NUMBLR OF
FARM5

M

1?

/

\

10
8
6
4
2
0

Kl

/

\

\
,\

'J

/

i —

l\

\\
\ \

'l

\

\

\~
\

j-

- /

/
/

f

i

\

^\^

T^-

IO-I9 iO-39 50

PERCENT A55E55E

59 70-79 90-99 110-119

D VALUE OF OWNERS' VALUE

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS

99

in nearly 100 years. In the Connecticut Valley, wi.ere some of the best farm
land m the state is located, the assessed valuations of many parcels of hiah-
Triced market garden, tobacco and onion land have not been revised for ten
or fifteen years. In other towns assessments have been revised as property values
increased, with inequalities between towns as the result. Occasionally assessors
will revalue a property only after a sale, and in such cases there i; resulting
mequahty between properties in the same town. New buildings are usually
valued at a higher percentage of their actual value than old buildings As a
result, farm property with good, well-kept buildings is valued at a higher
percentage of actual value than farms with old buildings. This was shown by
the records in every town with sufficient records to furnish a fair sample

This IS partly accounted for by the fact that old farm buildings were as-
sessed years ago, when building costs were low. In most small towns the de-
preciation on buildings is not considered, nor is any real attempt made to
measure appreciation in value for the farm as a whole. If a normal deprecia-
tion charge were made against the original value of many of our farm build-
ings they would be worthless, but appreciation in the dollar value of the farm
as a whole has more than offset depreciation of buildings in many cases
Actually many farm buildings are worth considerably more today than wh n
they were built, while those constructed during the war have fallen In Jllue
due to abnormal building costs during that period
and"bnnf '"''"^ in assessing farm property is that the division between land

!re wo th"^' "", ." ''''"' ''''''''''■ '" ^^"^^ '«-^'"- the buildings alone
are worth as much for residence purposes as the entire farm, while in other
nstances the land is the valuable item and the farm is worth as much wit ou

L:d ai"d b^uiidtgr '' ^"^' ^"' *'^" *" '^''' ^" -'^''-y ^'^''^^- ^^t--

Assessment of Livestock.

Assessed values of livestock vary even more widely from market values
than do real estate values. Table 4 shows the variations between assessed and
owners' values of the taxable livestock on the farms previously con dered
Assessed values averaged 65 per cent of owners' value, or about 12 percent
higher than for real estate. Averages for individual to^ns varied from 51 "
cent in Town No. 7 to 80 per cent in Town No 3. Livestock assessments n
the dairy towns m the eastern end of the state averaged about 66 per cent of

Table 4.-Relation Between Owners' Value and Assessed Value of Taxable
Livestock per Farm in Massachusetts in 1923.

Ratio of
Assessed Assessed to
Value Owners' Value
(Per cent)
$ 1,081 50,5

1,103 80.3

993 69.8

1,926 59.7

640 67.9

1,178 64.8

1.126 6L5

Town

1923

Number

Owners'

Number

Tax Rate

of Farms

Value

7

$ 25.00

50

$ 2,138

3

21.30

21

1,372

5

24.50

26

1,422

2

22.50

22

3,224

4

23.50

28

941

1

29.50

42

1,814

Total or Average

189

1,832

100 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

owners' value. Inequalities between farmers in tiie same town were f-reater
tlian in the case of real estate, assessed values varying from 3.5 to 100 per
cent of owners' values in many towns. The usual range is from 50 to 75 per
cent. Livestock on heavily stocked farms is assessed proportionally lower than
on the farms with little livestock. In order to show t!iis conclusively, the
farms were ranged in order according to owners' value of taxable livestock
(the smallest value at the top, the next smallest second, and so on). The
ratio of assessed to owners' value was calculated for each group above and
below the center or median farm. The results are as follows:

Owners' ^'alue Assessed Value Ratio of Assessed

of Taxable of Taxable to Ozemers' Value

Livestock Livestock (Per cent)

Lightly stocked farms .$83,873 $59,143 68.87

Heavily stocked farms 260,377 1.53,637 5f).f)()

As livestock in Town No. 7 was assessed at a lower percentage of value
than in the other towns under consideration, it was thought that the pre-
ponderance of low figures might distort the data. Accordingly, the figures
for 50 farms in Town No. 7 were ranged separately, as follows, in order to see
if the principle held by towns.

Owners' ^'alue Assessed Value Ratio of Assessed

of Taxable of Taxable to Owners' Value

Livestock Livestock (Per cent)

Lightly stocked farms $28,224 $16,3.50 57.9^

Heavily stocked farms 78,699 37,725 47.93

It will be noted that the heavily stocked farms are assessed approximately
10 per cent lower than the lightly stocked farms in each case. This difference
of 10 per cent in the ratios actually means that the lightly stocked farms pay,
on the average, 16 per cent more taxes on their livestock than the heavily
stocked farms; and for Town No. 7 the difference is more than 20 per cent.

Assessment Differences as Reported by Assessors.

The preceding discussion has been based on data from a limited number of
farms in five counties representing only 2 per cent of the towns. In order to
verify these conclusions and obtain futher information on differences in as-
sessment practice with regard to farm property, questionnaires were sent
to 340 boards of assessors. Data were asked for as to the usual assessed value
per acre of land used for hay, pasture, woodland, orchard, market garden
and tobacco, onions and cranberries where grown. The usual assessed values for
dairy cows, horses and fowls were also requested. The valuations of hay and
pasture land were divided into good, average and poor; the same classification
was used for dairy cows.

Schedules were returned from 133 towns and cities. In most cases real
attempts were made to give accurate estimates, although, as many assessors
wrote, in assessment practice farm land is not separately valued according to
use. Regardless of this objection, many boards of assessors do consider the
various uses to which land is put even when valuing the farm as a whole. In
assessing land in the Connecticut Valley, assessors in Massachusetts and Con-
necticut usually keep a record of the land used for tobacco, and such land is

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS

101

assessed at a higher value per acre than hay or other cultivated land. From
inspection of assessment books it was found that brush and waste land, as
well as woodlot, were considered in making assessments. Therefore, while the
assessors do not actually separate land into the classes shown in the table
below, it is believed that the averages shown based on the original replies in-
dicate in a general way the diflFerences in assessed values in various sections.
The division of the state into the sections shown is purely arbitrary, and is
used in order to group towns, alike as to topography and agriculture. The
Metropolitan group includes cities and towns in the metropolitan area close
to Boston. The Eastern group includes towns in Middlesex, Essex and Nor-
folk counties not in the Metropolitan district. Bristol and Plymouth counties
make up the Southeastern section, while the Cape includes Barnstable, Dukes
and Nantucket counties. Each section includes sufficient towns to be typical
of the area. The results of the survey are shown in Table 5 following.

Table 5. — Assessed Value of Farm Land in Massachusetts According to Use,
1926. (Dollars per Acre) a

1

3

u

c
U

c
5

"o
a
o

5

a!

V
3

o
W

1)
o.
re
U

s

C/3

Hay Land

Good ....

$46

$74

$55

$172

$93

$107

$77

$83

Average

26

54

36

190

64

83

47

61

Poor ....

15

27

20

37

31

37

32

28

Pasture Land

Good ....

18

20

20

45

34

40

37

Average

12

16

15

154

33

44

24

35

Poor ....

7

9

8

20

16

13

14

Wood Land

Woodlot

16

31

49

101

47

60

21

43

Brush ....

6

8

8

59

18

14

7

14

Mountain .

4

5

5

30

10

6

5

7

or Swamp

Orchard

Non- Bearing

57

58

44

52

61

79

84

62

Bearing

150

111

115

95

110

265

130

139

Market Garden .

135

92

533

121

130

115

176

Tobacco or Onions .

118

118

Cranberry Bog

435

255

296

a As reported by Boards of Assessors in reply to a questionnaire sent out by the
college.

It will be noted that there are great differences in assessed values for the
same kind of land. This may be partly accounted for by the definition of the
terms used in the questionnaires. Good mowing land to the assessor in a hill
town may not be the same to the assessor on the rolling lands of the eastern
part of the state. However, the figures are a rough measure of the differences
in assessed value and reflect in some degree differences in actual value be-

102

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 23-5

tweon the sections. In fact, tlie differences in the averages as given fillow
the diflf'erences in Census values in a general way. The averages for livestock-
are low everywhere, but show considerable difference between the eastern and
western parts of the state.

The assessed values of dairy cows in 119 towns are shown in Table b'. The
wide differences in assessors' estimates as to the value of an average dairy
cow indicate that average livestock assessments bear little relation to value.

Table 6. — Assessed Values for Average Dairy Cows and for Chickens, 1926a

Value per Cow

Number of

\'alue per Fowl

Number of

(Doll-arsj

Towns

(Dollars)

Towns

$20—29

1

$.50— .74

5

30—39

3

7.5— 99

3

40—49

24

1 . 00—1 . 24

73

50—59

45

1.25—1.49

7

60—69

21

1 . .50—1 . 74

14

70—79

15

1.75—1.99

. 1

80—89

3

2.00 and over

2

90—99

0

100—109

7

Total

119

Total

105

(t As reported by Boards of A^.sessors in reply to a questionnaire sent out by the
college.

An examination of the assessment books of numerous towns shows that as-
sessors commonly have a level of values for dairy cows and that most of the
cattle within the town are assessed at this level. Usually there are three com-
mon values, — for cows, for 2-year-old heifers, and for young stock over one
year. If the assessed value for cows is .$40 per head, 2-year-olds will probably
be $30 and yearlings $15. Very little difference is made between the high-
priced purebred cow and the low-producing grade cow unless an entire herd
is made up of purebred stock. It will readily be seen fhat an assessed valuation
of $40 per head for dairy cows in one town and $60 per head in the next town
may mean a 50 per cent higher cattle tax to the dairy farmer in the town
with the high valuation if the tax rates are equal.

Table 7. — Assessed Value of Livestock in Massachusetts, 1926.
(Dollars) a

Dairy Cows

Horses

Section

Good

Average

Poor

Chickens

Western

$78

$45

$32

$97

$.95

Conn. Valley

73

52

32

103

1.03

Central .

83

54

35

94

1.08

Metropolitan

92

67

40

120

1.23

Eastern .

88

55

36

97

1.15

Southeastern

92

64

38

92

1.10

Cape

87

66

43

96

1.18

State

85

57

36

99

1 10

a As reported by Boards of Assessors in reply to a questionnaire sent out by the
college.

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS

103

Some towns assess poultry as low as 50 cents per fowl, but $1.00 is t-he
most common figure. Table 6 shows differences in assessed value of from 50
cents to $'2.00 per fowl.

Assessment Differences According to Type
of Farming.

The fact of inequalities in farm assessments between towns and between
farms in the same town has ijeen demonstrated. It remains to be seen whether
these inequalities apply to all farms alike or whetlier certain types of farm
are discriminated against more than others.

Since livestock is assessed at a higher percentage of its value than real
estate, it might be supposed that dairy farmers as a class pay relatively
higher taxes than fruit growers, market gardeners, or poultrymen. So far as
the average dairy farm is concerned, this is not true. The livestock on such
farms does not form a sufficiently large part of the total taxable investment
to make an apjireciable difference in the average. Out of a total assessed value
of $5,000, livestock represents less than $1,000 on the average dairy farm. The
proportion of taxable livestock to the total taxable investment in six Mass-
achusetts towns is shown in the following table.

Table 8. — Taxable Real Estate and Livestock per Farm, 1923

Town

3

4

5

7

Average

Total

Real Estate

Per cent

Livestock

Per cen\

Taxable

of Total

of Tota

Investment

$15,577

$13,574

87.13

$ 2,003

12.87

12,223

8,912

72.91

3,311

27.09

7,944

6,333

79.72

1,610

20.28

11,394

10,230

89.78

1,164

10.22

6,241

4,819

77.22

1,422

22.78

11,023

8,824

80.04

2,199

19.96

11,230

9,270

82.55

1,959

17.45

In order to determine assessment differences between fruit and dairy farms,
forty fruit farms with more than 500 bearing trees were selected and com-

pared with thirty-two dairy farms
follows:

in the same area. The results are as

40 Fruit Farms
32 Dairy Farms

Owners' Value
of Real Estate

$475,200
248,250

Assessed Value
of Real Estate

$281,130
147,565

Ratio of Assessed

to Oztmers' lvalue

(Per cent)

59.16

59.44

It is apparent that there is no difference in the ratio of assessed to owners'
values of real estate between the two tj'jjes of farms. However, values of
fruit farms were inflated more than values of dairy farms. The productive
value of land used for orchards has been overestimated, and it seems likely
that while the owners' values used above were typical of current values in
1923, it was also true that there was an orchard boom at the time. Therefore
it seems wise to discount the orchard values to some extent indicating the
possibility that orchards were assessed slightly higher than dairy farms.

Number

OF

Tow-

ns

Bearing Ore

hards

Market Garden

7

5

17

11

20

29

8

8

5

8

2

4

5

86

3

67

73

104 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

While the above averages do not shovk' any particular differences, in-
dividual instances of inequalities are common. Many large orchards are as-
sessed at from $300 to $400 per acre and it is doubtful if they could be sold
at that price at the present time. Table 9 illustrates differences in assessed
values for orchards, and it is evident that assessment practice varies widely
between towns. "While there are not enough instances available to give definite

Table 9. — Assessed Value of Bearing Orchards and of Market
Garden Land, 1926a

Average

Value per Acre

(Dollars)

0 - 49

50 - 99

100 - 149

150 - 199

200 - 249

250 - 299

300 - 349

Over 350

Total

a As reported by Boards of Assessors in reply to a questionnaire sent out by the

college.
b $300 and over.

statistical proof of the fact, there is considerable evidence that real estate of
specialized fruit farms is assessed proportionally higher than other kinds of
farm real estate. This statement is borne out by opinions of men familiar
with farm real estate in all parts of the state.

Poultry farmers as a group have most of their taxable investments in real
estate, the largest part of which is buildings. The average poultry farm needs
less land than a dairy farm, and is therefore likely to be assessed relatively
higher, as buildings are assessed proportionally higher than land. Since very
few towns assess poultry at more than $1.00-1.25 per fowl, the value of poultry
is a small part of the total assessment.

In the Connecticut Valley, tobacco and onion lands are apparently under-
assessed compared with land for other purposes. On the other hand, land used
occasionally for tobacco is often assessed at the same value as land in con-
tinuous tobacco production, and such assessments are too high. This situa-
tion exists in the towns, on either side of the Valley proper, in which tobacco
raising is supplementary to dairying and fruit growing. Low prices for to-
bacco and onions during the past few years have affected sales values of land
in the Valley so that the ratio of assessed values to actual values is higher
than before.

Market garden land varies greatly in assessed value, depending upon fer-
tility, proximity to cities, and local standards of value. In the suburban
districts it is not unusual to find assessed values of $500 per acre, while in
the outlying sections values from $100 to $200 per acre are customary. Vari-
ations between towns are shown in Table 9. Since market garden land is high
in value, a large percentage of the farm investment is in land. The site value
of such land due to its location near cities, causes market garden land to be

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS

105

assessed at a lower percentage of sale value than other farm real estate. On
the basis of fair value for fanning purposes only, market garden land is prob-
ably not underassessed more than other farm property.

Table lO.-Assessed Values for Average Mowings, Average Pasture Lands
and Ordinary Woodlots, 1926a
Average
Value per Acre Numbkr of Towns

(Dollars) Mowings Pasture

0-9 0

10-19 5 39

20- 29 16 25

30 - 39 15 10

Woodlots

40-49 7

50 - 59 18

60 - 69 11

70 - 79 14

80-89 1

90 - 99 1

100 - 109 106

Over 150

8 5

19

28
7

4 7

5 18

0 0
2 6

1 0

0

1

3 11

3 2c

Total Qfi ^r\t\

»o 100 104

"''MZT' '' ^""'^ °' ^"^"°" '" '-'"''' '° ^ auestionnair. sent out by the

b $100 and over.
(• Over $270.

Farm Property Exempt from Taxation.

Farmers benefit by exemptions not given to other classes of taxpavers
Accordmg to law the farming utensils; mules, horses and neat cattle' less
than one year old; swine and sheep less than six months old; and domestic
fowls not exceeding $15 in value are exen.pt from taxation. These exemp-
tions benefit the farmer who puts money into farm livestock and equipment.
T^ie livestock exemption does not reduce taxes appreciably, due to the small
number of young livestock carried and their low value; but the exemption of
machmery frequently amounts to more than a thousand dollars, which means

Ws mean tb ". '^^ "' """''"^ ""* ^'^"""^'- ^" ^'^ P-sperous farm
th means the further exemption of perhaps five hundred to one thousand
dollars or more. The fact that assessments are as of April 1 redu s «^

tttTiLe" ^'^'^'^ ''™' ^^"" '''''''' °^ '^'^ ^"^ -PP^-« -^ low "

For a number of years the exemption of poultry to the amount of .$15 meant
the practica exemption of all poultry. In recent years the development o

r c sldT'- """' ""^^'^^ ^"'^"*^^" '"^ ^^ P-^ *« assessments, wit,
a considerable mcrease in the number of fowls assessed

The practical effect of the exemptions noted is to discriminate against the
small farmer. Where the farm investment consists principally of rea le t te
and productive livestock, the ratio of assessed to actual value is considerab v
h.gher than on the large farm with a considerable amount of exempt ^rter v
A comparison of taxes paid on large and small farms is made in the "ol ow

106

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

ing table, where farms were ranked in descending order of their total invest-
ment with the smallest at the top, and the median farm taken as the dividing
point. If the taxes paid are computed in dollars per thousand on the entire
investment, the large farms in Littleton paj' at the rate of $16.81, while the
small farms pay $18.09. The differences vary with the town, but the small
farms are consistently taxed higher than the large farms.

Table 11. — Relation between Taxes and Investment on Large and Small
Farms, Seven Massachusetts Towns, 1922a

1 Total

Tax Rate

per $1,000

Town

Value of Investment

Total Taxes

Actua

1 Value

Large

Small

Large

Small

Large

Small

Farmsa

Farms'^

Farmsa

Farmsa

Farmsa

Farmsa

Sheffield

$448,665

$197,620

$3,697

$1,700

$8.24

$8.60

Heath .

120.529

55.095

1.827

844

15.16

15.31

Granville

108,297

59,305

1,506

1,006

13.91

16.96

Ashfield

122,321

50,786

1,714

927

14.01

18.23

Shelburne

269,790

133,438

3,072

1,753

11.38

13.28

Boxboro

255,644

126,195

2,846

1,510

11.13

11.96

Littleton

645.637

197,741

10,856

3,579

16.81

18.09

Total .

1.970,883

820,180

25,518

11,319

12 94

13.80

a Large and small farms refer to size of farm investment, not to acreage.

Assessment of City Property.

It has been shown that the ratio of assessed to owners' valuations of farm
property varies between towns, between farms and between types of farms.
Another angle to the same question is the relative difference between assessed
and actual values for farm and other property such as business, residence
and industrial property in cities and large towns. A generation ago farm
property was relatively overvalued and equality of assessment was considered
the outstanding farm tax problem of the day. Today the situation is changed.

Property in cities and large towns is generally assessed at a higher per-
centage of its cash value than property in small towns. This is to be explained
bv the ever-increasing demand for ftmds to meet the increasing expenditures
of growing cities and towns. Under the spur of necessity boards of assessors
in the larger cities and towns are attempting to put assessments on a system-
atic basis and are beginning to assess by uniform rule rather than by rule
of thumb. Zoning systems are gradually being adopted, under which uniform
land values per square foot or per front foot are applied to a given area.
7\llowances are made for special locations, and values decrease with an in-
crease in distance from main streets. Under such a system inequalities in
assessed values between neighboring property owners are practically elim-
inated if the building valuations are made in a similarly careful manner.
Particular attention has been paid to assessing factory and corporation prop-
erty because such property pays a substantial share of taxes in most cities,
in several cases over 50 per cent of all taxes levied. It is estimated that for
the entire state, corporations of all kinds pay approximately $35,000,000 in
local property taxes, or 18 per cent of the total collections. The relative impor-
tance of corporation taxes in several cities is shown in the following table.

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS 107

Table 12. — Property Taxes Paid by Corporations in Massachusetts Cities,

1925a

City

Total Tax

Tax Paid by

Per cent of

Corporations

Total

New Bedford

$ 5,725,031

$ 3,033,945

53.0

Fall River

5,700,566

3,093,965

54.27

Lawrence

3,616,929

1,718,326

47.5

Lowell

4,623,868

1,877,090

40.59

Springfield

8,214,024

2,162,800

26.56

Holyoke

2,669,776

1,124,474

42.11

Fitchburg

1,737,365

531,098

30.56

"Worcester

8,994,988

2,094,659

23.29

0, As reported by Boards of Assessors.

Assessors in at least five cities are finding it profitable to use engineering
methods in factory valuations. Several cities are beginning to use accurate
measurements of square footage, cost of labor and building materials, origi-
nal costs of construction, as well as replacement cost, together with the best
available information on depreciation charges for various types of buildings
and machinery used for different purposes. These efforts are resulting in im-
proved assessments. Small towns have no facilities for such methods; the
assessors give only a small part of their time to actual assessment, and fac-
tory and corporation assessments in general have been made according to
what the traffic would bear, or by taking a figure furnished by the corpora-
tion.

Available figures indicate tliat under these circumstances, corporation assess-
ments are at a higher average percentage of actual value than residential
property. Years ago this was not the case. According to a corporation tax
expert, fifteen or twenty years ago a great deal of corporate property was
assessed at not more than 50 per cent or 60 per cent of its fair value. This
was particularly true of public utility companies having wire, pipes, track
and other equipment, the value of which depended to a large extent upon
the earnings of the company. At the present time assessed valuations of many
public utilities average 90 per cent of their book values, which in many cases
include the original cost plus any additions without deducting depreciation.
The ratio of assessed values to book values of real estate and machinery for
nine large gas and electric companies in 1925 was 94 per cent. Actual values
of such property are of course difficult to determine. In fact, the value of all
factory real estate and machinery is difficult to determine, since it depends
upon the earnings of the company, which in turn depend upon successful
management. The textile companies in several cities claimed overassessment
during the years from 1920 to 1924 and in actions for abatements it was
found that several companies were assessed at a figure 20 to 25 per cent
above the fair value of their real estate and machinery.

Sales data collected by the Board of Assessors in Springfield show that
business property is assessed at about 80 per cent of its sale value. Nineteen
parcels in the business section were sold for $3,084,000; the assessed value was
$2,467,000, or 79.98 per cent of the selling price. The ratio of assessed to sale
value varies of course with the property. A few parcels were assessed for
an amount approximately equal to their sale value. Other parcels were
assessed as low as 50 to 60 per cent, but most of the assessments ran from
70 to 85 per cent of the sale value.

108 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 2a5

Twenty-six properties in Springfield used principally for residence purposes
were assessed at 74 per cent of their selling price. Assessments are closer to
sale value in the older sections of the city, and reports from assessors indicate
that this is true in most cities. As with business property, there is consider-
able variation in the assessments, some property being assessed at only 50 per
cent of sale value, while a few parcels were assessed at more than 100 per
cent. The number of sales is not sufficient to show more than a rough aver-
age. The sales covered a period of one year only and can not be considered
a representative sample. Several of the transactions were evidently to rela-
tives, while a few sales were apparently transfers to holding or operating
companies under the former management. Since some of the conditions of
the sales were unknown, these figures should be considered merely as indi-
cative of the ratio of sales to assessed values.

Further differences between assessed and sales values in various cities are
shown in the following quotations from replies to questionnaires made by
members of the Massachusetts Association of Real Estate Boards^

"Largest office building in city sold three years ago at less than
assessed valuation. In general, central business properties assessed
about 80 per cent of present market value. Many instances, however,
where assessment is greater than sound value. Speculative sales where
owners hold small equities have misled assessors. Readjustment
period bound to come and sound values will be less than many of
these sales prices." Another correspondent asserts: "Not much atten-
tion paid by assessors to real values." Another reports: "In many in-
stances, especially down-town higher than market — suburban property
below market value." One says: "Valuations 40 per cent below sales"
and they run along thus: "Valuations as a whole come within 70 to
80 per cent of present values, with small dwellings only 50 per cent;"
"Nearly every sale in excess of taxed value;" "Assessments much less
than market, in some cases 50 per cent;" "In older parts of city
assessments liigher than asking price but in 75 per cent of cases
below actual values:" "Assessments about ti6 per cent of sale price;"
"Shore assessed 80 per cent of market, inland 60 per cent."
Assessments of apartment houses are more difficult to determine than for
some types of city real estate. Market values of such property are often
speculative and are likely to be relatively higii when compared with total rents
Instances have been reported where apartments were returning only 8 pei
cent of their sale value in gross rents. Assessed values in such cases are
lower than sales values and are based on the non-speculative value repre-
senting a fair return on the investment. Building lots are assessed at a low
percentage of their sale value because frequently sale value is not a fair index
of value in a section. A temporary boom, or sale of particular lots for spe-
cial purposes often tends to inflate values. Assessors consider these facts in
the assessment of such property and inflated values are properly discounted.

Causes of Inequalities in Assessment.

The most important cause of undervaluation of farm property is a lack of
knowledge of the things which determine values. The assessor has no yard-
stick with which to measure value. He is told to use his best judgment in
determining fair cash value when there is usually very little information on
which judgment can be based. The factors affecting property values in cities
have been studied and various attempts to put assessments on a systematic

^ Speech by Mr. Henry Whitniore before the Association of Massachusetts Assessors,
December 15, 1926. Reprinted in "Instructions to Assessors" No. 7, Massachu-
setts Department of Corporations and Taxation.

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS 109

basis have been made, but no such attempts have been made to systematize
farm assessments.

Infrequent valuation is another cause of undervaluation of farm and city
property. New property can not be listed and inequalities in assessment be-
tween neighbors can not be corrected by copying the valuations of the pre-
vious year. Attempts are often made to remedy undervaluation by increasing
all assessed values by a uniform percentage. Obviously this method is faulty,
since it does not attempt to correct existing inequalities between properties
within the town.

Undervaluation of farm real estate often results from an attempt to rec-
oncile the value for farming purposes with the value for purposes other than
farming. Under normal conditions, the value of farm land bears a direct
relationship to the average income derived from it. In Massachusetts the
large and growing urban population makes continuous demands for more
room. This means that farm land adjoining our larger cities and towns has
a site value for building lots entirely out of proportion to its value as farm
land. Farm land for subdivision purposes is worth from $500 to $1000 per
acre. Only the best grades of market garden land will return a profit on
such high valuations. To assess farmers on the value of their land for build-
ing lots may be unfair, since taxes may force such land on the market before
it is really needed. Assessors attempt to get aroimd the situation by a valu-
ation somewhere between the farm value and the value for subdivision
purposes.

The importance of this type of land will be realized when it is considered
that our 39 cities occupy one-tenth of the land area of the state. In addition
to the cities there are 79 towns of more than 5000 population, 31 of which are
semi-urban with a population of 10,000 or more. It is estimated that 15 per
cent of the land area of the state is used for city residence, business and
factory purposes. As the population is increasing at the rate of about 2 per
cent each year, it is apparent that the amount of farm land going into urban
uses each year is comparatively large.

A further reason for the low assessment of farm land compared with sale
value lies in the increasing use of farms for residences by city workers. Such
farms usually sell for much more than the farm is worth for farming pur-
poses. If the assessed value of such property is raised to approximate its
sale value, adjoining property occupied by actual farmers must be raised
proportionally thereby working a hardship on the farmers.

A third factor affecting land values is the increasing amount of farm land
going into large residential estates. Numbers of farms have been purchased
in all parts of the state and have been turned into estates. Where such an
estate is being formed, prices of farm land are always higher than the sale
value for farming purposes. In certain towns in the eastern part of the state,
estates or summer homes make up practically the entire town although the
land is assessed at approximately its value for farm purposes. In other cases,
assessors have attempted to assess such property between the farm value and
the sale price.

In most cases the assessors have made some effort to adjust assessments
upward without burdening the farmer too heavily, where the above-mentioned
conditions exist. Naturally ideas on how much of the extra-farm value should
be included in the assessment vary. Accordingly, one town assesses at 80 per
cent, another at 60 per cent, and another at 50 per cent of sale value. Assum-
ing sale value at $500 per acre for subdivision purposes, and a tax rate of
$30 in each town, taxes vary as follows:

110 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

Town Assessed Value Tax per Acre

A $ ^(^(J $ 12

B 3(J0 9

C 250 7..50

Thus on land of the same use and same sale value taxes may vary (iO per cent.

A further cause of undervaluation has already been suggested in the dis-
cussion of appraisal. Assessed values of both farm and city real estate lag
behind sales values so that average assessed values are usually below sales
values at any given time. In addition, increases in sales values are not fol-
lowed by immediate increases in assessed values. For one reason, assess-
ments can not be expected to follow every speculative real estate boom. An-
other reason is that assessments are changed only once each year, giving a
lag of at least a year between a general increase in market values and a sim-
ilar increase in assessed values. In actual practice this lag is from two to
five years depending upon the city or town. In small towns the lag is longer
than in the larger towns and cities.

Apparently assessed valuations of botli farm and city property run closer
to earnings than to sale value. During the past twelve years the increase of
60 per cent in assessed values of city real estate has been about equal to the
increase in rents paid for residence purposes. During the same period, in-
creases in assessed values of farm lands have been greatest in the market
garden, orchard and tobacco raising towns where gross returns per acre have
increased most. For the towns in which farm management surveys have been
made, assessed valuations of real estate have increased most in towns show-
ing the largest farm incomes. It seems probable that failure to increase
valuations in many agricultural towns can be traced to continued low jjrofits
in farming even where sales values may have increased due to the demand for
summer homes. Apparently there is considerable justification for assessing
below sale value in such cases.

One case in which assessed values bear no relation to either sale value or
earnings is where real estate values are falling. Assessors are interested
primarily in increasing valuations, and consequently assessments are not re-
duced in proportion to a decline in market value, nor are they reduced at the
time such decline occurs. In many cases market values fall below assessed
valuations before there is a reduction in assessment. This is true in decad-
ent portions of cities as well as in many small towns. Frequent revaluation
is needed in such sections.

Intentional Underassessment.

Aside from the reasons already mentioned, farm real estate and other prop-
erty in small towns are often intentionally underassessed. Many public
spirited assessors attempt to keep assessments low in the belief that the pos-
sibility of a high tax rate will make taxpayers careful in voting appropria-
tions at the annual town meeting. The average property owner compares his
tax rate with that of a neighboring town instead of comparing his taxes with
the taxes on similar property in the other town. Granted that high tax rates
resulting from low assessments do effect a reduction in expenditures, the re-
sults do not excuse illegal valuations.

Underassessment is common also in towns where the total assessed valua-
tion is low, since state aid for schools and roads is made on the basis of
equalized assessed valuation and local expenditures. By means of a high tax
rate and low valuations, some towns have been able to obtain more state money

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS 111

than they would otliervvise liave received. In tliis case, imderassessnient benefits
one town at the expense of many others.

A third important cause of intentional underassessment is the desire to keep
state and county taxes low. These taxes are levied against the town in pro-
portion to its assessed \ahiatiun, and wliile attem])ts have been made by the
state authorities to equalize valuations where a town's valuation was obviously
too low, such equalization has failed to remedy the situation.

Property of relatively low value is generally assessed below its fair value,
especially when the owner is in poor circumstances, as is often the case.
Other investigations have shown that this situation is common to other states.

Similarly, large properties are commonly imdervalued. The amount of tax
to be paid rather than the actual value of the property assessed seems to be
the determining factor in such cases, particularly in small towns where there
are few large taxpayfers. Such undervaluation may not be intentional; it is
often caused by the difficulty of applying unbiased judgment to assessments
considerably above tlie average. However, most cases of such personal dis-
crimination are intentional, especially where a few individuals pay a sub-
stantial part of the town taxes or have done a great deal to help the town.
This type of discrimination is usually justified by the assessors on the ground
that it is better to collect some taxes than to lose them altogether by causing
the departure of the wealthy taxpayer to some other town. Such concessions
amount to partial tax exemption and where granted to wealthy taxpayers are
usually made for the same purpose that Western and Southern towns grant
tax exemption to new industries. It is assumed that the benefit to the town
offsets the loss in taxes.

Intentional discrimination in assessing the property of non-resident owners
is common. Assessors often place low valuations on the cottages or remod-
elled farmhouses of summer residents in order to encourage further develop-
ment. In other cases, assessors regard non-resident property' owners as fair
prey and assess their property proportionally higher than similar property
owned locally. Many assessors admit this to be a common practice.

The conclusion should not be drawn from the preceding discussion that most
underassessment is intentional. It is true that tliere is a certain amount of
carelessness in assessment, but most assessors are doing the best they can
under existing conditions. Fair assessment calls for skilled appraisal, and it
can not be expected that assessors who spend only a short time each year at
their duties, and who are elected for no more reason than that they are well-
known and respected citizens, can perform their duties in expert fashion.

RELATION OF TAXES TO INCOME.
Farm Taxes and Farm Income. (6)

It has been stated previously that the underlying assumption of our genera]
property tax system is the ability to pay as measured by the value of prop-
erty owned. Taxes must be paid out of income, and if income is not in pro-
portion to the value of the property, then the above assumption is unsound.
The property tax assumes that all assessed property is annually and uni-
formly productive, but obviously this is not the case. Farm property varies
greatly in productivity from year to year and the element of ri.sk in farming
is greater than in almost any other business. Since property values do not
fluctuate with the income from that property, particularly in the case of real
estate, it follows that a tax on property value may be unfair in any given

112 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

year. This is especially true where real estate values are based upon con-
siderations other than productive capacity. The ratio of taxes to income evi-
dently will vary from farm to farm within each town, and from town to town
and from season to season. The following tables show the relation between
taxes paid and farm income. Farm income may be defined as that part of
the farm receipts remaining after paying all expenses connected with the
farm operations together with necessary allowances to cover depreciation of
farm buildings and equipment and unpaid family labor. It is not the same as
net profits as defined for the Federal income tax. Farm income figures are
not comparable with corporation income data discussed later because farm
income includes wages of the operator as well as any returns for management.
Corporation incomes are, of course, computed after deducting these items.

The relation between farm income and taxes is useful in measuring differ-
ences between different farming areas, and in comparing the situation in the
same area over several years, as in Table 14.

Table 13.— Relation of Taxes to Farm Income,a 1922-1923

Town

Number

Farm Income

Taxes

Ratio of

of Farms

before

Deducting

Taxes

Taxes to

Farm Income

(Per cent)

1922

Heath

24

.$ 66.5

$

111

16.74

Granville

23

1370

109

7.96

Ashfield

19

1294

139

10.74

Shelburne

27

928

179

19.26

Average

93

1045

136

13.01

1923

Hancock

23

1399

106

7.58

Heath

26

1022

110

10.73

Shelburne

23

1798

180

10.01

Average

72

1390

131

9.43

2- year Average

165

1195

134

11.21

a Farm inconip includes returns to the operator for wages and management, and the
interest on his investment.

It is the customary practice to include taxes as one item of farm expense
in computing farm income. However, for purposes of determining the rela-
tion between income and taxes, the income figures have been computed before
taxes were paid. On this basis taxes took 13 per cent of the farm income of
the 227 farms considered in 1922. The percentage varied from 8 per cent in
Granville to 19 per cent in Shelburne. In 1923, a better crop year, taxes
amounted to less than 10 per cent of the farm income, and the average for
the two years was about 11 per cent, which compares favorably with other
sections of the country. This comparison is shown liy Table 15.
The percentage of farm income going to taxes in Massachusetts in 1923 was
more than 5 per cent below the average for the United States and more than
3 per cent below the average for the North Atlantic states. Data for one
year are not conclusive, but serve to show existing differences at a given time.
In a different season the situation might be reversed.

Table 14 shows the relation between farm income and taxes in three towns
for the years 1920-1923. The four-year average for all farms was 13.69
per cent of income going to taxes. There was considerable difference between

FARM TAXES IN MAh'SACHUSETTS

113

Table 14.— Relation of Taxes to Farm Inconie,a 1920-1923

Year Littleton Boxboro Sheffield Total

Number of farms

Average farm income
before deducting taxes

Average taxes

Ratio of taxes to farm
income (per cent)

a Farm income includes returns to the operator for wages and management, and the
interest on his investment.

years, the average percentages varying from less tlian 10 per cent in 1923 to
nearly 24 per cent in 1921. The diflferences between towns also illustrate the
effect of different types of farming on the ratio of taxes to income. The year
1921 was a poor fruit year for Littleton and Boxboro, farm incomes were low,
and consequently taxes took over one-third of income. Sheffield is a dairy
town and there was only a slight increase in the percentage of farm income
going to taxes in 1921.

1920

62

41

40

143

1921

59

39

47

145

1922

48

38

48

134

1923

47

36

52

135

Average

54

38

47

139

1920

.$1634

$1202

$1105

$1362

1921

716

331

1066

728

1922

2007

882

1104

1365

1923

2381

1460

1634

1848

Average

1629

965

1242

1315

1920

$ 25.5

.$ 141

$ 120

$ 185

1921

245

125

119

172

1922

301

115

112

181

1923

182

140

123

183

Average

267

130

119

180

1920

15.61

11.

73

10.86

13.58

1921

34.22

37.

76

11.16

23.63

1922

15.01

12.

99

10.18

13.26

1923

11.84

9.

■18

7.52

9.90

Average

16.39

13.47

9.58

13.69

Table 15. — Relation of Farm Taxes to Farm Income a for Selected Farms in
the L^nited States, by Geographic Divisions, 1923 and 1924

j

Farm Income "

Reiatior

of Taxes

Number of

(before deduct'

Taxes

to Farm Income

Reports

ing taxes)

{per

cent)

1923

1924

1923

1924

1923

1924

1923

1924

United States .

16.183

15,103

$1,210

SI, 397

$190

$192

15.7

13.7

North Atlantic

1,800

1,761

1,230

1,189

160

167

13.0

U-1

South Atlantic .

2,131

1.990

850

778

110

122

13 9

15.7

East North Central

3,395

2,808

1,250

1,385

220

230

17.6

16.6

West North Central

3,817

3,398

1.350

1,893

240

239

17.8

12.6

South Central .

3,320

3,412

1,030

1,197

140

13S

13.6

11.5

Western ....

1,720

1,734

1,,580

1 760

270

254

17.1

l.'f 4

S. D. A. Yearbook, 1924, Page 268.

'Farm income'' represents net business receipts, plus or minus change in inven-
tories for the year. Farm income is not the same thing as reported under the
provisions of the Federal income tax law.

114 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

The rent paid for the use of a farm is a good measure of income, but there
is very little tenancy in Massachusetts and no data are available on the rela-
tion of rents to taxes. Tenancy as it is found in the West and South is prac-
tically unknown, but there is some cash renting of tobacco land in the Con-
necticut Valley. This land varies in sale value from $150 to $600 per acre.
A conservative average value for the section is $300 per acre at the present
time. For tax purposes this land is assessed at about $150 per acre. Land
of unusual fertility or site value is assessed iiigher. The cash rental of to-
bacco land varies with the season and the value of the land, but a rental of
$.50 per acre has been asked for average land with tobacco siieds, until tlie
1926 season. The average assessed value of land and sheds is not more than
$300 per acre, which gives a tax of $9.00 per acre with a tax rate of .$30.00
per thousand. Taxes therefore take 18 per cent of the rental under these
circumstances. With the low rates prevailing in 1926, taxes of course take
a larger percentage.

No other type of land is rented to any extent. Onion land is rented on
shares, but income from this crop fluctuates so much from season to season
that it is difficult to draw conclusions. The tax per acre on onion land is
about the same as on tobacco land. The rent per acre normally averages
higher on a share basis so that taxes should take a lower percentage of in-
come, but poor returns during the past few years have probably reversed the
situation.

It is a common practice to rent pasture but tliere is no common standard
of value. Pasture land rents anywliere from 25 cents to more than ^.'.00 por
acre. In the central and western parts of the state pasture land is assessed at
from $15 to ,$20 per acre. Taking the iiigher value at a rate of $28.-53, the
average 1925 tax rate for the state, the tax per year on such land was 57
cents per acre. It seems probable that a great deal of rented pasture does
not pay the taxes.

The tax per acre is not a good measure of farm taxes in tliis state, due to
the small number of acres of productive land per farm. In comparing taxes
with farm income, it should be remembered that a considerable portion of the
farm tax is paid on unproductive scrub, brush, mountain or other waste land.
The following table shows the variation in taxes per acre of crop land and
all land in farms, by towns, the assumption in the first case being that the
entire farm tax is borne by the productive land. The averages for crop land
are based on land in crops and hay land but do not include pasture. The
tax figures includes all taxes paid for the farm.

Table 16. — Taxes per Total Acres in Farms and per Crop Acre, 1922

Town

Nimilier

Total

C rop

Taxes

Tax per

Tax per

of Farms

Acres

Acres

Total
Acre

Crop
Acre

Sheffield

48

8,9 L5

3,059

$5,397

$ .72

$1.76

Heath

24

3,862

854

2,671

.69

3.13

Granville

23

2,932

597

2,512

.86

4.21

Ashfield

19

3,113

490

2,641

.85

5.39

Shelburne

27

5,434

998

4,825

.89

4.83

Boxboro

38

3,527

1,244

4,356

1.23

3.50

Littleton

48

5,385

1,888

14.462

2.69

7.65

Total

227

33,168

9.130

36.864

1.11

4.05

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS 115

Another fact should he considered in comparing taxes with income for the
farms under discussion. Many of the farm owners, especially in the western
part of the state, derive a considerahle part of their cash income from out-
side work, away from their own farms. Income from outside sources can not
logically he included in income from the fann. Accordingly the income from
outside sources was subtracted from the farm income in order to show the
relation hetween taxes and the actual income from the farm business. On this
basis, taxes equalled 19.2 per cent of the corrected farm income of 227 farms
in 1922, while in two towns in the western part of the state taxes took over
40 per cent. Individual farms in several towns did not show a net cash in-
come large enough to pay taxes. This fact supports the statement often made
by hank appraisers that taxes are larger than the fair rental for many farms.
However, it must be remembered that tlie farm furnished a dwelling, some
fuel, and a considerable quantity of food for the family. In spite of the fact
that assessed values are low in proportion to actual values, many farms are
not making interest and taxes. This means that reported values are probably
too high and in many cases the assessor is closer to the actual value than the
owner, at least closer to the productive value for farming purposes.

The Relation Between Corporation Taxes and Income.

It has been pointed out tliat farm property is assessed relatively lower than
other property and it remains to be discovered whether there is a correspond-
ing difference in the relation between income and taxes. Fortunately, cor-
poration data are available from which rough comparisons may be made. In
1925 the Commissioner of Corporations and Taxation reported for the first
time the total net income chargeable to Massachusetts received by domestic
and out-of-state business corporations operating in the state. The total net
income reported was $255,397,770. Taxes paid by business corporations during
1925 were as follows:

Total net excise tax Ie\ ied $13,384,000

Property taxes paid, based on an estimate of
an assessed valuation of 80% of $1,250,000,000
at state rate of $28.53 per $1000 28,530,000

Total Massacinisetts Taxes 41,914,000

Net income from business in the state 255,397,770

Income before deducting property taxes 283,927,770

Per cent of iiicome taken for
Massachusetts taxes 1^.76

In addition to the excise and property taxes collected in Massachusetts, tlie
Federal government imposed a tax of 121/, per cent upon the net income after
allowing for local and excise taxes already paid. The total taxes of corpora-
tions doing business in Massachusetts in 1925, therefore, amounted to 26 per
cent of their net income before deducting taxes.

No data are available on incomes of business corporations for earlier years,
but from statistics of public utility companies it is apparent that the percent-
age of income going to taxes has been increasing. The percentage of net in-
come going to taxes, before making deductions of taxes, interest, dividends,
etc., is shown in the following summarv:

116 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

1915

1920

1923

1924

1925

Gas companies

18.55

22.35

35.95

38.91

37.97

Electric companies

21.44

21.67

28.60

29.36

30.28

Railroads

16.01

105.08

49.70

Street railways

12.94

32.37

39.67

These figures include Federal corporation tax payments and are compar-
able with the 26 per cent of net income which business corporations paid as
taxes. The high percentages of income going to taxes for gas and electric
companies are due partly to the large number of companies sliowing either no
profits or small profits. Companies declaring dividends averaged about 10
per cent on outstanding stock. Figures compiled from reports of nine of the
larger gas and electric companies in good financial condition, indicate that
taxes took 35.5 per cent of the net income before deducting taxes in 1925.
Both steam and electric transportation companies improved their earnings in
1925 with a consequent reduction of the percentage of earnings paid for taxes.

There is objection to comparing the preceding figures witii those for farms,
due to differences in accounting methods. Corporation data are Ijased on
accurate cost accounts while farm figures are rough estimates and make no
allowance for wages of the farmer. All available information indicates that,
if the same accounting methods were used in both cases, at least 50 per cent
of the net income from the farm is required to pay the yearly taxes.

Taxation of Farm Corporations. (7)

A comparison of farming corporations with other business corporations is a
better measure of the comparative tax burdens. Reports of the Bureau of
Internal Revenue show the relation between net profits as defined for purposes
of Federal taxation and taxes paid. Net profits as used here are not compar-
able with net income in the previous discussion. Taxes have been added to net
profits in order to obtain a figure for net profits before taxes were paid. Fig-
ures are not available for Massachusetts, but on the above basis farming cor-
porations of the United States paid over 65 per cent of net profits for state
and local taxes in 1922, as compared with 20 per cent for non-agricultural cor-
porations.' On the same basis, over 85 per cent of net profits of farming cor-
porations was required to pay total Federal, state and local taxes. Recent
information' shows that agricultural corporations were taxed more heavily
than other corporations in 1924, both as to the ratio of total taxes to net
profits and the ratio of local taxes to net profits. Total taxes required 98 per
cent of net profits of agricultural corporations in 1924. The average for all
other corporations was less than 30 per cent. One reason for the wide dif-
ference is that the agricultural corporation has most of its capital invested
in real estate, and hence taxes do not fluctuate with income. Taxes paid by
mining corjiorations take a large percentage of net profits for the same
reason.

Farm Taxes and Net Profits.

The relation between taxes and net profits as defined above for the indi-

* United States Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1924, p. 269, based on Internal

Revenue returns.
' Press release of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, November 11, 1926.

Based on Statistics of Income, U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue.

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS 117

vidual farmer is shown by an analysis of 69,601 income tax returns for indi-
vidual farms in 1923, recently published by the Federal Bureau of Internal
Revenue.^ According to these figures, state and local taxes took an average
of 38.4 per cent of net profits before taxes were paid. Only 457 returns were
tabulated from Massachusetts out of which 213 reported a net loss. The aver-
age net loss per farm for the 457 farms was about $550 before paying taxes,
and nearly $900 after state and local taxes were paid. The average for the
United States based on 69,601 returns was a net profit of more than $1000 per
farm before paying taxes, and of over $600 per farm after taxes were paid.
The 244 Massachusetts farmers reporting a net profit paid 13.73 per cent of net
profits for state and local taxes.

Taxation of Savings Banks.

Savings banks are more fortunate than other types of corporations in that
taxes usually take a smaller percentage of tiieir income. Savings banks are
taxed one-half of one per cent on their average savings deposits, less certain
exemptions. The effect of the exemptions has been to reduce the actual taxes
collected even with increasing deposits. Since 1921 deposits have increased
29.95 per cent while taxes on deposits have dropped 2.66 per cent. In 1921, 69.9
per cent of the deposits were exempt; in 1925 exemptions had increased to
77.49 per cent. Apparently savings banks are investing their deposits in
exempt property as rapidly as possible. In 1925 a tax of one-half of one per
cent on total deposits would have returned over $8,000,000 in taxes, whereas
the actual tax amounted to only $1,843,000. If this is computed on an income
basis, savings banks paid 2% per cent of their income as state taxes, provided
the banks earned 5 per cent on their deposits. Exemptions have reduced
taxes from $5.00 per $1000 deposits to $1.12 per $1000.

Savings banks are subject to local taxation on their real estate. In 1925 the
value of real estate used for banking purposes amounted to $19,792,000. Assess-
ing this amount at the average rate of $28.53, giving property taxes amounting
to $564,665, or 34.48 cents per $1000 of deposits. Adding this amount to the
previous tax gives a total tax of $1.47 per $1000 of deposits. With earnings
at $50 per $1000 all taxes take 2.94 per cent of the income. Massachusetts
savings banks pay no Federal income tax, because they are mutual associa-
tions. Consequently the above taxes represent total tax payments and must
be compared with the payment of 26 per cent of the income of business cor-
porations. There is one difference in that patrons of savings banks must pay
the Federal Income tax on their interest received provided their income is
above the legal minimum, while personal income from business corporations
is not subject to the normal Federal income tax.

At the present time over 57 per cent of the total savings bank deposits are
loaned on real estate taxable in Massachusetts, and according to law such
loans are exempt from all taxes. In buying real estate for $10,000 on which
the savings bank advances 60 per cent or $6,000, the buyer pays local taxes
at the rate of nearly 3 per cent on the entire assessed valus. The legal basis
for exempting bank deposits is that in such cases the property is taxed locally,
and if the bank deposits were taxed it would be double taxation. This ex-
emption is a wide departure from our underlying principle that taxes should
be levied according to ability to pay as measured either by value of property

* Statistics of Income, 1924.

118 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 235

or by income. On either basis the savings bank deposits are undertaxed. The
savings bank pays no taxes either on local real estate loans or on the income
from property loans. Consequently, savings bank deposits practically escai)e
all taxation in direct violation of a fundamental principle of tax justice.

It is not believed that savings bank deposits should be taxed at local rates,
especially where most of the deposits are loaned on local real estate, but such
deposits should not escape taxation entirely. Since interest rates are limited
by law, it is only fair to tax savmgs deposits in real estate loans at a low
rate, and the legal rate of one-half of one per cent is fair. It taxes property
not otherwise reached and does not place an unfair tax burden on savings
deposits. Tlie real estate exemption should be removed.

Taxation of National Banks.

National banks in Massachusetts were formerly taxed upon the value of
their shares at the local rate in the city or town where located. This method
w'as declared illegal by the LTnited States Supreme Court, and since 1923
national banks have been taxed either upon share value or upon net income,
according to choice. The effect of tliis change has been to reduce national
bank taxes paid to tlie state by more than 60 per cent. In 1925 only 38 banks
were taxed upon share value, while 125 elected to be taxed upon income.

The ratio of total taxes paid by Massachusetts national banks to net
additions to profits before deducting taxes has declined each year for the past
five years. The comparison of Massachusetts banks with the average for tlie
coimtry follows.

Ratio of Total Taxes to Net Additions to Profits

before

Deducting Taxes.o

Year Ending

Massachusetts

Ui

nited States

June 30

Per Cent

Per cent

1922

45.31

30.17

1923

31.84

24.88

1924

25.65

25.32

1925

20.67

22.71

1926

15.73

21.58

({Adapted from annual reperts of the Comptroller of the Currency.

The ratio of taxes to profits before deducting taxes has declined much more
rapidly in Massachusetts than for the country as a whole, due to the change
in the law mentioned above.

Available figures indicate that in proportion to income national hanks in
Massachusetts pay lower state and local taxes than other business corporations
except savings banks.

Summary.

It has been shown tht.t property of all kinds is generally undervalued for
assessment purposes. There are wide differences in the ratio of actual to
assessed values between farms in the same town, between farm and city
property, and between towns. Farm real estate appears to be assessed at a
lower percentage of value than other kinds of property. If value of prop-

FARM TAXES IN MASSACHUSETTS 119

erty owned reflects ability to pay taxes, farmers a}>pear to be in an advan-
tageous position.

However, farm values are affected by factors other tlian earning power,
and income is a better measure of ability to pay. Farmers pay proportion-
ally more of their income for taxes than other business or professional groups.
Even though farm property is imderassessed, farmers are still at a compar-
ative disadvantage with other industries.

The essential difficidty lies in our general property tax system, wliich at-
tempts to measure the ability to pay taxes by the value of property owned.
Inasmuch as this system is firmly entrenched and there appears to be little
likelihood of change for some years, improvements in the present situation
can be made only through improving assessment practice.

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING ASSESSED VALUATIONS.

Since earnings of real estate are a better measure of present value than
selling price, it is suggested that assessors gi\e first consideration to the pro-
ductivity of property in determining fair valuations. Experienced assessors
are necessary and the term of office of the assessor should be lengtliened in
order to give local commimities the benefits of the experience secured during
the first few years of office.

It has been the experience of states in Xcw England and otlier parts of
the country that the town or township is too small a unit for efficient assess-
ment without adequate control from county, district or state officials. Local
assessments would be improved if the tax commissioner were given power to
equalize them where necessary. One possible solution is the establishment of
assessment districts, whereby a group of small towns might unite to employ a
full-time capable assessor who would either work with or supplant the local
boards. A tax expert familiar with farm valuations and employed under state
autliority would also be of great service in working with assesst>rs in rural
towns.

Assessment maps on a scale large enough to show the location, size and
assessed valuation of each piece of property are a \ aliuilile aid in eliminating
inequalities in assessment as Mell as discovering imtaxed property.

It is suggested that the annual meetings of the several county associations
of assessors be expanded into coimty tax conferences for the purpose of con-
sidering local assessment problems in detail. One phase of such a conference
might be a demonstration of methods of appraisal used by professional apprais-
ers fpr different kinds of property. The exchange of experiences, together
with the educational value of a thorough analysis of one or more local prob-
lems at each annual meeting, should do much to promote uniformity in assess-
ment practice.

l"ii) MASS. EXPERIiMENT STATION BULLETIN iSS

APPENDIX.

1. (p. 87) The ratio of value of exempt livestock aud farm implements to total
farm wealth was approximately the same as the ratio of total exempt property to
total wealth.

2. (p. 89) The estimates were arrived at by making the following deductions:
Real Estate

Small farms which were really country homes for city workers $ 12,730,000

Overestimatioii to census enumerator 24,187,000

Undervaluation by assessors 87,074,000

Total 123,991.000

Livestock

Exempt young livestock, 10 per cent of total 2.176,000

Exempt poultry, $15 per farm for 30,000 farms 450,000

•Undervaluation by assessors. 25 per cent of remainder 4.783.000

Total 7,409,000

Implements and Machinery

All farm tools are exempt. The estimate covers only
tractors and taxable machinery.

3. (p. 89) Value of farm motor vehicles is based oti estimates of 24,000 passenger
cars and 8,000 trucks. It is assumed that motor vihicles on farms have increased in
proportion to total registration since 1920.

4. (p. 89) Registration fees at 192t) rates averaged at least $11 per passenger car
and $25 per truck.

5. (p. 90) The 1925 census reported 33,000 farms, the 1920 census only 32,000.
The increase was apparently in the small farms which were residences of city workers

6. (p. Ill) The number of farms considered is too small for a fair sample of the
state, especially since some of the more prosperous types of farming were not included
in the surveys. However, the relation between income and taxes on the limited num-
ber of farms is about the same as for the larger number covered by the United States
Department of Agriculture. The towns included are typical of their section and the
compar'itive figures for two or more years illustrate local changes in both income
and taxes.

7. (p. 116) Farming corporations include those engaged in farming and related
industries such as forestry, fishing, and ice harvesting. More than 80 per cent of those
reporting a net income are farming corporations, however. Such corporations are
scattered and of little importance to the industry, and the relation between taxes and
profits may not be typical of the industry.

Publication of this Document appuoved by the Commission on
Administration and Finance.
5 M. 4-'27. Order 8638

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 236 MAY, 1927

THE MILK SUPPLY OF
MASSACHUSETTS

I. Local Production and Imports.

II. Consumption and Sources of Supply in
Springfield and Vicinity.

III. Milk Production and Shipped-in Feed.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST, MASS.

THE MILK SUPPLY OF MASSACHUSETTS

By R. J. McFall

I. LOCAL PRODUCTION AND IMPORTS

The State of Massachusetts draws heavily upon outside sources of milk,
tlie locally produced supply being inadequate to meet the demand. For
some decades the city of Boston has been obliged to import milk from
other states. At the present time fluid milk is shipped into the state from
New Hampshire, Connecticut, Maine, Vermont, New York, and to a limited
extent from Canada.

Closely connected with the Massachusetts milk market is that of Provi-
dence, Rhode Island, which draws supplies from the northern New England
states in transit through Massachusetts, and also from the nearby Massa-
chusetts farms.

Connecticut produces more milk than it uses and draws no milk from
the north. A small amount of milk is shipped from Massachusetts farms
to Hartford and sweet cream is shipped from the northern states to Con-
necticut during the summer months. Northeastern Connecticut ships some
milk to Boston and Providence, and Springfield draws some milk from
nearby Connecticut towns.

Southwestern Berkshire County in Massachusetts and the western val-
leys of Connecticut, being served by rail lines converging to New York
City, ship milk to the latter market rather than to the industrial centers
of New England. Considerable milk is also shipped to New York from the
western counties in N'ennont. The shipments to that market from New
England farms nearly offset the shipments t > Boston and Springfield from
farms in New York State near rail lines converging to the latter cities.
Thus the milk production of New England is sufficient for its own fluid
milk markets and the shipments from and to New York State are based
upon the convenience or economy of transportation.

By far the greater portion of the large production of milk in Massa-
chusetts is consumed in the smaller centers of population. The country,
the villages and the small towns are supplied almost entirely from local
production. The larger cities, particularly in the IMctropolitan district,
cannot find suff'icient local supplies and they afford the market for the
milk from the north. Some of the cities near the northern boundary of
the state bring in part of their milk by auto truck, but most of the ship-
ments come by rail.

Through the courtesy of the Boston and Maine Railroad Company, it
has been possible to ascertain the exact quantity of milk and cream shipped
into the state by rail during March, 1926, and September, 1925. About three-
fifths of these quantities went to Metropolitan Boston. Since the Depart-
ment of Public Utilities has complete data on monthly rail shipments to
Boston, it has been possible to make a close estimate of the total annual
rail shipments into the state.

Shipments by truck from Vermont and New Hampshire to the cities in
northern Massachusetts have been learned through the courtesy of the
milk inspectors of those cities. The shipments to New York City from
Berkshire County were obtained through the cooperation of the A""ricul-
tural Agent in that county.

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THE MILK SUPPLY OF MASSACHUSETTS 125

Table 1 brings together all these data into a composite pic-
ture of the milk supplies of Massachusetts and its transit trade for a whole
year. The figures are for the year 1926, excepting those for shipments to
New York and the state production, these being for the year 1925.1 The
production estimate is that of the New England Crop Reporting Service
and is materially larger than that of the census of 1925. This latter in-
cludes only the production of cows kept on farms and amounts to 346,300,-
332 quarts. The use of this figure would reduce the estimate of the total
available supplies by 75,000,000 quarts. This difference would amount to
about .05 quarts per capita per day. Either estimate of production re-
quires a reduction of 5 per cent as a minimum for wastage and feeding
on farms, not more than 95 per cent of the production being available
for human use.

Much of the total supply of cream and some of the milk is used for
making ice-cream. Moreover, much of the locally produced milk, especial-
ly in the summer, is used for other purposes than fluid milk consumption.
According to the census data approximately 15,000,000 quarts of milk
went into farm butter and about 25,000,000 quarts formed the basis for
the farm sale of butter-fat and cream. Thus about 40,000,000 quarts were
skimmed or separated on the farms. The amount of fluid milk used for
comrjercial ice-cream and baking is also unknown. Making the conserva-
tive assumption that an amount equal to only 25 per cent of the local
production went into all these so-called "surplus" uses, fluid milk avail-
able for consumption could hardly be greater than .40 quarts per capita
per day and might easily be lower than .35 quarts on the basis of the
production estimates of the New England Crop Reporting Service. On the
basis of the census estimates of milk product. on a reduction of .05 quarts
would be made.

It is fruitless to attempt to estimate the per capita consumption of
cre.qm. An unknown amount of the fluid milk shown in the table was
made into cream. A large part of the cream went into the ice-cream trade
which also uses large quantities of sweet butter and condensed milk.

The quantities of milk and cream shipped into the state are much more
definite than the uses to which the milk is put after it arrives, or than the
amount of the local production. Table 1 shows these requirements to a
high degree of accuracy for the whole year. However, the requirements
vary within the year. Table 2 shows the estimated daily requirements of
Massachusetts and Rhode Island for northern milk in the four sample
months of January, May, July and October.

Table 2. — Estimated Daily Requirements of Northern Milk by Massachusetts
and Rhode Island. (Quarts)

January
May
July
October

a Total in Milk Equivalent^iiumber of quarts of niilk-j-ten times the number of quarts
of cream.

1 Preliminary estimates of tlie New England Crop Reporting Service iudicate a produc-
tion for 1926 about one per cent greater than for 1925.

Total in Milk

Fluid Milk

Cream

Equivalent a

732,845

75,070

1,483,-545

779,369

149,286

2,272,229

846,310

166,248

2,508,790

804,930

92,447

1,729,400

126

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 236

n. CONSUMPTION AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY IN SPRINGFIELD

AND VICINITY

In order to obtain some dependable data on the consumption of milk by
the urban population of Massachusetts a study was made of a selected
urban district typical of many in the state, where it was possible to collect
reliable figures on milk receipts and retail distribution. Springfield, Massa-
chusetts was the area chosen for study, and enough of the surrounding
cities and towns were added to include all the regular commuters and all
the outlying areas served by the retail distributors of these centers. The
accompanying map shows the boundaries of the area and the cities and
towns included. It contains about 252 square miles and a population in
1925 of 309,950. The cities and towns in the area are Springfield, West
Springfield, Longmeadow, East Longmeadow, Wilbraham, Chicopee, Aga-
wam, Westfield, Holyoke, Ludlow and South Hadley.

Sources of Milk entering the Springfield Area.

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CONNLCTICUT

It has been customary to compute the average milk consumption in our
cities by dividing the number of quarts reported as sold by the dealers in
each city by the number of inhabitants as reported by the census. This
basis of estimation has left much to be desired from the standpoint of
statistical exactness. .

THE MILK SUPPLY OF MASSACHUSETTS 127

Aside from the inaccuracy of tlie sales data reported by the dealers, two
serious statistical errors are involved in this method of computation, each
error involving an over-estimate of the average per capita consumption.
Dealers customarily sell milk in the towns or cities surrounding the city
in which their principal business is located and frequently report their
total sales as pertaining entirely to the central city. This inflates the
figures on milk sold within the city limits. Moreover, the milk sold in any
large city is consumed by a population much larger than those counted
b\ the census as residents. The number of those who reside outside of
the city, but eat one or more meals there, regularly or occasionally, is
very large, especially in the case of the chief cities.

In this study every effort was made to avoid these inaccuracies. The
area was carefully chosen and the data on receipts and consumption were
carefully scrutinized. It was assumed, however, tiiat the number of visit-
ors entering the area was not greater than the number leaving it during the
year. For this reason abnormally large milk handlings of the week of
the Eastern States Exposition were excluded.

With the assistance of the milk inspectors in tliese markets the amount
of cream for the fluid cream trade and the jimount of milk handled by
each dealer was ascertained. Tlie sources of this milk and cream were
found to be three: that produced in the local area; that which is secured
from elsewhere in the state; and that which is secured outside the state.
Special statements based directly upon their records were secured from all
the large dealers, and care was taken to avoid duplication of data when
milk was sold at wholesale.

Data were obtained for conditions as they existed in the late fall of
lf^2G during which period practically no dealer had any surplus and it was
certain that only small and measurable quantities of local milk failed to
go into fluid milk trade.

The milk and cream available for consumption included the local produc-
tion as well as the supplies shipped in from the outside. Local production
was estimated for October by multiplying the total number of cows in
the area, as shown by the tax assessors' data for 1925, by the average
milk production per cow in Hampden County, as estimated by the New
England Crop Reporting Service for October 1925. From this five per
cent was subtracted to cover wastage and use in feeding on the farms.
The result gave the daily supply available in October. To obtain a more
accurate estimate of the daily average for the year, data were secured
from the leading dealers showing the sales in each month of the year, and
this October supply was multiplied by the ratio between the average for
all months and the October sales. The resulting average was then divided
by the population of the area as shown by the state census for 1925.

Data for fluid cream consumption were carefully secured in addition
to the data for milk. Such estimates as have been available hitherto for
cream consumption in Massachusetts appear to be even less exact than those
for milk. Part of the supply counted has been used for manufacturing
ii>to ice-cream and a considerable portion of this product has been shipped
tc other consuming centers.

In this study the cream included was all used for the fluid cream trade,
including the supplies used by restaurants and soda fountains in the form
of fresh cream. The small amount sold as "light cream" was converted to
the equivalent of 40 per cent or "heavy" cream, which' is the ordinary

128

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 236

article of commerce in the region. The results show that the average per
capita consumption of milk is only .38 quarts a day. This is a smaller
quantity than the customary estimates for similar communities.! The
average consumption of cream is .015 quarts a day. Converted to the
basis of the milk required to make the cream, this equals .16 quarts of
milk in addition to that consumed as milk. Even the total, ..54 quarts of
"milk equivalent", is not large and indicates that an increased consumption
might be stimulated.

Sources of Supply

Th« following table shows the sources of milk and cream in the fall
months. During the early summer a much larger place would be taken
by supplies from the local area and from other Massachusetts sources.
During the season of low production, by far the larger part of the cream
comes from outside the state and practically none of the milk produced
in the local area is made into conmiercial cream.

Sources of Milk and Cream used in the Springfield Area in the VaU of 1926.

(Quarts per Dai/)

Milk

Cream

Total in Milk
Fquivalent*

Quarts

Per cent

SI .2
.'fG.O
22. S
1 00.0

Quarts

Per cent

Quarts

Percent

Local production
Other parts of Massachusetts
Other states
Total

38,628

.56.872

28,112

123,612

■ .308
4.177
4,785

"o'.j,

03.6
100.0

38 , 628

60.1.57

75 , .S67

174,652

z3.1

Jfi . ■-,
100.0

ten times the number oi

* Total in Milk Equivalent ^ number of quarts of mil
quarts of cream.

It thus appears that this area produces 22.1 per cent of its fluid milk
e\en in seasons of short production, brings in only 43.5 per cent of it.s
supply from other states, and gets the remaining 34.4 per cent from more
distant sources within the state. In addition to these supplies for fluid
consumption, there is a material supply of milk, cream and ice-cream
"mix" coming into the area for the ice-cream trade.

Tliere are six original receivers of supplies from other states. Two of
these are cooperative concerns handling, almost entirely, milk produced
by members. Two are dealers handling the output of a cooperative
creamery in southern Vermont. Of the two other dealers handling out-of-
state supplies, one handles but a few hundred quarts and both purchase
more milk for fluid consumption within the state than outside of it. Two
large dealers handle no regular supplies of milk but that of Massachusetts
origin, although their business is large enough to allow car-lot shipments
from the north. One of these bought northern milk for a brief period
when his Massachusetts patrons signed a contract with a cooperative con-
cern, but is again purchasing only from Massachusetts sources.

The accompanying map shows the origins of supplies entering the
Springfield area.

1 This estimate is based upon that of the New England Crop Reporting Service for
October 1925, for Hampden County, which was the only material available for such
a localized study at the time of writing. In the light of preliminary estimates
of the same agency for 1926 and the agricultural census of 1925, it appears that
there is sufficient indefiniteness in the local production data to give a probable
margin of error of -1-.02 quarts in the total milk consumption. The difference in
local production estimates does not affect the estimates for cream consumption
which are based almost wholly upon the shipped-in supplies.

THE MILK SUPPLY OF MASSACHUSETTS 129

in. MILK PRODUCTION AND SHIPPED-IN FEED

The output of milk from the farms of Massachusetts and the other New
England states is based only in part upon the product of the native soil.
To a very considerable extent it is based upon purchased feeds which are
the product of the farming of other regions. To a certain extent, also,
tl-ese purcliased feeds form the basis for improving the fertility of the
local soil and make a small contribution to the second-quality meat which
i, a by-product of the local dairy industry. It is the purpose of this paper
to make as close an estimate as the available data permit of the relation
of this purchased feed to the food production of the dairy industry.

In one sense all of the milk output from the New England farms is
locally-produced food. In the form of milk it is strictly a local product
pnd the feeds brought in from the West would be of little or no value for
direct human consumption. Nevertheless, milk coming from a herd fed
largely on purchased hay and grain is not as completely the product of
local farming as is the milk coming from a pasture section where little
•or no feed is brought in from the outside. The payment for feed requires
a large deduction from the profits in the first case. The milk made by the
use of western grain is also partially based upon the product of the soil
In other sections of the country, and its flow would be diminished if the
supply of outside grain were stopped. Thus part of the local milk produc-
tion is merely the final stage in a series of operations in food production,
the earlier stages of which are conducted elsewhere.

Method of Estimate

Th fairest basis for estimating the proportion of milk production based
upon locally-produced feeds, as distinguished from that due to purchased
feeds, is the relative nutritive value contained in each of these classes of
feeds. Under practical conditions the dairy cow usually gets a fairly
T^ell-balanced ration, certainly a mixture of roughage and some form of
concentrates. The problem is to find the share which each class of feeds
contributes to production in mixed rations as they appear in practice. To
tiup end it is necessary, by some such ir.eans as reducing the nutritive value
of the. feeds to some common denominator and ascertaining the quantity
used of eacli, to determine the ability of each group of feeding stuifs to
pioduce milk.

Several common denominators are used for comparing the nutritive
\alue of different feeds. Recent practice among nutritional chemists gives
a leading place to the measure known as the net thermal equivalent. This
is comparable to tlie calorie which is used in measuring the nutritive value
of human foods. It takes account, however, of the fact that much of the
fiber in animal feed, while having a thermal value, has little energy value
for utilization in the bodies of the animals. Only the part of the feed
which is actually utilized for production and maintenance is included in
the net thermal equivalent.

The net thermal equivalent, accordingly, is used in determining the
nutritive value in all feeds whose use is measurable in terms of weight.

130 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 236

This applies to all hay, silage and grain. The feed derived from pastures
is not readily measurable in weight. Hence, no formula for its net ther-
mal equivalent per ton can be applied. However, pasturage largely takes
the place of hay and silage during certain months of the year, and the
proportion of the year during which the cows are on grass is known quite
accurately. It is also possible to estimate fairly closely the amount of hay
and corn fodder fed to cows during the jiastiire season. The feed value of
the pasture is then taken to bear the proportion to the value of the hay
plus silage used in the non-pasture months that the milk actually produced
during the pasture season bears to the milk produced during the rest of
the year, due allowance being made for the limited use of cut roughage
during the pasture months. L^ncut green feed, such as aftermath, is thus
included with the pasture grass.

Data Available

Data are available through the Statistical Division of the New England'
Milk Producers Association which show the average amount of hay, silage
and grain used throughout the year per hundred pounds of milk, and the
relative amount of each kind of grain used both in summer and winter.
This information is secured from reports made by dairymen in all sections
o1' New England excepting Rhode Island and western Connecticut. These
reports follow field surveys conducted in 1917 by certain war-time public
agencies acting in cooperation with the New England agricultural colleges,
the results of which were published by the Boston Chamber of Commerce.
The Census supplies data on hay production by counties which afford a
good basis for estimating the extent to which certain counties in southern
New England depend upon hay brought in from the outside. Observation
of the industry shows that in counties in which the total hay production
is less than four tons per head of dairy cows, some hay is brought in fron;
other regions. Since such shipments are to but very limited extent made
from other parts of the same state, it is assumed that each county which
produces less than four tons per head of dairy cows makes up the deficit
b\ shipping in hay from outside of its state. 1 New England as a whole,
however, has sufficient hay for her dairy industry and most of the ship-
ments of hay are from the northern to the southern states of this district.
Accordingly, in computing the New England average, it is assumed that
all the hay used in the dairy industry is home grown.

Data on the proportion of milk produced in each month are now avail-
able for each state through the New England Crop Reporting Service.
These data are of service in computing the relation of the feed value in
the pasturage to the feed value in other roughage.

Process of Estimate

Table 1 shows the pounds of each main class of feeds, except pasturage,
used per hundred pounds of milk produced, as an average for each state
(except Rhode Island) in the year 1923.

1 While this is four tons of hay per cow, it is clear that young stock and horses shares
in the use of the hay and that each cow consumes a supply of less than four tons..

THE MILK SUPPLY OF MASSACHUSETTS 131

Table 1. — Pounds of Feed used per Hundredweight of Milk Produced,
Year's Average, 1923.

Fued

Maine

New

Hampshire

\'eiiiiont

Mai

Bsac'huse

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O

onnecticut

Grain

34.0

27.6

19.5

39.3

34.9

Silage

91.4

67.3

68.2

108.8

156.5

Hay

62.1

76.0

100.6

62.5

64.6

Source: Xpw England Jlillc Producers' Association.

Sample data are available for both winter and sunmier which show tlie
relative proportion of each kind of concentrated feed used in each of the
states. These data have been submitted to the scrutiny of men familiar
with the commercial movements of dairy feeds and pronounced to be in
reasonable agreement with trade information. Table 2 presents the data
in detail, showing the percentage of each kind of feed used and the net
thermal equivalent of each per hundredweiglit of all grain.

In northern New England there is a certain amount of home-grown grain
fed to the cows. The list of concentrated feeds in Table 2 shows, however,
tliat nothing other than corn, oats or "provender" can come from home
farms. Practically all corn fed to cows is consumed as silage or stover,
which latter is classed with hay. Any small use of grain from local corn
on a few^ farms offsets the use of silage on the typical farm. Some oats
are grown and either fed direct to cows or exchanged as seed oats with the
feed dealers who supply an equivalent amount of ground oats. Even in
the case of oats in Maine, however, the grain is shipped in from the outside
i(! large quantities. These northern states, whicii do produce some coarse
grains, feed more of this tyjie of concentrates tiian the soutliern states do.
It is estimated from this fact and other evidence in Table 2 that 5 per cent
of the grain in Maine, 2 per cent in New Hampshire and 1 per cent in
Vermont is home grown.

In southern New England little or no home-grown grain is fed except
ill tlie form of silage. The corn-and-cob meal fed on a few farms takes
tlie place of silage. Shelled corn and oats from local fields go almost
entirely to t1ie hogs or horses.

No direct feeding data being available for Rhode Island, it is estimated
that the feeding practice in that state follows tlie average of its two neighbors,
Massachusetts and Connecticut. However, the estimated purchase of hay
from the outside is based upon the local shortage as computed from census
data. The relation between the feeding value of pasturage and other
roughage is also worked out from data applying directly to this state.

Table 3 brings all these data together in summary form and shows the
final computations of the percentage relation of home-grow^n and shipped-
in feed to the total. The data for New England as a whole are computed
fiom those of the separate states, assuming that all hay is grown in New
England and weighting the averages by the production of milk in each
state. Any error arising from the particular samples taken probably under-
estimates the dependence of Connecticut upon outside feed and over-
estimates that of Maine and Veriuont. The sample should be more ac-
curate for Massachusetts and New Hampshire.

The final computations show that, for New England as a whole, 23.01.
per cent of the milk production is based upon outside feed and 76.96 per
cent on home-grown supplies; while for Massachusetts the corresponding
figures are respectively 30.48 and 69.52 per cent.

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THE MILK SUPPLY OF MASSACHUSETTS

133

Table 3. — Feed Units Used per Hundredweight of Milk Produced.

Distinguisiiing between nonie-grown and shipped-in
feed for each state and all New England.

btate

and

Origin of Feed

Ner 1 hernial ^'.(lui

valent

Ferient':i;e of

Tol'.l Feed

i 'lils

(irain

Silage

Hay

Fastiirage

Total

Maine

Therms

Therms

Therms

Therms

Therms

Home-grown
Sliipped-in

1 2

22^7

115
0 , 0

23 . e
0.0

26. S
0.0

66 1

22 7

74-43
35 57

Total

23 9

14.5

23 6

26 8

88.8

100.00

New Mamiishire

Home-grown

Shipped-in

.4
19.2

10.7
0.0

28 9
0.0

"o.o

63 5
19 2

23.23

Total

19 6

10 7

28 9

23 5

82.7

100.00

N'ermont

Home-grown
Shipped-in

. 1
13.9

10.9
0.0

38.2
0.0

32.7
0 . 0

81 9
13 9

85 . o5
14.45

Total

14 0

10 9

38.2

32.7

95.8

100.00

Massachusetts

Home-grown
Shipped-in

o.c

28.6

17.3
0.0

22.6

1. 1

27 S
0.0

67 7
29 7

09.52
30.4s

Total

28.6

17 3

23.7

27.8

97 4

100.00

Connecticut

Home-grown

Shipped-in

0.0

25.4

21.7
0.0

23.9

31.7
0.0

77 3
26 1

74.77
25 . S3

Total

25.4

21 7

24 6

31 7

103 4

100.00

Rhode Island

Home-grown
Shipped-in

0.0
27.0

19.5
0.0

17.0
(■■.3

27,0
0.0

64 4
33 3

05.04
34 . 0(J

Total

27.0

19 5

24 2

27 0

97 7

100.00

New England

Home-grown
Shipped-in

.3

21.7

15.0
0.0

28.6
0.0

29.1
0.0

73 0
21 7

76.96
23.04

Total

22,0

15 0

28 6

29 1

94 7

100.00

It would be worth while at some later date to revise these estimates
after securing a greater range of reports than the sample data obtained
for other purposes by the New England Milk Producers Association.

Comparisons zvith Other Dairi/ Countries

The foregoing conclusions take on greater meaning through comparison
with the situation in the animal industries of other countries having highly
developed dairying.

The United Kingdom has developed an intensive dairy industry which de-
pends partially upon imported feedstuffs. Sir Thomas Middleton estimates
that at the outbreak of the war 340 million out of a total of 1,800 million
gallons of milk produced were based upon concentrated feeding stuffs. Of
these concentrates approximately 32 per cent were home grown and 68
per cent of foreign origin. 2 Accordingly, about 13 per cent of the British
milk supply was based upon imported feeding stuffs.

A committee of Germany's leading scientists, under the chairmanship
of Professor Paul Eltzbacher, estimated that just before the war one-half

2 Middleton, T. II. Food Production in War. pp. 36, 74.

i;jl. MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 236

of the Geriii.an milk production was based upon imported fodder. This
conclusion seems untenable in the light of the statistical evidence presented
by the same authorities and what they admit, and experience elsewhere
shows, of the efficiency of the dairy cow in converting feed into milk. The
evidence presented would lead rather to tlie conclusion that about 30 per
cent of Germany's milk was based upon imported feed. 3

The degree of dependence of the French dairy industry upon outside
feed supplies is much less. No data are available distinguishing the feed
used by dairy cows from the feed of other animals. However, the very
complete data presented by the Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission,
covering all feedstuff's used by the total livestock of the nation in the
average pre-war year, show that, on the common denominator of starch
equivalents, only about 5 per cent of the total feed supply came from the
outside world. 4

Denmark has probably made more rapid strides in the development of
the dairy industry in the last generation than any other nation, and this
achievement has been made with the use of a heavy importation of feeding
.stuffs. Mr. Chris L. Christensen of the United States Department of Agri-
culture and Professor Larsen of Copenhagen have .jointly estimated that
apjiroximately 40 per cent of Denmark's feed for her animals comes from
otlier countries.

The Netherlands also take a leading part in the dairy industry and, with
a somewhat smaller livestock population than Denmark, normally import
more than twice as much feed.5

It would appear that the degree of New England's dependence upon
outside feedstuffs is not unduly high as compared with the situation in
some of the leading dairy nations.

3 Eltzbacher, Paul, et al. Die deutsche Volksernahrung und der englische Aushunger-

ungsplan. English translation by Waller, pp. 70, 106, 141.

4 Commission Scientifique Interalliee du Ravitaillement. Deuxieme Rapport, p. 28.

5 See data presented in Eltzbacher, op. cit., pp. 1314, and McFall, R. J. The World'*

Meat, pp. 238-239.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 237 OCTOBER, 1927

LIMING ONIONS

By J. P. Jones

us A^^fKiilluul College,

AMHfaKST. MASS.

In the summer of 1926 many fields of set onions in the Connecticut
Valley onion district were found to be stunted in growth, with tips turning
yellow and leaves dying back. Many rather diverlse diagnoses of the
difficulty were made. An investigation carried on by the Experiment Sta-
tion, in cooperation with the Hampshire County Extension Service,
showed that the trouble was caused by too great acidity of the soil, a con-
dition which can be remedied by the use of lime. This bulletin reports
the results of the study, with recommendatilons of preventive measures.

Requests for bulleitins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST, MASS.

LIMING ONIONS

By J. P. Jones'

In the summer of 1926 many set onions were found to be turning
yellow at the tips, with the leaves dying hack, and growth stunted. In
several cases there was little growth beyond that which would naturally be
accounted for by the set itself. So prevalent were these conditions that
the County Agent of Hampshire County, Mr. Roland Payne, in coopera-
tion with the Miassachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, made a
careful study of 114 onion fields on which sets were growing, located in
Hadley, North Hadley, Hatfield and Bradstreet. The fields were selected
at random, soil samples taken, and yield records obtained. In the labora-
tory, soil acidity determinations were made on eaclh of the samples.

Many Onion Soils Too Acid For Best Growth.

There are a number of methods for measuring soil acidity. In the
work reported here the Soil-Tex was used for rough estimations in the
field; the Wedge Comparator for the more exact laboratory measurements.
For both methods the uinit of measurement is called pH. (See figure 1).
The neutral point is pH-7, and is neither alkaline nor acid but of thf;
same reaction as pure water. Above pH-7 is alkaline and below it acid of
varying degrees.

Practically all omion soils are acid and fall within the range indicated
in figure 1 — pH-4.0 to 7.0. The best onions generally grow in the slightly
acid soil, pH-6.0 to 7.0. Those grown on soils with a reaction of pH-.5.0
to 6.0 are only fair, while attempts to grow onions on a soil with reaction
below pH-5.0 result usually in failure.

An interesting point illustrated by the data in Table 1 is that 58
fields, or about 50 per cent of those examined, were very acid^ — too acid
usually to produce a maximum crop. It is true that even on this very
acid soil, below pH 5.1, 13 fields gave a yield of 250 bags per acre or
more; but this small number compares unfavorably with the 45 fields
having a similar degree of acidity w'here the yields were poor.

Table 1. — Influence of Soil Reaction on Yields of Onions.

Nu

mber of fields

with yields in

bags per acre

of:

pH range

250 or
more

200 to 250

150 to 200

Less than
150

Total

4.3 to 5.1
5.1 to e.O
6.0 to 6.5

13

23

9

16
6

2

16
5
3

13
7
2

58
41
15

'. The writer wishes to thank ;Ur. Roland A. Payne, formerly County Agrent of Hamp-
shire-County, for assistance in collecting soil samples and yield records; and also Mr.
Orman E. Street, formerly of the Agronomy Department, for help in making pH de-
terminations.

LIMING ONIONS

141

^

Figure 1. Graphical Representation of the Relation between Soil Acidity and Growth

of Onions.

Color on Soil-Tex pH Values

Onion Growth

Deep blue

Deep blue to
light green

Light green to
lemon yeUow

Orange-yellow

7. 0 V Neutral

6.5 ) Slightly acid

GOOD

5,5 ) Moderately acid FAIR

4.5 ) Very acid

POOR

Forty-one fields, or about 36 per cent, were found in the acid ramge
of pH-.5.1 to 6.0. In tliis group of less acid fields the yields were gener-
ally better, 54 per cent being 250 or more bags per acre. But even in
this range of soil acidity there were far too many failures.

Few fields were found showing the more nearly neutral reaction. There
were 15 fields with soils pH-6.0 or above in reaction. The yields from 9 of
these exceeded 250 bags per acre.

It is apparent that most of the poor yields of set onions were from
very acid soils, and most of the good yields from soils not so acid; and
that lack of lime is responsible for many set onion failures. Otiher con-
ditions, such as previous crop effects and poor sets, may be blamed in
some cases.

142 MASS. EXPERIMRxNT STATION BULLETIN 237

Last Year's Crops Affect This Year's Onions.

To estimate better the value of lime for onions, attempt is made in
Table 2 to eliminate as far as possible previous crop effects. Of the total
fields of set onions in the survey, 88 were on land which would be called
"oJd" onion land, whereas 21 followed tobacco grown the year previous.

Taiu.e 2.-Influence of Soil Reaction on Yeld of Set Onions on Land with
Different Crop Histories.

Old Onion Land

Tobacco Land

pH Range

No. of
fields

Bags per
acre

No. of
fields

Bags per
acre

4.3 to 5.1
5.1 to 6.1
6.1 to 6.5

45

37

6

208
250
291

12

7

145
148
193

Of the 88 fields of onions on the old onion land about half were verv
acid, and low yields of o.nions were obtained. On the less acid soils, pH-
5.1 to 6.1, yields were increased by about 20 per cent; and on the still
m,ore neutral soils, pH-6.1 to 6.5, yields were about 40 per cen,t higher
than those on the very acid soils with pH-4.3 to 5.1.

Onions following tobacco were in general very poor. Lime had been
applied in a few cases, but this either had not been well worked into the
soil, or had not been applied in amounts sufficient to neutralize the depres-
sing effect of tobacco. The table shows by computation a difference of
nearly 33 per cent between the yields on the most nearly neutral fields,
pH-6.1 to 6.5, and those on very acid soils, pH-4.3 to 5.1. Even the highest
yields secured, however, could not be considered to represent a profitable
crop. There was a greater response to lime on the old onion land than on
the tobacco land. The yields on tJie old onion land were very much better
in each soil reaction range than on tobacco land cropped to onions in the
year of the survey. These poorer yields may be ascribed either to the
effect of the previous crop of tobacco, or to the fact that where lime was
applied to tobacco after plowing, it remained chiefly on the surface, leav-
ing the layer from three to six inches down very acid. It is also interesting
to note that the dhamces of a good crop, even on very acid soil, are very
much greater on old onion land than on land formerly in tobacco.

W'hile it is occasionally neceissary to shift from tobacco to other
crops, or vice versa, yet the finst crop following tobacco should not be
onions. Unfortunately the state of our knowledge does not permit us to
say what this crop should be. This problem is now under investigation in
the newly instituted onion research work at the Experiment Station.

Lime Must Be Well Distributed.

Table 3 illustrates the fact that wihile the surface three inches of soil
may be well limed, the three to six inch layer immediately uinderneath
remains quite acid, at least for the first year following liming. This may
mean that for many fields the lime must be applied to both sides of the
furrow slice before maximum yields can be expected.

LIMING ONIONS

U3

Tabie 3 -The Soil Reaction of Seven Different Fields as Affected hy
Method of Applying Lniie.

Method of applying lime

1. On surface

2. On surface

3. On surface

4. Both sides of furrow slice

5. Both sides of furrow slice

6. On surface

7. On surface

Depth of soil sample

3 inches

6 inches

6.0 pH

5.8 pH

4.9

4.8

5.7

5.3

6.3

6.3

6.1

6.1

6.1

5.7

5.3

4.7

AH the foregoing data refer to set onions. It was hoped that similar
data might be taken for seed onions, but severe infection by onio« m.ld.w
!C:d%he crop to sud. an extent that it was ^^^^^^^'^ ;^ ^^^
anything very deftnite abont the influence ot sod reaction At the Massa
ehtlsetts Experiment Station, however, as shown in Table 4, increase in
e d of seed onions was obtained with increase in lime up to two tons per
.re Beyond this amount no appreciable return was observed, although no
l^limeltal effects were found from very large ^^^^^'^^J^^;^^
Onions that received lime .howed darker green color, and J - bu.h^
tops, ,and seemed much more thrifty ti.a,n the o^nion^s wher no Ime a
npplied The relatively small yields were due in part at least to the
mndew infection which occurred before the onions made very large

'"'' E";^;eriments were also conducted at Sunderland and North Hadley in
the s^^ter of 1926 in an effort to get further data on the value of lime
for d ooion. Both of the fields selected for the experiment had grown
onions for several years. Results in both of Uiese ^^^^^r^T^^^
the farm of Arthur Httbbard and W. F. Ryan, are included m Table 4.

Table 4.-Effect of Lime on Yield of Seed Onions. (Bags per Acre.)

Tons of lime
per acre

0

1

2
3
4
5
6
7

Experiment Station
fields

85

122
159
171

158

167
179
178

Field of
Arthur Hubbard

275

293
329

Field of
W. F. Ryan

191
239
215
244

144 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 237

The reaction of the onion soil on the Hubbard farm at Sunderland
was n.ed.un. ac:d, pH-5.5. A good crop of onions was secured. Hydrated
hme had been applied in the spring. There was apparently response to
ts.se although not nearly as much as when it was applied to more acid
soils. Similarly the experiment on the Ryan farm. North Hadley, indicat-
ed undoubted response to the use of lime, although a small quantity was
apparently as effective as a large quantity in bringing about the desired
inxprovement.

Yellow Tips May Indicate Acidity.

The best and most reliable guide to the degree of soil acidity is the
soil test but the plant growth on that soil is the most dependable criter-
ion of the action of any particular degree of acidity. Set onions on verv
acid soil often s,tart oif well in the spring. Very shortly golden yellow
ips appear-m some fields earlier than others. As the season progresses
tbe yellow tip,s extend back on the leaves, witl. varying degrees of rapid-
ity. In extreme cases older leaves soon become abnost entirely yellow
Jose their turgidity, and gradually curl downward and die; while the
newer leaves, already yellow at the tips, gradually follow. In such ^
>case very little growth is secured beyond that accounted for by the origin ■
aLset. There are found variations from this extreme to cases where onlv
a few leaves are completely lost, to instances of slight yellowing of the
tips, and to fields wbere none of this discoloration appears. With such
variations, there are usually corresponding differences in vield The yel-
low tips are always suggestive of an acid soil and the soil test usually
confirms it.

In seed onions the symptoms are not exactly the same. In the early
part of the season it is the stunting of growth, the absence of a bushv
and thrifty appearance, the presence of slight yellowing of the tips that
indicate a lime deficiency. Later in the season there is more yellowing
and dying back of the tips and also a sluggishness in the formation of
bottoms. These symptoms vary according to the degree and activity of
the acidity.

When To Lime

Undoubtedly the best time to apply lime is in the autumn after the
onions are harvested. It may be applied in the spring or even as a top-
dressmg after the onions are eight to twelve inches tall. Response to
spring applications of lime is recorded above, but no data have been taken
on the effectiveness of lime applied after the onions have begun to grow
All that can be said at this time is that a ton of limestone can be applied
wben the onions are eight to twelve inches high without injury.

Despite the fact that favorable results m^ay be obtained from applica-
tions at other seasons, there are two chief reasons why lime should be
applied in the autumn;— (1) there is a longer time for the lime to get
thoroughly mixed with the soil, and the chances of altering the acidity
before it injures another crop are much greater; and (2) it is usually
more convenient to .apply lime in the autumn and thus avoid the risk of
not having time to do it in the spring. From both the soil fertility and
farm management standpoints, therefore, it is good practice to apply lime
in the autumin.

LIMING ONIONS ^*^

How Much Lime?

If the soil on test shows but moderate acidity-that is, if the color
on the til-TeVseale show, yellow to sM.W.tly green-^a ton o l^es^on^
ner acre may be considered the minimum application; if it shows orange
low at Z bottom of the scale, then two tons is the minimum quanty
L be c;nsidered. The growing cop should then be ^^tc ed and app i -
t,on in the following year based on its testimony. Consideration snou
r.ys b given to tL possibility of other crops being later grown on the
on^l'nd' If there is'a likelihood of changing ^-^/f ^^ ^^X"
caution must be exercised again.t applying '^^^ r'''''\':Z\Zt.7 roZ-
not do well on thoroughly limed fields, ^^^J^^^f !" "'^^'^^^tTe^t y to
rot which thrives under this condition. Land that is limed ^^^^^ .^"^^ '
"ow good onions will seldom produce a fidl crop of tobacco until it has
had time to become quite acid again.

Summary

1 Of the 114 set onion fields examined in the summer of 1926 a
large proportion was found to be loo acid ... grow a mix.mun, crop.

2 Crop measurements show better yields on the less acid sods. F„r
any degree of acidity the yield following tobacco averaged poorer tHau
following onions.

3 Both seed and set onions respond favorably to the use of lime.

4 Onions grow satisfactorily on la slightly acid soil. Sufficient lime
to change the soil acidity to the point where it sbows light green to bliush
color with the Soil-Tex is all that is necessary.

5 Autumn is the best time to apply Unie; but if the s,oil is very
acid it is better to apply lime in the spring than not at all.

6. In using lime for onions, crops that are likely to follow must be
given consideration.

7. On account of black root-rot, tobacco cannot be expected to pro-
duce a full crop on a well limed soil.

P.BOCAX10X or THIS DOC.M.XX ™v.n BV XHH COMMISSION OK

Admin isTRATioK and J:<inancl

3 M. 10-'37. Order 321.

V

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 238 OCTOBER, 1927

''^■'"'>''Sn^f'-^"»V,

HEAD FORMATION IN
APPLE TREES

By J. K. Shaw

In 1916 the Experiment Station laid out an apple orchard to be used for
a comparison of six different types of pruning. The purpose of the ex-
periment was to find how the trees reacted to certain definite treatments
continued year after year. Results are reported in this bulletin in terms
of growth and early production, with a series of tracings of photographs
to show how individual trees developed under the various treatments. The
ends to be gained by pruning are discussed, and directions given for prun-
ing young trees at the time of setting and for several years thereafter,
until the type of tree is established.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST, MASS.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

By J. K. Shaw

As a result of experiment and research durina; the past ten or fifteen years,
our ideas of pruning young apple trees have undergone radical changes. These
changes have heen in the direction of less pruning, especially less severe cutting
back of one-year wood. Since the literature reporting these investigations has
been reviewed in many publications, no summary of previous work is attempt-
ed here.

Accordingly an orchard was laid out, devoted to a comparison of six different
types of pruning, these being as well defined as the somewhat variable nature
of the trees permitted. The project was planned in the expectation of finding
how trees react to certain definite treatments continued year after year. It
was lioped that the information thus acquired would replace opinion with fact
in establishing a sound pruning practice.

Outline of the Experiment

The orchard of 600 trees was set May 10-15, 1916. The trees were all one-
year whips about four feet high. The varieties chosen were Baldwin, Northern
Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Mcintosh and King. The basis of selection was
partly conunercial importance and partly varying habits of growth of the
different varieties.

There were two rows of 60 trees each of each variety, planted 10 by 11 feet.
Each experimental plot consisted of four trees, and each plot was five times
repeated with each variety. Thus for each type of pruning there were 20
trees e;ich of five varieties. In the spring of 1922, when the trees were six
years old, one half of the trees were removed. The other half of the trees
were continued to the close of the experiment in 1925.

The soil was a sandy loam classified by the Bureau of Soils as belonging to
the Merrimac Series. It was of moderate fertility and had been more or less
neglected for several years before the orchard was planted. One end of the
area, comprising a little less than one-half the total, had been planted to
nursery trees for three years. The growth of the orchard trees on this part
was somewhat inferior the first season to that of the others planted on freshly
plowed sod land. In an effort to remove this difference a moderately heavy
application of manure was made to the poorer part in the spring of 1917. This
resulted in some improvement, yet the trees on this part average slightly
smaller than the others. This manure was the only fertilizer applied during
the period of the experiment. The soil was kept cultivated and a non-legiunin-
ous cover crop sowed annually. The growth of the trees has been very goofl,
as is indicated in the drawings reproduced herewith.

At the time this experiment was started there had begun to appear evidence
that severe pruning was vmdesirable; hence the six types outlined below all
contemplated rather moderate pruning.

1. Globular tree, headed back. The whips were cut back at planting at
various heights depending on the variety. The Spy trees were cut at 24 inches,
the Baldwin, King and Mcintosh at 30 inches and the Rhode Island Greening
at 18 inches. This last meant little shortening and with some trees none at all.
In succeeding vears these trees were thinned out each year and all one-year

150 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

shoots that had made over 6 inches growth were cut back from one-half to
two-thirds, the pruning being less severe in later years.

2. Globular tree, not headed back. These were cut back at planting as in
(1) and in succeeding years thinned to approximately the same degree, but
no further cutting back was practiced.

'3. Unpruned. These trees were not cut back at planting and were not
pruned at all except to cut out suckers starting from the base and to keep
the trunk clear of water sprouts.

4. Modified leader. Tree not headed back. These trees were not cut back
at planting and in later years were thinned out as in (2). If a distinct leader
persisted it was cut at a height of 8 to 10 feet, the cut being made at a side
branch in two- or three-year-old wood.

5. Leader tree headed back. These trees were not cut back at planting,
but in later years, while the leader was allowed to grow, all other shoots were
cut back as in (1) though the cutting back was a little less severe; they were
thinned out each year the same as the other pruned trees.

6. Leader tree not headed back. These were treated like (.5) except that
no heading back was practiced.

An eifort was made to thin all the pruned trees of each variety to the same
degree. This necessitated more cutting of the cut-back trees tlian of those
not cut back. This program was carried out annually, except in 1920, from
the start of the orchard until the spring of 1925 when the experiment was
brought to a close. The pruning was always done by the writer, or under
his inamediate supervision. In the spring of 1920 no pruning was done owing
to the absence of the writer, and the pruning in 1921 was somewhat more
severe than in other years.

All prunings were weighed, the one-year wood and older wood being weighed
separately except in the earlier years. The weight of the cut-back tips was
also taken separately. Trunk diameters at a fixed point on the trunk were
taken; the amount of bloom of each tree was estimated, and the fruit weighed
each year. Other observations and measurements were taken from time to
time as will be brought out later.

While the orchard has had a fair share of mishaps and it was necessary to
replant a few trees, the stand of trees is as even as is often seen in com-
mercial orchards. The most serious trouble met with was killing from the
severe cold of the winter of 1917-18. The Spy and Mcintosh did not suffer,
but the Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and King trees suffered rather
severely. Some were killed back to the snow line; in others, while the bark
and a thin outer layer of wood were uninjured, the rest of the wood was
killed, resulting in a severe check in growth from which the tree recovered in
a year or two. Further comment on the relation of this winter injury to the
pruning experiments will be made.

Towards the end of this ten-year period the trees showed signs of nitrogen
hunger and have since responded to nitrogen applications with better foliage
color and increased growth.

Some of the trees proved untrue to name. The variety mixtures were as
follows:

Baldwin, 10 trees. Stark and some unknown variety.

Northern Spy, 2 trees. Palmer Greening.

Rhode Island Greening, 30 Smokehouse and 1 Tolnian Sweet

Mcintosh, 1 Baldwin.

King, 2 trees an unknown variety.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

151

As there were 120 trees of each variety, the proportion of misnamed trees was
not large except in the case of Rhode Island Greening. Smokehouse is some-
what like Rhode Island Greening in its habit of growth tliough less vigorous.
The misnamed trees are included in this report along with the others.

Results of the Experiment

Effect on Orowth.

The wood removed in pruning each year has been weighed and the weights
are given in Table 1. Considerably more wood was removed from tlie Baldwin,
Northern Spy and Mcintosh than from the Rhode Island Greening and King
varieties. The reason for this is that the former varieties branch more freely
and there are more shoots to cut. Moreover, King wood is more porous than
the other varieties and therefore weighs less.

Table 1. — Weight of Prunings — average per tree

Variety and Type of 1917

Pinining oz.

Globular headed 1

Globular not headed 1

>Iodified leader 1

Central leader headed 2

Central leader not headed 2

1918 191
OZ. oz.
Baldwin

11
4

12
10

24
6
10
14
10

1921

OZ.

89
53
46
106
60

19;:

OZ

Northern Spy

Globular headed 1

Globular not headed 1

Modified leader 1

Central leader headed 1

Central leader not headed 1

14 84

8 50

11 48

12 76

11

58

84
33
51
76
49

87
40
43
61
64

Bhode Island Greening and Smokehouse

Globular headed
Globular not headed
Modified leader
Central leader headed
Central leader not headed

Globular headed
Globular not headed
Modified leader
Central leader headed
Central leader not headed

Globular headed
Globular not headed
Modified leader
Central leader headed
Central leader not headed

9 52

4 34
6 39
9 46

5 30

Mcintosh

6 12

3 5

4 10

7 11

5 5

75
38
41
60
34

18
10
21
32
16

25

27
48
24

Tompkins King

19

11

1923
OZ.

63
35
42
53
35

36
14
23
39
23

74
19
19
53
16

8 42 49 36

3 26 10 9

5 18 9 11

6 36 21 30

10

1924
OZ.

11
51
34
63
32

61

173

39

Total

OZ.

340
183
192
326
199

82 73 348

51 36 189

48 38 194

55 52 264

39 47 229

171

36 102

38 135

63 199

45 127

406

77 168

83 185

122 302

57 142

76 217

29 80

35 81

39 137

88

Mucii more wood was cut from the headed trees than from those not headed.
Considering all varieties, the weight of wood cut from the globular headed
trees was a little over twice the weight of that cut from the globular trees not
headed.

In tlie spring of 1922 when the trees had made six seasons' growth, one-half
of the trees were removed. They were dug by hand, the roots cut on a circle
four feet in diameter, the soil was washed from the roots and the trees

152

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

weighed. The results are given in Table 2, which suniniarizes the weight of
aboift 300 trees. The unpruned trees weighed the most of all except in the cases
of Spy and Mcintosh, both free branching varieties. There are likewise two
exceptions to the prevailing result that the cut iiack trees are lighter than those
not cut back. I'iie central leader trees not cut back were heavy trees, a result
that appears in several other measures of growth. It sliould be noted that
these trees had in general rather less wood pruned off.

Table 2. — Average Weight of Trees Removed, 1922

R.

, I. Green-

Average

Baldwin

Northern

ing &

Mcin-

Tompkins

of all

Spy

Sm^

okehouse

tosh

King

Varieties

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

Globular headed

70

61

43

70

41

57

Globular not headed

76

58

54

79

53

64

Not pruned

93

62

63

93

62

75

Modified leader

77

64

55

87

43

65

Central leader headed

75

59

46

66

48

59

Central leader not headed

87

74

59

103

42

73

Average

80

63

53

83

48

If to the weight of the trees at digging is added the weight of the wood
pruned ofi' before 1922, the figures shown in Table 3 result^ Tiiis shows that
the headed trees generally weigh less than those not headed, yet the difference
is not great. The heaviest trees are the central leader not headed, which
slightly exceed the unpruned trees.

Table 3. — Average Total Weight of ^\'ood Produced

R.

I. Green-

Average

Baldwin

Northi

?rn

ing a:

Mcin-

Tompkins

of all

Spy

.Smokehouse

tosh

King

Varieties

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

Globular headed

78

68

47

76

45

63

Globular not headed

80

62

57

82

55

67

Not pruned

93

62

63

93

62

75

Modified leader

81

68

58

91

45

69

Central leader headed

83

65

50

71

51

64

Central leader not headed

92

79

62

106

44

77

Average

85

67

56

90

50

It has been shown' that there is no difference in height and spread of tlie
trees except in the case of the headed trees, whicli are somewhat smaller tlian
the others.

The average weights of the different \arieties give an indication of the com-
parative vigor of these varieties. These differences are rather large. The
Mcintosh trees were heaviest, followed in order by Baldwin, Northern Spy,
Rhode Island Greening and SmokeJiouse taken together, and King. The King
trees were larger than their weight indicates, but owing to the porous nature
of the wood the trees are light in weight.

The trunk diameters at a fixed point have been taken each year. Averages
for all tlie trees in 1921 and for those remaining in 1924 are given in Table 4.

1 3Iass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 226 p. 25, 1926.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

153

It is doubtful if much significance can he attached to the diflferences appear-
ing in this table. The central leader trees, not headed, again appear to be
somewhat larger than any of the other groups. These trees are in each case
at the south end of a series and as has been stated the soil is in general better

Table 4.. — Average Trunk Diameters.

Rhode Island

Baldwin

Northern Spy

Greening and

Smokehouse

1921

1924

1921

1924

1921

1924

mm.

mm.

mm.

mm.

mm.

mm.

Globular headed

81+4

127 ± 9

76 + 1

108 ± 2

63 ± 2

103 + 2

Globular not headed

84 ± 3

135 + 6

75 + 2

103 + 3

73+3

116 ± 3

Not pruned

82 + 4

122 ± 7

74 + 1

109 ± 1

78 + 2

117 ± 5

Modified leader

84 + 3

129 + 4

76 ± 1

112 + 1

73 ± 3

115 + 5

Central leader headed

88 + 3

130 + 4

74+2

104 ± 3

72 + 2

111 ± 5

Central leader not headed

90 + 2

140 + 4

81 + 1

117 + 3

78 + 2

117 + 6

Globular headed
Globular not headed
Not pruned
Modified leader
Central leader headed
Central leader not headed

mm.
82 +
82 ±
82 +
88 +
82 +

1924

mm.

129 ±

126 ±
124 ±
131 +

127 +

130 +

Tompkins King

1921

mm.

66 +
70 ±
78 +
65 ±
70 ±
68 +

mm.

113 ±

114 +

124 +
109 +
111 ±
111 +

Average of
all Varieties

74.2
76.7
78.8
77.2
77.5
80.1

116.0
118.8
119.3
119.0
116.6
123.0

towards the south end of the orchard. It is probably safe to conclude that the
rather light pruning given these trees has not dwarfed them significantly ex-
cept in the two groups where heading back has been practiced.

During the summer of 1922 the trunk diameter at a fixed point of the Mc-
intosh and Northern Spy trees was taken at approximately two-week intervals
from May 2 to August 16 and also September 14 and October 9. The results
are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. These indicate that trunk growth continued at
a fairly steady rate from May 15 to about September 1. Before and after
these dates it was slower. The type of pruning seems to have had little effect,
except that growth was a little slower in the case of the headed trees, espe-
cially late in the season.

The rainfall for June was excessive, while July and August had more sun-
shine than usual with a moderate rainfall. Possibly these conditions influenced
the rather slow growth during the latter half of June and the increased growth
during July and early August. Mcintosh grew more rapidly than Spy during
August which is in harmony with observations of the writer on nursery trees,
where Mcintosh grows more in late summer than most other varieties.

Measurements of shoot growth were made during 1922 on the Baldwin and
Mcintosh. Ten shoots on each tree were tagged and measured at weekly in-
tervals from May 26 to July 14 with additional measurements on July 31, Aug-
ust 19 and October 12. The averages for the headed and not headed trees are
shown in Fig. 3. This shows the later growth of the Mcintosh. It also shows

154 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

no^i- Mo,- 15 Junei June 17 Jo lyZ July 15 ■'''?. 1 AuflB iept |^

Figure 1. Trunk Growth of Northern Spy (in millimeters), 1922.

HoyZ noylS Junei JunelT J^'ly^ Su\f li /Oioji «..jl6 Sept, 11

Figure 2. Trunk Growth of Mcintosh (in millimeters), 1922.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

155

Bock

^^"""^ f-lcXntoah Not Heoded BocK

/^J^"^

/U n^Muoo No-t Heodad Book.

ff

/

no^ae JUoei Ju.i«3 Jixieir J-»Tei5I,oeio Xvlr6 J„1,H J^VJi Augie

Figure 3. Average Shoot Growth (in centimeters), 1922.

that tlie lieaded trees started off somewhat slower than those not headed, but
that they continued growing much later in the season. The shoots not headed
liad in most cases formed terminal buds by the middle of June, while the head-
ed shoots continued growth for a month or more after that time. This is in
harmony with common observations on this point.

Effect of Heading on Bud Development

In May, 1922, observations were made on the development of the lateral buds
on the shoot growth of 1919 and 1920; that is, on the two- and three-year-old
wood. A comparison of the performance of the buds on the headed and not
headed trees is shown in Table 5. On the wood of 1919 the average total num-
ber of lateral buds was not materially reduced by heading, though they were
reduced from 39.6 to 32.3 per cent on the wood of 1920.

The second column of Table 5 shows the percentage of buds remaining dor-
mant at the time the count was made. On the 1919 wood the percentage of
dormant buds was somewhat larger on the headed branches; but on the 1920
wood it was considerably less. This may have been due to seasonal differences,
or to thinning out shoots in pruning. The differences in blossoming spurs are
striking on the younger wood. Less than 1 per cent of the buds had developed
into fruit buds on the headed branches, and on the older wood the percentage
was much less than on the branches not headed. The number of non-blossom-
ing spurs was larger on the headed branches of the older wood but somewhat
less on the two-year-old wood. On the 1920 wood, nearly one-half of the buds
on headed branches developed into leafy shoots; but on the older wood, only
12.9 per cent so developed. Probably many shoots had been pruned off in the

156

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

process of thinning out the top. This table shows something of the manner in
which heading reduced fruit bearing.

Tablk 5. — Development of Growth Points, May 1922

Dormant

Fruit Leaf

'

buds

buds spurs
Wood of 1919

Headed

14.7

11.6 8.0

Not hea

ded

13.6

18.0 4.6
Wood of 1920

Headed

6.3

0.3 11.9

Not headed

11.9

7.8 17.5

Leaf Total No. of
shoots growth points

5.1
4.3

13.8
2.4

39.4
40.5

32.3
39.6

Efect 011 Bloom and Yield

This orchard has not produced much fruit. None has been borne by the
Northern Spy trees, and the product of the Kings is negligible. The first crop
of the other varieties was in 1922 and there has been a light to moderate crop
each year since. The Mcintosh trees have naturally borne the most, averaging
over 41/2 bushels per tree for the four years' total crop. The average percent-
age of bloom and the average yield per tree for the four years are shown in
Table 6. The most significant fact brought out is the effect of annual cutting
back. It has decreased bloom in every case, and decreased yield in all cases
except the globular Mcintosh. Probably the differences between the different
tyi^es of pruning, not involving cutting back, and including the unpruned trees,
are of no great significance. While the tops of the unpruned trees are pretty
thick, no marked inferiority of the fruit in either size, color or quality has yet
appeared.

Table 6.— Bloom and Yield, 1922-1925, inclusive.

Average percentage

Total yield per tree —

OF BLOOM

FIRST FOUR YEARS OF BEARING

Rhode

Rhode

Total,

Baldwin

Island

Mcin-

Baldwin

Island

Mcin-

three

Greening

tosh

Greening

tosh

Varieties

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

Not pruned

4

13

29

48

55

197

300

Globular headed

1

10

13

17

34

160

211

Globular not headed

2

17

21

42

51

141

234

Modified leader

4

18

31

41

52

256

349

Central leader headed

1

16

18

9

32

140

181

Central leader not headed

2

24

28

32

34

223

289

Summary of Experimental Studies

This section is based in part on the data and observations presented in this
bulletin and in part on a previous publication."

All things considered, probably a system of pruning similar to the modified
leader type is most desirable.

' Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 226, 1926.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES 157

The r;.tl:cr light pruning followed in this experiment has not dwarfed the
trees nor decreased yields appreciably, except where heading hack the new
growth has been practiced.

Heading hack the new growth has removed more wood, made a denser top,
favored a more upright growth, and dwarfed the trees somewhat. It has also
delayed the start of shoot growth slightly and distinctly prolonged the growing
season of the shoots. It slightly increased the rate of shoot growth and
checked cambial growth. It decreased bloom and yield as long as it was prac-
ticed. It caused the growth of a greater number of shoots the year follow-
ing pruning.

The globular headed tree was most successfully produced, but this type is
not desirable. The central leader tree failed in many cases, especially where
the side branches were not headed back, most of these becoming modified
leader trees. Most of the unpruned trees could be classified as modified leader
trees. This may, perhaps, indicate that the modified leader type is the natural
form for most varieties of apples. If one desires to produce a central leader
tree, vigorous vegetative growth and pruning the scaffold branches are
necessary.

Interpretation of Experimental Evidence

It is perhaps true that nmch of the pruning in the past was worse than no
pruning. It would be better to leave the young tree unpruned than to cut it
back severely and without discrimination. If, however, the tree is pruned
lightly and with understanding, growth may iie controlled and directed toward
the production of more satisfactory and uniform trees than would result if
they were left to themselves.

The Purpose of Pruning

In order to prune intelligently, a clear understanding of the purpose of
pruning is necessary. This may be outlined under the following heads:

1. To produce a well balanced, mechanically strong tree.

This means that the permanent scaffold brandies will be of al)out equal size,
well separated up and down, and evenly distributed around the leader or
trunk. One brancii should not be directly aljove another even if they are
separated by a considerable distance. It is probably not desirable to have
even two branches at the same height. Certainly three branches at tiie same
height will seriously dwarf the leader above and any scaffold branches arising
from it, resulting in a weak tree.

Mechanical strength is secured by having the scaft'old branches originate
through a strong shoulder at the place of origin. To get this the branch
angles should be wide and tlie branch smaller at the point of origin than the
leader. The initial growth of the branch should not be too strong. Branches
coming out at a narrow or very acute angle are likely to develop layers of
bark between the branch and leader instead of a bridge of wood. The former
means a weak crotch that is almost sure to split with the first heavy crop of
fruit, while the latter gives a strong crotch that will not split. The Baldwin
tends to form narrow angles while Rhode Island Greening and Mcintosh tend
to form wider branch angles with bridges of wood across which give strength,
enabling the trees to carry heavy loads of fruit without splitting.

2. To direct growth toward the production of the nuiximum quantity and
quality of fruit throughout the life of the tree.

158 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

This statement attempts to summarize the chief economic purpose of grow-
ing fruit trees. Wliat sort of a tree will accomplish this purpose? The first
step in fruit production is the formation of fruit buds. It seems to be true
that fruit bud formation accompanies the accumulation of starch in the tissues.
Ample leaf area and good exposure to sunlight are essential to starch forma-
tion. If spur leaves are shaded, or if some or all of them are removed, the
chances of fruit bud formation are reduced. But if active growth is going on
in the vicinity of potential fruit buds, the accumulation of starch is lessened,
even though it is being formed in liberal amounts; it is used up in new growth.
Hence, to secure fruit buds we must have a large spur leaf area well exposed
to sunlight and a relatively early cessation of shoot growth. These conditions
are found in trees producing a heavy bloom.

Not only must there be an accumulation of starch but also an .adequate sup-
ply of water and mineral matter, especially nitrogen, coming up from the soil.
This must be abundant enough early in the season to insure leaf growth, but it
should be restricted soon or it will favor too long continued growth with
heavy consumption and lessened accumulation of starch.

In pruning young trees so as to prepare the way for future fruitfulness the
development of many spurs should be the first objective. It has been shown
that heading back one-year wood and shading decrease the number of spurs.
The converse of this avoiding heading back and securing good exposure to
light, should increase the number of spurs. In order to get good light exposure
the branches should come out at a fairly wide angle, perhaps from 45° to 90°.
The leaves on an upright branch are shaded by the leaves above, and if there
are several upright branches they shade each other. It is often claimed that a
dense head will so decrease the light exposure as to interfere with fruit bud
formation. This may be true, but there is no indication that the rather dense
heads of the unpruned trees in this experiment have bloomed less freely than
the more open pruned trees. Perhaps the real trouble witii dense trees that
fail to bloom well is often a too prolonged period of growth. This results in
a heavy blanket of foliage which shades the spur leaves more than would a
greater number of shoots making a short annual growth.

3. To secure the maximum growth commensurate with strength and future
fruitfulness.

The more rapidly young trees grow, the sooner they will be of a size to pro-
duce profitable crops. Early bearing may or may not be profitable when it is
secured at the expense of growth. It has been shown that a large shoot growth
comes through length of growing season rather than through rapid growth. It
may be that very late shoot growth is more liable to winter kill, yet we have
seen soft tips come through rather severe winter weather without injury. Late
cambial activity is more dangerous than late shoot growth. Probably it is not
dangerous if tenninal bud formation is delayed until late September or early
October, though as has been shown fruit bud formation is likely to be less in
such trees. Late growth is sought after in nursery trees, and winter injury to
the tips rarely follows though bark splitting at the base of the trunk of late
growing trees is often seen when rather severe cold occurs in November. This
frequently occurs in Mcintosh, which is one of our hardiest varieties. It seems,
then, that a long season of shoot growth in young trees is desirable, but cam-
bial activity should cease in late September. Such conditions are brought
about by soil management rather than by ordinary pruning.

There are objections to too rapid growth. It favors upright growth and
narrow branch angles. Probably very rapid growth is not desirable the first

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES 159

two or three years wlien scaffold branches are being established, especially in
upright growing varieties. Then vigorous growth may be encouraged until
the trees are large enough to bear profitable crops.

How to Prune

The puqjose of the experiment was to find how the trees reacted to certain
definite treatments continued year after year. Some of the trees are now well
formed and seem of the type that should produce satisfactorily. Most such
trees are among the modified leader, central leader, and unpruned types. In
fact, with a little thinning out of branches, many of the unpruned trees would
be as satisfactory as these of any other class. Yet some of these would be
stronger and more satisfactory had some of their main branches been pruned
when small so as to prevent their outgrowing other branches.

Both types of headed trees are unsatisfactory. They tend to be upright
and have too much bare space along the branches and too few laterals and
spurs. The globular trees not headed are intermediate. Some are strong,
well-formed trees; others have some of the faults of the headed trees.

Pruning at Setting

One-year whips may be set without pruning if not too tall. Trees over four
feet tall may be cut back, especially if of upright growing varieties. Leave
two to four feet according to the variety, taking care to have plenty of strong
buds on the part left.

In pruning two-year trees, leave the strongest and most upright branch for
a leader, cutting it little or not at all. Remove or cut back severely any
branches competing strongly with this leader, as well as all strong branches
having narrow, weak crotches. Leave well-located, fairly vigorous branches
having strong crotches, as temporary or permanent scaffold branches. Cut
them back only for the puqiose of holding back those that are outgrowing
the rest of the tree. This treatment will usually remove enough top to restore
the balance between top and root that has been upset by transplanting the tree.

Pruning the Second Year

Do not cut back the leader unless it is far in advance of the side branches.
Remove or cut back severely any branches developing narrow, weak crotches.
Continue the selection of strong, well separated and well distributed branches
as temporary or permanent scaffold branches. Cut back any that are out-
growing the rest of the tree. Remove or cut back any that are nearer than
about six Inches, and any coming out directly above another even if separated
by a considerable distance.

The Third and Succeeding Years

It is during the second and third growing seasons that the future shape of
the tree is largely determined. If growth has been wisely directed during these
two seasons, pruning in later years consists in carrying on the development
already started. Remove or cut back severely branches with narrow angled
crotches and lacking a bridge of wood across the angle. Prune with appro-
priate severity any scaffold branch that outgrows its fellows. Avoid the
development of one scaffold branch directly above another, even if separated
by some distance.

160 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

Do not allow a scaflfold branch to compete with the leader, but keep the
leader ahead by pruning its competitors.

Give the same treatment to any lateral growing- out of a scaffold branch; if
it competes with the leading shoot of the scaffold branch, cut it off. Stating
this a little differently, whenever a branch divides into two shoots of about
equal strength, remove one at the first opportunity.

Pruning a scaffold branch or lateral to prevent it from outgrowing its fel-
lows should be done early in the life of the tree. The sooner the necessity for
cutting is seen the less will be needed and the less the leaf surface will be
reduced. Young trees should be pruned as little as possible and no branch
cut back or removed without good reason. Corrective pruning is, however,
highly important and often absolutely necessary in order to grow a strong,
well-formed tree that will produce a maximum of high grade apples.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES 161

The drawings in Plates I-XVI are made from photographs. The figures in-
dicate the age of the tree at the time the photograph was made, and the letters
6 and a indicate before and after pruning, in each case where they are used. No
photographs were taken at four years because of the absence of the writer,
and at five years the trees were too close together to permit setting up a cam-
era. After one-half of the trees were cut out at six years of age photographs
were again made each year. There is little difference between the photographs
at six and seven years, and generally only the latter are shown. The camera
was set at nearly the same position relative to the tree each year, though with
increased size of tree it was necessary in later years to set farther away.

In these drawings the development of the different branches may be followed,
from year to year, showing how they responded to the treatments given.

162

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

Plate

I. Northern Spy Tree D44. GlolDular headed.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

163

Plate II. Northern Spy Tree D44, at seven years.

Note the upright growth induced by severe cutting back. The strong upright scaf-
fold branches shade each other and, even though the tree was cut back to two feet at
.setting, the tree is fully as high-headed as the trees which were not cut back at
setting. The severe heading back results in a dense top that must be thinned severely
the next year. This type of pruning is not desirable.

164 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

Plate III. Mclntosm Tree H38. Globular not headed.

HEAD FORMATION IN AFFILE TREES

165

Plate IV. Mcintosh Tree H38, at seven years.

The one-year whip was cut back at planting with the result that three or four
branches came out at al^out the same point. Follow the development of the lowest
branch at the left. It would perhaps have been better to cut this back at first vet
the tree has gained symmetry with age. The main branches shade each other which
has probably lowered production. Total yield 222 pounds. Compare with Plate XIV

166

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

7

cs «s

c o

^ ^ ^

— i .,-1 a>

> ^ £

t-i o
5 JS

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

167

Plate VI. Northern Spy Tree D48. Uupruned.

The lower branches in 1 were cut off. A better tree would have resulted if the
leader in 1 had been cut back. Probably thinning out the top and spreading the top
by cutting to outside branches would have improved the tree.

168 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

yiJi^i^:

Plate VII. Mcintosh Tree H46. Modified leader.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

169

Plate VIII. Mcintosh Tree H46, at seven years.

Follow the development of the branch shown on the right in 1. In Plate VII this
has developed strongly and suppressed branches above. It should have been cut back
severely or removed the first year. Note the suppression of the leader in 3a. Prob-
ably it should have been checked sooner, as that would have prevented the heavy
growth of the upper branches shown in Plate VIII. These strong branches shade and
thus check the lower branches. Total yield 473 pounds.

170 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

Plate IX. Baldwin Tree B48. Modified leader.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

171

Plate X. Baldwin Tree B48, at six years.

The four branches of the first season's growth, shown in lb. continue to dominate
in later years, and a strong well-formed tree resulted. No suppression of the leader
was necessary for, as the figures show, it never dominated very strongly. Pos.sibly an
effort to spread the tree by cutting to outside branches would have made a better tree,
but it is a good one as it is. It will spread without breaking when it comes in bear-
ing. A careful study of these figures will give valuable hints as to the way to prune
young trees.

172 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

Plate XI. Northern Spy Tree D56. Central leader, headed.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

173

Plate XII. Northern Spy Tree D56, at six and seven years.

These figures show how heading back the branches while allowing the unhindered
development of the leader has favored the development of a leader tree. This heading
back has necessitated much thinning out of one-year twigs the next year. The tree is
not as large as it would have been if it had not been headed back. This type of
pruning is worse than none at all.

174 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

Plate XIII. Mcintosh Tree H34. Central leader, not headed.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

175

Plate ZIV. Mcintosh Tree H34, at six years.

Cutting back of the top shown in lb, as shown in la, resulted in three strong shoots
as shown in 2b. Two of these were removed as shown in 2a, leaving a long leader
which perhaps should have been shortened. Still, a well-formed tree resulted which
has borne 773 pounds of frait, the most of any tree in this orchard.

176 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 238

Plate XV. Tompkins King Tree J32. Central leader, not headed.

HEAD FORMATION IN APPLE TREES

177

Plate XVI. Tompkins King Tree J32, at seven years.

The leader shown in 2 and 3b is dead from the severe cold of the winter of 1917-18.
3a shows the tree after the removal of the dead leader, and 7 shows a well-formed tree
resulting. The growth of the leader in the young tree need be only moderately
stronger than the scaffold branches in order to secure a strong, well-balanced tree.

Puiil.IC'ATlON OF THIS DoCl'MK.XT APPROVED BY THE CoMStlSSTOX ON
Alli'MINISTUATION AND F[NAXCE

Massachusetts ,. k ~

Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 239 FEBRUARY, 1928

Cape Cod Cranberry
Insects

By HENRY J. FRANKLIN

The cranberry is the most important export crop of Massachusetts, with
a value of two and one-half to five millions dollars annually. Some 14,000
acres are devoted to its culture, most of which would otherwise be waste
land. Insects take an annual toll of about one-fifth of the crop. Since
the establishment of the Cranberry Station, therefore, a great deal of study
has been given to these pests and methods for their control. This bulletin
brings together the knowledge cuid experience gained through many years,
and presents it in a form readily accessible to cranberry growers. Im-
portant features of the bulletin are the colored plates and other illustra-
tions showing cranberry insects ini their different stages as well as the
various ways in which they injure the plant.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERLMENT STATION

AMHERST, MASS.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

Tlie writer acknowledges liis many oliligations to all who iiave iielped him in
the studies, the results of which are assembled here: especially to the cran-
berry growers who everywhere for many years liave given him the freedom
of their bog properties and every encouragement; to his coworkers of the
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station and the United States De-
partment of Agriculture for naming specimens and for cooperation in the
study of special problems; to H. B. Scammell for valuable information about
the habits and life histories of some of the pests; and to his assistant, J. L.
Kelley for his constant faithfulness and efficiency.

Thanks are due the Cape Cod Cranl)erry Growers' Association for the col-
ored plates donated for this bulletin and for other services rendered.

MATTERS OF GENERAL IMPORTANCE IN BOG MANAGEMENT

A plentiful water sup})ly for flooding vvlienever necessary is tlie best and
cheapest insurance against insect injury on cranberry bogs, and it should be
provided if the cost is not prohibitive. Where a water supply is lacking or
inadequate, spraying, sanding or other measures nnist be adopted.

Special attention should be given tiie \arious pests in those years when tiie
crop prospect is poor. If they are properly reduced then, they often may be
neglected safely when the crop j)romises to be hea\\. Any known treatment,
be it flooding, sanding, or sj)raying, is likely to injure the vines more or less
and so reduce the croj). Tiie amount of this reduction usually is directly
proportional to the crop promise. Unfortunately, mo.'-t growers fit their bog
management to the condition of their finances, present or prospective, rather
than to that of their bogs. Limited water sujij)lies for reflooding should be
used mainly to control pest.s, and long chances may be taken with frosts in
the j'ears in which the bogs concerned promise a short croj) so that when the
crop promise is good, chances may be taken with the insects and the water
may be used for frost protection.

Bog managers shoidd learn to gauge insect infestations in their early stages
so as to know when attacks may be neglected. The insect net is as important
as any other bog equipment. The bogs should be examined with it every four
days from May 10 till mid-July. For practical purposes the sweeping with
the net may be done at any time of day, though it usually collects rather more
cutworms and gypsy moth larvae as soon as the dew is off in the morning and
just as it begins to form in the evening. If -50 sweeps of a net 11 inches in
diameter gather from the vines over 12 gypsy moth caterpillars or cutwoniis
of any kind, or more than 48 spanworms, the infestation should be treated
anyhow. Six cutworms or gypsy moth caterpillars and 24 spanworms are
equivalent to 12 cutworms or 48 spanworms, four spanworms equalling one
cutworm in their caj>acity to do harm. As the worms of most of the species
grow larger they cling more and more to the vines or hide under them and so
are gathered by the net in smaller and smaller numbers.

The worms that float ashore during flooding treatments seldom give any
trouble. Usually most of them thrash themselves to death in the water and
few have life enough left to eat afterward.

Bogs never should be burned off to control insects unless the vines are so
deep and snarled that their renewal is desired. Even then it is often better
to mow them.

It is necessary to siicceKS in cranberry culture to control all the pests recog-
nized generally by the growers as harmful, but it is essential to real efficiencti
to check also the horde of minor forms that usually escape notice, such as
leafhoppers, black bugs, springtails, spittle insects, mites, aphids, etc., which
in the aggregate greatly drain the vitality of the vines on many bogs and so
reduce the quantity and quality of the fruit produced.

Cranberry insect problems present so many conditions that it is hard to
cover them all fully in bulletins. Chances to check two or more pests with
one treatment always should be looked for. Those that occur commonly are
indicated in the discussion of tlie various insects.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

By Henry J. Franklin
Research Professor in Charge of the Cranberry Station at East Wareham.

Two general bulletins on cranberrj' insects have l)een pulilislied by the
United States Department of Agriculture.' Both were based on work done
mainly in New Jersey. Cranberry insect problems in Massachusetts vary
widely from those in New Jersey, for several of our important pests are
nearly or quite unknown in that state and differences in metliods of culture
and in climate affect the situation greatly in many ways.

Tiie possil)le value of a paper of tliis kind nuiy be judged if it is recalled
that there are about 14,000 acres under cranlierry cultivation in Massachu-
setts," tliat tills fruit is tlie leading export crop of the State, witii a gross
annual value of from $2,600,000 to nearly .$.5,000,000,'' and that insects have
destroyed on an average fully a fifth of the crop yearly.

It is hoped that this treatise will meet a need that long lias been voiced,
and it is with the apologies of tlie Commonwealth that the first paper cover-
ing this important feature of cranberry culture is presented only after a lapse
of nearly tliree-quarters of a century since the industry began in this, the
state of its origin.

Every effort has been made to arrange this pajier so clearly and simjily
that cranberry growers may fhid it not only informing Init thoroughly usable.
It is amply illustrated, and the color plates and tables for the identification
of the various species should be particularly helpful. It is divided into six
parts, as follows:

Part I. — Worms or zcormlike forms <tffiirki)i(i the foliaije. hiuls,

flowers or fruit.
Part II. — Forms not wormlike attackinij the folinf/e or fruit.
Part III. — Insects attacking the stem.
Part. IV. — Insects attacking the roots.
These four parts briefly describe the various pests, their life liistories, and
the injuries they do, and give the controls found most effective.

Part F. — Insects and other animals henefiria! to rranherr;/
growing.
Cranberry flower pollination is treated here, and the predatory enemies and
insect parasites of cranberry pests are discussed.

Part F7. — Insecticides and paraphernalia used in fighting cran-
berry pests.
Spraying ap])aratu.s, the insect net, and insecticides are discussed here.
This bulletin presents Part I, the other five parts being held for another
bulletin.

1. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 178, by T. B. Smith (1903): and
U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 860, by H. B. Scammell (1917).

2. Mainlv in Plymouth. Barnstable and Bristol counties, but also in five others.

.3. This averaging for the last six years as great as tnat of the State's potato crop and con-
siderably over half as great as that of the commercial apple crop of all New England.

CAPE C(1D CRANBERRY INSECTS

PART I— WORMS OR WORMLIKE FORMS ATTACKING THE
FOLIAGE, BUDS, FLOWERS OR FRUIT.

This section einljraces a majority of the cranberry pests. The worms may
be classified as follows:

Cl((^\-<ip'c((tion Table.

^\'itll iimcli liair covering most of tiie liody hairy worms (p. 49).

Without much hair 1

1. Either legless or working only inside the berries — miscellaneous

jiests (p. 54).

W'itii legs and not confined to working in tiie fruit 2

2. With tiie hal)it of sewing the leaves together with silk fireworms (p-5).

Not sewing the lea\'es togetlier 3

3. The hind half of the body with only four legs spanworms (p. 37).

The hind half with more than four legs 4

4. With a prominent sharp horn on the back near the hind end.apple sphinx^
With no such horn... 5

5. Green, without stripes along the sides cranberry sawfly (p. 66).

Not green, or, if green, with noticeable side stripes cutworms (p. 21).

FIREWORMS.

These are relatively small worms and they wriggle vigorously when dis-
turbed, mcning forward or backw'ard with equal celerity. They sew together
with silk the leaves among which they feed and so form nests to protect
themselves from parasites and other foes. They usually begin this webbing-
soon after they hatch, by sewing together three or four leaves at the tip of a
single upright as shown in fig. 8. The later webbing varies somewhat but
usually draws several uprights together finally. The worms often injure the
foliage S( that it turns brown and looks as though a fire had burned the
vines — hence the name fireicorm.

Four kinds of fireworms do material harm on Cape Cod bogs. They may
be disMnguished as follov.s:

Table of ]Voriiis.

Head black black-headed tireworm (p. 6) .

Head not black 1

1. Body with consjjicnious white spots along the l)ack and sides

spotted fireworm (p. 19).
Body without such spots 2

2. Body with dull reddish lines along the back and sides

red-striped tireworm (p. 16).
Body pale yellowish, without reddish lines yellow-headed fireworm (p. 12).

4. Sphinx gordius Cram. These caterpillars grow to be about two and a quarter inches
long. ,'\s they mature they are smooth and green, but sometimes strongly shaded with pink or
purple, with feven parallel stripes slanting downward forward on each side, each composed of a
red line bordered above with rather deep brown and below with white. They are ornamented
also with many minute brown circles. They mature in late July. August and September, and
cranberry pickers often find them in their scoops. They never do much harm. The gray moths
expand three inche.-i or more and are not uncommon on the bogs in late May and June.

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

Black-Headed Fireworm.^

If we consider all the cranberry growing sections of the country, this is the
most harmful cranberry insect, and in Massachusetts the fruit worm alone has
done more damage. Means of control, however, Jiave now devehiped so that
much injury by it suggests poor management.

On Cape Cod, this insect never harms seriously a bog that has not been
flooded during the winter, and its infestations cling more tenaciously to large
compact bogs than to small areas. The water kills or drives ashore its enemies,
such as s]iiders and parasites, and protects its eggs from winter adversities.
The foes of the pest are, of course, slower in again reaching the center of a
large compact bog in effective numbers than they are in reaching that of a
small one. So an infestation developing on a large bog always gets serious
on the middle jjart first.

]>h-iril)utiou (Hid Food Phaits.

This fireworm is very destructive in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Wis-
consin and on Lt)ng Island and the coast of Oregon and Washington.*' It has
been fomid in Maine, California and Canada. It is not known to feed on
anything but cranberry.' It generally attacks Howes vines more than Early
Black.

Chanicffr of Iiijuri/.

The newly hatched worm of the first brood usually begins by burrowing into
the imder side of an old leaf, the new growth of the season not yet having put
out at all, and works as a leaf miner, casting out on the lower surface a small
mass of refuse (fig. 1). An area on the upper side immediately over these
castings is much lighter colored than the rest of the leaf, and the first hatch-
ing of the insect often may be detected most easily by these light patches.

If the hatciiing begins early, tiie yoiuig worms, on leaving their mines in
the old leaves, mine the terminal buds just as they are swelling to start new
growth, and sometimes ruin most of them before being discovered.

As new shoots appear, the worms proceed to sew three or four of their tip
leaves together. If the worms hatch after the new growth develops, they
usually go directly to the new tips without mining the old leaves. The webbed
tips generally are the first work noticed by growers (fig. 2).

The worm usually leaves the tip it has sewed up within a few days and
either webs leaves farther down on the shoot or goes to another upright the
new growth of which it sews up, commonly webbing in one or more other up-
rights. If the worms are very abundant, two or three often work together
and include several iiprights in their nest (fig. -i). They feed freely on the
new leaves and flower buds in their nests, often destroying the whole crop
prosj)ect and turning the bog brown.

During the interval between the two broods the vines put forth more new
growth and recover considerably from their injury.

5. Rhopobola vaciiniana (Pack.). The writer is not convinced that this species is the same
as the European holly feeder, R. naevana (Hubner), and hesitates to follow Heinrich in this (cf.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bill. 1032, p. 45, 1922). Dr. J. McDunnough seriously questions Heinrich's
conclusion.

6. Only on tlie Pacific coast does this fireworm thrive generally on bogs not flooded during
winter.

7. Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait. and T'. Oxycoccus L.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY IXSECTS 7

The work of the second brood varies more than that of tlie first. It may be
more severe or less severe, depending on how mucli the Iiatciiing is suppressed
and how freely tlie worms die of disease. If the hatching begins while the
vines are in flower, the small worms may work mostly in the blossoms, espe-
cially in the ovaries which they excavate to form tiny cups, and web tlie foli-
age only in their later stages. Usually they go to the tips when they hatch
and sew the leaves together, but this tip-webbing is more- gradual than that
oi the iirst brood. They usually web together several uprights at last and
may make nests even larger than those of the first brood. Whether they web
much or not, they reduce the crop in proportion to the amount of infestation
by scoring the berries or working in them somewhat as the fruit worm does.
This brood may greatly reduce the crop possibilities for the next year, for the
tips of the injured uprights usually fail to form normal fruit buds. Many of
the cliewed leaves soon drop and the vines recover somewhat in tlie fall, main-
ly by putting out some tip growth, init the uprights are often rather bare.

l>eiicriptloii (Hid Seasonal History.
The I<J(i<i.

This ]iest winters in the egg stage, some of the eggs having been laid i)y
second-brood moths and some by first-brood moths, the hatching of the latter
having been suppressed. The eggs (figs. 4 and 5) are very flat, disklike, light
yellow, and about a thirty-second of an inch in longest diameter. They are
laid singly, nearly always on the backs of the leaves of the new growth. Often
several are placed on one leaf. The leaves of delicate uprights deep among
the vines generally have more than their share.

Most of the eggs on the leaves in late fall often vanish wiiile under the
winter flood, and they evidently perish when they disappear in this way, for
the infestation always is reduced the next spring when this happens. Usually,
however, most of the eggs stick to the leaves until spring and hatch. If an
infested bog is left unflooded for the winter and the vines are winterkilled,
the dead leaves droji in the spring and the fireworm eggs on them usually dry
up and fail to hatch.

Hatching sometimes starts the first week in May and occasionally is delayed,
even on bogs drained of the winter flowage early in April, until the first of
June; but normally it begins about the middle of May. The hatching period
often lasts but three weeks on thinly vined bogs if the weather is warm, but it
may continue six weeks among rank vines in cool weather.

The black head of the worm may be seen through the shell for a day or two
before hatching occurs. When the worm emerges, the eggshell is left as a
tliin shiny whitish scale on the leaf.

The first brood of moths lay their eggs in late June and July. Many of
these eggs do not hatch till the next spring. Because of this, the hatching
period of the second brood of worms on any given bog often lasts little more
than a week. If the winter water is held till late May, the deferment of the
hatching of this lirood is very often practically complete.

The ]\'oni).

The worm (fig. 6) is greenish or pale yellowish with a shining black head
and neck, and is about a third of an inch long when full-grown. First-brood

Black-headed Fireworni.

Fig. 1. Cranberry leaf with pile of castings over mine of newly hatched worm.
Much enlarged.

Fig. 2. In middle, uninfested cranberry upright; at right, upright with the first web-
bing; at left, more advanced webbing.

Fig. 3. Nest of webbed cranberry uprights.

Fig. 4. Eggs on backs of cranberry leaves. Much enlarged.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

Black-headed Fireworm.

Fig. 5. Cranberry leaves with fruiting bodies of a fungus (Venturla compacta Pk.)

olten mistaken by growers for its eggs. Much enlarged.
Fig. 6. Larva. Considerably enlarged.
Fig. 7. Moth. Much enlarged. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 860.)

worms generally take nearly tiiree weeks to mature, but those of the second
brood mature in about two weeks. The second brood sometimes works till
well into August, even on bogs bared of the winter water in April.

The Pupa.

In Massachusetts and New Jersey the mature worms generally leave the
vines to pupate on tiie sand or in the trash beneath them. The pupa often is
naked but usually is in a light case of silk and sand or fallen leaves. If
water happens to be standing under the vines, the worms all pupate among
the webbed foliage. They generally do this in Wisconsin, probably because
most of the bogs there are poorly drained. The pupa is light brown at first,
but it gets almost black iiefore the moth emerges. The pupal period of the
first brood is nearly two weeks, and that of the second about a week and
a half.

The Math.

The moth (fig. 7 and Plate One, lig. 6) is dark grayish brown and so small
that it often is mistaken for a fly when in flight. It expands somewhat over
three-eighths of an inch. The fore wings are marked with gray-brown and
silver-gray l)ands. The female may lay eggs within a day after It emerges.
The moths fly little during the day unless it is warm and very cloudy, but
they are flushed up easily. At dusk they fly and hover freely just above the
vines.

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

Treatment.

Cessation of Flooding.

If a badly infested bog is not flooded at all for three years it generally
becomes free of this pest, and sometimes it M'ill do so in a year. This treat-
ment is not advocated because of the danger of winterkilling and of a great
increase of fruit-worm infestation.

ReffoiciiK/.

Complete flooding early in June has been long the standard control for the
first brood. It also cleans bogs of several other pests. It is often very sat-
isfactory, but it nuist be done with a careful allowance for the factors that
cause the injury which often attends it and may destroy all prospects of a
crop. The vines are less likely to be hurt if the weather and water are clear
while the water is on, for strong sunlight is necessary to the process of photo-
synthesis by which the plants tend to maintain a normal supply of oxygen in
the water. A too-prolonged lack of sufficient oxygen is the main cause of
flooding injury. Cloudiness with a high water temperature is especially dan-
gerous, for the warmer the water the faster the plants respire and the greater
their need of oxygen. A ri.se in temi^erature of 18° F. doubles their rate of
respiration. The floral parts and growing tips respire much faster than other
parts of the vines and so are hurt most easily by flooding. Water from swamp
reservoirs is more likely to do harm than that from ponds or streams, for it
usually has much less oxygen to begin with. The conditions of weather and
water which injure the vines quickest also kill fireworms most readily.

The factors aifecting the results of this flooding vary so that it is hard to
make rules for the operation. The following table may be a fair guide in
clear weather witii water from a clean pond or stream.

Highest Temperature reached Time Complete Flood

by Water at Tops of Vines should be held

During Flood (degrees F.). (liours).

6.5 50

70 44

7.5 38

80 31

8.5 24

If it gets cloudv or the water is dark and from a swamp reservoir, the time
should be 8 to 24 hours according to circumstances. If the weather is very
warm, this reflow should be put on in the night if possible and als-o taken off
at night, for if tender, growing vines stand in water under a hot sun long
they may scald. This flooding must be done before the blossoms begin to open
much. If the winter water has been let ofl" before May 8, June 7 is usually
about the right date.

It has been found lately that tliis early sununer reflow iimch promotes the
infection of the new growth with the fungi of some of the worst putrefactive
cranberry diseases. Because of this and of the danger of injury attending its
application, the treatment is less approved than formerly. However, as it
"•reatlv checks^ the spread of the false blossom disease, while it is not certain
that any spray will do this, it seems advisable where this disease is present.

8. Probably indirectly.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 11

Reflooding before riio.st of tlie eggs liaU-li (say about May '25), if not fol-
lowed by a later treatment, tends to make an infestation worse, for it inter-
feres witli the progress of spiders and parasites onto the hog.

Late HoUliiKj of the Winter Flood.

If the winter flowage is lield late'-* and shallow and the weather is warm,
many of the eggs hatch under the water and the worms drown. If held till
August, it kills all the eggs tliat are under water and fail to hatch, but it also
cuts off the season's crop and' often so injures the vines that it takes them a
year or two to recover.

Any liolding of tlie winter flood after about May 10 generally tends to
control this insect by shortening its active season and thus increasing the sup-
pression of the second lirood. If it is held till May 25, the chances are nearly
even that this brood will be suppressed entirely. Where water supplies are
limited, advantage should i)e taken of this more generally than it has been.
Probably it is best to hold tlie winter water on most such bogs till May 22
rather regularly,^" and also spray as recommended below. Besides helping to
control the fireworm such late liolding of the winter flood keeps the vines in
condition to resist frost till about June 1, much improves the keeping quality
of the fruit, controls the false armyworm and largely checks tlie fruit worm
and gypsy moth.

A good treatment for serious infestations on large bogs is to bunch the
hatching of the eggs by liolding the winter fl>od till June 1, and reflood
three weeks later. 'I'his generally cleans out the fireworm well, but reduces
the season's crop.

Sprotii-vij.

The following is a standard sj)ray for tiiis pest on tlie Cape:"

4-0 per cent nicotine sulfate 1 quart

Fish-oil soap 4 or 5 pounds

Water 100 gallons

It should be used against the first brood from one to four times according
to circumstances, and against the second brood once or twice depending on
how much the hatching is suppressed. This spray never harms the leaves or
blossom buds, but it often blasts the flowers and small berries. If the soap
is left out, however, it is safe to use during and after the bloom. It is a bit
less effective without soap, but this may be made up for somewhat by adding
6 pounds of dry lead arsenate. It must be applied thoroughly and in suf-
ficient quantity not only to wet completely the tops of the vines but to pen-
etrate the tips webbed by the worms. Three liundred gallons or more to the
acre should be used for each application.

The second brood must be treated as soon as hatching is general, usually
five or six days after the first worms appear, for the following reasons: (1)

9. Till late May or later.

10. Such late holding is generally advisable only on mature bogs that ere completely flooded
with less than 18 inches of water.

11. Since this bulletin was written, a new spray, sodium oleate-oleoresin of pyrethrum, has
been found so effective in controlling the various fireworms and cranberry spanworms and leaf-
hoppers that it promises largely to displace nicotine sulfate as a cranberry insecticide. Un-
fortunately, this material has not yet been standardized, so the advisability of its use is curtailed
somewhat for the present. More extensive experience with it is necessary before an adequate
discussion of its use is possible. It should be used in concentrated form with sodium silicate
added, apparently at the rate of a pound in about fifteen gallons of water.

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

Because of ics partial suppre.ssion, tliis brood usually is well bundled in hatch-
ing; (2) the worms are killed most easily wiien small; (3) if treatment is
delayed, the worms may injure the tips so that they will not bud well for the
next year; and (^j the worms that enter berries cannot be reached with a
spray.

A half-effective spraying with nicotine sulfate for a moderate infestation
sometimes may do almost as much harm as good, for it affects the worms
less tlian tiieir nuicii more exposed natural enemies.

Outbreaks of a disease'- sometimes wipe out the second iirood on many liogs.
If spraying is contemplaied or in progress, it is well to watcii for tius, for
the epidemic uiay make treatment imnecessary. Tiie general abundance of the
fungus tluit causes it may be learned by leaving fifty of the worms in a moist
chamber'^ over night. By morning it will appear on most of the diseased ones
as a fluffy white mold, and around them as a ring of white sj)ore dust. Prof.
W. H. Sawyer, .Jr., has found this fungus absent or inactive on the bogs with
fireworm infestations notably resistant to control but generally abundant on
otlier infested areas. He has found further tliat tlie bogs on which it is scarce
are generally large, well-managed areas that have l)een flooded, sprayed and
resanded regularly. Evidently it is killed out, directly or indirectly, by late-
spring or summer flooding or by spraying or sanding, for no evidence has been
found that fall flooding or the winter flood, even wlien it is held late, affects
it. If, as the writer suspects, the early-summer flooding is responsible, this
sliould not he preferred to spraying as a treatment for insects except possibly
on bogs with false blossom. The fungus passes the winter in the form of
resistant spores among the chaff on the bog floor.

Moderate infestations of this fireworm must be treated as though tliey were
severe. Even sliglit ones should be given due attention, especially on large
bogs. They should be treated at least once during the season.

Yellow-head'cd Fireworm."

This pest never harms bogs that are flooded completely during the winter
on Cape Cod and seldom does elsewhere, for the wintering moths cannot en-
dure submergence. It is attacked by parasites much more than the black-
lieaded fireworm. They do not reduce the first brood much, but they decimate
the second so that, however severe the infestation, the first brood of the next
year never does much harm. There are two broods in Massachusetts, three in
Iowa and Wisconsin, and three and sometimes four in New Jersey.

Dlnfribution and Fond Phnifn.

This fireworm is known widely as an apple pest throughout the L'nited
States and soutliern Canada. It also feeds on huckleberry, swamp blueberry,'^

12. Caused by EnUimuphihora sphaerosperwa Fres. This fungus also attacks other insect
species. Prof. Sawyer has grown it abundantly on various culture media. This seems to have
been the first really successful culturing of a fungus of this genus. Prof. Sawyer is doing his field
work on this disease in co-operation with the Cranberry Station at East Wareham and studying
it ftirther in the Laboratories of Cryptogamic Botany at Harvard University. He is examining
carefully the possibilities of controlling this fireworm by distributing the culture-grown fungus
in a spray or otherwise.

13. A clear smooth tumbler inverted over a glass plate and containing a little moist cotton
is handy for this.

14. Peronea miniUa (Rob.).
1.5. Vaccinium cnrymbosum L.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 13

glaucous willow,"* and sweet gale.'' As a cranberry pest it is worse in New
Jersey than elsewhere. It is . nnich less generally destructi\e on the Cape
than the Itlack-headed hreworni.

Chararler of Injuri/.

The small worms of the first brood feed on the old leaves at first, usually
sewing the surfaces of two adjacent ones together and working between them.
Otherwise this species works much like the black-headed fireworm (fig. 8),
but it tends to gather more uprights into its web (fig. 9) and often does more
intensive injury, not only browning the l)og but often leaving only bare up-
rights in the fall. The worms work in the berries and score them as black-
headed firewornis do (fig. 10).

l>( gcripiiou ({11(1 t^ensnudl Histori/.

Tiic moths that appear in the fall (Plate One, fig. -i) are reddish gray, but
they gradually lose the red tinge and become slate color. They are small but
consideral)Ij- larger than those of the black-headed fireworm. They winter on
the bog and surrounding uj)land, hidden in the vines or other shelter, Itut fly
on warm days. They lay during April. The eggs look like tlnise of the black-
headed fireworm and are laid singly, n:ostly on the liacks of the leaves. They
hatch during the first half of May.

Newly hatched worms of the first brood usually have dark heads but they
soon change and conmionly are distinguished from black-headed firewornis by
the yellow color of the head. The body is pale yellowish. The nuiture worms
are about half an inch long (fig. 11). They pu})ate in silken cells among the
webbed uprights, mcstly early in Jtme.

The pupa is light brown at first, liiit it grows blackisii as the moth develops.
It is from a quarter to nearly a third of an inch long and has a prominent
and distinctive knob at its head end (fig. 12).

The summer moths appear late in June and fly about three weeks. They
are clear orange (Plate One, fig. 5), but otherwise like those of the winter
brood. They may lie flushed up in clouds on badly infested bogs. They lay
eggs during most of their flight and generally disajipear about July 10. The
eggs usually begin to hatch aliout July 8 to 10. 'I'he worms continue to appear
for some time and develop more slowly than the first brood, some of them not
maturing till early September. They pupate like the first brood, the pupal
stage lasting about a month, and the gray winter moths appear in September
and early October.

Treatmeiif.

Complete winter flooding, especially if the water is held till May, is a sure
control.

Spraying with 6 pounds of dry lead arsenate in 100 gallons of water is very
effective. It .should be done for the first brood about May 24-, and for the
second about July 10. The first-brood treatment will check the gypsy moth
also if that insect threatens. A single spraying, well timed for either brood,
should be enough for a whole season and often will control the pest for two or

16. Salix disinlnr Muhl.

17. Myrica gale L.

14

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

►< fe C

:=! P<,a
« ;3 O

DIZJ

PhPh

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

15

Yellow-headed Fireworm.
Fig. 10. Work on berries.
Fig. 11. Caterpillar. Much enlarged.
Fig. 12. Pupa. Much enlarged.

three years, for its parasites generally need only occasional help to keep it
down.

The moths may be killed early in April with a spray of 1 quart of 40 per
cent nicotine sulfate and 4 pounds of fish-oil soap in 100 gallons of water.'*
This treatment is advisable if there is no prospect of much gypsy moth in-

18. See note 11, p. 11.

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLEilTN 239

festation, for it will save spraying in the growing season with its mechanical
injury to the vines. This spray will kill the worms too, and it should be ap-
plied about June 6 if earlier treatment has been neglected, and the bog also
has a large .spittle-insect or leafhopper infestation.

Red'-striped Fireworm."

This insect never harms bogs that are flooded completely during the winter.
It is much less important than either of the firewornis already discu.ssed, but
it occasionally develops a severe infestation on a dry bog. It sometimes works
with the yellow-headed fireworm.

Description and Food Plants.

This New Jersey and Massachusetts pest has not been recorded as harming
bogs elsewhere. It ranges from Maine to Virginia and western Texas. Swamp
blueberry and dwarf blueberry"" are its favorite food plants. They usually
harbor large numbers of the worms in the fall everywhere in the eastern part
of the State. It also attacks deerberry-\ low blueberry-, dangleberry-'', black
huckleberry-^ male berry-^, fetter buslr", and leather leaf".

Character of Injur if.

Some of the newly hatclied worms go directly to the tips of the new growth,
bvit many first mine the l.)asal p;irt of the blade of the old leaf between which
and the stem the egg was held, entering it from the upper surface and covering
the entrance with a mass of green castings (figs. 13 and 14-).

The webbing begins among the terminal leaves but is not very conspicuous
there. As the season advances it is extended farther and farther down the
shoot and often two or three uprights are sewed together (fig. 1.5). This
species webs its nests more closely than the other firewornis do, and forms in
them a characteristic irregular tubular case of silk covered with brown cast-
ings (fig.. 16). The worms are parasitized considerably, but their nests are a
far better protection than those of other fireworms and they keep much more
concealed in them.

Description and I'^easonal Historif.

Most of tlie worms lenve tlieir cases during bite .September and Octolier and
g© down into the trash and surface sand of the bog floor to remain dormant
until the next spring. A few remain in their nests, many of which break off
and drop during the winter. They pupate one after another during most of
May and June. The moths usually appear froiu soon after mid-May until
into Auaust, those found toward the last being adults of a second brood.

19. ('•elechia Irialbamaculella Cham.

20. Vaccinium pennsyhanicum Lam.

21. Vacciniiun stamineum L.

22. Vaccinium racillaus Kalm.

23. Gaylussacia frondosa (L.) T. & G.

24. Gaylussacia baccata (Wang.) C. Koch.
2.T. Lyonia liRuslrina (L.) DC.

26. Leucolhoe racemosa (L.) Gray.

27. Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.) Moench.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

17

Red-striped Fireworm.

Fig. 13. Mine of young worm covered with castings.

Fig. 1-1. Cranberry leaves mined at base by newly hatched worms, with castings

removed.
Fig. 15. Nest of webbed cranberry uprights.
Fig. 16. Cranberry uprights with tubular cases made by worms in webbed nests.

The Moth.

The adult is mostly dark hniw n, hut lias a white face, larjie rusty Jialjii, a
few white dots on the fore winns and white spots on the legs (fig. 17 and
Plate One, fig. 3). It expands about nine-sixteenths of an ineli.

These moths usually keep quiet among the vines during the day, i)ut they
flush fairly easily. They have a darting flight and hide even more nimbly
than those of other fireworms, often going into the litter under the vines
when pursued.

The E(jg.

The moths lav eggs from late May to early August, the seeond brood lay-
intr toward the last.

18

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

Ked-striped Fireworm.

Fig. 17. Moth. Much enlarged.

Fig. 18. Cranberry upright with eggs between stem and base of leaf. Much enlarged.

Fig. 19. Larva. Considerably enlarged.

Tlie eggs are irregularly ellipsoid and aliout a fortieth of an inch long. Tliey
are very plastic and pearl white when laid, iiut turn pinkish or yellowisii l)e-
fore hatching. They usually are wedged in between the vine and the petiole
or the base of the blade of a leaf (fig. 18), or are placed among the bracts of
an opening terminal bud, but are deposited also under loose bark. They
usually hatch from mid- June to mid-August, the egg stage lasting about six-
teen davs in earlv June and about nine in late July.

The M'onn.

The newly hatched larva is pale greenish yellow, with the head and cervical
shield l)rown. As it grows its head becomes yellowish, and dull reddish lines
appear running the length of the back and sides. The mature worm (fig. 19)
is fully three-eighths of an inch long and is more slender and agile than other
firewornis.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

19

All the worms that liatcli In ,Iune pupate in their nests after mid-July, the
moths emerging at the end of ,Iuly and early in August. Most of those that
hatch after the first of July continue as worms till the following May as al-
ready noted. The insect is therefore partly one-brooded and partly two-
brooded.

Treatment.

Spraying with 6 pounds of dry lead arsenate to 100 gallons of water is
effective, but three applications (about June 22, July 10 and July 28) are
necessary because of the long hatching period of the insect.

One thorough application, about August 6, of the nicotine sulfate and soap
spray advocated for the black-headed fireworm will eradicate this pest.

Spotted Fireworm.
Fig. 20. Cranberry uprights with tips webbed by young worms.

Spotted Fireworm.'^

This is the least important of our four fireworms. It works mainly on dry
bogs, never infesting those that are reflooded regularly. It works like the
yellow-headed fireworm (fig. 20), but sews even more uprights into its nest.
It sometimes does considerable injury but never browns a bog.

Distribution and Food Plants.

This species lias l)een found in Mame, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New
York, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Canada. It has been recorded as a

28. Cacoecia parallela (Rob.).

20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

cranberry feeder in Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey and Wisconsin-".
It also attacks loosestrife^^ sweet' nielilot, willow and asier.

Description ami St'dsonal Histori/.

The Worm.

The worms are seen on the bogs first in early June. They mature in late
June or early July and pupate in early or mid-,Iuly. The moths emerge during
the last lialf of .Jiiiy or early in August. '1 hey lay llieir eggs late in July and
early in August. The eggs haLch in about ten days. The worms grow slowly
and are found in steadily decreasing numl)ers until tlie first of September
when the last disappear. They are less than a third grown wlien they thus
\anisli. They may hide in trash on the bog floor to winter.

The small worms are yellowish white with l)rown heads. As they grow, the
liead becomes amber and the body for a time may l)e somewlnat reddish. As
they mature (Plate One, fig. 7), the liead changes to rather light reddisli
brown and the body becomes more or less oli\e green on tiie back and sides,
with conspicuous and somewjiat ele\ ated white spocs along tlie wliole length,
and usually one pale iiair rising from each spot. They grow to be fully three-
quarters of an inch long and pupate among the webbed upriglits.

The Pupd:

The })upa stpiirnis vigorously when dishirbed. It is al)out half an inch long
and mostly chestnut lirown, but its back is soiiewhat darker, being almost
black toward the front. There is a projiiinent transverse ridge at the head
end and several rows of small lackwardly directed teeth run across the top
of the abdomen.

The Moth.

The moth (Plate One, fig. 1) expands about three-fourths of an inch. It is
brown with two chocolate-colored stripes crossing each fore wing diagonally,
one near the middle and the other siiading tiie tip.

The E{f(i.

The eggs are minute, circular, and flat and partly ovcrlaji one another, be-
ing laid in flat shiny masses of 100 to 1-50. They are lemon yellow at first but
later become orange, and as they near hatciiing the brown bands of the worms
siiow plainly through the shells.

Trcdftnent.

The worms seldom are noticed nuich before tiiey mature and as they rarely
do serious harm it seldom pays to treat them. The nicotine and soap spray
advocated for the black-headed fireworm, applied thoroughly, will kill them.

29. Hardenberg's "'Oblique-banded roller (Archips species)" was pretty certainly this species
(See Wis. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 159, p. 15, 190.).

30. Lyshnachia sp.

CAPE COD CHANBERRY INSECTS 21

CUTWORMS.

These worms feed openly, never webbing tlie vines. They are one and a
half to two inches long when mature, and without noticeable iiair. They feed
mostly at night, usually hiding during the day among the vines or in tlie litter
on the bog floor or under pieces of board if such are present. They all belong
to the same family and, except for differences in coloration, are nuich like
garden cutworms. Most of them are conunon pests of other crops. All but
the false armyworm do injury out of all proportion to the amount of their
eating by cutting off flower buds, flowers, small berries or leaves and dropping
them to the ground. The green leaves fallen on the water in the hog ditches
are often the first sign of their work observed. The moths of all but the
blossom worm ordinarily are night-fliers and seldom seen. They measure an
inch and a half or more across their outspread wings. Their eggs (fig. 23)
are round, slightly flattened, and marked with many ridges radiating from
the summit. The worms generally are severely parasitized.

These insects, except the false armyworm and the blossom worm, rarely
attack cranberry bogs mucli unless the winter flowage has been held until the
last of May or later^\ This may be due to one or botli of the two following
possible causes, the first lieing the more likely''-:

1. The moths seem to prefer to lay their eggs on or over damp earth. Bogs
drained during the flight of the moths therefore probably invite infestation.

2. By breeding on freshly drained areas the insects may escape their na-
tural foes largely and so develop as they could not otherwise.

The chances are two to one that some of these worms will infest a bog if
the winter flood is held till June. Sometimes two species attack a bog to-
gether under such conditions and occasionally one is prevalent on some bogs
and another on others. They usually appear about two weeks after the water
is let off.

The various s])ecies are hard to distinguish for a time after they hatch, all
being then mostly whitish or greenish, but they may be identified after they
are half-grown by the following:

Table of ^Vort)ls.

Mostly dark, without definite side stripes black cutworm (p. 31).

With a conspicuous stripe along each side 1

1. With a row of two to four angular dark spots on each side

of the hind part of the back spotted cutworm (p. 28).

Without such spots 2

2. The back reddish lirown and not marked with pale yellow dots

cranberry blossom worm (p. 26).
The back mostly dark, grayish, or green 3

3. Found on a bog bared of its winter water before May 20

false armyworm (p. 23).

Found on a bog liared of its winter water after May 20 i

k With many small round or o\aI dark tubercles noticeable

along the back fall armyworm (p. 35).

The back without such tubercles; each leg of the four pairs
]ilaced together near and beliind the middle of the body
striped noticeably across the middle of the outer side with
deep brown armyworm (p. 32).

.31. Refloodins for ten days or longer in late May sometimes has the same effect that very
late hoi ding of the winter water has. If the winter water is let off and the bog is flooded again
within a. few days, the reflood should be regarded as a continuation of the winter flood as far as
its relations to these cutworms are concerned.

32. Mass. .\gr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 192. p. 133. 1919.

PLATE ONE

Upper Part: Fireworm Moths and Wonn.

Fig. 1. — Spotted fire>woriti moth.

Fig. 2. — Moth of Sparganothis sulfureana (Clem.)

The moth is common on dry bogs. The larva has a yellow head and
works as a fireworm but never is plentiful enough to do much harm.
It also attacks grape and strawberry.
Fig. 3.— RED-STRIPED FIREWORM* moth.
Fig. 4. — Winter moth of YELLOW-HEADED FIREWORM.
Fig. 5. — Summer moth of YELLOW-HEADED FIREWORM
Fig. 6.— BLACK-HEADED FIREWORM moth.
Fig. 7. — Mature spotted fireworm.

Lower Part : Cutwonn Moths.

Figs. 8a and 8b. — BLOSSOM WORM moths, showing variatioa.

Fig. 9. — Fall armyworm moth.

Fig. 10. — Black cutworm moth.

Fig. 11. — Spotted cutworm moth.

Fig. 12. — ARMYWORM moth.

Fig. 13. — FALSE ARMYWORM moth.

PLATE TWO

Cutworms and Cranberry Shoot shov/ing Rose-Bloom.

Figs, la and lb.— Mature ARMYWORM.

Figs 2a and 2b. — Mature spotted cutworm.

Figs. 3a and 3b. — Mature BLOSSOM WORM.

Figs, la and 4b. — Half-grown BLOSSOM WORM.

Fig. 5. — Mature black cutworm.

Fie. 6. — Rosy shoots caused by rose-bloom.

Figs. 7a, 7b, 7c and 7d.— Mature FALSE ARMYWORM. The last

three figures show its variation in coloration.
Figs. 8a and 8b. — Mature fall armyworm.

The names of the more commonly harmful pests are in capitals.

Plate onf

12

13

Plate two

3a

4a

7d

^ |]/

8a 8b

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 23

The color of the spiracles helps to distinguish some of tJiese worms in their
later stages. The spiracles are the respiratory organs placed at intervals
along the sides of tlie body. They should he examined with a good lens. Tliose
of the armyworm and the black cutworm are blackish, those of the spotted
cutworm clear yellowish white rimmed with deep brown (fig. 21), those of
the blossom worm reddish brown to dark brown rimmed with dark brown,
those of the false armyworm yellowish white in the half-grown stages but dee])
orange rimmed with deep brown as the worm matures, and those of the fall
armyworm pale brown with the rim dark brown.

Spotted Cutworm.

Fig. 21. Spiracle of caterpillar.
Much enlarged.

False Armyworm. ^^

This worm is not known as a cranberry feeder elsewhere, but it has attacked
Cape Cod bogs for many years and probably ever since the industry began.
Some years it is hardly noticed, but sometimes it is one of the more important
pests, destroying all prospects of a crop on many bogs if it is not checked.
It never infests bogs on which tlie winter water is held till May 15, and sel-
dom harms strictly dry bogs^^ nnich.

Distribution (m<l Food Plant.^-.
This insect ranges throughout tlie northeastern United States and southern
Canada, south to the District of Columbia and west to Nebraska and Alberta.
It attacks various weeds, grasses, iris, and apjile as well as cranberry.

Chttrdcter of Jnjuri/.
The young worms often do great harm liy eating out the liearts of the ter-
minal buds (fig. 22) before new growth starts. They develop with the new
growth and feed more and more voraciously ujion it as they mature, de\ouring
leaves, buds and flowers with equal avidity and sometimes leaving little of the
new shoots but the stems, but seldom eating the old foliage much. Their work
is more like that of gypsy moth caterpillars than that of any other cranberry
pest. They feed freely in the daytime.

Description and Seasonal Histori/.
The E(jg.

The moths of both sexes winter^'' and the females lay about 600 eggs apiece

33. Xylena nupera (Lint.). Heretofore known in cranberry literature as Calocampa nupera.

34. The moths seem to prefer damp locations for egg-laying.

35. These moths, especially the females, may be caught readily at honey baits on tree
trunks about the bogs in the milder nights of April.

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

ill late April and very early May, placing them in masses of sometimes over
a hundred on the stems or the backs of the leaves of cranberry ui)rii;hts {i\<x.
23). The eggs are whitish at first but soon turn light yellow and later he-
come reddish brown. They are about a thirty-lirst of an inoli in diameter.
They hatch during the second and third week of May, the egg stage lasting
lifteen to twenty days.

The ]Vorni.

The newly hatclied worms (lig. 24.) are wliitisii and marked v\ith many l)iack
spots each of which bears a slender black spine, these being conspicuous under
a lens. They loop much like spanworms but gradually droj) this movement.
They soon become green with whitish lines along the i)ack and sides, being
somewhat darker above than below, and retain this coloration till over a
third grown.

The mature caterpillar (Plate Two, tigs. 7a, 7b, 7c and 7(1) is about two
inches long and its head is uniform greenish jellow. Though tlie arrange-
ment and relative widtli of the various stripes and lines along the i)ody are
the same in all specimens, the general color \aries from grass green to dark
brown. The stripes are as follows: a broad band of varying color runs tlie
length of the back and is divided in the middle lengthwise by a light line; this
t)and is bordered on each side by a yellowish line; below this line on each side
is a nnich lighter stripe extending nearly down to the s])iracles; across the
spiracles passes a blackish line which is bordered below liy a. sidfur yellow
one. There are light dots at intervals along the back. The body is greenish
or flesh-colored lieneatli. 'I'he spiracles are or;inge, ringed witli deep brown.

The Pupa.

The worms mature in late Jime and go into tlie groimd to remain dormant
two to six weeks before pupating. They pupate mainly in late July and early
August. The pupae are stout, about an inch long, and dark brown.

The Moth.

The moths emerge from mid-August till late September. They are (Plate
One, fig. 13) light coffee brown with the body reddish sooty brown below and
on the back between the wings. The top of the head, the collar, and the abdo-
men above are pale yellowish brown. The fore wings are variegated, with
brown, gray and sooty streaks above and are light brown below. The hind
wings are pale brown with a conspicuous dark spot somewhat before the
middle and toward the base on the under side. The wings ex})and two inciies
or more.

Treat)nenf.
Flooding.

On tcinter-flo'ived hoys scant of icater for reflvodhuj : — Hold the winter
water rather regularly till May 22. This preventive has other advantages.
(See p. 11).

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

25

False Armyworm.

Pig. 22. Cranberry uprights with terminal buds drilled by young worms.

Fig. 23. Egg-masses. Much enlarged.

Fig. 24. Cranberry leaf with newly hatched worm. Much enlarged.

26 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

Oil Ixxj.s Ixired of the n'liiter water eitiij/ (uid zcitli plentiful zeiUer supplies:

If the net count (p. 3) calls for it, flood jilxnit May 18 for about fifteen
hours. If the net count is equivalent to not more than 18 cutworms to 50
sweeps, this treatment may be put oflF til! late May or early June when it will
check other pests also, but this is not advocated.

SpraiiiiKj.

Spraying witii 6 pounds of dry lead arsenate in 100 gallons of water in
mid-May is effective. It will not check the worms after they are half-grown.

Baitivij.

A poisoned l)ait should be used to reduce serious infestations of any of the
cutworms discussed in this paper if flooding cannot be done and the worms
have grown too large to check by spraying. The formula for its preparation is
as follows: Wheat bran, 2.5 pounds; sodium fluosilicate, 2 pounds; water,
enough to moisten. Mix the dry bran and fluosilicate thoroughly with the
hands, then add the water gradually and stir till the bait is dampened
throughout but not too wet to crumble and spread readily. This amount of
material should be broadcasted by hand over an acre just after sunset. The
bait is not eft'ective after it gets stale or has been soaked by rain, so a second
application tiiree or four days after the first is often advisable.

Cranberry Blossom Worm.''

This is a minor cranberry pest in New Jersey and Massachusetts and is
not known to harm, bogs elsewhere. It often destroys the crop promise en-
tirely on a small area here and there on the Cape. It is confined to bogs not
reflooded regularly in late May or June or after picking.

Distribution and Food I'lnnts.

This insect ranges through the Northeastern States from Maine to Illinois.
Cranberry is its sole known food plant.

Character of Injur;/.

The young worms first nibble the leaves, especially at the margin, or bore
into the buds and so spoil them for fruit production. As they grow, they nip
off the buds and flowers, dropping them to the ground. They rarely cut off
the leaves much, differing in this from the spotted cutworm and the army-
worm. Thev work very little in the daytime.

36. Epiglaea apiala {Gr.}. Some growers call it "the bud worm."

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

27

Description nnd Seasonal Histvrij.

The Eyy.

Most of the eggs are laid in October. Tliey are pale yellow at first but
soon turn dingy brown. Tliey are fastened singly to fallen leaves (fig. 2.5)
or pieces of dead vine littering the bog floor. They pass the winter, the bog
flowage not harming them even when held fairly late. They usually hatch
somewhat after the middle of May on bogs drained in April, and in late May
or early June where tlie winter flood has been held till after mid-May.

Cranberry Blossom Worm,
rig. 25. Eggs on fallen leaves.

The Worm.

The worms (Plate Two, figs. 4a and 4b), after they pass their first stages,
are reddish brown, with the head light mottled brown and with a whitish
stripe along each side of the smooth and well-rounded body. They mature
the last of June on bogs bared of the winter flood early. They tlien become
pale brown, often look somewliat bloated and act torpid and are nearly an
inch and a half long (Plate Two, figs. 3a and 3b). They soon enter the ground
or deep trash to remain dormant two to four weeks before pupating.

The Pupa.

Pupation normally occurs mostly in late July, usually in a cell slightly
below the surface of the ground. The pupa is brown and about five-eighths of
an inch long. It is enclosed in a loose and indefinite cocoon of silk and sand.
The moths emerge during September and are active till mid-November.
Pupation may take place in August or early September and the moths emerge
in late September and early October on l)ogs drained of tlie winter water late.

The Moth.

The moths vary greatly in color. Some (Plate One, fig. 8a) are brownish
gray; others (Plate One, rig. 8b) are fox red above and somewhat lighter be-
low. The front wings are crossed by a few fine lines and there are two char-
acteristic subcircular markings placed lengthwise on the middle of tiie front
part of each. The main part of the body is tufted heavily with iiair. The
wings expand about an inch and a half. These motl.s are seen commonly in
September and October on infested bogs and on the uplands everywhere. The
females are prolific layers. The males fly well and often.

Treatment.

FJoodmij.

Flood for 18 days right after picking the crop, beginning late in Septemiier

28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

if ])(),ssihle. This kills the moths and jirohahly any i)upae that remain. This
treatment has oth.er a chantages. (See ]). .58).

The flooding late in May advocated for control of the fivpsy moth will de-
.stroy this pest if the winter water has been let off in April; and the floodinf>-
in June for the hlack-headed fireworm checks it anyway.

SprtniiDji.

A spray of (i jiounds of dry lead arsenate in 100 gallons of water is ef-
fective if aj>])lied before the v.orms are half-grown. Tiiey grow harder to
poison as tiiey I'latiire.

BaUiiKi.

See page 26.

Spotted Cutworm."

Tliis insect lias been V.nown to injure occasionally small areas of bog on
Cape Cod for over twelve years but has not been reported as a cranberry
pest elsewhere. There was a marked outbreak in 1923, two hundred acres or
more of bog in \arious parts of the Cape being so infested as to lose most of
the prosjiective crop, and a few of the worms and scattering marks of their
work being found on most bogs.

I>i,'^trihution (iikI Faod l^'ants.

This cutworm was brought into our country from Eurasia many years ago
and now ranges from New England to southern Missouri and the Pacific coast
of Oregon and Washington.

It is a very pernicious pest of vegetable and forage crops. The following-
are some of its food plants: beet, cabbage, celery, chicory, chickweed, clover,
corn, cranberry, currant, fern, goldenrod, grass, Helianthus, lettuce. Lobelia,
maple, onion, jiear, rhubarb, spinach, strawi)erry, tobacco, tomato, violet and
wheat.

Character of Injur;/.

In 1923, this insect did much harm on a few acres of one bog bared of its
winter flood in April. With this exception, it has been known to attack severe-
ly only bogs drained of the winter water between May 26 and June S. It
generally works more on Howes vines than on Early Black. The worms work
almost entirely at night. They n^^ off the blossom buds, flowers and small
berries, severing the stem near where it joins the ovary (fig. 26), being most
active during the blooming. They also excavate partly grown berries (fig.
27) nnich as katydids do, and cut oft' luany leaves by severing the petiole, ap-
parently eating little of the tissue. The fallen green leaves are seen first in
and along the Itog ditches and later everywhere under nuich infested vines.
Severe infestations sometimes so defoliate small areas that the bare uprights
ifive the vines a brown tinge at a distance.

37. Agroiis c-nigrum (L.).

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

29

o^

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

Descriptiim and Seaaoual His'ori/.

The worms live througli the winter and pupate in hite April and early May.
The moths emerge in late May and early June and soon lay eggs. The worms
that hatch from them mature in late July and early August. They pupate in
the soil at depths of one to four inches, usually from tlie last of July to late
August. The pupal stage averages about nineteen days, the second brood of
moths emerging from mid-August to early September. These moths lay mostly
in early September, the eggs hatching in about two weeks to jjroduce the
worms that winter.

The E(i<f.

The eggs are laid in rows or compact masses, one moth laying tv.'o hundred
or more.

The Il'or;H.

The yoimg worms are pale at first, but tiiey assume their mature colora-
tion before they are half grown. The mature worm (Plate Two, figs. '2a and
2b) is al)0ut an incli and a half long and dull gray or l)rown with greenish
or olive-brown tints. It has a whitish stripe along each side and two to four
rather conspicuous angidar, blackish spots in a row on each side of tiie liind
part of the back. The head is light yellowish brown with a color network of
darker brown.

The Pupct.

This is mahogany brown and about thiee-fourths of an incii long.

The Moth.

Tlie moth (Plate One, fig. 11) expands about an inch and a half. Its back
between the wing bases is reddish sooty gray, with a pale gray or whitish
collar in front. The upper side of the abdomen is light brown. The under
side of the body is dark gray, with light gray or even whitish sometimes pre-
vailing on the sides and hind part of the chest. The fore wings are mostly
dull brown above, usually tinged slightly with reddish or bluish. Each has a
conspicuous triangular pale patch reaching back from near the middle of its
front margin and nearly dividing an equally noticeable dark brown area, also
some blackisli markings toward the base and a blackish spot toward the outer
end and nmning back from the front margin. The imder side of the fore
wings is light brown. The hind wings are whitish with lirown shadings.

Treattuent.

Floodiuff.

On Jioi/s that cannot lie reffooded. — Prevention: Do not let off tlie winter
water lietween ]\Iay 23 and June 15.

On />or/,s- that ran be reffooded. — If the net count (p. 3) sliows treatment
is necessarv, flood about June 30 for 1.5 hours.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 31

t^prai/iini.

8i>rayinfi' Ixigs while tlie worms are small never has lieen fairly tried. A
spray of 6 pounds of dry lead arsenate in 100 gallons of water should lie
effective. The worms are hard to poison after they are half-grown.

Baitiiu/.

See page 26.

Black Cutworin,.^'

This pest attacks cranberry bogs seriously only when the winter flood has
been held till the last of May or later. It sometimes works with the spotted
cutworm and also with the armyworni.

DUitribution and Food Plants.

Important outbreaks of this pest have occurred in Indiana, Oregon and
India^^ on lands which, having been overflowed, became drained at a time
favorable to egg laying by the moths. It inhabits nearly the whole civilized
world. Apple, asparagus, bean, beet, cabbage, chicory, cotton, corn, grape,
grass, onion, potato, spinach, squash, strawberry, tobacco, and tomato are
among its food plants. The worms devour each other and spotted cutworms
greedily.

Character of Injiiri/.
This worm works on cranberry vines much as the armyworni does (seep. 33).

Description and Seasonal Hhttori/.

The life history has not been traced thorougiily. There seems to be much
irregularity in it. The insect winters as a worm in various stages of growth
and sometimes as a pupa. The moths are active from late May till late Oc-
tober. There probably are two broods in this state, the moths of the first being
most abundant in June and July and those of the second in August and
September. Egg laying occurs in June and July, — probably throughout most
of those months. The eggs are said to hatch in about twenty-two days.

The Worm.

In its early life this caterpillar usually is mostly a rather indefinite green-
ish brown or gray in color, tiie green element being due to the food in the
worm rather than to dermic pigment. When more mature (Plate Two, fig. 5),
it is mostly dark brown or sooty gray on the back and sides and grayish
below. A rather indefinite and inconspicuous broad stripe of somewhat light-

38. Agroiis ypsilon (Rott.)- Also known as the "greasy cutworm."

39. Rockwood. L. P.. 1925. Journ. Econ. Ent.. Vol. 18, No. 5, p. 717.

32 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

er l)rown usiuilly runs alonp,- the back. Tlie head, tlie neck shield and the
spiracles are mostly lilack.

These worms have a peculiar disgusting appearance that has been described
as "greasy". They are about an inch and a half long when mature and often
are very active in the afternoon.

The Muth.

The moth (Plate One, fig. 10) expands nearly one and three-fourths inches.
The head is mostly reddish brown. The collar is sooty gray with a trans-
verse line of l)lack. The front part of tlie back is sooty gray. The breast is
light gray. The hind part of the body is pale brownish above and light gray
below. The fore wings are mostlj- sooty above with a few inconspicuous black
markings, tiie outer third of each l)eing light brown. They are pale brown-
ish underneath. The hind wings are pale with brown shades toward the
margins.

Treatment.

Floodituj.

On Jiotia tlmt cannot he re flooded. — Pre\ention: Let off the winter water
before May 2.5.

On hoijs that con he reflooded. — Flood for 15 liours as soon as the net count
(page 3) shows it is necessary.

Sprai/iiij/.

What has l)een said of the lilossom worm in regard to spraying is true of
this pest also.

Baiting.

See page 26. '

Armyworm.

This notorious cutworm infests bogs after late draining of the winter water
oftener than the others. It may attack if this flood is let off at any time
))etween about May 27 and about July 10. It never harms a bog drained early
unless it is very grassy or is reflooded for ten days or longer in late May.

The motiis seem to fly at times with tlie prevailing winds for many miles in
great numbers and aliglit in a body to lay their eggs in a place favorable to
the development of the worms. This accounts for the sudden appearance of
this insect in regions remote from any known source of infestation. A few
of the moths appear every year over most of the area in which it occurs, but
this does not explain the sudden great invasions that come from time to time.

Armvworm outlireaks nearly alwavs start in the Southern States. They are

40. Cirphii iinipicntta (Haw.).

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 33

noted there by the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department
of Agriculture, M'hieh predicts their spread into the North. They are more
common after cold, backward springs.

The armyworm feeds mostly in low meadows and among rank-growing
grasses. Its movement in armies is not normal, but follows an exhaustion of
food which compels it to S})read to other places.

IXsf ribiiliou iiikI Food Plants.

This originally was an Anicrican insect, but it now inliabits most of the
world.

It prefers grasses, both wild and cultivated, and the grains, such as barley,
corn, millet, oats, rye and wheat. When pressed with hunger a little, it at-
tacks alfalfa, apple, bean, beet, cabbage, cauliflower, clover, cranberry, cucum-
ber, flax, lettuce, parsley, pea, pepper, stravvberry, sweet potato, watermelon,
and other plants.

Character of Injiirj/.

The worms nip otT the craniierry leaves more freely than lilossom worms
and spotted cutworms do, sometimes nearly defoliating th.e vines. They also
commonly cut new uprights nearly otf, so that they iireak over and hang by a
thread. They feed mostly at night and on cloudy days, but also travel and
feed a good deal in bright weather.

Description and Seasonal Histori/.

The life history of the armyworm has not l)een traced thoroughly, for it
varies widely in diflf'erent jiarts of the country. It seems to have six broods in
the South and two in New England. It appears to winter here as a partly
grown caterpillar, but probably survives only our mildest winters. The worms
mature in the .spring and go an inch or more into the soil to pupate. The
pupal stage lasts two weeks or longer, and the motiis emerge from the ground
and fly at night, laying eggs for the next brood. These hatch in a week to
ten days. The worms mature in about a month, go into the ground, jnipate
and Iiecome moths as described for the first brood. The moths ajipear in
.•\ugust and early Se]itember and lay their eggv, and the caterjiiJlars from
these hibernate.

It will be seen that tiie worms feed in the fall and early spring in one brood
and in the sunnner in another. The latter only is destructive.

The Efjij.

The eggs are laid in rows or masses of ten to fifty, mostly in the leaf
sheaths of grasses and grains or on stubble or straw, usually in moist or
shaded spots. Each moth commonly lays five to six hundred.

The Worm.

The yovmg worms loop like spanworms and spin down on silken threads
but soon lose tJiese habits. The maturing caterpillar (Plate Two, figs. la and

3i MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

lb) is smooth and rather dark. A broad dark lirown stripe runs the length
of the back and usually is divided by a broken pale line running along its
middle. At each side of the dark back stripe is a narrower reddish yellow
one, then a dark one, and lastly another reddisii yellow one. These colors vary
somewhat. The stripes are separated by pale yellow lines. The under side of
the body is pale greenish brown. The spiracles are black. Each proleg of
the four anterior pairs has a noticeable deep brown stripe across the middle
of its outer side. The head is yellowish brown with a color network of dark-
er brown. Tiie mature worm is about an inch and a half long.

The Pupa.

This is reddish or chestnut brown at first, becoming blackish Ijefore the
moth emerges.

The Moth.

Swarms of the moths often appear about street lights shortly before an
outbreak of the worms. Cranberry men sometimes may be warned by this
and should know the moth at sight. It usually spreads about an inch and
five-eights and is plain light brown (Plate One, fig. 12). Each fore wing has
a white speck near the center of the upper surface and a dark shade running
liack obliquely from the outer angle.

The motiis live on the nectar of flowers and the honeydew of certain insects,
and sometimes many may be caught with sweet baits at night. As they rarely
lay eggs near where they have developed and often fly many miles jjefore
doing so, there seldom are two outbreaks a year in any one locality.

Treatment.

Floodimj.

On boys that cannot be reflooded. — Consult tiie Bureau of Entomology of
the United States Department of Agriculture as to the probability of an
armyworm invasion. If an outbreak is predicted, do not hold the winter water
after May 2.5.

On boijs that can be reflooded. — Flood for 1-5 hours as soon as the net count
(page 3) shows treatment is necessary.

Spraying.

What has been said of the blossom worm in regard to spraying applies to
this worm also.

Baitin<j.
See page 26.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 35

Fall Arnriyworm."

Tliis insect is not known to Iiave liarnied cranberry vines in Massachusetts.
It worked havoc in New Jersey in 1916^- on several bogs bared of their winter
water in mid-July. It sometimes injures grasses and grains greatly on Cape
Cod and is therefore likely on rare occasions to infest a few bogs there if they
iiappen to present favorable conditions when it is prevalent. This species
attacks later than the other cranberry cutworms and is the only one, except per-
haps the black cutworm, likely ever to infest a Cape bog seriously when the
winter flowage is let oflF after July 20. It will not attack a bog drained much
iiefore July, this probably explaining why it has appeared as a cranberry pest
in New Jersey and not in Massachusetts, for the Cape growers rarely follow
the common New Jersey practice of Jiolding the winter water until July to
kill out weeds and insects.

Disfribufion and Food Plants.

This pest occurs yearly in Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, and
South America and its worst outbreaks may originate in those regions. It is
evidently a native of tropical or subtropical America. Apparently it cannot
survive the winter north of southern Georgia or central Texas. In the years
of its great abundance in the South great numbers of the moths fly north-
ward, sometimes for hundreds of miles, and lay their eggs. These hatch and
the worms develop into moths which again fly northward before laying. In
this way the insect in favorable summers spreads over most of the eastern two-
thirds of the United States and even to Canada before fall frosts halt it. It
sometimes does immense damage to crops throughout this range. Its favorite
food plants are grasses such as quack or crab grass, Bermuda grass, blue
grass, Johnson grass, etc. It seriously injures alfalfa, clover, corn, cotton,
cowpea, kafir, millet, oats, rice, sorghum, sugar cane and wheat. It sometimes
attacks beet, bean, buckwheat, cabbage, grape, pecan, pepper, peanut, potato,
sweet potato, strawberry, spinach, tobacco, tomato, turnip, and other plants.

The worms devour each other and other cutworms eagerly. They work
rather freely in the daytime, even in sunny weather.

There usually are five broods a year in the Gulf states, but only one appears
in any one place in the North.

When Oiithreaks mai/ he Expected.

General invasions of this pest occur nearly always after cold, wet springs.
In parts of the Mississippi Valley it is called the "overflow worm," for the
farmers attribute its outbreaks to the overflowing of the great river. There
is evidence to support this belief. Cold and dampness seem to destroy the
insect enemies that ordinarily control the pest but do not harm the worm it-
self. This may explain the outbreaks that occur almost yearly in scattered
places in the South after periods of heavy local rains.

Character of Injnri/.
The work of this insect is like that of the armyworm (page 33).

41. Laphygma frugiperda (S. & A.).

42. Proc. Amer. Cranberry Growers' Assoc. 47, p. 11, 1917.

36 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

Description.

The E<j(j.

The luotlis lay tlieir eggs mostly at niglit, In masses of from lifty to five
hundred, preferably on grass blades, though they may place them on any plant
suitable as food for the young worms. Low-lying fields of grass or small
grains often are chosen for this, so the outbreaks usually begin in bottotu
land. Sometimes the eggs are laid on lawns. They are light gray and always
are covered with grayish down from the moth's body. Each egg is n)ucli
flattened at the base. This stage lasts a week or more in the Northern States.

The Worm.

The newly hatched caterpillar has a black head and whitish body. As they-
mature, the worms (Plate Two, figs. 8a and 8b) much resemble armyworms
and vary greatly in color. The body is striped lengthwise on a groimd color
varying from l)uff to dull gray or nearly black. A pale yellow line divides
lengthwise tlie broad mottled-buff stripe covering most of the back. On each
side of this broad stripe is a light line, then a dark stripe, and lastly — nearly
down to the legs — a light yellow stripe mottled with reddisii. The under side
is pale, varying from buff to green, and often tinged with red, esjieciaily
toward the sides. Tubercles appear plainly as dark dots, particularly along
the back. The head is deep brown mottled with pale yellow and always has
an inverted white "Y" on the face. The worm matures in about three weeks
in the North, becoming an inch and a quarter to an incli and a half long.

The Pupa.

The pupa is like that of the armyworm but a little smaller, being one-half
to three-fourths of an inch long. It is light green at first but soon turns light
brown and finally almost black. It is formed in a cell an inch or so in the
ground.

The Moth.

The moth expands from an inch tc one and three-eighths inches and has a
pale-brown body. The fore wings of some specimens (Plate One, fig. 9) are
mottled brown, with one whitish area near the tip and another running back
obliquely from near the middle of the front margin; those of others are uni-
formly dark grayish-brown. The hind wings are whitish with a pearly or
pinkish lustfr ami edged with smoky brown.

riu- moths are attracted strongly to lights.

Treatment.
Floniiin;!.

On boijx that cannot Ije refloodeiL — The Bureau of Entomology of the
L'nited States Department of Agriculture notes the more severe outbreaks of
this pest in the South and predicts their spread into the North. Growers
lilanning to hold winter flowage till July should consult the Bureau as to the
chance of an invasion before doinc so.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 37

On bogs that can be reflooded. — Flood for 15 liours as soon as tlie net count
(see page 3) shows it is necessary.

^pratjiiKi.

^\'llat lias been said of the spotted cutworm in regard to sjiraying is true
of this insect. Spraying witli lead arsenate is a standard control in the South.

BaituKj.

See page 26.

SPAfxWORMS

These insects, known also as loopers and inchwornis, have a striking way of
crawling. They stretch out at full length, take hold with the front legs,
and then bring forward the hind end close to the front pairs of feet, the body
between bending well up out of the way. This habit is due to the lack of
several legs that other caterpillars have to support the middle of the body.
The hind part has only two pairs of legs.

These worms are more slender than most caterpillars. They are hairless
and feed openly, never sewing leaves together. When disturlied they cling to
their support by the hind pairs of legs and remain straight and motionless.
As they usually are colored to harmonize with their habitual surroundings and
often resemble short or tiroken twigs, this habit tends to save tliem from their
enemies.

These insects commonly attack bogs here and there in Massachusetts l)ut,
save the chain-spotted geometer, have never been reported as doing so else-
where. The kinds seen most on the bogs may be distinguished i)y the following:

Talde of Worms.
Body mostly pale yellowisli or pinkisii, with a reddish

herringbone stripe along tiie back Eupithecin minerula'n Gr."

Body mostly yellow chain-spotted geometer (p. 46).

Body mostly green green cranberry spanworm (p. 39).

Body mostly brown or gray 1

1. Witii a row of conspicuous irregular reddish yellow

spots along each side red-S))otted spanworm."

Not thus marked 2

2. With a pair of noticeable tuliercles a little way

from the middle of the back 3

Without such tubercles brown cranberry spanworm (p. 41).

3. The tubercles in front of the middle of the back cotton spanworm (p. 44).
The tubercles behind the middle of the back

big cranberry spanworm (p. 44).

The green cranberry sjjanworm and tile brown craniierry spanworm are far
more important pests than the others, and when either of them liecomes pre-
valent it usually stays with the bog year after year till it is treated. They

43. An unimportant worm that often eats into the green berries and into meadow beauty
flower buds.

44. An unimportant worm, nearly an inch and a half long when mature, rather common
during the first half of June on dry bogs and bogs that are not reflooded. It also attacks swamp
blueberry. The moth has not yet been reared.

38

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

^S

hJD bJO

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 39

seem never to harm dry lioiits much. Tliey attack mostly l)ogs flowed during
the winter and not reflooded much m June. If they are once thoroughly elim-
inated from a bog, their presence in destructive alumdance need not be feared
again for several years. Extensive outbreaks of the two species probably
have occurred nearly sinudtaneously and after marked general reductions of
the black-headed fireworm, for the June reflooding and the lead arsenate
spraying formerly generally practised to control the fireworm check these
worms also. They are likely to be more prevalent than heretofore because the
nicotine sulfate spray that has displaced lead arsenate as a fireworm treatment
does not harm them nuich. i

Growers should know the moths of these two species, for their abundance
indicates coming trouble.

Green Cranberry Spanworm.^'

This species occurs in limited numiiers on most Cape Cod bogs every| year
and sometimes does extensive harm. It broke out on many bogs in 1920 and
1921, destroying the entire crop promise on a considerable acreage. Growers
of long experience said it had l)een similarly prevalent for a time some twenty
years lief ore.

iJixfrihitlion mid Food Phaifa.

The moth has been found in Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Wis-
consin and Vancouver Island. No food plant besides cranberry is known.

Chffrarter of Injunj.

When the winter flowage is held till mid- or late May, some of the worms
hatch in time to eat into terminal Inids like false armyworms (fig. 22). They
seldom do much harm in this way. They usually work like the blossom worm,
nipping oif flower buds and blossoms by severing the stem near where it joins
the ovary (fig. 28). When extremely abundant they attack the leaves and
sometimes brown a small area.

Description and Seasonal Hisfori/.
The Efig.

There is one brood a year. In late June, July and early August the female
moths scatter their eggs singly among the litter under the vines, laying about
125 each. They usually stick to fallen leaves or pieces of dead twigs (fig. 29).
They are greenish white, elliptical, and almut a thirty-seventh of an inch long.
They are surprisingly rigid and unyielding as they come from the moth's body
and, when examined with a microscope, are seen to lie thickly studded, ex-
cept more or less on a central area ai)Ove and below, with minute shiny round
smooth white tubercles (fig. 30). They often become somewhat sunken in the
middle as hatching approaches. The winter flood does not harm them even

45. Itame sitlphurea (Pack.). Heretofore known in cranberry literature as Cymatophora sul-
phur ea.

40

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

wiien lield r;ither late. When it is let off in April, hatching usually begins
about May 15 and continues till about .July 1.

The Worm.

During most of their life the worms (Plate Three, figs. 3 and 4a) are green
with several white lines along the back and sides and a narrow light yellow

Green Cranberry Spanworm.
Fig. 30. One egg. Greatly enlarged.

stripe along each side. In their last stage (Plate Three, fig. 4b) the green has
a yellow tinge and the whitish lines are obscure except for a pair along each
side of the back which often are more marked. They mature from about June
10 to about July 22, becoming an inch long.

The Pupa.

The worms pupate in the litter under the vines. 'I'he pupa is jiale greenish
at tirst but becomes dark brown as the moth develops. It is about a third of
an inch Ion"'. This staae lasts about ten davs.

The Molh.

The n)oths emerge irregularly from late June till early August, the males
tending to appear first. The male (Plate Three, fig. 2) is pale yellowish. Its
head bears long pectinate feelers. Its wings expand a little over an inch.

The female (Plate Three, fig. 1) is sulfur yellow and expands about seven-
eighths of an inch. Its wings have noticeable brown spots which vary, but com-
monly are arranged as follows: The \ip})er surface of each front wing with
three against the front margin, one against the hind margin, one in front of
the center, and five to seven small ones along the outer border; the under
side of the front wing with one in front of the center, some small ones along
the outer border, and a streak toward the outer end and parallel with the
outer border; the upper side of each hind wing with a spot in front of the
center, another against the hind margin, and several toward and on the outer
border; the under side of the hind wing with one near the center and often
a series running ])arallel with the outer liorder. All the wings have brown
sprinklings on the under side and the outer borders on fresh specimens have
brown fringes. The moths brush off many of their scales, often losing their
markings and even their yellow color. The feelers on the head are threadlike.

The males are more active than the females, but they rest much among the
vines, flving less than the males of the brown s])an\vorin. They are flushed up

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 41

easily and soiiietiines rise in clouds from a badly infested area. The period
of activity of the moths coincides with that of the brown spanworm cater-
pillars, and when both species abound on the same area they often are con-
fused in the minds of ornwers.

Treattiienf.

Reflooding for 15 hours and spraying with 6 pounds of dry lead arsenate in
100 gallons of water are both very effective. Three treatments, about May 30,
June 12 and June '2.5, may be necessary because of the long liatching period.
The first, especially if flooding is done, often will check other pests also, espe-
cially the gypsy moth, the black-headed fireworm, the false armyworm and tiie
blossom worm. If the infestation is only mildly serious, two treatments, about
June 5 and June 2-5, will suffice.

Regular resanding tends to keep this pest out, for the sand co\ers many of
the eggs so that the worms fail to emerge.

Brown Cranberry Spanworm.""

This insect attacks some bog severely almost every year. It broke out on
so many in 1919 and 1920 that it was one of the most important cranberry
pests. It does more harm than all the other bog spanworms together.

rUxfrihiitinn and Food Plants.

This in,sect has been found in Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Colorado,
Aliierta and Alaska. Its only known food plants are cranberry and bear-
berry''.

Character of Injury.

Moderate infestations work much like the green spanworm, nipping oft' the
blossoms and small berries, but they attack the leaves more and chew into and
eat holes through the flower buds and often excavate the partly grown berries
nuich as katydids do. A severe infestation sometimes turns ;i whole bog
brown and then many of tlie uiirnis probably die of stnrvation.

This worm works so late in the season that when its attack is severe it de-
stroys all chances of a crop in the following year, and sometimes patches of
vines fail to recover fully for a year or two.

Description and Seas<)n(d Hisforif.
The Pupa.

Tlie pupae winter among the litter under the vines, enduring the winter
flood even when it is held till June. They are brown and somewhat over
tliree-eighths of ;m inch long and iiave no cocoon.

The Moth.

If the winter flood is let oft" before May 1 and the season is warm a few
moths often appear late in May, but they usually emerge mostly during the

46. Ematurgia am ilar i a (Gn.). Heretofore known in cranberry \'\tf;\2it\.ne 3.S Ebelis truncalcria
var. faxonii.

47. Arclosiaphylos Uva-ursi (L.) Spren;^.

42

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

first half c.f .h.ne and are active till toward its end. Where the winter water
is held till late May tliev emerge mostly in late June and fly into July. They
are noticeably protandrous in emerging. The males fly freely, often swarming
in clouds oyer badly infested areas; but the females, heavy with eggs, can
only flop along the ground.

The female (Plate Three, fig. 5) is a finely sprinkled grayish or yellowish
brown The wings have vague and variable brown and whitish markings and
the hind ones much yellow also on their upper surfaces, and are mostly yellow
or yellow and white underneath with liberal general sprinklings of brown.
Thev all on both their upper and lower surfaces usually have two or three
pooriv defined and often more or less broken brown markings runnmg from
the front to the hind n.argin. The back, especially between the bases of the
wings, is mostly dingy brown and the scales on the under side of the body and
on tlie legs are mainly pale yellow. The antennae are threadlike. Ihe wmgs
spread nearly an inch.

The male (Plate Three, fig. 6) spreads somewhat over an inch. The body
and head above and the large bushy antennae are dingy brown with a spnnk-
ling of pale yellow. Underneath, the body, head and legs are clothed mostly
with light yellow hair and scales. The front wings are coffee brown above
with two or three indefinite and irregular darker brown markmgs runnmg
Trom the front to the hind margin of each and often with touches of white.
The bind wings are mostly deep yellow above with a strong general spnnkhng
ani "ee rather vague cross markings of brown and with the outer border
^^ownish Beneath, the wings are deep yellow with a general sprmkbng and
usually two irregular cross markings of brown.

The Eq(j.

The female moths lay about three hundred eggs each. They thoroughly hide

V a of them among the litter on the bog floor, mostly in irregular clus-

"^f^jl^Tr^ as twenty (fig- 31). The eggs are elliptical and

alout 1 t^n v.seventh of 'an inch long. They are light green at first but turn

eZl If th; winter flood has been let off early they usually begin to hatch

"about July 1, but sometimes in advanced seasons by June -0.

The Worm.

, t ,,rlv .t,..es H,e worm is rather light bro.„ with « .hitish stripe along
ea^i; "<,::«, to:i:e':io„g the ,„iddle o, the hae. The latter tends to per-
3,, ,„ .eeomes ohscure as .-th proeee s ^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^

The mature worm (Hate ihree, ngs. - ,
„„ i„e„ long and is grayisl, 7-. ^^'^n^^ ; , tr'inthnite n„rk-
heing lighter than the hack f "^ ."'V of en r ns atong eaeh side just below

,„,. Of <'f "riiirairr^::;':^™:: 'r,::rtith aar. „.,wn. The
r sS:r;'::r'ir:;it:rrr:iL^;?'::-d ..th dar^r hrow.

'":: :':rr,.at„re m ,ate .„U- and early Augnst and ehange into the pnpae

that pass the winter.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

43

Brown Cranberry Spanworm.

Fig. 31. Eggs among litter from bog floor.
Much enlarged.

Treatment.

June reflooding interferes enough with tlie i)r(igres.s of the inotlis onto a
bog and tlieir egg laying there to prevent the development of an infestation
where it is practiced regularly. Complete flooding for 36 hours as soon as the
moths reach the height of their flight often very nearly eradicates a bad in-
festation, but tliis cannot be relied on.

It seldom is practicable to flood a Ijog wiien the worms are active. A spray
of 6 pounds of dry lead arsenate in 100 gallons of water is very eifective,
especially if applied wliile the worms are hatching.

If tlie moths have been flying in great nvmibers, the vines should be exam-
ined with an insect net daily from about June 20 till the worms begin to
hatch. Then spraying should begin at once and all the infested area be treated
in two day.s, even if it takes several spraying outfits. These worms sometimes
give a net count of over 2000 to 50 sweeps, and such an infestation can de-
stroy a fine crop promise within a week after hatching begins.

44' MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

Cotton Spanworm ".

The late J. B. Sniitli gave us what we know of this species on cranberry
bogs. He found it in 1883 infesting severely a bog in Cotuit'". There is little
evidence that it attacked other bogs or lias appeared as a cranberry feeder
at any other time. Its attack probably was due to unusual abundance, for it
broke out as a strawberry pest in Ilhnois the same year. As it may apjjcar
on bogs again, it is discussed liere.

]>l>itriliuiion and Food PInnft!.

This spanworm ranges over most of this country east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. It feeds on ash, apj)le, asparagus, blackberry, clover, cotton, cran-
berry, elm, geranium, guava, hickory, honey locust, maple, orange, pear, straw-
berry, willow and yellow dock. It attacks asparagus and cotton oftenest.

CJiaracier of Injnrif.

The first brood starts near tlie edge of a bog. The second starts from inside
centers where groups of eggs have been laid. The worms were so abundant in
the recorded infestation that they browned quite an area. They advanced in
masses like army worms.

Description and Seasonal History.

The worms first appear in June and mature late in that month or early in
July. They are then about an inch and an eighth long and vary from yellow-
ish to brown or livid gray, being streaked and mottled with lighter and dark-
er shades. There are two low black tubercles on the back about a third of
the length back from the head dnd two smaller ones near the hind end. The
head is marked with irregular black cross bands.

The worms go into the ground a little and change into rough brown pupae
about half an inch long from which the moths emerge in nearly two weeks.

The caterpillars of the second brood mature in August, beginning to pupate
before the ninth but continuing to abound till after the middle of the month.
The moths appear at the end of August and in September.

The moth (Plate Three, fig. 12) varies considerably in size, color and mark-
ings. Its wing expanse is from a little less than an inch to nearly an inch and
a half. It is ash gray and the wings are crossed by irregular brown lines.
The first abdominal segment is white above. The antennae of the female are
threadlike, those of the male pectinate.

Treatment.

Spraying with 6 pounds of dry lead arsenate in 100 gallons of water is
advocated.

Big Cranberry Spanworm.'"

Some growers say this species is destructive on rare occasions. A few of
the worms often occur on the bogs and sometimes defoliate small patches.

48. Cleora pampinaria (Gn.). This insect has been known heretofore as the cranberry span-

^°'49'. U. S. Dept. Agr.. Div. Ent., Bui. 4 (O. S.), pp. 26-28, 1884.
.W. Abbolana clemalaria (S. & A.).

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 45

Distribution and Food Plants.

The insect ranges from Canada to Florida and Missouri. It feeds on apple,
clematis, cranberry, false dandelion, hickory, maple, pear, live oak, and white
oak.

Description and Seasonal History.

This species winters as a pupa. The moths emerge late in May and soon
lay their eggs. These hatch toward mid-June. The worms mature and pupate
in July. There is but one brood a year.

The Egy.

The eggs are laid in clusters, often of as many as 432. They are green at
first but turn reddish, then black — the last color only two or three days before
hatching.

The Worm.

The caterpillars are almost black at first, but as they grow they become
chocolate brown. The mature worm (Plate Three, fig. 9) is fully two and a
half inches long. Most of its surface is very smooth. A noticeable dark
ridge bearing a few low tubercles crosses the back opposite the second pair
of legs. The back in front of this ridge and the head are lighter brown than
most of the body. The under side between the legs at the hind end is lighter
still. The spiracles are yellow, rimmed with black. On the back there are a
pair of noticeable tubercles somewhat behind the middle and a moderate
double tubercle toward the hind end. The top of the head is rounded and
not much indented.

The Pupa.

The pupa (Plate Three, fig. 10) is somewhat over three-fourths of an inch
long and a fourth of an inch thick. It is coffee brown and, with the excep-
tion of the wing cases, has an irregular sprinkling of dark brown. The spir-
acles and their surroundings appear as consp^uous black spots along the sides.
The surface is dull and rough. This pupa never gets hard and firm as most
pupae do, but always yields to the touch.

The Moth.

The moth (Plate Three, fig. 11) is light gray, dully variegated with rusty
brown. The wings, the abdomen and the legs are sprinkled lightly with black
scales. The thorax is whitish beneath and pale brown above. The head is
ligiit rusty brown, with the top between the bases of the feelers pure white.

The wings spread about two inches. Their outer edges are irregular and
the tips of the front ones are sharp-pointed. A nearly straight line running
from near the tip of each fore wing diagonally across its upper surface to
the hind margin is whitish on the outer side and brown on the side toward
the body. A similar line runs part way across the upper surface of each hind
wing from beyond the middle of the hind margin. All the wings have a con-
spicuous dark brown speck somewhat back from the middle of the front mar-
gin on each surface.

46

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION I?Ur.I.ETIN 239

Treatment.

Because of tlie size wliicli these worms attain, their net count should rate
as that of cutworms (see page 3). A spray of 6 pounds of dry lead arsen-
ate in 100 galknis of wiiter should be used when tliey hatch.

Chain-spotted Geometer.''

Neglected l)ogs with a dense growtii of
birches on the surrounding upland, usually areas
tiiat never are flooded, occasionally liave this
spanworni crawl onto them in such numbers
that the \ines are browned for some distance
from the margin. The worms often are reduced
greatly by parasites and a fungus disease". A
few of them appear on most dry Ijogs yearly.

Distrilnition aud Food Plants.
This species ranges through the Atlantic
States and southeastern Canada and west to
Colorado. Gray birch seems to be its favorite
food plant, but it often defoliates alder, ash,
low blueberry, dwarf blueberry, swamp blue-
berry, male berry, wild black cherry, bayberry,
sweet fern, black huckleberry, wild indigo''', red
maple, white maple, sheep laurel, black scrub
oak, meadow-sweet, poplar, red spruce, tama-
rack, white pine and willow. It also feeds on
raspberry, blackberry, goldenrod, sweet gale,
hazelnut, poison ivy, juniper, cranberry', rho-
dora^^, sedges, grasses, and probably numerous
other plants.

l>escripfio)i and Sea.t(>nal Hisforii.
The Worm.

The worms appear in early summer and de-
velop slowly maturing in late July and early
August. They get to be nearly an inch and a
half long. As they mature they have the habit
of hanging straight and still, head downward
(fig. 32), during the day. They seem to feed
mostly in the evening or at night. They are
yellow, with round black spots on the head,
the neck shield the outer sides of the prolegs, and

Chain-spotted Geometer.
Fig. 32. Worm. Much enlarged.

.51. Cingilia calenaria (Dru.).

52. Caused by Empusa Anlicae Riechardt (det. Prof. W. H. Sawyer, Jr).

53. Baptisia lincloria (L.) R. Br.

54. Rhododendron canadense (L.) BSP.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

47

the very hind end. About thirty-two deep rusty-brown lines run along
the body, some above, some below. There is a row of conspicuous white spots
along each side, mostly above the .spiracles, most of them bordered with one
black spot in front and another behind.

The PujKi.

The worms pupate in early and mid-.Vugust. The jnipa is white, marked
with black and yellow, and is about four-fifths of an inch long. It is formed
in a slight but well-made net of yellowish threads among twigs or leaves or
grass (fig. 33). This stage lasts about a month.

The Moth.

The moths fly in September and early October. They are so abundant some-
tunes that the males come to street lights in clouds. The females fly little if
not disturbed. Both sexes have snow-white wings marked with zigzag lines
and dots of black (fig. 34). The face is deep yellow and there is a patch of
yellow in front of the base of each fore wing. The antennae of the male are
very bushy, those of the female threadlike. The male expands about an inch
and a. half, the female an inch and three-eighths.

Chain-spotted Geometer.

Fig. 33. Pupae. Enlarged.
Fig. 34. Male moth.

The Eiiy.

One female sometimes lays as many as 368 eggs. They are scattered in-
discriminately on the ground, mainly in the latter half of September. They
hatch the following spring. They are greenish yellow at first but become
brownish lavender in a few days. They are about a thirty-third of an inch
long and are broadly elliptical with one end flattened or somewhat cupped.

Treatment.

Spraying with 6 pounds of dry lead arsenate to 100 gallons of water is
advocated. If this is done on the upland when the worms are small it will
prevent trouble on the bog later. Keeping the marginal ditch cleaned out
and partly full of water, as advocated for the gypsy moth, secures a bog from
infestation.

PLATE THREE
Spanworms and Harmless Insects sometimes Mistaken for Them.

GREEN CRANBERRY SPANWORM* :

Fig. 1. — Female moth.

Fig. 2. — Male moth.

Fig. 3. — Worm, side view.

Fig. 4a. — Half-grown worm, back view.

Fig. 4b. — Mature worm, back view.

BROWN CRANBERRY SPANWORM:

Fig. 5. — Female moth.
Fig. 6. — Male moth.

Figs. 7a, 7b, 8a and 8b. — Mature worms, side and back views,
showing variation in coloration.

Big cranberry spanworm:

Fig. 9. — Worm.
Fig. 10. — Pupa.
Fig. 11. — Moth.

Fig. 12. — Cotton spanworm moth.

Fig. 13a. — The bog butterfly, Heodes epixanthe (B. & L.).

This often appears on bogs in great numbers in July and early August
and is mistaken commonly by growers for a spanworm moth. It is prac-
tically harmless.
Fig. 13b. — The same, side view, at rest with wings erect.

No real cranteriy pest ever rests with its wings held up so. Other
kinds of butterflies, all with this habit, are common at times on many bogs.
Fig. 14. — Nomopihila noctuella (D. & S.).

A harmless moth common on many bogs, especially from May to mid-
July. It often excites suspicion.

PLATE FOUR
Gypsy Moth and Other Pests.
Fig. 1. — CRANBERRY GIRDLER moth.

Fig. 2. — Crambus proaefectellus (Zinck.).

An unimportant moth common on many bogs in June and early July
and often confused by growers with the cranberry girdler. Note the
single conspicuous white stripe along the middle of each fore wing.

Figs. 3a and 3b. — Cranberry spittle insect female adults, showing variation in
coloration.

Fig. 4. — Cranberry spittle insect male adult.

Fig. 5. — Cranberry rootworm beetle.

Fig. 6. — Fire beetle beetle.

Fig. 7. — CRANBERRY ROOT GRUB male beetle.

GYPSY MOTH:

Fig. 8. — Caterpillar.
Fig. 9. — Pupa.

Fig. 10. — Male moth

Fig. 11. — Female moth.

Fig. 12. — Egg mass.

Figs. 13 and 14. — Calosoma sycophanta beetle and larva, predaceous on gypsy
moth caterpillars and pupae.

The names of the more commonly harmful pests are in capitals.

Plate three

12

^

Plate four

I 1

2 I

Color Plates by Donovan & Sullivan Engraving Co., Boston, Mass. Helen Morse, del

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 49

HAIRY WORMS.

These eaterpiliars lia\t' copious liair over imicli of the l)ody. Tliey are open
feeders, never sewlni>- the lea\es together. They are like eutwornis in the
number and arrangenient of their legs and in tiieir gait. Several kinds of
hairy worms oeeur in small numbers on the bogs, but only three need notice
here. They may be distinguisiied by the following:

Table of Worms.

Head red white-ma rked tussock moth.^^

Head not red 1

1. Working in late spring and early summer gypsy moth (p. 49).

Working in late sunnner Datmia sp.'"

Gypsy Moth.''

This Old M'orld species brought into Massachusetts in 18()8 did not infest
the Cape cranberry region seriously till 1913. During 1913 and 1911 it in-
creased vastly there, lieconiing an important cranberry pest. It did much harm
on the bogs till 1920 when it decreased and was treated much more effectively
by the growers. Its important natural enemies brought from abroad should
check it largely hereafter, but it must be regarded as a permanent bog pest

for it will have years of abundance. .a'-;

-¥'■

l)if<friliiifioii and Food Flaiifs.

This jiest ranges widely through Eurasia and North Africa. In our coun-
try it still is confined to New England and areas in Ohio, New York and New
Jersey. It has hundreds of food plants.

Character of lujiirii.

The young worms couuuonly attack the terminal buds first, eating all but
the outer scales ((ig. 3-5) and often causing great loss before the grower
knows his bog is infested. As the new growth develops, the caterpillars greed-
ily devour the leaves, flower buds and blossoms (fig. 36) and often sever the
new part of the stem (fig. 37). They attack the old foliage severely when
they are very abundant and have destroyed the more attractive new growth
and sometimes even gnaw hark from the vines.

The work of this insect on cranberry vines is much like tliat of the false
armyworni in all stages. This is true of no other pest.

An infestation of two first-stage worms to the square foot often develops
so as to destroy nearly all the new growth, and one larva to the square foot
usually reduces the crop materially.

Bogs usually do not yield well till the second year after severe injury by
this pest, but vigorous vines often do so the next year.

.55. Hemerocampa leiuostigma (S. & A.). A beautiful caterpillar sometimes rather abundant
on dry bogs but never very harmful.

56. These worms sometimes defoliate small patches of vines in late August but never do
much harm.

57. Porlheiria dispar (L.). See U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 1093, 1922.

50

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

Gypsy Moth.
Fig. 35. Cranberry tips with terminal buds eaten out by young worms.

Much enlarged.
Fig. 36. Caterpillar and its work.
Fig. 37. Work of worms.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 51

Description and Seasonal History.

The Eij(j.

Tlie eggs are sniootli, globular, aixnit a twentieth of an incli in diameter and
pale pinkish brown when first laid. They grow darker within three weeks
when fertile, owing to the development of the worms. They are laid soon
after the moths emerge, mostly in oval or rounded masses of four hundred to
sometimes over a thousand (Plate Four, fig. 12). These are half an inch to
an inch and a half long and a third of an inch to an inch wide. They are
covered with yellowish hairs from the abdomens of the moths and look like
pieces of sponge. They are laid in every conceivable place, but the trunks
and branches of trees probably are the most natural locations. They usually
are placed within a few inches of the pupal case from whicli the moth emerged.

The young worms become fully formed within three weeks after the eggs
are laid. They cannot endure a temperature lower than — 25° F. and often are
winterkilled extensively in northern New England. Some hatch in September
in rare instances, but they normally appear from the last of April to mid-
June, according to the weather and their position, those in warm sunny places
coming out earliest while those in cool shady locations emerge much later,
most of them usually hatching between the Pith and the 25th of May.

The winter flowage of bogs does not harm the eggs much as long as it is
cold, for they hatch readily afterward if it is let off early in April. If it is
held till after May 20, the hatching is negligible.

The Worm.

The caterpillars in their first stage are very dark and, being clothed with
long hair and provided with aerostatic hairs, are borne easily by the wind.
It sometimes carries them twenty miles or more.

The worms grow rapidly during late May and June and mature in July.
After their first stages are past tliey are as follows (Plate Four, fig. 8):
The head is mostly sooty black, this color being nnich liroken up by irregular
light yellow markings, and has a long triangular stripe down the middle of
the face and two converging curved lines on the top that are cream-colored
and conspicuous. Its surface liears many yellow hairs. The under side of the
body is mostly yellowish. The iiack and sides are rather dark lirownish gray,
with a light line along the middle of the back. There are eleven prominent
tubercles in a row along each side of the back, the first five being blue and
the last six red. These bear slender l)lack spines and a few short pale yel-
low hairs. Tubercles on the sides have more and longer hair most of which
is pale yellowish. Two small bright red tubercles without hair or spines,
some distance apart on the mid-line of the back toward the hind end, and a
conspicuous dark hairy tubercle on each side just behind the head are dis-
tinctive. The female worms often get to Ije two inches long, but the males
seldom much exceed an inch.

The caterpillars spin much silk in their first stages and commonly drop
and hang liy a thread when disturbed. They do not do this when they get
larger, but they spin a few threads for support Ijefore pupating and often
make a scant cocoon.

52 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 2:39

The worms reiiuiin sheltered at nijiht and feed in tlie daytime in tiieir first
stages, usually being most active from 9 to 11 a. .-m. and from 3 to 5 i-. .-m.
Their habits change as they grow and they feed mostly at night, remaining
inactive and more or less concealed during the day unless they are starved.

The Pupa.

Pupation usually liecomes general toward mid-. July on the Cape, but some
caterpillars remain till August. When the worms abound they connuonly
collect in masses to pupate. The male pupae are from three-fifths to four-
fifths of an inch long and the female from three-fifths of an inch to one and
two-fifths inches. They are deep brown and bear consideral)le yellow hair
(Plate Four, fig. 9). They usually are found on the sand on cranberry bogs,
often covered with litter, Init tb.ey also oi'cur u)) among tlie vines. The ])ui)ai
stage lasts 7 to 17 days.

The Moih.

The .sexes are very unlike. The nude (Plate Four, fig. 10) expands about
an inch and a half. Its antennae are bushy and with the up})er side of the
body and wings are dingy brown, the fore wings having irregular dark brown
markings. The head and under side of the body are yellowish white. All the
wings are light brown underneath.

The female (Plate Four, fig. 11) expands about two inches. Its antennae
are dark brown and much less bushy than the male's. The hind end of the
abdomen is dingy reddish brown. The rest of the body and the wings are
nearly white. The fore wings are marked irregularly with difl'erent shades of
brown and all the wings have dark brown spots at regular intervals along
their outer margins.

The motiis emerge in late July and August. The males are slender-bodied
and fly actively l>y day with a peculiar zigzag flight, but the females are heavy-
bodied and sluggish and cannot fly.

//oic Bo(is liecome Infested.

Bogs get infested in the four following ways:

1. Ihi the Hatching of Eggs laid on the Bog the Year Before. — This is a
conunon cause of trouble on bogs that have been neglected, e.specially dry
bogs. These infestations usually defoliate rounded areas.

2. Jh/ ]\'iiid Drift of the Worms in their First Stage. — This is the main
cause of infestation. The uplands around cranberry bogs, often from ten to
fifty feet high and usually wooded, furnish ideal conditions for wind disper-
sion. Infestations from wind drift often are thickest near the bog margin
and diminish toward the center. They seldom, if ever, develop in round
patches.

Often there is a high mortality anuing the wind-borne larvae after they
reach a cranberry bog. It seems to be greatest in their first stage and prob-
ably is due mainly to reduced vitality, this making them readily subject to
disease and other killing agents. The nature of cranberry foliage as a food
may be a factor.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 53

3. By ihe Worms fdlliiu/ an the Bo<j Mart/in from (>vcrli<iii(i;ini Trees. —
Tlie iijilands around most boji's now are cleared of trees and brush well hack
from the margin, so the chances of this generally are small.

4. By ihe Caterpilhns criticliin/ across (he Mar</in(il Dilch in their later
Sta(/es. — When the surrounding upland is heavily infested, coni])lete defolia-
tion of the trees commonly occurs, and then the hungry v.oruis often crawl
onto the liog.

Treatment.
This pest is controlled readily on cranlierry hogs liy:

1. HoiJing the ivinter poml iill May ,.'.7. — This kills the eggs laid on the
bog the year before and usually catches most of the wind drift. See page 11.

2. Reffoodiny about May J9 for 36 hours. — The wind drift is generally
about over then, and the water kills the worms before they do nuich harm
unless they are very numerous. A fourteen-hour flood kills then) after they
are a third grown, but if they are abimdant treatment .•-hould not be delayed
after the above date most years. The date for the earliest springs is May 24
and for the latest June 3. Many of the small worms cling to the vines as the
water rises and never come to the surface. As they grow they lose this habit.
This may explain their greater resistance to drowning in their first stages.
The larger worms thrash themselves to death on the surface of the water.

Late May is also the time to flood to control rose-bloom. If the water is
held 36 hours the swollen ])ink shoots (Plate Two, fig. 6) caused by the dis-
ease collai)se and dry up a (h.y or two later.

This flooding also destroys other pests that may be at work, such as false
annyworms, blossom worms, black-headed tireworms and green sjianworms.

3. Sprayiny xvith 6 pmnids of dry lead arsenate in Jtm yallons of icater
about May 22. — The date should be about May 16 in \ery early springs and
about May 28 in \ery late ones. This is very effecti\e when the worms are
small. They are hard to kill with arsenicals after they get large.

4. T>ustin(/ heavily ici^h one jiari of sodinm fJuosilicate mi.ved icith four
parts, by vohime, of hydrated lime. — This is the only insecticide so far tried
which kills the mature worms without reducing the crop much.

5. Keeping the maturing icorms from rraxcling onto the I>og. — This is best
done by:

(a) Removing the trees, especially the oaks, and the brush for 1.50 feet
from the bog nuirgin. This also helps to prevent frosts somewhat by allow-
ing freer air movements across the bog at night.

(b) Spraying the brush and trees for 200 feet from the bog margin with
lead arsenate when the worms are small. This always is advisable if the
upland has not been cleared and is thickly infested.

(c) Keeping the marginal ditch cleaned out and partly full of water, with
a film of kerosene or fuel oil on the water, during the worm-crawl. Some-
times the ditch must he deepened considerably for this.

(d) Spraying the upland bordering the bog with fuel oil. This should be
done only when the wonu-crawl is thick and other measures have been neglect-
ed or are impracticable. It may have to be repeated several times unless the
strip sprayed is wide. Short lengths of old hose should be used for this, for
oil soon ruins hose.

54 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

MISCELLANEOUS PESTS.

These forms are placed here hecause their cliaracters or habits are such
that they cannot be grouped witli others. Tlie following table distinguishes
them:

Table of Worms.

With legs cranberry fruit worm (p. -54).

Legless 1

1. With a head; working in the blossom buds cranberry weevil (p. 58).

Headless; working in the tips of the uprights cranberry tipworm (p. 63).

Cranberry Fruit Worm."'"

This worm has been more destructve on the Cape than any other cranberry
pest, sometimes taking nearly half the crop; but nature controls it some years
so that it does no great general harm. It often takes all the fruit on a bog
without proper winter flowage. It attacks early varieties more than late ones.
It is also very injurious in Wisconsin, but not elsewhere.

Many moths probably come onto the bogs from a standing upland infesta-
tion most years in Massachusetts and Wisconsin, for new bogs made in isolated
locations nearly always become infested in a few years. Infestations on bogs
flooded during the winter might die out soon but for this continual invasion.

In Massachusetts, except in well-sheltered locations, the worms sometimes
are winterkilled in their cocoons by wholesale when not covered with snow or
water. If this occurs in New Jersey and on Long Island, where there is less
snow, it may cause the scarcity of the })est there. The worms freeze in mid-
winter when exposed in tiieir imbroken cocoons to air with a temperature of
—2° to — 3°F.

Distribution anri Food Plants.

This species has been found in Maine (at Machias), Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Texas and Wash-
ington.

The' worms infest in the wild tiie fruits of the mountain cranberry''" and
swamp blueberry. They commonly web together several berries of these
plants and feed among them. They probably have still other food plants for
they eat dangleberries, black huckleberries, apples*" and beach plums'^ freely
in confinement.

Character of Injun/.

The newly hatched larva almost always crawls over the surface of the cran-
berry from its place of emergence at the blossom end and enters close to the
stem. Its entrance is so small that it is barely visible to the unaided eye. It
eats the seeds and usually some of the pulp and then leaves the berry to
enter a second. One worm destrovs from three to six berries, the number

58. Mineola raicinii (Rile>').

.59. Vaccinium Vilis-Idaea L. var. minus Lodd.

60. Pyrus Malus L.

61. Prunus marilima Wang.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

55

varying with their size. Most of the piilj) is eaten in all exeept the first
(fig. 38). The entrance to the first two or three is closed 1 y a white silken
curtain (fig. 39). After the first berry, the worm is indifferent about the
location of its entrance. It often goes from one berry directly into another at
their point of contact (fig. 40). The berries turn red prematurely soon after

Cranberry Fruit Worm.
Fig. 38. Cranberries cut open, with worms at work.

they are attacked, this being the first sign of the work of this insect. They
then gradually dry and shrivel and may cling to the vine as husks till the
next year (fig. 41).

When the worms mature late many are gathered with the berries and some-
times do much harm among the stored fruit and in shipments, working some

56

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATICN CULLETIN CC^

Cranberry Fruit Worm.

Fig. 39. Cranberries with worm holes, one closed with white silken curtain.
Fig. 40. How the worms often work from one cranberry directly into anct".:cr.
Fig. 41'. Cranberries shriveled to dry husks because of its work.

years till late Oetoher. Here they wch tlie berries into halls in wliich they
feed.

Description atui Sea^^onal History.

The EffC].

Tlie egg is generally oval and so plastic wiien laid that it ada))ts itself
readily to an irregular surface. It ai^pears rather watery at first Init soon
becomes pale yellow and often develops an irregular reddish streak. It usu-
ally is placed luider one of the lobes at tiie iiiossoni end of tiie berry (fig. 42)
but may be anywhere on the surface. More than one or two seldom are found
on a berry unless the infestation is very severe.

Effg laying begins wiien the small l)erries start to grow and sometimes con-
tinues till the last of August. The normal eggs hatch in about five days and
parasitized ones in about eight days.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

57

The Worm.

Tlie normal mature worm (fiji-. 43) is about half an inch lonii' and i.s green,
often tinged with reddish on the hack. Tiie head is yellowish, 'i he parasit-
ized worms seldom lieconie nuich over a third of an incli long.

The caterjiillars are generally most active from about July 15 to about
August 30, Ijut usually some work in the berries well into September. When
through feeding, they go down to the sand under the vines, on or near the
surface of which they make oval cocoons (lig. W) of sand and silk or of fallen
cranberry leaves webbed together. Those of the normal worms generally are
a little over three-eighths of an inch long, but those of jiarasitized ones are
smaller and frailer. They are not impervious to water, for when submerged
they nearly fill up in about five days. The worms in them generally are not
much aifected liy cold water and many li\e through the winter under bog
flowage.

Cranberry Fruit Worm.

Fig. -12. Egg under cr,lyx lobp of cranberry.

Fig. 43. Worm. Much enlarged.

Fig. i-i. Cocoons. Somewhat enlarged.

Fig. 45. Moth. Much enlarged.

Much enlarged.

58 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

The Pupa.

Pupation occurs witliin tlie cocoons in late May and June on dry bogs and
bogs drained of tbeir winter water l)efore mid-April. The pupa is pale green-
ish at first but soon turns yellowisli l)rown and becomes dark brown before
tlie moth emeraes.

The Moth.

The moths occur from very late May till after mid-August, but abound
most in July. They hide among the vines during the day and are hard to
flush, so they seldom are seen l)y growers even when abundant. They are
very active in calm evenings and may l)e seen at dusk hovering over the vines
and alighting occasionally to lay eggs. They have been known to fly 272 feet
in one flight and may travel surprisingly far during their life and come to
bogs from considerable distances.

The moth (fig. 4-5) expands ai)Out two-thirds of an inch. The fore wings
are mostly dark grayish brown above witii a slight pinkish tinge, each having
two whitish areas, one toward the base and one running Ijack from beyond
the middle of the front margin, there being two dark dots in the latter. The
under side of the fore wings and both sides of the hind ones are light brown.

Trentment.

Spraying with arsenicals to check this insect has been tried thoroughly, but
with little success. No practicable way to treat it on strictly dry bogs has
been found.

Experiments have shown that the worms in their cocoons generally cannot
endure submergence in water with a temperature above 60° F. over two weeks.
Bog experience confirms this, for if the winter flood is held till after May 20
(see page II) fruit worm trouble usually is iijucIi less than on ii)ogs from
which the flowage has been let oft" early. Bogs vary greatly in their tendency
to become severely infested, often due probably to dift'erences in their sur-
roundings. Holding the winter flowage late every other year is a good con-
trol with some, but others need treatment nearly every year. Flooding for 18
days in the fall before the water cools too much is eft'ective and should be
practiced when the berries can be gathered early enough. The water should
go on by September 2.5 if possible and before Octolier 1 anyhow. This treat-
ment also controls the blossom worm and the girdler. If it is to Vie practiced
reffularlv and satisfactorilv the winter flood should not le held late.

Cranbarry Weevil.'''

This insect works on dry bogs and Im as tiint ure flowed for tlic winter but
are not reflooded nuich. It is a minor jiest, doing serious harm only on small
areas here and there, but when it establishes a considerable infestation it
usually stavs for vears unless it is treoted.

62. Anthonomus musculus Say. — determined by W. S. Blatchley and H. C. Fall. The nims
A, suluralis Le C. has been tied to this species erroneously in cranberry literature.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

Tig. 46.

Fig. 47.

Fig. 48.

Fig. 49.

Fig. 50.

Cranberry Weevil.
Cranberry upright with holes drilled in leaves by beetles.
Cranberry blossom bud drilled by beetles. Much enlarged.
Ovary of cranberry blossom bud excavated by grub. Much enlarged.
Cranberry blossom bud with ovary removed showing grub in unopened cor-
olla. Much enlarged.

Cranberry uprights with tips broken down and buds dropped work of
beetles.

60 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

I>U-t rtbiidoii (dill Food Plant.'.

This species ranges from New England to tl-.e Rocky Mountains and Flor-
ida. The l)eetle is found commonly on Ijlack huckleberry and the flowers of
black ciiokeberry*". It feeds" on the flowers and leaves of swamp blueberry
as well as on cranl errv.

Character of Jujiiri/.

In the spring the beetles occasionally drill holes in the under side of the old
leaves (fig. 46) and in the dormant buds. They turn their attention to the
new growth as it develops, drilling into the new leaves and the growing blos-
som buds freely (fig. 47) and often eating the stamens. New shoots often are
killed by this feeding, turning dark as if frosted or breaking o\er where the
stem has been pimctured.

Tlie grub devours the pistil and stamens of the flower bud, leaving the
excavated ovary (fig. 48) together with tiie unojjened corolla ('fig. 49) a mere
shell"'". If this is opened it usually is found to contain either the grub or pupa
and some fine brown castings.

Many of the infested buds fall to the ground (fig. 50), some before the egg
hatches. The cause is not known, but probably the beetle partly severs the
pedicel somehow when it lays the egg. A few of the buds fall liecause the
grubs eat them off from within. Buds tluit show they are partly cut off by
shaking freely when the vines are disturbed indie, ite surely the presence of
this pest.

The beetles of the new brood apj^ear while the l)erries are small and feed
voraciously on them (figs. 51, 52 and 53) and on the more tender foliage for
about three weeks, riddling both with holes. Some of their work on the backs
of the leaves at this time is very characteristic (fig. 54). This feeding de-
creases as the season advances and finally they i:nly nibble the leaves occa-
sionally, doing this till into Septemlier.

Where abundant, this insect often destroys the entire pros])ective crop by
its work in the blossom buds, and the newly emerged beetles sometimes ruin
most of the small berries and by killing the tips of the uprights n>.ake a crop
the next year imjjossible.

De.scriptioii ami Seasonal Hi.itori/.

The Beetle.

The beetle (fig. 55) is about a sixteenth of an inch long. It has a slightly
curved snout about a third as long as the rest of the body. This bears a
geniculate feeler on each side beyond the middle and small jaws at the end.
The wing covers are ornamented lengthwise with rows of little jiits. Narrow
white scales noticeable only under a microscope are scattered over the body
and legs and often form transverse patches on the wing covers. When the
beetle emerges from the pupa it is light brown, with the head and snout deep
reddish brown and the eves black. It chanaes to its normal color within two

63. Pyriis melanocarpa (Michx.) Willd.

64. .According to H. B. Scammell.

6.5. The lobes of the corolla of an infested bud always remain closed tightly together and
become drv and rigid in that position, a protective cell thus being formed for the insect.

Fig. 51.

Fig. 52.

Fig. 53.

Fig. 54.

Fig. 55.

Fig. 56.

Fig. 57.

Fig. 58.

Cranberry Weevil.

Newly set cranberry drilled by beetles. Much enlarged.

Growing cranberries drilled by beetles.

Cranberries with defonmtifes due to drilling of beetles.

Cranberry uprights showing characteristic work done by beetles on backs

of leaves in July and August.
Beetle. Much enlarged.
Cranberry blossom bud with part of corolla cut away showm" egg amcng

stamens. Much enlarged.
Grab. Much enlarged.
Pupa. Much enlarged.

62 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

or three weeks, then being bhiekish with the wing covers, tlie legs and the
under side of the abdomen mostly deep reddish.

There is one brood a year. The insect passes the late summer, fall, winter
and spring as a beetle and can live under the winter flood. In the fall and
spring the beetles hide in the trash under the vines or burrow a little in the
sand on cold windy days, coming out only in warm sunny weather. When
active they are easih' swept from the vines with an insect net. When dis-
turbed they either drop to the ground and play possum or fly off a few feet.
They start mating toward the first of June.

The beetles begin to lay eggs when the first blossom buds show pink and
continue to do so through most of June. Some females lay thirty-nine, but
they average about twenty. Only one egg is laid in a bud, the beetle pushing
it with her ovipositor into a hole made with her snout. It usually is placed
imiong the stamens near the bases of the anthers (fig. .56). It is smooth, glist-
ening, oblong-ovoid, pale yellowish, and nearly a fiftieth of an inch long.
It hatches in three to nine davs.

The Grub.

The normal hatching period is from about June 10 to July 1. The grubs
develop and pupate in the blossom buds. They mature in ten to fourteen days.
The mature grub (fig. 57) is whitish and has a yellowish head but no legs.
It is about a ninth of an inch long.

The Pupa.

This (fig. 58) is about an eleventh of an inch long and pale yellow at first
but it finally turns brown. The legs, wing pads and snout lie tightly against
the body. This stage lasts about six days. When the beetle emerges it eats
its way out of the bud near the calyx lobes. The beetles usually come out
mostly during the first half of July.

Treatment.

Ordinary late holding of the winter flood fails to reduce this pest nuich. A
complete flowage for two days about June 1 is effective, especially if 2 gal-
lons of kerosene for each acre of bog is poured onto the water along the
windward side soon after the vines are covered.

The beetles can be killed readily with a spray of Bordeaux mixture made
up of 10 pounds of stone lime and 6 pounds of copper sulfate to 100 gallons
of water, with 6 pounds of calcium arsenate and 4 pounds of fish-oil soap
added. It should be used at the rate of 400 gallons to the acre, preferably in
the spring after the new growth of the vines starts but before the beetles lay
eggs. This is between May 20 and June 1 most years. It may be used to kill
the beetles of the new brood at any time from their first appearance till mid-
August, but it should be applied as soon as they ai)pear.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

63

Cranberry Tipworm.'"'

Vigorous vines very often recover from tlie attack of tliis insect and yield
well the next year. Those that fail to do so might have Ijeen unproductive
anyway. In view of tiiis and of the fact that the effect of light or heavy
cropping is carried over in the vines from one year to another, it is hard to
say just how harmful the pest really is, but it tends to reduce crops and should
be controlled. It infests flowed bogs much more than strictly dry ones and
tends to attack Howes vines more than Early Black. Flooding kills or drives
ashore many of its natural enemies and may protect the hibernating worms
from winter severities. Frost often reduces an infestation greatly when it
kills the cranberry tips.

Fig. 61. Cranberry Tipworm. Cranberry uprights attacked by both broods, the
branching of the tops being due to the work of the first, the cupped
tips to that of the second.

Dh-trUiKtiou ainJ Food Plants.

The tipworm is al)undant wiiere\er cranberries are grown, causing concern
in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Wisconsin and on the Pacific coast. It has
been said to infest other heaths and loosestrife"'.

Character of Iiijiiri/.

The first l)r()od of maggots works mostly during the first half of June. It
does little harm for it is seldom very abundant and the vines have time to re-
cover. The second brood is much more plentiful and generally appears wlien
the vines are in full bloom. Its work is more serious for it interferes with
the development of tiie terminal buds tiiat should produce the blossom-bearing
growtli the next year.

Both broods work wholly among the leaves at the tips of the uprights and
runners. Tiiese become cupped and bimched together characteristically (fig.
59). This is due to the feeding of the worms on tlieir inner surfaces which
they rasp with a little horny process on the under side of the body. The
inner leaves die (fig. 60) and sooner or later break off. New growth' repairs
the inj)iry done by the first brood (fig. 61). Side buds usually develop in

66. Dasyneura vatcinii (Smith)

67. Lysimachia sp.

(ii MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

most of the tips tittacked by the second, Init these are more likely than termi-
nal buds to produce leafy growths instead ni flower shoots the next year,
especially if the \ines lack xiaor.

J)f.scrij)tiiin (111(1 St'(i.t(jii(il Hit<t(jrij.

Flies and 7?//(/.v.

The adult is a delicate fly expanding less than an eighth of an inch. The
male is rather dark and inconspicuous, but the female (fig. 62) has a large
reddi.sh alidomen. The female lays her eggs near the bases of the terminal
leaves (lig. ()3). The eggs are watery translucent with scattered reddish ])ig-
ment and are about a seventieth of an incii long. They are smooth, elongate,
usually sliglitly cur\ed from end to end, and with rounded ends.

M'onns and Cocoontt.

From one to five maggots api)ear in each infested tij>. They vary from pale
yellowish to orange red and are })ointed at one end (fig. (it). They have
neither legs nor head. They mature in about ten days, becoming about a six-
teenth of an inch long. Those of the first brood nuike their cocoons in the
injured tips and the flies emerge in a few days; those of the second descend
to the ground when mature and there form coc(ions in which they live till late
the next spring, without much harm from the winter flowage even when it is
held late.

The cocoons are whitish, slightly flattened cases of closely s])un silk alxiut
a sixteenth of an inch long. Those of the second brood usually are attached
to fallen leaves or other trash (fig. (j.5). The maggot changes into a Itrown
jnipa and this wriggles out of the cocoon through a slit at one end shortly
before the flv eniersies.

Trenimfiit.

The maggots endure submergence longer than it is safe to have the growing
vines flooded and it has not been fouiid jiracticable to give them special
treatment with any insecticide. Bogs that are .sprayed thoroughly three or
four times at regular weekly intervals with 1 quart of 40 per cent nicotine
sulfate and -l pounds of fish-oil soap to 100 gallons of water to control the
fir.st brood of the black-headed fireworm usually are freed of the tipworm*^\
Ordinary resanding every other yeir during the fi'll, winter or early sjiriiig
checks the pest nicely on most liogs, but it seldom ])ays to sand so often if a
bog has ample frost )>rotection. The sand either .•^mothers the worms in th.eir
cocoons or pre\ents the emergence of the flies. Fertiliser helps v.p.ik vines
bud after the attack of the worms, especially on s;uid bottom.

68. See note 11, p. 11.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS

65

Fig.

59.

Fig.

60.

Fig.

62.

Fig.

63.

Fig.

64.

Fig.

65.

Cranberry Tipworiu.

Cranberry tip injured by maggots. Much enlarged.

Cranberry upright with tip killed by worms of second brood. Considerably

enlarged.
Female fly. Much enlarged. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 860. >
Eggs in tip of cranberry upright. Much enlarged.
Maggots. Much enlarged.
Cocoons of second brood on fallen leaves. Much enlarged.

66

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 239

Cranberry Sawfly.""

Tliis species occurs only on dry hogs and hogs tliat are not reflooded regu-
larly. It hardly ever attracts attention, hut its long feeding i^eriod prohahly
sometimes allows it to do considerahle harm. It is one of tiie minor drains
that must be checked to make cranberry culture efficient.

Cranberry Sawfly.

Fig. 66. Cocoon and female fly. Much enlarged.

Fig. 67. Cranberry leaf with egg-pockets. Much enlarged.

Fig. 68. Worm. Much enlarged.

hl.^tributloti (mil Food Phnils.

This insect has been found in Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Illinois
and Wisconsin. Cranberry is its only known food plant. The worms scallop
the leaves irreiiularlv.

Description 'tvil Seasonal Histort/.

The worms winter in rather tough cocoons of coft'ee-brown silk (fig. 66)
among the trasii on the bog floor, unharmed by the winter flood. They pupate

69. Prisliphora idiola Norton.

CAPE COD CRANBERRY INSECTS 67

in early May and the adults usually emerge soon after mid-May and lav eggs
so that the larvae appear on the bogs again early in June. About live gen-
erations occur, the last worms usually entering their winter cocoons in mid-
October. The worms develop so irregularly that the broods get mixed by
late sunuiier, all stages occurring at once.

The E(i(j.

The female always perches on the edge of a cranberry leaf to lay and puts
her eggs in pockets she makes between the upper and lower surfaces and
opening at the margin (fig. 67). The pockets usually are placed singly, but
sometimes two or more are near together. One or, rarely, two eggs are placed
m a pocket and often protrude a little. They are elliptical, watery greenish
brown, and a little over a twenty-fifth of an inch long.

The Larva.

At first the worms are light yellowish green with the head dark brown.
They grow darker with age. When mature (fig. 68) they are slightly over
three-eiglitiis of an inch long, smooth, green, and without noticeable markings
except a narrow internal stripe of whitish jiigment running the length of the
back on each side of the heart and conspicuous through the skin. Their iieads
are pale greenish brown with a black dot on each side. They have six pairs
of prolegs.

The Adult.

The flies (fig. 66) are a fiftli of an inch long and half an inch across their
expanded wings and mostly black, but the females have a broad band across
the middle of the upper side of the abdomen and all its under side l)ut the
tip brownish yellow.

Treatment.

Flooding for 1-5 hours about June 10 or for 18 days in late September and
early October is effective; so also is spraying with 6 pounds of dry lead
arsenate to 100 gallons of water early in June.

'28. No. 1647

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 240 January, 1928

Factors Affecting Returns

from
Potatoes in Massachusetts

By Ronald L. Mighell

Information about probable prices and basic costs, both for his own
farm and for other farms competing for the same markets, plays a very
prominent part in the success of the farmer today. This bulletin shows the
cost, in labor and materials, of growing potatoes in four different sections
of McLSsachusetts, and suggests how the individual may use such infor-
mation in studying his own farm practice.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

Summary

Massachusetts growers now supply one-tentli i)f the estimated annual con-
sumption of potatoes in the state.

Variations in the size of the Massachusetts potato crop have almost no in-
fluence on the price of Massachusetts potatoes.

Some farmers are meeting outside competition and securing profitable re-
turns; others have not yet adopted improved practices or have not found it
profitable to do so.

Data, from 54 Massachusetts farms, for potatoes in 1926 show variations
in man labor cost ranging from 54 to 21() hours per acre.

Rates of seeding varied from 9 to 20 bushels per acre, and of manure from
none to 30 tons per acre. Yields ranged from 70 to 388 bushels per acre.

The use of special potato machinery reduced the average amount of man
labor in planting from 17.9 hours to 7.5 hours per acre; and in harvesting
from 66.3 to 42.6 hours.

In addition to differences in rates of seeding, fertilizing, and spraying, var-
iations in soils and previous cropping and varietal differences are important
factors affecting yields on Massachusetts farms.

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES
IN MASSACHUSETTS

By Ronald L. Mighell'
Assistant Research Professor of Farm Management

How Many Potatoes Should Massachusetts Grow?

The potato crop is an important source of income on many New England
farms. In Massachusetts, apples and cranberries are the only cash crops,
otlier tiian market garden crops, which ordinarily exceed potatoes in value.

Massachusetts farms produced between 2 and 3 million bushels of potatoes
annually from 1922 to 1926. This is estimated to have supplied only aliout one-
tenth of tlie annual consumption of the people within the State. Should more
liave been grown? Should more be grown now and in the years to come?
These questions cannot be answered definitely and at once for all farmers.
The answers will vary for different individuals and different grou])s.

Certainly every Massachusetts farmer should ask himself several things
l)efore adding potatoes to his farm business or before changing the acreage
already grown. Is this a profitable crop for me to grow now? Will it be
profitable in the future?

The answers to these questions will depend upon the farmer's costs and
iqjon the prices which he expects to receive. A mere glance at Figure 1 shows

that the Massachusetts crop is very
small as compared with the production
of the United States, and has very lit-
tle to do with the price of Massachusetts
potatoes. Previous studies" have s^^own
that the total production in the late
crop states is one of the most import-
ant factors affecting the average price
of potatoes. Hence in any study of
probable future prices, attention must
be paid to trends in production in the
important potato growing states. Until
recently, at least, the value of potatoes
tended to increase faster than the gen-
eral price level or the prices of other
agricultural products. What may hap-
pen in the future is a question of balance l>etween the factors affecting
demand, and acreage and yield per acre as affecting supply. Sliould the
introduction of improved machinery in Maine or New York make it profitable
to expand potato acreage even in the face of increasing production and lower

Figure 1. The Contribution of Massa-
chusetts and New England to the
United States Potato Crop.
(Average 1920-1925)

-MAssACHusnrs

1 The author wishes to acknowledge the great assistance given in this study by
Professor R. H. Barrett and IMiss Marian Brown of the Department of Farm Man-
agement ; and the helpful criticism of Professor J. A. Foord, head of the Department
of Farm Management, and of Director Sidney B. Haskell of the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.

-Working, Holbrook. 1925. Factors Affecting the Price of Minnesota Potatoes.
:\Iinn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 29.

1922. Factors Determining the Price of Potatoes in St. Paul and Minneapolis.
Minn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 10.

72

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

prices, or should the present lower prices of fertilizer result in increased
yields of potatoes in competing areas, Massachusetts growers who could not
or did not adopt similar methods would find themselves at a disadvantage.

At the present time the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the United
States Department of Agriculture and various other agencies are making
extensive studies of supply and demand and probable future prices of various
crops and livestock. The Bureau publishes an Agricultural Outlook report
early in February which states the probable outlook for farm commodities
for the coming year. This is supplemented by the Intentions to Plant report
in March and by other special reports at other times. The New England
Research Council also publishes an Outlook in February which more fully
covers the New England situation. With tliis knowledge available the farmer
has the task of adjusting his production practices to make a ])rofit, or of
turning to other crop or livestock enterprises.

The average Massachusetts potato grower generally has a farm price which
is from 40 to 60 cents per bushel higher than the farm price in Maine because
of differences in freight and handling charges.

Table 1. — Potatoes: Estimated Price in Cents per Bushel Received by
Producers on Dec. 1. Average 1921-1925, Annual 1921-1926.a

Average
1921-1925

1921

1922

1923

1924

1925

1926

Massachusetts
Maine

145
89

152

85

95
45

135
70

96

43

245
200

180
133

Difference

56

67

50

65

53

45

47

a U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1926.

Table 1 gives the December 1 farm price of potatoes in Massachusetts and
Maine, and the difference is in favor of Massachusetts in each year. It will
be seen that the average Massachusetts grower has a very wide margin of
price advantage. It is true, however, that there are many growers who are
not "average," whose local prices may be different or who may live at some
distance from the market. Some growers have special local outlets and are
able to obtain higher prices by careful grading. Whether these advantages
are sufficient to overcome the effect of lower yields, higher amounts of labor
used, and other disadvantages, must be worked out by individual growers in
Massachusetts for their particular situations.

The Areas Studied.

This study is directed primarily at the cost side of the potato problem. How
much labor do Massachusetts farmers put into growing potatoes? How much
seed and fertilizer do they use? Are they taking advantage of specialized
machinery? In what ways can their practices be improved? Data are pre-
sented showing the amounts of man labor and materials used in producing
potatoes on 54 farms in four areas in Massachusetts during 1926. They are
taken from records secured by personally visiting 13 or 14 farms in each lo-
cality. The farms studied are located as indicated in Figure 2, which also
shows the average number of days between killing frosts. The first area is

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES

73

in Chesterfield and Cumniington in Hanipsiiire County; the second in Granby
in Hampshire County; the third in Concord in Middlesex County; and the
fourth in Seekonk, Swansea, and.Rehoboth in Bristol County. These areas
are referred to in the text as the Chesterfield, Granhy, Concord, and Seekonk
areas, respectively.

Fig 2. Location of Areas Studied and Average
Niunber of Prost Free Days.

Chesterfield Area.

The Chesterfield Area is characterized by a rolling to hilly topography with
elevations on the farms visited varying from 1200 to 1600 feet. This altitude
gives the area a shorter, cooler growing season than that of the others studied.
The soils are extremely variable and in places very stony, but potatoes are
usually grown on the heavier and more fertile land and where machinery can
be used to better advantage. The amounts of labor used were greater than in
the other areas, because of the stonier soils and rougher topography.

Potatoes occupied 11 per cent of the total crop land on the farms studied
as compared with 3 per cent' for the entire town of Chesterfield. Most of the
remaining acreage was in hay and forage crops. The average total crop
acreage per farm was 40 acres in 1926. Dairying is the principal source of
income for most of the farmers who are chiefly dependent on the land for
their livelihood. The potato crop in such a farming system is an imi^ortant
supplementary source of cash income.

The growers of Chesterfield and Cummington are from 20 to 24 miles from
their market, but the roads are good and no diificulty is experienced in truck-
ing except from some isolated farms. Chesterfield potatoes go chiefly to
Northampton and those of Cummington to Dalton and Pittsfield.

' United States Cen.sus of Agriculture, 1925.

74 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

The Granby Area.

Farmers in no other area studied used so little man labor per acre of po-
tatoes in 1926 as the Granby farmers. The elevation varies from 240 to 300
feet above sea level and the fields are relatively level and regular in shape.
The light sandy loam soil is easily worked and tractors and potato machinery
are easily used. The growing season of al)out 150 days is longer than in
Chesterfield but not quite as cool.

Potatoes occupied 12 per cent of the average total crop acreage of 51 acres
per farm studied in Granby. As in Cliesterfield, the potato is a cash crop
which fits into a more or less regular rotation with the hay and forage crops
grown for dairy cows. In such rotations potatoes usually follow several years
of grass.

Granby farms are favorably situated with respect to markets. It is only
about 8 miles to Holyoke. In 1926 most growers sold their potatoes to buyers
who came to the farm.

I'lie Concord Area.

The potato crop in Concord supplements dairying on some farms, and on
others is only one of several market garden crops and competes with them
for the time and resources of the farmer. Both Cobblers and Green Moun-
tains are grown for the Boston market about 18 miles away.

The elevation runs from 120 to 160 feet. The fields are very level and
there are few stones, thus facilitating the use of machinery. The soil under
the careful treatment given by the growers produces high yields.

Potatoes occupied 13.5 per cent of the crop land on the farms studied in
the Concord area, as compared with 4.7 per cent^ for all farms in the area.
This area differs greatly from Chesterfield and Granby in the high percentage
of crop land in other vegetable crops. Over 23 per cent of the crop land on
the farms studied was in other vegetables. The farmer in Concord, in de-
ciding how much land to put in potatoes or wliether to grow them at all, has
many alternatives to consider, as contrasted with the grower in Chesterfield
who has little choice of other cash crops.

The Seekonk Area.

The Seekonk area differs markedly from the others. Less than 100 feet
above tiie sea, the fields are level and the soil very light and sandy. Heavy
applications of commercial fertilizer produce high yields. The growing season
at Providence (atiout 12 miles from the area) is long, averaging 195 days for
the 10-year period 1917-1926. The annual precipitation is slightly less than
in the other areas. Cobblers are much more important in Seekonk, over two-
thirds of the potato acreage studied being in Cobblers. No doubt they are
better adapted to this area than to other parts of Massachusetts, but they
apparently yield only about three-fourths as much as Green Mountains where
grown on the same farms.

Market garden crops are important in this locality as in Concord, and
potatoes are usually only one of many cash crops; although in some cases they
also supplement dairying.

^United States Census of Agriculture, 1925.

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES

76

The nativity of the farmer is an important factor affecting the amount of
hand labor used in the Seekonk area. Many small farms are operated by
men of foreign descent who either lack the capital to purchase machinery or
else have enough family labor to grow potatoes without machinery.

Providence is the chief market for the potatoes and other cash crops grown
in Seekonk. The larger growers have their own trucks and the smaller farm-
ers often hire their produce trucked to market. Since so many of the potatoes
are Cobblers, most of the harvesting is finished early. The prices secured in
1926 were lower than in other areas because the early market was low. Be-
cause of southern competition the grower in southwestern Bristol County
has an entirely different market situation to meet in making his plans for each
year's crops than the grower in other parts of Massachusetts.

rigure 3. The Maximum and Minimum Hours of

Man Labor Used per Acre of Potatoes

in Different Areas. All Operations.

Hours

200

—

1

1

<x^
m

k\V

^V

f

^X

\\\

^^'•^^

\\x

i

i

1

C

hest
flel

er-
d

G

ran

by

c

Jonc

ord

See

konl

c

The total labor on all farms studied in each area was rather uniformly distributed
throughout the range from the minimum to the maximum.

Amounts of Labor and Materials Used per Acre for Potatoes
in Massachusetts

In any careful study of farm production it is essential to have a knowledge
of the amounts of labor and materials used per acre. The seasonal distribu-
tion of labor on a particular crop and the probable days available for each
of the crop operations is also important. With such data for his farm, a
grower can forecast in advance the probable effect upon the farm resources
and the net returns to his business of any proposed change in his cropping
system. And by comparing the data from his farm with similar data from
other farms in the neighborhood or in other regions, the farmer can see wheth-
er his production is made with a higher or lower input of the various items of
labor and materials.

76

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

In all studies of this kind a wide range in the amounts of labor and ma-
terials used has always been discovered. The tables and charts set forth these
differences as found in the four areas in Massachusetts, and the text points
out their causes and indicates ways in which labor and materials may be con-
served in growing potatoes.

Labor and Materials Used in the Chesterfield Area.*

The total hours of man labor per acre used in potato production in 1926
on the Chesterfield farms are shown in Table 2 and Figure 3. The man labor
varied from 87 to 216 hours per acre. Some of the causes of these variation^
are suggested in Table 3, which shows the labor by operations. There are
many factors affecting the amounts of man labor used in growing potatoes in
Cliesterfield. Part of these are pointed out in the discussion of the operations
which follows. Some farmers are able to perform the operations more quick-
ly than others, due to the kind of implement used, the number of times an
operation is repeated, the size and slope of fields, and the stoniness of the soil.

Figure 4. Hours of Man Labor per Acre in Plowing.

The smaller, stonier fields of Chesterfield take longer
to prepare. More tractors are used in the other areas.

Preparation and Planting.

The farmers of Chesterfield spend more time plowing than other Massa-
chusetts farmers, because their fields are small, hilly, stony, and irregular in
shape. Figure 4 shows the hours per acre used in plowing. A man with two
horses and a 12-inch walking plow took from 5.3 hours to 14.2 hours to plow
an acre. On one farm a man with a Fordson and a 16-inch plow used 3
hours to plow an acre; and on another with the same kind of equipment it
took 4 hours.

0 Hours of horse and tractor work are not eiven. For the most part, they closely
Tallel the hours ol man labor.

parallel

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES

77

Table 2. — Potatoes: Acres per Farm, Yield per Acre and Man Labor per Acre.

Acres per farm

Yield — bushels per acre

Labor — total hours per acre

Chestertield

No.

of

Farms

Mini-
mum

1

127
87.3

Aver-
age

4.5
241.8
127.3

Granby

No.

Maxi-

of

Mini-

Aver-

mum

Farms

mum

age

13

14

3.5

6.2

335

14

100

175.8

216.0

14

45.5

73.1

Maxi-
mum

17
262
129.7

Table 3.^Hours of Man Labor Used per Acre of Potatoes, by Operations.

Operation

Manuring — hours
Plowing —

hours with horses

hours with tractor

Picking stone — hours

Disking —

hours with horses

hours with tractor

number of times
Smoothing —

hours

number of times
Treating and cutting seed-
hours
Planting — hours
Rolling — hours
Fertilizing — hours
Weeding —

hours

number of times
Cultivating —

hours

number of times
Hoeing — hours
Spraying —

hours

tiumber of times
Harvesting — hours
Grading — hours

Chesterfield

No.

of

Mini-

Aver-

Maxi-

Farms

mum

age

mum

10

2

13.1

16.6

12

5.3

7.7

14.2

2

3.0

3.7

4.0

11

1.6

6.1

7.4

8

2.0

5.0

14.4

5

1.2

3.0

4.0

13

1

3.S

6

8

0.5

1.5

2.5

8

1

1-4

3

12

4.8

7.9

15.2

13

2.0

5.0

9.6

5

1.0

1.3

1.6

4

1.0

2.1

4.5

10

1.2

3.0

9.0

10

;

2.9

6

13

3.0

7. 7

24.0

13

2

4.4

10

4

3.3

7.6

16.0

13

1.0

8.6

20.0

13

/

4-2

10

13

29.6

67.8

132.0

6

9.1

24.0

48.0

Granby

No

of

Farms

12

10
10

14
14
10
7

9

9

14

13
IS
14

Mini-
mum

1.2

4.0
1.4
0.6

1.0
0.6

0.7

1.2
2.1
0.4
0.5

0.3
1

4.6

4
0.7

2.0
1
14.2

Aver-
age

6.6

4.3
2.0
0.6

2.5
1.1
1.6

1.7

1.2

5.5

4.3
0.6
0.9

1.6
1.9

9.4
6.2
6.6

3.8

3.7

36.1

Maxi-
mum

13.7

6.0
3.7
0.6

6.0
2.3

4.6

8.3
9.6
1.0
1.6

5.7

4

17.7

12

11.4

6.8
6
68.6

The potato fields received manure on all except three farms in this area.
Labor in hauling manure varied chiefly with the number of loads hauled. The
method of handling also made a difference. Some farmers did not have
spreaders and hauled in carts and spread by hand. On one farm the manure
was hauled out in winter and piled and spread the following spring. Most of
the work on manure is done at times when it does not interfere with other
crop worK.

78 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

Stone picking is an annual operation on most of these liill fanns. The stones
must be removed every time a field is plowed. From 2 to 4 hours of man
labor per acre usually seems to be suflBcient.

Differences in labor in disking and smoothing were largely due to the num-
ber of times the operations were performed. The usual practice is to double
disk from one .to three times and then to run the smoothing harrow over the
ground once before planting. Other causes of variation were size of field,
distance to field, and width of implement. One farm had a very high labor
input because the land was disked twenty times.

Not all Chesterfield growers treated their seed. The time used by those
who did depended on the equipment and its convenience for doing the work.
Time used in cutting seed varied greatly with the individual. One man who
used a fixed knife and had the potatoes in an inclined box so that they were
conveniently reached was able to cut 5 bushels an hour. Those who used No. 2
seed* did not do as much cutting.

Figure 6 shows the average amount of labor used in planting by different
methods for all areas. Other variations were caused by such factors as the
size and shape of the field, the convenience of seed and fertilizer, and freedom
from delays or accidents. Some of the growers used additional fertilizer,
either before planting or afterward.

Cultivating and Spraying.

About half the potato acreage in Chesterfield was rolled once or twice after
planting in 1926. The practice on a few farms is to run a ridger over the
field and then roll down the ridges. This is repeated, usually just as the
potatoes are breaking the ground.

The one-horse weeder was commonly used two or three times before cultivat-
ing. The number of times over caused large differences in labor in cultivat-
ing. It was not greatly different with a one or two horse cultivator. Some
extra cultivating was done to get rid of weeds. The last cultivation was
commonly a hilling operation with either the ridger or horse hoe or with wings
placed on the cultivator.

Some farmers spent a certain amount of time in hoeing and pulling weeds.
This labor is usually done at odd times and does not conflict with other oper-
ations.

Spraying time was more variable than almost any other operation. Both the
number of times and the labor each time differed greatly. There was very
little disease in Chesterfield in 1926 and the presence or absence of spray may
not have affected yields in that year. Hand spraying in some cases increased
the labor used. The man labor for spraying on one farm was higher than
on the others because water had to be hauled a long distance. The use of a
commercial power duster on two other farms greatly reduced the labor.

Harvesting.

Harvest labor includes digging, picking up, hauling to barn or house, sort-
ing, and grading. The use of the hook in digging accounts for the large
number of hours of man labor for harvesting on two farms. All others used
a potato digger. Time used with the digger was affected by the presence of
stones and weeds, the number of delays, and the length of time over which the
digging was spread.

•No. 2 seed differs from No. 1 only in size. It may be from certified fields.

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES

79

A grader was used on two farms, and much hand grading was done on
some others. These farms supplied a special market and secured a higher price
for carefully graded potatoes. Attention was paid to grading out the cull
potatoes at digging time on all farms. This was not difficult in 1926, for the
crop was well matured.

Figure 5. Distribution of Man Labor per Acre

by Half-Months for 6.5 Acres of Green Mountains on

Farm 1 in Chesterfield, 1926.

Hours r

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Potatoes in Chesterfield are planted in May or early June. Harvest falls in the first
half of October. The labor in November and December represents hauling manure
and plowing for next year's crop.

Seasonal Distribution.

Figure 5 shows the distribution of man labor on farm 1. Considerable
variation from this distribution was found but this is fairly typical for
potatoes in Chesterfield. The season is from one to two weeks later than in the
other areas studied. There are no serious conflicts with other crops unless a
considerable acreage is grown.

Materials Used.

More seed was used in the Chesterfield area than anywhere else. The usual
rate of seeding was about 18 bushels per acre. Table 4 shows that the range
about this rate was not very great. Farms 10 and 13 used No. 2 seed and
therefore did not plant as many bushels. Seed planted on these farms in 1926
was home-grown.

Fertilizer applications varied from 600 to 2000 pounds per acre. Nearly all
was 5-8-7 potato fertilizer. On farms 1 and 8 "double strength" or 10-16-14
fertilker was used. This is given in Table 3 in terms of its -5-8-7 equivalerrt.

80

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

Table 4.— Materials Used per Acre of Potatoes, Chesterfield Area, 1926.

Acres

Yield

Lead

Corrosive

Farm

per

per

Seed

Fertilizer

Manure

Bordeaux

Arsenate

Sublimate

Number

Farm

Acre

Bu.

Lbs.

Tons

Lbs.

Lbs.

Oz.

8

2.25

127

20.0

1776

8.8

8.8

4.4

1.3

3

3.00

167

17.0

1400

50.0

12

2.50

200

18.0

600

20.0

32.0

6.6

4.0

5

1.25

208

18.0

1600

16.0

112.0

8.0

1

6.50

218

18.0

1600

15.0

61.5

3.7

4.9

2

8.00

231

18.6

1800

100.0

10.0

6.0

6

13.00

250

17.0

2000

1,0

6.1

13

3.00

250

11.6

1666

16.6

80.0

8.0

8.0

4

8.00

262

18.0

1500

3.8

100.0

10.0

10

3.50

271

13.0

1000

18.0

280.0

6.8

4.6

9

2.50

280

15.6

1200

30.0

4.8

6.4

11

4.00

312

15.0

1700

20.0

80.0

7.5

3.7

7

1.00

335

19.0

1400

25.0

... .a

Averages6

4.50

242

16.9

1610

14.8

86.9

7.5

5.4

a Hired dusting. Amount not given.
"to Averages for acres on which applied.

Applications of manure varied from none on farms 2, 3, and 6, to 30 tons
per acre on farm 9.

The amounts of spray material used are showTi in Table 4. All but three
growers mixed their own Bordeaux and lead arsenate on the farm. A com-
fnercial dust was used on farms 3, 6, and 7.

Labor and Materials Used in the Granhy Area.

The man labor used on the Granby farms varied from 45 to 130 hours per
acre. This was considerably less than in the other areas studied. As com-
pared with Chesterfield, there were more tractors in use and the fields are more
regular and have fewer stones. Less time was spent in performing most of the
field operations. Only one grower did not use a digger in harvesting and
very little time was spent in grading, a large percentage of the potatoes be-
ing sold at the farm just as they came from the field. Less time per acre-
was used in picking up, owing to the lower yield.

The following discussion of the individual operations throws some light
on other causes of variation in the labor input.

Preparation and Planting.

Considerably less time was used in drawing manure on the Granby farms
than on the hill farnTS of Chesterfield. This is explained by the greater number
of manure spreaders in use, only one farm in Granby being without a spreader;
and by the fact that the manure was handled only once in Granby and on
some of the hill farms it was hauled out in the winter and later rehandled.

The range in hours spent in plowing an acre in Granby is shown in Figure
4. With two horses and a walking plow it took from 4 to 6 man hours to
plow an acre. On one farm, 1L4 man hours were used, but the land was

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES

81

Figure 6. Average Hours of Man Labor

Used for Planting by Hand and by

Machine.

Hours

15

plowed twice. AVith a tractor it took from 1.4 hours to 3.8 hours to plow rh
acre.

Stone picking was reported on only one farna in Granby. This freedom
from stones is an important natural advantage.

The usual preparation of the land after plowing in Granby consisted in
double disk harrowing once or twice and smoothing once with a two section
spike-tooth harrow. Those farmers who owned tractors used the double action
disk harrow. The smoothing harrow was usually horse-drawn.

- About half the growers in Granby treated their seed with corrosive sublimate
in 1926. The time used is included with cutting in Table 3. Time for cutting
varied with the method used and the kind of seed. Some of the No. 2's were
cut only once if at all.

Out of fourteen farms studied in
Granby, five used a one-man planter,
eight used a two-man, and one plant-
ed by hand. Figure 6 shows the aver-
age time used in all areas for plant-
ing by different methods. > Whether
the two-man planter is enough more
accurate to warrant the use of an-
other man is a matter which each
farmer must determine for himself.
The saving in man hours as shown
in these records was from 1 hour to
5 hours per acre. When the one-
man planter is carefully operated
and the seed evenly cut there are few
skips; but when it is not, or when
the seed is uneven, there may be
many.

Time spent in spreading addition-
al fertilizer is not included under
planting. Half the farmers applied
additional fertilizer a week or ten
days after planting.
Operations After Planting.

On all but four of the farms, the potatoes were rolled once after planting
and gone over with the weeder once or twice before cultivating. The most
common number of cultivations was six, although the range was from four
to twelve.

Both one and two-horse cultivators were used, frequently on the same farm.
The two-horse cultivators were generally riding cultivators. More cultivating
was done with the two-horse than the one-horse machines. The last cultiva-
tion was commonly shallow without much hilling.

The number of times sprayed varied from none to 6. One farmer used a
hand duster and another employed a 100-gallon sprayer. The usual type ©f
sprayer, however, was a 50-gallon traction sprayer.

10

Hand Machine

82

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

Han>esfinff.

Harvesting included digging, picking up, and drawing from the field.
Practically no sorting or grading was done in 1926. The time varied from
14.2 man hours per acre to 66.6 hours. The minimum amount is explained by
the very low yield of 100 bushels per acre. The yield on the high labor farm
was exceeded by only one other farm, the harvest was somewhat prolonged,
and the potatoes were dug by hand. All other farms used a digger.

The chief causes of variation in digging time were probably the length of
time over which the digging extended and the kind of labor used at harvest.
Less time was used when the potatoes were all dug in a short period. Some
growers exchanged labor and were able to save time by thus using a larger
crew.

Figure 7. Distribution of Man Labor per Acre

by Half-Months for 6 Acres of Greeu Mountains on

Farm 21 in Granby, 1926.

Hears

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Much manure hauling comes in the winter months in Granby. Planting is done about
May 15. Harvest runs from September 15 to October 15.

Seasonal Distribution.

Figure 7 shows the seasonal distribution of man labor on farm 21. This
is a rather typical distribution in the Granby area. The labor in February
represents manure hauling. The other labor before harvest is spread rather
uniformly through May, June, and July. It conflicts to some extent with
work on corn and hay during this period. The harvest on farm 21 was begun
about the middle of September and spread over a month. For those in
Granby who grow Cobblers, the harvest begins in August.

Materials Used.

The amounts of seed, fertilizer, and manure used per acre in all areas are

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES 83

compared with the yield per acre in Figure 8. Seed planted in Granby varied
from 8.7 to 14 bushels per acre. The chief cause for the variation was the
amount of No. 2's planted. Those farmers who planted less than twelve
bushels per acre used part or all No. 2 potatoes.

Figure 8. Yields of Potatoes and Accompanying
Inputs of Seed and Fertilizer.

yield
Bushels

400

Seed
Bushels

Fertilizer
Founds

2000

1000

The 54 farms are arrayed in order of 3rield with the accompanying amounts of seed
and fertilizer. For example, the seed and fertilizer used on the farm with lowest yield
are directly below the first portion of the yield graph. The apparent lack of associa-
tion between yield, and seed and fertilizer, is due to other factors such as manure,
spraying, soil, and previous cropping not included in the chart.

Applications of fertilizer ranged from 1000 pounds per acre on several
farms to slightly more than 2200 on farm 24. Double strength (10-16-14)
was used on farms 15, 16, 23, 25, and 26 either in part or altogether. This
is expressed in terms of 5-8-7 in Table 5 for purposes of comparison. All
other fertilizer was of the 5-8-7 grade.

Applications of mamire ranged from none on farms 16 and 18 to 25 tons
per acre on farm 27.

Only about half the growers treated their seed in 1926. Corrosive sublimate
was used except on farm 27, where the formalin treatment was employed. A

84

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

few farmers mixed their own spray, but the common practice was to purchase
a commercial Bordeaux in the powdered form and add water and lead arse-
nate. The exact amoimts are sliown in Table 5.

Table 5. — Materials Used per Acre of Potatoes, Granby Area, 1926.

Acres

Yield

Lead

Corrosive

Farm

per

per

Seed

Fertilizer

Manure

Bordeau.x

Arsenate

Sublimate

Number

Farm

Acre

Bu.

Lbs:

Tons

Lbs.

Lbs.

Oz.

25

4.0

100

9.0

1500

10.0

25.0

5.0

15

6.0

150

12.5

1500

7.5

16.6

16.6

24

17.0

154

8.7

2205

2.5

52.9

4.4

23

5.0

160

9.9

1500

14.2

10.0

17

5.0

165

10.0

1000

7.5

24.0

8.0

26

7.0

171

12.9

2000

10.0

21

6.0

173

13.7

1000

12.0

33.3

8.3

1«

4.0

187

13.7

1000

15.0

... .a

18

8.0

187

14.0

2200

25.0

3

.2

20

3.5

189

11.0

1714

14.8

7.4

16

8.0

198

11.3

2000

84.00

9.0

4

.1

22

4.0

199

14.0

1000

13.5

25.0

4.0

3

.0

27

3.5

200

11.8

1285

25.0

28.66

19

5.5

262

14.0

1000

12.0

72.7

9.1

Averages c

6.18

176

11.6

1781

9.9

43.9

7.8

3.5

a Hired dusting, amounts not given.

b Dust, not included in average.

c Averages for acres on which applied.

Labor and Materials Used in the Concord Area.

The variation in man labor for potatoes on 14 Concord farms was from 75
to 175 hours per acre. In general, it can be seen that more labor was used
in Concord than in Granby and somewhat less than in Chesterfield. There
seems to be some increase in all the operations.

Preparation and Planting.

Reference to Figure 4 shows that the time taken to plow an acre with
horses was from 4 to 6 hours with one extreme case of 16 hours. On this
farm there was only one acre in potatoes and this was a very stony sod.
Nearly all the potato fields in this group are more difficult to plow and
cultivate than those in Granby.

Operations before planting were not much different from those in Granby
or Chesterfield. More labor was spent cutting seed than in Granby. It took
longer to plant an acre. On three farms the ground was marked off with
a one-horse marker before using the planter. On two farms planters were
not used, the land being marked off, fertilizer applied, and potatoes dropped
by hand. Another farm used a large amount of time by placing each seed
potato separately.

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES

85

Operations After Planting.

Rolling was not practiced. A plank drag was used on several farms. A
few applied additional fertilizer after planting. The weeder was used from
1 to 4 times before cultivating.

Six was the most common number of cultivations given, although there
were as many as 14. Both one and two-horse cultivators were used. The
last cultivation was frequently a hilling operation for which a two-horse
ridger was employed. Much time was spent in hand hoeing and pulling weeds.

Table 6. — Potatoes: Acres per Farm, Yield per Acre and Man Hours per Acre.

Coi

icord

Seekonk

No.

No.

of

Mini-

Aver-

Maxi-

of

Mini-

Aver-

Maxi-

Farms

mum

age

mum

Farms

mum

age

mum

Acres per farm

14

1

7.6

35

13

3

6.3

10

Yield — bushels per acre

1-i

100

225.6

388

13

70

218.3

314

Labor — total hours per acre

14

75.5

ill. 9

175.3

13

78.2

122.1

167

Table 7. — Hours of Man

Labor

per Acre of Potatoes, by Operations.

Concord

Seekonk

Operation

No.

No.

of

Mini-

Aver-

Maxi-

of

Mini-

Aver-

Maxi-

Farms

mum

age

mum

Farms

mum

age

mum

Manuring — hours

8

5.0

9.6

12.0

4

3.7

10.0

15.3

Labor on rye — hours

9

2.2

4.8

6.3

Plowing —

hours with horses

8

4.0

6.7

16.0

9

3.2

5.6

9.1

hours with tractor

6

2.0

2.6

5.3

4

2.4

3.0

3.4

Picking stone — hours

4

4.0

8.9

13.7

1

1.3

1.3

1.3

Disking —

hours with horses

8

2.0

11.7

18.0

8

0.8

2.6

4.6

hours with tractor

6

0.8

2.0

4.0

4

1.2

2.4

4.4

number of limes

H

1

2.7

4

12

1

2

4

Smoothing —

hours

7

0.5

0.8

2.0

11

0.5

1.2

4.2

number of times

7

;

;

1

11

1

1.3

4

Treating and cutting seed —

hours

14

3.0

8.1

10.5

13

4.8

8.5

16.9

Planting — hours

14

2.0

6.5

15.0

13

3.3

8.9

21.2

Planking — hours

3

0.7

0.9

2.0

7a

0.6a

1.4a

2.2a

Fertilizing — hours

4

0.5

0.9

1.0

6

1.1

2.9

6.4

Weeding —

hours

12

0.4

1.7

6.8

12

0.5

2.7

6.8

tiutnber of times

12

1

1.9

4

12

1

2.4

5

Cultivating —

hours

14

3.5

10.7

27. i

13

4.0

9.4

15.0

number of limes

14

3

6.3

14

13

3

5.0

7

Hoeing — hours

10

1.3

6.9

24.0

9

3.0

9.2

19.1

Spraying —

hours

14

1.4

4.2

15.4

13

0.6

4.6

8.0

Clumber of limes

U

1

3.4

7

13

1

2.1

4

Harvesting- — hours

14

24.6

40.5

103.0

13

40.0

60.6

99,5

Grading — hours

9

6.8

20.1

48.0

a Smoothing Harrow.

86

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

Most Concord farmers sprayed or dusted from two to four times in 1926.
The time varied with the method used and the number of applications. A
hand duster was used on four farms. The time also depended on the con-
venience of mixing the spray material, the distance to the field, and the
capacity of the sprayer. The sprayer on one farm was a 200 gallon orchard
sprayer with a motor. The motor was troublesome and the hours used were
increased.

Harvesting.

Harvesting included the same operations as reported in the other two areas,
but in addition, much more time was devoted to sorting and grading. The
growers in Concord are well paid for the labor spent in sorting, for in most
cases they have special market outlets and secure a premium for well graded
potatoes.

Figure 9. Distribution of Man Labor per Acre

by Half-Months for 15 Acres of Green Mountains and

8 Acres of Cobblers on Farm 41 in Concord, 1926.

Hours

30

20

10

0

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Tlhese potatoes Were planted in April and May; cultivated in June and July; sprayed
from June 10 to Sept. 1.; and harvested in August (Cobblers) and from September
15 to October 31 (Green Mountains). A tractor and specialized potato machines
were used.

Seasonal Distribution.

Figure 9 presents the seasonal distribution of man labor for potatoes on
farm 4L On this farm 15 acres of Green Mountains and 8 acres of Cobblers
were grown. The peak in early August was due to the digging of the Cobblers.
Apples are an important crop on this farm and the harvest labor on the two
crops interferes to some extent. This is a representative distribution on a
good farm in this area.

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES

87

Materials Used.

The quantities of seed, fertilizer, and other materials used on each farm
are given in Table 8. The rate of seeding varied from 10 bushels to 20 bushels
per acre with 12 bushels representing the most common rate. Practically all
the seed was certified Maine or other northern-grown seed. Less No. 2 seed
was used than in the other two areas. More Cobblers were planted here than
in Granby.

Fertilizer applications averaged more and less manure was used here than
in the western areas. There is less livestock to furnish the manure and more
demand for it from market gardeners. The most common fertilizer application
was about 2000 pounds per acre, although the range was from 800 to 2500
pounds. The 5-8-7 was used on all farms except 29, 37, and 41, which applied
a 5-8-10 mixture. Those farmers who used manure applied from 8 to 20 tons
per acre.

Both dusts and wet sprays were used for covering the vines. The Bordeaux
was usually a commercial mixture, although some growers mixed their own.
One or two growers sprayed only with lead arsenate. Only 5 out of the 14
treated their seed with corrosive sublimate before planting.

Table 8. — Materials Used per Acre of Potatoes, Concord Area, 1926.

Acres

Yield

Lead

Corrosive

Farm

per

per

Seed

Fertilizer

Manure

Boideaux

Arsenate

Sublimate

Number

Farm

Acre

Bu.

Lbs.

Tons

Lbs.

Lbs.

Oz.

31

5,0

100

10.0

2000

30. Oo

40

1.0

100

16.0

2000

10.0a

30

2.25

129

11.5

nil

15.0

88. 8a

39

2.6

152

13.3

1000

20.0

20.9

6.1

37

6.0

157

12.0

1500

20.0

3.3

4

0

3o

4.0

188

10.0

800

75.0a

29

3.0

200

12.0

2000

50.0

2

fi

36

35.0

214

10.0

2000

5.7

5.7

33

9.0

230

12.2

1222

10.0

41

23.0

258

14.8

2500

217.3

26.1

5

0

34

8.0

275

12.0

1375

18.0

18.7

9.4

2

5

38

1.0

300

10.0

2000

20.0

125.0a

32

3.0

333

20.0

1500

8.3

83.3a

28

3.5

388

17.1

2200

10.0

109.7

6.8

5

7

Averagesb

7.6

226

12.2

1871

16.3

79.1

11.7

4.3

a Bust, not included in average.

b Averages for acres on which applied.

Labor and Materials Used in the Seekonk Area.

The farms from which records were secured lie in the southwestern part of
Bristol County not far from Providence, Rhode Island. More Cobblers than
Green Mountains are grown here, although the Green Mountains yield more
per acre. The hours of man labor used per acre on these farms ranged
from 78 to 214 per acre, and averaged about the same as for the Chesterfield
farms. The soil is freer from stones than in Chesterfield but more hand labor
was used in planting, spraying, and harvesting, particularly on certain farms,
and this increased the average input of labor. Some of the principal opera-
tions are reviewed in the following discussion.

88 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

Preparation and Planting.

Tractors were used for plowing on about a third of the farms as indicated
in Figure 4. Plowing with two horses and a 12-inch walking plow took
longer than usual on the two high labor farms because both the farmers and
the horses were old and did not work rapidly.

Barnyard manure was applied on only four of tlie farms. This is a market
garden section with little livestock and manure is at a premium. The common
practice is to grow rye as a cover crop and plow it under the following
spring. Most of the land is kept in continuous cultivation, sometimes in
potatoes alone, and as soon as the potatoes or other crop is harvested in
late summer, it is disk-harrowed and seeded to rye.

The land was commonly double-disked twice and smoothed with a smootli-
ing harrow once. The practice was not essentially ditferent from that in
other places. None of the seed was treated with corrosive sublimate or
formalin, and was ready for the planter as soon as cut.

Two growers used a one-man planter, six used a two-man planter, and
five planted by hand. The usual operations in hand planting included furrow-
ing, fertilizing, diropping, and covering. Great pains were taken in placing the
seed pieces on the high labor farm, which accounts for the large amount of
time spent. The hours of man labor in planting are shown in Table 7.

Operations After Planting.

Following the planting the land was commonly gone over with the smooth-
ing harrow once and then with a weeder from one to four times. About
one-half of the farmers applied extra fertilizer. Most growers cultivated 5 or
6 times with a one-horse cultivator. A considerable amount of odd time
was spent in hoeing and pulling weeds.

Very little spraying was done on this group of farms in 1926. Only two
growers used Bordeaux and the usual number of sprays was one or two of
lead arsenate.

Harz'esting.

Time spent in harvest ranged from 40 to 99 hours of man labor per acre.
Most of the extremely high amounts were caused by hand digging. The har-
vest labor was somewhat higher than in other sections because it included
sorting and barreling, which was usually done in the field.

Seasonal Distribution of Labor.

The seasonal distribution of man labor is shown by half-month periods
in Figure 10 for farm 44. Only Cobblers were grown on this farm and the
harvest labor all came in August and early September. The season is much
earlier in southern Bristol County than in the other areas and the planting
is largely done in April and the first half of May. This is a typical distri-
bution for those who grow only Cobblers. For those growers who also have
Green Mountains, the harvest period would be lengthened.

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES

89

Figure 10. Distribution of Man Labor per Acre

by Half-Months for 8 Acres of Cobblers

on Farm 44 in Seekonk, 1926.

Hours

20

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Cobblers in Seekonk are planted in April and nearly all harvested by September 1.

Table 9. — Materials Used per Acre of Potatoes, Seekonk Area, 1926.

Acres

Yield

Lead

Farm

per

per

Seed

Fertilizer

Manure

Bord

eaux Arsenate

Number

Farm

Acre

Bu.

Lbs.

Tons

L

bs. Lbs.

48

5.0

70

10.0

800

4.0

51

3.3

129

12.1

2121

30.0

53

5.5

145

10.9

2000

5.4

9.1

46

9.0

183

11.1

4000

58.3a

55

56

42

10.0

193

10.0

2000

10.0

49

3.0

206

12.0

2000

. . . .c

54

5.0

220

10.8

1600

60. Od

43

8.0

247

12.0

3000

5.0

47

10.0

253

10.0

2800

10.0

50

7.0

254

10.0

2500

35

7 8.6

44

8.0

276

12.5

2500

1.2

20.6

52

4.5

311

11.1

2000

5. 5

45

3.5

314

12.8

1428

6.0

7.1

Averagesi;

6.3

218/

11.0

2389

3.6

35

7 10.6

a Abnormal, not included in the average.

b Dust, not included in average.

c Hired spraying, amount not given.

d Commercial mixture, not included in average.

e Averages for acres on which applied.

f Cobblers, 204.4 bu. per acre; Green Mountains, 248.4 bu. per acre.

90

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

Materials Used.

The materials used in this area differ from those in Concord. Rye is seeded
as a cover crop, practically no Bordeaux is used, almost no manure is spread,
and slightly more fertilizer is applied.

From 10 to 13 bushels of certified seed were planted per acre. Ten bushels
were the most common rate. The range was also less than in other areas.

Fertilizer applications ranged from 800 pounds on farm 48 to 4000 pounds
per acre on farm 46. All the fertilizer was 5-8-7 except on farms 53 and 54,
which used 4-8-4 and 4-6-10, respectively.

About two bushels of rye is the usual rate of seeding for the cover crop,
to be turned under the following spring.

Further Suggestions for Reducing Costs and Increasing Returns

Potato Machinery.

Farmers are interested in knowing the acreage of potatoes which will
justify investment in machinery. Tables 10 and 11 will be of assistance in
solving this problem on particular farms. Rates for depreciation and repairs
ba.sed on estimates secured from 69 farmers in 1925 are applied to current
retail prices of potato machines and the annual cost per acre for different
acreages per farm are calculated. This is based on the assumption that the
life of the machines will not vary greatly with small differences in acreage.

Table 10. — Estimated Machine Costs of Special Potato Machinery. a

2-man
Planter

1-horse
Sprayer

8.0
$175.00

Traction
Digger

16.7
$130.00

14.2
$125.00

$ 7.79
5.05
3.44

$

21.88

11.90

4.92

$ 8.80
6.46
3.34

$ 16.28

$

38.70

$ 18.60

$ 8.14
5.43
4.07
3.26
1.63

$

19.35

12.90

9.68

7.74

3.87

$ 9.30
6.20
4.65
3.72
1.86

Estimated Years Life

Retail Price, New, Feb. 1, 1927

Annual Depreciation
Estimated Annual Repairs
5% Interest on Investment

Annual Cost per Machine

Annual Cost per Acre for

Different Acreages (b)

2 Acres —

3 Acres —

4 Acres —

5 Acres —
10 Acres —

a Table based on estimates from 69 growers for the crop year 1925.
b Based on the assumption that small changes in acreage do not materially affect
the years life of the machines.

The average differences in hours of man labor used on 120 farms in 1924
and 1925 in planting and harvesting by machine and hand methods are shown
in Table 11. Assuming that the difference is the average amount of labor that
could be saved by the use of machinery and applying a cost rate to this labor,
a partial solution is obtained for the problem of when to buy machinery. For
example, if labor is worth 40 cents per hour and a planter will save 9 hours
of man labor, the saving will amount to $3.60 annually. At this rate it
would be necessary to grow nearly 5 acres to pay for the planter by the
savino- in man labor. There are, of course, other things to consider. If labor
is scarce and cannot be hired, the machine may be indispensable; on the other
hand, if there is plenty of cheap labor available, the use of machinery may
not be economical. Quite frequently several farmers own a planter, sprayer.

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES

91

or digger Jointly and tluis reduce the individual expense. There were only
eight out of the 54 farms studied in 1926 on which the planter was not used.
It was either owned or hired hv the other 46 farmers.

Table 11. — Differences in Labor per Acre for Planting and Harvesting by
Diiferent Methods on 120 Farms (1924-1925).

Method

Number
of Farms

Average

Area per

Farm

(Acres)

Average

Yield
per Acre
(Bushels)

Average Hours per Acre

Man

Horse

Planting

Hand
Machine

46
74

2.23
6.3

186.83
186.5

17.89
7.5

9.1
6.1

Harvesting

Hand
Machine

39

81

1.88
6.16

184.9
186.7

66.3
42.6

11.7
10.4

Varieties of Potatoes.

The acres of Green Mountains and Irish Cobblers grown in Concord and
Seekonk are shown in Table 12. Cobblers are most important in Seekonk
and less so in Concord. The answer to the query as to which is more pro-
fitable depends on two things: average yield per acre of each variety over a
period of years and average price received. The table gives a summary com-
parison as to yields of these varieties where grown on the same farms in the
Seekonk and Concord areas. This is for only one year, but is suggestive of
the amount of thought and study that growers might well give to this problem.
With such a large difference in yield, and prices about the same, more Green
Mountains might profitably be grown, provided there is no great labor inter-
ference with other enteri)rises.

Table 12. — Yields of Green Mountains and Cobblers in the Concord and
Seekonk Areas, 1926.

No. of Farms

Acres in Potatoes

Av. Yield per Acre (hu.)

Fertilizer per Acre (lbs.)

Manure per Acre (tons)

Seed per Acre (bu.)

Other Factors Affectiiu/ Yield per Acre.

The foregoing discussion of the unit amounts of materials in each area
suggests ways in which labor and materials may be conserved. Reasons for
many of the variations are given and possible ways of improvement pointed
out. The preceding section on costs of special machinerj- shows the possibilities
open in that direction. Reference to different varieties has been made.

Previous studies by many investigators have shown that jirobably the most
important factor in cost per bushel of potatoes is yield per acre. High yields,
if secured without undue expenditure for seed, fertilizer, or otiier factors,
mean lower costs per bushel.

Rainfall, temperature, elevation, soil, and other natural factors have all
l)een shown to be associated with yield per acre. But these are all beyond

Concord

Seekonk

Green Mts.

Cobblers

Green Mts.

Cobblers

8

8

7

7

91.75

14.6

25.7

56.1

240.4

169.8

235.4

192.5

1687.5

1687.5

1875.0

1875.0

7.3

7.3

11.4

11.4

14.0

12.7

10.6

11.1

92

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

the control of the individual farmer on a particular farm. Of the factors with-
in his control, seed and fertilizer are the most important, a fact established
by several investigators. Spraying is also an important factor, affecting-
yields especially in years when disease is prevalent. The data secured in this
study do not lend themselves to a determination of the most profitable rates
of seeding and fertilizing because of the variation in soils and previous crop-
ping on the farms studied. However, Hardenburg,' after analyzing several
hundred potato records from various parts of New York, found that very few
growers liad exceeded the optimum rate of seeding. Black, Tolley, and EzekieP
witii 300 farm records from Monroe County, New York, found the same to
be true botli witli seed and fertilizer.

Figure H. Average Yield per Acre of Potatoes in
Maine and Massachusetts (5 year averages.)

Bushels

200

150

50

/

/

/

/
/
/

1

^

y

•

S^^^~ """"""""^

1885

1890

1895

1900

1905

1910

1915

1920

1889

— 1894

— 1899

— 1904

--1909

— 1914

— 1919

—1924

Yields in Maine have increased with improved seed, more adequate disease control,
heavier applications of fertilizer, and commercialized practice in general. Yields in
Massachusetts have advanced less rapidly.

Tiie high yields in Maine have lieen obtained only in recent decades. They
were formerly as low as in Massachusetts. The changes in yields in Maine
and Massachusetts by 5-year periods are shown in Figure 11. The more
rapid increase in Maine has been due to several factors. Certified seed, heavier
rates of fertilizing, more adequate spraying, the opening up of the Aroostook
country, and large commercial potato farms are among tiie causes. Production
in Massachusetts has continued to be on general farms, and supplementary to
other enterprises.

' Hardenburg, E. A'. A Study, by the Crop Survey Method, of Factors influencing
the Yield of Potatoes. New York (Cornell) Agr. Exp. Sta. Memoir 57, 1922.

" Tolley, H. R., Black, ,T. D., and Ezekiel, M. J. B. Input as Related to Output in
Farm Organization and Cost of Production Studies. United States Department of
Agriculture. Bulletin 1277. 1924.

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES

93

Application of Input Data to the Individual Farm Business.

It is often desirable to approximate rates for the different items entering
into the production of farm crops and work out cost statements. Such state-
ments are useful in comparing the efficiency of different farmers in growing
particular crops. For this purpose it is not necessary to have complete
cost statements. Minor costs frequently may be omitted. Common labor and
land charges may be assumed.

Comparative Cost Statements for Txco Chesterfield Grorcers.

On this basis comparative cost statements for potatoes have been worked
out for farms 1 and 10. An arbitrary rate of 40 cents an hour is assigned to
man labor, 20 cents to horse work, and $1.25 to tractor work. The land
charge is placed at $10.00 per acre. No charge is included for manure.
There were 15 tons per acre applied on farm 1 and 18 tons on farm 10.
Neither is a charge included for equipment. The other items are cash charges
and are placed at the same rate for both farms. Similar machinery is in use
on the two farms. The costs per acre of potatoes on these farms in 1926 were
then estimated as follows:

Table 13. — Comparative Cost Statements. Chesterfield.

Farm 1

Farm 10

Item

Rate

Amount

Rate

Amount

Man labor

99 hrs. at $ .40

$ 39.60

130 hrs. at % .40

$52.00

Horse labor

91 hrs. at .20

18.20

112 hrs. at .20

22.40

Tractor work

2.3 hrs. at 1.25

2.88

Seed

18 bu at 2.50

45.00

13 bu at 2.50

32.50

Fertilizer

1600 lbs. at 50.00

40.00

1000 lbs. at .50.00

25.00

Land

$10 per acre

10.00

$10 per acre

10.00

Spray material — Bordeaux

62 lbs.

3.75

280 lbs.

13.60

lead

4 lbs.

7 lbs.

Corrosive sublimate

o oz.

.70

41 oz.

.65

Total these items per acre

$157.25

$159.03

Yield per acre

218 bu.

271 bu.

Cost per bushela

.72

.59

a Interest and machine cost not included.

As thus estimated, the cost per bushel on fann 1 in 1926 was 72 cents and
on farm 10, 59 cents. The price received for potatoes on these farms in 1926
was $1.50. Both farms had a good margin out of which to take care of over-
head and machinery costs and leave a profit.

The total costs per acre were about the same; tlie chief cause of difference
in cost per bushel being dift'erences in yield. These farms are only a few miles
apart, at about the same elevation, and have about the same type of soil. The
fertility on farm 1 is probably somewhat less than on farm 10. Both men
followed the same general cultural methods and the chances are that any
reduction in costs would have to come from study made of the factors affect-
ing yield.

94

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 240

A study of these factors shows tliat on farm 1 lialf of the potatoes had
followed potatoes for several j'ears, while on farm 10 the soil was fall-plowed
sod. The manure and fertilizer applications were a little heavier on farm I.
Both men planted their own seed. Farm 10 planted less because No. 2 potatoes
were used. More spraying was done on farm 10 and farm 1 had some disease.

Comparative Cost Statements for Tico Seekonk Groxcers.

Comparative cost statements for farms 42 and -53 in the Seekonk area
are shown. Rates similar to those in the previous cost statements are used
for the non-cash items, except that land is estimated at $20.00. No charge
has been included for machinery. This would be higher on farm 42 than on
farm 53, for a planter, sprayer, and digger were used; while everytliing was
done liy hand on farm 53. (It is estimated that tlie annual charge for these
machines would not have exceeded ."filO.OO ])er acre on the 10 acres grown on
farni 42.)

Table 14.- — Comparative Cost Statements. Seekonk.

Farm 42

Farm 53

Item

Rate

Amount

Rate

Amount

Man labor

96hrs. at $ .40

$ 38.40

167 hrs. at $ .40

$ 66.80

Horse labor

87 hrs. at . 20

17.40

104 hrs. at .20

20.80

Seed

10 bu at 4.00

40.00

11 bu. at 4.00

44.00

Fertilizer

2000 lbs. at 40.00

40.00

2000 lbs. at 40.00

40.00

Rye seed

2 bu. at 1.50

3.00

Spray material (lead)

10 lbs. at . 19

1.90

9 lbs. at . 19

1.71

Land

$20 per acre

20.00

$20 per acre

20.00

Total these items per acre

$160.70

$193.31

Yield per acre

192 bu.

145 bu.

Cost per bushel

.83

1.33

On this basis tlie cost per acre was higher on farm .53 than on farm 42,
due almost altogether to the difference in man labor; and the cost per bushel
was still higher because of the lower yield. Careful study of the records of
the two farms and a knowledge of the soils indicates that the soil on fanii
.';3 has been more heavily cropped and is in poor jihysical condition. The
grower on farm 42 has paid more attention to rotation and has used rye for
a cover crop. Both Green Mountains and Cobblers were raised on farm 53
and the Green Mountains did not do well. They yielded about 133 bushels as
compared with about 160 bushels per acre for the Cobblers.

The average farm price for all the potatoes sold on farm 42 was $1.25
and on farm 53, $1.40, the difference being due to the Green Mountains raised
on farm 53. Thus the margin between selling price and the costs we have
considered was 42 cents on farm 42 and on farm 53 it was 7 cents per bushel.

Other comparisons can easily be made between different farms by applying
cost rates to the inputs of labor and materials on those farms. It need hardly
he said that the foregoing statements for the cost of potatoes are presented
merely as suggestions. They are designed primarily to show one of the methods
by which such data can be used. The organization of a farming program,
including the management of a particular enterprise, such as the potato crop,
is a problem peculiar to each farm.

FACTORS AFFECTING RETURNS FROM POTATOES 95

Costs may not only be calculated for other farms but similarly costs may
be approximated for particular operations or groups of operations. Although
this method is primarily adapted to making comparisons between individual
farms, it is easily possible to draw conclusions of significance to entire groups
of farms which are similar to the ones compared.

It is realized tiiat cost statements made in this way do not make a suf-
ficient allowance for other crop or livestock enterprises wiiich may conflict
with potatoes in their use of labor or materials. The farmer should try to
apportion his own labor, tlie available labor of other members of the familj",
and other resources among the various farm enterprises so as to get the
largest possible return. If he is definitely limited as to the amount of any
of the factors of production, he should try to apportion all the factors so as
to get the highest average returns from each unit of the limited factor. This
will involve a comparison of the probable alternative returns from the fixed
farm resources if used by different enterprises at a particular time, as well
as a comparison of the probable returns from varying amounts of labor and
materials that can be bought at a particular time.

Thus a change in the method of conducting the potato enterprise may
involve a consideration of the effect of the change on other enterprises. How-
ever, this is not a serious limitation to the use of these data, provided the
point is kept in mind.

Conclusions

1. The competitive position of the individual Massachusetts potato grower
is determined by the degree to which he is able and willing to adjust farm
practices to meet changes in price determined by forces largely outside
Massachusetts.

2. The adjustment can be brought about either by changing fertilizer, seed,
or other material inputs to secure varying yields; or by using machinery or
different technique to reduce man and horse labor.

3. The variation in the amounts of seed, fertilizer, and other materials used
is so great as to make it certain that most farmers can profitably spend
nuich time and thought in working out for their own conditions the best
amounts of these materials.

4. The great saving of labor effected by specialized machinery makes its
use imperative if the grower would keep his costs as low as his competitors'.

5. Tlie potato crop is a profitable side line in connection with dairying,
market gardening, and for many general farms in Massacluisetts. Potatoes
could probably be grown with profit on many farms which do not now include
them as a part of the cropping scheme.

6. In the final analysis, the place of the potato enterprise on any one farm
is an individual problem peculiar to tnat farm. The farmers who make the
largest net income are usually those who are most efficient in apportioning
their own labor, the available labor of members of their families, and their
other fixed resources among all the enterprises of the farm. This may some-
times mean including a crop such as potatoes, even if conditions seem poor;
or it may mean excluding potatoes even though costs are apparently low.

5M 3- '28 No. 1746.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 241 March, 1928

The Food Consumption of Rural

School Children

in Relation to Their Health

By Esther S. Davies

A field study of two Massachusetts rural towns was nlade in 1927, to
ascertain what relationship, if any, could be demonstrated between the
dietary habits of children of elementary school age and their state of
health. The investigation included visits to the homes of the children,
inspection of school lunches, and dental and medical examinations. The
conditions which were found and their relations to the health of the child-
ren are described in this bulletin.

Requests for builetins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

THE FOOD CONSUMPTION OF RURAL SCHOOL
CHILDREN IN RELATION TO THEIR HEALTH

By Esther S. Davies'
In Charge of Home Economics Research

PART I. PURPOSE AND METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

The investigation wiiicii is the subject of this report had as its objective
the portrayal of the food habits and dietary history of white children in the
elementary schools of selected rural Massachusetts towns; the correlation with
their food records of their physical status as shown by dental and medical
examinations; and the determination, if possible, of the ways in which the pre-
vailing food habits of these children affect their health.

Method of Study

The survey was conducted by means of visits to the homes, questionnaires
filled out by the pupils in the schools, examinations of the teeth i)y a dental
hygienist, and medical examinations given by the staff" of the children's clinic
of the Division of Tuberculosis of the State Department of Health. The med-
ical examinations were made possible through the courtesy and the co-opera-
tion of Dr. Henry D. Chadwick, acting director of the Division. Copies of the
blanks used in the survey will be found in the Appendix.

Choice of Towns for Field Work

The localities chosen for the field work were selected on the basis of being
(1) towns of 1,000 to 1,500 inhabitants, with as large proportions of native
white stock as cotild be found; (2) not in close proximity to any large urban
center; (3) places where the superintendent of schools was willing to give the
field workers free access to all schools; (4) communities where, for at least
two years, the children's clinic had not l>een held; and (-5) towns whose select-
men were willing to request the holding of the clinic.

Through correspondence with tlie home demonstration agents of the various
counties, a list of towns apparently meeting the first three of the above re-
quirements was secured, and through consultation with the chief of the clinic
regarding (4) and (5) the choice was narrowed down still further; finally
after personal visits to several towns. Carver in Plymouth County and South-
wick in Hampden County were selected.

Carver

The town of Carver is west of Plymouth, approximately 10 miles inland
from the ocean. Its population, according to the state census of 1925, is 1,306,
the principal racial groups being native whites, Finns, French Canadians, and
the so-called "black" Portuguese. The town is known for its cranberries and
most of the inhabitants gain a fairly comfortable living from the bogs.

' The author wishes to acknowledge the help of Mary S. Rose, Professor of Nutri-
tion, Columbia University, in the determination of scores for evaluating diets, and her
kindness in reading and criticizing the manuscript of the report. To Helen Knowlton,
:5f the Department of Rural Home Life, Massachusetts Agricultural College, credit is
due for many suggestions regarding the schedules used in the survey of food practices.

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN 99

Carver is a long, narrow town, with the three settlements of North, Center,
and South Carver, each having its schoolhouse, its grocery, and its post office.
The smaller places. East and West Carver, are scarcely more than clusters of
houses about the crossroads. The old one-room schools have been abandoned
and partial consolidation has taken place. North Carver has a three-teacher
school for children in the first four grades; South Carver a two-teacher school,
also for the first four grades. For the four upper grades there is only one
school, with four teachers, located at Center Carver. Bus service is provided
to bring the children back and forth to all three school buildings. The town
maintains no hig'h school.

Southtvick

Southwick lies along the western part of the southern border of the state, in
the valley of the Connecticut River. Its population in 1925 was 1,267, with
native whites, American negroes, Poles, Swedes, and Italians the predominat-
ing nationalities. It is an agricultural town, devoted chiefly to tobacco and
dairy farming. The only settlement of any size is Southwick Center, on the
main highway five miles from the city of Westfield.

At the time of the survey Southwick was still using the old one-room schools.
Scattered throughout the town there were 11 such buildings, every one inade-
quate and unsuitable. Two rooms on the first floor of the town hall were also
used for school rooms. In nine schools anywhere from 5 to 8 grades were
being taught by one teacher. In two a beginning at centralization had been
made, utilizing the bus service maintained to take pupils to high school in
Westfield. One of these schools had only first and second grade pupils; the
other, third and fourth grade.

In fairness to Southwick, it should be stated that in the spring of 1927 an
appropriation was voted for the purchase of a site and the erection of a mod-
ern elementary school building, at Southwick Center, to accommodate all the
pupils of the town; and for the establishment of a system of transportation
when the building is ready for use. It is hoped that after the school year
1927-28 the old buildings will be no longer needed for school purposes.

The two towns compared

The two towns. Carver and Southwick, have many points in common. Not
only are their total populations nearly the same, but also the proportions of
native white stock. Both economically and intellectually, few marked differ-
ences could be discovered by the investigator. The estimates of general family
intelligence and economic status, made at the time of the home visits, are
shown in Tables 1 and 2.

Each town has but one resident physician, no dentist, and only one part-
time school nurse.

The elementary school enrollment of each of the towns averages 275. Carver
has the larger floating element in its school population, as many of the Portu-
guese move away when the cranberry season ends in the late fall, frequently
returning after Easter. At the time of the survey Carver had 70 "black"
Portuguese school children but only one American negro; Southwick, 15 of
negro blood, most of them living in one section of the town and consequently
attending the same school.

Inasmuch as this survey of food habits was limited to white children, the
distribution of the American negroes and "black" Portuguese is without sig-
nificance. Because of the differences in racial habits, physical characteristics.

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Total

FOOD OF RURy\L CHILDREN 101

and iinniunity or susceptibility to various types of disease common to colored
populations, it was felt that the inclusion of data upon colored children with
those concerning white children would make the total group too heterogeneous
for valid conclusions. No attempt was made to make a separate study of
tiie colored children of either Carver or Southwick because it was not feasible
10 secure home records.

The principal differences between Carver and Southwick, so fur as this study
is concerned, lie in their industries and their schools and the effects of these
on food habits: — cranberries on the one hand and dairy cows on the other;
centralized schools to which most of the pupils travel by bus, and one-room
l)uildings scattered over the countryside so that many of the pupils not only
walk to school in the morning and liome at night, but also go home for the
noon meal.

Number of Records Secured

As may be seen in Table 3, in each of the towns records were obtained from
51 families of native or mixed parentage, the 51 Carver families having 9-5
children in the elementary schools and the Southwick families 93. In 29 of the
Carver families with both parents foreign-born, some one was found who spoke
English well enough to give the information desired for the home record; in
Southwick, in only 13 families with Ijoth parents foreign-born could records

Table 3. Children and Families with Home Records

Total

85

17

42

144

188
87

144
131
275

(a) Finnish, 19: French t'anatiian, 9; Italian. 1.

(b) Polish, 4; Swedish. 4; Italian, 1; Czechoslovak, 1; Finnish, 1; Irish. 1;
French Canadian, 1.

be secured. Food liistories, tiierefore, were secured for 60 Carver children
and for 27 Southwick children of foreign parentage. The distribution of the
children by age and sex is shown in Table 4.

Dental examinations were made on 168 of Carver's white children, 105 of
these I)eing of native or mixed parentage and 63 of foreign; in Southwick, 232
children, 115 of native or mixed and 117 of foreign parentage.

Procedure in the Field

Through the kindness of the superintendents of schools, the official registers
were used to obtain the names of the children in each of the elementary grades,
sex and age, name of parent or guardian, and home address. Both superin-

Carver

Southwick

Families with home records:

Both parents native-born

42

43

Mixed parentage

9

8

Both parents foreign-born

29(a)

13Cb)

Total families

80

64

Children with home records:

Native and mixed parentage

95

93

Foreign parentage

60

27

Total children:

Boys

78

66

Girls

77

54

Both sexes

155

120

102

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

Table 4. Children in Family Groups, by Year of Birth and Sex

Year

CARVER

SOUTHWICK 1

TWO TOWNS

of

birth

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

1910

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

1

1911

2

0

2

1

0

1

3

0

3

1912

2

5

7

6

2

8

8

7

15

1913

11

3

14

2

1

3

13

4

17

1914

8

11

19

7

0

16

15

20

35

1915

15

13

28

9

2

11

24

15

39

i916

5

10

15

7

4

11

12

14

26

1917

10

8

18

5

5

10

15

13

28

1918

12

4

16

6

10

16

18

14

32

1919

6

12

18

5

9

14

11

21

32

1920

7

11

18

12

9

21

19

20

39

1921

0

0

0

5

3

8

5

3

8

AH ages

78

77

155

6t>

54

120

144

131

275

tendents took pains to notify all their teachers that the worker was coming
and that she was to be given all the assistance from the teacher which she
might wish, including plenty of opportunity to talk to the children and a
chance to have them fill out the school questionnaire during regular sessions.
Had it not been for this interest on the part of the superintendents of schools,
the field work would have been far more difficult than it proved to be.

The first step in the field study was to visit every school room and talk
with the teachers about the object of the survey, in particular, explaining to
them tbp plans for the clinic sessions and the dental examinations. A short
talk was made to the children, and they were urged to be sure to tell their
parents that the worker would be at their homes to talk with the mothers.
Experience proved that this procedure was of great value, as it gave an ex-
cellent introduction to the homes.

About a week sufficed to make all the pupils feel quite well acquainted with
tlie field worker. Then they began, as they walked along the roads to and
from school, to call out "Good morning" to her as she drove by — a sign that
it was time to begin the home visiting. Practically every parent met her at
the door with the words, "Oh, yes, you're the nurse my children said was com-
ing to talk to me about their health."

The school blank was chiefly useful as a means of introducing the idea of
the survey to the homes through the children. Otherwise, except for the chil-
dren's reports on their noon meals, it is felt that the answers of the children
were neither adequate nor accurate; not because of unwillingness on the part
of the children, but on account of their inability to remember and their actual
lack of information. For example, it was only in the three upper grades that
the pupils felt any certainty about the distance from home to school, or about
the hours of going to bed and getting up. The reports on the noon meals are,
on the whole, very reliable; in most instances, if the child had brought his
lunch to school the teacher had him get the box and then and there write
down a list of its contents; at other times, the worker visited the school im-
mediately upon the opening of the afternoon session and the children reported
on the meal eaten within the past hour. The teachers, knowing in advance
that this would be done, watched carefully the lunches eaten at the building
and helped supply the information, especially about the meals of the younger
pupils.

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN 103

An average of six or seven home visits could be made in one day. ^'lie
parents were invariably courteous, even if not particularly interested, and it
is believed that in no case was there any conscious attempt to deceive as to
the truth about the food habits and the dietary history of the children.

For examining the teeth of the school children, a dental hygienist of expe-
rience was secured through the dental consultant of the State Department
of Health. A description of the methods she used will be found on page 129.

The clinic sessions were in both instances held after the field work in the
town had been completed and the writer was not present either time. Ail
arrangements for tliem were made by the local nurse and a representative of
the staif of the Division of Tuberculosis. Except for obtaining the consent
to examination in cases where a home visit was made to get food history, the
writer was not directly connected with the work of the clinic. The reports of
the clinic physicians upon the individual children examined were copied later.

PART II. FOOD HABITS AND DIETARY HISTORY

Limitations of the Data

Although in the home visits an effort was made to secure information upon
all tlie points listed in the blank, experience showed that it was not possible
to obtain data of any reliability upon the mother's diet during pregnancy, or
the diet of the child during the pre-school years. In general, the mothers
remembered the length of time the children had been nursed if breast fed;
but the usual answer to questions upon the child's diet after weaning was
eitiier "just about the same as he eats now" or "like the rest of the family."
In the 144 families surveyed, only 8 mothers were found, 3 in Carver and 5 in
Southwick, who had made a practice of straining or mashing vegetal)les for
small children or otherwise preparing their food by methods other than those
used for the food of the adults. In the same way, it was tiie exceptional
mother who had tried during pregnancy to eat those foods which might be
best for herself or the child; the customarj' answers as to antepartum diet
were "I don't remember anything different" or "I ate anything I wanted."

L^pon only one point could anything approaching accurate information be
oiitained about the amounts of various foods eaten by the children during the
nre-school years. This was in relation to the amount of milk consumed.
Through questioning as to where the mother had been accustomed to buy
milk, the amount generally purchased, or the number of cows the family
kept, as well as the mother's recollection of the child's habits in using milk,
a reliable estimate of the child's milk consumption could be obtained. The
relation between the amount of milk used by the individual children during
the pre-school years and that of their present, or school period, diet is shown
in Chart 1 for Carver and Chart 2 for Southwick. It will be seen that in
botli towns there is positive correlation between the amounts of milk utilized
during the two periods.

It has been considered unjustifiable to employ any of the more refined sta-
tistical methods in the handling of the material of this study, the inherent
inaccuracies of the original data not warranting such procedure. The diet
scores themselves and, as a result, the comparisons with conditions of teeth,
weiglit, and other elements in health status are all necessarily based upon
information which was dependent for its correctness upon the memories of
the mothers, resulting in many chances of error in individual cases. For this
reason no such statistical computations have been made, and a simpler mode

School
Score

21-24

13-16

5-8

0-4

Pre-school
Score

• • • • •

• • • • •
• • • • • « ,

• • • • •

• • • • •
• • • • •

rr-;

• * • • •

v: ...

0-4

9-12

i:i-16

17-20

■Jl-_4

CHART 1. The Relationship between the Milk Scores of 155 CARVER Children for
Pre-school Years and for the School Period.
Each dot represents the milk consumption of one child, scored on the basis of 24
for one quart a day and smaller amounts in direct proportion.

School
Score

9-12

5-8

0-4

Pre-school
score

•

•

9

• •
. • •

• •
•

• • • » • •^

• *

a •

• •

. •

i •

• •

• a • *■

•

• •

* •

• •

CHART 2. The Relationship between the Milk Scores of 116 SOUTHWICK Children
for Pre-school Years and for the School Period.
Each dot represents the milk consumption of one child, scored on the basis of 24
for one quart a day and smaller amounts in direct proportion

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

10.5

of presentation has been adopted, in order that the refinements of method
may not exceed the refinements of accuracy in the foundation data.

On the other hand, the nunxbers included in the study are sufficient to miil<e
certain trends stand out clearly. The general or customary- practices of the
two groups of children, from Carver and Southwick, become quite apparent
and, so far as health status could be evaluated, there is a well-defined rela-
tion between the food habits and the health of the groups.

The treatment of the material relating to food habits is necessarily qualita-
tive. With the single exception of milk, it was futile to attempt, in a survey
of this sort, the collection of quantitative data. For example, most of the
mothers interviewed knew very well how often they usually had meat during
the week; but had no idea of how much each child ate. The same thing is
true of the other foods. Milk is the only one about which these women were
accustomed to thinking in terms of quantity.

However, it is believed, from personal observation of meals, that, in gen-
eral, the sizes of servings of different articles of the diet, such as potatoes,
other cooked vegetables, bread and cereals, and pieces of pie or cake, did not
vary much from family to family; and that the frequency with which a given
food appeared on the family menu may be considered a rough indication of
the amounts eaten by individual children. It is upon this basis that scores
have been used to compare the food habits of one child with those of another.

The Optimum Score

For the diet during the school period, i. e., from six years of age upwards,
the following numerical allowances were allotted to the types of food in-
dicated:

Food
Milk

Vegetal)les
potato

other than potato
or leafy

leafy

Fruit

cooked

raw (or raw vegetable
or canned tomato)

Bread and cereals

whole grain

fEggs
(Meat

Coffee or tea

Standard
1 qt. a day

once a day

Optimum score
24

once a day

10

four times a week

8

once a day

7

twice a day

14

twice a day

14

three times a week

9

once a day

9

100

dedt

ict 10

106 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

Any such method of scoring should take into account both qualitative and
quantitative factors. Since milk is both qualitatively and quantitatively Im-
portant, it should have the highest score, and since it should furnish approxi-
mately 25 per cent of the total calories, the major portion of the calcium, and
more than 50 per cent of the phosphorus, a large number of units of vita-
mines A and B, and a considerable amount of iron, which is utilized very
efficiently in nutrition, a score of 24 seems very moderate.

Since, next to milk, the most important item in guaranteeing a well-bal-
anced diet is a liberal supply of vegetables, they should have a score nearly
as high as milk (in this case 23 per cent). Vegetables are best subdivided
into groups, setting the leafy vegetables in one and the potato in another.
Leafy vegetables are high in ash and vitamines and low in calories; and other
vegetables, if used in variety, to some extent will take their place and add to
their calories, so that the scores for these two groups should not be very dif-
ferent. The potato should not be used to the exclusion of other vegetables,
but it should be used with considerable freedom on account of its ash and
vitamines and especially iron and vitamine C. Because the potato is only
one member of the vegetable group, it should not have quite so high a score
as the other two.

Fruits, like vegetables, contribute to the ash and vitamine value of the diet
and are even more important in furnishing vitamine C, so that a score of 21
for them (which is only slightly lower than for the vegetables) seems desir-
able, giving higher value to the raw fruit.

With the liberal supply of milk, eggs and meat (which supplement milk
especially for protein and calories) may together have a somewhat lower
score (18). Since the egg is more of a factor in growth than meat, it de-
serves a score as high as meat even when used only three times a week.

Although any scoring system has the fault of arbitrariness, some measure
had to be devised to compare one diet with another. It is believed that the
division of the score into five recognized food divisions has not only greatly
facilitated the work of evaluating diets of different character, but has re-
sulted in total scores which, when contrasted one with another, represent, as
far as is possible in terms of numbers, the dietary values of the food habits
of the children studied.

Scores for Diets as a WTioIe

Using the numerical allowances of this scheme of scoring, the diets of 1.55
Carver and 120 Southwick children during their school years were graded, and
the distributions of the resulting scores are presented in Tables 5 and 6.
Everywhere in this report the records of the children of mixed parentage
are, for both towns, combined with those for the children of native parent-
age; partly because the numbers of children of mixed parentage are too small
for separate consideration, but principally because the visits to the homes
showed that the habits of these families of mixed parentage are practically
the same as those of the native families.

Forty-five per cent of the diets of the 95 Carver children of native and
mixed parentage have scores ranging from 40 to 60 on a scale of 100; while
for the 93 Southwick children of native and mixed parentage the largest
group, 48 per cent, is found higher on the scale, between the scores of 60
and 80.

Because of the smallness of the total number of children of foreign parent-
age, percentages have not been computed for the distributions of the diet

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

107

Table 5. Scores of Present Diets of 155 Carver Children of Elementary
School Age, by Nationality

Native and mixed

Finnish

All foreign

Total all children

Score

No.

Per cent

No.

No.

Per cent

No.

Per cent

20—24

1

1

1

1

Z

2

1

25—29

1

1

2

2

3

3

2

30—34

1

1

0

2

3

3

2

35—39

8

S

1

5

8

13

8

40—44

6

6

8

10

n

16

11

45—49

14

15

3

3

5

17

12

50—54

13

H

13

16

26

29

18

55—59

9

10

11

13

22

22

H

60—64

9

10

6

6

10

15

9

65—69

11

11

1

1

2

12

8

70—74

7

7

0

0

0

7

5

75—79

3

S

0

1

2

4

3

80—84

9

10

0

0

0

9

5

85—89

3

3

0

0

0

3

2

90—94

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

95—100

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Total

95

100

46

60

100

155

100

Table 6. Scores of Present Diets of 120 Southwick Children of Elementary
School Age, by Nationality

Score

Native and mixed

Polish

All foreign

Total all children

1

No.

Per cent

No.

No.

Per cent

No.

Per cent

20—24

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

25—29

0

0

0

1

4

1

*

30—34

7

s

0

0

0

7

6

35—39

0

0

4

4

15

4

3

40—44

3

3

3

3

11

6

6

45—49

11

12

0

0

0

11

9

50—54

7

S

2

4

15

11

9

55—59

11

12

0

3

11

14

12

60—64

19

20

0

2

7

21

18

65—69

11

12

0

4

15

15

IS

70—74

11

12

4

5

18

16

13

75—79

4

4

0

0

0

4

3

80—8-1
85—89

6

2

6

2

0
0

1
0

4
0

7
2

6

2

90—94
95—100

1
0

1
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

1
0

*
0

Total

93

100

13

27

100

120

100

*Less than one per cent.

scores for the Carver Finnish children or the Southwick Polish children, and
these are the only foreign groups large enough to be considered separately
at all.

In the diets for all Carver children of foreign parentage, 48 per cent were
scored between 50 and 60; only 26 per cent of the scores of the Southwick
children of foreign parentage, however, fall here. The distribution of the
scores of the diets of these children of foreign parents from Southwick is
mucii more scattering than that of Carver, as there is no one nationality in

108

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

Southwick so well represented as the Finns in Carver, resulting in a much
more heterogeneous foreign group in Southwick. Moreover, there were 60
Carver children of foreign parentage for whom diet scores were obtained
and only 27 in Southwick. The diet scores of these children in the two towns,
therefore, are not as comparable as the two native groups.

Charts 3 and 4 show graphically the distributions of the diet scores for
Carver and Southwick, for children of native and mixed parentage, those of
foreign parentage, and for the total of all children.

Score 20-29 :!0-r!0 40-49 50-59 60-(i0 7"-79 ,si)-,sii iio-loi)

CHART 3. The Distribution of the CARVER Diet Scores for the School Period, for
95 Children of Native and Mixed Parentage and 60 Children
of Foreign-born Parents.

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

109

Diet score and a<fe of child

No relationship has been discovered between total diet score and age of
the child. The various scores are scattered at random among the different
ages.

Diet score and faniUif inteJUfjence

The comparison of diet scores with estimates of family intelligence indi-

Number

of

Diets

5-:

1
-Native.

—

- Foreign

• All oh

fdren

!

'a'

1

i

i

A

"\
\

/ 1
/ /

\

\ \

/

/

/

/'

/ /

/
/ /

^

\\

/

/ /

/

/

"^-

\

\

v\

;

\

\
\

\

\

Score
CHART

20-29 30-39

50-59

60-69

70-79 80-89 90-100

4. The Distribution of the SOUTHWICK Diet Scores for the School Period,
for 93 Children of Native and Mixed Parentage and 27 Children of
Foreign-bom Parents.

110 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

cates a relationship between diet score and intelligence. In Carver, 65 per
cent of the diets of children in families judged of high intelligence were
scored between 60 and 90; 62 per cent of those of the children in families of
medium intelligence, between 30 and 60; in the diets representative of homes
of low intelligence, 83 per cent between 30 and 60.

In Southwick, also, the diet scores of most of the children from families of
high intelligence are relatively high, 72 per cent being scored between 60 and
90. The diets of the Southwick children from families of medium intelligence,
however, do not drop in their scores as those of Carver, 61 per cent being
scored from 60 to 90 and 39 per cent from 30 to 60, contrasted with 35 per
cent in Carver having scores from 60 to 90 and 62 per cent between 30 and
60. The explanation of this difference is to be found in the more universal
use of large quantities of milk in Southwick and the consequent increase in
the total diet scores.

In Southwick as in Carver, the same downward trend appears in the diets
of children from families of low intelligence, with 70 per cent of these diets
scored between 30 and 60.

Diet score and family income

The relationship between the child's diet score and the family's apparent
income is in both towns almost exactly the same as that between diet score
and family intelligence. The children from families of high income tend to
have high diet scores; those of lower income, lower scores.

Milk Supply

As was stated earlier in this report, Soutliwick has dairying as one of its
chief industries, and many large herds are owned by the parents of the school
children. Carver, on the other hand, has no large dairy interests. Of the
Carver households reported as owning a cow, almost none posses.sed more
than one animal and that was frequently of poor enough stock to be dry
four or five months of the year. In spite of the fact that 34 per cent of the
native families of Carver were reported as owning a cow, the frequent state-
ment of the mother that the "cow's been dry a long thne and I can't buy any
fresh milk" bore testimony to the difficulty of obtaining regularly an amoimt
of milk adequate for the family's needs. Fifty-three per cent of the native
families of Southwick owned cows and the presence in the town of fine dairy
herds made it possible to get very easily milk of good quality. "We have
more milk than we can use" was a comment often heard in Southwick.

The Milk Scores

The great difference between the amount of milk consumed by the children
of Carver and that used by the Southwick children shows clearly in Table 7
and Chart 5. Of all the Carver children, only 16 per cent had approximately
one quart of milk daily, as compared with 64 per cent of all the Southwick
children. Among the children of native and mixed parentage, 16 per cent in
Carver and 67 per cent in Southwick were reported as using that amount of
milk daily; while of the children of foreign parentage 12 per cent in Carver
and 56 per cent in Southwick had that much. Inasmuch as the two groups of

FOOD' OF RURAL CHILDREN

111

Table 7. Distribution of Milk Scores

CARVER

SOUTH WICK

Native

Native

Score*

and mixed

Foreign

Total

and ini'xed

Foreign

Total

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

0-4

'l

1

0

0

1

t

0

0

0

0

0

0

5-8

14

13

4

7

18

12

2

2

0

0

2

2

9-12

2

2

5

8

7

4

3

3

1

U

4

S

13-16

45

47-

34

56

79

51

18

19

9

33

27

23

17-20

18

19

7

12

25

16

8

9

2

7

10

S

21-24

15

16

10

12

25

16

62

67

15

56

77

64

Total

95

100

60

100

155

100

93

100

27

100

120

100

♦Scored on the basis of 24 for one quart a day, smaller quantities in direct proportion.
fLess than one per cent.

native children are the same size (95 from Carver and 93 from Southwick)
and since they come from families of approximately equal intelligence and
income, the difference in the amounts of milk used by the children is of much
interest and importance. As will be seen later, a very significant relation
appears between the amount of milk used and the condition of the teeth.

Vegetable Scores

The vegetable scores, given in Table 8 for botli towns and shown again in
Chart 5, have been computed on the assumption that an optimal daily con-
sumption of vegetables should include potatoes once a day, leafy vegetables
at least four times a week, and another vegetable (i. e., not potato or leafy)
once a day. Every child for whom a record was secured was reported to

Table 8. Distribution of Vegetable Scores

CARX'ER

1

SOUTHWICK

Native

Native

Score*

and mixed

Foreign

Total

and mixed

Foreign

Total

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

0-5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

6-10

15

16

25

42

40

26

41

U

5

19

46

39

11-15

31

33

14

23

45

29

2S

30

12

U

40

33

16-19

24

25

17

23

41

26

22

u

6

22

28

23

20-23

25

26

4

7

29

19

2

2

4

15

6

5

Total

95

100

60

100

155

100

93

100

27

100

120

100

*Scored on the basis of a maximum of 23 points for potatoes once a day, leafy vegetables
four times a week and another vegetable once a day; smaller amounts in direct propor-
tion.

V//////////////A

f

v///////////////////777Z^7m ^''^

W^

W/M/a

1

7/m?m////////////////////////////77m

\/et^9.fah/^s

9-12
13-16
17-20
21-24

0-5

6-10

11-15

16-19

20-23

0-6

7-10

11-14

15-18

_ _ 19-21

0-5

6-10

11-14

6-10
11-14
15-18
19-22

2 3+

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

CHART 5. The Distribution of the Scores for the Various Clpsses of Food, in the

Diets of 95 CARVER and 93 SOUTHWICK Children of
Native and Mixed Parentage.

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN 113

have potatoes at least once a day. There are, consequently, no diets in which
the vegetable score is less than 5, which is the allowance for potatoes once
a day.

The Carver diets scored higher in vegetables than tiiose of Southwick. No
conclusive reason for this has been found and the difference cannot be ex-
plained with any certainty. Whether the greater use of eggs in Southwick
led to less use of vegetables, or whether the difference is owing to the condi-
tions of sampling is not entirely clear. It would not seem that between
March (when the Carver records were taken) and May (when the field work
was done in Southwick) tliere would be enough difference in the supply of
vegetables to affect the replies of the mothers as to the usual amounts eaten
by the children. It is recognized that inevitably many of the mothers had a
tendency to report the practice current at the time of the visit as the usual
practice, irrespective of season.

One factor in the difference in the vegetable scores of the two towns may
perhaps be found in the difference between the groceries of Carver and
Southwick. Carver was particularly fortunate in having a most excellent
grocery. Personal inspection by the investigator was made of all the grocer-
ies in each town, and Southwick had none to compare, so far as stock carried
is concerned, with this one. During March, its manager had always on hand
a good assortment of raw vegetables, including spinach, and also a large
supply of canned goods, — all for sale at reasonable prices. This grocery
undoubtedly has an influence upon the dietary habits of the families who do
their buying there.

The difference between the use of vegetables in the two towns is not, how-
ever, as great as that between the milk utilization. With 23 the optimal
vegetable score, one of 16 or over may be taken as representing a fair amount
of vegetables in the diet. In Carver, 51 per cent of the children of native
parentage had vegetable scores of 16 or over, against only 26 per cent in
the native group of Southwick. Among children of foreign-born parent-
age, 35 per cent in Carver and 37 per cent in Southwick had vegetable scores
of 16 or more. And, taking all children together, 45 per cent in Carver and
28 per cent in Southwick had fair amounts of vegetables in the diet. The
difference between the two towns is greater when we consider only the chil-
dren with excellent scores for vegetables; i.e., 20 plus. Here we find 26 per
cent of the Carver children of native parentage; only 2 per cent of those in
Southwick. And, for all children, the percentages having excellent vegetable
scores are 19 for Carver and 5 for Southwick. Why such large differences
should exist is not apparent.

The Fruit Scores

Here, too, as in the case of vegetables. Carver diets score higher than
those of Southwick. This difference, though, can be explained without dif-
ficulty, for a careful scrutiny of the original records reveals the fact that in
almost every instance the higher fruit scores of Carver are due to the use
of many cranberries.

The two raw fruits eaten most freely in both Carver and Southwick are
apples and oranges. Surprisingly few bananas were reported. Apples, in
both towns, are plentiful and cheap. Oranges are willingly purchased by
many housewives at prices which make them an expensive item on the menu.

Aside from the cranberries of Carver, very little cooked fruit or sauce was
used in the families studied. Only two of the 144 housewives from whom

114

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

records were secured mentioned apple sauce as an article on the family
menu. Instead of the easily made apple sauce, these families had apple pie,
regardless of the labor involved or the greater tax on digestion.

On the whole, the fruit scores of the children of both towns are good. (See
Table 9 and Chart 5.) No child was found who did not have fruit of some
kind at least four or five times a week, and most children had raw fruit ten
or more times each week,— apples in greatest quantity, oranges next. It
seems justifiable to conclude that, in general, these children of Carver and
Southwick are getting fair amounts of fruit.

Table 9. Distribution of Fruit Scores

■

CARVER

1

SOUTHWICK

Native

1

Native

Score*

and mixed

Foreign

Total

and mixed

Foreign

Total

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

No.

ceiu

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

0-6

0

0

13

21

13

8

2

2

3

11

5

4

7-10

25

26

9

15

34

22

40

43

7

26

47

39

11-14

38

JfO

25

42

63

41

34

37

13

48

47

39

15-18

28

30

12

20

40

26

17

18

4

15

21

18

19-21

4

U

1

2

5

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

Total

95

100

60

100

155

100

93

100

27

too

120

100

♦Scored on the basis of 21 for raw fruit (or raw vegetable or canned tomato) twice a day
and cooked fruit once a day; smaller amounts in direct proportion.

Bread and Cereal Scores

For the purposes of this study, the scores for bread and cereal foods have
been computed solely on the amounts of whole grain breads and cereals
eaten. Without doubt, every child in the families surveyed had an ample
supply of refined cereals, particularly white bread. It is not believed that
any child failed to get a liberal number of calories. The diets are adequate
for fuel needs and it is on the other essentials for nutrition that emphasis
should be placed. Since, in evaluating the diets, stress has been laid upon
their content of protein, minerals and vitamines rather than on total calories,
the data have been computed upon the basis of the frequency with which
whole grain foods appeared in the children's menus.

A score of 14 means that the diet contained either whole grain bread or
whole grain cereal at least twice daily. By reference to Table 10 and Chart
5, it will be seen that very few of the children in either town have excellent
scores for the cereal foods; that the Carver children of foreign parentage
score a little higher than those of native parentage; but that in Southwick
the children of foreign parentage have lower scores than those of native
parentage. These differences come because of the large proportion of Finns
in the Carver foreign group, as almost all the Finnish families use a great
deal of hard, whole grain bread. To some extent, the native families of
Carver have copied this habit of the Finns and for that reason all the scores
for whole grain cereal foods are slightly higher in Carver than in Southwick.
Nevertheless, in both towns the scores for whole grain cereal foods are so
low it seems evident that the children are not getting adequate amounts.

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

115

Table 10. Distribution of Scores
for Whole Grain Cereal Foods

CARVER

1

SOUTHWICK

Native

Native

Score*

and mixed

Foreign

Total

and mixed

Foreign

Total

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

Per

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

0-5

45

47

24

40

69

U

52

55

22

SI

74

62

6-10

47

50

27

4-5

74

J,S

.34

37

1

4

35

29

11-14

3

3

9

15

12

S

7

8

4

15

11

9

Total

95

100

60

100

155

100

93

100

27

100

120

100

♦Scored on the basis of 14 points for whole grain foods (bread or cereal) twice a day;
smaller amounts in direct proportion.

Egg and Meat Scores

In scoring the amount of eggs and meat in each diet, the amount of milk
in that diet was taken into consideration, in order that too much or too little
allowance be not given to protein-rich foods. For example, if a child had a
full quart of milk daily and also meat once a day, 9 points was the maximum
iiJlowed for eggs, even if eggs were reported for more than three times a
week. On the other hand, if the child had only one pint of milk a day and
meat once a day, 3 points were allowed for each egg in the diet up to seven
a week. Nothing was allowed for meat more than once a day, and for an
excessive amount of meat there was a deduction, varjing from 1 to 5 points
according to the frequency' of meat in excess of once a day.

The possible score for eggs and meat together, therefore, runs up to a
maximum of 30 for a diet containing one €:^^ a day and meat once a day,
provided the milk of that diet did not exceed one pint a day.

Even with this broad interpretation and the liberal allowances for eggs
and meat, the scores given in Table 11 and shown in Chart 5 are not high
for either town. Very few deductions were made for meat more than once
a day. In Carver, among the 51 native families, only 5 families (including
10 children) reported meat more than once a day; and but 3 foreign families,
with 9 children, used meat more than once daily. In Southwick, no foreign
family and only one native family (2 children) had in the diet scores
any deduction for meat in excess of once a day. The scores of Table 11,
therefore, in almost all cases represent the frequency with which meat and
eggs appear in the diet.

The egg and meat scores of the Southwick diets are higher than those of
Carver. This is chiefly on account of the greater number of eggs reported
in Southwick. It is believed that the diiTerence is in large measure caused
by the time of year of taking the records. Most of the Carver families were
visited in March; the Southwick families in May. Owing to the natural
tendency on the part of the housewives to repoJrt what was true at the time
of the interview rather than an estimate of the usual or most common prac-

116

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 2U

Table II. Distribution of Combined
Scores for Eggs and Meat

CARVER

1

SOUTH WICK

Native

Native

&core*

and mixed

Foreign

Total

and mixed

Foreign

Total

Per

Pel

Per

Per

Per

Per

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

0-5

2

2

2

3

4

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

6-10

5

5

5

8

10

a

1

1

3

11

4

3

n-u

33

35

17

28

50

32

9

10

6

22

15

12

15-18

29

30

16

27

45

29

49

■53

11

41

60

50

19-22

20 21

10

17

30

20

15

16

6

22

21

IH

23t

6

7

10

17

16

10

19

20

1

4

20

17

Total

95

100

60

100

155

100

93

100

27

100

120

100

*Scored on the basis of 9 points for meat once a day, and 9 points for eggs three times
a week in diets containing one quart of milk a day. In diets having smaller quantities
of milk a proportionally larger allowance was made for eggs, up to a maximum of 21
for one egg a day in diets containing only one pint or less milk daily.

tice of the faniilj', it seems reasonable to conclude that the number of eggs
used in Southwick appears high because of the seasonal variation in produc-
tion. Most of the eggs used by the families in both towns are produced
locally, so that time of year has much influence on egg supply.

The amounts of meat in the diets are affected by the facilities for pur-
chase. Many of the housewives of Carver buy meat from a travelling butch-
er. The wagon comes around two or three times a week and on the other
days there is no convenient place where meat can be bought. Meat is avail-
able at shops in Southwick Center, but not in those elsewhere in the town.
The lack of conveniently located meat markets is thus a factor in keeping
down the amount of meat consumed. Meat products are not ordinarily eaten
to excess in either town.

Coffee and Tea

In scoring the diets a deduction of 10 points from the total was made for
the regular use of either coffee or tea. In Carver 69 children, ranging in age
from 6 to 16, drank coffee or tea regularly. Tea is not a common drink and
only a few of the older children liked it; hereafter, therefore, di.scussion
will be limited to the use of coffee.

Among the Finns and the French Canadians, coffee is almost universal as
the breakfast beverage of all the family past early infancy; 39 of the 69
Carver children who used coffee regularly were Finnish and 11 French Can-
adian. Of the 95 native children in Carver, only 19 drank coffee and most
of them were at least twelve years old. In Southwick there were 25 of the
93 children of native stock who drank coffee; one-third (9 out of 27) of the
children of foreign-born parentage used it. No correlation between the
drinking of coffee and the state of health could be discovered. In view of
the small numbers involved, this is neither suqirising nor significant.

FOOD OF RURAL CHn.DREN 117

Comparison of Scores of Different Foods

Tabulations were made to ascertain what relationship, if any, exists be-
tween the scores for milk and those for vegetables, for milk and fruit, and
for vegetables and fruit. It seems evident that neither in the diets of
Carver nor in those of Southwick is there any tendency for high milk scores
to be associated with high or low vegetable or fruit scores; and that fruit
scores bear no apparent relation to vegetable scores.

The fruit scores of Carver and Southwick diets were compared with the
corresponding total diet scores. No relationship could be discovered, in spite
of the fact that the maximum allowance for fruit is 21 per cent of the
optimum total score. In the case of vegetable scores and total diet scores,
there was a slight positive relationship. When the vegetable score is high,
the score for the diet as a whole tends to be high also; and when vegetables
are low the total score is apt to be low. The diiference between the relation
of fruit scores to total scores and that of vegetable scores to total scores
is not because of diiference in the allowances made for fruit and vegetables,
since the maximum for vegetables, 23, is only two points higher than that for
fruit. Whether or not a real distinction exists between the two relationsliips
cannot be determined from the data secured in Carver and Southwick.

Between milk scores and total scores there was a moderate degree of
positive relationship. The maximum allowance for milk, it will be recalled,
is 24, so that the possible effect of the milk score on total score is not much
greater than that of the vegetable score, with its maximum at 23. It seeims
evident from the data at hand that when the supply of either milk or vege-
tables is adpoii;ite the diet as a whole tends alco to t.c adequate.

Adequacy of the Diets
Because of the almost identical size of the two groups of white children of
native and mixed parentage — 95 in Carver and 93 in Southwick — and because
of the fact that they come from families of the same general economic and
intellectual level, certain con.parisons between the diets of the groups are of
interest. The tabulation below recapitulates for each town the information
regarding the proportions of these children of native and mixed parentage
who may be considered to have in their diets approximately adequate even
If not ideal amounts of the various types of food.

Children of native and
Food An.ount Equivalent mixed parentage; per cent

score with designated scores

Carver Southwick

Milk 3V;. C.+

a day 20-f 16 67

Vegetables potato and

1 other each

day 15 -t- 51 26

Fruit twice a day 14-|- 34 18

Whole grain 10 times

cereals or a week 10-f- 3 8

bread
Eggs or meat 9 times 14+ 58 89

a week

118 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

From this it will be seen that but 16 per cent of the Carver children of
native and mixed parentage had a quart or nearly a quart of milk daily, while
67 per cent of those of Southwick had that much; that 51 per cent of the
Carver children and 26 per cent of those in Southwick had at least potatoes
and one other vegetable daily; 34 per cent of Carver children and 18 per cent
of Southwick's generally had fruit of some sort, cooked or raw, twice a day;
3 per cent of Carver's children and 8 per cent of Southwick's ate whole grain
cereal or bread at least ten times during the week; and, finally, that 58 per
cent of the Carver children and 89 per cent of those in Southwick had meat
or eggs a minimum of nine times every week.

A similar table has not been prepared for the total of all children, as the
two groups of children with foreign-born parents are not at all similar in
racial composition. That of Carver is preponderantly Finnish, while that of
Southwick is quite heterogeneous. These groups are not, therefore, sufficiently
com,parable to warrant the drawing of conclusions regarding dietary differ-
ences.

Menus

To get still another picture of the food habits of the children, at every home
visit the investigator inquired what the family menus were, either for the
day of the interview or for the previous day. There was no apparent hesit-
ation on the part of the women in telling what items had been served at the
meals. In addition to the list of foods appearing on the family table, in-
formation was sought as to whether the children shared the food of the adults
or special provision was made for their needs. Almost no homes were found
where any attempt was made to provide food particularly suited to growing-
boys and girls. In general, the menus were selected on the basis of the likes
and the dislikes of the parents, and the children were given free choice of all
dishes upon the family table.

In order that the menus collected should be representative of the usual
week-day practice, no questions were asked about meals served on Saturdays
and Sundays, when the family cooking is apt to be somewhat more elaborate
than during the rest of the week.

The main items appearing on the menus for breakfasts, the noon meals
eaten at home, the lunches at school, and the evening meals are given for all
children in Tables 12, 13, 14, and 15; and also shown for the children of native
and mixed parentage in Charts 6, 7, 8, and 9.

Breakfasts

The composite picture of 167 Carver and 165 Southwick breakfa.sts shows
that some form of cereal and either milk or cocoa were the two foods most
frequently eaten by the children of native stock in both towns; a little over
one-third usually had eggs for breakfast, but less than one-third ordinarily
had fruit; 23 per cent of these Carver children and 15 per cent of tliose in
Southwick had coifee or tea (usually coflfee). Cake, cookies, or doughnuts —
most frequently doughnuts^ — appeared on the breakfast menus of 17 per cent
of the Carver children of native stock; 19 per cent in Southwick.

The breakfasts of the children of foreign-born parentage have been tabu-
lated and the results appear in Table 12.

FOOD OF RURAI, CHTI>DREN

119

Tablk 12. Principal Items in Breakfast

Nat

CARVER

SOUTHWICK

Food

ive

Foreign

Native

Foreign

rer

Per

Per

Per

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cenl

No.

cenl

Raw fruit

31

30

10

16

35

2S

0

0

No fruit

69

06

52

S3

83

66

37

95

Cooked cereal

58

06

22

35

51

40

7

IS

Dry cereal

20

IIJ

1

2

34

27

1

3

No cereal

23

2^

39

62

40

32

29

78

Egg

46

U

28

44

45

36

17

U

Milk or cocoa

63

61

25

40

99

79

25

64

Coffee or tea

24

SJ

40

63

19

15

10

26

Cake, cookies, doughnuts

18

17

19

30

24

19

11

28

Total number of breakfasts

1
104

63

126

39

Per

cent

— - Milk or cocoa

— - No fruit

— — Cooked cereal

_ _ Egg

^ — No cereal

_ _ Raw- fruit

— ~ Dry cereal

— — No milk

Cake, cookies
doughnuts

— — Coffee or tea

6. The Frequency with which the Most Usual Foods Appear in 104 CARVER
and 126 SOUTHWICK Breakfast Menus of ChUdren of
Native and Mixed Parentage.

120

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

Noon meals

Contrasts between the sort of noon meal eaten when the child goes home
and that carried to school are shown in Tables 13 and 14. So little diflference
was found between the lunches taken to school by the children of native
parentage and those of foreign-born parentage that in Table 14 the data are
presented for all children together. Very likely the children of foreign-bora
parentage demand lunches that will not seem different from those of the
others. At any rate, inspection of lunch boxes brought to light no essential
variation between the groups.

The home noon meals had hot foods, meat and potatoes being the most
frequent items on the menus. The difference m milk utilization in the two

Tabue 13. Princ-ipal Items in Noon Meals at Homie

CARVER

SOUTHWICK

Native

Foreign 1

Native

Foreign

Food

Per

Per

Per

Per

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

Meat

33

66

18

38

65

79

17

52

Potatoes

33

66

25

53

75

89

21

64

Vegetables not potato or leafy

12

~^4

12

26

27

32

3

9

No vegetables

9

IS

14

30

4

5

12

36

No vegetable except potato

23

¥>

21

45

38

44

11

S3

Potato and one vegetable

0

0

0

0

32

S8

9

27

Egg

8

16

19

40

10

12

12

36

Puddings

12

24

19

W

33

39

5

15

Cake, cookies, doughnuts

16

SS

29

62

13

15

10

30

Pie

29

58

5

11

19

23

4

12

Milk or cocoa

6

12

16

34

■JO

65

20

61

Coffee or tea

6

12

13

28

t

10

4

12

Total number of meals

■

>0

4

7

f.

4

3

3

Table 14. Principal Items in Sdiool Lunches

CARVER

SOUTHWICK

All children

All children

Food

Per

Per

No.

cent

No.

cent

Sandwiches

Meat

07

39

58

47

Egg

25

15

A'l

34

Jelly

30

18

23

19

Egg

15

<J

2

2

Fruit

79

46

02

50

Two or more sweets

109

64

33

27

Three sweets ^^^^ a^iifefei.

55

32

5

4

Milk or cocoa fti^-i ;,*j^j^

15

9

40

32

Total number of school lun

ches 170 1

124

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

121

— Xo milk

_ _ :Meat

_ Potato

_ Pie

No vegetables
except potato

Cake, cookies
doughnuts

Vegetable
not potato
or leafy

— — Pudding

_ No vegetable

Egg

— — Milk or cocoa

Coffee or tea

_| Potato and

1 vegetable

100

The Frequency with which the Most Usual Foods Appear in 50 CARVER
and 84 SOUTHWICK Menus of Noon Meals Eaten at Home,
by Children of Native and Mixed Parentage.

towns is evident in these meals, 65 per cent of the Soiithwick children of
native stock having milk or cocoa, but only 12 per cent of those in Carver.
Pie was the popular Carver sweet, appearing in 58 per cent of the home noon
meals of the children of native parents. In Southwick more puddings than
pies were used in these families, 39 per cent of the meals having puddings and
23 per cent pie. Cake, cookies, or doughnuts (cookies less often than the
others) were served at 32 per cent of these Carver home noon meals, and 15
per cent of the Southwick ones.

In the school lunches of Carver sweets occupied a striking place,, 64 per
cent of the lunches having two or more sweets — two pieces of pie, or pie
and cake, or two pieces of cake, or cake and doughnuts, or pie and dough-
nuts— and one-third of the lunches (32 per cent) contained three such sweets.

122

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULI.ETIN 241

Per
cent

CHART

Two or more
sweets

_ Fruit

Meat
sandwiches

■— Three sweets

andwiches

Jelly
sandwiches

8. The Frequency with which Certain Foods Appear in the Menus of 170
CARVER and 124 SOUTHWICK Box Lunches of Children of
Native, Mixed and Foreign-born Parentage.

Southwick sclmol lunches did not have so many sweets, only one-fourtli (23
per cent) of the noon meals eaten at the schoolhouse having two sweets, and
but five out of 124 lunches having three sweets. In either town a box lunch
without at least one sweet was practically an unheard-of thing.

In general the child who goes home for his noon meal fares better than the
one who nnist carry it. Although home noon meals are far from ideal, they
do have at least one hot dish, and the amount of pie and cake is not quite so
great as it is in the lunch box. The t>'])es of school lunch eaten by these rural
school children can best 1)€ judged from the menus below, which were selected
from the records at random.

Carver

Southwick

ge of Child

Menu

Age of Child

Menu

Eight

Salmon sandwich

Six

Egg sandwich

Bacon sandwich

Apple

Cake

Cookies

Pie

Milk

Prunes

Eight

Lettuce and egg sandwich

Nine

Crackers with jelly

Cake

Cake

Cooky

Prune pie

Apple

Orange

Milk

Ten

Eggs — hard boiled

Nine

.Telly sandwich

Meat sandwich

Canned peaches

Cookies

Apple

Pie

Cake

Twelve

Ekc: sandwich
Cake

Klcven

Meat sandwich

Pie

Cookies

Canned fruit

Pie

Cake

Thirteen

Meat sandwich
Cheese sandwich

Twelve

Peanut butter sandwich

Doughnuts

Cake

Orange

Candy

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

123

Another difficulty with the box luncii is that the ciiild makes eating an al-
most continuous performance. He eats something during morning recess,
more at noon, again at afternoon recess, and saves something to eat on the
way home. Only one teacher was found who had attempted any regulation
of this indiscriminate access to the lunch, and she was having a trying time
with both children and parents. One mother said to the writer, "I won't let
any teacher make my child go hungry."

In neither town was a hot dish or drink served at noon regularly through-
out the school year. The Carver teachers did, on their own initiative, provide
either cocoa or soup during the months of January and February. In one
instance, the teacher prepared the cocoa at home, brought it several miles to
the schoolhouse, and heated it on a grill which she also provided. She stated
that, even at the low price of ten cents a week, not all the children took
advantage of the service. "It seems that only those who need it least take
it — the ones who would be well provided for by their parents anyhow."

Evening Meals

The menus of the evening meals are presented in Table 15 and those of the
children of native and mixed parentage are also shown in Chart 9.

Table 15. Principal Items in Evening Meals

CARX'ER 1

SOUTHVVICK

Native

Foreign

Native

Foreign

Food

Per

Per

Per

Per

No.

cenl

No.

cenl

No.

cent

No.

cent

Meat

SI

Si

51

82

61

■54

15

47

Potato

76

7S

56

90

76

6S

29

91

Vegetables not potato or leafy

57

50

37

60

59

od

5

16

No vegetables except potato

27

2S

28

45

31

28

16

30

Puddings

21

22

25

40

25

22

0

0

Cake, cookies, doughnuts

50

52

29

47

53

47

19

59

Pie

44

4-5

12

19

10

9

8

25

Milk or cocoa

34

35

15

24

87

78

17

53

Coffee or tea

21

22

17

27

9

8

5

16

Total number of evening meals

97

62

112

3

2

Meat headed the list for tiie Carver children of native parentage, wiiile
milk took first place in Southwick. Potatoes were high in both towns. Thirty-
live per cent of these Carver evening menus contained milk or cocoa; 78 per
cent of the Southwick ones. In desserts Carver greatly exceeded Southwick.
In 97 Carver evening meals there were 115 desserts — 21 puddings, 44 pies- and
50 pieces of cake, cookies, or doughnuts. Southwick in 112 evening meals
had only 88 desserts — 25 puddings, 10 pieces of pie, and 53 other sweets.

Fond for entire day

The principal items in the rations for an entire day appear in Table 16 and
are given in Chart 10 for the children of native and mixed parentage and in
Chart 11 for those of foreign-born parentage. Typical day's menus are given
later in the text.

124

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

Per

cent

'////////////////^T^

^Meat

Potato

No milk

Vegetable
not potato
or leafy

Cake, cookies
doughnuts

Pie

Milk or cocoa

No vegetables
except potato

Pudding

Coffee or tea

75

100

CHAET 9. The Frequency with which Certain Foods Appear in the Menus of 97

CABVER and 112 SOUTHWICK Suppers of Children of

Native and Mixed Parentage.

Table 16. Principal Items in Menus for Entire Day

CARVER

SOUTHWICK

Native

Foreign

Nat

ive

Foreign

Food

Per

Per

Per

Per

No.

cent

No.

cent
80

No.

cent

No,

cent

Meat

79

SJt

48

83

89

14

52

Potato

86

91

.55

92

89

94

27

100

Vegetables not potato or leafy

.54

57

28

47

64

69

6

22

Potato and one vegetable

32

S4

13

22

43

46

16

59

Potato and two or more vegetables

32

34

15

25

30

32

1

4

Leafy vegetables

38

40

10

17

22

24

15

56

Fruit or raw vegetable

. 82

S7

27

45

74

80

6

22

Egg

.55

59

33

,55

46

49

17

63

Pudding

26

27

29

4S

41

44

5

19

Cake, cookies, doughnuts

62

66

47

78

61

66

19

70

Pie

58

01

28

47

22

■24

9

S3

Three or more sweets

59

63

52

87

23

25

5

10

Milk or cocoa

,59

63

36

60

87

91

25

93

Coffee or tea

24

as

39

65
0

14

15

7

26

Total number of meals

94

6

9

3

27

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

125

Fruit or raw
vegetable

Cake, cookies
doughnuts

Potato and
— — 1 vegetable

— Potato and

vegetables

'^///////////A

No milk

~ Pudding

_ _ Coffee or tea

CHART 10. The Distribution of the Principal Items in the Day's Meals of 94
CARVER and 93 SOXJTHWICK Children of Native and Mixed Parentage.

In the records of 94 Carver children of native stock for whom a day's
meiius were secured, potatoes were the most frequent item on the list; fruit
or raw vegetables (mainly apples and oranges) next; meat third; cake, cook-
ies, and doughnuts fourth; milk or cocoa fifth; pie sixth; then eggs, vegetables,
leafy vegetables, puddings; and last coffee or tea.

In the day's menus for 93 Southwick children of native stock, potatoes took
first place as in Carver; milk, which was fifth in Carver, was second in South-

126

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 24.1

Per

cent

Potato

Three or more
sweets

j fake, cookies

doughnuts

Coffee or tea

Milk or cocoa

Leafy
vegetable

CHART 11. The Distribution of the Principal Items in the Day's Meals of 60
CARVER and 27 SOUTH WICK Children of Foreign-born Parentage.

wick; meat tliircl; fruit or raw \enetal)les foiirtii; otlier vegetables fifth;
cakes and dougiinuts sixtii; eggs seventii; i)iiddings eighth; leafy vegetables
and pie tied for ninth place; and again coffee and tea came last, being used
in Soiithwick even less often than in Carver.

The data on the day's meals of children of foreign-born parentage are
pre,sented in table and chart, but here, as elsewhere, no interpretations of
data based on such heterogeneous groups are given.

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

Typical ihiy's menus:

127

Carver

South WICK

Age of child

]Menu

Age of child

Menu

Nine

Breakfast-

—Oatmeal
Pancakes

Kgg
Milk

Seven

Breakfast-

-Cornflakes
Spaghetti
White bread toast
Coffee

Box lunch-

-Cheese sandwich

Home noon

Pot roast

Doughnuts

meal —

Potatoes

Cake

Tapioca pudding

Pie

Cake
Milk

Supper —

Meat

Potatoes

Supper —

Ham

Cranberries

Potatoes

Pie

Pie

Milk

Nine

Breakfast-

-White bread toast

Postum

Kight(a)

Breakfast-

-Oatmeal

Cake

Whole wheat
bread toast

Home noon

Baked beans

Milk

meal —

White bread

Pickles

Home noon

Tomato soup

Pie

meal —

Whole wheat
bread

Supper —

Pork

Macaroni

Cake

Supper —

Tapioca pudding
Milk

Roast beef

Eleven

Breakfast-

-Oatmeal
White bread toast
Marmalade
Doughnuts

Boiled potatoes
String beans
Asparagus
Whole wheat
bread

Box lunch-

-Meat sandwich
Pie
Cake

Plain cake
Milk

Doughnut

Ten

Breakfast-

-Oatmeal

Orange

Milk

Supper —

Meat
Potatoes
Spinach
Lettuce

Box lunch-

-Ham sandwiches
Cake
Apple

Jello
Milk

Supper —

Fried potatoes

Prunes

Cake

Milk

Twelve

Breakfast-

-Baked beans
Egg

Oatmeal
Milk

Eleven

Breakfast-

-Hani and eggs
Oatmeal
Banana
Milk-

Box lunch-

-Peanut butter

Home noon

Beef

sandwiches

meal —

Potatoes

Two pieces cake

Baked beans

Supper —

Beef soup with
vegetables

Eggs
Milk

Baked beans

Supper —

Beef

Cake

Potatoes
Cereal

Thirteen

Breakfast-

-Malt cereal
White bread toast
Orange

Cake
Milk

Milk

Thirteen

Breakfast-

-Fish

Box lunch-

-Meat sandwich
•Telly sandwich

Eggs
Milk

Orange

Home noon
meal —

Corned beef
Potatoes

Supper —

Clam cakes
Potato and carrot

Milk

hash

Supper —

Macaroni and

Celery

cheese

Lettuce with

Tomatoes

mayonnaise

Bread pudding

Apple pie

Milk

Milk

ra^ TJiia

liftio o-;^i V,

(a) This little girl had the highest total diet score of any in the two towns

Apples and oranges were given her as mid-morning and mid-afternoon lunches.

128

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 24.1

PART III. HEALTH STATUS

Two methods were used in the effort to determine whether or not any
definite correlation could be established between the food habits which have
been described and the state of health of tiie children: first, the records of
the physical examinations given by the children's clinic of the Division of
Tuberculosis of the Massachusetts Department of Healtli; and second, ex-
amination of the teeth by a dental hygienist.

Clinic Exauninations

The physical examinations given at the clinic sessions are quite frankly
made for the purpose of discovering cases of tuberculosis. State of nutrition,
as such, is not emphasized and the records on this point are not sufficient to
be very illuminating. Few cases of disease of any type were reported for
either Carver or Southwick. Of the Carver children for whom records of
dietary history and food habits were obtained, only one case of heart disease,
one of hilum tuberculosis, and three of malnutrition were discovered at the
clinic; among the Southwick children, one case of hilum tuhercidosis and one
of malnutrition.

The general appearance of nine of the 134 Carver children who were ex-
amined was marked "fair" instead of "good" as was that of the others; six
were reported as having flabby muscles, three of these being the children
diagnosed as cases of malnutrition; 18 were found to have bad tonsils; and
12, diseased adenoids.

In Southwick, of 110 children examined, three were reported as having
"poor" general appearance; two, flabby muscles; 16, bad tonsils; and 5,
diseased adenoids.
Weight

The height and the weight of each child were taken at the clinic session,
and percentage of overweight or underweight computed from the weight-
height-age standards of the Baldwin-Wood tables. Such records were ob-
tained in Carver for 83 of the 95 children of native stock and 51 of the 60 of
foreign-born parentage; in Southwick, for 84 of the 93 of native stock and
26 of the 27 of foreign-born parentage.

The tabulation below shows, for each town, the number of children 10 per
cent or more overweiaiht or underweigh-t.

UNDERVVEICxHT

10 per cent or more
1.5 per cent or more

10 per cent or more
15 per cent or more

CARVER

SOUTHWICK

Native

Foreign

Native

Foreign

Per

Per

P r

Per

No. cent

No. cent

No.

cent

No.

cent

15 IS

13 3.5

8

10

■1

U

8 10

;5 6

2

2

1

4

OVERWEIGHT

8 10

2 4

21

2r,

1

4

5 a

1 S

17

20

0

0

Number of children

83

51

26

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN 129

The numbers in the above classifications are much too small to permit valid
comparisons with diet scores. A study of the records of the individual chil-
dren points to the conclusion that, in overweight, quantity of food consumed
rather than the quality of the diet is tlie chief factor. The diet scores of
the overweight children do not fall into any particular numerical group but
are scattered throughout the entire range of scores.

Two of the most extreme cases of underweight were ciiildren barely con-
valescent from serious illness; a third was that of a girl suffering from
marked hyperthyroidism-^the only case of endocrine imbalance reported in
either town. For the other cases of underweight, no explanation is to be
found in the available data.

Age does not appear to be a factor in either over- or underweight. In the
distributions of weight by age the frequencies are scattering.

Dental Examinations

The examinations of the children's teeth were made painstakingly and
slowly, in order that no defect might go unrecorded. Eight days were re-
quired to examine the pupils in the Carver schools and 14 days in Southwick.
More time was needed in Southwick because of the distances to be travelled
betweeii school buildings and also because of the larger proportion of white
children. Complete examinations were not made of the teeth of the colored
children, since those records were not to be included among the data of the
study. The colored children were kept in the examining chair only long enough
to look at the four first permanent molars. In this way the possibility of
giving offense to the colored families was avoided without wasting an undue
amount of the hygienist's time.

The dental examinations were made with an explorer especially designed
for the detection of fissures — the Gillett explorer, number one. It is not only
extra fine and sharp but it also has an angle that permits easy access to the
grooves of the molars.

The conditions of work were far from what might be desired, — three chairs,
a portable headrest loaned from the Forsythe Dental Infirmary of Boston,
mirrors and probes, with denatured alcohol in a half pint milk bottle as the
sterilizer, and paper napkins for towels. In Southwick especially, the light
in the schoolrooms was often so poor it made the work difficult and fatigu-
ing for the hygienist. She spared no effort in her wish to make adequate
and thorough examinations, and it is felt that these dental records give the
most accurate information of any presented in this entire report.

All the teeth of 168 white children in Carver and 232 in Southwick were
examined. Of these, 139 from Carver and 113 from Southwick were children
whose homes were visited and for whom dietary records were secured.

Evidences of care by a dentist were found in the mouths of only 24 (23
per cent) of the 105 Carver children of native and mixed parentage, and 26
(23 per cent) of the 115 Southwick children of similar parentage. Among
the children of foreign-born parentage, 8 (13 per cent) of the 63 from Carver
and 14 (12 per cent) of the 117 from Southwick had evidences of previous
dental repair work. These figures are naturally exclusive of possible extrac-
tions of temporary teeth by a dentist. It is not a matter for amazement that
so few of these children had been taken to a dentist. Neither Carver nor
Southwick has a resident dentist and very many of the parents, even if they
wished to do so, would find it difficult to spare the time or the money neces-

130

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

sary to take the children to a city for dentistry. Dental care in rural regions
is notoriously even harder to obtain than a physician's services.

Unfilled cavities

The condition of the teeth of all the white children of Carver and South-
wick, as indicated by the number of permanent teeth having unfilled cavities,
is shown in Tables 17 and 18, and separately for children of native and mixed
parentage in Tables 19 and 20. The younger children, of course, did not yet
have many permanent teeth. Nevertheless, since the proportions of younger
children are essentially the same in the two towns, the conclusions which

Table 17. Unfilled Cavities in Permanent Teeth
of 168 Carver Children

Number

Number ot permanent tee

h having unfilled cavitie

Age to

More

nearest

in

None

1

2

3

4

o

6

7

8

9

10

than

birthday

group

10

6

3

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

7

23

11

2

3

4

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

S

19

3

4

3

4

3

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

9

23

4

3

6

3

6

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

10

15

3

2

2

3

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

11

1.5

2

3

0

1

4

2

0

1

0

0

0

2

12

30

3

2

6

6

.5

1

2

1

0

1

1

2

13

19

0

1

2

3

1

1

1

1

2

3

0

4

14

14

1

3

2

2

2

0

2

0

0

0

0

2

15

4

0

2

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

16

3

0

0

0

0 i 0

0

2

0

0

0

1

0

All ages

168

28

22

26

27

27

7

8

3

2

4

2

12

Per cent

100

17

13

16

16

16

4

5

2

1

2

1

7

Table 18. Unfilled Cavities in Permanent Teeth
of 232 Southwick Children

Number

in

group

:

Vumb

sr of p

erman

int teeth having un

filled

:avities

Age to
nearest
birthday

None

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

More

than

10

6

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

IS
23
25
30
28
29
22
24
15
14
2
2

13

16

14

10

5

9

5

3

4

1

0

0

2
3
3

8
5
4
4
9
1
3
0
1

1
1
6
9
8
8
5
1
0
1
0
0

1
3
1
3
4
2
5
5
1
2
1
0

1
0
1
0
.5
2
0
2
4
2
0
0

0
0
0
0

1
1
1
0
1
2
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0

1

0
0
0
0
0
0

1

0

1

0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
2
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

1

0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0

1

0
0

All ages

232

80

43

40

28

17

6

5

2

6

2

0

3

Per cent

100

So

IS

17

IB

7

3

2

/

3

/

0

1

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

131

may be readied from Tables 17, 18, 19 and 20 are not to be minimized on
account of the inclusion of data on children having few permanent teeth
erupted.

Considering all white children, 17 per cent in Carver and 35 per cent in
Southwick had no unfilled cavities in permanent teeth. Among the children
of native and mixed parentage the conditions were slightly better, 26 per
cent in Carver and 41 per cent in Southwick having no unfilled cavities in
permanent teeth.

Table 19. Unfilled Cavities in Permanent Teeth of 10.5 Carver Cliildren
of Native and Mixed Parentage

Number

Number of permanent teeth having unfilled cavities

Age to

More

nearest

in

None

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

than

birthday

group

10

6

2

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

7

19

10

2

2

3

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

8

11

3

3

1

2

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

9

17

4

3

5

0

4

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

10

8

3

1

0

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

11

10

2

3

1

0

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

12

21

3

2

3

6

4

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

13

7

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

2

1

. 0

0

14

7

1

2

1

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

15

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

16

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

AH ages

105

27

18

15

15

17

5

1

0

3

2

1

1

Per cent

100

26

17

H

n

16

■5

/

0

3

2

/

Table 20. Unfilled Cavities in Peniianent Teeth of 115 Southwick Children
of Native and Mixed Parentage

Number

Mumber of permanent teeth ha\

'ing unfilled cavities

Age to

More

nearest

in

None

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

than

birthday

group

10

6

11

8

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

7

18

12

2

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

8

14

8

2

3

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

9

12

8

1

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

10

11

1

2

3

1

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

11

14

4

2

4

1

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

12

10

3

2

3

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0,

13

13

2

4

1

3

2

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

14

4

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

15

5

0

0

0

2

0

2

0

0

1

0

0

0

16

2

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

17

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

Ail ages

115

47

16

18

14

9

3

4

0

2

2

0

0

Per cent

100

41

n

16

12

~

3

3

0

2

2

0

0

132

iMASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

Sixty-one per cent of all white Carver school children had from one to four
unfilled carious permanent teeth, and 22 per cent had five or more such teeth.
Fifty-four per cent of all white children in Sout'hwick had from one to four
unfilled carious permanent teeth, while but 11 per cent had five or more.

Of the Carver children of native stock, 61 per cent (the same as for all
children in that town) had from one to four permanent teeth with unfilled
cavities; of the corresponding group in Southwick, 49 per cent had from one
to four such permanent teeth. For the children having five or more per-
manent teeth with unfilled cavities, the difference between Carver and South-
wick is not so great among those of native stock as among all children, being
13 per cent for Carver and 10 per cent for Southwick. The very poor teeth
found among the Finnish children of Carver are chiefly responsible for the
larger number of children in Carver who have five or more permanent teeth
with unfilled cavities.

The significant differences here are those found among the children of
native stock, where 41 per cent of the Southwick children have no permanent
teeth with unfilled cavities, against 26 per cent in Carver; and where 61 per
cent of Carver's children and 49 per cent of Southwick's have from one to four
permanent teeth with unfilled cavities.

Table 21. Condition of the Four First Permanent, or Six-year Molars
of All White Children

Number of children

Condition of molars

All unerupted
No fissures: number of
molars carious or
extracted

1

2

3

4

No carious or extracted:

number of molars

with fissures

1
2
3
4
One or more fissures:

number of molars
carious or extracted
1
2
3
4

Carveb
4

0

0

1

67

1(a)
4(a)
2
14

19
26

27
3

Southwick

7

0

0

1

37

1(b)
4(c)
3
65

40

44

24

6

Total number of children

168

232

(a) One child with one molar unerupted.

(b) Three molars unerupted.

(c) All with two molars unerupted.

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

133

Siv-ifiear molars

Inasmuch as the various teeth are not all equally prone to decay, a measure
was sought which would avoid errors arising from comparisons between teeth
with a greater tendency to decay and those that have a lesser tendency to
decay; as, for example, molars and incisors. The four first permanent, or
six-year, molars have, therefore, been selected as the teeth to be used in
making comparisons between conditions of teeth and diet. In all except the
very youngest pupils, all four of these molars were erupted, as may be seen
from Tables 21 and 22.

The word "carious" is used to include both filled and unfilled cavities. The
purpose of these tabulations is not to list dental repair work which should be
attended to, but to discover if possible a relationship between teeth and
dietary habits. From this point of view, a filled cavity is of the same sig-
jiif carce as an unfilled one. It was not feasible to make a study of size or
location of cavities, although such data would be of considerable interest.
Examination of the original dental ret'ord blanks indicates that the cavities in
the teeth of Carver children average larger than those in the teeth of the
Southwick children.

The molars have been classified according to the number of fissures and
cavities. No child was discovered in Carver or Southwick who had all four

Table 22. Condition of the Four First Permanent, or Six-year Molars of

Children of Native and Mixed Parentage Aged Seven Years,

Six Months, and Over

Condition of molars

All unerupted

No fissures: number of

molars carious or

extracted

1
2
3
4
No carious or extracted:

number of molars

with fissures

1
2
3
4
One or more fissures:

number of molars

carious or extracted
1
2
3
4

Total number of children

Number of children

Carver
0

0
0
1

27

!(a)

14
14
14

Southwick
0

0

0

0

16

0

0

2

21

16

16

9

6

8(i

(a) One child with one molar unerupted.

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9—12

13—16

17—20
21—24

"3
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FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN

135

or even three of these teeth free from either fissure or caries. Four children
in Carver and four in Southwick had one of these first permanent molars in
perfect condition; i.e., no fissure or caries; three children in Carver had two
perfect molars apiece, but no cliild in Southwick. Among the children of
native and mixed parentage, four in Carver and two in Southwick had each
one perfect molar; one Carver child had two perfect molars.

Twenty-one Carver children and 73 Soutiiwick children, or approximately
one-eighth of the Carver children and one-third of the Southwick children,
had these first permanent molars free from caries; that is, with fissures as
the only defect found. It is assumed that the molars which had been ex-
tracted were taken out because of caries, and in the taliulations the data on
the two conditions have been presented together.

A separate computation has been made of the conditions of the molars of
the children aged seven years and six months or over, thus omitting most of
those having any of these molars still unerupted. Among the 142 Carver
children, 66 or 46 per cent, and among the 191 Southwick children 3.5 or 18
per cent, had all four molars carious or extracted; of the children of native
stock, 27 or 32 per cent of the 84 Carver children and 16 or 19 per cent of
the 86 Southwick children had the molars all carious or extracted; while of
those of foreign-born parentage, 39 or 67 per cent of the 58 children in
Carver and 19 or 18 per cent of the 105 in Southwick also had the molars
all either carious or extracted.

From the tables here presented it appears that in general the condition o.f
the teeth, as typified by the condition of the four first permanent molars, is
much better among the Southwick children, both native and foreign stock,
than among the Carver children. Since it has been shown tihat this is not due
to greater dental care, the reason has been sought in dietary habits. Tables
23 and 24 show for all children having both records available, the relation
between condition of molars and milk scores, and Tables 25 and 26 present
for children of native stock, the relation between condition of molars and
diet scores.

In both these .sets of tables, where data for Carver and Southwick are
presented, the numbers are so small in the various subdivisions that it is
impossible to arrive at any conclusions and reliance must be placed upon

Table 25. Condition of Four First Permanent Molars and Diet Scores of

73 Carver Children of Native and Mixed Parentage

from 8 to 17 Years of Age

nber

Condition of moiars

No fissures: nur

No molars carious or.

One or more fissures :

Diet

of molars carious

extracted: number

number of molars

score

or extracted

oi fis

sures 1

1

carious or extracted

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

0—29

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

30—59

0

0

1

12

0

1

1

4

5

8

8

0

60—89

0

0

0

12

0

1

0

3

4

6

.5

0

90—100

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Total

0

0

1

25

0

2

1

7

10

14

1.?

0

136

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

Table 26. Condition of Four First Pennanent Molars and Diet Scores, of

61 Southwick Children of Native and Mixed Parentage

from 8 to 17 Years of Age

Condition of molars

No fissures: number |

No molars carious or

One or more fissures:

Diet

of

molars carious i

extracted: number

number of molars

score

or extracted

of fissures

1 1

carious or ex tracted

■ 1

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

0—29

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

30—59

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

6

4

3

3

2

60—89

0

0

0

3

0

0

2

12

8

9

6

1

90—100

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Total

0

0

1

4

0

0

2

18

12

12

9

3

the findings for the Carver and Southwick groups as a whole. Milk, as has
been shown, is the outstanding food in which the Southwick scores excel those
of Carver, the difference being fuily as striking as that between the condi-
tion of the four first pennanent molars of the children in the two towns.

Southwick has been a dairy town for many years> so that with its stable
native population these present children of native parentage are, certainly
so far as their teeth are concerned, reaping the benefits of their mother's use
of an ample amount of milk. Carver, on the contrary, has not had an abund-
ant milk supply, and its children have not had the advantages deriving from
a general consumption of milk by the motliers during pregnancy.

PART IV. SUMMARY

In this field study of the elementary school children of the two rural Massa-
chusetts towns of Carver and Southwick, carried out through visits to the
homes and by means of dental and medical examinations, the following points
are of special interest:

1. It is not possible to obtain liy the survey method reliable data upon
the food habits and practices of previous years. Regarding current prac-
tices, information can be secured which is sufficiently trustworthy to give a
fair picture of tlie present situation, provided the inherent inaccuracies are
recognized as a determining factor in the choice of statistical methods of
interpretation.

2. The diets of the children of Carver and Southwick were judged by a
standard having an optimum score of 100, in which 24 points were allowed
for milk, 23 for cooked vegetal)les, 21 for fruit and raw vegetables, 14 for
whole grain cereal foods, and 18 for meat and eggs. Graded on this basis,
only 15 per cent of the children of Carver and 24 per cent of those of South-
wick can be considered to bave diets suited to their needs.

3. The best point in the Carver diets is the amount of fruit and vege-
taliles. The poorest feature qualitatively is the inordinate amount of sweet
foods such as cake, doughnuts, and pie.

Southwick's diets have milk as their great safeguard. Vegetables are not
used nearly as often nor in as much variety as should be the case. For both
towns the an:ounts of whole grain cereal foods are meager.

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN 137

4. The housewives, chiefly through lack of knowledge of even the simplest
principles of good nutrition, do not make provision for meeting the food
requirements of growing children. The meals are planned almost solely from
the point of view of the tastes of the adult members of the household, and
the children have free access to anything on the faJiiily table, in quantity
as well as in kind.

5. The medical examinations, having been made from the angle of incidence
of tuberculosis, did not produce many data bearing on the state of nutrition
or on the general health of the children.

6. In this study, therefore, the records of condition of teeth are the
principal available data for evaluating states of nutrition. Since the dental
examinations were conducted with extreme care and by an able hygienist,
these data have a high degree of accuracy.

7. The six-year molars, the four first permanent molars, have been chosen
as the teeth to be used for purposes of comparisons, thus obviating chances-
of error arising from data based on teetli with varying tendencies toward
decay.

8. Judging l)oth from the number of all permanent teeth with unftlled
cavities, the size of the cavities, and the number of first permanent molars
either carious or with fissures, the teeth of the children of Southwick were on
the whole in much better condition than those of the Carver children. This
is particularly true of the two groups of children of native stock.

9. The smallness of the numbers does not permit detailed classifications of
condition of molars and diet, but the excellence of the teeth of the South-
wick children as compared with those of the Carver children is believed to
have as its chief causal factor the high milk consumption of Southwick and
the low milk utilization of Carver. No other difference between the two
towns — economic, social or dietary — has been found to explain the difference
in the teeth.

10. Because of the many elements, hereditary and environmental, which
affect the physical state of the individual, and the imjiossibility of isolating
factors, let aJone controlling them, relationsihips of cause and effect cannot
here be demonstrated from the records of individual children. Nevertheless,
large group differences are undoubtedly significant, and the objectives of
this study were best attained in the presentation of material showing the
positive correlation between milk consumption and condition of teeth.

PART V. APPENDIX

1. School blank

2. Home blank

3. Dental record form

138 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

SCHOOL RECORD

Name _ Born-
School Date..

UNDERLINE THE STATEMENTS WHICH ARE TRUE FOR YOU

1. My Health. Habits

1. I usually get up— before 6:00— about 6:30— about 7:30
about 6:00— about 7:00— after 7:30

2. Before breakfast this morning — I drank a glass of water

I did not drink any water

3. Every day I usually drink — 1 glass of water — 3 glasses of water

2 glasses of water — 4 glasses of water

4. I wash my hands before eating — always

usually
once in a while

5. I u.'uaily brush n;y teeth — before going to bed

before breakfast
after breakfast

6. I usually go to bed— about 7:00— about 8:00— about 9:00

about 7:30— about 8:30— later than 9:00

7. I usually sleep with niy \\indow ojien — the year round

when it is warm

8. I usually take a bath— once a week
twice a week
less than once a week

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN 139

SCHOOL RECORD— 2—

9. This morning^niy bowels moved

my bowels did not move

10. Yesterday^ — my bowels moved

my bowels did not move

11. I have to take medicine for this — once in a while

often
nearly every day

//. My Activities

12. From home to school is — only a few steps — about one-half mile

about one mile — more than one mile

13. I have to start— before 7:30— about 8:30
about 8:00— after 8:30

14. At noon I usually — go home

eat my dinner at school

15. I usually play with the other children — before school

at morning recess

at noon

at afternoon recess

///. My Food Habits

16. For breakfast this morning I drank — cocoa, coffee, tea, postuni, milk,

water

17. For dinner at noon yesterday I drank — cocoa, tea, milk, water

18. For supper yesterday I drank — cocoa, tea, milk, water

140 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

SCHOOL RECORD— 3—

19. Every day I usually eat— one vegetable besides potato

two vegetables besides potato
no vegetable except potato

20. I eat fruit or sauce — once a day
twice a day
less than once a day

21. I eat cereal— every morning

three or four times a week
almost never

22. For bread I eat — white bread
dark bread

23. I usually eat meat — three times a day — once a day

twice a day — less than once a day

24. I usually eat an egg — every day

three or four times a week
once a week

25. When I eat^I take lots of time
I eat fast

26. I usually — am hungry at meals

have to be coaxed to eat at meals

27. For breakfast this morning I had

Fruit, sauce Bread, toast, muffins

Warm cereal, dry cereal Milk, water, coffee, cocoa, postum

Potatoes, bacon, egg. Doughnuts, pie, cookies, cake

other meat

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN 141

SCHOOL RECORD— 4^

'28. For supper last night I had

Soup, meat, eggs
Potato, another vegetable
White bread, dark bread
Milk, water, tea, coffee, cocoa
Pie, pudding, cake, cookies, sauce
Tell anything else you ate for supper last night „ _.

29. For my dinner today (or yesterday) I had

30. I eat between meals — at recess — in the evening

after school — never, or almost never

31. "When 1 eat between meals I usually eat

How much? How much?

Candy Crackers

Ice cream Fruit

Bread and butter Cake, cookies,

doughnuts

Sandwich Milk, cocoa

Tell anything else you eat between meals..

142 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

Serial No. HOME RECORD

Surname Address Date...

1927

L Pre-School History

A. Mother's Diet in Pregnancy

1. Milk, anit. da.

2. Potatoes x da.

3. Other veg. x da.

4. Leafy veg. x wk.

5. Fruit, cooked x da.

6. R. fr., veg., c. torn, x wk.

7. Bread, wh. gr. x da.

8. Cereals, wh. gr. x wk.

9. Eggs X wk.
10. Meat X da.

B. Infant Diet

1. Breast fed, mos.

2. Fresh milk, began, mo.

3. Raw, past., began, mo.

4. Milk modifier or subst.
Kind, began, mo.

5. Other foods:

a. Potatoes x da.

b. Other veg. x da.

c. Orange juice

d. Bread or cereal,
ref. or wh. gr. x da.

e. Eggs X wk.

f. Cod liver oil

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN 143

Serial No. HOME RECORD— 2—

C. Diet, 1-5 yrs., inc.

1. Milk, amt. da.

. Potatoes X da.

3. Other veg. x da.

4. Leafy veg. x wk.

5. Fruit, cooked x da.

6. Fruit, raw x wk.

7. Bread or cer. wh. gr. x wk.

8. Eggs X wk.

9. Meat x wk.

10. Coffee, tea x da.

IL Present LIse of Foods by Children

1. Milk, amt. da.

fresh

canned

2. Potatoes x da.

3. Other veg. x da.

4. Leafy veg. x wk.

summer

winter

5. Fruit, cooked x da.

summer

winter

6. R. fr., veg., c. torn, x wk.

summer

winter

7. Bread, wh. gr. x da.

8. Cereal, wh. gr. x wk.

9. Eggs X week

10. Meat X da.

11. CofTee, tea x da.

lU MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

Serial No. HOME RECORD— 3—

III. Related Health Habits and History

1. Daily bowel movement

2. Laxatives, etc.

habitual, occasional

3. Digestive upsets

freq., seldom, never

4. Bed at p. m.

5. Up at a. m.

6. Dentist at least yearly

7. Eruption 1st tooth, mo.

Q
Pi
O
o

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u

■5 £

-p t 3 rt

bfl

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0- U !- -^

0- O oi U Q

pa m <^ H

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•5 £ S tuo s ;::; >

U, (J CQ W S CL, CO

146

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 241

Serial No.

HOME RECORD— 5—

V. Family Data

A. Parents

1. Occupation

2. Birthplace

3. Nationality

Father

B. Household
Mother Age Male Female

0-1

1-6

6-16

4. Approx. age

5. Education

16+

C. Cdntrilniting Factors in Poor Nutrition:

1. Low income _ — 4. Poor discipline

2. Indifference _ 5. Other conditions

3. Ignorance - — - -

D. EcOffwmic Aspects:

1 . Residence : owned. rented _

2. Type residence : farm -...village other

3. Apparent income: high medium „ low very poor.

4. Own cow buy milk

FOOD OF RURAL CHILDREN 147

DENTAL RECORD

Serial No Name Age yrs inos.

EDCBAA.BCDE

1st Petm. 1st Perm.

Molars Tifolars

376543 21123 + 567

SUMMARY

No. teeth: temporary permanent

No. carious teeth: temporary permanent

No. teeth with pits or fissures: temporary permanent..

Six-year molars: no. erupted

cavities: filled unfilled

pits or fissures: filled unfilled

Occlusion: normal abnormal

Gingivae: normal inflamed badly inflamed

Prophylaxis: food deposits calculus

Other abnormality:

General condition of teeth: excellent good fair

poor very poor

PUBLICATION OF THIS DOCUMENT APPROVED BY THE
COMMISSION ON ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCE

3M-4-'28. No. 1961

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 242 April, 1928

Vigor in Production - Bred Flocks

By F. A. Hays and Ruby Sauibom

In pedigree breeding for high fecundity, the question of vigor is of
paramount importance, because the mortality rate tends to become higher
<^ sgg production increases^ In the Rhode Island Red flock studied,
vigor was found to be independent of the fecundity traits, early maturity,
high intensity, non-pause and high persistency; but to be reduced by
eliminating broodiness. The most feasible practice for improving vigor
is to breed only from those families showing the lowest mortality of
pullets in the laying houses.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERLMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS

By F. A. Hays, Research Professor of Poultry Husbandry, and
Ruby Sanborn, Research Assistant in Poultry Husbandry.

Introduction

In pedigree breeding for iiigii fecundity the question of vigor is of para-
mount importance because the mortality rate tends to become higher as egg
production increases. Without question, tiie complex physiological process of
egg lajing places the pullet under a severe test for vigor which may or may
not shorten her life. Poultrymen and biologists are not familiar with the vast
array of factors concerned, but the foniier are very eager to know how high
vigor may be detected in the living bird.

High vigor may be defined as the possession of all those necessary qualities
or characteristics that make possible a long and productive life in the hen.
A number of common physical characteristics are made use of in culling
operations, but just how mucli weight should be attached to these has never
been demonstrated.

Pearl (1911) points out that adult mortality may be considered as an index
of general vitality and constitutional vigor, and presents mortality records in
the laying houses for a period of nine years.

Lippincott (1921) states that there are certain characteristics that are cor-
related with that maximum efficiency of all organs termed constitutional vigor
l)ut that these characters are relative rather than absolute. He makes ref-
erence to breed characters, head characters, body characters, etc.

Dryden (1921) emphasizes the fact that a hen may not inherit high vigor
and that such a hen may break down under the strain of higii production.
This worker lays sijiecial stress on the value of high vigor as a necessary con-
comitant of inherited high fecimdity.

Bittenbender (1922) suggests that both males and females should be selected
for constitutional vigor and vitality, and that vitality, type and e^g produc-
tion are very closely correlated. Such body characters as type of head, beak,
eyes, comh, body, breast, legs and toes may be used as indices of vigor.

Rice and Botsford (192-5) write: "The use of strong, vigorous birds is
essential, as it means better fertility and hatchability, and less mortality in
chicks." These writers consider the head of the fowl as the best guide in
selection for vigor.

At the present time there is need for well substantiated evidence on the
relation of specific characteristics to vigor.

As the measure of vigor for these studies, mortality rate in the laying
bouses for a 365-day period has been used. This period begins when the
pullets are housed at about 150 days of age and covers the pullet laying year
only. Those families having the lowest mortality rate during the pullet laying
year are thus considered to be the most vigorous.

In this bulletin consideration is given to two general groups of conditions
aflFecting mortality in the laying houses: namely, those that may be controlled
l)y methods of management, and those that may be controlled by methods of
breeding. In the first class may be mentioned age of mothers and hatching
dates; in the second group belong age at first egg, weight at first egg, per-
sistency, production, etc. Knowledge of the relation of conditions or char-
acteristics to mortality rate is useful to poultrymen in developing a manage-
ment and breeding program to combine high fecundity and low mortality.

152 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 2+2

Birds Used

These studies cover a five-year period beginning with the flock hatched in
1922 and ending with the flock hatched in 1926. The birds are all pedigreed
Rhode Island Reds that have been pedigree-bred since 1913 with no outside
blood introduced since 1915. The greater proportion of the birds have been
bred for high fecundity, with only a limited number used for inbreeding,
broodiness and color studies.

The method of management has not been changed during the period report-
ed. All chicks have been raised on a clean range under four-year rotation.
Quarantine measures have been regularly employed to exclude disease. Hatch-
ing dates have been kept constant froni year to year. There are eight hatches
each year at weekly intervals, beginning March 2.5 and ending May 1.5. About
250 day-old chicks are placed immediately on the range in each 10x12 brooder
house with coal heater. All live chicks are placed in brooder houses and no
culling is practiced. These chicks are driven outside each day beginning with
the fourth day.

The character of the ration and the method of feeding were kept constant
throu,ghout the period rejjorted. Sexes are separated at about eight weeks
and the birds are given free range of a large grassy area with trees and
bushes for shade. In late summer green corn is cut and fed fresh daily. All
pullets are taken to the laying houses when about 150 days old and housed
according to hatching date in 30x30 open-front houses, 2.50 pullets per house.
Cockerels are taken to winter quarters at the same time. All culling is done
by families only. All physically normal sisters from desirable mothers are
retained, and no pullets are culled in the laying house at any time.

Health Conditions

As previously noted, strict precautions have been taken to avoid disease
epidemics and external and internal parasites. Clean ranges and scrupulously
cleaned and disinfected houses and utensils were used throughout the period.
The caretaker of young stock was Hot permitted to come in contact with adult
birds and the caretaker of adult birds did not visit the growing range. Rem-
edial measures were regularly employed to check all external parasites and
worm treatments were given to adult stock. Yards about the laying houses
are plowed up J'early and seeded to forage crops. Despite these precautions,
some disease epidemics have occurred.

In September, 1922, chicken pox appeared in all young stock. It was a
mild outbreak and terminated after a few weeks without serious effects as
far as could be discerned.

No disease epidemics appeared in the 1923 flock. The flock hatched in 1924
suffered heavy losses from roup which appeared early in March, 1925, and
caused nearly 60 per cent of the losses for the year. The flock of 1925 suf-
fered from an outbreak of pox which later developed into roup. First cases
of pox appeared about October 19, 192.5, and autogenous vaccine was admin-
istered to all birds February 19, 1926. Losses appeared to be greatly reduced
by the vaccine. The flock hatched in 1926 was afflicted with no recognized
disease outbreaks. All stock has tested free of Bacillary White Diarrhoea
throughout the period.

VIGOR IN FRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS

153

M VSS V( UK I 1. 1 I I. M I \l I IJ VII N f -- Ml

'W~

iF"-^; >mmmmmm<imw(j.

Quarantine measures as carried out with the Massachusetts Experiment Station
flock afford the safest preventive of infectious and contagious diseases. Under New
England conditions quarantine measures are an essential part of successful manage-
ment.

Clean, vigorous chicks can be most economically produced on rolling land with
abundant grass and shade. Crowding is often disastrous. A systematic three- or
four-year rotation of range should be practiced to avoid diseases and parasites.

154 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 242

Experimental Results

Mortality rate during the pullet laying year is employed as the measure of
vigor in these studies. An outbreak of pox and roup in the flocks hatched in
1924 and 1925 has increased the mortality in the laying houses beyond the true
figure if no epidemic appeared. During the years 1922, 1923 and 1926 there
were no infectious disease outbreaks.

1. A(je of Mothers in Relation to Vigor of Doatghters.

Mothers of the pullets housed are divided into two classes; namely, pullet
mothers and hen mothers. The latter group includes largely yearlings, a few
two-year-olds and a very small number of older hens. The table below gives
the detailed figures by hatching years, with calculations made by families:

Considering first the mortality rate in all chicks for the first eight weeks of
life, the fact is noted that losses from pullet mothers were consistently great-
er than losses from hen mothers in the last three years reported. The aver-
age percentage loss from pullet mothers is 2.78±1.70 per cent less than from
hen mothers for the hatching year of 1923. This difference is not significant
and is probably due to chance alone. Records of losses to eight weeks are not
available on the 1922 flock.

A wide range in mortality rate from pullet mothers is shown in the four-
year period considered. The smallest losses occurred in 1923, with only5.58
per cent. In the years that followed the morality rate rose, reaching a maxi-
mum of 22.66 per cent in 1925. Losses for the first eight weeks in chicks from
hen mothers were lowest in 1924, being 6.06 per cent. The greatest losses
occurred in 1925 and amounted to 11.81 per cent. Comparing pullet and hen
mothers, the data show that chicks from pullet mothers are more variable in
death rate than those from hen mothers. There is also evidence of a greater
percentage of poor breeders among the pullets when judged by mortality rate
in chicks.

The grand average for the four years is interesting. The 128 pullet mothers
tested gave 2103 chicks, while the 205 hen mothers tested gave 3538 chicks.
The grand average mortality rate in chicks for eight weeks is 15.50±2.26 per
cent from pullet mothers and 8.88±.69 per cent from hen mothers. The dif-
ference amounts to 6.62±2.36. While this difference is relatively large it is
less than three times as great as its probable error and offers inconclusive
statistical evidence of superiority of hen mothers over pullets in breeding high
vigor chicks.

In table 1, the relation of age of mothers to vigor of offspring measured by
mortality rate of daughters in the laying houses may be studied. The mor-
tality rate in the laying houses is greater in the daughters of pullet mothers
in three out of five years but only for 1922 is the difference significant. For
1922 the mortality rate from hen mothers is 13.20±2.89 below that of pullet
mothers and its magnitude is more than four times as great as its probable
error. In 1923 and 1926 the losses from hen mothers were slightly, though
not significantly greater than from pullet mothers.

Average mortality rate in daughters from 172 pullet mothers in the five-
year period is 34.48±3.54 per cent. Average mortality rate in daughters from
248 hen mothers in the five-year period is 31.74±2.94 per cent. The difference
is 2.74rb4.60 and must be due to random sampling alone and not to inherent
causes.

VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS

155

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156 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 242

Dntii ])resented in table 1 would appear to indicate first, that mortality
rate in chicks from pullet mothers tends to be somewhat greater than in chicks
from hen mothers. The proibability exists that the nutrient supply in the
hen's egg may be somewhat greater than in the pullet's egg because of larger
size and less intense production. Second, that there is no consistent or sig-
nificant difference in the vigor of laying pullets hatched from hen mothers
over those hatched from pullet mothers.

^. HafchabUity of Mothers hi Relation to Vi(jor of Daucjhters.

Hfitchability is measured over a period of eight weeks from March 25 to
May 15 each year. The percentage of fertile eggs hatched is used as the
hatchability index in each individual pullet or hen.

Egg weight is not a factor in hatchability according to Stewart and Atwood
(190.«), Dunn (1922), Halbersleben and Mussehl (1922), Jull (1925), Hays
ana Sumbardo (1927) and others; but the weight of chicks at hatching is in-
timately correlated with egg weight according to Halbersleben and Mussehl
(1922, loc. fit.), Jull (1925 loc. cit.) and others.

Hatciuibilitj' furnishes a measure of embryonic vigor but there are no pub-
lished data on the relation of hatchability in families and mortality rate after
surviving daughters are placed in the laying houses. Stewart and Atwood
(J 909) do, however, present data on the mortality rate in chicks to three
Weeks of age from pullet mothers and from hen mothers. These workers give
mortality rate to three weeks on 840 chicks from hens and 591 chicks from
pullets of the White Leghorn breed. Mortality rates given are 5 per cent
and 14.5 per cent, respectively. Dunn (1922a) has shown that hatching power
and mortality rate in chicks to three weeks of age are independent. His data
were collected on White Leghorn pullets and hens. The mortality rate for
the first three weeks was about 13 per cent of all chicks.

Tahle 2 shows that the mean percentage of fertile eggs hatched is slightly
greater from hen mothers than from pullet mothers on each of the five years
reported. The differences are not great hut are probably statistically sig-
nificant. The range of variability by years is also greater in the pullet group
with a standard deviation of ±3.98 compared with ±1.68 for the hens.

The mean hatchability of the 248 hens is 76.43±.51 per cent. The mean
hatchaibility of the 172 pullets is 70.78±1.20 per cent. The difference in means
amounts to 5.65±1.3. This difference is four times as great as its probable
error, which means that hens give higher hatchability than pullets in the flock
studied.

Mortality rates in the laying houses are the same as reported in table 1.
Pullet mothers show^ greater variability of losses in daughters in the laying
houses than do hen mothers. The years 1923 and 1925 mark the lowest mor-
tality rate in the laying houses and on these two years the average hatch-
ability was highest of the period reported. The year 1924 gave the lowest
mean hatchability and by far the greatest mortality in the laying houses. In
1926 many of the embryos of the first four hatches died about the tenth day
apparently because of lethal effects of a 2 per cent coal tar disinfectant in
which the eggs were dipped before being incubated. It may be possible that
the sur\ivors of this treatment were a superior lot which would reduce mor-
tality in the laying houses to some extent. Tn general, the data on the rela-
tion of hatchability to mortality in the laying houses offer slight evidence that
high hatchability is associated with superior vigor.

VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS

157

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158 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 2i2

3. Mortality to Eight Weeks in Relation to Mortality in the Laying Houses.

If vigor is a complex inherited trait, it is conceivable that families of sisters
should exhibit a greater degree of uniformity in vigor than the flock as a
whole. The probability exists also that the mortality rate in a family for the
first eight weeks might give a clue to the probable mortality rate in that
family after the surviving daughters are placed in the laying houses. There
is an element of unfairness in this comparison in that more daughters from
families with low chick mortality will actually be placed in the laying houses
giving this group something of a handicap over the high mortality group be-
cause larger nun^bers are subjected to the severe test of heavy egg 'aying.
Table 1 furnishes data on these important questions.

Mortality rate in chicks shows an upward trend from 1923 to 192.5 with
records for 1926 not significantly different from those of 1925. Losses in the
laying houses for 1924 are excessive due to a severe epidemic of roup and are
of little value for this study. The most striking fact illustrated hy the table
is that 1925 shows the highest chick mortality and the lowest mortality in
tiie laying houses. Such a condition appears to be due to chance circum-
stances alone, however, because 1923 gave the smallest chick mortality and a
laying house mortality not significantly different from that of 1925. Table 1
indicates an upward trend in chick mortality but it does not show any rela-
tion between chick mortality to eight weeks and subsequent mortality in the
same families after placement in the laying houses. The records indicate
also that no change has taken place in mortality rate in the laying houses in
five years.

4. Hatching Date in Relation to Morta,liti/.

Observation and opinion rather generally agree that mortality rate in early
hatclied chicks is lower than in late hatched chicks. There is no conceivable
biological reason why this should be true. If such a difference actually
exists, two possible explanations seem pertinent. In the first place, there may
be selective mortality in embryos from the early hatches because the embry-
onic death rate is highest in the early set eggs. In the second place, early
iiatched chicks receive much closer attention when brooded artificially be-
cause weather conditions may be severe and because the caretaker has fewer
chicks to occupy his time.

The very great importance of low mortality rate in the laying houses can-
not be over-emphasized in production-bred flocks. Early hatching is in rather
general favor, hence the value of knowing the relation of time of hatching
to vigor.

Table 3 presents the mortality rate in chicks to eight weeks of age, from
1923 to 1926, and the mortality rate of pullets in the laying houses, from 1922
to 1926. These records are given by hatches, the dates being constant from
year to year, beginning March 25 and following at weekly intervals to about
May 15.

On chart 1 the mean mortality rates to eight weeks by hatches for each
year and for the entire four years are presented graphically. This chart
shows that the mortality rate in chicks increases consistently with time of
hatching for the first three hatches of March 2.5, April 1 and April 8. In
1923, 1924 and 1926 a distinct decrease in mortality rate is shown for the
fourth hatch of April 15. When all chicks are considered over the four-year

VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS

159

o

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O

Mortality

in Laying

House

Per cent

w^ ^ t- <o O Ol ^J ?^

Number

of
Pullets
Housed

Mortality

to 8

Weeks

Per cent

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6.33
10.71
7.0S
11.84
12.50
14.80
16.83

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COCJOtDtCcD^Dro

Mortality

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Weeks

Per cent

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5.62
13.33
6.04
18.24
17.96
22.29
22.7 4

Number

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Chicks

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H/iTCHES

Chart I. Mortality to eight weeks — all mothers.

a

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IS 23

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Chart II. Mortality in laying houses — all mothers.

162

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 242

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VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS 163

period, the decrease in mortality rate of the fourth hatch brings their rate
very near to that of the first two hatches. No explanation of this apparent
inconsistency can be offered at this time.

Considering the period as a whole there is a distinct increase in death rate
of chicks as the hatching date advances. Extensive data on these flocks show
that hatchability increases as the season advances. This increasing hatching
power is clearly not accompanied by increase of vigor as measured by death
rate in chicks up to eight weeks of age.

When the relation of date of hatching to mortality rate in the laying
houses, as recorded graphically in chart 2, is considered, no significant rela-
tion between the two is observed. The data for 1923 show a slight increase
in mortality rates for pullets from succeeding hatches. Records for 1924 give
a rather distinct increase in mortality rates for later hatches. In 1925 mor-
tality rate goes down in the later hatches. In 1926 there is something of an
upward trend in mortality with the later hatching dates.

The grand total line marks the relation of hatching date to mortality rate
in the laying houses for the entire flve-year period. This line has no sig-
nificant slope and indicates no relation between time of hatching between
March 25 and May 15 and mortality rate for pullets in the laying houses.
There is a suggestion in these data that mortality to eight weeks operates on
a selective basis eliminating less vigorous chicks in each family so that the
sunivors in each family exhibit about the same death rate in the laying
houses. ^

0. Relatwn of Age at First Egg to Mortality in the Laying Houses.

The question whether or not breeding for very early sexual maturity reduces
vigor is a very pertinent one. This being the case, a study of large numbers
of fowls in the same flock over a period of years should furnish some infor-
mation.

When the mean age at first egg is considered on respective years, no sig-
nificant change in age has occurred in the five-year period. The standard
deviation in age for these flocks amounts to 31.28 days (Hays and Sanborn,
l.f)26b) and is influenced both by heredity and by environment. In all prob-
ability the major portion of age differences in table 4 are caused by numer-
ous environmental influences. Both hen mothers and pullet mothers gave the
same mean age at first egg for their daughters each year.

Eliminating the obviously abnormal year 1924, there has been no significant
change in mortality rate in the laying houses in five years. Since variations in
age at first egg are not accompanied by parallel changes in mortality rate in
the five-year period studied, these data indicate that age at first egg is not a
vigor trait in pullets.

6. Relation of Genetic Early Maturity to Mortality Rate in the Laying
Houses.
Hays (1924) has shown that Rhode Island Red pullets which begin to lay
at 215 days or younger are early maturing by inheritance and that those
pullets starting to lay at a greater age than 215 days ate genetically late
maturing. In order to discover whether or not genetic early maturity is ac-
companied by low vigor as indicated by death rate in the laying houses, all
the pullets used in these studies are classified for maturity. Table 5 gives
the complete data:

164

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 242

Table 5 — Relation of Genetic Early Maturity to Vigor

Late Maturity^

Early Maturity —

age over 215 days

age below 216 days

Pullets that died

Pullets that died

Hatching

Number of

after reaching

Number of

after reaching

Year

Pullets
reaching
Maturity

Maturity

Pullets
reaching

Maturity

Maturity

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

1922

123

42

3J,.15

505

142

28.12

1923

177

37

20. SO

315

74

S3.i9

1924

115

53

i6.09

433

222

51.27

1925

81

24

i'9.6'.J

528

120

22.73

1926

119

28

•2-i.o-l

439

132

30.07

Total or

Average

615

184

39.9'i

2220

690

.31. OS

The proportion of genetically early-maturing pullets is highest in 1925,
lowest in 1923 and equal in 1922, 1924 and 1926. The table indicates no rela-
tion between heritable early maturity by years and mortality rate. The total
mortality in the early-maturing pullets is 31.08 per cent and the total in late-
maturing group is 29.92 per cent. These data indicate that genetic early ma-
turity is unrelated to vigor.

7. Weight at first Egg in Relation to Mortaliti) Rale in the Laying Houses.

Body weight represents a gross composite of size and is a useful practical
measure of rate of food metabolism as well as of meat value. It is import-
ant and desirable to know if body weight may be employed as a crude mea-
sure of vigor because it is subject to wide variation even when taken for a
flock of fowls of uniform age. Hays and Sanborn (1926, loc. cit.) have al-
ready shown the standard deviation in weigiit for this flock of birds to be
±.75 pound when weights were taken at first pullet egg. Hays, Sanborn and
James (1924) found the standard deviation in weight for this strain to be
±..54 pound when weights were taken at 150 days. That body weight offers
a possibility for selection purposes is apparent, but can it be made use of in
selecting for vigor?

No difference in mean weight at first egg is shown between tlie daugiiters
of hens and of pullets on any year studied, and the mean weight of daughters
from all pullet mothers is 5.46 pounds and from hen mothers, 5.43 pounds.
Therefore, age of mothers at breeding time does not affect the weight of
daughters when they come into sexual maturity.

Table 6 gives the mean weight at first egg for the 1923 flock as 5.6 pounds
which is about .2 pounds above the mean for five years. This greater weight
in 1923 is probably due to the fact that the pullets averaged nine days older
at first egg than the mean for the five years given in table 4. Taking the
five-year period as a whole, there is no significant change in weight at first

VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS

165

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166

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 242

A comparison of the relation between weight at first egg and mortality
rate in the laying houses leads to the deduction that the two are independent,
because changes in weight at first egg are not accompanied by changes in
mortality rate.

8. Relation of Winter Pcmse to Mortality Rate in the Layinij Houses.

The individual egg records for the period from 1922 to 1926 have been gone
over and all pullets that stopped laying for four days or more between
November first and March first are classed as "pause" birds. Thus the popu-
lation is divided into the two general classes, pause and non-pause.

Possibly the ability to lay continuously after November first is an indica-
tion of high vigor and, conversely, the presence of winter pause may indicate
lack of vigor. With the measure of vigor made use of, namely, mortality
rate in the laying houses, some information concerning the relation of winter
pause to vigor may be obtained.

Table 7 — Relation of Winter Pause to Vigor

Pause

Non- Pause

Hatching
Year

Pullets
in Laying

House
March 1

Pullets dying after
March 1

Pullets
in Laying

House
March 1

Pullets dying after
March 1

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

1922
1923
1924
1925
1926

395
368
309
440
3.53

102

77
136
65

87

25.S2
20.92

ii.oi

14.77
24.05

198
99
147
103
143

52
16
.54
20
24

26.26
16.16

36.73
19.42
16.78

Total or
Average

1865

467

25.04

690

166

24.06

Table 7 shows that the proportion of non-pause to pause birds is about 1
to 2.7, yet the mean mortality rates in the laying houses for the groups are
identical. Records for the five years show no significant differences in mor-
tality rates. Furthermore, there is no significant change in five years in the
ratio of non-pause to pause pullets. Therefore, table 7 does not indicate any
relation between winter pause and vigor.

9. Relation 'of Mean Winter Clutch Size to Mortality Rate in the Layiny
Houses.

Is high rate of laying associated with high mortality rate? The importance
of high intensity is widely recognized in production-bred flocks; therefore, it
is desirable to know if this high rate of laying is in part responsible for
great mortality in heavy laying strains.

Satisfactory measures of intensity are difficult to obtain, but the use of

VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS

167

mean winter clutch size as proposed by Hays and Sanborn (1927) offers the
advantages of being specific and not obscured by the element of time or by
the winter pause. Clutch size is also inherited in Mendelian fashion as re-
ported in the above publication. Birds carrying both dominant factors for
large clutch size will have a mean winter clutcii greater than 2.6, those lack-
ing one factor will show a clutch size between 2.2 and 2.6, while birds lack-
ing both factors will have a clutch size not far from 2.0. In these studies
the pullets have been divided into two classes: Those carrying both factors
for large clutch and those carrying none or only one factor for large clutcli.

Table 8 — Relation of Intensity to Vigor

High Intensity —
Clutch over 2.6

Low Intensity — •
Clutch under 2.6

Hatching
Year

Pullets
in Laying

House
March 1

Pullets dying after
March 1

Pullets
in Laying

House
March 1

Pullets dying after
March 1

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

1922
1923
1924
1925
1926

249
141
183
318
217

66
28
71
46
37

26.51
1 9.S6
3S.S0
H.i7
1 7.05

328
295
268
221
279

82
48
112
38
75

25.00
16.S7
il.79
17.19
26.SS

Total or
Average

1108

248

22..iS

1391

355

25.52

In table 8 the proportion of high intensity pullets to those of low intensity
varies from year to year, yet the differences in mortality rate for the two
classes is not great. The smallest proportion of high intensity birds occurred
in the 1923 flock while the greatest proportion appeared in the 192-5 flock. On
tiiese two years the mortality rates were lowest of the five-year period. This
fact, together with the close agreement in total mortality rates for both high
and low intensity groups, would seem to indicate that intensity of production
is independent of vigor as measured l>y losses in the laying houses.

10. The Relation of Broodiness to Mortality Rate in the Laying Houses.

The broody trait is a recognized undesirable trait from tiie standpoint of
hig^h fecimdity. Hence, in order to raise the mean egg production of a flock
to a high level, the percentage of birds going broody the first laying year
must be greatly reduced from what might he considered nonnal in the gen-
eral purjiose breeds.

In the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station flock of Rhode
Island Reds the percentage of birds going broody their firsit laying year was
90 for the flock of 1913 and for the flock of 1926 the figure was 10. In this
time interval the number of broody periods has fallen from more than five to
less than two. There has not been a significant reduction in the mean length
of broody periods, however. (Hays and Sanborn 1926a).

168

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 242

These studies were undertaken to discover if the elimination of the broody
trait has been inimical to vigor. A total of 2163 birds liatclied in the five
years from 1922 to 1926 have been c'Jassified as broody or non-broody. Since
the greatest percentage of pullets tend to become broody before July 1, it has
been decided to use puMet records up to July 1 for the classification. Those
puJlets that actually went broody before JuJy 1 each yeiar are placed in the
broody class and all others in the non-broody class. Such classification is
faulty in that many birds actually do not show broody behavior by July 1 and
a smaller projiortion not until later laying yeairs. For this study siuch crude
classification should be of some value.

Table 9 — Relation of Broodiness to Vigor

Broody

Non- Broody

Hatching

Pur.ets

Pullet? dying after

Pullets

Pullets dying after

Year

in Laying

July 1

in Laying

July 1

House
July 1

House
July 1

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

1922

148

12

fi.ll

347

41

11.82

1923

106

4

3.7 7

314

32

10.19

1924

126

n

S.73

171

13

7.60

1925

210

7

3.33

286

21

7.3i

1926

104

2

1.92

351

53

1.5.01

Total or

Average

694

36

0.19

1469

160

10.89

Tabile 9 shows the percentage of birds not going broody before July 1 to
be as follows: 1922, 70 per cent; 1923, 75 per cent; 1924, 58 per cent; 192-5,
58 per cent; and 1926, 77 per cent. The records for 1924 are valueless be-
cause of a severe roup epidemic, but the records for 1925 sihow that the in-
crease in broodiness up to July 1 was associated with the lowest mortality rate
in the laying houses for a five-year period.

Table 9 also indicates a consistent and almost parallel decline in mortality
rate for both brooi^ies and non-ibroodies up to 1925. The records for 1926
assign a mortality i^ate after July 1 of 1.92 per cent for broody birds and
15.10 per cent for non-broody birds. This very abrupt increase in mortality
in the non-broody group cannot be considered normal and cannot be ex-
plained. The mortality rate in the non-broody group is greater than for the
broody group in the four normal years reported.

The total mortality rate for five years is 5.19 per cent in the broody group
and 10.89 per cent in the non-broody group. If records for the epidemic year
1924 are omitted, the mortality' rate for broody birds is 4.42 per cent, and
for non-broody birds 11.33 per cent. Omitting 1926, the broody group show
a mortality of 5.76 per cent and the non-broody group 9.57 per cent. These
data indicate that the manifestation of broody behavior before July 1 of the
pullet laying year is an indication of superior vigor and that the elimination
of the broody trait in this flock has been accompanied by greater mortality
rate in the laying houses.

VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS

169

11. Relation of Perslatenry in Layinr; to Mortalifi/ Rate in the Laying
Hoii.tes.

High persistency in laying is an important and desirable trait from the
standpoint of fecundity. In ordinary poultry practice the date of onset of
complete molt is made use of as an indicator of persistency. The importance
of late melting as a desirable fecundity trait has been recognized for several
decades and is constantly made use of in culling operations. Persistency be-
ha-ves in Mendelian fashion in ittheritance and high persistency is linked with
early sexual maturity (Hays, 1927).

The dividing line between genetically low and genetically high persistency
appears to come at aibout 31.5 day;-. Birds have therefore been classed as
high in persistency if they continue to lay for 315 days or more from the time
of first pullet egg and low in persistency if they lay for a shorter period than
31.5 days. In order to classify the families of sisters used in these studies
it has been necessary to obtain the mean persistency of the surviving daugh-
ters of each family. If this mean family persistency falls below 315 days
the entire group of sisters is classed as low in persistency even though some
individuals may actually lay for 315 days or longer. This method is at best
only an approximate separation of the papulation into high and low per-
sistency classes.

In studying the relation of persistency to vigor as measured by mortality
rates in the laying houses under such a classification as is made in table 10,
the assumption must be that surviving sisters in each family represent a true
sample of all the sisters of the family with regard to persistency. Actual
persistency records can only be secured on surviving sisters juid their records
must be used to classify all sisters.

Table 10 — Relation of Persistency to Vigor

Fa

milies of Low Persistency —

Families of High Persistency —

below

315 days

above 314 days

Hatching
Year

Number

Number
of

Pullets

dying

Number

Number
of

Pullets dying

of
Families

Pullets
put into

of

Families

Pullets
put into

Laying

Number

Per cent

Laying

Number

Per cent

House

House

1922

17

105

31

29.52

67

538

168

31.23

1923

29

198

48

24.2i

40

316

85

£S.90

1924

22

159

79

1,9.69

46

375

188

.50.13

1925

24

167

41

2k.-J->

59

448

106

23.66

1926

28

161

54

JS.oi

65

402

116

28.86

Total or

Average

120

790

253

32. OS

277

2079

663

31.89

Reference to table 10 brings out the fact that no important change has
taken place in five years in the percentage of genetically highly persistent
birds. When the percentage of high birds is calculated l)y families the figures

170

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 242

are practically identical with figures based on the number of individual birds.
Tiie greatest proportion of high persistency birds occurred in tlie 1922 flock,
and the smallest percentage in the 1923 flock. The years 1924 and 1926 show
practically a constant proportion of higii and low persistency females.

No relation is apparent between iiigh persistency and mortality rate. In
tiie five-year period 2869 birds are considered, about 73 per cent of which are
highly persistent. The total mortality rate for the persistent pullets is 31.89
per cent, and for the low persistent group the figure is 32.03 per cent.
Therefore no difference in vigor between the groups is apparent, and per-
sistency and vigor are independent.

12. Relation of Winter Egg Production to Mortality Rates in the Laying
Houses.

Harris (1926 and 1927) has shown that the egg production of birds dying
during their pullet year is lower than production for the same time interval
by birds that survive to the end of the year. His records were obtained on
White Leg'horns, Rhode Island Reds and White Wyandottes in the Storrs
Egg Laying Contests. Harris also found that the egg records of birds that
died were more variable month by month, indicating that both good and in-
ferior layers were concerned. This worker concluded from his studies that
lower mean monthly production tended to lie associated with lower vigor, and
that the relation between egg production and mortality rate is definite but
probably highly complex.

The pullets hatched during the five years covered by tliese studies are tabu-
lated to discover whether heavy laying affects mortality in this strain. Only
pullets surviving to March first are considered. The individual e^:^ records
to March first of all pullets dying between March first and the dlose of the
pullet laying year are grouped together, and the individual egg records to
March first for aJl pullets living to the close of the year are placed in another
group. In this manner it is possible to discover relations between winter egg
production and subsequent rates.

Table 11 — Relation of Winter Egg Production to Vigor

Pullets Dying

Pullets Living

after March 1

Throughout Year

Hatching

Year

Number

Mortality

Number

of

Mean winter

after March 1

of

Mean winter

Pullets

egg production

Per cent

Pullets

egg production

1922

1.54

67.90+1.86

S6.06±1.5l

437

67.08 ± I. .33

1923

84

47.63 ±2.09

h'i.rjSt 1.1)9

368

51.66 ±1.41

1924

217

64.55 ±1.27

H.i7±l.S7

271

67.93 ±1.68

192.5

91

71.45 + 2.12

li).l,i)±l.l.'t

464

71.44 ±1.42

1926

115

.54.86+1.67

•2'2.H"i± i.eo

389

61.37 ±1.14

Total or

Average

661

62.44 ±2.67

25.5'2 + .'i.0l

1929

64.16 ±2.08

VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS ITl

Table 11 c-onfir^iis Harris's (1927 loc. cit.) observations that pullets whicli
die during tiieir laying year show a greater variability in egg production
previous to death than is shown for the same period by pullets which survive
the year. This fact is illustrated by the greater magnitude of the probable
error in mean winter production for the group dying after March 1.

These data do not indicate, however, that mean egg production from first
egg to March first is lower in the group of birds that subsequently die before
the end of the pullet laying year. Neither do the data indicate that heavy
winter laying is responsible for later mortality, because the group which died
and the group which lived have almost identical mean winter production rec-
ords. Mean winter records for the two groups for the five year period are
62.44it2 67 eggs for the group dying after March 1, and 64.16±2.08 eggs for
the group surviving the year. These means are statistically identical and
point to no relation between winter egg production and subsequent mortality
rate in this strain of birds. High winter egg record cannot therefore be used
as a measure of vigor and it cannot be held responsible for high mortality in
the laying houses during the summer months.

13. General Chusnification of Cavses of Mortality in Laying Houses.

Many difficulties are encountered in attempting to discover causes of death
in domestic fowl. Even when careful post-mortem examinations are made on
every fowl, there are many S)pecimen,s which show no specific cause. In the
stock of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station post-mortem
examinations have only been possible in a limited way and the majority of
recorded causes of death are based on external observations only. These
records are thus presented not for their scientific value but to gi%'e a general
insight into the relative frequency of types of disorders encoimtered during
the experiment.

Table 12 indicates no significant differences in the percentage of deaths in
the laying houses between the daughters of pullet mothers and hen mothers.
The percentage of losses from the same causes varies from year to year. For
example, cannibalism made its greatest inroads in 1922 and 1923. Since those
years losses from cannibalism have decreased, reaching an insignificant figure
in 1926. The general depleted condition, "going light", characterized by ex-
cessive loss of weight and strength has increased during the five-year period
causing 42 per cent of all losses in 1926. Paralysis has not been a very im-
portant cause of losses in the flocks. The heaviest losses from this disease
occurred in 1926. Roup of the diphtheritic type caused heavy losses in 1924
and 192.5. This disease has not materially affected losses on the other three
years. Miscellaneous unclassified causes of death have been important each
year. Such losses have not varied greatly from 3.5 per cent of the total.
These causes are not of epidemic nature and might be credited to low vitality.

The general simimary for the entire period shows cannibalism as responsible
for slightly more than 20 per cent of the losses. This habit has been correct-
ed by methods of management and is no longer an important cause of losses.
The depleted condition, "going light," has not been attributed to any specific
diseases or to internal or external parasites. It is apparently due to faulty
metabolism and other obscure causes. This disorder shows an upward tend-
ency, and no method of control is known. Paralysis appears to depend
largely upon sanitation for control, and requires careful watching because it
seems to be increasing slightly. Roup is a very serious epidemic disease and

172

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 242

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VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS

173

has been responsible for about 22 per cent of all losses. During the last two
years reported it was controlled by vaccination with a bacterin. Thirty-five
per cent of all losses in the five-year period are due to unclassified causes.
These losses have not varied widely throughout the period reported. Reduc-
tion of these losses will depend largely upon the use of highly vigorous stock,
strict sanitary methods of management, and more improved methods of feed-
ing aided by recent discoveries.

Changes in Vigor in Families.

The fact should be clearly understood that the chief goal sought for in the
breeding operation reported here has been high fecundity. High vigor has
been considered, but fecundity has not been sacrificed to maintain vigor. Table
13 is given below to show how vigor of the birds has varied throughout the
five-year period reported.

Table 13 — Percentage of Families with No Mortality

To 8 Weeks of Age

In Laying Houses

Hatching Year

Pullet
Mothers

Hen
Mothers

Total
Mothers

Pullet
Mothers

Hen
Mothers

ToUl
Mothers

1922
1923
1924
1925
1926

53.33

S2. 73

7.H

12.50

30.23
il.82
Sl.oS
33.00

39.73
36.36
23.53
25.51

13.6i

33.33
9.09

28.57
20. S3

13.95
13.95
B.iS
21.05
16.00

13.79
21.92
6.i9
33.53
18.37

Total families
(1922-1926)

128

205

333

172

248

420

Families with no
mortality — •

Number
Per cent

29
22.66

73

35.61

102

30.63

36

30.93

3.5

U.ll

71

16.90

Table 13 indicates a decrease in the percentage of families from pullet
mothers that have no loss in chicks to eight weeks of age, between 1923 and
1926. In the same period there has been no significant change in percentage
of families from hen mothers with zero mortality to eight weeks of age. When
all families are considered year by year, a significant decrease in the propor-
tion of perfect livability families is observed. Hen mothers exhibit a greater
proportion of perfect livability families than do pullet mothers for the entire
four years covered by these data. The total percentage of perfect livability
families from hen mothers is 35.61 and from pullet mothers, 22.66.

When consideration is given to the relative percentages of perfect livability
of families in the laying houses, pullet mothers have an upward trend in per-
centage of perfect livability daughters from 1922 to 1926. In the same period
hen mothers also show improvement but to a lesser degree than pullet mothers.
In general, the statement may be made that the proportion of high vigor fam-
ilies has increased during the five-year period studied.

174 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 242

Another very significant fact is hrouglit to light in taljle 13, namely, that
the percentage of families of perfect livability in chicks is greater from hen
mothers than from piilllet mothers but the percentage of perfect livability of
daughters in the laying houses is greater from pullet mothers. It seems prob-
able, therefore, that chick mortality removes a greater proportion of low
vigor chicks from pullet mothers than from hen mothers. Chicks from liens
are probably equipped with a larger supply of food nutrients from the egg
than are chicks from pullet mothers and for this reason the weaker individu-
als may survive longer only to succmub later to the severe strain of heavy
egg laying. These data illustrate the metiiod of securing higher vigor by
constantly using stock from low mortality families for breeding purposes.

Summary and Conclusion

Mortality in ciiicks to eight weeks of age is not a reliable index of vigor
because it bears little relation to mortality rates in the same families after
surviving daughters are placed in the laying houses.

Hen mothers give more vigorous chicks to eight weeks of age than do pullet
mothers, but there is not a significant difference in the vigor of pullets from
hen mothers over pullet mothers after the pullets are confined to the laying
quarters.

Hens showed higher hatciiability than pullets, and high hatchability shows
something of a tendency to be associated with low mortality in the laying
houses. High hatchaliility may therefore be used as one criterion of superior
vigor in resulting offspring.

Late hatching decreases vigor in chicks to some extent, but has no effect on
vigor of pullets in the laying houses.

Age at first egg does not affect vigor of pullets.

Genetic early maturity has no relation to vigor of pullets.

Weight at first egg is not a measure of vigor.

Winter pause shows no relation to vigor as measured by mortality rates for
pullets in the laying houses.

Intensity of laying does not affect vigor in pullets.

The occurrence of broodiness before July first of the pullet laying year
appears to indicate superior vigor in the strain of birds studied. Non-broody
birds exhibit a higher mortality rate in the laying houses than do broody birds.

There is no evidence of a relation between persistency and vigor in the data
presented.

Winter egg production in low vigor l>irds is more varialile than in tiiose of
high vigor, but there is no difference in the number of eggs laid to March
first by vigorous and non-vigorous pullets. Winter egg record is not an indi-
cation of vigor, and no evidence is available that would indicate that heavy
winter laying reduces vigor.

Four of the important heritable characteristics necessary for high e^g pro-
duction are independent of vigor; therefore, fixing early maturity, high in-
tensity, non-pause and high persistency does not decrease vigor. Tiie data
presented, however, indicate that eliminating l)roodiness in Rhode Island Reds
may reduce vigor.

VIGOR IN PRODUCTION-BRED FLOCKS 175

The most potent cause of deaths in the laying houses falls in the unclassi-
fied group which may be considered lack of vigor. Roup and "going light"
are the most important disorders in the flocks studied.

In improving a flock for vigor, the most feasible practice consists in breed-
ing exclusively from those families showing the very lowest mortality of
pullets in the laying houses.

References

Bittenbender, H. A. 1922. Breeding Rhode Island Reds for type and egg pro-
duction. Iowa Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 202.

Dryden, J. 1921. Egg-laying characteristics of the hen. Oreg. Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bui. 180.

Dunn, L. C. 1922. The relationship between the weight and the hatching qual-
ity of eggs. Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 109.

Dunn, L. C. 1922a. Hatchability and chick mortality. Poultry Sci. I. No. 2.

Halbersleben, D. L., and F. E. Mussehl. 1922. Relation of egg weight to chick
weight at hatching. Poultry Sci. I. No. 4.

Harris, J. A. 1926. The monthly egg records of birds which die during the
first laying year. Poultry Sci. VI. No. 1.

Harris, J. A. 1927. Further studies of the monthly egg records of birds which
die during the first laying year. Poultry Sci. VI. No. 5.

Hays, F. A. 1924. Inbreeding the Rhode Island Red fow*! with special refer-
ence to winter egg production. Amer. Nat. 58:43-59.

Hays, F. A., Ruby Sanborn and L. L. James. 1924. Correlation studies on
winter fecundity. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 220.

Hays, F. A., and Ruby Sanborn. 1926a. Broodiness in relation to fecundity in
the domestic fowl. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 7.

Hays, F. A., and Ruby Sanborn. 1926b. Annual persistency in relation to
winter and annual egg production. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 9.

Hays, F. A., and Ruby Sanborn. 1927. Intensity or rate of laying in relation
to fecimdity. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 11.

Hays, F. A., and A. H. Sumbardo. 1927. Physical Character of eggs in rela-
tion to 'hatchability. Poultry Sci. VI. No. 4.

Hays, F. A. 1927. The inheritance of persistency and its relation to fecundity.
Proc. World's Poultry Congress.

Jull, M. A., and S. Haynes. 1925. Shape and weight of eggs in relation to
their hatching quality. Jour. Agr. Research XXXI. No. 7.

Lippincott, W. A. 1921. Poultry production. New York: Lea and Febiger.

Pearl, R. 1911. Breeding poultry for egg production. Maine Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bui. 192.

Rice, J. E., and H. E. Botsford. 1925. Practical poultry management. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Stewart, J. H., and Horace Atwood. 1909. Some factors influencing the vigor
of incubator chickens. W. Va. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 124. >

\

3500-^4-'28. No. 2109

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 243 May, 1928

The Mcintosh Apple on the
New York Market

By Lorian P. Jefferson

As one part of a general study of the consumer demand for apples,,
an effort was made to determine the status on our largest outside market,
of the variety about which the recent upward trend of commercial pro-
duction of apples in New England has centered.

Requests for bulletins should he addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

THE McINTOSH APPLE ON THE NEW YORK MARKET

By Lorian P. Jefferson,
Assistant Research Professor of Agricultural Economics.

The demand for New England apples in markets outside. New England is
a matter of increasing concern to New England growers. In 1926 there were
about 5,900,000 bearing trees with some 2,000,000 not yet in bearing in the
orchards of New England. In Massachusetts the non-hearing trees comprised
at that time 35 jier cent of the total number of trees in the commercial or-
chards of the state. Obvioush' this forecasts a considerable increase in the
production of apples in New England within a few years. A conservative
estimate of the normal increase in the number of bearing trees to be reached
by 1940 fixes this at some 600,000 more than there were in 1925; allowing for
unfavorable conditions in the apple industry, this figure can hardly be les.s
than 125,000 more trees than were in bearing in 1925.'

The extension of better orchard practice is resulting in a larger proportion
of marketable apples. In view of the probable increase in the volume of
New England apples to be marketed, the growers of Massachusetts are
naturally interested in the possible outside markets for New England apples.
This study was made in order to determine the demand in New York, the
nearest and largest of these markets, particularly for tiie Mcintosh, the va-
riety which interests the growers of the state in general more than any other.

The Outside Demand for New England Apples.

The distribution of New England apples in certain markets outside New
England has been reported for a number of years by the United States
Department of Agriculture. In the season of 1925-26, these reports showed
that but sixteen of the markets included in the reports received apples from
New England, and that more than 75 per cent of the total volume (712 cars)
was shipped to New York City. None went fartiier west than Chicago or
farther south than Cincinnati.

In the fall of 1927 the markets of Detroit, Mich., Hamilton and London,
Ont., Niagara Falls, Buffalo, Rochester and Syracuse, N. Y., were visited in
an effort to determine the distribution of New England apples. In Detroit
one dealer was found, the oldest in business in the city, who recalled that
some twenty-five years ago, two or three cars of New England apples were
shipped to Detroit in a season of shortage in the Middle Western crop.

In the other United States markets the story was much the same. Either
nobody recalled ever seeing any New England apples in the market, or some-
times a few had been recci\'ed when the local crop was short.

In the Canadian markets visited no record of receipts of New England
apples could be found. Transportation rates and the Canadian crop combine
to keep New England apples from these markets.

The crop of 1926 was one of the largest ever grown in the United States,
and New England apples were distributed much less widely than in the pre-
vious year. This was obviously because prices were too low to warrant the

> The Apple Situation in New England, published by the Connecticut and Maine Ex-
periment Stations, and the Extension Services of Massachusetts, New Hampshire and
Rhode Island. 1927.

THE Mcintosh apple on the new york market i9i y

added costs of transportation. One carload was reported in Pittsburgli this
season, all the rest going to New York City, which received 445 cars.

In the present season, 1927-28, to March 15, New England is reported to
have shipped about 95 per cent of her outside shipments to New York City.
The remainder have been distributed as follows: — 14 cars to Philadelphia,
which has formerly received very few New England apples; 8 cars to Cleve-
land; 7 cars to Cincinnati; 4 cars to Chicago; 2 cars to Pittsburgh; and 1 car
to Washington, D. C

It is apparent from the government reports that New England apples now
and then reach some of these markets in less than carload lots, since prices
of New England apples are somethnes quoted when carlots are not reported.
This may be accounted for by reshipments from New York or other outside
markets.

The comparatively narrow distribution for New England apples in view of
the increasing size of the commercial crop indicates a growing appreciation
of New England apples in New England markets. This preference for
home-grown fruit has been shown also by statements of wholesalers, retailers
and consumers. Some wholesalers report an increase in the proportion of
New England apples handled. Retailers often state that they sell only New
f>.gland apples as long as they are available or when they are able to get
the quality desired. Many, too, complain that they are not able to get the
quality they want, hence they handle Northwestern apples. This is heard
more often at fruit stands than in retail stores. The fruit stand sells by
tiie apple instead of by weight or measure, and the customer is more critical
of the one apple or perhaps tiie dozen apples he buys than he is of the peck
or bushel. If he buys one apple, he wants it perfect. If he buys a peck, he
does not bother to examine each apple.

Many customers are now demanding liome-grown apples. In some markets
of the state no local apples were formerly to lie found — or if there were any
they w^ere of such poor quality that they were not desired by the public. In
these same markets home-grown apples are now nuicli preferred to apples
from other sections.

The Demand for Mcintosh in New York City.

In order to determine the demand for New England apples, particu-
larly the Mcintosh, in New York City, since that is the largest consuming
center outside New England, many wholesalers, brokers and jobbers were
interviewed. From these interviews it is evident that no New England va-
riety, except Mcintosh, is especially favored in New York. Other varieties,
such as Baldwin, Greening, Wealthy and Northern Spy, are received, but the
Mcintosh is the most popular variety which New England ships to New
York. It is consumed largely by the Jewish people of the city. For this
there seem to be two main reasons:

1. Many dealers of this race are in the wliolesale fruit and vegetable
business in New York City. These men have had the chance to become
acquainted with this variety and they have recommended it to their Jewish
friends among the retailers and consumers. Wholesalers repeatedly made the
statement that most of the Mcintosh sold in the city were consumed by Jews
and that comparatively few consumers of other nationalities know the
variety.

2. Some of the dealers said that the Jewish people are very particular as
to the quality of foods they use and having learned the fine flavor and texture

192 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 243

of the Mcintosh, they buy it for eating purposes in preference to other
varieties.

Before the Mcintosh became known, the Jewish people of the city regarded
the Northern Spy as especially desirable and consumed a large proportion
of this variety reaching the New York market. With the introduction of the
Mcintosh and its longer term in storage each year, the Northern Spy has
ceased to be the favorite of the Jews of New York City.

The reports of the New York auction market for the .season 1926-27 show
that of 263,27.5 lioxes of Mcintosh apples sold at auction only 7 per cent were
from New England, 3 per cent from New York State and other states of the
East and Middle West, 21 per cent from British Columbia, and the remaind-
er (69 per cent) from the Northwestern States. Those from New England
did not begin to arrive in New York in quantity till December and shipments
ended in March. The shipments from the Northwest continued from Sept-
ember to April inclusive, comprising from 97 per cent to 100 per cent of the
monthly sales at auction during the fall months. New York State Mcintosh
were mostly sold in the last three months of the season, February, Marcli
and April. This doubtless represents but a small portion of the total sales
of New York Mcintosh apples in the city, since the growers and local buyers
of the state know this market and its dealers more intimately than shippers
from other Mcintosh producing areas, and probably send many more apples
directly to New York receivers than do shippers in the other sections.

In 1927-28, when the total auction sales w^ere 142,26.5 bushels, the propor-
tions from the different producing areas had changed somewhat, 7 per cent
coming from New England, 8 per cent from New York and the Middle West,
nearly 38 per cent from British Columbia, and but 47 per cent from the
states of the Northwest. In this season shipments from New England were
heaviest in March and April, whereas the receipts from the Northwestern
States were heaviest in November and those from British Columbia in De-
cember and January.

Table 1 shows the total volumes received at the auction market from the
different sections producing Mcintosh: From the Northwestern States; from
British Columbia; from New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin and a few

Table 1. — Total Volumes and Average Seasonal Prices of Mcintosh from
Diiferent Sections Sold at Auction in New York, 1924-1925 to 1927-1928.

British New York New
1924-25 Northwest Columbia and Other England Total

91,585
119,158
263,275
142,265

Total volume,

bu.

26,2i61

57,531

$ 3.02

7,793

Average price
1925-26

$ 2.93

$ 3.50

Total volume,

bu.

12,440

14,775

64,030

27,913

Average price

$ 2.55

$ 3.55

$ 2.63

$ 2.70

1926-27

Total volume.

bu.

180,670

57,675

7,365

17,565

Average price

$ 2.37

a 2.79

$ 2.-55

$ 2.57

1927-28

Total volume.

bu.

65,625

53,485

12,560

10,495

Average price

$ 2.89

$ 3.25

$ 2.71

$ 3.41

Four- Season Average

Price

$ 2.55

$ a.0€

$ 2.71

$ 2.80

* Three seasons only.

THE Mcintosh apple on the new york market 193

scattered .shipments from other states; and from New England. These fig-
ure.', are given for the four seasons 1924-25 to 1927-28. Mcintosh from New
England have, however, been sold at auction only during the last three
seasons.

A comparison of the auction prices received for Mcintosh from tiiese dif-
ferent sections of the country shows that during the seasons from 1924-25 to
1927-28, those from British Columbia have averaged highest, bringini" $3.06
a box. New England Mcintosh have averaged next highest, .$2.80 a iwx; and
in the past season, 1927-28, they have brought the highest average prije, $3.41.
The Mcintosh from Montana and other Northwestern States have averaged
$2.55 for tlie four seasons, and each season except 1927-28 have averaged less
than tlie apples from any other section.

In tiie accompanying table (Table 2) a coniparison is made of the prices

Table 2. — Comparative Prices, Grade A Mcintosh Sold at New York Auction
Market on Equivalent Dates, Seasons 1925-26 to 1927-28.

Season 1925-26

Month
November

New

England

$2.96

2.57

3.31

New
York

Montana

British
Columbia

.N^3.07

3.00

$2.47
2.63

$3.19

2.70
3.05
2.68
2.46
2.27
2.54
2.98

December

2.90
3.17
2.59

3.08
2.78
2.65

3.02

2.29
2.59
2.85
2.51
2.39
2.38

3.59
1..50
3.59
2.36
2.42
1.40
2.80

3.04

2.97

2.42

February

2.56
2.71
3.23

2.90

Season 1926-27
$2.65

March

3.55

2.68

September
October

$2.79
2.08
2.36
3.00
2.62
2.97
2.19
2.87
3.00
2.87
2.88

$2.30

2.35
3.17
2.20
2.77
2.55
2.85
2.81
2.90

$2.88

2.61

2.83

2..53

2.!;8

3.18

194

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 243

Tablk 2. — Comparative rrices, Grade A Mcintosh Sold at New York Auction
Market on Equivalent Dates, Seasons 1925-26 to 1927-28. Continued.

Season 1926-27 Continued

Month
January

New
England
2.87
2.60
2.89
2.75
2.21
2.15
2.30
2.33
2.64
2.28
2.78

New
York

Montana
2.29
2.98

2.89
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.44
2.47
2.51
2.68
2.19
2.62
3.11
2.80
3.05
3.00
3.08
3.88
3.66
3.29
3.23
2.72
3.28

British

Columbia

2.50

2.79

2.61

2.30

2.34

\

2.52

2.25
2.15

2.19
2.42
2.41

February

3.23

3.10

2.88
2.76
2.51

2.87

1.74
3.12

2.15

2.85
3i,ll
2^77
3.09
2..54
3.73

March

3.29

3.09

3.63

3.41
3.49

3.45
2.03

Season 1927-28

3.37

3.98

October

$2.98
2.80
2.84

$3.04

$2.86

2.73
3.25
2.75

3.13
3.14

3.04
3.48
2.78

3.76
3.34

4.01

3.00
3.01

3.21

November

3.25
2.94
3.50
3.49
3.05
3.18
3.68
3.58
3.50
3.82
3.59
3.15
4.10
3.55
4.46
9 taken from the

December

3.39

3.20

January
February

3.11
3.07
3.33

3.ai

3.44

3.94

4.00
3.71
3.65
3.76
reports of sales and

3.62

These figures ar(

prices on the

New York auction

market, in the New York Di

THE Mcintosh apple on the new york market 195

on equivalent dates of grade A apples from the different j^roducing sections
for the seasons 192.5-26, 1926-27 and 1927-28.

The effect of grade and condition on prices is apparent in the fluctuations
from day to day. Samples of different lots of fruit to be sold at auction
are displayed before the selling begins, and sales by this method are there-
ft)re more likely to represent the comparative values of the different lots
than are private sales. This explains individual prices which seem to be out
of line with the general trend. For example, on the second reported day in
December, 1926-27, New England Mcintosh sold at an average price 21 per
cent above the average for Montana on that day. This was a lot of generally
desired sizes and doubtless of excellent quality, which brought the highesi
price of the season to date. Likewise the second March price (1926-27) shown
for Montana apples was for a lot of combined "fancy" and "extra fancy"
which ranged in price from $3.60 to $4.25 a box, bringing an average price
of $3.88, according to the reports of the auction market, as published in the
New York Fruit and Produce Reinezc.

The Mcintosh from the different producing sections sold through the New
York auction market have been classified on the basis of percentages from
each section at various prices during the seasons 1924-25 to 1927-28 (Talkie 3.)

It will be seen that during the three seasons when New England Mcintosh
have been sold at auction in New York, the majority of apples have been
sold between $2.50 and $3.50 a box. During the season 1927-28, no New
England Mcintosh were sold below $2.75 a box, and 20 per cent were sold
over $4.00. Only one per cent of those from the Northwestern States and 3.5
per cent of those from British Columbia brought prices equivalent to these
during this season. More than one-fourth of all the Mcintosh sold at auction
during the season of 1927-28 sold for less than the lowest price received for
any New England Mcintosh.

In the season of 1926-27, the largest sales of Northwestern Mcintosh (40
per cent) were at prices ranging between $2.00 and $2.25, and 70 per cent
were sold at prices between $2.00 and $2.50. The greatest proportion of
British Columbia Mcintosh were sold between $2.50 and $2.75 a box, but the
sales were much more evenly distributed than were the sales of the North-
western apples. Nearly one-fourth of the Mcintosh from New York State,
sold at auction in 1926-27 brought from $2.75 to .$3.00 a box, and 25.8 per
cent brought more than $3.00 a box. Ten per cent of the New York apples
sold between $1.50 and $1.75. Nearly half of the New England Mcintosh
sold at auction in 1926-27 brought an average price for the lot between $2.50
and $3.00; 8 per cent sold for less than $2.00 a bushel and 13 per cent for
more than $3.00, the highest actual price recorded being $3.75. The highest
price received for Mcintosh from any section, $4.25 a box, was paid for some
boxes in one lot of Montana apples. The average price, $3.63, for this lot
was, however, not so high as some others.

Tracing a Carlot in New York.

The orchardists of New England have been much concerned as to the fu-
ture of the Mcintosh apple, since plantings of this variety have in recent
years been large, particularly in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. There
has been considerable fear that plantings have been too large, and that the
market may soon be over-supplied with Mcintosh.

Interest centers particularly about the market of New York City, which
consumes more of all food products than any other market in the country.

196

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 243

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THE McINTOSH APPLE ON THE NEW YORK MARKET 197

As it is situated in sucli close proximity to New England, it is of especial
importance to New England producers.

In addition to the general information already obtained aljout the Mcin-
tosh in the New York market, it was decided to trace a carlot of New Eng-
land Mcintosh from the grower to the New York consumer, in the hope of
learning specifically what happened to one shi^^ment, how it was handled, how
widely the apples were distributed, how many jobbers and retailers were con-
cerned with the distribution, and the tyj)e of consumers to wiiom they were
finally sold.

It was thought best to trace a carlot which had been stored in New Eng-
land, and arrangements were made for securing information as to date of
shipment of a car of api)les packed by the Nashoba Apple Packing Associa-
tion. Prices in the New York market were not high enough to attract siiip-
ments from Boston and it was not until late in March tiiat the carlot traced
was shipped to New York.

During the last week of March, 1928, a carlot of Mcintosh apples, Doca-
way brand, packed by the Nashoba Apple Packing Association, was traced
througli the New York market. Consigned from cold storage in Boston to the
firm of E. W. J. Hearty, Inc., the apples were sold at auction on Erie Pier
No. 20 to eight jobliers and one chain of fruit stores, in lots ranging from
20 to 148 boxes. The variety being popular, the sales were very quickly made,
and the prices were above expectations.

One hundred and sixty boxes of apples were distributed to The Bronx. Of
these, 140 were bought by a chain of fruit stores; half of them were sold at
the five stores in The Bronx, and the other half sent to the stores of the
chain elsewhere — one near the Harlem Market, one in White Plains, one in
Mamaroneck, one in New Rochelle, New York, and one in Stamford, Con-
necticut. Another lot containing 20 boxes was bought by a jobber in The
Bronx who had not sold any at the end of the week devoted to the investiga-
tion. Manhattan received 150 boxes bought by three jobbers. Brooklyn re-
ceived 280 boxes bought at auction by four jobbers, one of whom sold inune-
diately to three other jobbers.

The jobbers sold these Mcintosh in lots varying from one box to 20 boxes,
the most common sale amounting to 5 to 10 boxes. The prices being higher
than at any other time during the season, some of the apples did not move
as rapidly as the jobbers seemed to expect.

The apples were traced to 47 retail stores, of which 10 belonged to a chain
and 37 were individual stores. Thirty-one were fruit stores or stores that
handle fruit and vegetables only. Thirteen were ranked as good stores, 9 as
poor and 25 as medium. Retail sales were mostly by the pound, 28 of the
retailers reporting selling by that method. Eleven sold by the apple and
eight sold in both ways. The fruit stores sold by the apple, as is generally
true of fruit stores. Sales by the pound were mostly reported by the Brook-
lyn dealers, while sales in Manhattan and The Bronx were chiefly by the apple.

Until this lot of apples was sold, the high price of Mcintosh for the season
had been about $3.75. The average price of these was $4.19, a con.siderable
increase over the preceding high price. The apples were of three sizes: 125's,
138's and 150's. The 12.5's brought $4.15 a box; the 138's, $4.20; and the
150's, $4.30.'

Of the 47 retail stores handling these apples, 30 have a patronage chiefly,

198 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 243

if not wliolly, Jewish. Several of the retailers reported all their customers to
be Jews. Some said that while their patronage is mixed as to nationality,
tlie Mcintosh apples which they handle are bought mostly by their Jewish
customers. This bears out the statement often heard that Mcintosh are
bought in New York almost wholly by Jewish people. It is apparent that
there is some ground for its nickname, "the Jew apple."

Tiie popularity of this variety is further attested by the statements of the
47 retailers as to the ratio of Mcintosh to the total volume handled yearly.
Of the 46 who give details, five state that Mcintosh comprise not more than
one-fourth of their total voluine of apples; 17 report between 25 and 40 per
cent; 10 believe that between 40 and 50 per cent of their total sales of apples
are Mcintosh; five that from 55 to 75 per cent are of this variety; while nine
say Mcintosh comprise more than 75 per cent of the apples they sell. Two
of this number say they handle no other variety.

Since tliese figures were estimates, it is possible that tiiey are somewhat
higli, although there is no other reason for discounting them, as most of the
dealers expressed great enthusiasm for the variety. It is undoubtedly safe
to say that of 48,000 bushels of apples handled yearly liy tlie 46 dealers re-
porting, 35 to 40 per cent are Mcintosh.

The comments and suggestions of those handling these apples are of in-
terest. Thirty-one prefer tiie Mcintosh shipped in the fall to those that have
been kept in storage till Feljruary. Some say the apples are not of as good
flavor after they are held in storage, but the complaint is general that those
shipped from storage in February do not keep as well. One dealer says he
prefers those received late in the season, as he can make a better profit on
them. Six report that they see no difference between Mcintosh received in
the fall and those received in February or March. It was a rather general
complaint that this lot had been priced too high and therefore did not sell as
rapidly as Mcintosh usually do.

Some of tiie dealers expressed no preference as to the container, and opin-
ions differed widely among those who had preferences. Some prefer boxes;
some prefer barrels; one prefers cartons such as are used by some of the
growers in the Hudson Valley area.- Some of the dealers who tliemselves
prefer boxes said that their customers believe the best apples are packed in
barrels, so apples bought in boxes are sometimes repacked in barrels so that
the customers will think they are barreled apples. This practice was, how-
ever, virtuously condemned as "dishonest".

Some prefer boxes i)ecause apples "keep better" than if packed in barrels,
while otliers believe just the opposite. One says his customers think apples

1 The Nashoba Apple Packing Association packed apples in the Westera box for the
first time in 1927-28. This accounts for the fact that the count is used in this por-
tion of the study, whereas the prices in the discussion of size and premiums are for
sizes. For convenience, there is given below a table of comparative sizes and counts:

Count

Size

Count

Size

Count

Size

(inches)

(inches)

(inches)

263

150

80

234

2 to2yi

138

72

216

125
113

2 % to 2 Yi

64
56
48

3 Vt to 3 %

200

112

188

2Vi to 2 1/2

104

2 7s to 3 Vb

175

96

163

88

"•' These cartons held fewer apples than a box, but contain fillers similar to those
used in egg crates.

THE MclNTOSH APPLE ON THE NEW YORK MARKET 19)

taste hotter if packed in barrels. Another sugg:ests that all Mcintosh be
wrapped, as they arrive in better condition and keep better than those not
wrapped. Some consumers think tiie wrappers "take the taste out."

Margins and Prices.

Two Brooklyn dealers carry Mcintosh only because of the demand for
them, as the retailer's margins on this variety are not high enough in that
market. One said that he can not make more than 10 per cent prt)lit on
them.

The margins of the jobbers who handled these apples were low, but of
course their costs were comparatively small and the turnover in most cases
was rapid. One jobber sold his lot in a few hours for 31 cents a box above
the purchase price and the charges. He paid $4.15 a box; 14 cents for cart-
age, etc., brought his costs to $4.29; and he sold for $4.60. One jobber who
bought from one of the original purchasers asked $4.85 a box.

Prices at retail stores also varied. The chain of fruit stores made an
average of $1.82 a box above charges and purchase price, selling mostly by
the apple, although part were sold by the pound. The price per apple was
five cents, and the price per pound 15 cents. This chain could sell many
more Mcintosh, "twice as many", if they were to be had. Indeed, other
purchasers of these apples complained that they had to pay too high a price
for them because the buyer for this chain was so anxious to get them that he
paid more at the auction than the apples were worth to most dealers.

The reports of individual retailers indicate that their average gross margin
was higher than that of the chain fruit stores. It is probably true, however,
that tlieir net returns are lower. The average gain on boxes sold by these
individual stores was $2,197. These dealers sold also by the apple, but most
of their sales v>ere by the pound. The prices per apple were five cents, or
six for 25 cents. There was a feeling among some who were asking five cents
that they might have to reduce the price to four cents in order to get rid of
them. It was apparently well recognized that tliese apples must be sold as
rapidly as possible to prevent spoilage.

Sales by the pound ranged from 10 cents to 18 cents. Over half of those
selling by the pound were asking 15 cents, although an occasional dealer
asked 15 cents for one pound but would sell two pounds for 25 cents. One-
third of those reporting sales by the pound were selling more or less at that
rate. One dealer was asking 18 cents a pound, and one who was selling at
10 cents a pound was also asking 10 cents an apple.

Individually the gross returns ranged from $1.32 for one box of 150's sold
at two pounds for 25 cents, to one box sold at a profit of .$3.80. This does
not include 10 boxes which the dealer said were being sold at 10 cents a
pound or 10 cents an apple. If even four boxes of the lot were sold by the
apple at this price, the returns would far exceed any other lot. It is doubt-
ful, however, if many would be sold at that price when at the same store
10 cents would buy a pound.

The Nashoba apples are well and favorably known to "the trade" in New
York. One or two of the retailers had not handled them before, but most of
those who bought from this car knew them. There were several complaints of
the condition of this lot, although some who complained said the brand was
usually good.

200 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 243

Conclusions.

Two things seem evident from this investigation of tlie New York market:

1. The demand for Mcintosh in New York has never been supplied, and
the testimony of dealers indicates that tlie market will absorb many times
what it now receives.

2. The New England Mcintosh are in general equal to any that nre !<•
ceived in New York, as mdicated by the prices received.

6m-6-'28. No. 2618.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experimental Station

Bulletin No. 244 June, 1928

Type' of' Farming Areas in
Massachusetts

By Ronald L. Mighell and Marian Brown

An adequate picture of Massachusetts agriculture is antecedent to a
clear understanding of the farm problems of the State. This study supplies
a part of that picture in brief graphical and descriptive form.

Requests for bulletins sliould he addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERLMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

Summary.

A knowledge of existing farming conditions and how they have developed is
essential to wise farm planning and administration.

Topography, soils, and other natural factors have been and will continue
to be important determinants in the decision as to the most profitable kinds
of farming in Massachusetts.

The presence of a large industrial population, competition from other
regions, and other econonuc factors have also been significant in determining
the character of present-day agriculture.

This study distinguishes thirteen type-of-farming areas in Massachusetts.
The boundaries of these areas are necessarily only approximate because of
gradual transitions from one type to another.

The study shows the distribution by towns of the principal crop and live-
stock enterprises in Massachusetts according to the United States Census of
Agriculture of 1925.

Figure 1. Distribution of Farms in Massachusetts, January 1, 1925.

'CM

[ -^^iiiir^i'Ai^iW'':-:-!^:

i dot = 5 farms

^r

TYPE-OF-FARMING AREAS IN MASSACHUSETTS

By Ronald L. Mighell, Assistant Professor, and Marian Brown, Laboratory
Assistant, Department of Farm Management

Introduction.

The purpose of a type-of-farming study such as this is to provide a cross-
section picture of the agriculture in a state or region at a particular time;
to indicate the extent and limits of the chief areas where farm products and
practices are similar; to show some of the physical and economic factors
lying back of the diiferences, and thus to provide a more complete basis for
recommendations and plans for future farming.

The term "type-of-farming" is usually associated with the idea of regional
specialization. For example, there is a corn belt type of farming in the
Middle West, a cotton type of farming in the South, and a dairy type of
farming in New England. Type-of-farming has been defined as a form of
organization and a method of operation, representative of a group of farms,
in wiiich there is a higii degree of uniformity in such essential factors as
selection of farm enterprises, farm practice, and method of disposal of
products. In Massachusetts we have several distinct types of farming.

Figure 1 shows the location of Massachusetts farms on January 1, l.')2.5.
These farms differed from one another in size, topography, soil, crops, live-
stock, methods of operation, and in many other ways. The reasons for some
of these differences are considered in the following discussion.

How Types of Farming Develop.

Why are some farmers dairymen, while others are poultrjinen, or market
gardeners? How does it happen that tobacco and onions are grown in the
Connecticut Valley? WHiat causes a concentration of apple production in tlie
Nashoba district? All of these things arise as a result of the acts of indi-
vidual farmers trying to make the most of the resources at their command.
Their resources and the best use to make of them are determined by natural
and economic conditions. The natural conditions of soil, topography, and
climate are relatively permanent, while the economic forces are changing more
or less continuously. Among the economic forces are such things as location
of markets, transportation facilities, available capital, and state or city
policies. For example, the increase in population in eastern Massachusetts
has brought a milk supply from farther north and west. Rigid dairy inspec-
tion sometimes makes it diificult for milk to be shipped into a given locality
and thus creates a market whicli would not otherwise exist for nearby dairy-
men. The organization of a coojierative packing association may make it
possible to secure higher prices for apples through grading.

This study points out the chief physical and economic factors underlying
types of farming in Massachusetts. It also shows the distribution of the
principal crops and livestock according to the farm census of 1925, and
marks out certain tyj)e-of-farming areas.

256 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 2U

Physical and Economic Background
of Massachusetts Agriculture.

The keynote of all future agriculture in Massadmsetts was struck by that
aboriginal inhabitant who christened the region "Massa-chusetts" or "great
inountainplace," for if not all tliat tlie name implies, the surface of the state
is certainly greatly diversified, Ijeing in the eastern and southeastern parts
undulating to level; jn the central section, hilly and broken; and in the
western, rugged and nioimtainous. Consequently, as one man lias written,
"the state presents about every variety of soil, from the lightest and least
productive to the strongest" and most productive.

The reason for the present surface of New England lies in the fact that
the land has been longer above the surface of the sea than most otlier parts
of the American continent. This has given more time for the action of suc-
cessive glaciers and of wind and water. The upland tops of many of the
present hills in central and eastern Massachusetts are all that remain of
what was formerly a broad level plain. The less resistant portions of this
plain have long since been carried away as the result of erosion. The ac-
companying diagram (Figure 2) gives an idea of the greatly dissected land
relief which remains to us today. In general the land rises and becomes
rouglier as one goes toward the west, except in the level valleys of the
Connecticut and Housatonic Rivers.

Figure 2. Land Elevation in Massachusetts.

*^f,n^

CZZ]

Aj?oYe 1500 feet
1000 - 1500 feet
500 - 1000 feet
5ca Level to 500 feet

Markets.

Figure 3 points out one of the most significant economic factors in present-
day Massachusetts agriculture, the concentration of human poi)ulation in
large cities. More than four million people live within the Hmits of the
Commonwealth. The location of much of this population on the eastern
seaboard causes some differences in the agriculture of the eastern and west-
ern parts of the state, but an excellent system of hard-surfaced roads makes
it possible for vegetable growers in the Connecticut Valley a hundred miles
away, for instance, to place fresh produce on the Boston market daily.
Massachusetts-grown products of high quality secure excellent prices. Espe-

TYPE-OF-FARMING AREAS IN MASS.

Figure 3. Distribution of Human Population, January 1, 1925.

2.57

cially is this true of perishable or senii-perishahle products such as vegetables,
fruits, eggs, and so forth. Modern refrigeration has not yet sufficed to make
every product from a distant land quite as fresh as that which is grown
nearby.

The Character of Massachusetts Agriculture.

Massachusetts is not a large state. The midwestern state of Kansas, for
example, is ten times the size and has approximately twenty times as much
farmland. However, the greater unit value of Massachusetts products and
the more intensive types of agriculture tend to make the state a far more
important source of food supply than the extent of the land area would
indicate.

Figure 4 shows the proportion of land in farms in the different i)arts or
the state. More than two-thirds of the land near the great cities, on Cape

Figure 4. Percentage of All Land in Farms.

r~n 0 ^ 33 '/
^^ 33 - 66 /.

258

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 244

Cod, and in some of the hill towns is not in farms. Public parks, forest
reservations, numicipal water reservoirs, and other public lands cover a con-
sideralile area in addition to tiiat wliioh is merely waste.

Figure 5. Percentage of Farm Land Plowable.

\f^ ^55^-^

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The character of the land in farms is indicated in Figure .5, whicli sliows
the percentage of plowable^ land. The lowest percentage is found in the
Berkshire Hills and in the rough land of northern Worcester County. The
Connecticut Valley as compared with other areas having a high proportion
of land in farms has more plowal)le land than any other part of the state.

Figure 6. Farm Land in Pasture per Acre of Plowable Land.

1" ] Un der 1 acrc^
t;:il^^ Over 1 acre

The areas which have a low jiercentage of jilowable land have the liigliest
])ercentage of pasture. (See Figure 6.) This is not always an indication

' Plowable land is crop land plus plowable pasture. Plowable pasture, as the term
is used in the 1925 Census, comprises "land used only for pasture in 1924 which
could be plowed and used for crops without clearing, draining or irrigating."

TYPE-OF-FARMING AREAS IN MASS.

259

of jjlentiful pasturage, because many of the hill pastures are relatively un-
productive. In general, however, there actually is more available pasture in
these rough sections. Land too rough to till frequently grows a fair crop of
grass. Available pasture is a factor which is significant in determining the
most profitable tyj^es of farm organization. For example, it nuiy be worth
while to grow young stock with plentiful pasture when otherwise it would
be very unprofitable.

Farm land values in an industrial state are affected liy many factors. The
accompanying map (Figure 7) shows a much higher valuation in the eastern
part of the state. Values in western Massachusetts with the exception of
the Connecticut Valley are lower, due to greater distance from tlie cities as
well as to differences in natural productive capacity of the land. Land near
cities is often valued for urban use as well as for farming.

Figure 7. Value of Land and Buildings per Acre of Plowable Land.

< *.'«<(

MASSACrtJSt S

□ S 0-200
200-4-00

400 ;\ND OVER

^"'^t.'t.^tx^'

Type-of-Farm:ng Areas.

A single enterjjrise, such as dairying, might l)e used as a basis for dividing
the state into areas marking different kinds of farming. Farmers, however,
generally carry on several lines of production at the same time and so a
single enterprise map is usually not sufficient for such a division. In this
study the relative proportions between the several principal crop and live-
stock enterprises in the towns of the state have been used as the basis for
division, due consideration being given to tiie underlying natural and eco-
nomic factors.

The method used was to express census figures for individual crops and
livestock on the basis of so many acres or so many head of stock per farm
and per 100 acres of plowable land. These were calculated for each town."
Similar towns were then grouped on the basis of acreage or numbers of the
more important crops or livestock. In this fashion the areas shown in
Figure 8 were finally determined.

It must be made clear at the outset that the boundary lines are only aj)-
proxinuite, for in many cases a change in type of farming comes as a gradual

- "Town" in this sense in New England has the same meaning as "Township" in
other parts of the United States.

260 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 244

Figure 8. Type-of-Farmiug Areas in Massachusetts.

1. Housatonic Valley

2. Berkshire Hills

3. West Franklin

i. Connecticut Valley

5. Nortih-Central Upland

6. South Worcester

13. The Islands

7. Northeast Worcester

8. Nashoba

9. North of Boston

10. South of Boston

11. South Bristol

12. The Cape

transition from one area to another. There are also many local variations
within the areas because of the natural and economic differences. However,
each of these areas has certain characteristics which set it apart from the
others. Town lines were adhered to in drawing in the boundaries, because
the town is the smallest unit for which census figures are available. Very
often, of course, it would be more nearly correct to draw a line through the
center of a town rather than around it.

The tables in the appendix present the statistical data showing the differ-
ences between areas, and the following brief discussion and the maps of tJie
various crops and livestock show the principal characteristics of the areas
outlined above. It will be noticed that the western areas correspond very
closely with the natural land surface. Area 7 in northeast Worcester is
transitional in type of farming between tiie Nashoba apple district and the
upland to the west. The outlines of the North of Boston and South of
Boston areas are less sharply marked than are those of the western areas
and more kinds of farming are included.

Housatonic Valley.

The narrow valley of the Housatonic is bounded bj' the Taconic Range
on the west and by the Berkshires on the east. This is the one section of
the state with natural limestone deposits. Dairying is the principal farming
enterpri.se. It is frequently combined with the raising of young stock.
Poultry and egg production are of little imjjortance except in a few towns.
There are few commercial orchards. The Valley has a number of fine estates
and summer houses of city people. The southern part, in the region about
Sheffield and Great Barrington, has a higher jjercentage of plowable land
than the northern end of the Valley, which is much more hilly.

TYPE-OF-FARMING AREAS IN MASS. 261

Berkshire Hills.

This area includes the border towns of the Taconic Range as well as the
region of the Berkshire Hills. As a whole it is rough and the percentage of
plowable land in farms is the lowest in the state. There are many small
forest reserves scattered through the area, the town of Washington being
almost all in reservation. The percentage of farm woodland is also high.

Dairying is the chief farming enterprise. Income from this source is
supplemented in different sections by wood products, maple sugar, apples,
miscellaneous cash crops, and outside employment. Formerly sheep-raising
was important.

West Franklin.

West Franklin contains most of the connnercial orchards of the western
pai-t of Massachusetts. Dairying is even more important than the prt)duction
of fruit. There are more dairy cows and more apple trees per hundred acres
of plowable land than in any area west of the Nashoba fruit belt. The land
surface rises abruptly from the valley of the Deertield River and is very
rough.

Connecticut Valley.

The Valley is an area with many types of farming. It is a narrow striji
of extremely fertile land extending a few miles on either side of tlie river
and then gradually rising to the Berkshires on the west and the low hills of
Worcester on the east. Tobacco, onions, and market garden crops are grown.
Dairying is the chief enterprise on general farms and in four or five towns
fruit growing and poultry production are significant.

A^orth-Central U'pland.

The North-Central Upland area takes in a large amount of very rough,
unproductive land. This is especially true of the southwestern part of this
area. The new Boston Water Supply Reservoir will eventually cover most
of the region about Enfield, Greenwich, and Prescott. The whole area has a
high percentage of farm woodland and pasture. Dairying is the principal
source of income. Hay is the cliief rougiiage feed, because the short grow-
ing season reduces the yield of corn.

South Worcester.

South Worcester is a dairy section. There are a few commercial orchards,
but dairying is the chief source of livelihood. Poultry is only a minor enter-
prise except in certain towns. There is an abundance of roughage, both hay
and silage and fodder corn, as compared with the northern part of the
county. The elevation is also less and the topography not as rough, although
a land surface of low hills is the rule.

Northeast Worcester.

Dairying, apples, and poultry lead in this area. The section lies on the
western edge of the Nashoba fruit area and the farming systems are inter-
mediate between those of that area and of the hilly section to the west.
Poultry and egg production has been increasing. Strawberries are grown in
Lunenburg.

262 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 244

Nashohn.

The Nashoba belt is the intensive, commercial apple area of Massachusetts.
It lies partly in Middlesex County and j^artly in Worcester. In addition to
farms devoted to orchards exclusively, there are many farms which combine
dairying with apple growing. Other enterprises are poultry and vegetal)le
crops for the Boston market.

Nurih of Busfon.

The Nortli of Boston area iiere outlined includes the areas lying about
Boston and the cities on the Merrunac River and the intervening territory.
Dairying and poultry raising are generally distributed over the wiiole area.
Market gardening is centered in towns such as Concord and Danvers and
near the cities. Apples also are grown in tlie towns near the Nashoba area
and in some of Essex Covmty.

South of Boston.

Poultry and egg proauction is followed to a greater extent South of
Boston than to the north, particularly wlien compared with other farm
enterprises. The area includes some diverse types of farming from dairy
farms in the west to poultry and truck farms in the eastern part. Tlie ele-
vation over the whole area rarely exceeds 200 feet except in Norfolk County.

South Bristol.

Fall River and New Bedford lie in Soutli Bristol, and Providence is just
over the state linel This makes a system of excellent markets for the
products of the section. The upper part of the area is an intensive market
garden district. There are more dairy cows per hundred acres of plowable
land in this area than in any other in Massachusetts. It is one of the few
areas in Massachusetts in which the niunber of cows has Ijeen increasing.
Tlie number of poultry on farms is also very high.

llie Cape.

Only a small jjcrcentage of the land on the Cape is in farms. The cran-
berry crop is the source of most income. Poultrj' and dairying are important
with some individuals. Falmouth is famous for strawberries. Many of the
people have outside .sources of income in addition to the receipts from the
farm.

The Islands.

The Islands include two counties, Dukes and Nantucket. Marthas Vine-
yard and the Elizabeth Islands make uj) Dukes County; and the island of
Nantucket, the County of Nantucket.

There are 117 farms in Dukes County and 2.5 farms in Nantucket. This is
a smaller number of farms in relation to plowable land than on the main-
land. The average temperature is from 10 to 20 degrees warmer than in
central Massachusetts in winter. Dairying is the principal enterprise.

Distribution of Individual Crops and Livestock.

A study of the distribution of each of the principal crops and livestock
gives a clearer picture of the agriculture of the state and of the diflferent
areas than does the preceding discussion taken by itself. A careful consid-

TYPE-OF-FARMING AREAS IN MASS.

263

eration of the maps on tlie following pages shows the degree to which the
various enterprises are correhited witli one another and with the natural
and economic factors affecting their distril)ution.

Figure 9. Dairy Cows on Farms, January 1, 1925.

MASSACHUSCTTi

1 dot = 50 covrs

<2^

Dairi/iii<f.

Dairying is the most inijiortant single source of farm income in Massa-
chusetts. Figure 9 indicates the wide distribution of dairy cows. Compari-
son with the topographic map shows that the areas more sjiarsely populated
with cows correspond with the rough land in the Berkshires and in the
North Central Upland. The Cape region likewise has a small number of
cows. Many factors have combined to bring about tliis wide distrll)ution
of dairy cows as well as their lack of concentration in certain areas. The
primary ones are probably physical or natural, although economic factors
such as proximity to markets are also very significant.

The distribution of the chief feed crops and of feed purchased is shown
in Figure 10. Most dairymen, excejit in some places in the eastern end of
the state, grow enough roughage to supply their cows, and so the distribu-
tion of hay and corn closely follows that of dairy cows. In the case of corn,
production falls off rather more sharply in sections at higher elevation than
does hay production, as might be expected. Considerably more feed is pur-
chased in the eastern part of the state than in the western. This is partly
because cows are fed more heavily of concentrates in that part of the state,
and partly because purchased feed also includes poultry feed, of which there
is a greater quantity purchased in eastern Massachusetts.

Poultry.

Poultry and egg production have been increasingly important in recent
years. Figure 11 shows the distribution of poultry on farms on January 1,
192.5. There is more poultry in the eastern areas of the state, although some
western towns also have a large number. Poultry production is carried on
both as a specialized, single-enterprise business and as a supplementary part
of a general farming system.

264

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 244

Figure 10. Distribution of Silage Corn, Hay, and Feed Purchased
in Massachusetts, 1924.

FTi

li

~vJ^- '■

Silage
1 dot = 100 tons

f

nT^

MASSACHUSCTTi

Hay

1 dot -- 100 t ous

■A

MASSACHUSETTS

Feed Purchased
1 dot = $3000

Commercial apple production is carried on in the Nashoba belt, in Frank-
lin Coimty, and in scattered towns in other parts of the state. (See Figure
12.) The apple industry of New England has recently been the subject of
a special study in each of the New England states and the publi-shed results
of these studies have been available for some time.

TYPE-OF-FARMING AREAS IN MASS. 265

Figure 11. Poultry on Farms, January 1, 1925.

1 dot = 500 bircis

In Massachusetts, orchards are frequently a sole source of income, but
very often fruit gTowing is combined with some supplementary enterprise
or enterprises. Dairyinji- is perhaps most often combined with orcharding
to complete the farming system. Poultry, vegetables, and various minor
crops are also often included in the comliination.

Figure 12. Bearing Apple Trees, January 1, 1925.

«sa.vv:.- ■ i^"

;i^

MASSACHUSETTS

1 dot = 500 trees

Market Gorde'ning.

There are several market garden sections in Massachusetts, and a number
of minor centers where a specialty is made of one or more crops. The three
chief ar^-as are the Boston area, centered about Concord and Danvers; the
Providence area, including the Massachusetts towns near Providence, Rhode
Island; and in the Connecticut Valley. (See Figure 13.) Of these, the first
named is by far the most important. Greenhouse vegetables are extensively
grown there, as well as the out-of-door vegetables. Minor areas are found

266 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 244

Figure 13. Distributiou of Out-of-roor Vegetables.

i dot = ZO ac

near Worcester, Fitchburg, and Bridgewater. Tlie scattered dots in Figure
13 chiefly represent potatoes and miscellaneous vegetaliles grown on general
farms as cash crops.

Tobacco and Onions.

Tobacco and onions ai-e specialized intensive crops rather closely confined
to a few towns of the Connecticut Valley. This is particularly true of
onions. As seen in Figure 14, the onion and tol)acco towns coincide in the
north while the tobacco extends south and ultimately on into the larger
tobacco area in the state of Connecticut.

Both crops are grown on small acreages, with large amounts of hand
labor, and heavy applications of fertilizer. The fertilizer diagram gives an
indication of the dependence of these two crops on commercial fertilizer.

Growers of these crops have recently l)een faced with lowered prices and
a declining demand for the particular type of jiroduct wliich is grown in
the Valley. These factors may eventually make changes in the present type
of farming.

Figure li. Distribution of Fertilizer, Tobacco and Onions
in the Connecticut Valley, 1924.

Fertilizer
1 dot=$10,000

Tobacco
1 dot=50 acres

VS!^^

Onions
1 dot=50 acres

TYPE-OF-FARMING AREAS IN MASS.

267

Figure 15. Massachusetts Cranberry Bogs.

Total Bog
1 dot=25 acres

Full Flowage

Protectiou

1 dot=25 acres

Cranberries.^

Massachusetts produces about 60 per cent of the annual cranberry crop
of the United States. Cranberries are grown on the bog or muck lands of
Barnstable and Plymouth Counties. A few bogs are also to be found in
Bristol, Dukes, Essex, Middlesex, Norfolk, and Nantucket. The accompany-
ing chart (Figure 15) shows the distribution of cranberry bogs by towns.
Carver and Wareham, Rochester and Plj-mouth have the most bogs per
unit of land area. Cranberrj' bogs range in size from one acre to 258 acres.
The average size is 6.5 acres and over 85 per cent of all holdings are less
than 10 acres in size. However, out of 2149 holdings. 111 of 2,' acres or
more contain almost half of the total bog acreage

^ Data on cranl)erries obtainert from ''Cranberry Acreage and Production in Massa-
chusetts." New England Crop Reporting Service, Boston, Massachusetts; -July, 19'25.

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Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 245 June, 1928

Blight and Leaf-spot of Carrot
in Massachusetts

By W. L. Doran and E. F. Guba

Blight and leaf-spot of carrot are foliage diseases which occur in Mass-
achusetts with varying degrees of severity according to the character of
the season. At the request of growers, the Experiment Station has made
a study of the economic importance, causes and control of the two diseases.
Results are reported in this bulletin.

Requests for Itulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

BLIGHT AND LEAF-SPOT OF CARROT IN
MASSACHUSETTS

By W. L. Doran, Research Professor of Botany and E. F. Guba, Assistant
Research Professor of Botany*

Blight and leaf-s})ot of carrots are not new in Massachusetts. In the very
rainy summer of 1920, these 'diseases were unusually conspicuous and conse-
quently there was a suddenly increased interest in them on the part of some
of the growers who wished to know whetlier or not it would be profitable to
attempt to protect carrots against them, and how. As a result, investigations
of their real economic importance, cause, and control were undertaken, ;ind
the results of these investigations are here presented.

Economic Importance

These diseases may cause loss by reducing the yield of carrots, or the pres-
ence of tlie fungi on the petioles of the leaves may so weaken them as to
make the pulling of the roots more difficult, with consequently increased cost
of harvesting. According to Clayton (1)^, the roots are more susceptible to
decay following an attack of carrot blight.

The first crop of carrots is planted in Massachusetts as early as the soil
can be prepared, and is harvested when about half grown to be marketed
in bimches. Neither of these diseases has caused any appreciable loss on
early or bunch carrots in this state. However, according to Chupp (2), car-
rot blight in some sections of tlie country reduces the market \alue of carrots
sold in bunches by making tlie leaves unsightly.

Tlie main crop oi carrots is planted later, that is, early in June, and \y.
liarvested about the last of October to be topped and stored for fall or winter
marketing. Blight and leaf-sjjot are generally present on late carrots and
it is usually on the late crop that they iia\e caused loss here.

In Massachusetts, the economic importance of these diseases of carrots is
not great in the average season. In the rainy summer of 1922 wiien tiie dis-
eases were very conspicuous, the yield per acre at the Market Garden Field
Station in Lexington was only 11 per cent below the average. The diseases
are not important causes of lowered yields here except in summers of un-
usually heavy rainfall.

Symptoms

Leaf-spot and blight are often present together on the foliage, so tli.it from
the viewpoint of the market gardener they may constitute one disease.

The leaf-spot disease nuiy occur at any point on the leaf although it is most
common on the margin. The spots are circular except when tiieir position on
the nuirgin of tlie leaves makes them .semicircular. The spots have a diameter
of 2 to 5 mm. (about iV to i\ inches), and they often coalesce to form larger
spots. The center of the spot is grayish brown and is usually surrounded by a
narrow yellow or straw-colored zone. On the lower surface of the spots a

■' The investigation hei-f reported wass carried throush the lirst season by W. S.
Krout, formerly Assistant Research Professor of Botany.

'.Numbers in parentheses refer to "Literature cited'', p. '278.

272 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 245

grayish weft of tlie causal fungus is soinetinies visible to tiie naked eye. Leaf-
Sj)ots on the petioles are more elongated and are slightly darker in color than
tlie spots on the blade of the leaf.

The blight disease appears first as indefinite brown areas with pale yellow
centers near the margins of the leaves. Individual teeth of the leaflet turn
brown followed by the browning of the leaflet and entire leaf. Sometimes
entire leaves turn yellow and then brown and black witliout the conspicuous
presence of the scattered brown areas. Lesions of blight are not as nearly
circular nor as sharply defined as are tiiose of* leaf-spot. The blight is the
more severe of the two diseases and may cause tlie death of entire leaves.
The mass symptoms of blight are more striking than are those of leaf-spot.
The foliage of a carrot field in which blight is severe may apjDcar as if
burned by heat. Both diseases are nuicli more couunon on the older leaves
of the plants.

Of the two diseases on the main crop of carrots, leaf-spot appears earlier
in the season and is generallj^ found during the middle of the summer, and
blight does not often appear until late summer. This is probably due prin-
cipally to differences in susceptibility coincident with growth of the foliage,
a point which is further discussed. Although either disease may be found in
the absence of any appreciable amount of the other, it is more common for
blight to be prevalent following the earlier appearance of leaf-spot in a field.

Causes of Leaf-spot and Blight

Leaf-spot of carrot is caused by the fungus Cercospora apii carotae Pass.
(3). Blight of carrot is caused by the fungus Macrosjyorium carotae Ell.
and Langlois (4).

These fungi have been found constantly associated with the respective dis-
eases in Massachusetts and their pathogenicity here has been established.

Plants Attacked

There is no evidence that the fungi which cause bligiit and leaf-spot of
carrot occur on any other cultivated plants.

Leaves of carrot, parsnip, parsley, and celery were inoculated with
JSlacrosporium carotae isolated from carrot foliage, but of the plants inocu-
lated only carrots became infected.

Klotz (5) has shown that Cercospora apii, from celery, is not transferable
to carrot, and he did not secure infection on celery when he used as inocuhun
, the Cercospora isolated from carrot.

The fungi which cause blight and leaf-spot occur on and have been isolated
from both wild and cultivated carrot. Cultivated carrots have been inoculat-
ed and infected with these fungi isolated from wild carrots. The wild carrot
is a conmion weed in Massachusetts, and if it grows near a field of cultivate:!
carrots it may serve as a source of infection for the latter.

Relation of Temperature and Moisture to the Germination
of Spores of the Fungi

Since the germination of fungous spores is prerequisite to infection, a brief
consideration of some of the factors which affect the germination of the
spores of these fungi is of interest.

BLIGHT AND LEAF-SPOT OF CARROT 273

Tlie sixires ot tlie hligiit fungus, Jlacrn.sporium ccrotae. were found to ger-
minate well at all temperatures between 61° and 82° F. They germinated
l)est at temperatures between 72° and 75° F. The temperatures most favor-
able for the germination of the spores of the blight fungus are relatively
high.

The spores of the leaf-spot fungtis, Cercosporn apii carotae. germinated
best at a temjierature of 75° to 78° F.

The spores of both fungi were found to germinate well through a relati\el\'
long range of temperature, and it is not likely that summer temperatures are
often an important factor affecting infection by these fungi in Massachusetts.
In the case of botii diseases, tliere is more likelihood of the weather late in
the siunmer being too cool than too warm for their development.

"Water on the leaf is necessary for germination of the spores of the blight
fungus, Marrosporiu)!! carofoe. An average of only 6 per cent of these spores
germinated in moisture-saturated air as coniiiared with 100 per cent which
germinated in water. The leaf must be wet, but these spores germinate
quickly and two liours in water is long enough to permit germination.

The spores of the leaf-spot fimgus, Cercospora apii carotae, germinatetl
well in moist air, but only after they had been previously soaked in water
for one or two hours.

Tliese findings are in accord with the field observations to the effect thai
the severity of these diseases on carrot is usually proportional to the rainfaii
of the season.

Infection

The germ tubes which gro\\ out of the spores during their germination
penetrate the carrot leaves and infection results.

The average length of time between inoculation and the first appearance
of the symptoms of disease on the leaves, or the period of incubation, was
found to be eight or nine days in tiie case of the leaf-spot fungus, Cercon-
pora apii carotae, and about fourteen days in the case of the blight fungus,
Macrosporiuni carotae. The air temperatures during the period of incubation
were between 67°F. (nights) and 86°F. (days).

As was anticipated from experiments on germination, it was found that the
leaves must be wet and must remain wet for more than two hours for blight
infection to occur. If, during the germination of the spores of the blight
fungus, MacroKporium carotae, on a wet leaf, the leaf became dry and re-
mained so, the germinating spore was killed. A short rain immediately fol-
lowed by drying sun and W'ind may result in the death of these spores rather
than in their germination. However, carrots are planted so thickly that any
rain causes the foliage nearest to the soil to remain wet long enough to permit
some infection. ,

There is an interesting and rather important relation between the age of
carrot leaves and the degree of their susceptil)ility to blight. The oldest and
the youngest leaves were renio\ed from plants, placed in moist chambers and
inoculated with the spores of the blight fungus, Macrosporiuni carotae. None
of these leaves showed any evidence of natural infection, and uninoculated
check leaves in moist chambers never became infected. The experiment was
repeated five times and in each case three weeks after inoculation the number
of blight spots on young and on old leaves was counted. There was an aver-
age of twenty-four points of infection on old leaves for each point of infec-

274 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 245

tion on young leaves. The leaves most suscei)tihle to the l)light fungus were
those which had reached such an age as practically to cease growing.

Blight causes little loss on hunch carrots for they are harvested before tlie
leaves have reached the most susceptible stage. Carrot leaves up to eight
weeks of age are relatively resistant to the disease and after that suscepti-
bility increases with age.

Young leaves of carrot are, however, not resistant to leaf-sj)()t, and i)lants
as young as sixteen days old may be infected. But leaf-spot alone is of less
importance on the carrot here than is l)light, and the symptoms of the former-
early in tiie season are rarely consj)icuous.

Overwintering of the Fungi Which Cause Blight and Leaf-spot

Tlie sjjores of tlic blight fungus, Murrosporhun rarotite, \\ere foimd to li\e
through tlie winter in tiie soil. Spores collected in tlie field during the winter
and spring always germinated. Freezing the spores in ice did not kill tlieni,
but rather was followed by an increased percentage of germination.

The mycelium of tiiis fungus was found to be living in carrot refuse in tlie
field as far into the winter as January 15. But attempts to isolate the fungus
the following April from mycelium in carrot refuse in the field were not
successful.

The leaf-spot fimgus, Cercospora upii carotae, was found to live through
the winter in fragments of carrot leaves in tlie form of mycelium. Leaves
with leaf-spot were buried in the soil in the field in October. The following
April the fungus was isolated from the mycelium in these leaves.

The spores of the leaf-spot fungus obtained in the winter and spring from
fragments of carrot leaves in the field did not germinate.

Since blight and leaf-spot sometimes occur on the inflorescence of tiie car-
rot, the possible relation of carrot seeds to overwintering of the fungi was
considered. However, neither of the fungi was found in or on the seeds.
Carrot seeds from diseased plants were plated on agar hut neither of the
fungi developed.

In this connection it may be noted that Klotz (5) did not find on the seeds
of celery the closely related fungus, Cercospora apii, which causes early blight
of this crop.

Since the fungi were not found on carrot seeds, there is probably no reason
for market gardeners to disinfect the seeds of carrot for the prevention of
blight and leaf-spot. In any case, it is unlikely that seed treatment would
materially reduce infection in the field because both fungi are generally
present and can winter-over in fragments of diseased carrot leaves in the soil.

Dissemination of the Blight Fungus

In the fall when carrots are harvested, crumbling fragments of decaying
leaves which have been lying on the soil form part of the dust in the air.
Great numbers of spores of the blight fungus. Macros porium carotae, are
present. Slides coated with adhesive were exposed 100 yards from carrots
when they were being harvested, and many spores of this fungus were caught
upon them. The fungus is doubtless disseminated in other ways, but the
spores which are borne by the wind are probably an important means of
disseminating the fungus to fields not previously used for carrots.

BLIGHT AND LEAF-Sl^OT OF CARROT 275

Laboratory Experiments with Fungicides

Toxicity tests were made by the method of Reddick and Walhice (6).

Bordeaux mixture, 2-2-50, was found to jirevent all germination of the
spores of the liliglit fungus, Mnrro.'iporiuni rmotae; and Bordeaux mixture,
1-1-50, permitted slight germination, only 4 jier cent as compared with 100
per cent in tlie check.

Micro-slides were lightij' dusted witli a cojiijer dust containing 9.5 per cent
monohydrated copper svdfate. These slides were then sprayed with water
and dried for twenty-four hours, when drops of water containing tlie spores
of this fungus were placed on them. There was no germination of tlie spores
in the presence of the copper, and the germination of ciieck sjiores was 100
per cent.

The spores of tlie leaf-s})ot fungus, Cercospora apii carotae, were found to
be even more susceptible to the toxic action of a copper fungicide. Bordeaux
mixture 1-1-50, tested by the metiiod of Reddick and Wallace, ])revented all
germination of these spores.

A copper fungicide which controls blight may be expected to control leaf-
spot of carrot.

The effect of sulfur on tlie germination of the spores of the blight fungus,
Macros por'nim cnrofae, was determined. Blighted leaves of carrot were dust-
ed with sulfur and placed at controlled constant temperatures, as were also
blighted leaves not sulfured. At hourly intervals spores were removed and
])laced under optimum conditions for germination. It was found that sulfur
is not toxic to th.e spores of this fungus. Even after as much as twenty hours'
exposure to sulfur at a temperature as high as 87° F., these spores germinated
well, and as well as spores not sulfured. Previous wetting of the spores did
not affect their great resistance to the toxicity of sulfur. It is evident from
this that sulfur cannot lie expected to protect carrot foliage against infection
by blight.

In this connection it is of interest to note that the spores of the closely
related fungus, Alternaria solani, which causes early blight of potato, were
found by Doran (7) to be very resistant to the fungicidal action of sulfur.

Spraying and Dusting Experiments in the Field

Field exjieriments with co]ij)er fungicides for the control of blight and leaf-
spot of carrot were conducted in five years In two of them, 1921 and 1922,
blight was more than usually severe. In three of them, 1923, 1925, and 192().
there was but little blight.

For lack of more suitable equipment at the time, the spraying was done by
carrying a long hose through the carrots from a power sprayer at the end
or side of the field. Aside from the inconvenience of this method, the carrots
were well sprayed.

In 1921, carrots were sjirayed with Bordeaux mixture 4-6-50 at intervals of
about eleven days beginning August 22 and ending October 14. The yield
per acre was 15 per cent greater on plots sprayed than on plots not sprayed.

In 1922, carrots were sprayed with Bordeaux mixture of the same formula
at intervals of about ten days, beginning August 21 and ending October 15.
In that year, the yield of carrots per acre was 22 per cent greater on sprayed
plots than it was on jilots not sprayed.

In 1923, 1925, and 1926, years of little blight, spraying carrots with Bordeaux

276 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 245

mixture 4-1-50 or dusting with a standard copper-lime dust, by the schedule
of applications used in the previous years, did not result in any increases in
yield over the yield on plots not sprayed or dusted.

According to Chupp (2), some of the growers on Long Island have prac-
ticed spraying carrots with Bordeaux mixture for the control of l)light, evi-
dently with satisfactory results.

On the basis of the results of the exjieriments and observations of tlie
writers, however, spraying carrots with Bordeaux mixture is not likely to he
profitable in Massachusetts except in tlie very worst years of blight. Since
they cannot be predicted, and since tiie loss cau.sed l)y l)light and leaf-sj)ot
in the average season is not suflicientl}^ gre;it here to warrant nmch extra
expense for control measures, the writers do not recommend that carrots he
sprayed every year.

In a rainy season when the indications are that blight and leaf-spot will
he severe, the use of a fungicide should be })rofi table. Since only the older
leaves of carrot are susceptible to blight, fungicidal protection of the new
growth is less important than in the case of most crops which are sprayed.
The application of Bordeaux mixture, on the nuiin crop sown early in June,
need not begin before the first week in August in Massachusetts, and later
applications need be made only often enough to replace the copper which is
lost by weathering, which means usually at intervals of ten days or two weeks.
For carrots sown early in May, treatments should begin early in July.

A horse-drawn sprayer naturally cannot be used in such a closely planted
crop as carrots. A small compressed-air spraj-er lacks in both capacity and
pressure. There have recently become available several tyjies of power spray-
ers designed for or adapted to use on closely planted crops such as carrots.
In the absence of such equipment, a hand duster seems to be the onlj"^ feasible
alternative, although the effectiveness of a copper-lime dust for the protection
of carrots against l)]ight in years when the disease is severe has not lieen
determined.

Effect of Time of Planting

Because of the relation which was discovered between the age of carrot
leaves and their susceptibility to l)light, a field experiment was conducted in
1925 with the object of determining the relation of date of planting to the
time of the first appearance of blight. This happened to be a season of Init
little blight.

Carrots were sowed April 17, May 5, May 22, and June 11. All were
harvested October 15 and 16.

During August, the blight was more conspicuous on the early sowed carrots,
those sowed April 17 and May 5, then on those sowed later. The develop-
ment of the disease was clearly associated with the approaching maturity of
the carrots. A few weeks before harvest, however, blight, although mild, was
uniformly present in all plots. Delay in planting postponed the date of the
first appearance of blight, but, when measured by the stage of growth of
the carrots, the time of onset of the disease was practically the same in ad
plots.

The disease appeared relatively late in the growth of each plot of carrots,
when the roots were already well grown, and no measurable reduction in
yield resulted from blight.

At harvest time, the average weight per root of the carrots sown on each

BLIGHT AND LEAF-SPOT OF CARROT 277

of the several dates was obtained. In the absence of a severe infection oi
blight, the weiglits of the roots were affected more by the length of the grow-
ing period. The best carrots, considering both size and quality, were those
planted May 22. When both the optimum length of the growing period and
the relation of age of leaves to susceptibility to blight are taken into consid-
eration, it is probable that, for the late crop, carrots sowed about the last of
Ma^■ or first of June in Massachusetts will do best.

Relation of Fertilizers to Blight

This experiment was undertaken with the object of learnmg whether or not
increasing the amount of nitrogenous or other fertilizer results in an increasvj
in yield of carrots by stimulating blighting plants to the growth of new, and
consequently resistant, foliage.

A complete fertilizer, of a 5-8-7 formula, was applied to all plots (0.01 acre
in area and in duplicate) at the rate of 1000 pounds per acre before seed
was sowed. Other fertilizers, in the amounts per acre named below, were
applied as side dressings when the tops were about five inches higji.

Blight was only mild and there were no visible differences in growth of
tops or in degree of blight infection in the several plots.

The carrots were harvested and weighed at the end of the season. Tlie
yields per unit area, expressed as relative numliers, with 100 as an index of
the yield on plots which received no side dressings of additional fertilizer,
were as follows: with 275 pounds nitrate of soda, yield 106; with 500 pounds
acid phosphate, yield 102; with 140 pounds sulfate of potash, yield, 96.

The differences in yields are too small to be significant. In the absence of
sufficient blight for the original purpose of the experiment, the effect of the
disease on yield was not influenced by the fertilizers.

Control Measures

Since these fungi pass the winter in and on the soil in the refuse of the
preceding crop, the possibility of partial control by crop rotation and by
deeply plowing under or destroying the blighted tops after harvest is sug-
gested.

Wild carrots should not l)e allowed to l)ec()nie conimoii near fields wlu-re
carrots are to be grown, for the fungi wliicli cause lilight and leaf-spot are
])resent on these weeds.

Tliere is no reason to disinfect carrot seeds to i)revent these diseases.

Carrots planted as late as will permit them to reach marketal)le nuiturity
are not likely to be affected by blight as se^ erely as carrots j)lanted earlier.

These diseases have not often been se\ere euougii in Massachusetts to make
the use of fungicides profitable. It is not recommended that carrot growers
here make a general practice of spraying or dusting carrots. If there is con-
tinued rainy weather and the grower desires to spray for the protection of
carrots, he should use Bordeaux mixtures of the usual fornmla or dust witli
a standard copper-lime dust such as is used on celery, beginning about Aug-
ust 15 and making applications at such intervals as are necessarj- to replace
the material which has been washed off tlie older leaves.

278 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 245

Summary

Blight of carrots, caused by Mucruxporium corotae, and leaf-spot of car-
rots, caused by Cercospora npii carottte, usually occur together in Massa-
cliusetts. Blight is the more inijiortant here.

These diseases usually cause no measurable loss on carrots pulled young
to be nuirketed in bunches. On late carrots, they cause no appreciable loss
in yield in dry summers and niodcrale to heavy loss in yield ni rainy summers.

Factors aifecting spore germination and infection are considered. In Mass-
achusetts, summer temperature is a less important factor influencing develop-
•>ient of these diseases than moisture.

The oldest leaves of carrot have been found to he most susceptible to blight.

It has been foimd that l)oth fimgi jiass the winter on dead leaves of carrots
in or on the soil. No evidence has l)een found tliat either of these fungi is
carried on the seeds of carrots.

Both fxmgi are verj' susceptible to the fungicidal action of co])])er. Lab-
oratory and field experiments with fungicides are described. It is not rec-
onunended that carrots b*- generally sprajed in Massachusetts, but in rainy
summers when blight was severe increases in yield resulted from spraying
with Bordeaux mixture.

The latest sowings of carrots are least affected l)y i)light l)ecause of the
relative resistance to infection of younger leaves, and unfavorable tempera-
tures prevailing late in the growth of the crop.

Literature Cited

1. Clayton, E. E. Carrot rot information. Market Growers' Jour. ;38: J").

1926.

2. Chupp, Charles. Macros])orium leaf-blight of carrot, in Manual of vege-

table-garden di.seases. New York. 192.5.
.'3. Pas.serini, Giovanni. Cercotiporu <ipii var. carotae Atti, R. Accademi dei

Lincei. Anno 286. Memorie delhi Classe di Scienze Fisiche, Matemiche

e Naturali. Serie -1, vol. 6, p. 169. 1889.
4. Ellis, J. B. and A. B. Langlois. Macros poriuin raroloe, in New .species

of Louisiana fungi. Jour. Mycology 6: 3.5-37. 1890.
.5. Klotz, L. J. Studies on Michigan celery diseases, 2. A study of the early

blight fungus, Cerospora apii Fres. Mich. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui.

63. 1923.

6. Reddick, Donald and Errett Wallace. On a lal)oratory method of deter-

mining the fungicidal value of a spray mixture or solution. Science 31.
798. 1910.

7. Doran, William L. Laboratory studies of the toxicity of some sul])lnir

fungicides. N. H. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 19. 1.922.

Publication of this document approved by the
Commission on Administration and Finance.

4 M-10-28. No. 3638

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 246 OCTOBER, 1928

Control of Red Spider and Powdery
Mildew on Greenhouse Cucumbers

By W. D. Whitcomb and E. F. Guba
Contribution from the

Market Garden Field Station

of the

Massachusetts Agricultural College
Cedar Hill, Waltham

Large losses in yield and quality of greenhouse cucumbers result from
the attacks of red spider and powdery mildew and from failure to use
effective control measures promptly and correctly. Satisfactory treat-
ments for controlling these pests individually are now available but the
materials which are used cannot be combined or applied closely following;
one another with safety. The incompatibility of these materials is a
serious handicap to the successful control of these pests when both are
present on the vines. This bulletin suggests the proper choice of materials
for effective and safe control by a combination treatment, as well as
methods of greenhouse management which tend to check the damage by
red spider and powdery mildew.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERLMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

CONTROL OF RED SPIDER AND POWDERY MILDEW
ON GREENHOUSE CUCUMBERS'

By W. D. Whitcomb, Assistant Research Professor of Entomology

and
E. F. Guba, Assistant Research Professor of Botany

Introduction

Tlie red spider-, sometimes called the greenhouse mite, and powdery mildew'''
are common pests of greenhouse cucumbers in Massachusetts. Few growers
in this state can l)oast that they have grown this crop for two successive sea-
sons without suffering damage from one or both of them. In 1917 it was
estimated by VinaP that the red spider caused annual losses amounting to
$1.50,000 in the Boston market gardening district alone. Powdery mildew is
often equally serious and its presence at tunes has proved an important ob-
stacle in the profitable production of greenhouse cucumbers. The presence of
both pests on the vines at the same time is common and the need for a com-
bined treatment is obvious. Likewise, a knowledge of the compatibility of
insecticides and fungicides used in the greenhouse for combating these and
other pests is extremely important to prevent injury to the vines.

Host Plants

The cucumber, especially when grown in the greenhouse, is one of the
fa^'orite host plants of both red spider and powdery mildew. Greenhouse to-
matoes are also attacked by this mite although they are seldom seriously
injured. The red spider also feeds on a great nuiny greenhouse flowers, espe-
cially violets, carnations, chrysanthemums and sweet peas. The list of out-
door plants known to be infested by it includes about two hundred wild and
cultivated plants ranging from aibor vitae to chickweed.

Cucumlier powdery mildew occurs on squash, pumpkin, melon, and other
cultivated plants of the gourd family as well as the wild balsam-apple and
the bur cucumber. It is also definitely known to attack plantain and sun-
flower. The common powdery mildews on other plants such as lilac, rose and
clover, although similar in general appearance, are different from cucumber
powdery mildew and cannot live on plants of the gourd family.

Description and Growth

Effective control of plant pests demands not only the application of specific
treatments but also the adaptation of those treatments to local and some-
times varied conditions. This can be satisfactorily accomplished only by a
knowledge of the appearance, growth, and habits of the pest and an under-
standing of the conditions under which it thrives.

1 The information in this bulletin is based on the results of experiments conducted by
the writers at the Market Garden Field Station, Waltham and in commercial greenhouses
in pastern Massachusetts.

-■ Tetranychus telarius Linn. (Syn. T. hiiiiaculatus Harvey). The red spider belongs to
a 'group of Spiders called Mites.

3 Enisivhe cichoracearum UC.

*' Vinal Stuart C, The Greenhouse Red Spider Attacking Cucumbers and Methods for
Its"Control. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 179, 1917.

RED SPIDER AND POWDERY MILDEW 281

Greenliouse red spiders live almost entirely on the under side of leaves
where each female lays about 70 spiierical, pearly white eggs (Plate I,al)
which are so small that they are scarcely visible to the naked eye. These eggs
gradually turn to a dark straw color and in four or five days a round, color-
less, six-legged spider larva hatches from each of them (Plate I,a2). After
feeding for one to three days, the young red spider, now light green in color
with bright carmine eyes, attaches itself to the leaf for a rest and transfor-
mation jieriod. While in this condition it appears to he dead but in about 2t
hours an eight-legged spider nymph emerges from the old skin and there-
after it always has eight legs. Following each of these molts, as they are
called, it feeds ravenously and inflicts the greatest damage by piercing the
leaf cells and sucking the green matter from them, thus causing the char-
acteristic yellow or dead areas. Female spiders repeat this process of growth
twice before the adult, about one-third the size of a pin head, develops (Plate
I,a3). The adults are usually green or yellowish red in color but occasionally
rusty red specimens are seen. The smaller, thinner, male red spiders have
but two of these transformation periods.

As soon as the mites become established they spin silken webs o^er the
parts of the leaf where they are feeding and in severe infestations these webs
extend from leaf to leaf and to the supporting wires or trellises. The average
time required for the growth of female red spiders from the laying of the egg
to the development of the adult is eight to ten days and for the males seven
to nine days. Reproduction is practically continuous in the greenhouse, and
in the South at least seventeen generations in one year have been observed
out-of-doors.

Cucumber powdery mildew is a parasitic fungus. Such a fungus is a simple
plant, in some respects similar to green plants but dilTering largely in that
it maintains a dependent existence as a parasite on green plants. The white
powdery webs (plate I,b) on the leaves and young stems, which suggest the
name, consist of a dense network of tiny threads from which arise sinqile
stalks each bearing a chain of spores or reproductive bodies. Except for the
short, swollen tubes or "suckers" which penetrate the surface cells of the leaf
to attach the fungus and to absorb food and moisture, mildew grows entirely
on the surface and all visible signs of it may readily be rubbed away with
the fingers. When the spores are mature they are shed from the stalks, and
drafts of air or slight disturbances to the vines free them from the leaves.
Those that fall on cucumber or other host plants germinate under favorable
conditions producing suckers and a dense thread-like web bearing a new
supply of spores. The nudtiplication of the fungus in this manner causes a
rapid spread of the disease. Mildew weakens or stunts the plants and a
severe attack reduces the yield and quality of the fruit.

Most powdery mildews produce winter spores in small black capsules late
in the season but very little is known of this stage of cucuml^er powdery
mildew. It is believed, however, that the fungus lives through the winter out-
of-doors in this form and also as mycelium or sjjawn. In the greenhouse the
fungus survives from one crop of cucumbers to the next.

Cucumber powdery mildew should not be confused with the more serious
downy mildew which forms a brown web on the under side of cucumber leaves
causing yellowish spots and later dead leaves. This disease ajipears in the
late sununer and autumn months and because its attack is sudden and its
SDread rapid, it is much more dreaded by growers than powdery mildew.

PLATE 1.

a. Stages of the Red Spider (Tetruuychus telarius Linn. syn. T. btmaculatus
Harvey). (1) Egg. (2) Newly hatched larva having six eggs. (3) Adult
female. Ail highly magnified. (After McGregor, Bulletin No. -1.16, U. S.
Dept. of Agr.)

b. Powdery Mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum DC.) on leaf of cucumber,
showing characteristic white powdery growth. About one-half natural
size.

ai

^

284 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 246

Favorable Conditions for Growth and Spread of the Pests.

Conditions suitable for growing greenhouse cucumbers are generally favor-
able for the growth and reproduction of the red spider. Its natural migra-
tion from leaf to leaf and from plant to plant in search for food, thus in-
creasing the size of the original infested area, is normally very slow but in
hot, dry weather when multiplication takes place rapidlj', colonies will quickly
outgrow the leaves on which they are feeding and spread to surrounding-
plants. Artificial dispersion resulting in the sudden appearance of isolated
colonies, remote from the original infestation, is much more important. Work-
men engaged in pruning, training, picking, and otherwise caring for the vines,
carry the spiders on their tools and clothing from one plant to another and
are the commonest agency responsible for the unnatural spread of this pest.
In the suHuner, however, many of them gain entrance to the greenhouse by
being blown through open ventilators or carried on clothing from infested
out-door plants growing nearby.

When powdery mildew once appears in the greenhouse its spread may be
rapid, 'ihe liglir spores are readily carried by currents of air. The workers
liecome sprinkled witli them, especially when brushing against mildewed vines,
and arc therefore a conunon means of spreading the fungus from one plant to
another and from house to house. Spores from out-door hosts are also a
conmion and hnportant source of infection of tiie housed plants.

Spore germination and infection occur in damp air. The appearance of
powdery mildew in the houses is associated with cool, dull, or damp weather
when pipe heat is used sparingly or not at all. Powdery mildew may de-
velop in any season of the year providing favorable moisture conditions pre-
vail. Outbreaks of the fungus accompany improper watering practices and
lack of attention to ventilation; drafts of cool or damp air through ventilat-
ors, doors, and broken glass; stuffy air pockets not adequately provided with
ventilation; and lack of .sufficient heat. In every instance moist air, not
properly altered by ventilation or heat, is the basis of growth and develop-
ment. Potted plants when grown under any of the above conditions become
mildewed.

Control.

Repressive Measures for Red Spider and Poivdery Mildew.

Between-crop Treatment of Greenhouses.

In order to grow healthy plants the greenhouse must be free from para-
sites whicii affect those plants before the new crop is set. This is true in the
case of red spider when cucumbers or other host plants follow cucumbers but
in the case of powdery mildew, only when cucumbers follow cucumbers, since
this is the only host plant grown commercially under glass in Massachusetts.
If the previous crop was attacked, between-crop-treatment is necessary and
in any case it is advisable. By treating the greenhouse before the old vines
are removed, the pests are killed without danger of spreading them beyond
the effect of the treatment.

The coimiionest effective treatment is to burn sulfur at the rate of one-
third of a pound for each 1000 cubic feet of space with the ventilators closed
for at least 24 liours. The fumes from burning sulfvir are deadly to plant
and animal life. Some growers object to the practice of burning sulfur be-
tween crops l)ecause of the corroding action which the acid fumes of sulfur
have on unprotected metal pipes, posts, and wires, and its bleaching action

RED SPIDER AND POWDERY MILDEW 285

on paint. It lias heen coninion experience that tiiese objections hold only
where repeated excessive quantities of sulfur are burned. Many experiments
have shov^'n that the fumes from burned sulfur kill all stages of the red spider
but in spite of this fact many growers report negative results. These are
undoubtedly due to leakage and to the ability of some of the mites to escape
the fumes by crawling into cracks where they obtain a draft of fresh air.
The practice, nevertheless, is considered worth while as a means of destroying
parasites and safeguarding the next crop from a potential inside source of
attack.

If the burned sulfur treatment is undesirable, fumigation with calcium
cyanide at the rate of one-fourth to one-half pound per thousand cubic feet
for 24 hours will kill all red spiders and insects but not mildew. The smaller
dosage is sufficient in a gas tight compartment but most greenhouses require
the larger amount. After watering freely to provide moisture for the rapid
generation of the hydrocyanic acid gas, the calcium cyanide should be scat-
tered evenly over the beds and walks. The fumes are very poisonous and
breathing them must be avoided as much as possible. When using cyanide
in a large house, it is well for two men to work together, one working toward
each end from the center. This treatment is eflfective, easily applied, and
requires no equipment.

When properly carried out, fumigation with melted and vaporized naphtha-
lene rids the house of red spiders and insect pests more effectively than the
burned sulfur treatment. The naphthalene crystals are melted and vapor-
ized in shallow pans or dishes over a lamp or kerosene stove at the rate of
1 pound for each 1000 cubic feet. During this treatment, the temperature
nmst be maintained continuously at about 75 °F. A stove or lamp for each
10,000 cubic feet is desirable and the heat from the stoves should be regu-
lated so that the melted naphthalene is vaporized without boiling. This
fumigation nuist be continued for at least 48 hours and naphthalene should
l)e added at regular intervals until the required amount is used. This treat-
ment is used generally in England where special stoves for this purpose arc
manufactured. It requires special equipment and moderate attention. The
naphthalene costs about 17 cents per pound and is about as expensive as
cjanide in proportion.

The choice of these between-crop fumigation treatments depends largelj' on
conditions. Only burned sulfur exerts fimgicidal action, but cyanide and
naphthalene are slightly more effective against red spider. Therefore two
of the treatments may be advisable.

Hot water or steam treatments of the soil, practiced for controlling soil
inhabiting pests in the greenhouse, will kill red sjiider and powdery mildew
present on the treated soil but have no controlling effect elsewhere in the
house. Soil sterilizing practices, therefore, shoidd be preceded or followed by
fumigation with one or more of the other suggested materials.

Gro-Lclng Clean Plants

Frequent inspection of the yoimg plants in the })lant house is necessary to
safeguard against an early infestation. If pests are present, the plants should
be given the reconuiiended control treatments immediately. Before the plants
are set in the houses, they should again be carefully examined. When either
red spiders or powdery mildew are found at this time, control measures
should be applied Ijefore transi)lanting. Only pest-free plants should be set.

286 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 246

Precautionary Measures

When either red spider or powdery mildew is discovered on transplante.l
plants, the recommended control measures should be applied immediately.
Since workmen are common means of carrying these pests, it is unwise for
those who have come in contact with infested vines to enter other houses
without first making every eifort to rid their clothing and tools of any pests
which may be on them. Picking baskets should l)e given careful attention.
These precautions may appear impractical in comn\(ercial establishments but
they will aid in reducing the spread and abundance of red spider and powdery
mildew.

Mixed Crojys in the Greenhouse

Host plants of powdery mildew other than cucumber are seldom grown in
the greenhouse, but small lots of miscellaneous plants in benches and pots
are often infested with red sj^ider. The origin of serious red spider attacks
on cucumbers has been traced to violets, carnations, and mint, and in one case
infested duckweed was strongly suspected. Such plants should be examined
at regular intervals and if infested, destroyed or treated.

Surrounding Vegetation

The ground immediately surrounding the greenhouse should be kept clean
of vegetation or at least free from plants which harbor cucumber pests. It
is imwise to grow plants commonlj^ infested by red spider or powdery mildew
close to a greenhouse cropped to cucumbers, as any pests present out-doors
may be blown or carried bj' insects into the greenhouse.

Specific Measures for Red Spider Control

Partially Effective Treatments

Spraying and dusting have long been the principal methods of combating
the red spider and probably more different materials have been used for this
purpose without complete success than for any other greenhouse pest. These
materials, if used thoroughly and frequently, when conditions are favorable
for their use, will hold a light or moderate infestation in check but the con-
trol obtained from them is not permanent and eradication is impossible.

Some of these temporary remedies are washing with water, spraying with
salt solution, flour paste, dissolved soap, nicotine, derris extract, pyrethrum
extract, pine oil, lemon oil, linseed oil enmlsion, miscible oil, and various com-
binations of these materials. Some check the development of the spiders by
washing them from the plants; others stick them to the leaves; and many kill
or injure the more susceptible stages of the pest. Some of them are injurious
to foliage and none of them give safe and economical control of the red spider
on greenhouse cucumbers. Derris extract, pyrethrum extract, lemon oil, and
linseed oil emulsion are the best of these partially effective materials, yet
each has several disadvantages.

Dusting or spraying with various compounds of sulfur has been used ex-
tensively in the past to combat the red spider both in the greenhouse and
outside, but the effectiveness of sulfur is limited by its dependence on high
temperatures. Sulfur sprays do not kill red spider eggs and have little
effect on the transforming stages. Dusting is not effective because of the
difficulty in placing the dust on the under side of the leaves where the spiders
congregate.

RED SPIDER AND POAVDERY MILDEW 287

Linseed oil emulsion, developed by VinaP, combined a toxic action with the
ability to stick the spiders to the leaf when it dried. This spray has been used
quite effectively to kill the active and transforming stages of this pest but it
has little or no effect on the eggs, and frequently injures cucumber vines.

Hi(/hly Refined White Mineral Oil Emulsion

The most effective and satisfactory spraying material for the control of
red spider on greenhouse cucumbers is a highly refined white mineral oil
emulsion which contains no carbolic or cresylic compounds to aid in emulsi-
fication. Experiments with a spray of this type have consistently shown that
95 to 100 per cent of the spiders were killed by one application and that a
large percentage of the eggs which were thoroughly wet failed to develop.
Two thorough applications gave complete control. It was also observed that
many newly-hatched spiders were killed by crawling through the oily spray
residue several days after the applications. Many cucumber growers have
used this emulsion successfully during the past year in eastern Massachusetts.

This highly refined wiiiLe mineral oil enudsion is a white, shiny, salve-like
material. It should be thinned with a little water before pouring into the
sprayer. For spraying cucumbers, a one per- cent dilution made by adding 1
gallon of the emulsion to 99 gallons of water, or IJ liquid ounces to I gallon,
should be used. At this strength it does not injure healthy cucumber vines
except when applied during temperatures of 95 °F., or higher, when burning
or a gradual hardening, and yellowing of the older leaves may result. Leaves
badly injured by red spiders or other pests may develop this condition more
quickly following the use of the emulsion, but this injury is much less than
if the pests were not controlled. Cucumber vines have maintained normal
growth and fruit production after ten applications of this spray at about
weekly intervals without evidence of injury. During the summer the spray
should be applied in the e\ening or during cloudy weather in order that it
may dry before being subjected to bright sun and high temperatures. In the
cooler seasons it can be used with safety at any time. If cucumber vines
are sprayed twice before they are 7 to 8 feet high, little injury by the red
spider will follow. In case later sprayings are necessary two applications
about one week apart should be sufficient. If small isolated infestations are
discovered before the mites have spread, two thorough sprayings of the in-
fested and surrounding area should eradicate the pest and protect the re-
mainder of the vines. Although this spray will control red spider on any
plants, its use on other greenhouse plants is advisable only when trials have
demonstrated that the plants are not injured. A white mineral oil emulsion
can be prepared at home for immediate use but it is recommended that the
commercial product now available on the market be used. This product is
uniform in quality and the diluted spray costs from H to 3 cents per gallon
depending on the quantity purchased.

The spray Is best applied as a fine mist which thoroughly wets the vines,
especially the under side of the leaves. Knapsack, wheelbarrow, and com-
pressed air sprayers can be used for small areas and young plants, but in
spraying a large greenhouse, a power sprayer is desirable. The spray nozzles
should be set at an angle of about 60 degrees to the rod.

^. Loc. dt.

288 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 246

FumUjation with Naphthalene

In the past, no funiigant has effectively controlled the red spider without
injury to the plants. Recently, however, exi^eriinents both in Europe and
this country have shown that three or four treatments with vaporized naph-
thalene at the rate of IJ to l ounces of crystals to each 1000 cubic feet were
very effective and safe for this purpose with high temperature and humidity.
During these experiments, however, it was found that the fruits absorbed the
odor and taste of the naphthalene. This almost entirely disappears after
several hours in fresh air but the danger of selling tainted fruit to the con
sunier is considered so important that the treatment is not recommended to
cucumber growers.

Specific Measures for Powdery Mildew

Greenhouse Management

The proper management of the greenlumse air as a means of avoiding
attacks of powdery mildew should receive consideration. Healthy plants are
never quite as healthy after they ha\e been sprayed or dusted, altiiough tiie
detrimental effect of the materials applied is seldom realized. An atmos-
phere unfavorable for mildew infection and consistent with the best growth
of the plants is the natural method of culture and should supersede the use
of fungicides.

Moisture saturated air in the greenhouse is conducive to the development
of mildew. The moisture content of the greenhouse air depends on the use
of heat and ventilation and may be adjusted to prevent favorable conditions
for infection. The relative humidity of the air can be accurately determined
only from a hygrometer, a satisfactory and economical type of which is illus-
trated in Fig. 1. This instrument consists of a dry thermometer, wet ther-
mometer, and glass tube of water for supplying the wet bulb with moisture.
The relative humidity is determined by ai)plying the thermometer readings to
a simple table. When the air is saturated the temperature of both the wet
and dry thermometers is the same. It is desirable to keep the relative hu-
midity of the greenhouse air below 90 per cent. This can be done with heat,
ventilation, or both. Side ventilation should not be used at night or during
damp weather. If at such times ventilation is desired, it should be from the
top and from the side on the top opposite the direction of the wind. Water-
ing should be done on bright days before noon with ventilation and if the air
is. not sufficiently dry by night, heat should be used. Stuffy air conditions
should be corrected by adequate ventilation. Vestibules at the entrances are
helpful in preventing conditions favorable for infection of the ])lants at these
places.

Dusting with Sulfur

Sulfur is the most effective fungicide for controlling mildew, and dusting
is the most practical and economical method of application. Only sulfur of
extreme fineness should be used. Some of the commercial sulfur dusts of this
type sold in Massachusetts are Kolo dust. Grape Dust and Tricked Sulfur.
The active principle in each of these materials is sulfur but its content varies.
Non-dusting sulfur, such as is ordinarily used for burning, lacks the fluffy,
})owdery qualities of a fine dust, and siiould not lie used for dusting pur-
poses. The desirable grades of dust referred to in this bulletin are prepared
especially for dusting plants and may be secured of dealers specializing in

RED SPIDER AND POWDERY MILDEW

289

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Fig. 1. A satisfactory type of hygrometer.

the sale of insecticides and fiinaicides. The choice of any of the materials
mentioned should be go\erned by the retail cost.

The proper ciioice of equipment for dusting is important. The duster
illustrated in Figure 2 has proved most satisfactory for greenhouse purposes.
Its use among the plants is not hindered by wires, posts, trellises, or deep
walks as is the use of the heavier dusters strapped to the body and provided
with long extension tubes. This duster holds 2 quarts or 4 pounds of dust so
that the load carried is very light. The dust is expelled by pushing a plunger

290

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 246

Fig. 2.

Type of duster and method of operation recommended for applying sulfur
dust to greenhouse cucumbers.

forward with one hand while the other holds the handle supporting the duster.

Quiet air should prevail in the greenhouse to permit the dust to settle.
This is obtained by closing all ventilators for 30 to 45 minutes previous to
dusting. If closing is likely to cause unfavorable growing temperatures, dust-
ing should be done in the evening or morning wlien the ventilators may be
closed for longer periods thus allowing a more complete settling of the dust.

When dusting, the course of travel should aepend on the construction of
the greenhouse. In houses 40 feet wide with walks through the center and
around the sides, all of the dusting should be done from the walks (Fig. 3,a) ;
in houses wider than 25 feet and provided only with central walk, every 3
to 5 rows should be entered for about one-half the distance (Fig. 3,b). If
only outside walks are present the course of travel should be between every

RED SPIDER AND POWDERY MILDEW

291

3 to 5 rows of plants (Fig. 3,c). At every 5 to 10 walking paces the exten-
sion tube of the cluster should be raised overhead. One to two pushes of the
jDlunger with the duster in an obliquely vertical position will cover about 500
square feet with dust. If mildew is encountered on the lower sheltered leaves,
light horizontal discharges of dust should be made but the nozzle should never
be placed directly upon the leaves. The same general directions apply to a
house of young cucumbers. The dust should be directed into the air above the
plants and allowed to settle on the foliage. In exercising these precautions
the danger of sulfur injurj- to the vines is reduced to a minimum and there
is no waste of material.

Tlie practice of using more sulfur dust than is necessary to control mildew
has been responsible for injury. The results of numerous experiments have
shown excellent control in 40x280 foot houses from one application with as
little as 5 to 6 pounds of dust. More tlum this amount should not be used
even if mildew is generally present in the house. Proportionately smaller

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^

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-^

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«-« «-» >t«Tt_»^

(a-) (b) (;c)

Fig. 3. Courses of travel with duster in differeutly constnicted greenhouses.

quantities should be used in smaller houses. The reasons for suggesting these
precautions are (1) powdery mildew is very susceptible to extremely small
doses of sulfur under warm air conditions; (2) under similar conditions ex-
cessive doses of sulfur cause either burning, hardening or stunting of the
leaves; (3) sulfur dusting materials are highly concentrated.

The effectiveness of sulfur in controlling mildew is dependent upon sulfur
gas which is generated above 70° F., and in increasing amounts with higher
temperatures. By proper management of the ventilator.s, temperatures fa-
vorable for the liberal production of gas may be obtained in bright weather.
The closing of the ventilators also offers a means of concentrating the gas
in the greenhouse. Since the gas given off from sulfur is fungicidal, contact
of the sulfur particles with mildew is not necessary, to obtain control. After
dusting, the ventilators should be managed, if necessary, to provide tempera-
tures of at least 80 to 8-5 °F., for a few hours each day until the fungus has
been eradicated.

292 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 246

Sprai/ing

Below the temperature of 70° F. and in prevailing dull weather, sulfur dust-
ing materials do not give control. Mildew in contact with sulfur particles is
destroyed but that on the lower and sheltered parts of leaves is not affected.
When sucii weather conditions render sulfur dust of no value, spraying must
be resorted to for controlling the fungus.

Both copper and sulfur spraying materials kill mildew but they are inju-
rious to foliage at strengths ordinarily used on other plants. At weak-
strengths they impart no harmful effect to the foliage and control mildew.
In the case of copper sprays, complete wetting of the foliage is important
since the action of the spray is exerted only when the fungus is wetted. After
the spray has dried, the copper residue offers little, if any, protection from
subsequent infection. Frequent treatments with copper sprays may be neces-
sary to maintain control. Freshly prepared Bordeaux mixture of the formula
1-1-50 or commercial copper preparations diluted to contain an equivalent
amount of copper are recommended. Slightly longer protection from infec-
tion is provided by sulfur spray residues, of which potassium sulfide made
up at t.lie rate of 1 pound to 50 gallons of water is tlie most satisfactory.
Bordeaux 1-1-50 leaves a slight residue which may require wiping the cucum-
bers before they are packed, while potassium .sulfide at the rate recommended
leaves none. Aside from this fact the use of either copper or potassium sul-
fide should be influenced by its compatibility with insecticides recommended
for controlling insects and red spider.

Bordeaux mixture should be prepared as follows:

As many pounds of bluestone as there are gallons of water are suspended
in a sack in the upper surface of the water in a wooden barrel. When the
crystals are completely dissolved eacli gallon will contain 1 pound of blue-
stone. Similarly, in a second barrel bim]> or granulated lime is slaked in
water. Slaking should proceed slowly with tlie addition of water as needed.
After the lime is slaked, tlie container is tilled witli water so that the mixture
contains 1 pound of lime to each gallon of water. Hydrated lime may be
substituted if lump lime cannot be obtained. Ciiemically hydrated lime is
considered the best, but if plasterer's or finishing lime is used it should be
soaked in water over night. One poimd of chemically hydrated lime, or IJ.
poimds of finishing lime will be required for each gallon of water. In the
making of Bordeaux 1-1-50, one gallon of stock lime water is drawn after
ligitating the mixture thoroughly and poured through a strainer into the spray
tank containing 30-40 gallons of water. While the agitator is running, 1 gal-
lon of stock bluestone solution is added. Water is then added to bring
the liquid up to 50 gallons. If larger or smaller quantities of spray are
desirecl, proportionate amounts of stock solution must be used. Separate pails
.'hould be used for drawing from the stock licpiids and a wooden ])ail should
be vised for the bluestone. The stock solutions will keep indefinitely but in
o^de" ^-hnt the nripinnl r-o^cpn'rn^^if^n nf one poimd of material to 1 gallon of
water is maintained, the barrels should be kei)t covered.

Commercial co])per preparations may be substituted for freshly prepared
Bordeaux but they should not be diluted according to directions accompany-
ing the package since these are not applicable to hothouse plants. One pound
of bluestone present in Bordeaux 1-1-50 contains about 25 per cent of copper.
Each package of copper fungicide bears a statement giving the percentage of
copper present in the contents. To determine the amount of material required
for making 50 gallons of spray containing as nuich copper as is present in
Bordeaux 1-1-50, divide 25 by the per cent of copper indicated on the pack-

RED SPIDER AND POWDERY MILDEW 293

age. Thus, if the label reads "Active ingredient — Copper — 12.5%'", the quan-
tity of that material to use should be 2.5/12. .5 or 2 pounds in 50 gallons of
water.

Combination Treatments

The effective control of different pests on cucumber vines may involve the
use of several insecticides and fungicides. Alone, these materials can be
used with safety but in combination or when following one anotiier at short
intervals, some of these same treatments may cause severe injury to the vines.

Under certain conditions, previously discussed, it is advisable to combat
cucumber powdery mildew with copper sprays. These sprays leave a copper
residue on the leaves which causes severe burning of cucuml)er foliage when
reacted upon by hydrocyanic acid gas generated from sodium or calcium
cyanide. Fumigation with this gas for the control of plant lice, thrips, or
white fly, therefore, should always be made before spraying with copper
fungicides; otherwise these pests should be combated with nicotine fumes or
sprays.

The highly refined white mineral oil emulsion which effectively controls the
red spider is not so toxic to plant lice and thrips as is desirable. However,
concentrated nicotine solutions, the standard insecticides used for the control
of these pests, can be safely mixed with it. When lice or thrips are present
with red spider, tlie addition of one pint of 40 per cent nicotine sulfate or
40 per cent free nicotine liquid in 100 gallons of diluted highly refined white
mineral oil emulsion, or 1^ teaspoonful in a gallon, will control all of these
pests. In fact, this combination spray is one of the best insecticides known
for use on greenhouse cucumber vines.

If, in addition, mildew is present, Bordeaux mixture or other copper sprays
may be safely mixed with the oil-nicotine spray or with the oil spraj'. The
addition of Bordeaux mixture to the oil spray greatly improves its wetting
and spreading qualities. This is an advantage for controlling both red spider
and powdery mildew. A convenient method for mixing this combination
spray is to add one-half gallon of the lubricating oil emulsion to the fully
diluted copper spray and agitate until the oil is tiioroughly dispersed. The
nicotine may be added at any time.

When both powdery mildew and red spider are present, the use of highly
refined white mineral oil emulsion and a potassium sulfide spray or high grade
sulfur dust, as is recommended for tlie control of these pests specifically,
may cause severe injury to cucumber foliage, especially in warm weather.
The oil spray makes the foliage more susceptible to sulfur injury and pro-
hibits the use of dusts containing a large amount of free sulfur or sulfur
sprays. Experiments with dusts of low free sulfur content have shown that
they may be used safely either before or after the oil spray, and, although
only mildly fungicidal to mildew, if the sulfur content is 10 per cent or less,
they will control tiie fungus during briglit warm weather. In milder weather
sulfur dusts containing 15 and 20 per cent free sulfur have given good con-
trol. In cool, damp weather when sulfur dust is less effective, and if the use
of the oil emulsion is necessary, mildew outbreaks should be suppressed with
copper sprays.

Among commercial dusts, Slug Shot, having a free sulfur content of 6 per

294 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 246

cent has been found safe for use on cucumbers which have been sprayed with
white mineral oil emulsion. This dust contains other active ingredients, which
bring the cost up to about 10 cents a pound. A home-made dust of much
greater effectiveness and similar safety can be prepared by thoroughly mix-
ing 15 pounds of dusting sulfur with 85 pounds of either 200 mesh gypsum
or talc at a cost of about 1^ cents per pound for materials. The latter dust
is preferable, but since a commercial sulfur dust of this composition is not
obtainable, its preparation at home is recommended.

Summary of Recommendations.

Learn to recognize the greenhouse red spider, the cucumber powdery mil-
dew, and the injury which they inflict.

Prevent the establishment and spread of these pests by practicing repressive
measures.

For red spider, spray witli a highly refined white mineral oil enuilsion
whicli is free from injurious carbolic or cresylic compounds.

For powdery mildew, practice proper methods of ventilation, watering, and
heating, and use small amounts of high grade dusting sulfur. In dull, cool
weather or if powdery mildew is troublesome on lower sides of leaves, spray
with copper fungicides or potassium sulfide.

When both pests are present, spray with a highly refined white nuneral oil
emulsion and dust with a low "free sulfur content" dust in bright, warm
weather. In dull, cool, weather, or if powdery mildew is troublesome on lower
sides of leaves, spray M'ith a copper fungicide combined with highly refined
white mineral oil emulsi-jn.

Precautions When Using Insecticides and Fungicides.

Do not funugate with hydrocyanic acid gas as long as tliere is residue from
cojjper fungicides on the leaves.

Do not spray with highly refined white mineral oil emulsion while there is
residue from high "free sulfur content" dusts on the leaves.

Publication of this document is approved by the
Commission on Administration and Finance
5 M-ll-'28. No. 3932.

I

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 247 FEBRUARY, 1929

Biennial Report

For the Fiscal Years Ending Nov. 30, 1927 and 1928

The main purpose of this report is to provide an opportunity for
presenting in published form, recent results from experimentation in fields
or on projects where progress has not been such as to justify the general
and definite conclusions necessary to meet the requirements of bulletin or
printed manuscript.

Requests foi- Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
Trustee Committee on Experiment Station

Preston, Charles H., Hathorne, Chairman
Chandler, John, Sterling Junction
Arnold, Sarah Louise, Lincoln
Frost, Harold L., Arlington
Richardson, Carlton D., West Brookfielcl

Term Expires
1932
1928
1930
1931
1932

Gilbert, Arthur W., Belmont, State Commissioner of Agriculture, ex officio

Experiment Station Staff, December, 1928

RoscoE W. Thatcher. President of the College
SiEVERS, Fred J., Director Kenney, Fred C, Treasurer

Lindsey, Joseph B., Vice-Director Church, Lucia G., Secretary

Gaskill. Edwin F., Assistant to the Director

Beaumont, Arthur B.. Agronomy

(in charge)
Canoe, Alexander E., Agricultural

Economics (in charge)
Chenoweth, Walter W., Horticultural

Manufactures (in charge)
DoRAN, William L., Botany
Fellers, Carl R.. Horticultural

Manufactures
Fernald, Henry T., Entomology

(in charge)
Foord, James A., Farm Management

(in charge)
Frandsen, Julius H., Dairy Manufactures

(in charge)
Franklin, Henry J., Cranberries

(in charge) East Wareham
Gage, G. Edward, Bacteriology

(in charge)
Gaskill. Edwin F., Station Service

(in charge)
Graham, John C, Poultry Husbandry

(in charge)
GuNNESS, Christian I., Agricultural Engi-
neering and Meteorology (in charge)
Haskins, Henri D.. Fertilizer Law

(in charge)
Hays, Frank A., Poultry Husbandry
Hinshaw, William R., Veterinary Science
Holland, Edward B., Plant and Animal

Chemistry
Jones, John P.. Agronomy
Lentz, John B., Veterinary Science

(in charge)
Lindsey, Joseph B.. Plant and Animal

Chemistry (in charge)
Morse, Fred W., Plant and Animal

Chemistry
OSMUN, A. Vincent, Botany (in charge)
Sears, Fred C, Pomology (in charge)
Shaw. Jacob K., Pomology
Smith, Philip H., Feed, Dairy and Seed

Laws (in charge)
Van Meter, Ralph A.. Pomology
Waugh, Frank A., Vegetable Gardening

(in charge)
Wood, Basil B., Library (in charge)

Archibald, John G., Plant and Animal

Chemistry
Bailey, John S., Pomology
Bourne, Arthur I.. Entomology
Davies, Esther S., Home Economics

(in charge)

De Rose, H. Robert. Fertilizer Law
Dunlap. Glenn L., Veterinary Science
France, Ralph L., Bacteriology
Fuller, James E., Bacteriology
Goodwin. Marvin W.. Fertilizer Law
GUBA, Emil F., Botany (Waltham)
Jefferson, Lorian P.. Agricultural

Economics
Jones, Carlton P., Plant and Animal

Chemi.stry
Jones, Linus H., Botany
Kelly, Oliver W.. Seed Law
Kuzmeski, John W., Feed Law
McLaughlin, Frederick A., Feed Law
Mack, Merrill J., Dairy Manufactures
Mighell. Ronald L., Farm Management
Pyle, Norman J., Veterinary Science
RozMAN. David, Agricultural Economics
Sanders, Ellmore F., Veterinary Science
Tiedjens, Victor A., Vegetable

Gardening (Waltham)
Whitcomb, Warren D., Entomology

(Waltham)
Wright, Kenneth E., Dairy Manufactures
YoLiNT. Hubert W.. Agricultural

Economics

Alcock. James R., Plant and Animal

Chemistry
Allen, Harry L., Plant and Animal

Chemistry
Ball. Alyn S., Botany
Barton, Rena L., Pomology
Brown, Marian V., Farm Management
Church, Cornelia B.. Home Economics
Clarke. Miriam K., Veterinary Science
Cutler, Walter L.. Pomology
Dufresne. Virginia R., Agricultural

Economics
Felton, F. Ethel. Editor
Griffiths, Francis P., Horticultural

Manufactures
Howard, James T., Feed, Fertilizer and

Dairy Laws
Kelley, Joseph L., Cranberries

(East Wareham)
Miner, Gladys L, Botany
Nelson, Paul R.. Plant and Animal

Chemistry
Sanborn. Ruby. Poultry Husbandry
Sherburne. Ruth E., Agricultural

Economics
Snell, Moses E.. Agronomy
Waite, Clifton B., Veterinary Science

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 300

Department of A^zricultural Economics 301

Taxation of farm property 301

Part-time farming 301

Competitive factors influencing tlie supply of market milk and

cream in Massaciiusetts 302

The consumer demand for apples 302

The economic worth of different varieties of apples .302

The supply and market distribution of Massachusetts poultry
products. The nature of the consumer demand for poultry

products 302

Prices of eggs and poultry products 302

Department of Agronomy 303

Tobacco investigations 303

Cropping systems 303

The influence of dift'erent crops on yield and quality of tobacco 303

Field study of tobacco problems in Massachusetts 303

The effects of high applications of acid phosphate on tobacco 303
The amount of nitrogen usually required to grow tobacco

successfully 303

The form of nitrogen which produces the best yield and quality

of tobacco 303

The relation of form of nitrogen to root-rot of Havana tobacco 303

The eft'ects of inorganic and organic toxins on tobacco 304

Onion investigations 304

The role of organic matter in the production of onions 304

Lime in relation to onion growth 304

Comparison of fertilizers containing amounts of nitrogen phos-
phoric acid and potash for onions 304

Onion breeding 304

The cause of a chlorosis of corn 304

The relative eft'iciency of based and unbased sulfate of ammonia

as carriers of nitrogen 304

Alfalfa varieties 304

Ecological study of pasture vegetation 304

The nitrogen intake of certain grasses and clovers 304

Department of Bacteriology and Physiology 305

Nitrogen-fixation in relation to legumes and non-legumes under

defined agronomic conditions 305

Laboratory service 305

Department of Botany 306

Tobacco diseases 306

Black root-rot 306

Brown root-rot 307

Control of diseases of greenhouse vegetables 308

Cladosporium leaf mold of tomatoes 308

Powdery mildew of cucumber 309

Downy mildews of cucumber and lettuce 309

Eradication of nematodes and parasitic fungi in greenhouse soils 310

The rest period of gladiolus 310

Carnation blight 311

Eggplant wilt 31 1

Fungous parasites of grasses 312

A leaf-spot disease of Chinese cabbage 312

Other activities 312

The Cranberry Station 313

Injurious and beneficial insects affecting the cranberry 313

Cranberry disease work •_• 314

Weather observations with reference to frost protection 315

Blueberry investigations 315

Weeds 316

The relationship of weather to cranberry productiveness 316

Varieties

316

Department of Dairy Manufactures 316

Washing powders for dairy use 316

The quinhydrone electrode in the dairy laboratory 316

A study of packaged ice cream 316

Utilization of New England fruits in fruit ice creams 317

Department of Entomology 317

Dates of hatching of scale insects and when to spray for them 317

Investigation of materials which promise value in insect control 317

Control of onion thrips 317

Spray residue problem and its relation to orchard practices 317

Adaptation of the recommended si)ray schedule for the control

of orchard insects to eastern Massachusetts conditions 318

Control of the plum curculio in apples 318

Control of red spiders on greenhouse cucumbers 318

Biology and control of garden cutworms 318

Biology and control of the carrot rust fly 319

Department of Farm Management 319

Enterprise relationships and farm organizations on selected dairy

farms in western Massachusetts 319

The place of poultry production on Massachusetts farms 319

Types of farming in Massachusetts^l84n-1925 319

Factors responsible for variations in ])hysical production and

economic costs of milk in Massachusetts 320

Other activities of the department 320

Feed Control Service 320

Feed control 320

Seed control 321

Dairy law 321

Advanced registry testing 321

Miscellaneous work 321

Fertilizer Control Service 322

Fertilizer inspection 322

Miscellaneous analytical work 323

Vegetation pot experiment 323

Department of Home Economics Research 324

The food consumption of rural school children in relation to

their health : 324

Present practices of Massachusetts elementary schools with re-
gard to school feeding and transportation, and their effect

upon healtii of i)upils 324

Department of Hort'.cultural Manufactures 325

The extraction of fruit juices by heat 325

Manufacture and preservation of cranberry products 325

Utilization of on'ons by cann'ng 325

The nitrogen distribution of the edible portion of the onion 326

Utilization of New England fruits in fro/.en dairy jiroducts 326

Department of Landscape Gardening 326

Lawns and lawn grasses and lawn management 326

Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry 327

The efficiency of copper fungicides 327

Nitrogen intake of Havana tobacco in relation to nitrogen syn-
thesis and (|uallty of leaf 327

Nitrogen fixation in the presence of or as a result of the growth
of legumes versus non-legumes under certain defined agron-
omic conditions 327

Chemical changes in the cranberry during rii)ening and after

harvesting 328

A study of the availability of soil potash with the object of

developina- a system of diagnosis for the soils of the state 328

Utilization of onions by canning 328

Lime penetration resulting from surface application to i^isture

land : 329

Record of the Station herd 329

Milk substitutes in the growing of young calves 329

The value of calcium phosphate in the promotion of growth and

milk production 330

The mineral constituents of forage crops 330

Mineral requirements for the growth of dairy heifers 330

Department of Pomolo'iv 331

The interrelation of stociv and scion in apples 331

Tree characters of fruit varieties 331

The genetic coiiijiosition of peaches 331

He;td formation in apple trees 332

Testing methods of pruning 332

Effect of pruning on bearing apple trees 332

Comparison of cultivation and sod in a bearing orchard 332

Comparison of clover sod and grass in sod mulch orchard 332

Test of different amounts of nitrate of soda 333

Comparison of cultivation and heavy mulching for apples and

pears ' 333

The effects of fertilizer limitation on fruit plants 333

Role of potash and lime in fruit tree nutrition 333

Effect of jiotash and lime on aii])le trees 334

Study of varieties of tree fruits 334

The cultivation of the high bush cranberry 334

Fruit bud formation in the strawberry 334

Work not on a project basis 335

Cross-pollination and sterility studies with certain apple

varieties 335

The effect of freezing temperatures on apples 335

Studies of the arsenical residue on apples 335

Light pruning of young grapevines 335

Department of Poultry Husbandry 336

Broodiness in poidtry 336

Breeding poultry for egg production 336

Statistical study of heredity in Rhode Island Red breed of poultry 336

A genetic study of Rhode Island Red color 336

Determination of genetic laws governing results in inbreeding

poultry 33 7

Hereditary and environmental factors affecting variability in

egg production 337

Factors governing egg weight and shell character in domestic fowl 337

Relation of intensity or rate of laving to feather pigmentation 337

Department of Vegetable Gardening (Waltham) 338

Conditions affecting the production and vegetative propagation

of Washington asparagus 338

The genetics of greenhouse cucumbers 339

Cold resistance in sweet corn in its relation to quality, size

and earliness 33'9

Factors influencing the heading of greenhouse lettuce 340

The impro\ement of beets through selection of roots and seed

production S"^"

The improvement of carrots through selection of roots and seed

production 340

Department of Veterinary Science 340

The standardization of avian diphtheria, roup or bird pox virus
and vaccines with special reference to improving the treat-
ment of the disease 340

Laboratory service 340

Poultry disease elimination law 340

Special Tobacco Investigations 341

Publications ^^^

Changes in Staff 3*8

BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT

STATION

1927 AND 1928

INTRODUCTION
F. J. Sievers, Director

The last half century has seen vast progress in all lines of industrial
development and this applies with special significance to agriculture. Many
agricultural practices, still in the experimental stage no more than a few
decades ago, are now so commonly accepted that they have been intro-
duced into every day farm use. The more general introduction of scien-
tific methods into various phases of industry for purposes of greater
efi'iciency and service has made necessary pronounced readjustments of
formerly well established practices. Such modifications not infrequently
result in temporary hardships, the degree of which is more or less pro-
portional to the rapidity with which these adjustments are made. Changes
in agricultural jjractices have been very pronounced since the world war,
and the hardships which may be referred to as "growing pains" have
been especially evident during these last several years. Drastic readjust-
ments in an industry as decidedly basic as agriculture can not help but
be felt in most other activities, and as a result have their effect on the
social and economic life of the entire consuming public.

The changes that agriculture has undergone in recent years can be
ratlier definitely associated with some very interesting social and econom-
ic adjustments.

They are making it no longer necessary to farm much of the marginal
land which in the past, even at its best, was unable to supply more than
the bare necessities of life for the immediate farmer and his family.

They are having a pronounced effect on the occupation of the marginal
farmer who, due to a lack of interest or ability, is not keeping pace with
the new developments and as a result can no longer produce agricultural
jiroducts at a figure that assures the net profit required for a satisfactory
living.

They are releasing for use in other industrial fields a large amount of
labor whose service, because of more efficient practice, is no longer re-
quired in agricultural production.

They have, because of increased comjietition, encouraged nuire thorough
consideration of consumer's demand which has resulted in a more ade-
quate supply of high quality agricultural products.

They are making farm life more attractive through the introduction
of machinery as a substitute for hand labor, thus eliminating much of
the former drudgery.

They are gradually decreasing the destructive competition in agricul-
ture that comes from the farmer who unknowingly produces many products
at an actual loss. The greater complexity in the industry today is elimin-
ating the farmer who is not willing or able to keep the required accoTints
and records showing cost of production.

They are intensifying farm work to the point where it requires less time
to perform a day's labor than formerly, thus making farm life more

RIKNNIAL RKPORT, 1927 AND 1928 301

desirable by providing more time for leisure and greater opportunities
for recreation.

They are demanding a better equipped and more intelligent rural popu-
lation because the effective application of modern scientific developments
to agricultural practice can utilize to advantage the best preparation that
our educational institutions can supply.

Since these and many other changes or transformations in our social
and industrial life have taken jilace during tlie jieriod that agricultural
experiment statMMis have been in existence, and since these institutions
were primarily established to furnish the consuming public with a more
abundant and satisfactory sil])ply of life's essentials, it is reasonable that
the experiment stations should be given at least a considerable portion of
the credit for the results.

'I'hat the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station has played a
prominent part in this field is evidenced by the results of its findings as
published from time to time in bulletins, in scientific and technical jour-
nals, and in Director's reports. This report shows the progress made dur-
ing the last two->ear period on those jirojects that have been a<'tively
pursued.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Alexander E. Cance in Charge

Research work in agricultural economics, 1926-28, has been conducted
along three general lines, one dealing with the taxation of farm property,
one with jiart-time farming, and the third with economic problems of food
production and distribution.

Taxation of Farm Property. (Hubert W. Yount). This project was
undertaken to discover the important facts relating to farm taxes and
public ex]ienditures in the State. The study was divided into two parts
and the first part, relating to assessment practice and taxation problems
on the individual farm, was published in 1927 as Bulletin 235, "Farm
Taxes and Assessments in Massachusetts". In this study inequalities in
assessments were analyzed and certain remedies were proposed.

The second part of the project is an analysis of public expenditures
in Massachusetts from 1910 to 1926, showing the increased expenditures
for various purposes in towns of different sizes. The increase in rural
towns is analyzed in considerable detail. It is intended that this section
be. i)ublislied as "The Cost of Government in Massachusetts, with Particular
Reference to Small Towns".

Part-Time Farming. (David Rozinan). It is intended to investigate
the nature of land utilization and agricultural developments in the vicin-
ity of the industrial centers of the State. To obtain an adequate picture
of part-time farming, it is proposed to investigate at least three different
sections of the State. The survey is already completed in the first area
selected for investigation, which included four towns in the vicinity of
Lowell. A number of part-time farmers were visited with a detailed
questionnaire, taking the history of their occupations, date of settling on
the land, extent of farming operations, living conditions, and earnings
both on the farm and outside of it. .\ total of 115 part-time farmers
were visited in tlws district, and the material assembled is now being
tabulated.

302 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 247

At present a similar investigation is being carried on in the vicinity
of Taunton and Fall River. Before the conipyttion of this project it is
j)]anned to investigate also the conditions of part-time farming around
W.orcester or Fitchburg.

Competitive Factors Influencing the Supply of Market Milk and Cream
in Massachusetts. (R. J. McFall'). "A Study of the Milk Supply in
Massachusetts", published as Bulletin 236, is divided into three sections.
The first gives the requirements for the State, and local and outside sup-
plies which meet them. The second, taking Springfield as a typical urban
district, shows the amount consumed there, and the area drawn upon to
supply this demand. The third discusses the extent to whicli the milk ])ro-
duction of Massachusetts depends upon feed from outside sources.

"Tendencies in Milk Production in Massachusetts," unpublished, in-
cludes statistics of the recent changes in numbers of cows, in yield per
cow, and in milk production. The industry appears to be on a sound
basis. Its greatest development has been in sections of the most dense
human farm population.

The Consumer Demand for Apples. (Lorian P. Jefferson). Tlie first
part of this project, already published as Bulletin 243, is entitled, "The
Mcintosh Apple on the New York Market."

The second part of this project considers the demand from the points
of view of dealers and consumers, and in relation to prices and wages.
This is now ready for publication.

The third section, not yet complete, deals with the competition of apples
with other fruits, and between the different varieties of apples.

The Economic Worth of Different Varieties of Apples. (Lorian P. Jeffer-
son). This project has been under way for two years and it is planned to
continue it for at least two years more. It looks to obtain definite inform-
ation as to which varieties are most profitable for the Massachusetts
grower.

The study of eggs and poultry comprises two sections. (1) The
Supply and Market Distribution of Massachusetts Poultry Products. (Hu-
bert W. Yount). The purpose of this project is to analyze the amount
and quality of Massachusetts poultry products, the marketing methods used
by poultrymen, and the nature and extent of the market demand for
local poultry products. Data have been collected to show the relative im-
portance of various marketing methods, together with the principal de-
fects in the methods used. A portion of the material has been summarized
in articles for extension use and a general summary is being prepared
for publication as a bulletin of the Experiment Station.

A second part of this project is concerned with the Nature of Consumer
Demand for Poultry Products. (Lorian P. Jefferson). Data are to be col-
lected from retail stores and from consumers in order better to under-
stand consumers' buying habits.

(2) Prices of Eggs and Poultry Products. (Hubert W. Yount). This
project is subdivided into three parts. One is concerned with the move-
ment of egg prices in Boston and aims to discover normal price move-
ments, the long-time trend, seasonal variation, relations between prices of
different grades, relations between farm, wholesale, jobbing and retail
prices.

' This project was suspended with the resignation of R. J. McFall. It has now been
resumed under the leadership of A. E. Cance.

BIENNIAf. REPORT. 1927 AND 1928 303

The second part is a statistical analysis of factors affecting prices, using
multiple correlation methods. The relative importance of various supply
and demand factors has been determined, both over a period of years,
and for different seasons.

The third part of the project is a statistical analysis of the relation
between egg quality and price.

Parts one and two have been completed. Part three will be completed
in 1929. It is expected that each part will be published separately as an
Experiment Station bulletin.

In addition to these organized projects, the department has been con-
cerned with other interested departments in studies defining the present
economic position of various farm enterprises in the State. Two of these
studies have already been published as extension bulletins, "Potatoes in
Massachusetts Farm Economy", and "Dairy Replacements in Massachu-
setts". Studies are also under way dealing with onions, poultry and cer-
tain other aspects of the dairy industry.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY

A. B. Beaumont in Charge

Tobacco Investigations

Cropping Systems. (J. P. Jones). The outstanding results to date
are: (1) the failure of tobacco in rotation with corn and hay, (2) lack of
positive benefit from the use of timothy, rye or redtop as cover crops for
toll !cco, and (3) best yield and quality obtained with tobacco growing
every year on the same land.

The Influence of Different Crops on Yield and Quality of Tobacco.
(1. P. Jones). Corn and liay have been most detrimental, witii potatoes
and onions the least. Tobacco after tobacco has been in most cases better
than after potatoes and equal to that after onions.

F eld Study of Tobacco Production in Massachusetts. (A. B. Beaumont).
D'ta collected from 232 tobacco farms supported findings at the Station
reafve to soil management and cropping systems. For example, it was
found that tobacco grown continuously yielded better than tobacco in
rotation, that cover crops were slightly detrimental, and that lime and
ashes reduced yields.

The Effects of High Applications of Acid Phosphate on Tobacco. (J. P.
Jones). Indications are that, on land growing poor tobacco even though
well fertilized, rather iieavy applications of acid phosphate will improve the
yield and quality of tobacco.

The Amount of Nitrogen Usually Required to Grow Tobacco Success-
fully. (J. P. Jones). The results indicate that from 1-50 to 200 pounds
of nitrogen ]ier acre are necessary for satisfactory growth of tobacco.

The Form of Nitrogen Which Produces the Best Yield and Quality of
Tobacco. (A. B. Beaumont). Results of this investigation to date point
strongly to the conclusion that the nitrate form of nitrogen is, among
many inorganic and organic forms, the most readily assimilated by, and
produces the best quality of Havana tobacco.

The Relation of Form of Nitrogen to Root-rot of Havana Tobacco.
(A. B. Beaumont). Evidence thus far secured, not conclusive, in-
dicates that the nitrate form of nitrogen tends to counteract the so-
called brown root-rot of Havana tobacco. Ammonium compounds in low

S04 MASwS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 247

concentrations cause a poor root development often accompanied by
symptoms similar to brown root-rot.

The Effects of Inorganic and Organic Toxins on Tobacco. (.). I'.

Jones). Studies thus far have been witii aluminum. The results under
some conditions have indicated aluminum to be severely toxic, under other.s
less so. More work will be necessary under better controlled conditions
before the toxicity of aluminum will l)e well understood.

Onion Investigations

The Role of Organic Matter in the Production of Onions. (J. l\

Jones). The first part of this project has consisted of an effort to grow
onions in sand cultures deficient in organic matter. This has not proved
possible, and further development of technique will be necessary before
definite progress may be reported. The second part of the project has
been a study of cover croj^s for onions. Thus far, no benefit to the onion
croj) has been sliown from the use of either clovers or grasses as a cover
crop.

Lime in Relation to Onion Growth. (J. P. Jones). Applications of
lime have been shown to increase the yields of onions very markedly on
acid soils. Much of the onion land of the Valley has been found to be
acid, and upon a soil test, recommendations to apply lime are being made
quite generally.

Comparison of Fertilizers Containing Different Amounts of Nitrogen,
Phosphoric Acid and Potash for Onions. (J. P. Jones). The outstand-
ing result has been the notable response obtained with the fertilizer rela-
tively high in phosphoric acid and potash — a 4-12-8.

Onion Breeding. (J. P. Jones). Notable differences are already ap-
pearing in sonic of the strains, but tlie work is too yoimg to rejiort very
definite residts.

The Cause of a Chlorosis of Corn. (,l. I*. Jones). The data show
quite conclusively that this chlorosis of corn is due to a lack of magnesium.
It can be corrected by applications of high magnesian lime and by mag-
nesium sidfate.

The Relative Efficiency of, Based and Unbased Sulfate of Ammonia as
Carriers of Nitrogen .(A. B. BeauiiU)nt). It has been claimed that the mixing
of acid jihosjihate and aiumonium sulfate, and the curing of the mixture
in storage, a process known to the trade as "basing", produces a product
superior to the unbased materials. Extensive pot tests have proved that
tliere is no adxantage from this jiroccss so far as jilant growth is concerned.

Alfalfa Varieties. (A. B. Beaumont). One year's results have shown
that certain strains of alfalfa originating in southern climates are not
winter-hardy in Massachusetts. Thus far no differences in hardiness at-
tributable to dift'erential fertilizer treatment have been detected.

Ecological Study of Pasture Vegetation. (A. B. Beaumont). Striking
changes in tlie character of iiasture xegetation have been secured by toii-
dressings of lime, superphosphate and muriate of potash. A weedy growth
consisting largely of cinquefoil and moss has been replaced with white
clover, bhie grass and redtop.

The Nitrogen Intake of Certain Grasses and Clovers. (A. B. Beaumont).
The pur{>ose of this project is to secure fundamental data on the nutri-
tion of the most conmion grasses and clovers relative to nitrogen. No
conclusive results have been obtained to date.

BIENNIAL RETORT, 1927 AND 1928 305

DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
G. E. Gage in Charge

Nitrogen-Fixation in Relation to Legumes and Non-legumes under De-
fined Agronomic Conditions. (James E. Fuller'). The plan followed has
been to study soils of different units to determine tlie ability of these
units to fix atmospheric nitrogen; to isolate organisms from the units and
study the distribution of nitrogen-fixing organisms as compared with the
nitrogen-fixing power of the soil units; and lastly to study factors which
may influence the presence and activity of nitrogen-fixing organisms
isolated in these studies.

The units, as suggested above, were obtained by dividing the experi-
mental j)lot into twenty-four units, so treated as to give the following
experimental conditions:

1. LTnits planted with legumes and receiving fertilizer.

2. LTnits planted with legumes but not receiving fertilizer.

3. Units receiving fertilizer but not planted with legumes.

4. Units not receiving fertilizer and not planted with legumes.
The fertilizers used were ammonium sulfate, sodium nitrate or dry

ground fish.

Each season, after the crops were harvested, nitrogen determinations
were made on both soil and croj). It had been expected that units imder
No. 1 would show the highest nitrogen content, under No. 4 the lowest,
and under Nos. 2 and 3 somewhere between. However, the results have
been inconsistent. It was assumed from this that the reason might pos-
sibly be found by making a biological survey of the plots to determine
the possible influence of micoorganlsms on the nitrogen content of the
soil.

The nitrogen-fixing ptiwer of the soil units has been determined. An
organism belonging to the genus Azotobacter has been isolated and desig-
nated as 9A. It has been found to possess definite nitrogen-fixing power
and to be widely distributed in the plot units showing the greatest nitro-
gen-fixing power. Other organisms have been isolated and studied, among
them being several strains of Actinomyces. These Actinomyces exhibit a
tendency to use the nitrogen fixed by Azotobacter 9 A and other strains of
Azotobacter when cidtured with them in a synthetic medium.

Studies are now under way to determine whether the nitrogen-fixation
in the different soil units is constant and also to establish how imiformly
distributed in the units is this new species Azotobacter 9A. Studies are
also being made of factors which influence the presence and activity of
Azotobacter 9A. These include hydrogen-ion values of the soil, availabil-
ity of various carbohydrates as sources of energy, and the effect of organic
and inorganic compoimds.

It is hoped that the data accumulated in this study may furnish the
basis of practical methods by which the nitrogen-fixing organisms naturally
pretient In s-oil may be stimulated to greater activity.

Laboratory Service. (Raljih L. France). This service was established
July 1, 1928, for the purpose of supplying to the residents of Massachusetts
information concerning problems of sanitation and bacteriology; of pro-
viding laboratory service for the study and solution of bacteriological
problems; and of improving methods of analysis and procedure.

^ Mf. Fuller took charge of the work in 1928 ; previous to that time it was carried
on by Dr. Leon A. Bradley.

306 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 247

Practical and theoretical information has been disseminated by letters
and directly by personal interviews. Tali<s and lectures are delivered
upon request of organizations and communities. The following types of
laboratory service are offered to residents of the state, at cost:

1. Bacteriological analyses of food and food products, milk and milk
products, and water.

2. Chemical analyses of milk and water.

3. Preparation and distribution of viable and efficient cultures of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria for leguminous crops.

4. Testing of nitrogen-fixing bacteria for quality.

5. Bacteriological examinations concerning sewage disposal.

G. Bacteriological examinations of swimming tank waters for purity.

The Service is but in its infancy. However, during the time of opera-
tion some seven hundred examinations have been completed, and the vari-
ous types of analyses requested to date appear to justify the establishment
of the work.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
A. Vincent Osmun in Charge

Tobacco Diseases. (W. L. Doran).

Black Root-Rot. Study of soil reaction in relation to recovery after
infestation with Thielavia has been continued on the Tillson Farm plots and
in the greenhouse. In 1927, neither tobacco, alfalfa, nor timothy removed
enough lime from the soil to increase soil acidity. In 1928, limed plots
(lime last applied in 1923) on which timothy or alfalfa had been grown
two years were not as acid as similar plots on which tobacco had been
grown. Apparently the growing of alfalfa or timothy is not to be re-
garded as a cure for tobacco ''soil sickness" caused by too much lime
and resulting in black root-rot.

The soil in limed plots treated with inoculated sulfur or sulfuric and
orthophosphoric acids had pH values of 5.6 to 5.8, while limed plots not
so treated had pH values of 5.9 to 6.0. The slight increase in soil acidity
was sufficient to reduce the infection of Thielavia. Only a trace of
black root-rot was found in 1927 on tobacco in limed plots to which acids
were applied in two consecutive years. Root-rot was severe on limed
plots not acidified.

In 1928, the limed plots had pH values of 6.01 to 6.10, which is favor-
able to black root-rot; unlimed plots had 5.00 to 5.33, which is too acid for
black root-rot. It is evident that the soil made "tobacco sick" with black
root-rot because of too generous liming may require as long as six years
to return to an acid condition unfavorable to black root-rot.

Temperature tank records in 1926 indicate that in soil with a pH value
of 5.9, black root-rot may be severe at soil temperatures below 75°F.
Above this temperature black root-rot is not of consequence. In 1927
and 1928, soil temperatures in a limed plot on the Tillson Farm were
generally low enough to favor infection of tobacco by Thielavia.

Tobacco on limed soil acidified in two successive years by treatment
with sulfur or sulfuric acid and orthophosphoric acid was relatively
free from black root-rot. This was true also on limed soil treated with
acetic acid, but acetic acid does not permanently change the reaction of
the soil and hence the effect would seem to be due to disinfection by the
acid rather than to change in the pH value of the soil

BIENNIAL REP( RT, ]»27 AND 1928 307

Acetic acid used as a soil disinfectant in tobacco seed-beds infested with
Tliielavia and "daniping-off" fungi has given excellent results. This treat-
ment has been applied to a number of commercial beds and considerable
data should be available in 1929.

As a corollary of this feature of the work, acetic acid was tried as a
soil disinfectant for the control of damping-off of red pine seedlings in a
forest nursery. Very promising results were obtained.

Both monochloracetic acid and formic acid failed to prevent infection of
tobacco by Thielavia.

Yield of tobacco on limed plots was much less than on similar plots
whicii had been acidified by either sulfur or sulfuric and orthophos-
])horic acids.

riiosphoric acid alone was found to favor black root-rot as does lime.
Since both of these substances are known to inactivate aluminum in acid
soils experiments have been undertaken to determine whether ahiminum
may be in part responsible for the inhibition of Thielavia in acid soils.

i'ot experiments were conducted during the winter of 1926-1927 to
determine the effect of lime on tobacco in the absence of Thielavia.
Lime in tlie presence of Thielavia was associated with a loss in yield of
tobacco; lime in the absence of Thielavia was associated with a decided
gain, which indicates that lime in the absence of Thielavia is beneficial to
tobacco.

In experiments conducted to determine the effect of soil temperature
oil the response of tobacco to lime in the absence of Thielavia, it was
found that the greatest benefit from lime was at soil temperatures of 24°
to 8()°C. At soil temperatures of 20° to 15°C lime actually retarded
growth of tobacco.

On the basis of the sorting record and burn tests of the tobacco grown
on tiie Tillson Farm plots in 1927 it was concluded: that the quality was
much poorer on plots with too much lime than on plots with no lime;
that the quality on limed plots was improved by the application of acid-
ifying chemicals to the soil; that lime or the absence of lime did not signifi-
cantly affect fire-holding capacity of the leaf, and that the fire-holding
capacity of the leaf from limed plots was improved by certain acidifying
treatments of the soil.

No infection of alfalfa by Thielavia was found in limed plots known
to be infested with this fungus. Alfalfa does not appear to be a common
host of this fungus, and were it not for brown root-rot alfalfa probably
could be safely rotated with tobacco. Severe brown root-rot occurred on
tobacco which followed alfalfa, timothy, or alsike clover.

Brown Root-Rot. The occurrence of brown root-rot on tobacco grown
on soil in which a cover crop of timothy has been turned imder and be-
come partially decomposed is a matter of common observation. This
suggested a study of the effect on tobacco roots of timothy infusions of
different ages applied to the soil.

Wiien such infusions were applied to soil in which tobacco plants were
growing, the effect on the tobacco was found to be sometimes harmless
and sometimes very injurious depending on the age of the infusions, that
is, on the stage of the decomposition of the timothy. The response of
plants to an infusion of a given age was influenced b}' the proportion of
tops to roots of timothy tised or by the temperature at which the de-
composition process went on. These infusions of timothy which retarded
the growth of tobacco plants produced on their roots brown discolora-
tions and lesions apparently of the same type as those which, in the field.

308 MASS. KXPKRIMKNT STATION RUI^I.ETIN 21.7

have given rise to the luuiie brown root-rot. Tlie.se results lend support to
the iiypothesis that brown root-rot of tobacco is the expression of the in-
jurious etfect on tobacco roots of one or more toxic substances which are
formed from, and at certain stages in, the decomposition of vegetable or-
ganic matter, more especially the residues of certain slowly decomposing
crops sucii as timothy.

(JheMiical analyses of timotiiy infusions prepared at one week inter-
vals were made by Professor Henri D. Haskins. The oldest infusions
v/hich in previous experiments were less toxic to tobacco contained the
least ammoniacal nitrogen; but the age at which the content of ammoniacal
nitrogen was greatest did not exactly coincide with the age at which in-
fusions similarly made were in previous exjieriments most toxic to to-
bacco.

Treatment of brown root-rot soil with^formaldehyde is known to result
in less of the disease on tobacco subsequently grown on sucii soil. In ex-
periments to test the effect of certain acids on brown root-rot, acetic acid
was found to have a like effect.

Neither sulfuric nor nitric acid, in amounts sufficient to lower the pH
value of tiie soil 0.2 to 0.3, liad any effect on the brown root-rot of tobac-
co grown in this soil.

In field experiments on land previously planted to timothy which had
been jtreceded by corn, the yield per acre of cured tobacco leaf was 16
per cent greater in tlie acetic acid-treated plot tiian in tlie untreated
check. Orthophosphoric acid gave 17 per cent increase.

In pot experiments, thorough washing or leaching of the soil was fol-
lowed by some reduction in brown root-rot. But water used in leaching
did not induce the disease when used to water tobacco grown in steamed
soil.

In the Tillson Farm plots, brovvn root-rot was severe following alfalfa,
timothy and alsike clover in the rotation and the intensity of the disease
was approximately the same on limed and unlimed plots.
Control of Diseases of Greenhouse Vegetables. (E. F. Guba, Waltham).

Cladosporium Leaf-Mold of Tomatoes. Fundamental studies in the
laboratory have included the action of fungicides on germinating spores,
the relation of environment to the epidemiology of the disease and the ap-
plication of some of the findings to control practices in the greenhouse.

Of the fungicides tested, only vaporized sulfur proved of merit. Suc-
cessful control both in the laboratory and on spring and fall crops in com-
mercial greenhouses was obtained by vaporizing sulfur at frequent inter-
vals. The utilization of heat in the steam pipes proved impracticable
because it is seldom possible to obtain steam pressure sufficiently high
to jirovide the proper temperature for active generation of sulfur vapor.
Furthermore, few houses are steam-heated in the early fall and in the
absence of artificial heat conditions usually prevail which favor epidemics
of leaf-mold. It became necessary, therefore, to devise some other method
of vaporizing the sulfur. The need was met by the development of simple
electrical apparatus for this purpose and the equipment has been in-
stalled and succcessfully used in several commercial houses.

In the study of environmental relations, it was found that spore germ-
ination and subsequent vegetative growth of the fungus occur at tempera-
tures from 40° to 95°F. with the optimum at 75° to 80°F. Traces of
spore germination were obtained at relative humidities of 98 and 99 per
cent, but normal and general germination occurred only in a nu")isture-
saturated atmosphere and water proved to provide the ideal medium.

BIKNNIAL REPORT, 1927 AND 1928 309

Germination did not occur at a relative iiuinidity below 98 per cent. In
the greenhouse, it was found that a moisture-saturated atmosphere, and
especially water of transpiration on the foliage, without adequate ventila-
tion, the use of heat with ventilation, and proper watering to avoid condi-
tions favorable to infection, gave excellent control of tlie disease. In the
spring of 1928, total yields of No, 1 and No. 2 grade tomatoes were in-
creased by 2.83 pounds per plant and the value by 81 cents per plant as
a result of these management practices. In the house so managed, 2.08
per cent of the leaflets showed infection as compared with 4-5.09 per cent
in the check house.

A technical paper entitled "Fungicidal Control of Cladosporium Leaf-
Moid Disease on Greenhouse Tomatoes" has been prepared for early
pulilic.-ition.

Powdery Mildew of Cucumbers. Work on this project has been com-
pleted and the results published in Bulletin 246. (See list of publications).
Downy Mildews of Cucumber and Lettuce. (W. L. Doran). Field ex-
periments with sulfur and copper-lime dusts as fungicides for the control
of cucumber mildew were conducted in 1927. With 10 applications of
copper-lime dust beginning prior to the appearance of the disease, yield
of cucumbers was increased 97 per cent over the undusted check, and with
7 applications beginning with the first appearance of the disease, the in-
crease was 54 per cent. Sulfur failed to control the disease and was toxic
to the cucumber foliage. In laboratory experiments sulfur was inferior
to coi)per fungicides in preventing infection, but sulfur was more eflFectrve
than copper in preventing sporulation of the mildew fungus when applied
to leaves after inoculation or during the incubation period.

The manner of overwintering of Pseudoperonospora cuhensis (B. «Sc C.)
Rostow. is not known. Cucumber leaves killed by mildew were examined in
September hut xielded no evidence of oospore formation. In 1927 and
1928, oosjiore-iike bodies .ajipeared in the decayed tissues of infected
cucumber plants buried over winter in the soil. Failure ;ittended attempts
both to germinate these bodies and to oljtain infection by inoculating with
them.

In the cour.'t^e of this study it has been found that the youngest leaves of
cucumber are not susceptible to infection by downy mildew and that
this is due, apparently, to two factors: (1) such leaves are w^et with
difficulty, (2) their stomata are closed.

It was found that in the presence of dew, rain is not necessary for the
sporulation of P. cuhensis, germination of the conidia and infection, but
that rain is the most important factor in the rapid dissemination of the
fungus.

In the greenhouse, spread of the fungus was completely stopped by re-
moving infected leaves when first seen and by maintaining a low^ humidity.
Work on Br&mia lactucae Reg., downy mildew of lettuce, has included
preliminary studies of host relations, susceptibility of lettuce varieties,
longevity of conidia in the soil and spraying of lettuce seedlings for mildew
[)revention.

Bordeaux mixture proved injurious to seedling lettuce. Its effect on
the mildew was not definitely determined because of a low^ degree of in-
fection.

Conidia of the fungus failed to remain alive in the soil.
Tests with the two varieties grown commercially in Massachusetts, Bel-
mont and May King, revealed Belmont as very susceptible and May King
as very resistant to mildew.

"310 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 24.7

On the basis of this tinding, Mr. V. A. Tiedjens of the Market Garden
Field Station has made crosses of these varieties in an effort to deveh)])
a mildew-resistant variety which will head well in winter, poor heading
being an objectionable characteristic of May King. At least one promis-
ing selection has been made.

Eradication of Nematodes and Parasitic Fungi in Greenhouse Soils.
(L. H. Jones). It has been learned through clay pot studies that single
api>lications of calcium cyanide to amounts as high as 9600 pounds per
acre are ineffective in eradicating nematodes from a gall-infested soil.
However, wiien tiie soil is Infested with (mly the motile phase 1200
pounds per acre gives eradication. In an effort to determine the resistant
phase, work was centered u})on eggs of the "brown cyst" stage. The
longest case observed required thirty-nine days for such eggs to hatch.
By making three applications each of 1200 pounds ])er acre at weekly
intervals, it was found possible to eradicate nematodes in the soil when
all stages were present in galls of a half inch diameter. This method
was not successful in the dry hot days of summer.

The problem was then developed on the hypothesis that if the hydrocy-
anic acid gas, which forms when calcium cyanide reacts with moisture,
can be kept in the soil a sufficient length of time the nematodes in all
stages will eventually succumb to its lethal character. Investigations con-
ducted in this Department have produced evidence that an acetic acid-
treated soil has some properties in common with a soil that has been
partially sterilized with steam. Acetic acid alone and in two repeated
treatments was ineffective on nematodes. Yet when it was used in con-
junction with calcium cyanide complete eradication was secured in two
applications, but this combination failed when only one application was
made. This method was successful in many experiments and was further
developed to reduce labor by dissolving the calcium cyanide in a dilute
solution of acetic acid and flooding the soil with the solution. No attempt
is made to describe the physical or chemical phenomena involved in the
use of these two chemicals for soil disinfecting purposes.

It is felt that further progress on this method may be made b> sub-
stituting a dry chemical in place of the wet acetic acid. The development
of a dry chemical mixture that is effective in nematode eradication would
make it possible to eliminate this pest from large areas of land on which
the crop production is seriously limited because of this organism.

Two other methods for nematode eradication were attempted. It was
found that by keeping the water-holding capacity above 80 per cent the
formation of galls on tomato roots could be reduced to almost none.
However, the plants do not grow well imder such conditions. It was
also learned that the nematodes were not destroyed by keeping the soil
flooded for a month. This was determined by evaporating some of the
water and growing tomato plants imder normal soil moisture conditions.

A condition of extreme drought, on the other hand, gives complete
eradication. Galls were introduced into air-dry soil. Every half week
some pots were removed, watered and tomato seed planted. The nema-
todes did not survive more than two weeks under these air-dry condi-
tions. If the relative humidity is similar to that of a normal August, then
three weeks are necessary. Such an extreme condition of desiccation is
not practical for other than potting soils, flats, pots, greenhouse parts, or
tools, all of which may be sources of serious contamination.

The Rest Period of Gladiolus. (L. H. Jones.) The particular object
in altering the rest-period of gladiolus is to produce out-of-season blooms,

BIKNNIAL RKPORT, 1927 AND 1928 311

[)articularly for the early winter season. It has been learned that conns
may be kept in cold storage during the sununer and phinted in early
October. Thus the rest-period is altered by prolonging it. Though good
plants resulted from such stored corn)s, these plants did not produce
blossoms except in instances for which no explanation can be given. Four
varieties were planted each with a range of soil temperature from 50° to
95° F. at intervals of five degrees. These soil temperatures were kept
constant by automatic temperature tank apparatus. Of the four varieties,
(Albania, Arlon, Los Angeles, and Wilbrink) Arlon produced three spikes
of blooms. There were four plants at each temperature and each spike
of blossoms was at a different temperature. Thus no conclusions can be
drawn from soil temperatures in their relation to blooming. The ap-
pearance of the plants indicated that the best growth was obtained be-
tween the temperatures of 65° and S5 F.

Since soil temperatures had no effect on blossoming, histological study
has been made relative to the formation of the floral tissue. The results
indicate that in the variety used. Crimson Glow, differentiation occurs
and has become prominent at about five weeks from the time the corms
are planted. Under natural out-of-door conditions this would be at the
time when the daylight is becoming much longer, a fact which may
account for lack of blooms when gladiolus is planted in the autumn. Ex-
periments are now under way to ascertain if normal daylight can be
supplemented by artificial light in such a way that gladiolus will blossom.
Carnation Blight. (E. F. Guba, Waltham.) Study of Carnation Blight,
caused by Alternnrin dianthi S. & H., has been conducted at the Market
Garden Field Station since March, 1928. This disease and red spider are
among the most serious obstacles to successful culture of carnations
in this State. Frequent syringing of the plants with water as a control
measure for red spider is the main factor in the spread of blight in the
houses. This danger is removed b.\' the use of vajiorized naphthalene for
the control of red spider and hence if only blight-free plants are housed,
control of blight under glass becomes greatly simplified. It seems evident,
therefore, that successful control of blight in the greenhouse depends
largely on ability to prevent infection and development of the disease on
young plants in the field.

Studv of the effect of fung-icides on germinating spores at 50° and
90° F. has shown that sulfur dust is not toxic and that copper dust is
tox-'c if moisture is present. Similarly Bordeaux mixtures 2-2-50 and
4-4-50 are toxic to spores in the water drop. The toxicity of copper
fungicides is related to the length of time water is present. The lethal
action of liquid lime-sulfur in 1-10 and 1-40 dilutions at 90°F. to spores
in the water drop is noted, although it is not considered as striking as
that of Bordeaux. In general dry lime-sulfur residues are superior to
dry Bordeaux residues. This effect of lime-sulfur is most pronounced at
higher temperatures. Naphthalene vaporized at the rate of one pound
to 5,000 cubic feet, the amount recommended for controlling red spider,
exerts no lethnl effect upon the spores.

Stud.\' has revealed the value of a spreader in preventing foliage in-
fect'on. Complete foliage covering is provided by the addition of either
fish oil or linseed oil at the rate of .3 per cent of the diluted spray.

Eggplant Wilt. (E. F. Guba, WalthanO- Wilt of eggplant is caused
by the fungus VerfAcillium albo-atrwm R. & B. which enters the roots from
infested soil. Because of the impracticability of soil disinfection, the
problem of control has been approached chiefly from the standpoint of
resistance to the disease.

312 MASS. EXPERIMENT STAT1(«N BULLETIN 247

Varieties of efrg])l;ints from different parts of the world have been
grown to determine their behavior to the pathogene. Numerous types
representing a large number of varietal names have been under observa-
tion but none has shown evidence of resistance to the disease. Since it
is believed that all distinct varieties have been grown and none has proved
of any merit for crossing, this phase of the problem has been discontinued.

A pai)er mulch test conducted this year offered indication of being a
means of controlling the disease. Since infection rarely occurs above
an average temperature of 77°F., control of the disease by mulching the
plants with paper appears promising.

Studies on the relation of soil reaction to infection and growtli of egg-
plants are in progress.
Fungous Pcirasites of Grasses. (VV. H. Davis).

1. Sclerotium rhizodes Awd. is the cause of a sclerotial disease which
kills the leaves of grasses over large areas in meadows, pastures and lawns.
The disease is prevalent in Massachuetts and has been observed in all the
New England states. It appears in April and disappears in Jime of the
same year. It reduces the carrying capacity of pastures, cuts the hay
yield in meadows as much as 30 per cent and prevents grass plants from
maturing seed. The life-history of the fungus has been determined in part
and it is hoped that this phase of the study will be completed in the near
future.

2. There appear to be two distinctly dift'erent diseases, each known
as "brown patch", which occur as dead areas in lawns and golf greens.
From one of these, which has been designated as "little brown patch", a
species of Fusarium has been isolated in five out of seven cases. This
Fusarium killed redtop seedlings grown in sterilized compost soil into
which the fungus was introduced. Collections of this disease have been
made in Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York.

From the second and more common of these diseases, "large brown
patch", Rkizoctonia solani Kiihn has been isolated. Inoculations of grasses
with this fungus produced the characteristic disease when atmospheric
conditions were "warm and damp." Mercuric compounds controlled the
disease.

3. "Snow mold" was observed on lawn grasses about the campus in
1927 and 1928 during the spring; it ai>]ieared also on golf greens and
fields. In 1927, it appeared first in February and continued until June.
The grasses were not seriously injured by it. Eleven specimens, three from
New York, one from Connecticut and seven from Massachusetts, showed
the fimgus to be a species of Fusarium.

4. Striped smut of grasses {UntUapo strmeformis (Westd.) Niessl.) has
been studied during the last five years. Its life-history has been determined
and published. That there are biologic forms of the fungus was indicated
by the fact that spores from timothy did not infect redtop, and vice
versa. None of the agronomic strains of timothy ]>roved immime to this
smut, but some are more resistant than others.

A Leaf-spot Disease of Chinese Cabbage, Caused by an Alternaria.
(W. H. Davis.) The disease has been observed each autumn since 1923.
Spores measure 5-29 x 7-103 microns as compared with those of A. hrassieae
(Berk.) Sacc. on common cabbage reported as 10-30 x 35-120 microns.
However, inoculations indicate that the two fungi are physiologically
identical.

Other Activities. In the absence of an Extension specialist in the De-
partment, members of the staff are called upctn to render considerable ex-

BIENNIAL RETORT, 3«27 AND 1928 313

tension service on a variety of subjects coining within tlie scope of our
work. This includes correspondence, response to telephone calls, per-
sonal conferences at the offices, a limited number of field visits, lectures
on request and the preparation of informational literature. During a year
some 500 letters are written, about 100 field visits are made and 250 to
300 persons call at, or telephone to, the offices for help or information.
Naturally much time and thought are necessarily diverted by these activ-
ities from the main work of the Experiment Station. There is, however,
a certain amount of reciprocal benefit to the Station in that the research
worker is kept in closer touch and sympathy with the work and prob-
lems of the grower and such a relationship is necessarily stimulating and
sometimes productive of valuable results. Desirable as such an arrange-
ment may be, it seems evident from the volume of this work that should
it materially increase — which appears altogether likely — either the re-
search of the Department must be jeopardized or an addition to the staff
would become imperative.

THE CRANBERRY STATION

(Ecist Wareham, Massachusetts)
H. J. Franklin in Charge

The investigation work of the Cranberry Station has made steady, and
on the whole, satisfactory progress during the past two years and has
unearthed much new and valuable information. The work has been more
extensive and intensive than in previous years and has demanded the at-
tention of a somewhat larger number of workers during the active sum-
mer season. For this increase of personnel, use has been made mainly
of local help but men have been employed in various localities to help in
making special weather observations, and Prof. William H. Sawyer of
Bates College, who has been on leave of absence and doing post-graduate
work at the I>aboratories of Cryptogamic Botany at Harvard University,
has made the study of a disease often epidemic on the black-headed fire-
worm his principal thesis work. He has carried on this work actively at
the Cranberry Station during the summer season.

The cranberry extension work has increased steadily and is now inter-
fering seriously with the proper execution of research work. This condi-
tion should somehow be relieved in the near future.

The research work done at the Station during the biennium is classified
here under j)roper headings, the first four headings being those of the
off'icially approved i)rojects:

Injurious and Beneficial Insects Affecting the Cranberry. (H. J. Frank-
lin.) During the two years a great amount of scattered research work
necessary to round out information already at hand was done in order
to complete our knowledge of the insects discussed in Bulletin No. 239
published in 1928. Tiie .researches of special importance and interest may
be discussed under the following headings:

(fi) Disease of the Black-headed Fireworm (Rhopohota vacciniana
(Pack)). The work on this disease was done by Prof. William H. Saw-
yer already mentioned. He determined this disease to be caused by
Entamophfhora sphaerosperma Fres. He found that this fungus is absent
or inactive on the bogs where fireworm infestations are notably resistant
t(> control and generally abundant on other infested areas. He found
further tiiat bogs on which it is scarce are generally large well managed

314 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 247

areas that have been flooded, sprayed and resanded regularly. Evidently,
it is killed out directly or indirectly by late spring or summer flooding
or by sanding or spraying, for no evidence was found that fall flooding or
the winter flood, even when it is held late, aifects it.

(b) Pyrethwm Soap Spray. Extensive spraying tests were carried out
with this material to determine its efl'ectiveness as a control for various
cranberry pests. As a general result of these tests, it has been decided that
the pyrethrum spray should have an important place in cranberry culture
as a treatment for the first brood of the black-headed fireworm and as a
control for leafhoppers, but that it will not take the place of nicotine
sulfate for most of the other treatments for which that insecticide is used.

(c) Holly Mite (Paratetranychus ilicis McGregor). The general life
history of this mite was worked out and it was discovered that heavy rains
during its active season sometimes very nearly achieve its complete control.

(d) Cranberry Root Grub (Amphicoma vulpina Hentz). Progress was
made in develoi)ing new and more satisfactory methods of applying the
sodium cyanide solution used as a control for this pest.

(e) Cranberry White Grub (Phyllophaya anxia Lee.) Considerable at-
tention was given to the study of the life history of this species and it
was found that it could be controlled best by the treatment used against
the cranberry root grub.

(f) Cranberry Black Buy. This cranberry pest has not heretofore been
recognized in literature but it is often so abundant that it drains the vines
seriously. Its life history was partially worked out.

(g) Considerable attention was given to the parasites of cranberry
pests and several new forms were reared.

(h) Cranberry flower pollenation and the relationship of insects to
it was studied.

Cranberry Disease Work. (H. J. Franklin in cooperation with tlie Bu-
reau of Plant Industry, U. S. D. A.). Dr. Neil E. Stevens of the Bureau
of Plant Industry was at the Cranberry Station during the growing season
both years and cooperated very actively in this work. The chief studies
were the following:

(a) Fahe Blossom Disease. The distribution and spread of this disease
and the possible relationships of insects and of flooding to it were given
very extensive and careful attention. The McFarlin variety was found
to be the most immune of all the cultivated varieties and the Early Black
variety is generally only moderately alTected by it. On the other hand,
the Howes variety, which is the standard late variety, is very susceptible
to its attack. This disease has been spreading rapidly in recent years
and has become a major cranberry problem. Its effect on the Howes vari-
ety is so great that the discovery of a new late variety resistant to it may
soon become imperatively necessary. It was found that this disease origin-
ated with the cranberry in Wisconsin and was brought from Wisconsin to
Massachusetts and New Jersey in diseased vines. Its lines of spread in
this State from one bog to another were traced, in some cases through
considerable series of bogs. It seems probable that this disease originally
afl^ected some other species of plant, probably a plant introduced from
abroad and grown extensively in the Middle West and not very much in the
East. To discover this other host presents an interesting and probably dif-
ficult problem. It was proved experimentally that the disease is carried from
diseased to healthy plants by insects and experiments have been started
to determine just what species are the carriers. Experiments were also
started to determine whether the disease can be carried merely by con-

BIENNIAL REPORT, 2927 AND 1028 315

tact. As it was found that nearly all the serious cases of infection by this
disease are on bogs that are flooded but little during the growing season,
nieinbers of the Cranberry Station staflf have been recommending that
late June flooding be practiced to keep down the spread of the disease
where water supplies are available, it being believed that flooding at that
time destroys the carriers. As the blunt-nosed leaf hopper (Euscelis spp.)
is very commonly associated in abundance with severe attacks of the
disease, it is believed that this species may be found to be the principal
carrier and for that reason spraying with pyrethrum soap is recommended
for treating areas where water supplies for flooding are deficient.

(b) Relations of Weather to Keepbuj Quality of the Fruit, Dr. Stevens
has had this study in charge alone. His findings have enabled him to make
accurate forecasts of the general keeping quality in recent years.

(c) Incubator Tests of Keeping Quality, These tests have been con-
tinued and extended so satisfactorily that they probably will eventually be
made extensive use of by cranberry selling agencies as a means of deter-
mining what disposition to make of shipments.

(d) Fairy Rimj funyus. Rather extensive studies of this fungus that
works in the soil and kills out vines in ever-growing rings were made and
considerable information of value regarding it was accumulated.

Weather Observations with Reference to Frost Protection. (H. J. Frank-
lin in cooperation with the U. S. Weather Bureau.)

(a) Reports of local weather observations made at 8 A. M. (eastern
standard time) were made daily by telegraph to the office of the Weather
Bureau at Boston. General weather observations were made and recorded
at 8 A. M., Noon and 8 P. M. in 1928.

(b) Further weather records likely to have a bearing on cranberry
frosts were accumulated in both 1927 and 1928, several new observers at
selected points in Barnstable, Plymouth and Middlesex counties assisting
in this.

(c) Studies of observations already recorded were made from time to
time, these resulting in a constant increase in our knowledge of these
problems and a correspondingly greater ability to forecast minimum bog
temperatures accurately. The most recent result of these studies is the
discovery that wet bulb observations made at East Wareham, South
Chelmsford and Worcester are more valuable as a basis for reckoning
minimum bog temperatures in the early evening than are the bog tempera-
ture and dew-point observations used heretofore.

(d) Forecasts of minimum bog temperatures were made in the frost
seasons of 1927 and 1928 in the early afternoon and the early evening.
These forecasts were distributed by the New England Telephone and Tele-
graph Co., the cost of distribution being paid by the Cape Cod Cranberry
Growers' Association as heretofore.

Blueberry Investigations. (H. J. Franklin in cooperation witli the
Bureau of Plant Industry.) The Station blueberry patch has been used
mainly as a demonstration plantation. Not much investigation work has
been done in connection with it. The most interesting development was
the satisfactory demonstration of the practicability of inter-planting young
blueberry patches with Howard No. 17 strawberries. Experience thus far
indicates that the cheap weed control and the humus added to the blue-
berry soil by the mulching of the strawberry vines are of very material
value.

316 MASS. KXPKRIMENT STATION BUIT.ETIN 2i7

In addition to the work of tiie listed j)r()ject.s of the cranberry station,
important investigations were conducted along the following lines:

1. Weeds. Spraying with a pound of slacked lime to two gallons of
water proved to be a valuable new control for green moss. This kills the
moss almost completely at a cost of about ten dollars an acre. It should
be put on in late October or early November.

2. The Relationship of Weather to Cranberry Productiveness. The
studies so far made show that warm sunny weather is essential to the
proper preparation of cranberry vines for maximum productiveness and
suggest that other fruit plants such as apple, pear, swamp blueberry, wild
black cherry and beach plum are in general affected in the same way. They
also indicate that the si/e of general cr;inberry crops can be predicted
to a considerable extent.

3. Varieties. The more noticeable characteristics of practically all the
varieties of cranberries grown hnve been studied and compared for the
purpose not only of developing and systematizing knowledge of the vari-
eties but :\\ho of laying down lines of correlation for guidance in making
future selections from the wild. As a result of this work, it has been
found that color Of foliage, average seed count, and fruit bloom are cor-
related with varietal productiveness and disease resistance.

A series of analyses made by Prof. F. W, Morse show clearly that the
varieties that are in general the most resistant to disease have the highest
percentages of total acids in the fruit.

DEPARTMENT OF DAIRY MANUFACTURES
J. H. Frandsen in Charge

Washing Powders for Dairy Use. (A. W. Phillips'). Work on this
l)ro.ject has been completed and the results published as Technical Bulletin
13. (See list of Publications).

The Quinhydrone Electrode in the Dairy Laboratory. (K. E. Wright").
Work on this project up to this time can be summarized as follows: The
■quinhydrone electrode determination of pH cannot be used as a method
for determining the keeping quality of milk. Either the quinhydrone
method for pH determination cannot be applied to milk, or the pH of milk
gives no indication of its keejiing quality. The latter reason seems the
more i)r()bable. Further work on this project is imder way.

A Study of Packaged Ice Cream. (K. E. Vi' right). This study has been
confined to the two major objections to the rapid adoption of the fac-
tory filled package: namely, the light weight &nd poor texture. It has been
found that:

1. A twelve-ounce pint package made by drawing at an overrun of
50 per cent is an ideal weight to meet the objections of the light weight
package.

2. A 12 per cent fat, 10 per cent serum solids, 15 per cent sugar, and
35 per cent gelatine product should be drawn at a temperature not over
25V'o°F. to avoid eoarse texture.

3. An increase in fat content of 2 per cent helped to satisfy the re-
quirements for food value lacking in the lighter package. Higher fat also
appreciably improved the texture.

' After the resignation of A. W. Phillips, the material was prepared for publication
by J. H. Frandsen and M. J. Mack.

2 Work on this project was started by A. W. Phillips.

BIENNIAL R,P:P0RT, 1927 AND 1928 317

4. Tlie following factors cause a low initial whip which facilitates
drawinf? the product at a temperature low enouf>;h to favor smooth texture:
increase of fat content, substitution of butter for cream, the addition of
.3 per cent egg yolk or of .15 per cent calcium lactate, and the addition
of the gelatine after cooling the mix.

5. Sharp scraper lilades and a brine temperature .below 5°F. were
found essent;;il to tiie jirijper cooling of ice cream with a low overrun.

Ut'lzatlon of New England Fruits in Frozen Dairy Products. (M. J.
Mack). The fruits used in this project were packed by the Department of
Horticultural Manufactures. Approximately 150 gallons of fruit are avail-
able, of which ten varieties of strawberries make up at least half. The
other fruits are raspberries, cherries, peaches, blueberries and i)liims.

These fruits are now being utilized in fruit ice creams. Preliminarj'
tests of the flavoring ability of difl'erent varieties, optimum amounts to
use, r;itio of sugar to berries, treatment of the fruit, etc., are ncjw under
way. This work will be followed by a careful study of the effect of these
fruits on tlie freezing process and on important properties of the finished
ice cream. As yet the work has not advanced to the point where any
conclusions can be reached.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY
H. T. Fernald in Charge

Dates of Hatching of Scale Insects and When to Spray for Them.

(A. I. Bourne). With many scale insects the most successful treatment
sfiould immediately follow hatching of the eggs. To determine when this
time comes sufficiently beforehand to be prepared for treatment at the
right time is a great advantage. Data for many years have been collected
and compared with temperatures from the time of egg laying through
hatching, in an attempt to determine the total accumulated temijerature
to bring this about. Abnormal seasons, as they have occurred, have alsio
been studied and the investigation is now well in hand.

Investigation of Materials which Promise Value in Insect Control.
(H. T. Fernald and A. I. Bourne). Four diff'erent types of miscible oils,
four "soapless" emulsions and one lubricating oil emulsion have been
tested for efficiency as insecticides and safetx to trees, all but one of these
being now on Massachusetts markets or about to be placed there.

The miscible t)ils nnd lubricating oil emulsion gave satisfactory control
against the Fjuropean red mite, with the "soapless" emulsions less effective,
one of these last being so toxic as to cause serious injury.

Control of Onion Thrips. ( .\. I. Bourne). An effective sjiray combin-
ation has been develo{)ed but dusts liavf proved ineffective. A schedule
of applications has been completed.

As horse-drawn spray machinery CMunot be used in the Connecticut
Valley onion lields because of cultural methods, a machine to fit these con-
ditions has been produced. It is a power sprayer, both propelling machine
and develojiing pressure for spraying with a com])ressed air pump. It will
sustain a 2()()-lb. working pressure while covering six rows. Though this
outfit has given promising results, jiremature dying of onions the last
two years and light infestation of thrips have prevented large scale tests.

Spray Residue Problem and Its Relation to Orchard Practices. (A. I.

318 MASH. EXi'ERlMKNT HTATKjN BUJ.LETIN 247

Bourne). Wealthy, Mcintosh and Baldwin apjtle trees have been used to
determine the latest date on which lead arsenate could be applied without
danger of too great residue. Both 1927 and 1928 had large amounts of
rainfall during the summer, and it was found that the Wealthy could be
sprayed as late as July 15: the Mcintosh during all July; and the Bald-
wins were under tolerance limits even when sprayed in mid-August.

It is apparent that in dry seasons or with moderate rainfall, present
spray practices for later spraying will need modifications. Dust applica-
tions show less residue on fruit at harvest than sprays.

Adaptation of the Recommended Spray Schedule for the Control of
Orchard Insects to Eastern Massachusetts Conditions. (W. 1). ^^'h■.tcomh) .
Studies at Waltham show tliat sjiraNing recommendations based on insect
studies of Amherst are generally applicable in eastern Massachusetts. With
the apple maggot, however, it was found that during a period of three
years the flies did not emerge in sufficient numbers to warrant spraying
before July 15, whereas the Amherst recommendations advise spraying by
July 1. It has also been found that a spray three weeks after the calyx
si)ray is more effective in combating the plum curculio and codling moth
in apples than has been realized hitherto, and that the pink spray has no
value against the plum curculio.

Control of the Plum Curculio in Apples. (W. D. Whitcomb, Waltham).
Repeated studies now show that the plum curculio is most abundant from
June 15 to 22, and that the greatest amount of injury from feeding and
egg punctures takes place immediately thereafter; that oviposition ends
about July 31 but the feeding punctures continue until cold M'eather al-
though rather unimportant after August 10. Lead arsenate, 2 lbs. or
more in 50 gals, of water, applied seven to ten days, and again three weeks
after the calyx spray, seems to be the most effective for material and time.
Calcium arsenate and sodium fluosilicate are effective but liable to injure
fruit and foliage. Fish oil and molasses each tend to increase the effect-
iveness of the lead arsenate. Following this treatment, orchard tests
have given 91 per cent control as compared with 91 per cent injury on
adjacent untreated areas.

Control of Red Spiders on Greenhouse Cucumbers. (W. D. Whitcomb,
Waltham). Studies during 1926 and 1927 show that the greenhouse red
spider may be effectively controlled in all stages by spraying with highly
refined white mineral oil emulsion if no carbolic or cresylic compounds
are used in its preparation. It can be applied to greenhouse cucumbers at
the rate of 1 part in 99 of water, except when sulfur fungicides are also
used.

Red spider is also effectively controlled by three or more fumigations
with naphthalene^ iVs to 3 ounces per 1,000 cubic feet, with enough heat
to vaporize the material in not less than six hours. During this time the
house temperature must be 75° F. or above, and humidity 75 per cent or
higher. The cucumbers taste and smell of the naphthalene but, neverthe-
less, this treatment is being used by market gardeners.

Biology and Control of Garden Cutworms. (W. D. Whitcomb, Wal-
tham). Seventy-three different kinds have been collected or reared.
Screen traps have been used very successfully for collecting these insects
to provide material for the experiments, and control tests show that a
mixture of 25 pounds of bran, 1 pound of Paris green, 1 quart of cheap
molasses and 2 gallons of water gives effective control. Sodium fluosili-
cate and white arsenic prove less effective than Paris green. Applications

BIENNIAL REPORT, 1927 AND 1928 319

sliould be repeated at about ten-day intervals to reacli cutworms which
migrate to the garden from outside.

Biology and Control of the Carrot Rust Fly. (W. D. Whitcomb, Wal-
thatn). The flies winter as pupae in the soil and emerge early in June.
Many eggs are laid by the middle of the month, and the larvae are abund-
ant on carrots for about a month thereafter. A second generation pro-
duces maggots which attack the carrots from the middle of August to the
middle of September. Carrots planted in April or May are severely at-
tacked, but plantings in June are quite free from injury by the first gene-
ration of flies.

Against the first generation, asphalt mulch paper, Derris compound.s,
corrosive sublimate and sodium fluosilicate gave very encouraging results,
but proved quite ineffective against the second generation.

DEPARTMENT OF FARM MANAGEMENT
J. A. Foord in Charge

Although some investigational work has always been carried on in the
department, and small grants had been made from Experiment Station
funds from time to time, the research work has been regularly organized
in the department only within the period covered by this report. An In-
vestigator was ai)i)ointed in .January and an Assistant in March 1928, as
noted elsewhere.

The first project outlined and approved was on the "Competitive Status
of Massachusetts Farm Enterprises" and two bulletins have been pub-
lished, abstracts of which are given in the List of Publications. With the
growth and develojiment of the work it has seemed best to supersede the
first project by four others a little more closely in line with the needs
as they appear today. These are as follows:

Enterprise Relationships and Farm Organizations on Selected Dairy
Farms in Western Massachusetts. (R. L. Mighell and Marian Brown).
This project aims to obtain from selected dairy farms basic data both on
dairying and on various supplementary enterprises which can be used in
planning the most profitable farm organization. Following a study of
farm management survey records, and other data, and some field study,
approximately 25 farms were chosen in Franklin and Berkshire Counties.
Inventories have been taken and records are being kept of essential items
of farm business including labor.

The Place of Poultry Production on Massachusetts Farms. (R. L. Mig-
hell and F. H. Branch). Under this project a study and analysis has been
made of 400 yearly records of Massachusetts poultry operators collected
b\ the Extension Specialist of the Department in connection with another
study. The statistical method was used to determine the important
factors affecting profits. The average relationship between variations
in annual egj,- i)roduction per bird, diversity of business, rate of flock
reduction, i)rice, and fall egg production, and labor return, are be-
ing determined by correlation analysis. Publication of results may be
expected early in 1929.

Types of Farming in Massachusetts, 1840-19'25. (Marian Brown). Most
of the census material available for this study has been compiled, to-
gether with non-statistical material for several leading farm enterprises.

320 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATlf N BULLETIN 247

Factors Responsible for Variations in Physical Production and Economic
Costs of Milk in Massachusetts. (R. L. Mighell and Marian Brown). A
deterniination of the influence of different ]irodiK-tion practice.s on milk
production, and how these practices would need to be chanjred under
changing economic conditions, is the object of this project.

An initial study has been made of Herd Improvement Association
records in the State. This will be continued, and further study will be
made of the records of the College and Experiment Station Herds.

Other Activities of the Department. Both the Research and Extension
Specialists have been members of the College committee on the Economics
Status of Massachusetts Agriculture, and in this capacity contributed freely
in the publication of Extension leaflet No. 119, Potatoes in Massachusetts
Farm Economy (16 pages); and Extension leaflet No. 20, Dairy Replace-
ments in Massachusetts (16 pages). While not imder a definite research
project these publications called for the collection and interpretation of
many data and were published in response to a definite need.

During the last year the Departments of Farm Management and Agri-
ciiltural Economics have cooperated in starting a monthly publication called
"Farm Economic Facts". Although published by the Extension Service,
material has been contributed by the Research as well as the Extension
Staff.

During the summer of 1928 the department cooperated with the de-
partments of Agronomy and Plant and Animal Chemistry in potato trials
on the College Farm covering five different spraying mixtures, and dif-
ferent amounts of seed and fertilizer. The latter was suggested by the
findings in the survey work upon which Bulletin 240 was based. The re-
sults of the spraying M'ork are being reported by the Department of Plant
and Animal Chemistry. Due to soil variations and the unfavorable sea-
son, results on seeding and fertilization were inconclusive and the work
will be repeated.

FEED CONTROL SERVICE
Philip H. Smith in Charge

The work of Feed Control Service comprises not only feed inspection
but several other activities, as listed below:

Feed Control (General Laws, 1920, Chapter 94)

Seed Control (General Laws, 1927, Chapter 94)

Dairy Law (General Laws, 1920, Chapter 94)

Advanced Registry Testing

Miscellaneous work

Feed Control. (P. H. Smith, H. R. DeRose, J. W. Kuzmeski, M. M^
Goodwin, F. A. McLaughlin). During 1927, 1602, and 1928, 1600 samples
of feeding stuffs were collected and examined in our laboratories. No local
prosecutions for violations of the feeding stuffs law were attempted. Acting
as Federal inspectors, our agents have drawn about 30 samples of interstate
shipments of feeding stuffs which previous analysis had shown to be below
guarantee in protein, fat or fiber. These samples are submitted to the
Food, Drug and Insecticide Administration Laboratories of the Federal
Government who, if action is thought advisable, proceed directly against
the manufacturer. It is thought that this is a more satisfactory method
of procedure than to prosecute the local dealer who is in all probability
selling the goods with the belief that they are as represented.

BIENNIAL REPORT, 1927 AND 1928 321

Seed Control. (O. W. Kelly, C. L. Beane). A new seed law administered
by the State Department of Agriculture became effective Nov. 1, 1927.
A seed laboratory for the examination of official samples collected by the
Department of Agriculture has been established at the Experiment Sta-
tion. This work also includes the examination of seed samples submitted
by seedsmen, farmers, and others, for which a fee sufficient to cover the
actual cost is charged. During the present year, in addition to estab-
lishing the laboratory there have been examined 80 samples of seeds and
seed mixtures for purity, 489 for germination only, and 220 samples for
both purity and germination tests. A larger number of samples will be
examined in 1929. The first year's work has demonstrated the value of
seed inspection service. In addition to the laboratory examinations, field
tests have been conducted on clovers and alfalfas by the Department of
Agronomy, and upon vegetable seeds by the Market Garden Field Sta-
tion, in order to determine trueness to type.

Dairy Law. (P. H. Smith, J. T. Howard, H. L. Allen). The work
under this law involves:

1. The testing of Babcock glassware for accuracy.

2. The examination and award of certificates of proficiency in the use
of the Babcock test to applicants.

3. The annual inspection of creameries, milk depots, and board of
health laboratories where the test is used as a basis for fixing the value
of milk and cream.

During the two years ending December I, 1928, 15,253 pieces of Bab-
cock glassware were tested. Condemned bottles amounted to less than
one per cent of the total tested. One hundred and forty-four certificates
of proficiency were awarded. In 1927, 136 creameries, milk depots, and
milk inspectors' laboratories were visited in order to check methods and
pass upon equipment in use. This work has not been completed for 1928.

Advanced Registry Testing. (P. H. Smith). The testing of pure bred
cows for advanced registry in cooperation with breeders and pure bred
cattle associations has been under the direction of Feed Control since its
beginning in 1902. For several years the volume of work has not materi-
ally changed. The average monthly record shows about eighty farms hav-
ing cows on test, about 600 cows under test, and from eight to ten
supervisors continuously on the road to care for the work. Advanced
Registry Testing is supported entirely by the breeders having animals
under test. Reimbursement is made not only for the supervisors, but
for the office expenses as well.

Miscellaneous Work. (P. H. Smith, H. R. DeRose, J. W. Kuzmeski, M. W.
Goodwin). The resources of this department are available for the analysis
of milk, cream, and feeding stuffs submitted by farmers and others. For
this service a fee is usually charged. A considerable number of analyses are
also made for other departments of the College in connection with ex-
perimental work. Especial equipment has been installed for drying large
samples of forage crops.

322

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 24.7

Summary of Miscellaneous Work, 1927-1928

Material Sent In

Milk and cream, butter fat only 735

Milk, solids and fat 368

Feeds 221

*Waters 68

For Other Departments of Experi/ment Station and College

Cucumber leaves from Market Garden Field Station

(Starches and sugars) 1 month's work

Moisture tests. Forage Crops 4.85

Complete fodder analyses 253

Moisture tests and nitrogen 55

* Work of water analysis turned over to Department of Bacteriology on July 1, 1928.

FERTILIZER CONTROL SERVICE

H. D. Haskins in Charge

Fertilizer Inspection. (H. D. Haskins, H. R. DeRose, M. W. Goodwin,
J. W. Kuzmeski). During the season of 1928, 105 manufacturers and their
subsidiaries have registered in Massachusetts 610 brands of fertilizer, fer-
tilizing materials and agricultural limes. The following table shows the
nature of these materials and tiie extent to which they have been inspected.

Brands

Brands

Samples

Number of

Material

Registered

Collected

Collected

Analyses

Mixed fertilizers

.348

324

1015

443

Ground bone, tankage and fish

63

58

149

75

Nitrogen products

78

71

207

126

Phosphoric acid products

29

28

100

40

Potash products

29

25

66

44

Pulverized natural manures

20

20

75

23

Miscellaneous materials

14

15

29

23

Lime products

29

30

66

30

Totals

610

571

1707

804

In the year's inspection, 21,576 sacks were sampled representing 8,601
tons of material; about 300 towns and suburban districts and 900 agents
were visited.

From July 1, 1927, to July 1, 1928, the following tonnages of fertilizer
and plant food were sold in Massachusetts:

BIENNIAL REPORT, HCJ7 AND 1928

323

Fertilizer and Plant Food Tonnage

Tonnage

According
to Type

Actual Plant Food

Nitrogen

Available
Phosphoric Acid

Potash

Mixed fertilizers

Fertilizer chemicals and materials

unmixed
Pulverized natural manures

47.626

19.644
3,188

1,S87

1,177
89

3,688

1.924
54

2.883

667

88

Totals

70,458

3,1.>3

5,666

3,638

Full details of the fertilizer inspection work may be found in Bulletin
No. 45, Control Series, published in December, 1928.

Miscellaneous analytical work. (H. D. Haskins, H. R. DeRose, M. W.
Goodwin). During the period from November 1, 1927, to April 1, 1928,
the usual amount of cooperative chemical work wa.s done on problems of
other departments of the institution. Its general nature is shown from
the following summary;

29 samples of tobacco stalks, partial ash analysis
3 samples tobacco leaves, for partial ash analysis

30 samples timothy decoction residues: dry matter, ash and nitrogen
36 samples timothy decoction: total, ainmoniacal and nitric nitrogen,

and testing for organic toxins.
207 samples millet: dry matter and nitrogen
29 samples processed organic ammoniates: total, insoluble, ammoni-
acal and nitric nitrogen, insoluble nitrogen activity tests, total
phosphoric acid.
10 samples timothy cover crop for partial ash analysis

The department has also made the following analyses for institutional
departments, farmers, and farm service organizations: fertilizers 42, soils
12, manures 3, lime products 3. For this service, outside of departmental
work, the Experiment Station receives compensation.

In addition to this, the department has performed the usual cooperative
work with referees of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemi.sts on
studying new and existing methods of analysis.

Vegetation Pot Experiment — Season of 1928. (H. D. Haskins and
A. B. Beaumont). This experiment, comprising 131 pots, was conducted
in the study of the nitrogen availability of low grade organic substances
high in nitrogen which have gradually replaced animal tankage and fish,
formerly largely used in mixed fertilizers. Results are reported in Control
Bulletin 45.

324 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 247

DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS RESEARCH
Esther S. Davies in Charge

The Food Consumption of Rural School Children in Relation to Their
Health. (E. S. Davies). Work on this ])roJect has been completed and the
results published as Bulletin 24L (See list of publications).

Present Practices of Massachusetts Elementary Schools with Regard to
School Feeding and Transportation and Their Effects upon Health of
Pupils. (E. S. Davies and C. B. Church.) In the course of tiie .survey
for the preceding project, it became evident that an important factor in
the food x^ractices of the children of elementary school age is the type
of noon meal; and that the organization of the public schools tends more
and more to make it necessary for this noon meal to be eaten at the
school house. The consolidation of rural schools, moreover, always in-
volves the transportation of a large proportion of the pupils, which in turn
affects the length of time the children must be away from home and
raises questions as to the possibility of increased fatigue and exposure;
as well as increasing the number of those who must eat the noon meal
away from home. It was, therefore, deemed wise to undertake an investiga-
tion of the present practices of the schools of the 237 Massachusetts towns
of less than 5,000 population, with regard to transportation of elementary
school pupils and the facilities provided for food service, in the belief that
these have a close relation to the physical welfare of the children.

This study is being pursued by conferences with the superintendents
of schools, visits to the teachers at the school houses, and, finally, by per-
sonal inspection of food services and actual experience in using the trans-
portation facilities. To supplement the information thus obtained, ab-
stracts are made of the medical examination records in certain towns, to
study the comparative physical status of the pupils from year to year.
As another angle of approach to the solution of the problem, in a num-
ber of representative school rooms, scattered throughout the state, the
teachers are keeping detailed records of the duration and real cause of
all absences during the current school year.

The field work on this project cannot be completed before the close of
the school year next June, but certain tendencies seem clearly defined in
the part of the work which has already been finished. The number of
schools in which provision is made for year-round serving of a hot food
or drink at noon is almost negligible; and the number providing such
service during the cold weather is less than half the total number of
schools. Mid-morning milk service is practically non-existent.

Transportation is generally provided only along the main highways, the
children walking to assembling points. It is the unusual town that pro-
vides shelter from the weather at these places where the pupils wait for the
bus; and, since schedules are frequently uncertain, many young children
must wait from ten minutes to half an hour out in the open, regardless
of weather. Transportation also tends to lengthen the time away from
home, although the experience of two towns proves that much of this
difficulty could be obviated by careful planning of the routes and adapta-
tion of the length of school sessions to the age of the children as well as to
the restrictions on transportation inherent in the geography of the town.

Massachusetts was the first state in the union to have a consolidated
rural school; and it is hoped that the facts brought to light by the pro-
ject now imder way will provide information needed to enable the rural
towns of the state to be the first to have ideal consolidated schools.

BIENNIAL REPORT, U»27 AND 1928 325

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURAL MANUFACTURES
W. W. Chenoweth in Charge

The Extraction of Fruit Juices by Heat. (C. R. Fellers and F. P.
GriflFitlis). Methods of extraction of fruit juices are being studied to
determine which methods will give maximum yields of juice and jelly of
good quality. Apples were first used. This work has been completed and
is published as Technical Bulletin 15.

The work has been continued with small fruits including raspberries,
blackberries, blueberries, currants, cranberries, and plums. The results
indicate that two successive short extractions with approximately one-half
as much water as fruit give the most jelly of optimum quality. The chem-
ical composition of these fruits is also being studied.

In the course of the study a rapid centrifugal method for tlie deter-
mination of pectin has been worked out; also a method whereby the Bloom
gelometer can be used to determine the jelly strength of fruit jellies.
These are described in the above-mentioned bulletin.

Manufacture and Preservation of Cranberry Products. (C. R. Fellers
and F. J. Griffiths). To date about 4000 cans of cranberry sauce have
been packed in various types of tin and glass containers, stored at several
different temperatures and periodically examined for discoloration, cor-
rosion, perforation, flavor, color and jelly strength. The charcoal plate
re-enameled tin can was the best container. The storage temperature for
cranberry sauce Wiis a very important factor in preventing deteriora-
tion and loss. The cooler tiie temperature, tlie better the sauce retained
its originjil fine (piality, color and flavor. At ordinary temperatures, cran-
berry sauce will keep in good condition for at least a year. Yield studies
showed thnt one i)ound of cranberries will produce from 2 to 3 pounds
of solid sauce depending upon whether the berries are whole, strained, or
chojijied. The discoloration of sauce was hastened by exposure to ferric
iron and oxygen.

The pectin, acid and sugar content of cranberries picked at various
times during the season has been determined in an attempt to correlate
these factors with sauce manufacture. Although the total pectin content
does not vary a great deal during maturity, there is a gradual lowering
of its jellifying power, and fruit which has been stored for a few weeks
gives reduced yields of sauce. Great individual variations among cran-
berry varieties were noted. "Floaters" and frozen cranberries, if promptly
utilized were found suitable for sauce manufacture. If decayed fruit
has been used to prepare sauce, the amount of decay can be determined
approximately by means of a microscopic examination of the sauce.

These cranberry investigations have been carried on in close cooperation
witli the cranberry growers and packers, the American Cranberry Ex-
change, and the American and Continental Can Companies. The cans
and sealing equipment were donated by the can manufacturers.

UtiHzation of Onions by Canning. (C. R. Fellers and F. J. Griffiths).
Tliis jiroject has been in jirogress one year. The attempt has been made to
utilize by canning, drying or pickling the cull and off-grade onions pro-
duced in this State in great quantities.

Large experimental packs of onions were canned in many types of con-
tainers, by various methods, and stored at different temperatures. Due
to severe discoloration of the canned product, onions have not been
canned successfully heretofore in quantity. In an attenqit to eliminate

326 MASS. EXPEREMRNT STATION BULLETIN 247

this defect, cans with an inside enamel of zinc oxide were used with ex-
cellent results. By slightly altering the hydrogen ion concentration of the
brine by the addition of a very small amount of an organic acid, the onion
could be sterilized by boiling for from 45-60 minutes and still remain
firm and whole within the can without injury to the flavor. It is hoped
that markets for canned onions may be found.

Dried onions when firmly ground make an excellent "onion flavor" for
use in cooking. It retains its color and flavor very well for at least a
year and has proved very popular wherever used. A further study of
this product is proposed.

Preliminary studies on pickling small onions have been uniformly suc-
cessful except for the occasional development of yellow spots on the
pickled onions. This defect requires study.

(See also the report of the Depjirtment of Plant and Animal Chemistry).

The Nitrogen Distribution of the Edible Portion of the Onion. ( F. P.
Griffitlis). Work lias been begun on tliis prijject, but definite results are
not yet forthcoming.

Utilization of New England Fruits in Frozen Dairy Products. (C. R.
Fellers and F. P. Grift"iths in co-operation witli tlie Department of Dairy
Husbandry). An experimental pack of 190 one-gallon cans of frozen straw-
berries (10 varieties), raspberries (3 varieties), cherries (2 varieties),
blueberries, and peaches (4 varieties) was made with a view to studying
the use of these frozen fruits in the manufacture of frozen dairy products
such as ice cream, sherbets, and ices. The effect of different amounts and
kinds of sugar and of various methods of packing and handling, as well
as variations in the technology of fruit ice cream manufacture, has been
studied. It is also proposed to compare fresh, frozen and canned fruits.

DEPARTMENT OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING
F. A. Waugh in Charge

Lawns and Lawn Grasses and Lawn Management. (L. S. Dickinson).
The necessity for correct fertilization of the lawn from its start is very
clearly shown on the five-year-old lawn plots. Complete changes in grasses
have been brouglit about by fertilizers, but during the change crab grass
has been very prominent on both acid and alkaline plots. This is due to
the fact that the grass that is being discouraged by a fertilizer is not
replaced rapidly enough by another grass, the vacancies being taken by
crab grass. On no plots where clover was plentiful was crab grass ob-
served. Many varieties of weeds are found on the alkaline plots, and
only a few on the acid.

The series of plots to determine the desirability of adding phosphoric
acid and potash to nitrogenous fertilizers shows, after four years, that
on rather heavy soil potash is not desirable. Bents are doing best on the
plot receiving acid nitrogen plus phosphoric acid; fescues show best on the
plots receiving acid nitrogen alone; and the blue grasses find weed compe-
tition too great in the plots receiving alkaline nitrogen plus phosphoric
acid plus potash.

The putting green plots were used to make observations which might
help in the accurate prediction of attacks of the brown patch disease.
Seven attacks occurred, all of which started between the temperatures of
62° and 68° F., after a heavy saturation of the soil from rain or the grass

BIENNIAL REIOKT, 1927 AMI) l!i'28 327

by very heavy dew, combined with a sudden fall in temperature to witliiu
the above limits.

Fifty-six plots have been established in cooperation with the United
States Golf Association, and nine plots have been established under trees
to study shade-enduring grasses. Many new strains of bent have been
added to the turf nursery and many data have been obtained for further
study.

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY

J. B. Lindsey in Charge

The Efficiency of Copper Fungicides. (E. B. Holland). Additional
work iias been carried out in tiie laboratory relative to the preparation
of low and high basic copper sulfates and the manufacturer advised as
to tiie best method of procedure.

Field experiments were conducted with high basic sulfate in 1927, and
with low and high basic sulfates in 1928. The materials were used both
as a spray and as a dust mixed with a free flowing talc, and were com-
pared with various commercial products or Bordeaux on apples, grapes,
celery and potatoes. The results are promising as a whole, although the
physical properties of the factory prei)ared basic sulfates are unsatisfac-
tory and demand serious attention.

A number of papers have already been published on this project (see
list of publications in this report) and it is hoped to publish details of the
field work at an early date.

Nitrogen Intake of Havana Tobacco in Relation to Nitrogen Synthesis
and Quality of Leaf. (E. B. Holland). The chemical work in connection
witli this project has consisted thus far of a study of the different forms
of nitrogen in plants grown in the greenhouse in nutrient solutions, the
object being to discover if possible the effect on growth and quality of leaf.

Samples from dift'erent parts of the plant grown in the field with the aid
of different fertilizer mixtures will also be analyzed. The analytical work
with the field samples will be confined largely to the nitrogenous com-
pounds and to the ash, although the carbohydrates will also be given some
attention.

The De])artment of Agronomy reports further on this project.

Nitrogen Fixation in the Presence of or as a Result of the Growth of
Legumes versus Non-Legumes under Certain Defined Agronomic Condi-
tions. (F. W. Morse). The crop grown on this field in 1927 was Golden
Bantam sweet corn. It was used to measure the residual nitrogen and
was planted on both legume and non-legume areas. In the spring of 1928,
the legume plots were seeded with red and alsike clovers while the non-
legume plots were seeded with timothy and red top grasses. The catch
was good and the growth was fair; but owing to the extreme wetness of
July and August, weeds, consisting of barnyard grasses and pig-weed,
over-topped the clover and timothy when the crop was harvested in
September.

The amounts of dry material and of nitrogen removed from the legume
and non-legume areas since the beginning of the experiment are given in
the following table. Before cutting the crop this season, observation in-
dicated more growth on the non-legume than on the legume areas. This
was confirmed by the yields of dry matter.

328 MASS. EXS'ERIMKNT STATION BULLETIN 21.7

Although no nitrogen has been applied to Plots 7 and 9 since 1882 and
probably an earlier date, the non-leguriie areas have not deteriorated in 5
years and in 1927 and 1928 were even superior in weights of dry matter
and nitrogen removed in the crops..

Dry Matter and Nitrogen Removed from Plots Treated with Nitrogen
(Kilograms per Acre.)

Leyumes nlternntiny zcUh corn

1924

192.5

1926

1927

1928

Plot

Clover

Corn

Soy beans

Corn

Clove

7

Dry niattur

l.'i52.

1476.

1504.

1084.

1214.

9

Dri matter

1868.

1766.

1596.

1164.

1334.

7

Nitrogen

43.2

24.1

35.1

17.9

9

Nitrogen

49.9
Non-leywmes

29.8
alternatiny

39.9
•with corn.

18.4

1924

192.5

1926

1927

1928

Plot

Grasis

Corn

Millet

Com

Grass

7

Dry matter

408.

922.

2206.

1104.

1444.

9

Dry matter

496.

1010.

2126.

1294.

1478.

7

Nitrogen

3.4

12.9

16.5

18.7

9

Nitrogen

4..';

13.1

14.0

21.7

A report of another phase of this project in given by the Department of
Bacteriology and Physiology.

Chemical Changes in the Cranberry during Ripening and after Har-
vesting. (F. W. Morse). Cranberry ripening has been studied for two
seasons with the fruit of 192(i and 1927. Two varieties, Early Black and
I^ate Howes were compared. Pickings were made at weekly intervals from
the last week in August when the early fruit was beginning to redden until
the first week in October when the late berries were well colored. Water,
sugar and acidity were compared as the growth of the fruit progressed.

The develoi)ment of tiie berries resulted in ;i small percentage decrease in
water and doubling the sugar content while tlie acidity was practically con-
stant throughout the ripening process. The early variety was well ripened
when the last picking was made by the last week in September; but the
late variety was not at its maximum content of sugar until two weeks
later. The late variety is usually harvested before it is fully ripe in order
to escape frost.

Tlie mineral matter contained in cranberries was comprehensively studied
and an article has been prepared for publication. Since cranberries con-
tain generally less than .2 jier cent of ash their mineral constituents are
not striking. As sources of iodine and manganese, they were found to
be relatively richer in these elements than some of our common fruits.

A Study of the Availability of Soil Potash with the Object of Developing
a System of Diagnosis for the Soils of the State. (¥. W. Morse). This
project has remained (]uiescent during the past year, except that some
literature has been reviewed to determine the next steps. The publication
of soil surveys of the State is essential for tiie satisfactory pursuit of the
project. This past year a survey of Worcester County has been issued.

Utilization of Onions by Canning. (C. P. Jones). Chemical analysis of
the blanched edible portion of the onion has shown the following: On the
green basis (84 to 90 per cent water), the percentage of total sugar
varied from approximately 5 to 11 per cent. The protein content ranged
from ai)proximately 2 to 2.5 per cent. Fat and crude fiber were found
in small amounts. The substantial differences in amounts of chemical sub-
stances found are due to the fact that two kinds of onions were examined,
— seed and set onions. The differences were found not only in moisture.

BIKNNIAf. RKPilRT, I9'27 AND 1928 329

sugar and protein, but also in ash, alkalinity of ash and total sulfur. Both
the calcium and the magnesium contents were equal in the two kinds of
onion.

The relation of calcium to magnesium was found to stand in a ratio of
one to one. A field study of the effect of the ratio of calcium to magne-
sium upon the growth of the onion would seem justified.

In the process of canning onions, discoloration or darkening of the
tissues has been observed. In order to make the canned product more
attractive and consequently salable, the causes and preventives must be
understood and controlled.

Although the principal oily substance contained in the onion has been
stated to be a disulfide of allyl, work thus far has indicated that mustard
oil is present in addition to the sulfides of allyl, in spite of the fact that
the literature, with one exception, fails to recognize mustard oil as a
constituent of the onion.

Anthocyan pigments of fruits have been found to react with metal of
containers, producing various color reactions with consequent discoloration
of the canned product.

The onion contains a flavonal pigment. Work upon this pigment as well
as upon the essential oils and their effect upon metals is being continued.

Lime Penetration Resulting from Surface Application to Pasture Land.
(P. R. Xelson). This project has been completed and prepared for publica-
tion. It represented a study of a Gloucester sandy loam in permanent ptis-
ture, different plots on which had received different fertilizer treatment. It
was found that the greater part of the calcium had remained at the point
of application and exerted its influence there. There was a slight trend
towards a gradual penetration to a depth of nine inches. Of the three
materials applied in addition to the ground limestone, — muriate of potash,
acid phosphate and gypsum — the only one appearing to have the slightest
neutralizing effect upon the soil was gjpsum, and its effect was quite
distinct from that caused by the lime alone.

Record of the Station Herd. (J. B. Lindsey and J. G. Archibald). The
.station keeps 12 to 16 cows for its experimental work, in addition to young-
stock. The records for 1927 show that of the 16 cows in the herd 9
only represented the herd for the entire year. These 9 — of which 7 were
grade Holsteins, one a high grade Jersey, one a purebred Jersey — averaged
10,294. lbs. of milk for the year testing 12.67% solids, 4% fat, with a food
cost of $176.09 jier cow or 3.76 cents per quart. The food cost was
based on hay at $20, green feed at $8 a ton and grain at market price.
Tiie complete records for 192S are not yet available.

Milk Substitutes in the Growing of Young Calves. (J. B. Lindsey and
J. G. Archibald). For several years the experiment station at Amherst
has carried on extensive feeding trials on the value of different feeds for
raising young calves. Experiments with calf meals and preliminary trials
with skim milk powder were reported in Bulletin No. 223. The powdered
skim milk offered the most fruitful field for further study and during the
past three years, a large number of calves, mostly high-grade Holsteins,
have been raised on it.

There are two distinct types of skim milk powder on the market, one
m.anufactured by the so-called "roller" process, the other by the "spray"
process. Both kinds have been fed at the rate of 14 ounces of the powder
to a gallon of water. The powder may, however, be fed as dilute as one
pound to five quarts of water. The "roller" process powder is more
economical at present prices and mixes with water more rapidly.

330 My\SS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 247

In the earlier experiments the rnaxiniuin amount of skim milk powder
(31 Vo ounces of the dry powder to 9 quarts of liquid) was fed daily until
the calves were four months old.

During the past year calves have been reared on mucli smaller quanti-
ties of the powder, the object being to cut the cost.

The procedure has been similar to that followed in our earlier work
except that when the calves were two months of age their daily allowance
of skim milk powder was cut to 21 ounces (6 quarts of liquid) and at
three months was again cut to 10y2 ounces (3 quarts of liquid), and u
special effort was made all through the experiment to induce the calves
to eat heartily of the dry grain mixture and rowen.

Under present conditions dried skim milk fed as above suggested offers
the best substitute for liquid skim milk in the rearing of young calves.
Calf meals are fairly satisfactory but are apt to cause digestive disturbances
and do not promote as rnpid growth.

The value of buttermilk powder for calves has lately been investigated.
It has produced gains at almost the same rate as did the skim milk powder
and rather more economically because of lower market price. Calves
do not consume it as readily at first as they do skim milk powder, and it
has a decided laxative effect in some cases.

This work with skim milk substitutes was also reported in the August,
1928, issue of the Eastern States Co-operator entitled "Skim Milk the
Standard". The article was based on a talk given by Mr. Arcliibald during
the 1928 Farm and Home Week at M. A. C. Mimeographed copy of de-
tailed method of feeding furnished on reciuest.

The Value of Calcium Phosphate in the Promotion of Growth and
Milk Production. (J. B. Lindsey and J. G. Archibald). This experiment
has been in progress for a number of years. The entire herd of cows was
fed a basic ration low in mineral matter, and to one-half of the herd
Hie mineral supplement consisted of especially prepared bone meal. The
results in the main were negative. The experiment was reported in the
Proceedings of the American Society for Animal Production. The sup-
plement during the last two years has been a mixture of 4 parts of dical-
cium phosphate and 1 part calcium carbonate. The accumulated data
from this experiment are now being studied and a final publication re-
viewing our work with bone meal, and giving in some detail the results
from the latter experiment will be ready for the press within a few months.
The indications are that the dicalcium phos])hate and calcium carbonate
were of some benefit but this is not at all marked.

The Mineral Constituents of Forage Crops. (J. B. Lindsey and J. G.
Archibald). Because of the scarcity of data available showing the mineral
constituents of the ordinary roughage grown in Massachusetts, numerous
determinations of calcium and phosphorus have been made on botli the
roughage and grain fed in connection with our experiment on the need of
minerals by dairy animals. In addition, sixty-eight samples of hay and
silage were collected in different sections of the State, with the aid of the
county agents. The entire analytical work will be published as a part of
the publication on the mineral needs of dairy cattle.

In general, it can be said that while individual samples varied widely
the data showed no pronounced deficit of mineral constituents.

Mineral Requirements for the Growth of Dairy Heifers, (J. 6. Lindsey
and J. G. Archibald). Comparatively little information being available

BIENNIAF, RKPOliT, 1927 AND 1928 331

in tlie literature, an experiinent was undertaken some two years since to
determine as nearlj-^ as possible the mineral requirements of dairy heifers
up to two or more years of age. Eight heifers are at present under test,
tiie intake and outgo of calcium and phosphorus in each case being ac-
curately determined. One group is receiving a diet high in calcium and
another group a ration rather low in this ingredient. It is too early yet to
draw any conclusions from the data already secured.

DEPARTMENT OF POMOLOGY

F. C. Sears in Charge

The Interrelation of Stock and Scion in Apples. (.). K. Shaw and J. S.
Bailey). The usual observations of the growth, bloom, and yield have been
continued. Information to date has been tabulated and a bulletin report-
ing results is in process of preparation. The general results of this in-
vestigation seem to indicate a rather less influence of stock than had been
expected. These trees were grafted at the surface of the groiind. Possibly
if the union had been higher up results would have been different. The
results suggest that stock influence is more likely to dwarf trees than tf)
invigorate them.

Investigation of the clonal stocks from East Mailing, England were
continued. Mound layering gave rather poor results, and attempts to
propagate several of the stocks from cuttings planted in the field re-
sulted in complete failure. When cuttings were grafted on nurse roots
from ordinary apple seedlings, good success was achieved and practically
all the trees rooted from the scion and are now on their own roots. A
considerable number of these stocks were dug and root cuttings made
and planted in the spring of 1928. A good percentage of these started
into growth and bid fair to produce good stocks although the first sea-
son's growth is rather small.

About 300 Mcintosh and Wealthy trees on East Mailing stocks were
planted in the orchard in the spring of 1928.

Tree Character of Fruit Varieties. (J. K. Shaw and A. P. French)-
Further observations have been made on the varietal characteristics of
apple and other nursery fruit trees. These observations are being brt.'Ught
together in a bulletin designed to replace and extend Bulletin 208, "Leaf
Characters of Apple Varieties." Plans are being made to extend and in-
tensify work under this project by means of a nursery in which will be
grown all apple varieties generally propagated by nurserymen. It is
hoped that in time this work may be extended to fruits other than apple.
The results of this work continue to be applied in a practical fashion in
nurseries, and it is hoped will result in a substantial decrease in the num-
ber of mixed varieties sold by nurserymen.

The Genetic Composition of Peaches. (J. K. Shaw and J. S. Bailey).
About 1200 selfed and cross-fertilized seedlings resulting from work in
previous years were planted out in the orchard in the spring of 1928.
The parent trees failed to bloom in the spring of 1927 because of winter-
killing of the buds. In 1928 some further crossing was done, but the
results were rather disappointing owing to poor set of fruit.

A freezing apparatus for the purpose of studying the bud hardiness of
seedlings and parent varieties was constructed in 1927 and further de-
veloped in 1928 by attaching to the refrigerating plant in the cold storage

332 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATK N BULLETIN 247

building. This will soon be in operation and promises to furnish excellent
means of studying bud hardiness. In this way much more rapid progress
can be made than by waiting for test winters.

Head Formation in Apple Trees. (J. K. Shaw). This project has been
completed and the results published. (Bulletin 238). The orchard in
which these studies were made has been utilized for a fertilizer experi-
ment. The trees now receive a moderate annual pruning, excepting those
which have never been pruned. This treatment is being continued to see
what the effect of no pruning on yoimg trees may be.

Testing Methods of Pruning. (J. K. Shaw). This project involves a
comparison of heavy, light and no pruning in a young bearing orchard.
Several varieties are included in this test, but the results must be based
on Wealthy for the other varieties appear in relatively small numbers.
The unpruncd trees are developing very thick tops, especially on some
varieties, but thus far no distinct differences in quality and quantity of
fruit appear.

Effect of Pruning on Bearing Apple Trees. (F. C. Sears and J. K.
Shaw). The fertilizer experiment started in this orchard in 1889 has been
discontinued, and the plots now receive equal amounts of nitrate of soda.
A comparison of heavy, light and no pruning is now being made on these
trees. This work was begun in the spring of 1927. It supplements the
pruning test in the preceding project, using trees nearly forty years oR
instead of young bearing trees. The first two years of the experiment have
shown no marked effect on quality and quantity of apples produced.

Comparison of Cultivation and Sod in a Bearing Orchard. (J. K. Shaw).
This project had been continued on a fixed program since 1921. In the
spring of 1927 it seemed wise to redirect the work. One of the plots
which had previously been in cultivation without fertilization has received
for the past two years the same amount of nitrogen that the sod plots
have been receiving — 300 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre. This seems
to have favored production of the Baldwin very distinctly, and there
appears a less distinct improvement in the production of the Mcintosh.

One of the sod plots which had received nitrogen has been continued
on the same program. A second plot has received an additional applica-
tion of nitrate of soda, 200 pounds per acre, at about the time terminal
growth stopped. This seems to have favored production with the Bald-
win and shows a less distinct improvement with the Mcintosh. The third
sod plot has received 200 pounds per acre of sulfate of potash in early
spring. There is no indication that this has improved production with the
Baldwin, but it may have slightly favored production with the Mcintosh.

The fertilizer test now being carried on in the orchard previously de-
voted to a study of Head Formation may be considered a part of this
project. The orchard is entirely in cultivation and from planting in 1916
to 1925 received no fertilizer. The trees showed some indications of
nitrogen definciency. The orchard was divided into seven plots; four
of these are now receiving nitrogen equivalent to 300 pounds per acre
of nitrate of soda, the other three plots continue to receive no fertilizer.
The fertilized plots show improved color of foliage and should show
improved yields. Of course no conclusions can be drawn for several years.

Comparison of Clover Sod and Grass in Sod Mulch Orchard. (J. K.

Shaw). This project has been continued as in the past and the usual
observations made. The plots receiving complete fertilizer have shown
rather better production than those receiving phosphorus, potash and lime.

BIENNIAL, RETCtRT, 1927 AND 1928 333

Tlie purpose of the latter treatment was to bring in a white clover sod.
No white clover appeared previous to 1927, but during the past two years
areas of white clover have been developing. Determination of soil nitrates
indicated considerably more under the clover than elsewhere. It is now
planned to continue this project to see if the clover will increase and if it
is eflFective in promoting growth and fruitfulness of the trees.

Test of Different Amounts of Nitrate of Soda. (J. K. Shaw). This
project involves a number of Baldwin trees now thirty years old, growing
in sod. Since 1922 they have received 5, 10 or 15 pounds of nitrate of
soda each year in addition to adequate amoimts of phosphorus and potash.
The general results seem to be that production increases with the amount
of nitrate applied. No injurious effects on the trees or on the color of the
fruit have been observed. In the spring of 1928 the amount of nitrate was
increased to 10, ITVs and 25 pounds of nitrate of soda per tree.

Comparison of Cultivation and Heavy Mulching for Apples and Pears.
(.i. K. Shaw). This experiment has been continued as started in 1922.
Tlie marked difference in foliage color of the trees on the two treatments
was less distinct in 1928 than in previous years. Most of the mulched
trees continued to yield heavier crops and no injurious effects have been
observed. This is remarkable. The amount of nitrates in the soil under
the mulch is far in excess of that usually found in cultivated orchards
receiving annual ajiplications of nitrate of soda; shoot growth continued
no later in the summer; and the apples are similar in every respect on the
two plots. The trees on the imfertilized cultivated plots continue to grow
rather slowly ;ind ;ire evidently slowly exhatisting the fertility of the soil.

The Effects of Fertilizer Limitation on Fruit Plants. (J. K. Shaw).
This project deals with apple and peach trees and grape vines planted in
1922 on an old fertilizer test field which, for nearly forty years, had
received fixed fertilizer applications involving nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
;md potash alone and in combination. The remarkable result of this
experiment is that the only fertilizer effect seen is on the plots which
have received potash and which have been limed. The unlimed i^ortions
of the potash jilots show no better growth than the plots which have
never received any fertilizer. The same is true of all fertilized plots riot
receiving potash. In order to further investigate this condition, a new pro-
ject lias been formulated and pursued during the past season.

Role of Poteish and Lime in Fruit Tree Nutrition. (J. K. Shaw). In
order to throw light on the puzzling questions that arose in the preceding
project, experiments were carried out in Wagner pots. Soil from two of
the plots was placed in pots in the summer of 1927 and" seedling peach
trees planted as indicators. The behavior of the trees in the pots was
similar to the behavior of the trees in the field j)lots. Also the Wagner
pot jiroved to be satisfactory as a container.

During the summer of 1928, 115 pots were filled with soil from a
miniber of these field plots, and seedling peach trees planted. Some of
the soils were placed in the pots without treatment, and others received
var'ous fertilizers and in some cases certain amounts of lime. Each treat-
ment was replicated five times. The general (piestion was whether the
results shown in the field plots were really due to the soil treatment; and
the answer was, in general, affirmative. Additions of lime to the soils
which iiad received potash resulted in increased growth and increased
amounts of nitrates in the soil. Determinations of soil nitrates and of
the i)H value of tlte soil in the pots were made during the season. It is

334. MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 247

unsafe to conclude that fruit trees would respond to potash on all the
soils in the State; but these results suggest the possibility that there may
be some soils that would respond to potash and lime.

Effect of Potash and Lime on Apple Trees. (J. K. Shaw). The original
project on the orchard here considered was a test of cover crops. iTiis
test continued for six years, giving very doubtful indication of any in-
fluence on the trees from the cover crops used. It became evident that it
would be many years before any marked differences could be expected
to appear. Therefore, in the spring of 1927, the project was redirected into
what is practically a new project. The same plot arrangement was re-
tained, but the whole orchard has been seeded to grass, and a fertilizer
treatment adopted using nitrate alone, potash alone, nitrogen and potash,
phosphorus and potash, and complete fertilizer, eacii treatment receiving
lime in addition on two plots and not receiving lime on anotiier two plots.
It is too soon to expect any results from this new project, but it is hoped
t1iat it may help to answer the question of the value of potash and phos-
piiorus which is in the minds of growers at the present time.

Study of Varieties of Tree Fruits. (J. K. Shaw and O. C. Roberts).
Tile College and Station grow a large number of varieties of tree fruits.
Records of l)loom and production are being taken on practically all
varieties including those not used for Experiment Station jiurjioses. These
records have been accumulating for several years and will be available
for studies of varietal habits, bloom and yield. It is expected that in
some future time as these records accumulate they may be available for
stud>' of tiie relation of cliiviatic conditions t) bloom and yield.

The Cultivation of the High Bush Cranberry. (J. K. Shaw). This proj-
ect involves the study of a number of plants of high bush cranberry
received from the United States Department of Agriculture. Tiiese plants
are still growing and are producing annual crops. It seems doubtful if
this effort will find any great application in practice, and probably this
project will be discontinued in the near future.

Fruit Bud Formation in the Strawberry. (R. A. Van Meter). This
project was started in the spring of 1928 to study the effect of the supply
of soil nitrates on fruit bud formation and fruit production. It involves
nine fertilizer treatments, each replicated five times, on plots of thirty
plants each. Runner plants were spaced ecpially or removed to eliminate
crowding.

The field was fertilized with superphosphate at the rate of fiflO pounds
per acre and muriate of potash at the rate of 150 pounds per acre, broad-
casted and worked into the soil before planting. The differential treat-
ment of the plots consisted in the application of nitrate of soda at the
rate of one pound per plot or 322 pounds per acre on the following dates:

1 — No nitrate of soda

2 — May 11 (immediately after planting)

3 — June 13 (when plants were well established)

4. — July 2

5 — August 6

6 — August 20

7 — September 5

8 — September 15

9 — October 4
No apparent differences in jilant growth appeared the first season, and
observations on the number of fruit buds formed cannot be readily made
until next spring, when a careful study of fruiting behavior will be made.

BIENNJAI, REI'ORI', ]i)27 AND 1<)28 335

A new plantation will be started in the sjirinfi; of 1!»29, i)r()hably witli
some revision of the schedule of a])i)lic-ations, oiiiittinji tlie earlier appliea-
tion.s and addinji' two or three i)l()ts treated with certain forms of orjianic
nitro,i;en-carryin<j; fertilizers.

Work not on Project Basis

Considerable experimental work is being carried on by members of the
de])artment not on the Station staff. The principal lines of work are briefly
reported below.

Cross-pollination and Sterility Studies with Certain Apple Varieties.
(F. I". Sears, (). C Roberts and others.) This work has been in progress
since 1925. The value of Delicious, Gravenstein, Rhode Island Greening,
Wagener, Cortland and other Varieties for pollinating Baldwin, Mclntosii
and Wealthy has been studied; also the value in inter-crossing of the
latter three varieties and their ability to set fruit with their own pollen.

Baldwin and Wealthy have jiroved more or less self fruitful and Mc-
intosh practically self unfruitful. Rather distinct differences in value
of the several varieties in cross pollination have been obtained.

It is planned to continue the work and to iniblish the results at some
future time.

The Effect of Freezing Temperatures on Apples. ((). C. Roberts). Ap-
ples are fretiuently chilled before har\est due to early and unexpected
j)eriods of cold weather, and the effect on the keeping quality of the fruit
is not well understood. A series of tests for the purpose of gathering
observations along this line was started in 1926. Apples are allowed to
freeze on the trees and then harvested and stored under varying condi-
tions. The results of the past two seasons seem to indicate that certain
varieties, at least, may be successfully stored even though they may have
been subjected to freezing temperatures.

Studies of the Arsenical Residues on Apples. {(). C. Roberts coojierat-
ing with the Dejiartment of Entomology). This represents an effort to
meet the requirements of Health and Food inspection authorities who are
trying to make sure that no ajiples carrying an excessive amount of ar-
senic reach consumers. Amounts of arsenic closely approaching or ex-
ceeding the tolerance of .01 grain per pound have been found only with
early varieties and where txees were sprayed later than is Tisual in practice.
On the whole the investigations indicate that this problem is not likely to
be troublesome in Massachusetts orchards where a proper spraying prac-
tice is carried out.

Light Pruning of Young Grapevines. (B. D. Drain). This work has been
carried on for one year only. The vines were pruned less than is usual,
leaving about twice the usual number of buds. The blossom clusters
were thinned in June. This method, as compared with the usual method,
gave 23 per cent increase in production with no decrease in \he qualitv of
the crop.

DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY
J. C. Graham in Charge

Broodiness in Poultry. (F. A. Hays). The relation of broody behavior
to other characters concerned in high egg production has been further
studied. Linkage relations have been discovered between winter intensity
and the presence of broodiness. Total days spent in broodiness has been
shown to exhibit an important negative net correlation to annual egg yield.

336 MASS, KXFKRIMKNT STATION BULLETIN 21.7

Some evidence is a\'ailable t(j indicate tiiat non-broody birds are less vif?or-
ous tlian broody individuals. The total percentage of broodiness in the
flocks has been very significantly reduced during the period and now
stands at 19 per cent.

During the mating year of 1928 the broody character has been studied
from tliree major aspects:

L Inherited factors concerned in degree of broodiness.

2. Influence of management upon broody behavior.

3. Physiological phases have been studied to ascertain if tiie stimulus
to br(M)dy behavior lies in the ovary or in the testes.

Breeding Poultry for Egg Production. (F. A. Hays). The mean annual
egg production for all birds in this experiment for the year ending in 1927
was 205. Records are not yet fully complete for the flock whose year ends in
1928. During the past year particular attention has been given to a study
of the breeding behavior of intensity measured by winter clutch size.
Winter clutch size has been shown to be inherited. Winter pause is being
studied with special reference to its relation to otiier fecundity traits.
Persistency has been given si)ecial attention in its linkage relation to
early sexual maturity and also in its relation to calendar date. A very
satisfactory degree of uniformity in age at first egg and in annual per-
sistency has been attained. Special efforts are being directed toward the
establishment of uniform, high fecundity and maximum livability.

Three jjajiers Iiave been ])ublished under this project, — Scientific Con-
tributions Nos. 53, .5f) and 63.

Statistical Study of Heredity in Rhode Island Red Breed of Poultry.

(F. A. Hays). During the jieriod covered by this report, three bulletins
have been published under this project — Technical Bulletins II and 12,
and Bulletin 242.

Data are now being assembled for a bulletin on normal growth in
Rhode Island Reds.

Particular attention is given under this project to the interpretation of
data now on hand and the application of the findings to further progress.

A Genetic Study of Rhode Island Red Color. ( F. A. Hays). The past
two years have been devoted to the application of the theory regarding
the inheritance of Rhode Island Red color proposed in 1926 to the strain
bred intensively for high fecundity since 1913. Progeny closely approach-
ing modern "Standard" color have appeared. These results indicate that
no genes for "Standard" color pattern have been lost. The present prob-
lem lies in the establishment of a heavy laying "Standard" color strain.
Present breeding stock consists of parent stock and 51 pullets and several
cockerels feo be used in future study. Complete color descriptions of all
birds are on file.

Determination of Genetic Laws Governing Results in Inbreeding Poultry.

(F. A. Hays). The ultimate object of this project is to measure the effects
of different degrees of inbreeding upon characters concerned in egg pro-
duction. Seven inbred strains were started in 1923. By 1928 only two of
these strains had survived, the others disappearing because of low fertility
tMid hi,''!! mortality. The two remaining strains were crossed in 1928 aiul

BIRNNIAf. RKPORT, 1927 AND 19'28 337

also bred as such. There have been ni) important advantages observed to
come from inbreeding and undesirable results are common. Results will
be published in the near future.

Hereditary and Environmental Factors Affecting Variability in Egg
•Production. ( F. A. Hays). This experiment was begun in tiie spring of
I!)28. Three pen inatings were made using birds that were distinctive
regarding variability in egg production. The first pen consisted of ten
yearling hens mated to a yearling male. This pen was made up of
families of sisters that were especially uniform in the five important
characters affecting annual production mated to a male from a similar
fafuily. The second pen contained ten yearling hens selected for uniform
egg production only and they were mated to a male of their own age
from a similar family. The third pen of ten yearlings was selected for
higii annual egg production alone and they were mated to a male from
high producing ancestry.

The parent stock, 16-5 pullets and several cockerels are now available
for study.

Factors Governing Egg Weight and Shell Character in Domestic Fowl.

(F. A. Hays). Preliminary studies on ^s^% weight began in the spring
of 1925, when all eggs laid by the breeding females between February 22
and March 3 were weighed and described. The same procedure has been
practiced each season to date. In the fall of 1927 each egg was weighed
as taken from the trapnests for the entire flock of 7-50 pullets housed.
The records began witii the first egg of each individual and continued until
January first.

The present project was formulated in the fall of 1927 and became
active in 1928. Three pens of ten pullets each were selected on the egg
weight basis and mated to three full brothers in 1928. The first pen laid
eggs averaging 52 grams in December, the second pen laid eggs averaging
57 grams in December and the eggs of the third pen averaged 59 grams
in December. All eggs incubated were weighed and described. A total of 120
pullets from these pens have been retained for study and cockerels are
available for further breeding operations.

Relation of Intensity or Rate of Laying to Feather Pigmentation. (F. A.

Hays). This project began in the fall of 1927 when 50 extremely light-
colored and 50 very dark-colored pullets were selected to study possible
relations between shade of color in Rhode Island Reds and intensity of
laying. No very significant relations have appeared in these groups to
date.

For the matings of 1928 two pens of ten pullets each were used. These
pens were made up of pullets from the above two groups, the dark pen
mated to an extremely dark male, the light pen to an extremely light-
colored male. From these matings 59 pullets and several cockerels are
available for breeding tests.

Studies of egg weight records indicate that egg weight depends upon
two genes in its inheritance. Results of these studies will appear as a
technical paper in the Journal of Agricultural Research.

338 MASS. EXI'B;R1MENT STATKiN BULLETIN 247

DEPARTMENT OF VEGETABLE GARDENING

(Market Garden Field Station, Waltham)

F. A. Waugh in Charge

Conditions Affecting the Production and Vegetative Propagation of
Washington Asparagus. (V. A. Tiedjens). Roots of various ages have
been used for establishing high producing clonal varieties of staniinate
and pistillate asparagus varieties. Considerable difficulty has been ex-
perienced in propagating plants whose buds have reached their niaxiinuni
size. Crowns having small or immature buds may be propagated with
much less difficulty. One-year roots may be divided into one to eight
pieces, depending on their size, and produce suitable roots. Attempts
have been made to jirojiagate i)arts of the jilants other than the crowns
but with no success. On old jilants only immature crown tissue can be
used. The practice of propagating old roots is attended with uncertain
success, because of the age of some of the tissue. Clones from old
roots vary in their ability to recover from the injury to the buds caused
by the separation of the crowns into smaller sections. All tlie cuttings will
grow from some roots, while none will grow on others. Some crowns
on old i)lants producing small buds will readily divide into many pieces
without the use of a knife, while on others the buds are so closely knit
together that it is impossible to divide them into two pieces without
cutting through the Viuds. The former are more readily propagated be-
cause of less interference with the buds when the cuttings are made.

It is imjjortant that the cutting be done ])arallel to the j)lane of the
buds, if clusters of buds must be divided. New buds originate at the
base of growing stalks. Well grown, one-year-old crowns have buds
ranging in size from very small to the largest. The cuttings from the
small buds do not produce as large roots as the cuttings with the large
buds, and the roots in a clone vary in size. The variation in size, how-
ever, is soon overcome. This is probably a growth relationship, — the
small buds being a surplus in the cycle of development of the crown.

Because of the ease with which clones may be developed from one-year-
old roots, an attemiit has been made to grow the seedlings so that the
genetic potentialities may be shown at the end of the first season's growth.
The practice is to plant the seed rather thickly in drills, from the first
to the middle of August, and mulch the small seedlings heavily to protect
them from winterkilling. The following spring they are transplanted equal
distances apart and used for propagating material a year later. The
distribution of buds on the crown, — their size and size of the crown, —
make it possible to select tyjies which are best suited for propagation
purposes.

Progenies from individual plant selections are grown by the above meth-
od and decided differences in vigor transmitting (]ualities have been
found. It emphasizes the relation of genetics to the vigor of the plants,
a fact that has an important bearing on the efficacy and commercial value
of the vegetative propagation of asparagus.

A propagating frame has been devised, comprising ten hotbed sash
with a hot water heater to warm the soil by means of pipes buried twelve
inches below the surface. When cuttings are made in the spring, the
crown tissue will decay if the soil is not warm enough for growth. In
cold weather the mortality is very high so that cuttings must be started in
the propagating frame. They are either divided again or transplanted in
the field after growth has started. Conditions suitable for nroDagatiop

BIENNIAL REPORT, 1927 AND 1928 339

of most cuttings are necessary for propagating asparagus cuttings. If
tlie cuttings are slightly dried before planting, there will be less danger
from decay attacking the soft tissue in the crowns.

Roots on old plants serve merely as reserve food for the establishment of
tiie cutting, and new roots must be formed before the cutting can draw on
the soil moisture. Old roots do not send out secondary roots. New roots
(one year old) send out secondary roots, and if not injured will continue
to serve as feeder as well as storage roots. This is in a large measure
responsible for the greater ease with which one-year roots may be propa-
gated.

On one-year crowns, roots that have been broken off will send out sec-
ondary roots but will not grow in length. (Occasionally a secondary root
near the broken end of the storage root will develop sufficiently to function
as a storage root.

The Genetics of Greenhouse Cucumbers. (V. A. Tiedjens). A number
of ciiaracters liave been isolated in cucumbers. Green fruit color is
dominant over white; orange or bronze fruit color (sun color) linked
with the black spines, dominant over white and green fruit color, develops
only in the presence of light. Black spines are dominant over white spines.
Parthenocarpy is epistatic to development by fertilization. Tlie location
of pistillate flowers on the main stem is epistatic to the allelomorph in-
hibiting the production of pistillate flowers. The abundant production of
laterals is dominant to the absence of laterals.

Such characters as size and shape of fruit, and number of flowers show
partial dominance or follow the laws of quantitative inheritance and are
materially influenced by environmental conditions.

The following pure lines have been established:

1. Types varying from abundant to very light sets of fruit and stam-
inate flowers.

2. A selection having pistillate flowers on the central stem.

3. A selection having no pistillate flowers on the central stem.

4. Selections varying for color, size and shape of fruit.

5. Selections that have spines and warts in various degrees of intensity.
A number of crosses involving certain relations have been made but

insufficient data are available to draw conclusions.

A commercial variety that will combine desirable market qualities and
develop parthenocarpically is under observation. The extreme heterozy-
gous condition of cucumber varieties makes it necessary that a commer-
cial variety should have its characters represented by homozygous factors
in order that a stable, uniform commercial variety will give expected
results under varying growing conditions.

Cold Resistance in Sweet Corn in its Relation to Quality, Size and Earli-
ness. (V. A. Tiedjens). As a result of selecting from 600 ears of sweet
corn on the basis of their ability to germinate at low temperatures for
two years, one selection from the Whipples' Yellow variety has been
saved for further testing. A cross between this selection and a very
early Canadian sweet corn was made. The first generation seed is being
grown in the greenhouse during the winter months with the use of electric
light. This hybrid material will be germinated at a low temperature and
selections will be made combining low temperature effects with other
desirable characters, toward the production of a large, yellow, early variety
that will grow under unfavorable weather conditions.

340 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLEETIN 247

Factors Influencing the Heading of Greenhouse Lettuce. {X. A. Tied-

jens). Because of the decline of the greenliouse liead lettuce industry, a
study of factors affecting the heading of lettuce has been discontinued.

The breeding of a mildew resisting, hard heading type for winter grow-
ing conditions has resulted in a selection that promises to take the place
of the Belmont and May King varieties. The selection was made from a
cross between Belmont, a firm heading type but susceptible to mildew, and
May King, a large loose-heading, mildew-resistant type. The variety has
been named Bel-May. It is not as resistant to mildew as May King, but
a firmer heading type for winter conditions. Apparently, resistance to
mildew is correlated with the more open type of growth shown by the
May King variety.

The new variety is being grown by several growers for a commercial
test and is showing considerable promise.

The Improvement of Beets Through Selection of Roots and Seed Pro-
duction. (V. A. Tied.jens). Cooperation with Wyman Brothers of Ar-
lington, Mass., h;;s made available a fine selection of beets.

The Improvement of Carrots Through Selection of Roots and Seed Pro-
duction. (V. A. Tied.jens). A fine selection of Hutchinson Carrot has
been develoi)ed, and last year over 200 pounds of the seed was distributed
to growers. This is now in the hands of the Seed Committee of the
Boston Market Gardeners Association who are merchandizing the seed.

DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SCIENCE

J. B. Lentz in Charge

The Standardization of Avian Diphtheria, Roup or Bird Pox Virus and
Vaccines with Special Reference to Improving the Treatment of the
Disease. (N. J. Pyle.) Since the publication of Technical Bulletin No. 14
in June, 1928, progress has been made in the study of the duration of
the immunity produced by the cutaneous vaccine and in the results of its
adininistrati<m to birds as it may affect e^fi: production, body weight, and
temperature. It is planned to make further studies on the standardiza-
tion of the vaccine.

Laboratory Service — Pathology. (G. L. Dunlap.) From December I,
1926 to ,hine 15, 1927, 2,422 specimens were examined. These included
1,272 chicks, 95 adult chickens, 3 ducks, and 1,052 miscellaneous. From
June 15, 1927 to June 30, 1928 this service was suspended, except for ex-
aminations of urgent material, which included 578 miscellaneous speci-
mens. On July 1, 1927 it was resumed, with a fee of $2.00 for each
examination. Since July 1, 68 examinations have been made with a total
of 160 speciTuens. These include 106 chickens, 1 turkey, 6 foxes, 5
pigeons, 1 rabbit, 2 feed samj^les, and 39 miscellaneous specimens.

Poultry Disease Elimination Law. (W. R. Hinshaw and E. F. Sanders).
The progress made in the control of Salmonella pullorum infection (Bacil-
lary White Diarrhea) is summarized in Control Series Bulletins 39 and
43, which record the results of agglutination testing for the 1926-27 and
1927-28 seasons.

During the 1926-27 season, 127,327 tests were made in 249 flocks and
114 of these flocks, comprising 40,269 birds, were reported negative to the
agglutination test. During the 1927-28 season, 232,091 tests were made

BIENNIAL REPORT, 1927 AND 1928 341

on 321 flocks ;ind 138 flocks, comprising 80,829 birds, were reported
negative.

Based on the 1925 jionitry population of Massaciiusetts, it is estimated
that 9.39 per cent of tiie chickens in the State were tested in 1927-28 as
compared with ().27 per cent in 1926-27. Using the same comparison, 3. 98
per cent of the chickens of the State were in non-reacting flocks in 1927-28,
as compared with 1.98 per cent in 1926-27.

Following the 1927-28 testing season a questionnaire was sent to the
321 flock owners for whom testing had been done. Some of the informa-
tion obtained from the 239 replies is presented.

Eflcct of bleeding on egg production: one i^erson reported egg pro-
duction increased by bleeding, 166 reported "no effect", and 72 reported
losses from 0 to 50 per cent, due either to bleeding or to handling of the
birds or due to both.

Mortality traceable to blood collecting: thirteen persons reported a
total of 50 birds lost from hemorrhage following the withdrawal of blood.
Four persons reported the death of 12 birds due to causes other than
hemorrhage but indirectly traceable either to bleeding or to handling of
the birds. A total of 62 birds or .026 per cent of all birds bled during the
1927-28 season were reported having died as a result of blood collection.

Kinds of disinfectants used: twenty-nine brands of disinfectants were
reported as being used for spraying the hen houses after the removal
of reactors. Seven of these are included on the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture B. A. I. ai)proved list, (B. A. I. Circular Letter 1508) and ninety-
six poultrymen were using these approved disinfectants.

SPECIAL TOBACCO INVESTIGATIONS

Conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department
of Agriculture, in cooperation with the Massachusetts Agricultural Ex-
periment Station.

H. F. Murw.'n, U. S. D. A., in Charge

Brown Root-Rot. (H. F. Murwin). IMot work is being conducted at
Whately to study comparative eflfects of i)receding crops on the growth
of tobacco both in healthy and in infested soil with two acidities in each
case. It has been demonstrated in these experiments that certain crops
may not only inhibit recovery from brown root-rot in infested soil but
may actually bring about this condition in liealtiiy soil. The crops used
were alfalfa, corn, clover, tobacco, tiniotliv', soy beans, ])ot.'itoes, oats,
field peas and two tyi)es of fallow. Tiiese crops were grow n two successive
years and followed by tobacco in each case. Toliacco made a good
growth following tobacco, fallow and oats on both healthy and infested
soil. The detrimental efl'ect of corn, alfalfa, clover, timothy and soy
beans on the tobacco crop was quite marked in both cases and the efl'ect
of potatoes and field jieas was intermediate. To date no beneficial effect
on tobacco has followed any crop except oats, and even here the yield was
no greater than in the case of tobacco following tobacco or f;i!low. Brown
root-rot has never resulted from continuous culture of tobacco on healthy
soil in thefe exjieriments, and the yield of tobacco has invariably im-
proved from one year to the next with continuous culture on infested soil.
The above results were obtained on rather acid soil, and no data on crop
effects iiave been obtained from the less acid plots to date.

342 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 247

It is quite evident from these tests, together with observations through-
out the Valley, that brown root-rot is, in the great majority of cases, the
result of some crop eifect. This would indicate that cellulose decomposi-
tion might play a part in bringing about such a condition on tobacco roots.
However, cellulose decomposition, as such, does not appear to be respons-
ible for the occurrence of brown root-rot. Practically pure cellulose was
applied to the extent of one per cent of the weight of the soil in com-
bination with ample nitrate nitrogen, and this amount of cellulose was
also applied on unfertilized field plots, but no symptoms of brown root-
rot were present on the roots at harvest. The tests have also demonstrated
that ordinary applications of fertilizers have little or no effect on brown
root-rot. Twice the ordinary application of a commercial tobacco fer-
tilizer, or heavy applications of nitrate nitrogen have failed to iiTii)rove
the yield of tobacco on infested soil.

In summarizing, no crop under investigation, with the exception of oats,
has proven beneficial to a following crop of tobacco either on infested or
healthy soil. The data on oats as a preceding crop or as a crop to be
grown on infested soil to eliminate this brown root-rot condition are not
suft'icient, to date, to warrant recommendation for such purposes. With
these facts in mind, the practical solution at present appears to be the
continuous culture of tobacco, avoiding rotation when it is not necessary
for other reasons.

PUBLICATIONS

General Bulletins

231 The Market Outlet for Massachusetts Apples^ Jefferson, Lorian P.
40 p. January, 1927.

This deals with the wholesale an<i retail distribution in domestic markets, with
some discussion of the character of the demand. The world crop and international
trade are also discussed, and the costs and problems of exporting. Seasonal fluctua-
tions in Baldwin apple prices, 1889-1925, and comparisons of Baldwin and Mcintosh
prices are included, with a discussion of the relation between price and size of the
apple crop. The chief conclusions are that the demand for New England apples is
increasing in New England markets, and that the demand for good quality and
larger sizes is increasing.

232 Effect of Potash Salts on Crop Yields. Haskell, Sidney B. 10 p.

February, 1927.

Among the more important results of long-continued experiments comparing chem-
ical forms of fertilizer potash are the following: occasionally better table quality of
potatoes, but seldom any significant difference in yields : variations in the stand of
grass and clover, but surprising similarity in yields of hay ; a distinct difference
in the winterkilling of cane fruits, with consequent large differences in yield ; no
indication of sulfur shortage even aftel- thirty years of treatment with little or no
sulfur in the fertilizer, and a similar result with magnesium.

233 The Codling Moth in Massachusetts. Bourne, A. I. and Whitcomb,
W. D. 19 p. March, 1927.

The life history of the codling moth in Massachusetts was studied for three con-
secutive seasons. The codling moth has one complete generation and a partial
second annually in this State. There is a slight overlapping of the two genera-
tions, so that from the time the fruit is set until harvest there are but few days
when infestation may not take place. Spraying is the most important phase of
codling moth control and should be thorough and timely. The calyx spray and the
post calyx sprays are the most important in the control of this insect. The mate-
rial most effective against the codling moth is arsenate of lead, and its use is
recommended at the rate of IV^ pounds of the powder in 50 gallons of water.

/

BIENNIAL REPORT, 1927 AND 1928 343

234 The Poisoning of Honey Bees by Orchard Sprays. Bourne, A. I.
12 p. March, 1927.

The experiments indicate that, if the recommended combination of lead aisenate,
lime-sulfur and nicotine sulfate is used, spraying should have no appreciable effect
upon colonies of bees not subject to any restrictions of flight. This is true even
when some b'oom is present, unless improperly timed spraying is carried out on
E, large s-caU.

235 Farm Taxes and Assessments in Massachusetts. Yount, Hubert W.
36 p. April, 1927.

Farm real estate on 214 farms in 1923 was assessed at 53 per cent of the owners'
valuation. The average ratio of the assessed value of farm i-eal estate to the own-
ers' valuation varies as much as 20 per cent between towns ; and also varied
widely between farms in the same town. Livestock was assessed at 65 per cent of
itf value as reported by the owners. Reports from 133 boards of assessors show
wide differences between towns in the estimated assessed value of land of a sim-
ilar quality and use, and little uniformity in the assessment of livestock. Urban
and industrial real estate is assessed at a higher percentage of value than farm
real estate. In 1923 taxes on 207 farms took 9.76 per cent of the farm income
before paying taxes. When computed on a similar basis, taxes take a larger shaie
of the Massachusetts fai-mer's income than of the incomes received by certain other
industrial or professional c'.asses.

236 The Milk Supply of Massachusetts. McFall, R. J. 13 p. May, 1927.
1. Local Production and Imports. Data are presented showing that out of a total
of slightly over 680 million quarts of milk used in Massachusetts, 59 per cent is
produced in the State, 43 per cent imported, and 2 per cent exported. Practically
all of the cream is imported. IL Consumption and Sources of Supply in Spring-
field and Vicinity. Figures show that this area produces 22 per cent of its supply
of fluid milk, brings in 44 per cent from other states, and obtains 34 per cent from
other parts of Massachusetts. III. Milk Production and Shipped-in Feed. For
New England as a whole, 23 per cent of the milk production is based upon outside
feed, and 77 per cent on home-grown supplies ; for Massachusetts the correspond-
ing figures are 30 per cent and 70 per cent respectively. New England's depend-
ence upon outside feedstuffs is not unduly high when compared with the situation
in some of the leading dairy nations of Europe.

237 Liming Onions. Jones, J. P. 7 p. October, 1927.

A report of observations made on the use of lime for onions in the Connecticut
Valley. Onions were found to yield best on the less acid soils. For any degree of
acidity the yield following tobacco averaged poorer than following onions. The
best yields were secured at soil reactions of pH 6.Q and above. In applying lime
for onions it was pointed out that other crops that might be grown on the land
subsetiuently should be kept in mind. For example, lime, applied in amounts most
beneficial to onions, has been proven harmful to tobacco.

238 Head Formation in Apple Trees. Shaw, J. K. 30 p. October, 1927.
A report of the effects on young apple trees of six different types of pruning.
Results are given in terms of growth and early yield, and a series of tracings
from photographs shows the effects on the development of individual trees. Direc-
tions are given for pruning young apple trees from the time they are set until
the type of tree is established.

t/

239 Cape Cod Cranberry Insects. Franklin, H. J. 67 p. February, 1928.
Worms and wormlike forms that attack the foliage, buds, flowers and fruit of the
cranberry vine in this State are described, and methods for control discussed. The
work is based on many years study and experience in the Cape Cod cranberry
section. An important feature of the bulletin is the colored plates and other illus-
trations showing the cranberry insects in their different stages as well as the
various ways in which they injure the plant.

240 Factors Affecting Returns from Potatoes in Massachusetts. Mighell,
Ronald L. 27 p. January, 1928.

A survey of 54 farms in four different areas in the State is the basis of this bulletin.
Potatoes occupied an average of 11 to 13% per cent of the total crop land. The
maximum, minimum and average hours of labor, by operations, the distribution of
labor throughout the season, the amount of materials used and the production per
acre for each of the four areas are given. A brief study of the effect of machinery
on labor requirements and costs is presented.

344 MASS. KXPKRIMFA'T STATION BULLETIN 247

241 Food Consumption of Rural School Children in Kelat'on to Their
Health. Davies, Esther S. 51 p. March, 1928.

A field study was made of two Massachusetts rural towns, to ascertain what rela-
tionships, if any, could be demonstrated between the dietary habits of children of
elementary school age and their state of health. The investigation included visits
to the homes of the children, inspection of .school lunches, and dental and medical
examinations. The study showed that most of the diets were of poor quality from
the standpoint of the nutritional needs of the child. The most outstanding differ-
ence between the children of the two towns was in the condition of their teeth.
The excellence of the teeth of one group as compared with the other is believed to
have as its chief causal factor the high consumption of milk in the former town
and the low milk utilization of the latter.

242 Vigor in Production-Bred Flocks. Hays, F. A. and Sanborn, Ruby.
26 p. April, 1928.

In pedigree breeding for high fecundity, the question of vigor is of paramount
importance, because the mortality rate tends to become higher as egg production
increases. In the Rhode Island Red flock studied, vigor was found to be independ-
ent of the fecundity traits, early maturity, high intensity, non-pauie and high
persistency : but to be reduced by eliminating broodiness. The most feasible prac-
tice for improving vigor is to breed only from those families showing the lowest
mortality of pullets in the laying houses.

243 The Mcintosh Apple on the New York Market. Jefferson, Lorian P.

12 p. May, 1928.

Data are presented showing the demand for Mcintosh apples in New York City,
the total volume received from the different sections producing Mcintosh, and a
comparison of the prices received for Mcintosh from the different sections. Two
conclusions seemed justified: The demand for Mcintosh in New York has never
been supplied, and the testimony of dealers indicates that the market will absorb
many times what it now receives ; the New England Mcintosh are in general equal
to any that are received in New York, as indicated by the prices received. A
carlot of apples, shipped from New England to New York in the spring of 1928
was traced to the consumer to learn how the shipment was handled, how widely
the apples were distributed, how many jobbers and retailers were concerned with
the distribution, and the type of consumers to whom they were finally sold. The
details of this shipment are reported.

244. Type-of-Farnunu; Areas in Massachusetts. Mighel, Ronald L. cand
Brown, Marian. 16 p. June, 1928.

This study was made as a basis for future investigational work, and because a
knowledge of existing farm conditions and how they have developed is essential
to wise farm planning and administration. The bulletin defines thirteen different
areas on the basis of soil, topography and type of farming, and shows in both
graphical and descriptive form the distribution of the principal crop and live
stock enterprises in the State according to the United States Census of 1925.

245. Bliii'ht and Leaf-spot of Carrot in Massachusetts. Doran, W. L.
and Cuba, E. F. 9 p. June, 1928.

The economic importance, causes and control measures of these diseases are dis-
cussed. The use of fungicides in the field is warranted only in the most rainy
seasons. Crop rotation is of some value as a control, but seed treatment is not.

246 Control of Red Spider and Powdery Mildew on Greenhouse Cucum-
bers. Whitcomb, W. D. and Guba, E. F. 16 p.

Effective treatments for controlling red spider and powdery mildew individually
on greenhouse cucumbers have been developed. White mineral oil emulsion and
sulfur, which are recognized as the most effective materials for controlling red
spider and powdery mildew respectively, are not compatible. The proper choice
of fungicides for controlling powdery mildew when white mineral oil emulsion is
used is suggested. In addition, the nature, method, and rate of application of
fungicides are considered in relation to the health of the foliage, weather condi-
tions, and the location of the fungus.

BIENNIAL RF.rOKT, 1927 AND 1928 345

Technical Bulletins

11 Intensity or Rate of Laying in Relation to Fecundity. Hays, F. A
and Sanborn, Ruby. 16 p. November, 1927.

One of a series of bulletins dealing with inherited traits in relation to fecundity
in the Rhode Is'and Red breed of domestic fowl. Intensity is an inherited trait
which vitally affects fecundity. In this study four measures of intensity have be^n
used : first sixty-day egpr record, mean size of winter clutch, net winter . rate of
laying, and annual rate of laying. From the standpoint of the breeder, mean size
of winter clutch is the most satisfactory criterion of intensity because it can be
accurately determined and because it is inherited.

12 Net Correlations of Characters Concerned in Fecundity. Hays, F. A.
and Sanborn, Ruby. 9 p. December, 1927.

This bulletin completes the series dealing with the five inherited traits concerned
with fecundity in the Rhode Island Red breed of domestic fowl. Net correlations
are presented, which more adequately portray the relative importance of the several
characters than do the simple correlations previously used. Annual egg production
is shown to be entirely independent of age at first egg ; to be dependent to an im-
portant and substantially equal degree upon length of winter pause, intensity ss
measured by winter clutch size, and degree of broodiness : but to be most intimately
affected by annual persistency. The multiple correlation of +.8(542 shows that the
five characters here considered largely control the annual egg yield.

13 Washinji- Powders for Dairy Use. Pliillips, A. W., Mack, M. J., and
Frandsen, .L H. 10 p. May, 1928.

1. Analyses of many washing powders on the market show four general classes,
containing eaifconate, caustic, phosphate and soap respectively.

2. There is very slight variation in those powders which come in the same class.

3. Laboratory and plant tests on these powders, on other mixtures, and on th(?
pure ingredients have demonstrated the specific roles played by each ingredient.

4. A desirable composition for general dairy use has been indicated to be 60 per
cent sodium carbonate and 40 per cent tri-sodium phosphate.

.1. By buying the commercial chemicals the price per pound of cleaner may be
reduced to close to 2 cents as compared with from 8 to 16 cents now paid for a
similar grade of product.

6. The washing efficiency of the powders increased up to about 140° F. Below
9.5° F. the bactericidal action is greatly reduced.

7. All powders showed disinfecting powers in 0.6 per cent solution, by renderin.g
the wash water sterile.

14 Cutaneous Immunity in Relation to Contagious Epithelioma. Pyle.
Norman J. 16 p. June, 1928.

A serological study of birds immune to bird pox, a study of cutaneous immunity
in relation to the disease, and the development of an efficient cutaneous vaccine for
the treatment of the disease are reported.

15 The Extraction of Ajiple Juices in the Manufacture of Jelly. Fillers,
Carl R. 35 p. June, 1928.

This investigation was an attempt to establish certain principles leading to greater

economy in production, and providing a sounder basis for the housewife and com-
mercial preserver for the manufacture of a uniformly high quality product. In
general, two short (1.5-minute) successive extractions were desirable in order to

obtain an optimum yield of juice containing sufficient pectin and acid to give satis-
factory yields of high quality jelly. When only one extraction of the fruit was
made there was a serious loss in jelly yield. Long extraction periods were unsatis-
factory because of destruction of the jellying power of the pectin. The best results
were obtained with a ratio of 1^2 or 1 part of fruit to each part of water added.
An extraction temperature of 212° F. was found most economical and effective.

Red Astrachan. Red Siberian Crab, King David, Winesap and Mcintosh were among
the more suitable varieties for apple jelly manufacture. The development of a
method of tasting the consistency of jellies is described and the instrument pictured.

346 MA8S. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 247

Circulars

74 Report of Progress in Tobacco Investigations. Jones, J. P. 8 p.
April 1927.

The results obtained during the first three years of an experiment comparing dif-
ferent cropping systems for tobacco are presented. Tobacco grown in rotation with
(1) corn and hay, (2) potatoes and onions, (3) corn, (4) hay, (5) potatoes, and
(6) onions, was compared with tobacco grown every year on the same land (1)
with fertilizer only, (2) with fertilizer and manure, and (3) with fertiliiier and
timothy cover crop. Tobacco grown in continuous culture proved tetter than that
grown in any other cropping system ; tobacco receiving manure and fertilizer better
than that with fertilizer only ; tobacco without a cover cj-op much better than that
with a cover crop, or that grown in any of the rotations except with onions.

Control Bulletins

39 Control of Bacillary White Diarrhea, 1926-27. Van Roekel, Henry.
7 p. July, 1927.

40 Inspection of Coniniercial Feedstuffs. 27 p. November, 1927.

41 Inspection of Coniniercial Fertilizers. Haskins, H. D., Walker, L. S.
and Goodwin, M. W. 37 p. December, 1927.

42 Inspection of Agricultural Lime Products. Haskins, H. D., Goodwin,
M. W. and Kuzmeski, J. W.

43 Control of Salmonella Pullorum Infection (Bacillary White Diarrhea)
1927-28. Hinshaw, W. R. and Sanders, E. F. 22 p. July, 1928.

Meteorological Reports

457-480, inclusive. Monthly reports giving daily weather records witli
monthly summaries.

Scientific Contributions

53 Physical Character of Eggs in Relation to Hatchability. Hays, F. A.
Poultry Science 6:196-200. April-May, 1927.

54 The Discoloration of Canned Cranberries. Morse, Fred W. Jour.
Agr. Research 34:889-892. May 1, 1927.

55 Solubility of Copper Sulphate, Malachite and Burgundy Precipitate
in Ammonium Hydroxide, Carbonate and Bicarbonate. Holland, E. B.
and Gilligan, G. M. Jour. Phys. Chem. 31:728-741. May, 1927.

56 Relation of Age of Parents to Hatchability, Livability and Fecundity
in Domestic Fowl. Hays, F. A. Poultry Science 7:106-115. March,
1928.

57 Public Health Aspects of Food I'reservation. Fellers, C. R. Jour.
Public Health, 17:470-475. 1927.

58 A Volume Weight Study of Ice Cream. Phillips, A. W. Jour. Dairy
Sci. 10:232-249. May, 1927.

59 Reducing the Cost of Nicotine Sulphate Sprays. Worthley, H. N.
Jour. Econ. Ent. 20:615-625. Aug., 1927.

60 Influence of Form and Proportion of Lime L^sed and of Method of
Mixing on the Resulting Bordeaux Mixture. Holland, E. B., Dunbar,
C. O. and Gilligan, G. M. Jour. Agr. Research 34:677-686. April 1,
1927.

61 Some Observations on Root and Crown Bud Formation in Asparagus
Officinalis. Tiedjens, V. A. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 23:189-196.
1926.

62 Some Observations on the Response of Greenhouse Cucumber (Cucumis
sativus) to Certain Environmental Factors. Tiedjens, V. A. Proc.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 23:184-189. 1926. '

BIENNIAL REPORT, 1927 AND 1928 347

63 The Inheritance of Persistency and Its Relation to Fecundity. Hays,
F. A. Proc. World's Poultry Congress. 1927. (3 p.)

64 Chemical Hydrated Lime for the Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture.
Holland, E. B., and Gilligan, G. M. Phytopathology 17:571-572. Aug.
19277 - -

65 Relation between Water and Potash in Plant Production. Morse,
Fred W. Jour. Agr. Research. 35:939-946. November 15, 1927.

66 Percentage of Sugar and Starch as Influenced by Preparation of
Material. Jones, C. P. Proc. Amer. Soc. for Hort. Sci. 24:205-206.
1927.

67 Calf Meal Studies. I. Laboratory Experiments in the Improvement
of Physical Condition. II. Feeding Experiments with Cooked and
Uncooked Meal. Archibald, J. G. Jour. Dairy Science. 11:119-135.
March, 1928.

Relation of the Adjustment of Soil Reaction to Black Root-Rot of
Tobacco. Doran, W. L. Science 66:661-662. December 30, 1927.
Tin Cans and Glass Jars as Bacterial Contaminants in Canned Food.
Fellers, Carl R. Amer. Jour. Public Health. 18:763-770. June, 1928.
Acetic Acid as a Soil Disinfectant. Doran, W. L. Joui Agr. Re-
search 36:269-280. February 1, 1928.
An Experiment in Trapping Cutworms. Whitcomb, W. D. Jour.

ajuJlnt. 21:592-598. August, 1928. •
The Growth of Tobacco and Brown Root-Rot of Tobacco as Affected
by Timothy Infusions of Different Ages. Doran, W. L. Jour. Agr.
Research 36:281-287. February 1, 1928.

73. Sex Ratios in Cucumber Flowers as Affected by Different Conditions
of Soil and Light. Tiedjens, Y. A. Jour. Agr. Research 36.721-746.
April 15, 1928.

74. Electrolytic Apparatus for the Determination of Copper in Insecti-
cides and Fungicides. Holland, E. B. and Gilligan, G. M. Jour.
Indus, and Eng. Chem. 20:533-535. May, 1928.

75 Some Observations on Mutations in Deciduous Fruits. Drain, Brooks
D. Proc. Amer. Soc. for Hort. Sci. 24:147-148. 1927.

76 Classification of Copper Fungicides. Holland, E. B. and Gilligan, G. M.
Phytopathology 18:455-458. May, 1928.

77 The Relation of Environment to Shape of Fruit in Cucumis Sativus L.
and Its Bearing on the Genetic Potentialities of the Plants. Tiedjens,
V. A. Jour. Agr. Research 36:795-809. May 1, 1928.

78 Jelly-Strength Measurements of Fruit Jellies by the Bloom Gelo-
meter. Fellers, Carl R. and Grift'iths, Francis P. Jour. Indus, and
Eng. Chem. 20:857-862. August, 1928.

79 Influence of Cropping Systems on Root-Rots of Tobacco. Jones,
J. P. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 20:679-685. July, 1928.

80 The Iodine Content of Cape Cod Cranberries. Morse, Fred W. Jour.
Biol. Chem. 79:409-411. October, 1928.

81 Control of Cucumber Powdery Mildew in Greenhouses. Guba, E. F.
Phytopathology 18:847-860. 1928.

Nitrate Accumulation under a Mulch. Beaumont, A. B., Sessions.
A. C. and Kelly, O. W. Soil Science 24:177-184. 1927.

Assimilation of Fixed Nitrogen by Tobacco. Beaumont, A. B. Science
66:237. 1927.

Method of Growing Small-seeded Plants under Sterile Conditions.
Beaumont, A. B. and Larsinos, G. J. Science 66:350. 1928.

348 MASS EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 247

Nitrification in Massachusetts Soils. Beaumont, A. B. Proceedings
of the First International Congress of Soil Science 3:240-249.
The Checker-board Method of Laying out Plots. Jones, J. P. Jour.
Amer. Soc. Agron. 20:400-402. 1928.

Spray Solutions and the Control of Apple Scab. Butler, O. and Dor-
an, W. L. N. H. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 36. 1928.
False Blossom. Franklin, H. J. Wisconsin State Cranberry Growers'
Assoc, 41st Ann. Rept. 1928. pp. 10-16.

The Digger Wasps of North America of the Genus Podalonia (Psam-
mophila). Fernald, H. T. Proceedings U. S. Nat. Mus., v. 71, Art.
9, 1927. 39 p. 2 pi.

Insects: the People and the State. Fernald, H. T. Scientific Monthly,
Vol. 27, 1928. 13 p.

Insect Pests in Massachusetts Orchards. Bourne, A. I. Mass. Fruit
^ -Growers' Assoc. Rept. 1927.
Recent Studies on the Codling Moth in Massachusetts. Bourne, A. I.

^, ^£onn., Pomological Soc. Rept. 1927.

Honey Bee Poisoning by Sprays. Bourne, A. I. Science, October, 1927.

Orchard Insect Pests of 1927: The Problem of Spray Residue in

Massachusetts: Railroad Worm Observations. Bourne, A. I. Mass.

Fruit Growers' Assoc. Rept. 1928.

Non-gaseous Spoilage in Canned Marine Products. Fellers, C. R.

Univ. of Wash. Publications in Fisheries, Vol. 1, No. 11, p. 229-238.

Oct., 1927.

Canned Foods and tlie Public Healtli. Fellers, C. R. Amer Jour.

Public Health 18:893-896. July, 1928.

Some Common Poultry Diseases. Hinshaw, W. R. Biennial Report,

Northeastern Tuberculosis Conference.

Bacillary White Diarrhea. Hinsliaw, W. R. and Sanders, E. F.

Vet. Medicine 23:219-220. 1928.

CHANGES IN STAFF, DECEMBER 1, 1926 to NOVEjVlBER 30, 1928.

Appointments.

Barton, Rena L., Laboratory Assistant, Pomology, August 1, 1928.

Brown, Marian V., A. B., Laboratory Assistant, Farm Management, March
1, 1927.

Church, Cornelia B., B. S., Laboratory Assistant, Home Economics, July
1, 1928.

Clarke, Miriain K., B. A., Laboratory Assistant, Poultry Disease Elimina-
tion Law, September 1, 1927.

Davies, Esther S., Ph B., B. S., Assistant Research Professor and Head
of Department, Home Economics, January 1, 1927.

DeRose, H. Robert, M. S., Assistant Chemist, Feed and Fertilizer Laws,
October 1, 1927.

Dufresne, Virginia R., A. B., Laboratory Assistant, Agricultural Econom-
ics, July 1, 1927.

Dunlap, Glenn L., D. V. M., Assistant Veterinary Pathologist, Pathology
Service Laboratory, June 15, 1928.

BIENNIAL REPORT, 1927 AND 1928 349

France, Ralph L., M. S., Assistant Bacteriologist, Bacteriologj- Service
Laboratory, July 1, 1928.

Fuller, James E., A. B., A. M., Assistant Research Professor, Bacterioloy
and Physiology, July 1, 1928.

Griffiths, Francis P., B. S., Research Assistant, Horticultural Manufactures,
September 1, 1927.

Gunness, Christian I., B.S., Meteorologist, March 1, 1928.

Hinshaw, William R., V. D. M., M. S., Chief of Laboratory, Poultry
Disease Elimination Law, July 21, 1927.

Hopkins, Elizabeth F., M. S., Seed Analyst, Seed Law, September 1, 1927.

Kelley, Joseph L., Technical Assistant, Cranberries, December 1, 1926.

Kelly, Oliver W., M. S., Senior Seed Analyst, Seed Law, July 1, 1928.

Kuzmeski, J. W., B. S., Junior Chemist, Feed and Fertilizer Laws, June
4, 1927.

Mighell, Ronald L., M. S., Assistant Research Professor, Farm Manage-
ment, January 1, 1927.

Nelson, Paul R., M. S., Research Assistant, Plant and Animal Chemistry,
December 1, 1926.

Nickerson, Elsie E., B. S., Technical Assistant, Home Economics, Janu-
ary 1, 1928.

Rozman, David, Ph. D., Assistant Research Professor, Agricultural Eco-
nomics, December 1, 1927.

Sanders, Ellmore F., D. V. M., Assistant Veterinary Pathologist, Poultry
Disease Elimination Law, September 15, 1927.

Sievers, Fred J., M. S., Director, February 1, 1928.

Snell, Moses E., Technical Assistant, Agronomy, September 1, 1927.

Van Meter, Ralph A., B. S., Professor, Pomology, April. 1, 1928.

Wright, Kenneth E., M. S., Assistant Research Professor, Dairy Manu-
factures, May 1, 1928.

Resignations.

Haskell, Sidney B., B. S., Director, December 15, 1927.

Hopkins, Elizabeth F., M. S., Seed Analyst, Seed Law, May 19, 1928.

Home, Robert S., B. St, Research Assistant, Agronomy, August 31, 1927.

Kokoski, Frank J., B. S., Analyst, Feed and Fertilizer Laws, May 18, 1927.

Rowley, Harold F., B. S., Technical Assistant, Veterinary Science, June
30, 1927.

Prescott, Lelia, Analyst, Poultry Disease Elimination Law, August 31,
1927.

McFall, Robert J., Ph. D., Research Professor, Aricultural Economics,
June 30, 1927.

Nickerson, Elsie E., B. S., Technical Assistant, Home Economics, May 1,
1928.

Ostrander, John E., A. M., C. E., Meteorologist, March 1, 1928.

Phillips, Arthur W., A.M., Assistant Research Professor, Dairy Manu-
factures, July 31, 1927.

Van Roekel, Henry, M. S., D. V. M., Specialist, Poultry Disease Elimina-
tion Law, July 15, 1927.

Walker, Lewell S., B. S., Assistant Official Chemist, Fertilizer Law, June
15, 1927.

Publication of this document approved by
THE Commission on Administration and Finance

2500-5-'29. No. 5677

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment station

Bulletin No. 248 March, 1929

Tomato Leaf -Mold

The Use of Fungicides for Its Control

in Greenhouses

By E. F. Cuba

The culture of greenhouse tomatoes is an important industry in Massa-
chusetts, and the area devoted to this crop has increased considerably
in recent years. Leaf-mold is the most serious disease affecting the crop.
The loss of one to two months of pickings of the fall crop and one month
of the spring crop as the result of this disease is common. Past recom-
mendations regarding the proper choice of fungicides for its control are
conflicting and not based on experimental evidence, and growers w^ho have
used fungicides have not obtained control. This investigation has con-
sidered the merits of different types of fungicides. An effective material,
and a practical method of application, have been discovered w^hich are
recorded in this bulletin.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD

THE USE OF FUNGICIDES FOR ITS CONTROL IN GREENHOUSES i 2.
By E. F. Guba, Assistant Research Professor of Botany

INTRODUCTION

Tomato leaf-mold caused by the fungus Chtdosporium fulvum Cke. is the
most serious disease of greenhouse tomatoes in Massachusetts. Relatively
little experimental work has been done to determine the effect of fungicides
on the disease, yet there is recommended in the literature a variety of
materials the efficacy of which is unsupported by published evidence. Com-
mercial growers have tried most of the materials suggested without success.
Experimental work with fungicides in greenhouses has not received much
recognition largely because successful control of this disease has been con-
sidered a matter of proper management of ventilation and heating. In
establishments where management might successfully be practiced it usually
fails.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

An effective fungicide for this fungus has been a much discussed subject
among pathologists. The earlier literature on the subject has been reviewed
by Makemson (22). Previous to his study of the fungus some authorities
recommended copper mixtures and others sulfur, while others were unable
to obtain results with either group of fungicides. Makemson found from
spore toxicity tests that Bordeaux mixtures, ammoniacal copper carbonate
and potassium sulfide were entirely ineffective and that formaldehyde at the
rate of 1 ounce of a 40 per cent solution to 21/0 gallons of water (.12 per cent)
and self-boiled liquid lime-sulfur were toxic while commercial liquid lime-
sulfur 2. .5 per cent showed promise. His control work on tomato plants
substantiated the results of his spore toxicity tests with Bordeaux mixtures,
likewise showed lack of value of sulfur dust and formaldehyde and the slight
superiority of commercial and self-boiled lime-sulfur. Makemson's work left
the Impression that Cladosporium is not as susceptible to copper as to sulfur.
This is unfortunate, for his results from self-boiled and concentrated lime-
sulfur solutions were too meagre and conflicting to afford an accurate esti-
mate of their value, and dusting sulfur proved of no value at all. Williams
(38) reported that sulfur susjiensions, colloidal sulfur, sodium polysulfide
2.5 per cent, potassium sulfide .5 per cent, ammonium polysulfide .5 per cent,
Cheshunt Compound .5 to 2 per cent, copper silico-fluoride .2 to .5 per cent,
nickel silico-fluoride .5 per cent, and barium silico-fluoride (sat. sol.) pre-
vented germination while sodium polysulfide .5 to 1 per cent and lime-sulfur
.5 to 2 per cent permitted germination. Of the materials which prevented
germination, only potassium sulfide, ammonium polysulfide and Cheshunt
Compound .5 to 1 per cent proved safe to tomato foliage, but when applied
to infected leaves none affected the viability of the spores. Neither Makem-

1 The writer is indebted to Professor A. Vincent Osmun, Head of the Department
of Botany for valuable suggestions and criticisms in the preparation of the manu-
script of this Bulletin.

2 The information in this bulletin is based on the results of experiments conducted
by the writer at the Market Garden Field Station, Waltham, and in commercial
greenhouses in eastern Massachusetts.

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD 3

son nor Williams stated the temperatures under which the tests were con-
ducted and both failed to consider the possible relation of temperature to
the activity of sulfur compounds. Parker (27) reported good results with
ammoniacal copper carbonate wash. Alvesco mildew powder, a copper and
sulfur dust of English manufacture, was recommended by A. M. D. (7),
Parker (27) and Dyke (8).

Hasper (12) compared sulfur, copper salts and Uspulun and reported best
results with .5 per cent Uspulun applied at 8 to 10 day intervals. In an
anonymous paper (1) from Holland, Uspulun .5 per cent and Solbar 1 per
cent were reported to give effective control. Solbar caused foliage burning
but Uspulun none. Triebels (33) advised treatments with .5 per cent Uspu-
lun beginning with the first appearance of leaf-mold and repeating at 2 to 3
week intervals up to the time the fruit becomes large. Since the fruits
acquire the taste of phenol at this period, he advised using 1 per cent Solbar
for subsequent treatments. HoflPerichter (13) obtained good control with 1
per cent Solbar. Baehr (2) compared Bordeaux, Cosan and Solbar and re-
ported that Solbar alone gave excellent control, while the other materials
were of no account. Jonassen (18) advised spraying every fourteen days
with 1 to 1.5 per cent Germinal or LTspulun beginning when the houses are
set, and with a 5 per cent solution if the disease is already present.

Sulfuring of the heating pipes has been recommended for combating
Cladosporium by Massey and Rhodes (23) and Parker (27). Manufactured
devices for vaporizing sulfur, such as Campbeirs Patent Sulfur Vaporizer
and the Rota-Generator, have been recommended for controlling Cladospo-
rium by Bewley (6) and A. M. D. (7), but Baehr (2) reported no control
with the Rota-Generator.

As the literature reveals, many materials have been suggested. The recom-
mendations concerning the choice are contradictory and inconsistent, and
those materials which have been reported of merit are unsupported by ade-
quate evidence. It has seemed desirable, therefore, to determine the merits
of different fungicides in the control of this disease.

LABORATORY CONTROL WITH FUNGICIDES
Effect of Fungicides on Spore Germination

The technique employed by Makemson (22) and Williams (38) for deter-
mining the effect of fungicides on the germination of Cladosporium spores is
contrary to natural .methods of dissemination of the fungus and inoculation
of the plants in the greenhouse. Makemson applied spores in water drop
suspensions to glass surfaces bearing dry deposits of the fungicide, and
spores in drops of the fungicide on clean cover glasses. The results by both
methods of study were identical. Williams applied water suspensions of spores
to glass surfaces bearing dry deposits of the fungicide.

Cladosporium spores are capable of germinating in moisture saturated air
and in the absence of the water drop. Spores are dispersed in the green-
house through the medium of the air and in the dry state, being liberated by
disturbing leaves aifected with mold. The common practice of tapping the
plants with sticks to assist pollination of the flowers is a means of producing
spread and epidemics of disease. Under the usual conditions of growing
greenhouse tomatoes water is not a carrier of the inoculum. In determining
the merits of fungicides for preventing infection, obviously the logical tech-
nique to follow is that of applying dry spores to dry fungicidal deposits and
of exposing dry spores to contact with dusts or liquids, drying, and then

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 248

exposing the slides to optimum conditions for spore germination. For
tests here reported various methods of technique were considered with the
view of determining under what conditions control could be expected. The
tests were conducted at different degrees of temperature. An outline of the
methods of technique used follows:

Method I. Dry spores were applied with a camel's hair brush to glass
slides bearing a dry covering of fungicide. This method of technique simu-
lates most closely the conditions obtained on sprayed foliage and offers the
most satisfactory means of determining the efficacy of the dry chemical
residue in protecting the foliage from infection.

Method II. Dry spores were applied to clean glass slides which were sub-
sequently dusted or sprayed. The spray was permitted to dry previous to
incubation.

Method III. Technique was similar to II except that slides were incubated
wet. By methods II and III the efficacy of the sprays as disinfectants was
demonstrated, and by II the merits of the dust in preventing germination.

Method IV. Water drop suspensions of spores were placed on slides cov-
ered with the dry fungicide. Where fungicidal activity occurs under the con-
ditions surrounding this method of technique it may be inferred that affirma-
tive results can be expected on wet foliage in the greenhouse.

Method V. Glass slides brushed with dry spores were inverted and rested
at a distance of 3 mm. above the dry fungicide. This method served to
demonstrate the merits of the fungicide as a fumigant.

Spraying and Dusting Materials.

Study of Table 1 reveals significant data bearing upon the control of the
disease witli fungicides, not considered in previous investigations. As the
data show, dusting sulfurs are of no value in preventing germination by any
of the methods of testing and under the range of temperatures considered.
The data supports Makemson (22) who showed that sulfur dust is of no
value, but are contrary to the results of Williams (38) which show that sulfur
suspensions and colloidal sulfur are toxic. Barker, Gimingham and Wilt-
shire (4) reported that Cladosporium is not nearly as sensitive to sulfur as
other fungi. These studies show that sulfur dusting materials are not effec-
tive and cannot be expected to offer control of the disease.

Some toxicity was manifested by Hammond's Grape Dust against spores
conveyed in the water drop. This was due to its copper content. The com-
position of Grape Dust is sulfur 64 per cent, copper sulfate 2.5 per cent,
and inert material not more than 33.5 per cent.

Hammond's Slug Shot did not control germination in contact with dry
spores but in water drops abnormal germ tubes resulted. Hammond's Slug
Shot contains gypsum and free sulfur, calcium hydroxide, silica, iron and
aluminum oxides, arsenic, less than 1 per cent of metallic copper, less than
2 per cent of organic material and traces of nicotine and carbolic acid.

Schloesing's sulfur, a dusting mixture recovered in the manufacture of
artificial gas, also failed under every method of technique. It is a finely
divided product and easily wet with water. According to analyses there is
present 36.42 per cent total sulfur in the original and 25.44 per cent sulfur
in carbon bi-sulfide extract. The ash is highly colored with iron oxide
(FesOs). The material also contains phenols and cyanides.

Herbert and Herbert colloidal sulfur failed by every method of study used
to control germination. The concentrated product is strongly acid. A 5 per
cent mixture is not toxic.

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD
Table 1. Toxicity of Fungicides to Germinating Spores.

FUNGV* IDE

I

Dry spores
applied to
dry residue

II

Dry spores

treated with

fungicide;

incubated dry

III

Same as II

but
incubated

wet

IV
Water sus-
pension of

spores
applied to
dry residue

V

Dry spores
exposed to
fungicide at
a distance

70°

80°

90°

70°

80°

90°

70°

80°

90°

70°

80°

70°

90°

Anchor Brand Sulfur Dust

Niagara Kolo Dust

Ortho Sulfur Dust

Trick Sulfur

Hammond's Grape Dust . .
Hammond's Slug Shot. . . .

Schloesing's Sulfur

H. & H. Colloidal Sulfur 5%

Lime-Sulfur 10%

Lime-Sulfur 1%

+
+
+
+
+
+

+

+

+*

+*

+

-

-1-
-1-
+

+
+
+

+

+

+
+
+*
+*

+

+
+
+

+
+
+

+

+

+

+*

+*

+

+
+
+

-f-

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+*

+

+

+*

+

+

+

+

+

+*

+*

+*

■ +

+

-L

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+*

+

+

+ *

+

+

+

+

+ *

+*

+ *
+

+

-t-
+
+
+
+
+
+

+

+*

+

+*

-1-

+

+

+

+*

+*

+*
+

+

+*

+

+

+*

+*

+*

+

+*
+

+

+*

+*

+

+*
-t-

+*

+*

+

+
+
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+

+*

+•

+
+

-1-
+

+

+
+

+
+

+
+
+

+

+

+

+

+*

+*

+

+

+
+

+

+
+

+
+

+
+
+

+
+
4-
+

+
-1-
-1-
-1-
+
+
+
-f
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+

+
+
+

+

+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

Potassium Sulfide .08% . . .

Potassium Sulfide .4%

Solbar 1%

+
+
+

Sulfuric Acid .05%

Sulfuric Acid .025%

Sulfuric Acid .02%

Naphthalene Dust

Naphthalene-Lime Dust 1-2
Schacht's Naphtal-Schwef el
Copper-Lime Dust 10-90 . .
Copper-Lime Dust 14-86 . .
Copper-Lime Dust 19-81 . .
Niagara D-25 Copper Dust

Bordeaux 1-1-50

Bordeaux 6-6-50

+
+

-1-

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

Copper Sulfate .05%

Copper Sulfate .04%

Copper Sulfate .03%

+
+
+
+

Semesan .2%

Uspulun .2%

Formaldehyde .4%

Formaldehyde .1%

Formaldehyde .04%

+
+

+

-f germination; fungicide not effective.
— no germination; fungicide effective.
• germination considerably suppressed but fungicide not considered eflective.

A 1 per cent solution of lime-sulfur was not eifective. A 10 per cent solu-
tion showed merit by methods of study II and III. In the water drop (IV)
at the higher temperatures germination was inhibited.

Potassium sulfide in a .08 per cent solution was toxic at 90° F. (I, II, III),
but spores sown in a water drop were not affected at 70° and 80° F. A .4
per cent solution gave disinfection (II and III) at 80° and 90° F. Ger-
mination was controlled in the water drop (IV) and the dry residue (I) was
toxic at 80° and 90° F.

Solbar is a sulfur powder. It contains about 35 per cent water soluble
sulfur and the water solution contains chiefly barium tri-sulfide. The material
was ineffective by methods of study I and IV but gave some control of

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 248

germination when spores were wetted by the spray (II and III), especially
at the higher temperatures. The data do not suggest that control of the
disease can be expected from its use, although Hofferichter (13), Anon. (1),
Baehr (2) and Triebels (33) have regarded the product as having merit.

Sulfuric acid of the specific gravity 1.835-1.840 in a .02 per cent .solution
was toxic to spores wetted by the spray and its residue was likewise toxic
to dry spores (I). A .01 per cent solution was weakly fungicidal but its
residue was inactive. A residue of a .05 per cent solution was lethal to
spores applied in the water drop, but residues of weaker solutions were not
effective.

Naphthalene flakes were placed in moist Petri dishes in which dry spores
on slides were incubated for germination. The vapors emanating from the
deposits were lethal. Naphthalene dust prepared by grinding naphthalene
flakes was toxic in water and similar control was obtained with a naphtha-
lene-lime dust containing 1 part of naphthalene and 2 parts of lime.

Schacht's Naphtal-Schwefel is the only dusting material encountered that
proved effective by the two methods of study (II, IV). It appeared from
these tests to be the most promising dusting material for combating leaf-
mold. The product is manufactured in Germany and is recommended for
surface mildews. It is a flesh colored powder, lacks the characteristic
naphthalene odor and is not wettable with water. On warming or in water
with sodium peroxide the naphthalene odor is noticeable. The material con-
tains sulfur soluble in CS2, sulfur by oxidation with N&zOz, combined naphtha-
lene, CaO probably combined as hydrate and carbonate, and Si02, FcsOa and
AI2O3. The naphthalene compound was not identified.

Dry spores dusted with copper powders (II) germinated normally, but
when spores were applied in water drops to the copper deposit, germination
was completely suppressed.

Bordeaux mixtures proved toxic when dry spores were wetted (III) and
incubated immediately, but spores which escaped wetting were not affected.
When the spray was allowed to dry previous -to incubation (II) germination
was not measurably affected. The germ tubes were observed to grow into
the surrounding dry Bordeaux residue unaffected.

Copper sulfate in dilute solutions was toxic. Spores wetted with a .04 per
cent solution of copper sulfate were killed and a dry residue of the same
spray was lethal to spores applied in the water drop. Spores which escaped
wetting (II and III) were not measurably affected. The dry residue of a
.04 per cent solution exhibited toxicity to dry spores (I) but weaker dilu-
tions did not.

Copper fungicides possess no merit in the absence of moisture. Williams
(38) reported that copper salts are toxic in water and Makemson (22)
claimed that Bordeaux mixtures and ammoniacal copper carbonate have
little appreciable effect upon either germination or the growth of the germ
tubes. In these studies, however, consistent control of germination in the
water drop has been obtained. The results substantiate the effectiveness of
copper materials on field tomatoes for combating Cladosporium reported by
Edgerton and Moreland (10), Edgerton (9), Sherbakoff (30), and Weber
and Ramsey (37). Moisture not only influences the growth of the fungus
but also favors the activity of copper materials.

Lime dust was not toxic by either of the two methods of study (II and
IV).

Organic mercury compounds were toxic to spores by methods of study I,
II, III and IV. Uspulun was toxic at a .1 per cent strength. Semesan, at

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD 7

a .1 per cent strength, was not toxic to spores applied in the water drop to
the dry residue (IV), but was toxic by other methods of study. The efifec-
tiveness of the organic mercury compounds by all methods of study sug-
gests the possibility of their use to control infection in the greenhouse.

Commercial 40 per cent formaldehyde at dilutions ranging from 1-100 to
1-400 (.4 to .1 per cent) was lethal (II, III). Dry spores on slides were
placed in dishes moistened with formaldehyde (V) but only 1-100 and stronger
mixtures produced a lethal atmosphere. Since the 1-100 mixture is fungici-
dal in the air as well as in the soil, its use for soil sterilization is preferable
to a 1-400 mixture. Formaldehyde was ineffective by methods of study I
and IV, and a strength of 1-1000 was ineffective by every method of study.
The data suggest that disinfection of the greenhouse may be obtained by the
usual method of drenching the soil with a 1-100 mixture and closing the
greenhouse tight after the treatment.

The toxicity of the fumes of burning sulfur was very striking. Spores on
slides confined within Petri dishes placed in a treated atmosphere were
killed. The data indicate that the burning of sulfur between crops, as is
generally practiced by growers, is an effective and desirable means of de-
stroying hibernating parts of the fungus.

Other than naphthalene, formaldehyde and burning sulfur, none of the
materials listed in Table 1 were of any fungicidal value as fumigants.

The residues of potassium sulfide, copper sulfate, sulfuric acid, and organic
mercury sprays showed a toxic effect to spores applied dry to the slides (I).
By this method of study some solution of the residue in moisture deposited
on the surface of the slides occurred. This fungicidal effect was shown only
by readily soluble materials such as noted.

Vaporized Sulfur.

On heating sulfur, amorphous particles of sulfur are discharged into the
air, float about, and finally are deposited on exposed surfaces. These amor-
phous particles of sulfur are fluid and spread over the surface on which they
fall. The sulfur droplets are very sticky. This is considered to be due to
the fluid property of the sulfur which in this condition is able to rid the
surface of air films. Barker and Wallace (5) report that sulfur distributed
through the atmosphere by its vaporization not only furnishes a much more
complete superficial covering than can be secured by dusting or spraying,
but also possesses a remarkable power of adhesion, withstanding the action
of heavy rains or sprays of water of considerable force. To compare the
relative adhesiveness of vaporized sulfur and pure dusting sulfur, ten glass
slides, each of an area of 3 square inches, were weighed with a chemical
balance then exposed to an atmosphere treated with vaporized sulfur and
again weighed. Similarly ten weighed slides were dusted with a pure dust-
ing sulfur and reweighed. Both sets of slides were exposed to a rain of .36
inches then air dried in the laboratory and again weighed to determine the
amount of loss from washing. (Experiment A.)

The experiment was repeated (Experiment B), but the amount of rain
recorded was .04 inches. The relative adhesiveness of the two sulfurs is
indicated quantitatively in Table 2. The data show that washing caused an
appreciable loss of dusting sulfur but that its effect upon vaporized sulfur
was negligible.

The dry particles of amorphous sulfur measure 1 to 5 microns in diameter.
The largest, which are aggregates of smaller droplets, reach a diameter of 24
microns. The distance between the particles varies according to the density of

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 248

Table 2. Comparative Loss of Vaporized Sulfur and Dusting Sulfur after

Exposure to Rain.

Vaporized Sulfur

Dusting Suifur

Experi-
ment A

Experi-
ment B

Experi-
ment A

Experi-
ment B

First weight of Sulfur, grams

Second weight of Sulfur, grams

Loss of Sulfur, grams

per cent

.0528
.0510
.0018

.0591
.0579
.0012
SO

.0620
.0054
.0566
91 .3

.0464
.0252
.0212
45.7

the deposit. Dense deposits show very little unoccupied space. Thin deposits
show an extremely fine division of sulfur. In both cases distribution is
extremely uniform (Plate I, C, D). The uniform distribution of vaporized
sulfur on the plants and ground in the greenhouse is impressive. Such an
intimate association between the fungus and sulfur is not obtainable with
spraying or dusting materials (Plate I, A, B).

In a series of experiments, Cladosporium spores were exposed in different
ways to sulfur vapors (Table 3) and then incubated for 48 hours in Petri
dishes. The sulfur was evaporated slowly over an electric hot plate at
moderate temperatures with free access to air. The spores were examined
for germination at the termination of 48 hours and a final examination was
made at the end of 72 hours. Duplicate slides were exposed, one group serv-
ing to determine the degree of acid present after exposure to sulfur vapors
and the other after incubation. Constant chamber temperatures were main-
tained during the exposure of the spores to vaporized sulfur and during the
period of incubation in Petri dishes. For these tests individual temperatures
between 65° and 90° F. were used. Six tests of each method of technique
were made.

Table 3. Effect of Vaporized Sulfur on Spore Germination.

Method of Technique

I. Dry Spores applied to vaporized sulfur re&idue

II. Dry Spores exposed to vaporized sulfur

IV. Spores in water drop applied to vaporized sulfur residue

V. Spores in water drop exposed to vaporized sulfur

VI. Spores sprayed with water, then exposed to vaporized sulfur.

VII. Spores sprayed with water after exposure to vaporized sulfur.

Check. Spores applied dry to clean glass slides

Check. Spores applied in water drop to clean glass slides

Average

Percent

Germination

26.1
26.6
15.9
26 6
15.1
1.6
79.1
55 8

This study failed to show that the toxicity of vaporized sulfur is due to
its fumes. Varying degrees of control of germination were obtained by all
methods of exposure, but instances of total inhibition were obtained only
when spores were exposed in water to the vapors (V), or conveyed in water
to the residue (IV), or atomized with water (VII) after exposure. It was
anticipated that immersion in the sulfur droplets (II) would provide a
greater lethal action than when the spores were applied to the dry residue

^■m'^-
-^•«?.^-'\.

#

Microphotogiaphs showing: Relative Physical Properties and Distribution of (A)
Sulfur Dust, and (C) Vaporized Sulfur, x 75; (B) Germinating Cladosporium Spores
Unaffected by Sulfur Dust, x 225; (D) Effect of Vaporized Sulfur in Preventing
Germination of Spores, x 225; and (E) Cladosporium Spores Embedded in Dried
Droplets of Vaporized Sulfur, x 300.

m,. «.■

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD 9

(I), but no such differences were consistently noted and the average of the
results of the six tests by each of these two methods of exposure was the
same. Sulfuric acid was produced only when moisture was present on the
slides but in some instances no acid was produced in the presence of moisture,
air conditions being practically the same. Acid media below a pH value of
5.7 were consistently toxic to spores, but the toxicity of vaporized sulfur was
not due alone to acidity for in some instances complete control of germina-
tion occurred in alkaline and neutral media. The production of sulfuric acid
did not appear to be influenced by either the exposure or the incubating
temperatures, and toxicity was not correlated with any particular tempera-
ture.

Barker, Gimingham and Wiltshire (4) offered as one of the reasons for the
toxic action of sulfur the irritant character of finely divided particles which
stimulate to an injurious extent cells exposed to their action. One would
expect a much greater irritant effect from vaporized sulfur in its change
from the fluid to the dry state than from dry sulfur powders. The incrusta-
tions of sulfur surrounding the spores after drying of the droplets also would
appear to interfere with the absorption of moisture necessary for germina-
tion (Plate I, E). Kraemer (19, 20) reported that when sulfur was heated
very slowly with free access of air almost one-third of the vaporized sulfur
was converted into sulfuric acid with very little or no sulfurous acid. On
rapid heating and with very little air the proportion of sulfurous acid was
increased while the amount of sulfuric acid formed was very much lessened.
He asserted that the increased efficiency of vaporized sulfur over flowers or
flour sulfur used as a dust is due to the increased proportion of sulfuric
acid produced. Numerous workers have attributed the activity of sulfur to
sulfuric acid and recognized that sulfuric acid is fungicidal in very weak
dilutions, but Barker, Gimingham and Wiltshire (4) and Vogt (35) found
that none of the compounds which might possibly be derived from sulfur,
among which are mentioned sulfuric and sulfurous acids and sulfur dioxide,
could account for its toxic action.

Control of Infection of Potted Plants

Those fungicides considered in the studies on spore toxicity were tested for
their value in preventing infection of potted tomato plants. Two plants 8
to 12 inches high were used in each test. The potted plants were placed in
a glass chamber 34x22x18 inches in size for the dust treatments. Small
Feeney hand dusters were used for applying the dusting materials. The
pots were placed in inverted and upright positions in the chamber to obtain
coverings of dust on the lower and upjjer surfaces alike. The same chamber
was charged with vaporized sulfur, and potted plants were confined in the
charged atmosphere long enough to show a covering of sulfur. Sprays were
applied with a quart capacity atomizer and both leaf surfaces were thor-
oughly wetted. The spray was permitted to dry before the plants were
inoculated. The plants were inoculated in two ways: (1) sprayed with a
water suspension of spores and (2) dusted with spores.

The water suspension of spores applied after the treatments was allowed
to dry previous to incubation. The dry plants were placed in a glass chamber
of 175 cu. ft. A saturated atmosphere was obtained and a range of tem-
peratures from 80° to 95° F. prevailed. The fungus was incubated for 24
to 36 hours. The plants were then removed from the pots and planted in the
greenhouse. When the disease was evident on the untreated controls, counts

10

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 248

of the leaflets were made to determine the relative merits of the fungicides
considered. Only foliage present on the plants at the time of the treatments
was considered in the counts.

When the fungus was applied in water (Table 4), the stronger Bordeaux
mixtures furnished better control than the weaker, and the same was true of
copper sulfate sprays. Copper-lime dusts proved efficient. Hammond's Slug
Shot gave favorable control. Sulfur dusting materials were of no merit, but
vaporized sulfur was effective. Lime-sulfur in 1-50 and 1-100 dilutions gave
excellent control but also injury. Semesan .25 per cent was inferior to
Uspulun .25 per cent. The difference is apparently due to the filler in Uspu-
lun. When the plants were inoculated with dry spores (Table 4), only
vaporized sulfur and Grape Dust gave significant control.

Table 4. Comparative Merits of Fungicides in Preventing Infection of
Potted Tomato Plants.

Fungicide

Check

Anchor Brand Sulfur Dutt

Grape Dust

Schloesing's Sulfur

Hammond's Slug Shot

Trick Sulfur

Vaporized Sulfur

H. & H. Colloidal Sulfur

Lime-Sulfur .2%

Lime-Sulfur .8%

Lime-Sulfur 1.%

Potassium Sulfide .08%

Schacht's Naphtal-Schwefel . . .
Sulfur-Lime-Naphthalene 1-1-1

Sulfuric Acid .05%

Sulfuric Acid .04%

Copper Sulfate .06%

Copper Sulfate .05%

Copper Sulfate .04%

Bordeaux 1-1-50

Bordeaux 4-1-50 ,

Bordeaux 6-6-50

Copper-Lime Dust 10-90

Copper-Lime Dust 20-80

Copper-Lime Dust 50-50

Niagara D-25 Copper Dust. . . .

Semesan .25%

Uspulun .25%

Uspulun .1%

Spores Applied in Water

Leaflets
Counted

100

108

100

119

90

S3

93

95

81

79

94

98
87
95
97

82

86

101
106

Leaflets
Diseased

per cent
67.0
SS.J,
19.0
46. z
10.0
22.8

22.1
0.0

7.5

6.6

17.0

47.9

13.6

5.2

1.0

16.8
4.7

Spores Applied Dry

Leaflets
Counted

183

99
141
131
127
123
144

140

Leaflets
Diseased

per cent

86.2

6.0

65.3
62.5
33.0
7.S
38.1

85.0

136

93.3

154

39.6

143

27.9

135

87.4

144

75.6

150

77.3

149

62.4

83

91.5

117

57.2

122

61.4

124

40.3

In a further experiment, plants were dusted in upright and inverted posi-
tions. When plants were inoculated with spores in water (Table 5) the best
control was obtained with Grape Dust, copper-lime dust, vaporized sulfur,
and Uspulun. When they were inoculated with dry spores (Table 5) sig-
nificant control was obtained only with vaporized sulfur.

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD

11

Table 5. Comparative Merits of Fungicides in Preventing Infection of
Potted Tomato Plants. Both Leaf Surfaces Treated.

Fungicide

Check

Grape Dust

Schloesing's Sulfur

Vaporized Sulfur

Solbar 1%

Copper-Lime Dust 20-80
Uspulun .5%

Spores Applied in Water

Leaflets
Counted

9S
117
123
105

76
82

Leaflets
Diseased

per cent

25 .5
5.1

26 S
1-9

S2.S
8.5

Spores Applied Drt

Leaflets
Counted

117
90
82
60

110
123

Leaflets
Diseased

per cent
67.6
23. S
17.0
1.6

42.7
5S.6

In another test Bordeaux 4-4-50, Solbar 1 per cent and Uspulun .5 per
cent offered a high degree of control when the treated plants were inocu-
lated with spores in water (Table 6). When spores were applied dry, only
Solbar offered effective control.

Table 6. Comparative Merits of Fungicides in Preventing Infection of
Potted Tomato Plants.

Fungicide

Check

Potassium Sulfide .4^

Solbar 1% .'

Copper Sulfate .05%

Bordeaux 4-4-50

Uspulun .5%

Spores Applied in Water

Leaflets
Counted

122
123
126

129
151

Leaflets
Diseased

per cent

55.7

21 .1

6.6

0.7
7.7

Spores Applied Dry

Leaflets
Counted

211
108
129
188
146
197

Leaflets
Diseased

per cent

9.3
78.1
19.8
17.7

The materials which controlled infection on as much as 85 per cent of the
foliage in these experiments are listed in Table 7. When water was used as
a carrier for the inoculum, consistent favorable controls were obtained with
Bordeaux, copper-lime dust, vaporized sulfur, and Uspulun; while copper
sulfate. Slug Shot and lime-sulfur gave favorable control in the single test
made. Solbar and Grape Dust were effective in one test and not in another,
while Semesan permitted 16.8 per cent of the foliage to become infected
against 4.7 per cent with Uspulun. All other fungicides tested were not
effective. When spores were applied dry, only vaporized sulfur gave con-
sistent control. Solbar gave favorable control in the single test in which it
was tried, and Grape Dust was effective in one test and not in another. All
other materials failed to offer satisfactory control. The poor control indi-
cated by Semesan as compared with Uspulun and by Grape Dust (spores
applied dry) were in reality significant controls although less than 85 per
cent, the percentage on which Table 7 is based.

It is significant that when both leaf surfaces were covered with vaporized

12

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 248

Table 7. Summary of Control of Infection of Potted Tomato Plants with

Fungicides.

Grape Dust

Hammond's Slug Shot

Vaporized Sulfur

Lime-Sulfur

Solbar

Copper Sulfate

Bordeaux mixture. . . .
Copper-Lime Dust. . . .

Semesan

Uspulun

Spores Applied in Water

Times
Tested

Times

Control

Favorable

Times

Control

Unfavorable

Spores Applied Dry

Times
Tested

Times

Control

Favorable

sulfur, superior and more uniform results were obtained than when the upper
leaf surfaces only were protected. In general this was also true of other
materials such as Uspulun, copper fungicides, etc., excepting sulfur, when
plants were inoculated with a suspension of spores in water. This is ex-
plained at least in part by the fact that leaf infection is almost altogether
hypophyllous. However, when plants treated in this manner were inoculated
with dry spores, vaporized sulfur showed a marked effect, and Grape Dust
a somewhat inferior effect.

The use of spraying and dusting materials in general is not applicable to
greenhouse tomato culture, one reason being the undesirable effect of the
fungicide upon the plant. Bordeaux mixture leaves a residue. Lime-sulfur
is injurious and leaves a residue and sulfur odor. Uspulun is toxic to the
foliage at .25 per cent strength, and both Semesan and Uspulun impart a
phenol flavor to the tomato fruit. This fact has already been recognized by
Triebels (33), Liistner (21) and Jaenicke (17). Solbar leaves a heavy resi-
due and sulfur-lime-naphthalene dust imparts a naphthalene flavor to the fruit.
Vaporized sulfur and Grape Dust are desirable, but the results suggest that
vaporized sulfur would offer the most satisfactory control under the condi-
tions prevailing in tomato houses.

Data in Tables 1 and 7 show that materials toxic to the spores in labora-
tory tests gave the most satisfactory control of infection with few exceptions.
Those showing this effect when the fungus was applied in water were copper
materials, organic mercury compounds, vaporized sulfur, Slug Shot and Grape
Dust. In the absence of water, vaporized sulfur gave the same effect, while
Solbar, Uspulun, and Grape Dust did not. No control was anticipated with
sulfur dusting materials, but potassium sulfide was expected to show some
control of foliage infection and did not. Sulfuric acid proved of no value
and Schacht's Naphtal-Schwefel, which was the most effective of all dusting
materials considered, failed to give control in a single trial.

The remarkable control of foliage infection of potted plants with vaporized
sulfur in contrast to the inconsistent control of spore germination in labora-
tory slide tests indicates that conditions existing on foliage are much more
favorable for toxicity of vaporized sulfur than on slides in Petri dishes.
Under greenhouse cultural conditions tomato foliage is usually bathed in thin

TOxMATO LEAF-MOLD 13

invisible films of transpired moisture, the amount of which is increased with
high temperatures. Inferring from the results (Table 3, VI, VII) which are
outstanding, this film of moisture provides suitable conditions for toxicity.
The results show that protection from infection may be obtained by the
presence on the leaves of a covering of vaporized sulfur, and that destruc-
tion of exposed sources of the fungus in greenhouses may be realized by
vaporizing sulfur at frequent intervals.

COMMERCIAL CONTROL
Spraying and Dusting Materials

In the spring of 1925, at the Market Garden Field Station in Waltham,
plats of tomatoes were treated with commercial liquid lime-sulfur 2 per
cent, Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50, sulfur dust, copper sulfate-resin fish oil soap
(Va pound of copper sulfate, 5 pounds of resin fish oil soap, 50 gallons of
water), copper-lime dust 20-80, potassium sulfide and flour paste (5 pounds
flour, 4 pounds potassium sulfide, 100 gallons water), ammoniacal copper car-
bonate of the usual formula, and New Jersey Dry Mix. The treatments were
begun at the first appearance of the disease and continued at seven to ten-day
intervals. No control was obtained. The disease was as prevalent in the treated
plats as in the check. Lime-sulfur proved injurious to the foliage.

It might be assumed from the above that lack of control was due to the
lateness of the initial treatments and the absence of early protection from in-
fection. To eliminate any doubt of the ineffectiveness of copper and sulfur
sprays and dusts under greenhouse conditions which the above experiment
might offer, a further experiment was conducted in the fall of 1925. The treat-
ments were started shortly after the plants were set and continued at weekly
intervals. The plants were grown outdoors and set in the greenhouse Septem-
ber 25. The following materials were applied: Bordeaux 3-4-50, copper-lime
dust 19-81, New Jersey Dry Mix, sulfur-lime dust 75-25, and Burgundy mix-
ture. A total of eleven applications was made, the first on September 28 and
the last on January 6. No control was obtained.

In the fall of 1926 at the Frank Wheeler Estate, C<}ncord, Mass., individual
houses were dusted at weekly intervals beginning five days after the plants
were set, with Grape Dust, copper-lime dust 20-80, Schloesing's sulfur and
Trick sulfur. The dusting was done from between the rows while all the
ventilators were closed. Feeney Model-D two-quart dusters with up-turned
nozzles were used, and every effort was made to get coverings of dust on the
lower leaf surfaces. Five to six pounds of dust were applied each week. The
treatments were discontinued after five applications had been made because
no control was obtained.

In the fall of 1927 a control experiment was conducted at the Market Gar-
den Field Station in which selected sprays were compared for their effect on
the disease. Individual rows were 25 feet long and 3 feet apart. The plants
were set July 31. Foliage on both upper and lower sides was as thoroughly
wetted with spray as was practically possible. The first treatments were
made August 10, and later treatments on August 17, 27, September 2, 9, 19, 28,
October 10 and 25, making a total of nine treatments. The vines were topped
to the wires on October 25, preceding the last treatment. All of the foliage
was covered with fungicide and all of it present at each application was
wetted with spray. After August 27 ventilation was purposely neglected to
provide favorable conditions for the development of the fungus. The ventila-
tors were closed at night and heat was not used until November 1. Foliage

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 248

counts of the prunings were made at intervals during the growth of the crop.
The materials used and the tabulated control results are presented in Table
8. As the counts show, none of the materials, except possibly Solbar and
Uspulun, was effective. The disease became so serious that no leaves free of
Cladosporium were found on the later counts in any of the plats. Solbar and
Uspulun furnished the better controls early in the growth of the crop but
these were so slight as to have no effect upon the yield or later incidence of
the disease. All materials excepting Solbar caused injury; Solbar and lime-
sulfur left residues on the fruit; and Uspulun, lime-sulfur and potassium
sulfide left an objectionable flavor.

A control experiment with spraying materials was conducted in one of the
greenhouses of J. Winthrop Stone in Watertown, Mass. Single rows across
the width of the greenhouse were treated with liquid materials selected to
offer the best control. The plants were set during the first week in Septem-
ber. Treatments were made on October 7, 17 and 31. There was no leaf-mold
present when the first treatments were made. On the first application Uspulun
was used at .25 per cent strength and caused burning. In subsequent treat-
ments its strength was reduced to .20 per cent. New Jersey Dry Mix 1.25
per cent was substituted for sulfuric acid .03 per cent in the second treatment
on account of injury resulting from the latter. Uspulun, copper sulfate, po-
tassium sulfide, lime-sulfur and New Jersey Dry Mix were injurious to the
foliage, — the sulfur materials especially so on the sunny side of the rows.
Bordeaux mixture, lime-sulfur. New Jersey Dry Mix and Solbar left heavy
residues. Foliage counts were made on November 21, December 14- and
January 1 (Table 9). Only treated foliage was considered in the counts,
except in the count of January 1 when some of the slightly treated and
untreated leaves were included with the prunings. This foliage represented
the upper rosette of leaves when the final application of October 31 was made
and since the leaves were rather small and sheltered at that time coverings
of spray were not as good as on the older and more fully developed leaves
represented in the counts previous to January 1. The perceptible residues
from Bordeaux, Solbar, lime-sulfur and New Jersey Dry Mix permitted dis-
carding any foliage not showing residue, but since Uspulun, Semesan, potas-
sium sulfide and copper sulfate left no discernible residues no segregation of
covered and uncovered leaves was possible. It appears for this reason that the
controls of January 1 do not coincide with those previously obtained.

On this crop, heating was practiced liberally from the time the plants were
set. Three lines of heating pipe each 12 feet apart extended lengthwise
through the greenhouse above the ground in addition to the piping along the
side walls. Since it was evident on October 31 when the final treatments were
made that liberal heating was controlling the disease effectively, further treat-
ments were discontinued. Infection, therefore, was not severe enough so that
the relative efficiency of the materials used could be determined by casual
observation. Foliage counts, however, showed a superior effect from Uspulun
and Solbar, but the significance of these counts is decreased considerably
by the relative lack of disease in the controls.

Spore toxicity studies showed that naphthalene is fungicidal to the spores
of Cladosporium and suggest that the frequent disinfection of the tomato
vines with naphthalene dust should offer control. This material was con-
sidered regardless of the eft'ect its vapors have upon the quality of the fruit.
A compartment of the greenhouse with a bed area of 900 square feet and a
volume of 10,000 cubic feet was used. The tomatoes were set early in Feb-
ruary, 1926. A sulfur-lime-naphthalene dust containing one part of each in-

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD

15

gredient was used. Nine treatments were made during the interval February
23 to May 13. The disease was observed April 12 and from then on became
increasingly prevalent. As early as May it was observed that control was
not being obtained and in consequence of that fact treatments were discon-
tinued after May 13. The disease assumed epidemic development, and leaf
counts were not considered necessary to demonstrate this fact.

The work has demonstrated that because of the manner of infection of the

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16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 248

foliage and atmospheric conditions under glass, the fungus does not readily
lend itself to control with spraying and much less with dusting materials.
Spraying is not practicable. A dusting material like naphthalene having an
aseptic volatile principle is most promising, but this study has not revealed
any materials of such a nature that are effective when applied under com-
mercial conditions of culture. Past recommendations appear to have been
based on observational evidence which is misleading. The effect of the fungi-
cide upon the appearance and flavor of the fruit and the health of the foliage,
and the practicability of applying fungicidal materials in a manner to prom-
ise control were disregarded.

Fumigants

Control of spore germination with naphthalene vapors in Petri dish tests
offered encouragement for tests in larger volumes of atmosphere. In a com-
partment of the greenhouse of a volume of 5,000 cubic feet, 5 pounds of
pure naphthalene flakes were vaporized, by the method described by Hartzell
(11), from 12 o'clock noon of March 21 to 7 a. m. of the following day. Slides
bearing dry spores of Cladosporium were exposed to the treated atmosphere.
After fumigation was completed the slides were removed to moist Petri dishes.
Normal germination of spores occurred. Naphthalene did not prove effective
under the conditions of the experiment. In another trial the same quantity of
naphthalene was vaporized and the same method of exposing spores was fol-
lowed, but the effect was negative. In both tests the maximum quantity of
naphthalene per unit volume considered safe to foliage was used. The air
temperature during the operation was above 80° F. and the relative humidity
close to the saturation point. High temperatures were necessary to prevent
condensation of naphthalene on the foliage and injury resulting therefrom.
The treatments imparted a strong odor of naphthalene to the tomatoes. For
this reason neither the vapors nor the dust are applicable to tomato culture.
Parker (28) and Speyer (31, 32) claim that tainting is imparted only to ripe
fruit and that the naphthalene flavor leaves the fruit within twenty-four hours
after picking, when it is exposed to fresh air. Fruit from tomato houses
treated with naphthalene materials was unsalable.

The vapors from a .4 per cent solution of formaldehyde (1-100) are lethal
to the spores of Cladosporium (Table 1). A 1-400 mixture is lethal but its
vapors are not. Soil disinfection of the greenhouse with formaldehyde 1-100
following which the house was closed tight for 24 hours produced an atmos-
phere lethal to Cladosporium spores. However, the sterilization of the houses
with formaldehyde has not at any time offered any measure of control of the
disease on the subsequent crop. The fungus exists in the field and frequently
is very prevalent on field tomatoes in Massachusetts. This outside source of
the fungus precludes the possibility of obtaining much benefit from soil steril-
ization and fumigation of the greenhouse with formaldehyde.

Sulfur dusting and spraying materials have not given control. The vola-
tile principle of sulfur (Table 1, V) is not toxic and dusting sulfur in contact
with dry spores does not prevent germination. Sulfur dioxide obtained by
burning sulfur is lethal and is an excellent fumigant for this purpose. In a
single experiment l^A pounds of sulfur were burned in a compartment of a
volume of 5000 cubic feet, in which were growing tomato vines badly infected
with leaf-mold. The time consumed for fumigating was five hours. Slides
bearing dry Cladosporium spores were distributed in the greenhouse. After
fumigation, reaction tests were made of the foliage, wood, metal and glass
surfaces. Acidity was strong even in sheltered portions of leaves covered with

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD 17

the leaf-mold fungus. Spores on glass slides exposed to the fumigant were
killed, and twelve mounts of spores obtained from the treated vines gave no
germination. Qualitative tests of the mold on the leaves gave strongly acid
reactions. Spores collected previous to fumigation germinated excellently.
The fumes of burning sulfur are extremely lethal and penetrating. The prac-
tice of burning sulfur before planting tomatoes is an economical and effective
means of destroying the fungus and safeguarding the future crop from an
inside potential source of attack.

Vaporized Sulfur

Methods of Vaporizing.

Sulfur on heating pipes. The practice of treating the heating pipes with
sulfur powders, pastes and liquids prevails among growers of greenhouse
plants. It is considered a practical means of controlling certain fungous
diseases but has its limitations. In California, because of its mild climate,
steam pipe surface in greenhouses is small and very little heat is used, as a
result of which the sulfur treatment of the pipes cannot be relied upon to
control cucumber powdery mildew, according to Milbrath (2.5). In Massachu-
setts, varying results have been obtained in projjortion to the area of pipe
surface treated and the temperature of the pipes. The value of the practice
is very much in dispute among commercial growers. Observations in tomato
houses where the practice has been rigidly followed for controlling leaf-mold
indicate that it is of doubtful value. According to Parker (27) and Hoster-
mann (14) the sulfur treatment of the heating pipes is not safe at high pipe
temperatures. The danger lies in the production of sulfur dioxide, sulfurous
and sulfuric acid in sufficient volumes to cause injury to the growing plants.
These sulfur oxidation products also have a corrosive action on the pipes, and
the scale which forms interferes with the radiation of heat. Pipes treated
repeatedlj' are not considered lasting, and some growers dislike engaging in
the practice for that reason. For practical reasons the sulfuring of heating
pipes is restricted to the colder months when heat is used. Since the con-
ditions which favor the development of tomato leaf-mold to the extent of
causing yield reduction appear usually between the latter part of May and
the middle of November, in Massachusetts, when little or no heating is
practiced, the use of special heating units for vaporizing sulfur would be
extremely economical and desirable.

Mechanical sulfur vaporizers. The vaporization of sulfur with oil stoves
has been recommended by Bailey (3), Humphrey (15, 16), Norton and
White (26), Maynard (2-1) and others for controlling powdery mildews. The
apparatus suggested was never received with favor by growers of green-
house plants in spite of the effectiveness of the practice. The oil stoves were
not adaptable for operation in large houses, and in small houses where effec-
tive results could be realized ignition of the sulfur occurred frequently. The
small quantity of sulfur discharged, often giving unsatisfactory control, the
danger of its ignition, the necessity of keeping constant watch of the appar-
atus, and the lack of adaptation of such apparatus to commercial establish-
ments led to its disfavor. More recently Campbeirs Patent Sulfur Vaporizer
has been used to a limited extent. In the construction of this apparatus
provision was made to exclude the oxygen of the air while vaporization is in
progress, the purpose being to prevent ignition of the sulfur which, however,
it fails to do. Its operation is extremely dangerous to plant life and unprac-
tical for commercial purposes.

.18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 24-8

Rupprecht (29) and Vogt (31.) reported a portable apparatus, the Rota-
Generator, so constructed as to prevent the oxidation of sulfur by generating
non-oxidized sulfur vapors under the exclusion of air mixed with steam en-
tering under pressure. The gulfur vapors which otherwise would issue slowly
are forced out rapidly by steam blasts. The merits claimed for the device
are safety of operation, rapid production of vapors, and the extreme fineness
of the sulfur. According to Vogt (36) the expectations which some thought
were to be realized by this invention have not materialized. It is adapted only
to greenhouses, and here its practical value is questionable since inter-
ruptions occur in its operation because of mechanical complications in con-
struction.

Imj)roved sulfur vaporizers. The lack of adaptation or acceptance of the
patented types of vaporizers led to the study of equipment suitable and prac-
tical for use in greenhouses in Massachusetts.

In Massachusetts, electricity is employed for lighting purposes in prac-
tically all greenhouse establishments although only the boiler and packing
rooms are wired. The writer conceived the idea of vaporizing sulfur in por-
celain evaporating dishes on electric hot plates. The flat heating surface of
the hot plate was covered with a square of i/4 inch asbestos board with a
hole 41/0 inches in diameter in which was set a round-bottom porcelain evap-
orating dish (Plate II A). Two heavy copper insulated wires of No. 6
gauge were installed along the entire length of the greenhouse. At frequent
points on the wires electric sockets were connected, into which the hot plates
were plugged (Plate II B and C). With a suflBcient source of electric cur-
rent, houses of any capacity may be treated with vaporized sulfur in this
manner. Where several large houses comprise the range a power line con-
nected with each house would appear to be most satisfactory. On the other
hand, in a range with houses 200 x 30 feet, and with a 25 ampere meter and
No. 30 fuses, the lighting circuit should offer sufficient electric current. In
any event a strong current is necessary to produce the heat required for
vigorous fuming of the sulfur.

The cost of the heating equipment is small. The electric plates retail for
$1.00 each, and evaporating dishes 185 mm. in diameter, 50 mm. deep and
765 ml. capacity, for $1.08. The price of V4 inch asbestos board is $0.20 per
pound. The total cost of each unit excluding wires and socket fixtures is
about $2.15. When operated on a power line the cost of operation is much
less than if on a lighting circuit. The economy and convenience of this method
of controlling Cladosporium leaf-mold is appealing.

A sulfur vaporizer designed by the writer and embodying the principle
involved in the Rota-Generator but simpler of construction has been used
(Plate II D). Water is contained in a cylindrical copper tank, the center of
which is provided with a sulfur receptacle of heavy Pyrex glass. Both
water and sulfur are heated by an electric hot plate and the steam gen-
erated is blasted into the molten sulfur through a metal tube. The sulfur
vapors are discharged much more rapidly than with the other apparatus de-
scribed. The glass sulfur receptacle is undesirable and the metal steam
conductor is acted upon by molten sulfur. If these objectionable mechanical
features can be overcome this apparatus would prove highly satisfactory for
commercial purposes.

Greenhouse Tests.

A series of control experiments were instituted at the Market Garden Field
Station greenhouse at Waltham and at the range of Wm. H. Derby, Melrose,

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD

19

PLATE II

:-^t I

*5

(A) Electric Hot Plate with Asbestos Mat and Evaporating Dish Assembled for

Vaporizing Sulfur; (B) Vaporizing Equipment in Operation in Tomato Greenhouse,

and (C) in Rose Greenhouse; (D) Sulfur Vaporizer Constructed to Provide Addition

of Steam Blasts to Molten Sulfur.

Mass. At Melrose, No. 1 house has a volume of 10,980, No. 2, 37,800, and
No. 3, 68,800 cubic feet. At AV^altham, No. 7 house has a volume of 10,000,
and No. 3, 5,000 cubic feet. Sulfur was vaporized on electric heating units
by the method described. The work was done in the evening and all the
ventilators were closed for the night to confine the vapors and permit them to
settle naturally. The heating units were operated for two to four hours at a
time and disconnected when the vapors in the air were quite dense. Counts
were made of the leaf prunings to determine the degree of control, and on
the last count the plants were stripped of the remaining leaves. This metliod
proved most satisfactory for ascertaining the value of the treatment.

Spring Crop at Melrose, 1926. Sulfur was vaporized 16 times with 5 stoves

20

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 248

at weekly intervals beginning March 2 and ending July 4. The greenhouses
were cleaned out July 3L The results of the experiment are shown in Table
10. Both houses in the experiment were subjected to the same conditions.

Table 10.— Control of Tomato Leaf-Mold with Vaporized Sulfur. Melrose.
Spring Crop 1926.

SuLFURED House No. 2

Check House No. 3

Date

Leaflets
Counted

Leaflets
Diseased

Leaflets
Counted

Leaflets
Diseased

795
1207
2009

per cent

0.2

0.7

10.8

1117
1540

1767

per cent
2S.0

June 29

65.1

July 29

87.4-

Total

4011

5.7

4424

61.2

Fall Crop at Melrose, 1926. Three houses of tomatoes were used. The plants
were potted July 17 to 20 and treated with vaporized sulfur in the plant house
on August 6, using three stoves. The clieck plants received this single
treatment. The houses were set August 20 to 21. Heat was turned on
October 1. Seven stoves were used in No. 3 house and six in No. 2 house.
Sulfur was vaporized nine times in No. 3 house, the first on August 31 and
the last on October 18; and eight times in No. 2 house, the first on September
1 and the last on October 19. The houses were cleaned out January 30 to 31.
The results are presented in Table 11.

Table 11.— Control of Tomato Leaf-Mold with Vaporized Sulfur.

Fall Crop 1926.

Melrose.

Check House No. 1

SuLFURED House No. 2

SuLFURED House No. 3

Date

Leaflets
Counted

Leaflets
Diseased

Leaflets
Counted

Leaflets
Diseased

Leaflets
Counted

Leaflets
Diseased

November 1

December 8

December 27

January 25

692

1339

833

730

per cent
13. S
49.2
67.6
69.3

985

893

1441

1088

per cent

3.9

8.5

10.6

17.4

1258

1467

1609

734

per cent

3.4

3.6

5.1

14-9

Total

3594

46.3

4407

10.4

5066

5.7

Fall Crop at Waltham, 1926. Two compartments of the greenhouse were
used. The plants were set August 19 to 20, fifteen inches apart in single rows
30 inches apart. Eight times at weekly intervals from August 23 to October
11 sulfur was vaporized with one stove for periods varying from 60 to 90
minutes (connection to disconnection of electricity). The compartments were
cleaned out February 1, 1927 (Table 12).

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD

21

Table 12. Control of Tomato Leaf-Mold witli Vaporized Sulfur. Waltham.

Fall Crop 1926.

Date

September 20
October 1 . . .
October 10. .
December 20.
January 11..
January 29 . .

Total...

SuLFUKED House No. 3

Leaflets
Counted

529
585
553
428
1130
1027

4252

Leaflets
Diseased

per cent
5.2
1.6
0.7
17 .5
U.6

Check House No. 7

Leaflets
Counted

396
1368
2259
1096
1433
1081

7G33

Leaflets
Diseased

per cent
9.5
2.4
23.1
75.1
66.3
27.1

33.0

Spring Crop at Melrose WS7. Three houses were employed in the experi-
ment, two of which were treated with vaporized sulfur (Table 13). The
houses were set in the middle of February. Six stoves were used in No. 2
house and eight in No. 3 house. The stoves were operated sixteen times in
No. 2 house beginning March 2 and ending June 24; and fifteen times in No.
3 house beginning March 7 and ending June 30. At these intervals electricity
was used for periods of one to two and one-half hours, a total of 24V2
hours for No. 2 house and 26% hours for No. 3 house for the season. All
three houses were grown under the same conditions. The houses were cleaned
out the last week of July.

Table 13. Control of Tomato Leaf-Mold with Vaporized Sulfur.
Spring Crop 1927.

Melrose.

Check House No. 1

Sulfured House No. 2

Sulfured House No. 3

Date

Leaflets
Counted

Leaflets
Diseased

Leaflets
Counted

I^eaflets
Diseased

Leaflets
Counted

Leaflets
Diseased

June 16

985
481
816

per cent

6.09

41.99

98.62

1227
540
726

per cent
.08
.00
.00

1174

701

1146

per cent
.08

July 6

July 19

■ 14
.00

Total

2282

46.71

2493

.04

3021

.06

Fall Crop at Melrose J927. Four houses were treated with vaporized sulfur
and one house was left untreated. No leaf counts were made, but frequent
observations during the growth of the vines showed that vaporized sulfur
furnished almost perfect control of infection. Leaf-mold was hard to find.
In the untreated greenhouse the disease was epidemic and as a result the
yield was poor and of second grade.

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 248

Recommendations

The conditions predisposing to epidemics of leaf-mold occur between May
and November in Massachusetts, which obviates the necessity of particular
recommendations for each crop. The sj^ring crop is less affected than the
fall crop. This crop should run from February to July, inclusive, and since
most of the damage occurs late in June and in July the loss is usually small.
The spring crop is started in the cold season of the year when continuous
heating is required and does not encounter conditions favorable for the
development of leaf-mold until the sun's rays become stronger and heating is
discontinued. The fall crop is started early in August. During the first
two months the sun's rays are intense, the nights are damp, and no heat is
used. The ])lants are ex]>osed to the danger of epidemic infection up to the
time winter weather appears, or usually until about the middle of November,
when continuous heating is required. For this reason the fall crop suffers
heavily from leaf-mold, often to the extent of shortening the picking season
by IVs to 2 months. Consequently, sulfur should be vaporized In the plant
house to guard against infection of the young potted plants.

Immediately following the setting of the houses a further treatment should
be made and then repeated at weekly intervals as long as steady heating is
not necessary. The foliage infection counts on the spring crops, and observa-
tions on the first appearance of the disease suggest that treatments previous
to April are not necessary in Massachusetts. The steady use of heat at
night and the mild house temperatures during the day up to this time may be
relied upon to keep the disease under control.

The simple operation of vaporizing sulfur )iy the method advocated in this
paper offers a practical and efficient means of combating fungous diseases
in greenhouses. The striking control of Cladosporium leaf-mold, otherwise
only possible by consistent management of air conditions and the liberal use
of heat, suggest remarkable possibilities of the adaptation of this method to
the control of other fungous parasites of greenhouse plants.

SUMMARY

Sulfur suspensions in water and dusting materials are not fungicidal to
germinating spores of Cladosporium fulvum. Lime-sulfur and potassium sul-
fide at high concentrations and temperatures show some merit. Copper fun-
gicides are toxic in the presence of moisture. Lime is not fungicidal. Schacht's
Naphtal-Schwcfel, naphthalene preparations, Uspulun and Semesan are fun-
gicidal. Formaldehyde, the oxidation products of burning sulfur, and naph-
thalene are toxic fumigants. Hammond's Slug Shot and Hammond's Grape
Dust, each containing a small percentage of copper sulfate, have a slight
fungicidal efl"ect in the water drop. Sulfuric acid is toxic at extremely low
concentrations by all methods of study, and copper sulfate similarly at
stronger concentrations. Vaporized sulfur is toxic, but greatest efi'ect is
shown in the presence of moisture.

Control of infection of potted plants inoculated with spores in water was
best with copper fungicides, organic mercury, and vaporized sulfur. Lime-
sulfur and Hammond's Slug Shot, tested but once, gave favorable control.
When the plants were dusted with spores, only vaporized sulfur gave con-
sistent control, while Solbar in a single test gave favorable control.

Only vaporized sulfur has given control of the disease under commercial
conditions of tomato culture. Us]iulun and Solbar sprays showed some
fungicidal value.

TOMATO LEAF-MOLD 23

The use of spraying or dusting materials under greenliouse conditions is
not practical or effective because of (1) The objectionable flavor imparted to
fruit, (2) Objectionable residue on fruit, (3) Toxicity to the foliage, (4)
Difficulty of covering surfaces which become infected, (5) Lack of conditions
necessary to obtain toxicity, and (6) The need of frequent treatments to
maintain protection and disinfection.

The expense of firing for the purpose of vaporizing sulfur on the steam
pipes on the fall tomato crop is prohibitive. During the heating season the
vaporization of sulfur on the pipes may be practiced, but the value of this
method for controlling leaf-mold is doubtful. In the absence of pipe heat
conditions prevail which favor epidemics of leaf-mold. Electrical equip-
ment for vaporizing sulfur on a commercial scale provides a very economical,
practical and effective method of controlling tomato leaf-mold in the green-
house. The practice offers possibilities of dealing effectively with foliage
diseases of greenhouse plants, and is considered a great improvement over
existing methods of dusting and spraying.

LITERATURE CITED

L Anonymous. De Bladvlekkenziekte der Tomaten. Floralia 48:363-364,
1927.

2. Baehr, . Die Tomatenfleckenkrankheit, Cladosporium fulvum. Mol-

lers Deut. Gart. Ztg. 38:204, 1923.

3. Bailey, L. H. The forcing of English cucumbers. N. Y. (Cornell) Agr.

Expt. Sta. Bui. 31:123-139, 1891.

4. Barker, B. T. P., Gimingham, C. T. and Wiltshire, S. P. Sulfur as a

fungicide. Univ. Bristol, Agr. and Hort. Research Sta. Ann. Rpt.
(1919):57-75, 1920.

5. , and Wallace, T. A new method of sulfur fumigation. Univ.

Bristol, Agr. and Hort. Research Sta. Ann. Rpt. (1921) :122-124, 1922.

6. Bewley, W. F. Diseases of glasshouse plants. 208 p. London, 1923.

7. D., A. M. Flojisplet. Gartner-Tidende 43:41-45, 1927.

8. Dyke, W. The A. B. C. of tomato culture under glass. 165 p. London,

1925.

9. Edgerton, G. W. Delayed ripening of tomatoes caused by spraying with

Bordeaux mixture. Phytopathology 8:69, 1918. (Abstract.)

10. and Moreland, C. C. Diseases of tomatoes in Louisiana. La.

Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 142, 23 p., 1913.

11. Hartzell, A. Naphthalene fumigation of greenhouses. Jour. Econ. Ent.

19:13-19, 1926. Reprinted as Boyce Thompson Inst, for Plant Research
Prof. Paper 3:13-19, 1926.

12. Hasper, E. Biologic und Bekampfung des Cladosporium fulvum Cke.

auf Solanum lycopersicum. Ztschr. Pflanzenkrank. 35:112-118, 1925.

13. Hofferichter, K. Eine verheerende Tomatenkrankheit. Gartenflora 73:

60-61, 1924.

14. Hostermann, G. Eine bedenklicke Art der Verwendung von Schwefel

als Pflanzenschutzmittel. Gartenwelt 28:183-184, 1924.

15. Humphrey, J. E. The powdery mildew of the cucumber,— Erysiphe

dehor acearum DC. Mass. State Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann. Rpt. (1891)
9:222-226, 1892.

16. Treatment for powdery mildews. Mass. State. Agr. Expt.

Sta. Ann. Rpt. (1892) 10:243-245, 1893.

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 248

17. Jaenicke, A. Einiges iiber Tomatenkrankheiten unter Glas im Jahre

1927. Obst. und Gemiisebau 73:261-263, 1927.

18. Jonassen, E. Tomatenkrankheit, Cladosporium fulvum. Mollers Deut.

Giirt. Ztg. 38:276, 1923.

19. Kraemer, H. Dilute sulfuric acid as a fungicide. Amer. Phil. Soc.

Proc. 45:157-163, 1906.

20. Use of dilute solutions of sulfuric acid as a fungicide.

Science n. ser. 23:911, 1906.

21. Lustner, G. Der Tomatenkrebs. Obst. und Gemusebau 73:166-167, 1927.

22. Makemson, W. K. The leaf mold of tomatoes caused by Cladosporium

fulvum Cke. Mich. Acad. Sci. Ann. Rpt. (1918) 20:311-348, 1919.

23. Massey, W. F. and Rhodes, A. Gardening under glass. N. C. Agr.

Expt. Sta. Bui. 170, 24 p., 1900.

24. Maynard, S. T. Experiments in heating greenhouses. Mass. (Hatch)

Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 4:1-22, 1889.

25. Milbrath,, D. G. Control of diseases of cucumbers in greenhouses.

Calif. Dept. Agr. Mo. Bui. 11:430-437, 1922.

26. Norton, J. B. S. and White, T. H. Rose mildew. Md. Agr. Expt. Sta.

Bui. 156:73-80, 1911.

27. Parker, T. The sup^jression of insect pests and fungoid diseases. 4.

Control of certain fungoid diseases. Bur. Bio-Technol., Leeds, Bui.
2: No. 10:68-72, 1923.

28. The control of red spider. Hort. Trade Jour. 29: No. 39:

27-28, 1925; No. 40:27-28, 1925.

29. Rupprecht, G. Ein neues Verfahren zum Schwefeln von Pflanzenkul-

turen. Angew. Bot. 3:25.3-262, 1921.

30. Sherbakoff, C. D. Tomato diseases. Fla. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 146:117-

132, 1918.

31. Speyer, E. R. The use of naphthalene as a fumigant in control of red

spider and other pests in cucumber houses. Nature [London] 114:
No. 2858:193, 1924.

32. Entomological investigations. Expt. and Research Sta.,

Cheshunt, Herts, Ann. Rpt. (1924) 10:82-104, 1925.

33. Triebels, H. Die Bekampfung der Braunfleckenkrankheit bei Tomaten.

Gartenwelt 31:368-370, 1927.

34. Vogt, E. Ein neuer Schwefelapparat. Nachrichtenbl. f. d. deut.

Pflanzenschutzdienst 1:4:29, 1921.

35. Untersuchungen uber den Schwefel. Angew. Bot. 6:276-300,

1924.

36. Die chemischen Pflanzenschutzmittcl, ihre Anwendung und

Wirkung. 134 p. Berlin, 1926.

37. Weber, G. F. and Ramsey, G. B. Tomato diseases in Florida. Fla. Agr.

Expt. Sta. Bui. 185:61-138, 192().

38. Williams, P. H. Tomato leaf-mold. Expt. and Research Sta., Cheshunt,

Herts, Ann. Rpt. (1925) 11:67-72, 1926.

Publication of this Docu.ment .\rpROVED by the Commission
ON Administration and Finance.

3M-4-'29. No. 5319.

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

BULLETIN No. 249 MARCH, 1929

The Plum Curculio In Apples
In Massachusetts

W. D. Whitcomb

The plum curculio is the most injurious insect pest of apples in Mass-
chusetts, frequently damaging more fruit than all other insects together.
As a result of the heavy loss to fruit growers, studies of this insect were
begun in 1926 in the eastern part of the State, and this bulletin reports the
progress of the work to date.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST. MASS.

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES IN MASSACHUSETTS

By W. D. Whitcomb, Assistant Research Professor of Entomology

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The plum curculio^ is native to North America where it bred freely in
the fruit of wild plums and hawthorns before the introduction of cultivated
fruits. As early as 1736 it was reported as a serious pest of garden plums in
the vicinity of Philadelphia, and since then it has been the subject of many
reports under such names as cheny weevil, peach worm, little Turk, kerkelo,
and little joker, as well as plum curculio. It appears to have been much
more abundant and destructive along the Atlantic Coast, and although known
to be present in the Mississippi Valley was not reported in large nvimbers
until about 1850. Surveys in 1910 indicated that it had not become estab-
lished west of the 100th meridian, and Quaintance and Jenne (9)" suggest
that the western boundary of the humid area constitutes the barrier which
governs its spread. Southern Canada and the Gulf of Mexico are the lati-
tudinal limits.

IMPORTANCE IN MASSACHUSETTS

It is the imanimous opinion of those concerned with the fruit growing
industiy of Massachusetts that the plum curculio is the most injurious insect
pest of apples in the state. Many orchardists believe that it is increasing its
destructiveness each year in spite of their efforts to check it.

In some neglected and poorly cared-for orchards, every fruit on the tree
at harvest has been damaged, with the greater part of the apples bearing the
scars of three or more punctures. Even in orchards where an average spray
schedule was followed, the proportion of blemished fruit frequently reached
30 per cent and occasionally 60 per cent.

During these studies as many as 310 curculios have been collected from one
ten-year-old tree, and 3067 beetles have been taken from twenty-five such
trees in an unsprayed orchard during the period when the beetles were
entering the trees from hibernation.

A pest survey of the harvest fruit in forty-five Massachusetts orchards in
1928 showed the plum curculio to be the cause of more injury to apples than
any other insect pest, the damage by it frequentty exceeding that of all other
insects combined.

As a result of the heavy loss to fruit growers, studies of this insect were
begun in 1926 by the writer with headquarters at the Market Garden Field
Station in Waltham, and this bulletin reports the progress of this work
to date.

FOOD PLANTS

The fruit of the native wild plum is the natural food of the plum curculio,
but that of cultivated plums is equally or more desirable, and the apple is
also a very satisfactory host. The beetles attack practically all stone and
pomaceous fruits and where these are grown in large quantities in the
' infested area the curculio is likely to become an important pest. This has
been the case in the peach orchards of Georgia (11) and North Carolina (8),
and the apple orchards of Connecticut (5) and Massachusetts.

1 Conotrachdus nenuphar Herbst, Order Coleoptera, Sub-order Rhyncophora, Fam-
ily Curculionidae.
- Numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited on page 52.

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES

27

In general, smooth skinned fruits are preferred, and in a mixed orchard
cherries, prunes, apricots, and nectarines are heavily attacked. Feeding occurs
on pears but the grubs do not develop in them. There are also records of
unimportant feeding on grapes, huckleberries, and persimmons.

The preference of the curculio among commercial fruits of Massachusetts
is indicated by the following record:

Table I. — Number of Punctures in Different Fruits Made by 20 Plum

Curculio Beetles Confined in Breeding Cages for

14 days. June 2 to 15, 1928.

Plum Apple Cherry Pear Peach

Eg-g- punctures 105 100 15 3 2

Feeding punctures 156 153 206 58 30

Total 261 253 221 61 32

Preference Among Apple Varieties.

All varieties of apples are attacked but those which blossom early and
grow most rapidly after the petals fall are the first to provide attractive
food and suitable locations for eggs, and consequently are the most severely
injured. Among such_ varieties in Massachusetts are Duchess (Oldenburg),
Yellow Transparent, and Gravenstein. Baldwin suffers moderate to severe
injury, but Mcintosh is less severely attacked than other commercial apples.

The rate of growth early in the season of five varieties, indicating their
potential susceptibility to curculio injury, is shown by the following
measurements of ten apples each in 1928, and offers a basis for comparison
with other varieties. A larger number of measurements and a variety of
growing conditions may change these figures considerably, but many field
observations lead the writer to believe that the comparisons are substantially
correct.

Table 2.— Rate of Growth of Apples. Waltham, Mass.

Variety

Average Diameter, Inches

June 8

June 15

June 22

Duchess

0.59

0.85

1.10

Baldwin

.45

.82

.98

Rhode Island

Greening

.42

.73

.96

Williams

.39

.72

.95

Mcintosh

.38

.62

.82

The potential susceptibility to curculio injury of the New England Seven
(3) may be listed from greatest to least as follows: Gravenstein, Baldwin,
Delicious', Wealthy, Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, and Mcintosh.

Feeding activities during the summer and fall are concentrated on the early
maturing varieties especially if they are allowed to become mellow on the
tree, and more larvae develop to maturity in summer and fall apples than in
winter apples.

The number of curculios collected on apple trees of different varieties
indicates the choice of beetles, and in the following table the comparison
of Delicious and Baldwin includes suflScient trees to be significant.

Delicious appears to be more deformed by curculio injury than Graven-
stein or Baldwin.

28

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

Table 3. — Tho Average Number of Beetles Collected from Different Varieties
of Apple Trees by Jarring from May 10 to July 26.

Variety-

Number of Trees

Average Number of
Curculios per Tree

1927

1!128

1927

1928

Delicious
Baldwin
Stayman
Ben Davis

13

10

1

1

16

8

1

75.6
160.4
269.0
211.0

72.6
133.3

140.0

NATURE OF INJURY.

Injury to apples results from punctures by the beetles and from burrows by
the larvae. There are four distinct kinds: namely, egg punctures, early
feeding punctures, larval burrows, and late feeding pimcturcs. The different
kinds of punctures are clearly shown in Figure I. In addition to these
kinds of injury the beetles may eat small holes in the caljrx and petals of
buds and blossoms, and in Georgia (10) they feed extensively on peach
leaves after the fruit has been harvested. Such injury is seldom seen in
Massachusetts, and is of no economic importance.

Pig-ure 1. Injury to Apple Caused Iby Plum Curculio. (After Fulton (4).)

<*i<-^ a. Crescent Cut or Egg Puncture,

surface view.

b. Early Feeding' Puncture, sur-
face view.

c. Eg'g' Pixncture, cross section.

d. Early Feeding- Puncture, cross
section.

t. Late Summer Feeding- Punc-
tures-

1. Scars Resulting- from Cres-
cent-shaped Eg-g- Punctures.

m and n. Scars Resulting- from
Early Feeding- Punctures.

An Egg Puncture is distingui.shed by a characteristic crescent-shaped cut
through the skin of the young apple about Vs of an inch long and extending
into the flesh of the fruit the same distance. Soon after it is made, the edges
of the cut form a rough, hard, dark brown scab which enlarges with the
growth of the apple until at harvest it becomes a russet scar from H io 1/2
inch in diameter, somewhat irregular in shape but resembling an open fan and
having little or no trace of the original cut. These scars are slightly raised
and on some varieties, especially the Ben Davis, have the appearance of
warts. Most egg punctures contain eggs but larvae do not hatch from all
eggs and some larvae die before developing to maturity in the fruit. Con-
sequently, many egg punctures are not followed by the usual larval burrows.

An Early Feeding Puncture is a spherical cavity extending about ]/& of an
inch into the flesh of the fruit. The entrance to this cavity is perfectly

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES 29

round and slightly smaller than the head of a pin. A scab and scar, similar
to that following an egg puncture, develop except that the scar tends to be
round and slightly smaller.

Most scars from both egg punctures and early feeding punctures are
superficial and seldom decrease the keeping quality of the apple, but under
the prevailing grading rules they reduce the fruit to the second or third
grade.

The Burrow of the Larva extends through the fruit to the core, and
causes the apple to fall early in its development. The tunnel resembles that
made by the codling moth except that the feeding is more confined to
the core.

Equally or more important than the injury by the larva is the fact that
practically all apples, in which grubs develop, fall to the ground early in the
summer. Many apples which are badly stung but contain no living grubs
also fall. In the experimental orchard in 1927, 85 per cent of the fruit on
unsprayed trees dropped before harvest. Eighty-three per cent of these "drops"
showed curculio injury. On adjacent sprayed trees only 46 per cent of the fruit
dropped and this fruit showed 12 per cent curculio injiuy. Other insects
and diseases attacked the unsprayed fruit in this orchard, but the greater
part of the excessive drop was attributed to curculio injury.

Tunnels in which the grubs have died close, leaving a thin brown line.
Growth is slowed up or stopped in this region causing a depression in the
outer surface of the fruit which considerably reduces its quality. Many of
the apples injured in this manner remain on the tree.

Late Feeding Punctures are made principally by the fall-emerging beetles,
although a few of the overwintering beetles may continue to feed at this
time of year. The punctures through the skin are circular and about the
size of a pinhead with a cavity in the flesh underneath equal in diameter to
the length of the beetle's beak. The skin sruTounding the entrance and
covering the cavity turns black and the injury offers a favorable point for
fungous infection. Many sou'nd apples are injured by this type of feeding
even though the beetles prefer mellow or blemished fruit.

DESCRIPTION (Non-Technical)

Like other beetles, the plum curculio passes through four stages of growth
in its development, namely: the egg which is laid under the skin of the
fruit, the larva or grub which feeds in the flesh of the fruit, the pupa or
resting stage which is passed in an earthen cell, and the adult or beetle
which develops from the pupa. Figure 2 illustrates the general appearance
of the different stages.

The pearly white Egg is elliptical in shape, slightly less than 1/25 of an
inch long and about half as wide. The smooth, shiny outer skin is moderately
tough but so soft that the egg is easily crushed by the pressure from the
growing fruit when not protected by the flap of the crescentic cut.

The full grown Larva is a plump, yellowish-white, legless grub from H to
y2 inch long. The body is curved toward the under side with fleshy lobes
resembling swellings on the sides of the middle segments. The head is Hght
brown, shiny, and about half as wide as the thickest part of the body.

The creamy white Pupa is approximately Ya of an inch long. It has the
general shape of the beetle with legs, beak, and partly grown wings folded
tightly against the body. The black eyes are prominent.

30

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

The adult or Beetle is about 1/5 of an inch long and dark brown in general
color with black and gray markings. Its wing covers are rough with a
noticeable black hump near the middle of each. The whole body covering
is hard and strong, and there is no easily distinguishable difference in the
external appearance of the male and female. The beak extends forward and
then downward nearly perpendicularly to the body.

LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS
Eggs

Number of Eggs Deposited

The number of eggs laid by one beetle varies greatly with the vitality
of the individual. Weak specimens may lay less than ten eggs during their
life, while 557 eggs (9), mostly in plums, have been reported from one very
prolific female at Washington, D. C.

Records of five individual pairs confined with apples in cages at Waltham
in 1927 showed an average of 175.75 eggs per female, and 254 eggs was the
largest number deposited. The average number of days on which eggs were
laid was 41.75, an average of 4.23 eggs per day of laying. The greatest number
of eggs laid in one day was 13.

Length of Incubation Period of Eggs

The number of days between the laying of the egg and the hatching of the
larva varies from 4 to 11, depending largely on the temperature. The first
eggs laid in the spring always had a longer incubation period than the
later ones. The duration of this period throughout the season in the
insectary at Waltham follows:

Table 4. — Length of Incubation Period of Eggs of the Plum Curculio

Waltham, Mass.

Year

Number

of

Eg-gs

Incubation Period — Days

Maximum

Minimum

Averag-e

1926
1927
1928

4040
2696
2356

11
10
10

5

4
4

7.6

7.57
5.74

Larva

Habits of Newly Hatched Larva

In the apple the young larva begins tunneling into the flesh of the fruit
very soon after it hatches from the egg. Observations in the insectary
indicate that normally they are out of sight two hours after they hatch.
The path of the tunnel through the fniit may be exceedingly tortuous but a
large number of grubs burrow straight to the core.

Many small larvae die in the tunnels before reaching the core. In apples,
the pressure of the growing fruit is the main cause but other reasons un-
doubtedly contribute to this mortality, which is especially noticeable in
larvae hatching from eggs laid late in the oviposition period.

The writer has never seen an apple on the tree from which a curculio
larva has emerged unless that apple was ready to fall while small.

Tignre

2. Life History of the Plum Curculio, Showing- Different Stag-es.
Enlarg^ed about lYz x. (Photo by H. A. Wilson.)

A.
B.
C.
D.

^ggs in Apple.

Iiarva in Apple.

Pupa.

Adult or Beetle.

THE PLUM CURGULIO IN APPLES

31

Feeding of Larva in Apple

While the larva is feeding and growing it molts or sheds its skin four
times requiring about 16 days for this development in the fruit. In 1927
one individual lived fifty-three days in the fruit, and five others stayed there
more than forty days, but that is unusual as sho^vn by the summary of the
insectary studies of this period for three years in Table 5.

Table 5. — The Number of Days the Larvae of the Plum Curculio Remain
in Apples after Hatching. Waltham, Mass.

Year

Number

of
Larvae

Growth of Larvae in Fruit — Days

Maximum

Minimum

Average

192 0
1927
192S

1430
S61

90S

34
53

2S

7
10

7

15.i>7
16.79
15.78

When the larva is ready to leave the fruit, it emerges from a round hole
usually through the side, and by this time the apple is shrivelled or rotted
so that the flesh around the hole collapses.

Pupa

Depth of Cell in Soil

When the larva leaves the fruit it enters the ground and forms a cell.
Practically all of these cells have been found three inches or less below the
surface of the soil although where hay is spread under the trees, cells have
been found as deep as eight inches below the top of the mulch. In these cells
the larvae transform to pupae slowlj\

Length of Time Spent in Soil

In Michigan (9), it was found that an average of 12.03 days or 36 per
cent of the total time in the soil was passed as a larva before actual pupa-
tion occurred. In the studies at Waltham no record of this period was
obtained, but it was found that the total time in the soil ranged from 17
to 55 days, averaging about 30 days. In 1926 the average time spent in the
soil by reared specimens was 31.46 days, and by field collected specimens
31.88 days. A siunmary of the records for three years follows.

Table 6. — Number of Days Spent in the Soil by the Plum Curculio as
Larva, Pupa, and Adult. Waltham, Mass.

Year

Number

of

Individuals

Time Spent

in Soil — Days

-Maximum

JMinimum

Average

1926
1927
192S

1546
2102

2607

54
55
51

17
22
21

31.75
30.96
29.50

There is much evidence that development of the insect in the soil is
influenced by moisture, and that if the soil is dry the time spent in the
soil is greatly prolonged even causing death. Heavy rain or watering during
the time the beetles are emerging immediately increases the number appear-
ing, but the rainfall in New England in addition to the usual sod or mulch

32 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

covering under the trees ordinarily furnishes sufficient moisture for normal
emergence.

Adult

Upon leaving their winter quarters the beetles fly to the trees and mating
begins soon afterwards. While the weather is cool, they remain very quiet
usually perched in the crotch of a twig or in the roll of unfolding leaves
and blossoms. They are rather strong fliers, frequently moving from one
tree to another, but are clumsy in "taking off" and landing. When disturbed
they play "possum", folding their legs against their body in a most lifeless
manner and in this position often fall to the ground where they remain
motionless for many minutes.

Egg Laying

Eggs are laid only in the fiaiit*, and this activity takes place during both
night and day. In performing this operation, the beetle first prepares a
tunnel under the skin of the apple almost parallel to the surface and about
1/16 of an inch long. Turning around, she drops an egg into this and then
pushes it to the end of the tunnel with her beak. Starting near the en-
trance to the egg tunnel, she cuts sideways and somewhat obliquely to the
core in both directions until a crescent shaped slit about 1/10 of an inch
deep is made, leaving the egg in a flap of the fruit as shown in Figure 1.
This flap shrivels before the cut is healed and relieves any pressure on the
egg. In apples, the majority of the eggs are laid in the side of the fruit,
but in plums a large number of the first eggs are frequently placed near
the tip. The number of eggs laid is discussed on page 30, and several counts
showed that more than 90 per cent of the egg punctures contained eggs.

Feeding

Before the fmit is set, small, round or irregular areas may be eaten in
petals and at the base of the stamens, but in captivity the majority of the
beetles prefer to wait until the fruit is available. In 1927 the average number
of feeding punctures by five pairs of beetles was 236.4 per pair, with a
maximum of 336 and a minimum of 170. One pair fed on 85 different days,
and the average number of days when feeding took place was 63.

Proportion of Egg to Feeding Punctures

Due to the greater length of the feeding period the total number of
feeding punctures exceeds the number of egg punctures. The insectary records
show that feeding punctures constituted 64 per cent of the total punctures
in 1926; 78 per cent in 1927; and 83 per cent in 1928. During the oviposition
period the egg punctures practically equal the feeding punctures, and on
some days exceed them.

Length of Life of Beetles

The beetles emerge from their earthen cells in August and September,
hibernate, and enter the trees the following spring. Under insectary condi-
tions, about one-half of them are usually dead by the first of September,
approximately one year after they emerged (See Table 7.) Many of the
others live until late October, and in 1928 ten beetles were alive when placed
in hibernation on November 20. after surviving several days when the
temperature dropped to 20° F.

* Eggs have been found in black knot cankers on plums.

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES

33

Table 7. — Percentage of Caged Beetles Which Remained Alive in the
Insectary at Different Dates in 1927 and 1928. Waltham, Mass.
Date

June 15
July 1
July 15
Aug. 1
Aug. 15
bept. 1
Sept. 15
Oct. 1
Oct. 15
Nov. 1
Nov. 15

Feeding Injury in the Fall

Fall feeding punctures by the beetles which emerge in the late summer are
much fewer than those made by the overwintering beetles in the spring.
In 1927 the record of three typical cages of ten beetles each shows that,
although their feeding period was only one-third longer, the overwintering
beetles made nearly four times as many feeding punctures as the fall-
emerging beetles, in addition to having an average of 175 egg punctures per
cage. (Table 8.)

Beetles Alive

, Per Cent

1927

1928

86

92

80

83

72

82

57

76

38

65

22

57

13

51

9

44

7

38

1

26

0

17

Table 8. — Comparison of the Number of Punctures in Apples Made by

Overwintering and Fall-emerging Beetles of the Plum

Curculio in 1927. Waltham, Mass.

Overwintering' Beetles

Date Feeding
Began

Number of
Beetles

Number of

Egg
Punctures

Number of

Feeding
Punctures

No. of Days
from First to
Last Feeding

May 31
June 3
June 14
Averag-e

10
10
10
10

77
345
103
175

742
760
493
665

122
129
117
122.7

Fall-Emerg-ing Beetles

July 30

10

0

148

67

Aug. 1

10

0

268

73

Aug. 2

10

0

162

77

Averag-e

10

0

192.7

72.3

Number of Generations

There is one generation of the plum curculio annually in Massachusetts.
Throughout these studies all attempts to rear second generation individuals
in the insectary have been unsuccessful. Unfavorable climatic conditions are
not altogether the reason for this, since in 1927 the first beetle of the summer
brood emerged three days before the last egg was laid by the overwintering
beetles, and in 1928 the first beetle appeared eighteen days before the last
egg was laid.

Curculios

Number

146

13

Recovered
Per Cent
69.86) 7^05

6.m

33

15.79

11

5.26

4

1.91

2

0.96

34 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

Choice of Hibernating Quarters

The beetles apparently prefer to spend the winter under leaves rather than
under hay or stones, and many observations have shown them to be more
abundant in the spring on trees adjacent to woodland than elsewhere. Ap-
parently they will fly at least half a mile if necessary to find their favorite
cover, returning the same distance to the trees in the spring. On October
4, 1927, 500 beetles were liberated in a cage over an apple tree containing
several different types of winter covering arranged in easily accessible piles.
On November 27, after a thorough examination, 209 or 41.8 per cent of
the beetles were recovered, the majority being found under leaves, as shown
in Table 9.

Table 9. — Type of Cover Preferred by Hibernating Beetles of the
Plum Curculio. Waltham, Mass., 1927
Type of Cover

Maple leaves
Apple leaves

(from tree in cage)
Dried grass
Stones

Corrugated paper
Screen sides of cage

Time Required for Development from Egg to Adult

Approximately 55 days are requii'ed by the plum curculio to develop from
a newly laid egg to an adult. Cool weather, unfavorable food, and lack of
sufficient soil moisture may lengthen this period, while some individuals
develop more quickly. The averages for three years are shown in Table 10.

Table 10. — Average Time Required by Plum Curculio to Develop from
Egg to Adult in Breeding Cages
Larva, Pupa and

Adult in Soil — Egg to Adult —

Days Total Days

31.75 55.22

30.96 55.32

29.50 51.04

SEASONAL HISTORY.*

Occurrence of Beetles in Trees.

The first of the overwintering beetles are found in the trees when the
blossom buds are showing pink. They are not abundant early in the season,
and the greatest proportion of the total number collected in any season before
petal-fall was 1.6 per cent in 1927. As shown in Figure 4, the majority of
those collected by jarring" were found between June 10 and 30, with the

B The method of jarring referred to consists of placing under the tree two
cloth covered frames each 6x12 feet, with a square hole cut in the
center for the tree trunk, and bumping the larger branches sharply
with the padded end of a pole. The beetles fall to the sheets where they
are picked up and counted. In this work the jarring was done each
Tuesday and Friday morning about daybreak, regardless of the
weather, but it was noticeable that the beetles were jarred from the
trees with more difficulty when the trees were wet.

Year

Egg and Larva

in Fruit — Days

1926

23.47

1927

24.36

1928

21.54

THE PLUM CFRCULIO IN APPLES

35

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36

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

largest collections ranging from June 10 in 1927 to June 22 in 1926. Stragglers
continued in the trees until the last week in July each year, although it is
probable that some of the later collections included insects which migrated
from un jarred trees.

PigTire 4. Time of Appearance of the Plnm Curculio in Apple Trees in the
Spring-, as Obtained from Jarring- Records.

Period of Oviposition

During the three years of study, oviposition has begun about June 1. By
June 15 this activity has increased to normal proportions and the number
of eggs deposited continued to be large until July 15. As shown in Figure
5, the greatest number of eggs was laid between June 21 and June 30 each
year, usually following closely the appearance of the greatest number of
beetles in the trees. Only in 1928 were eggs found after August 1 and
many of those laid during the last week of this period failed to develop. The
beetles are quite resistant to climatic changes and the number of eggs laid
daily does not vary greatly with the fluctuations in temperature. Normal
weather conditions are the most favorable for curculio activity.

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES

37

24

21

IB

15

12

9

6

3

0

I9B8

NUMBER OF EGGS
40£00

Figfure 5. Time of Oviposition by Flum Cnrcnlio Beetles in Breeding* Cag'es
in the Insectary, Waltham, Mass.

The nnmher of eg"grs nsed in this diagram is computed from a daily record
of the actaal nnniber of egfgrs laid by 10 beetles retained from, each semi-
weekly collection by jarring- on the dates shown in Fig^nre 4.

Feeding Period of Beetles,

Feeding punctures in the fruit are first found in the apples during the last
week in May. From then on they increase rapidly until about June 21-25 in
which period the greatest number was made in 1926 and 1927. As shown
in Figure 6, rather constant heavy feeding continues to the end of July, and
in 1928 the actual maximum was reached July 26. Under favorable living
conditions, such as were provided in the insectary, some of the overwintering
beetles continue feeding until cold weather. This was especially true in 1928
when feeding was observed as late as November 17. After September 1,
however, feeding by the overwintering beetles is insignificant and in the
orchard it cannot be distinguished from feeding by fall-emerging beetles.

38

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

JUNE

JULY

AUGUST

10 15 20 25 30

10 15 20 25 31

10 IS 20 2 5 31

16
14
12
10

a

6
'^16

1926

NUMBER OF FEEDING
PUNCTURES - 40.257

NUMBER OF FEEDING
PUNCTURES - 165,846

Pigrnre 6. Time of Occurrence of Feeding' Punctures in Apples by Over-
wintering- PZum Curculio Beetles in the Insectary, Waltham, Mass.

The number of feeding punctures used in this diagram is computed from a
daily record of the actual nuniber of feeding punctures made by 10 beetles
retained from each semi-weekly collection by jarring on the dates shown in
Pigure 4. The solid areas in the diagram indicate the total percentage of
feeding punctures which occurred after the last date shown in the graph.
The last feeding- puncture was made on September 1 in 1926, on October 15
in 1927, and on November 17 in 1928.

Time that Larvae Leave the Fruit.

Figure 7 shows that larvae of the plum curculio first left the apples to
enter the soil between June 25 and 30 in 1926 and 1928, and soon afterward
in 1927. The greatest number of larvae left between July 10 and 20 each
year, and with the exception of two individuals in 1927 all of them entered
the soil before September 1. This activity has been very cbnstant during
the three years of observation. A more detailed report on the emergence
of larvae from dropped apples in the orchard is given in Table 12.

Emergence of Beetles from Soil.

Beginning the last ten daj's of July, the beetles emerge from the soil in
increasing numbers until they reach a maximum between August 6 and 20.
After this point the number decreases rapidly with a few stragglers con-
tinuing to appear until early October, as shown in Figure 8. Emergence has
been quite constant in these studies. The beetles seek their hibernating
quarters between September 15 and October 1, depending on the weathei-.

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES

39

Figure 7. Time when Larvae of Plum Curculio Left the Fruit in Breeding
Cagres in the Insectary, "Waltham, Mass.

NATURAL CHECKS ON ABUNDANCE

Climatic Conditions

Several observations in Massachusetts indicate that 60 per cent to 75 per
cent of the pkim curculio beetles die in their hibernating quarters, the num-
ber depending on the amount of snow and the frequency of sudden changes
from high to low temperatures. This percentage may seem high in view of
the abundance of beetles in the orchards m the spring, yet in 1927-28, an
unusually open winter, several cages of beetles with a six-inch covering of
leaves, some exposed and othei's protected by a roof suffered 90 per cent to
100 per cent mortality.

During the summer, when infested fallen apples are exposed for two or
three days to a bright hot sun, many of the larvae die in the frTiit. However,
the shade from the tree and the protection from grass or mulch usually
eliminate high mortality from this cause.

Baking and packing the soil around the cells in which the insects are
pupating prevents many of the beetles from emergmg, but again such con-
ditions seldom occur in this state.

40

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

NUMBER OF BEETLES- 2607

Figure 8. Time when Flnm Curculio Beetles Enierg"ed from the Soil in
Breeding: Cag°es in the Insectary, Waltham., Mass.

Birds and Predatory Insects.

Although plum curculio beetles are hard and apparently unpalatable food,
the U. S. Biological Survey (9) has found them in the stomachs of orioles,
grosbeaks, barn swallows, vireos, and thrushes. However, these birds are not
sufficiently abundant to provide a noticeable check on this insect.

The grubs are known to be eaten while in the ground by various ground
beetles and ants, while lacewings attack the larvae in the fruit, but no
outstanding instance of a significant check by predaceous insects has been
brought to the attention of the writer in Massachusetts.

Parasites.

During the observation and rearing of several thousand plum curculio in
1926 and 1927 at Waltham, no parasites were found. In 1928, however, six
specimens of a tiny four-winged parasitic fly, tentatively determined as
Triaspis aurculionis Fitch, were reared from a large lot of field collected
larvae. Records of this parasite in other states show a maximum parasitism
of 25 per cent (9), although the general average is less than 3 per cent.

Number

of

Number of

Trees

Beetles

44

730

42

265

39

111

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES 41

CONTROL

Cultural Practices

Destruction oj Beetles in Hibernating Quarters
By burning the leaves and trash which have accumulated along fences,
walls, brush heaps, undergrowth, and adjacent woods, many beetles are
killed in their hibernating quarters. Burning may be done at any time
in the winter or early spring but is most effective when the trash is dry
enough to make a hot fire close to the ground. Burning about 300 yards
into woods adjoining orchards is recommended where possible. Ample fire-
fighting apparatus, such as fire extinguishers, a power sprayer, rakes and
brushes should be available to keep the fire under control. Experiments show-
ing the effect of burning have not been made in Massachusetts, but an
idea of the results which may be expected can be obtained from an experi-
ment in North Carolina (8) which is summarized in Table IL

Table IL — Comparison of Number of Beetles Jarred from Three Blocks of
Peach Trees Adjacent to Woods and Field
Aberdeen, N. C. 1922
Location of j.rees Dates Jarred

Opposite unburned woods Mar. 14 to May 9
Opposite burned woods Mar. 14 to May 9

Next to field Mar. 14 to May 9

Destruction of Larvae in Dropped Apples

All apples infested with living plum curcuho larvae fall to the ground and
the larvae remain in the apples approximately ten days after they fall.
From an entomological viewpoint the destruction of the grubs in the dropped
apples is a perfect method of controlling this insect even to the point of
elimination, but from the standpoint of the fruit grower the labor and
expense of picking up all of the infested apples at the proper time gives
this operation a decidedly unpractical aspect. However, the positive destruc-
tion of the insect and the knowledge that for a certain period about July
1 the dropped apples under a heavily infested tree contain an average of
more than one larva per apple (See Table 12) gives this operation great
value even from a practical standpoint.

Cutting grass under the tree, clean cultivation, and a liberal hay mulch aid
greatly in reducing the cost of picking up apples. In 1928 one progressive
fruit grower in eastern Massachusetts picked up an average of three bushels
per Yellow Transparent tree, capable of bearing twenty bushels of mature
apples, at an average cost of $1.00 per tree without preparation for the
work. The estimated damage by the plum curculio on these trees exceeded
$5.00 per tree. By cutting the grass and better organizing the work, he
plans to reduce the cost greatly in the future.

As shown in Table 12, more apples fall before June 28 than after, and
from these apples the largest number of larvae emerge. However, the apples
which fall during the next ten days contain the greatest number of larvae
per apple and consequently should be picked up very carefully. In late
June and early July the first larvae emerge about six days after the apples
fall, and about four days, later they are leaving the fruit in large numbers
so that gathering them after this time has little value. Three collections
of "drops" are usually sufficient to destroy the majority of the grubs in

42

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

Tabic 12. — Number of Larvae of Plum Curculio in Dropped Apples Picked
up under an Unsprayed Duchess Tree, Waltham, Mass.

1926

Number

of
Apples

Larvae Emerged

Date when

First Larvae

Emerged

Date Apples
Should

Period when
Apples Fell

Total
Number

Av.

per
Apple

Be Picked up

and Larvae

Killed

Before June 24

756

520

0.69

June 30

July 2

June 24-28

351

384

1.09

July 4

July 6

June 28-July 1

170

245

1.44

./uly 9

July 10

July 1-5

131

126

0.96

July 11

July 12

July 5-8

108

112

1.04

July 18

July 18

July 8-12

42

32

0.7 6

July 25

July 25

July 12-15

30

20

0.67

July 27

July 27

July 15-19

39

23

0.59

July 25

July 27

1927

Before June 19

453

196

0.43

July 3

July 2

June 19-23

722

289

0.40

July 4

July 8

June 23-26

460

197

0.43

July 4

July 6

June 26-30

161

139

O.SC

July 8

July 12

June 30-July 3

215

204

0.95

July 8

July 13

July 3-6

131

122

0.93

July 11

July 16

July 6-10

142

66

0.47

July 13

July 17

July 10-13

77

19

0.25

July 14

July 18

July 13-17

75

6

0.08

July 18

July 18

July 17-21

16

3

0.19

Aug. 4

Aug. 4

1928

Before June 21

200

156

0.7 8

July 4

July 5

June 21-27

994

817

0.82

July 4

July 5

June 27-July 1

424

623

1.47

July 4

July 10

July 1-4

567

514

0.91

July 6

July 13

July 4-8

135

145

1.07

July 12

July 16

July 8-11

176

104

0.59

July 15

July 17

July 11-15

62

14

0.23

July 29

July 29

July 15-18

45

6

0.13

July 31

July 31

infested fallen apples. The first collection should be made as soon as
sufficient "drops" have accumulated to warrant the labor, usually the last
week in June; followed by two additional collections at weekly intervals.

When the apples are gathered, they should be treated so that every grub
in them is killed. The usual practice is to dump them in a pit, adding a
liberal covering of quicklime to each foot of apples and covering all with
at least fifteen inches of packed soil. Other effective treatments are boiling
the apples, burning the apples, and feeding them to livestock.

At least one fruit grower has observed a marked decrease in curculio
injm-y following the pasturing of sheep in the orchard while the apples are
falling, and similar benefits to a less degree have been noticed where poultry
or hogs were penned in the orchard.

Destruction of Larvae and Pupae in the Soil

Large numbers of plum curculios are in the pui^al stage in the top three
inches of soil between July 20 and August 1 in Massachusetts. These pupae
are delicate and, therefore, easily crushed. During this period cross cultiva-

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES 43

tion with an extension disc harrow reaching close to the tree trunks kills
many of these pupae. In heavy packed soil this cultivation will be more
effective than in sandy soil. Many fruit growers object to cultivation at this
time because of the danger of stimulating later growth and consequent winter
injury. Clean cultivated orchards usually suffer less injury by the plum
curculio than sod orchards.

Summary of Cultural Practices.

In orchards where the plum curculio continues to inflict severe injury,
all of the above cultural operations in addition to careful spraying may be
necessary to reduce the injury to a commercial minimum. Where injury is
slight, some or all of the cultural practices can be eliminated and satisfac-
tory control obtained by spraying alone. The cultural operations are valued
in the following order: (1) destruction of larvae in dropped apples, (2) burn-
mg hibernating quarters, and (3) cultivation while the iusecte are in the soil.
Burning of hibernating quarters reduces the curculio population during the
following spring, but the effect of the other operations is not apparent until
the second season.

Treatment of Soil with Insecticides to Kill Larvae and Pupae.

In laboratory experiments using 200 larvae and pupae of the plum cur-
culio under natural conditions in exposed soil cages, carbon disulfide emul-
sion (7), 1 cjuart in 49 ^ gallons of water {yi per cent), applied to the soil
at the rate of three pints per square foot, killed 99.5 per cent of the in-
sects, and when applied at the rate of one quart per square foot, 90 per
cent succumbed. This emulsion which is extensively used in the control of
Japanese Beetle larvae is prepared by dissolving one part (liquid measure)
resin fish oil soap in three parts of water to which is added slowly with vigor-
ous stirring ten parts of carbon disulfide.

In the orchard this treatment is practical only in cases of severe infesta-
tion and under a few selected trees. It should be applied between July 25
and August 5, and is more effective when the soil is moist so that the emul-
sion easily penetrates at least three inches. The materials cost about twenty
cents per tree of average size.

When apples containing living eggs and larvae were immersed in this emul-
sion for ten minutes, the number killed was only slightly greater than the
natural mortality in untreated apples.

Spraying

With a normal crop of fruit, efficient spraying will give commercial control
of the plum curculio when the number of insects averages less than 25 per
tree of average size. When there are more than 25 beetles per tree, the
number of apples punctured by the beetles while obtaining a fatal dose of
poison usually represents a commercial loss, even though the fruit is protected
by the most effective spraying practices now available. A small crop of fruit
suffers more injury than a large crop.

Laboratory experiments have shown that the majority of beetles feeding
on apples sprayed with the most effective formulae are killed in less than eight
days, and that during the most active period of their life they make from
two to five punctures per beetle in the poisoned fruit before dying.

44 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

Method of Application

Thoroughness is the most important factor in the spraying operation. All
sides of each fruit should be covered with a film of poison and to do this
the tree must be sprayed from the inside as well as the outside. An extension
rod equipped with one or two angled nozzles delivering a uniform mist-like
spray is the best means of applying the poison, but a spray gun used in-
telligently with at least 200 pounds pressure will do effective work on a
calm day. On a windy day, spraying should be done only in emergencies,
using rods which enable the operator to reach all parts of the tree with the
spray. In the spraying experiments extension rods and spray guns were
interchanged to fit the weather conditions. Adequate machinery in good
repair, and an ample supply of insecticides, fungicides, oil, gasoline, and hose
connections should be quickly available to avoid delays and ineffective ap-
plication.

Time of Application.

Early sprays such as the delayed dormant, pre-pink, and pink are very
necessary for combating other pests but give little or no protection against
the plum curculio, since the few which are in the trees during these applica-
tions feed very sparingly on the buds and leaves. In fact, fruit counts in the
experimental orchard in 1926 showed just as good protection where the pink
spray was omitted as where it was applied.

The Calyx Sp^-ay is relatively unimportant in combating the plum cur-
culio, nevertheless it is the most important single application (1) in the
apple spray schedule in Massachusetts and should never be omitted. At this
time from 2 to 5 per cent of the beetles have gone to the trees, and feeding
in the developing fruit begins soon after. The later this spray is applied,
in the period between petal-fall and the closing of the calyx lobes (usually
ten days), the more effective it is against the plum curculio, but it should
never be delayed so that it fails to serve its main purpose of filling the calyx
cup of the apple with poison.

The 7-Day Spray {1st Curculio) applied about 7 days after the proper
time for the calyx spray is the most effective application against this insect.
At this time beetles are actively feeding and laying eggs and the apples are
growing rapidly. Individual fruit growers can time this application in their
own orchards by spraying as soon as possible after the first punctures are
seen. Invariably, however, this will occur about the time the largest of the
young apples become 14 inch in diameter. In some seasons frequent heavy
rains immediately following this application decrease its effectiveness and
make it advisable to repeat the treatment at the first satisfactory opportunity
especially on the more suscepible varieties.

The 3-Wecks Spray (2nd Curcidio) is applied about three weeks after the
proper time for the caljrx spray. Under natural conditions the largest num-
ber of punctures are made in the fruit about this time. When the number
of beetles is small, and previous sprayings have been particularly effective,
this application may be less important but it is always advisable. The
value of the second curculio spray under certain conditions is well illustrated
in Table 16 where the percentage of fi-uit injured was 13 per cent less in the
plat to which the 3-weeks application was made than where it was omitted.

In applying the calsrx, 7-day, and 3-weeks sprays, much benefit will re-
sult from timing the applications according to the development of the varie-
ties. The young fruit of such varieties as Duchess, Yellow Transparent, and

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES

45

Gravenstein develops rapidly, and should be sprayed before such late develop-
ing varieties as Northern Spy and Mcintosh.

Materials.

Stomach Poisons. Lead arsenate in the powdered form is the standard
insecticide in use for the control of the plum curculio as well as other leaf
or fruit-eating orchard insects. Laboratory experiments with this poison
have shown that beetles feeding on sprayed apples die in two to ten days,
and orchard spraying experiments have indicated commercial control from
its use in a well-timed spray schedule. Two pounds of powdered lead arse-
nate in each 50 gallons of water is the most practical dosage in curculio sprays
for Massachusetts apple orchards.

Calcium arsenate contains a higher percentage of the active agent, arsenic
oxide, than lead arsenate and has been slightly more effective under labora-
tory conditions when used in equal parts by weight. On orchard 'trees
calcium arsenate is generally used with equal or more parts of lime to pre-
vent foliage injury and fruit russeting, but the Hme tends to reduce its
effectiveness. No orchard experiments with calcium arsenate have been
conducted on this project but recent work in New Hampshire (2) has shown
that V/i pounds of calcium arsenate in lime-sulfur solution diluted to 1 gal-
lon in each 50 gallons of water, without additional lime, can be used with
more safety than lead arsenate in the same formula. Until further work
has been done, however, lead arsenate is preferred to calcium arsenate for
plum curculio control in Massachusetts.

The results of some of the laboratory experiments in comparing these
materials are shown in Table 13.

Table 13.— Effect of Lead Arsenate and Calcium Arsenate Sprays on the
Control of Plum CurcuUo Beetles on Apples. June 11 — 28, 1928.

Insecticide

Number of
Curculios

at
Beginning

Number of

Curculios

Dead after

S Days

Average Number of

Punctures per Beetle

in Apples when

Experiment Closed

Lead Arsenate 1^ lbs.
Water 50 gals.

10

8

7.8

Lead Arsenate 2 lbs.
Water 50 gals.

10

8

4.4

Calcium Arsenate lyi lbs.
Water 50 gals.

10

9

2.5

Calcium Arsenate 2 lbs.
Water 50 gals.

10

10

3.9

Calcium Arsenate I54 lbs.
Hydrated Lime 3 lbs.
Water 50 gals.

10

5

7.3*

Calcium Arsenate 2 lbs.
Hydrated Lime 4 lbs.
Water 50 gals.

10

5

6.8*

None

50

0

30.1*

Estimated — Apples dried or covered with punctures, making accurate count
impossible.

46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

Stickers. The addition of stickers or spreaders to the poison has consistent-
ly reduced the number of days necessary to kill the beetles as well as the
number of punctures made in sprayed fruit.

Light p)-essed Menhaden Fish Oil (6) proved to be the most effective
sticker and its use seems practical. In laboratory experiments the number of
punctures in the fruit was generally decreased from one-third to one-half
by its use, and the beetles died more quickly than when feeding on lead
arsenate alone. In orchard experiments in 1927, the lead arsenate — fish oil com-
bination gave 15.52 per cent better control than the lead arsenate — calcium
caseinate formula. It is recommended that 4 liquid ounces of fish oil be used
for each pound of powdered lead arsenate regardless of the amount of spray
solution, but more than 1 pint (16 ounces) is unnecessary in 100 gallons of
any spray formula used on orchard trees. The fish oil should always be
added after the poison has been thoroughly agitated in the solution for
several minutes, and the agitation continued until ' the two materials are
thoroughly mixed. This rapidly drying oil is available in most cities and
can be purchased in Boston for about 80 cents a gallon, the price varying
with the quantity. Raw linseed oil may be satisfactorily substituted but
is more expensive.

A cheap grade of molasses, such as is used for feeding cattle, when added
to the spray at the rate of 1 gallon in 100 gallons, increased the effectiveness
of the poison by 16.58 per cent in an orchard heavily infested by the plum
curculio in 1927, and also made the poison more effective in several labora-
tory experiments. The cost is usually greater than that of fish oil, and it
is less desirable.

Cnldnm Caseinate. manufactured under several commercial names, is gener-
ally used in all sprays in which lead arsenate and lime-sulfur solution are
combined, to reduce undesirable chemical action between these materials.
Many experiments throughout the country have failed to show conclusively
that it increased the effectiveness of lead arsenate, yet in several laboratory
tests on this project it had a slight value. It is used at the rate of 1 pound in
each 100 gallons of spray, and when mixed with lead arsenate and lime-sulfur
solution should be added to the spray between the active materials.

A comparison of the value of the various stickers with lead arsenate, under
laboratory conditions, for combating the plum curculio is given in Table 14.

Combination Sprays. Since it is necessary to secure protection from apple
scab and other fungous diseases as well as from insect pests, fungicides are
combined with the poisons wherever possible. Orchard spraying experiments
in 1926 indicated that the lead arsenate-calcium caseinate-lime-sulfur solu-
tion formula was not as effective against the plum curculio as when the
lime-surfur solution was omitted. Later observations failed to confirm this
belief, and any difference in the efficacy of these combinations is not con-
sidered significant as is shown in Table 15. Under normal conditions, however,
it is believed that the fungicide can be safely omitted from the 7-day spray,
at least on varieties other than Mcintosh.

Orchard Spraj/ing Experiments.

In conjunction with the laboratory experiments, spraying experiments
were conducted in a four-acre orchard at North Littleton, which was isolated
from other bearing apple trees. The varieties in this orchard are Mcintosh,
Baldwin, and Wealthy, and the count trees included some of each. The
control of the plum curcuHo in this orchard by spraying was very good in
spite of a heavy infestation, yet indoubtedly the percentage of blemished

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES

47

Table 14. — Effect of Lead Arsenate Sprays, with and without Stickers, on the
Control of Plum Curculio Beetles on Apples, June 11-28, 1928.

Insecticide
and Sticker

Number of
Curculios

at
Beginning

Number of

Curculios

Dead after

8 Days

Average Number of

Punctures in Apple

per Beetle when

Experiment Closed

Lead Arsenate 1 ^/^ lbs.
Fish Oil 6 oz.
Water 50 g-als.

10

10

6.2

Lead Arsenate 2 lbs.
Fish Oil 8 oz.
Water 50 gals.

10

10

2.5

Lead Arsenate 1^/^ lbs.
Calcium Caseinate yz lb.
Water 50 gals.

10

8

5.2

Lead Arsenate 2 lbs.
Calcium Caseinate i/^ lb.
Water 50 gals.

10

10

2.8

Lead Arsenate 1 Vz lbs.
Molasses % gal.
Water 50 gals.

10

9

4.1

Lead Arsenate 1 Vz lbs.
Molasses % gal.
Water 50 gals.

10

8

3.4

Lead Arsenate 1 Vz lbs.
Water 50 gals.

10

8

7.8

Lead Arsenate 2 lbs.
Water 50 gals.

10

8

4.4

Table 15. — Effect of Lead Arsenate Sprays, with and without Lime-Sulfur
solution, on the Control of Plum Curculio Beetles on Apples. June 11-28, 1928.

Insecticide and
Fungicide

Number of
Curculios

at
Beginning

Number of

Curculios

Dead after

8 Days

Average Number of

Punctures per Beetle

In Apples when

Experiment Closed

Lead Arsenate 1 % lbs.
Calcium Caseinate V^ lb.
Water 50 gals.

10

8

5.2

Lead Arsenate 2 lbs.
Calcium Caseinate y^ lb.
Water 50 gals.

10

10

2.8

Lead Arsenate IJ^ lbs.
Calcium Caseinate % lb.
Lime-Sulfur Solution

1 gal.
Water 50 gals.

10

7

4.5

Lead Arsenate 2 lbs.
Calcium Caseinate % lb.
Lime-Sulfur Solution

1 gal.
Water 50 ga.ls.

10

9

3.0

48

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

fruit would have been greater if the orchard had been planted to more sus-
ceptible varieties such as Duchess, Yellow Transparent, or Gravenstein.

The results of the 1926 orchard experiments, planned principally to deter-
mine the most effective time of application, are shown in Table 16. Other
orchard spraying experiments, planned largely to compare materials, are
referred to frequently in this bulletin but these are still incomplete in some
details and are not reported in tabular form.

In the spraying experiments reported in Table 16, the applications were
made as follows; Pink — May 19; Calyx — June 2; 7-day — June 9; 3-weeks —
June 23.

The materials in all sprays were lime-sulfur solution, 1 gallon in 50 gal-
lons of spray; calcium caseinate ^ pound in 50; and lead arsenate 1^ pounds
in 50 except in Plat VI where 2 pounds of lead arsenate in each 50 gal-
lons were used.

The spraying program in Plats II-A and II-B was identical, but the dropped
apples were picked up during June and July in the former. Plat II-A
had 1.02 per cent more clean fruit and showed a decrease of .29 in the aver-
age number of stings per stung apple, largely by the elimination of many
fall feeding punctures. This benefit is small, but is all that should be ex-
Table 16. — Results of Orchard Spraying Experiments, North Littleton, Mass.,

1926.

Number

Number

Av. No. of

Apples

Plat

Treatment

Fruit

of

of

Stings per

Uninjured

Apples

Stings

Stung Apple

Per Cent

Drops

44S3

18003

4.42

9.19

I

None

Harvest

166

867

5.35

2.41

Total

4649

18870

4.46

8.95

II-A

.VU Sprays —

Drops

2613

345

1.50

91.20

Early Drop.s

Harvest

1520

188

1.40

91.18

Picked Up

Total

4133

533

1.46

91.19

II-B

All Sprays —

Drops

3058

486

1.83

91.33

Early Drops Not

Harvest

549

98

1.44

87.61

Picked Up

Total

3607

584

1.75

90.17

III

Pink Spray

Drops

3681

448

1.83

92.52

Omitted

Harvest

1999

190

1.45

93.35

Total

5580

638

1.59

92.99

IV

7-day Spray

Drops

3102

589

1.68

88.69

Omitted

Harvest

1502

225

1.41

89.35

Total

4604

814

1.59

88.90

V

8-weeks Spray

Drops

645

550

2.66

67.91

Omitted

Harvest

734

169

1.67

86.24

Total

1379

718

2.33

77.67

VI

All Sprays —

Lead Arsenate

Drops

230

53

2.30

90.00

2.50

Harvest

1713*

141

1.29

93.64

Total

1943

194

1.47

93.21

Due to the small number of apples on the count trees in Plat VI, harvest
fruit from otlier trees in addition to the count trees was examined and
included in the record for the plat. Therefore, a comparison between
the injury to dropped fruit and the harvest fruit in Plat VI is not sig-
nificant.

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES

49

pected, since the greatest effect of destroying infested "drops" becomes ap-
parent the following season.

AvRcnicnl Residue.

LTnder Massachusetts conditions, the amount of arsenic trioxide which
remains on the fruit as spray residue at harvest is well below the legal tole-
rance of .01 grains per pound of fruit, following any of the recommended
spraj' schedules. Analyses in 1927 showed that even where fish oil, a most per-
sistent sticker, was used the residue on Mcintosh contained only .0036 grains
of arsenic trioxide, and on Baldwin .0035 grains, both about 1/3 of the amount
tolerated.

Spray Schedule.

The following adaptation of the standard spray schedule, based on the re-
sults of the experiments herein reported as well as on many orchard ob-
servations and other reports, is recommended for combating the plum
curculio in apples in Massachusetts under average conditions. Due considera-
tion should be given to the abundance of the insect, any abnormal seasonal
variation, and other factors peculiar to a specific orchard. A complete spray
schedule for apples in Massachusetts is printed in Massachusetts Agricul-
tural Experiment Station Bulletin 233, The Codling Moth in Massachu-
setts (1).

ADAPTATION OF THE STANDARD ORCHARD SPRAY SCHEDULE
TO COMBAT PI.UM CURCULIO

Application

When Applied

Materials

Remarks

Within 10 days

Liime-Sulfur

Add 1 pint of

after 90% of

Solution 2 Gals.

nicotine sulfate if

petals have

Calcium

plant lice, red bug,

Calyx Spray

fallen.

Caseinate 1 lb.

or leaf hopper are

Lead Arsenate 4 lbs.

present.

Water 100 Gals.

s lbs. of dry lime-
sulfur may be
substituted for 2
gallons of lime-
sulfur solution in
all sprays.

7 to 10 days

Lead Arsenate 4 lbs.

Add 2 gallons

after calyx .spray,

Fish Oil, or 1 pint

lime-sulfur solu-

7-rtay Spray

or when first

Molasses 1 gal.

tion to combat

(1st Curculio)

apples become

Water 100 gals.

apple scab on Mc-

V2 inch in diam-

intosh if neces-

eter.

sary.

3-weeks Spray

About 3 weeks

Lime-Sulfur

Add fish oil as in

(2ncl Curculio)

after calyx spray.

Solution 2 Gals.

7-day spray when

Calcium

curculio are es-

Caseinate 1 lb.

pecially abundant

Lead Arsenate 4 lbs.

at this time.

Water 100 Gals.

Dusting

Dusting with modern equipment has not been thoroughly compared with
spraying as a means of combating the plum curculio in this work. Several
progressive fruit growers in the state have maintained excellent protection

50 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

from insect pests including the plum curculio by intelligent dusting, but in
these orchards this pest has never become thoroughly established. '

In 1927 a severely infested orchard was dusted experimentally with a
standard orchard dust applied with hand dui?ters of the knapsack type. Three
applications at opportune times yielded only 18 per cent clean fruit at har-
vest, but this was a gain of 10.8 per cent over the untreated plat and there
were about one-third less punctures per apple. Dust applications should be
made at the times recommended for spraying, with an additional applica-
tion midway between the 7-day and 3-weeks treatments whenever possible.
The dust must be thoroughly applied from at least two sides of the tree,
preferably in calm weather when it will settle slowly. Dusts containing
15 or 20 per cent lead arsenate are more effective than those containing less
poison.

SUMMARY.

The plum curculio, a native of North America, is found throughout eas-
tern and central United States and at present is the most injurious insect pest
of apples in Massachusetts.

Plums are preferred as food but only slightly more than apples, and all
stone and pomaceous fruits may be attacked.

Of the apple varieties, Duchess, Yellow Transparent and Gravenstein,
which blossom early or develop rapidly after the petals fall, are more severe-
ly injured in the spring than late-developing sorts such as Northern Spy
and Mcintosh.

Beetles damage the fruit by making egg punctures, early feeding punc-
tures and late feeding punctures in it, and the larvae tunnel through it. An
egg puncture is distinguished by a characteristic crescent-shaped cut which
develops into a fan-shaped russet scar. An early feeding puncture is round
and usually forms a circular russet scar. Larvae eat the flesh of the apple,
especially near the core, and cause the fruit to fall while small. The spheri-
cal cavities of late feeding punctures in mellow or nearly mature fruit do not
heal, and are generally followed by decay.

The plum curculio passes through four stages of development: egg, larva
or grub, pupa, and adult or beetle. Each female beetle lays about 175 eggs
from which the larvae hatch in about seven days. Young larvae burrow out
of sight in the fruit about two hours after hatching, and remain there approxi-
mately sixteen days. Pupal cells are made three inches or less beneath the
surface of the soil, and the insect remains in them about thirty days as larva,
pupa, and adult. About fifty-five days are necessary for the plum curculio
to develop from egg to adult. The beetles live approximately a year, from
August to August, and there is but one generation annually in Massachu-
setts.

In confinement the beetles made an average of 236 feeding punctures per
pair, and feeding punctures constituted from 64 to 83 per cent of the total
number of punctures.

The beetles choose leaves for hibernating cover in preference to hay and
stones.

A pictorial diagram of the seasonal history of this insect in apples occurs
on page 35. The iirst overwintering beetles appear when the blossom buds
are showing pink, and the largest number enter the trees between June 10
and 30. The first eggs are laid about June 1, and the number deposited in-

THE PLUM CURCULIO IN APPLES 51

creases steadily to a maximum between June 21 and 30. Oviposition ceases
about August 1. Feeding bj^ overwintering beetles begins and reaches the
maximum about the same time as oviposition, but it continues in decreasing
amounts until cold weather. Larvae leave the fruit first about June 30, in
greatest number between July 10 and 20, and cease before September 1.
Beetles emerge from the soil from late July to early October, reaching a
maximum between August 6 and 20.

Sixty to seventy-five per cent of the plum curculio beetles die during the
winter in Masachusetts.

Larvae and pupae may be killed by exposure to hot saui and by baking
and packing of the soil sun-ounding the pupal cells.

A few birds and predatory insects eat the plum cuicuHo, and one species
of hymenopterous parasite has been reared from it, but none of these
natural enemies decreases the abundance of this pest to a noticeable extent.

Many beetles may be killed by burning the leaves, binish, and woods in
which thoy are spending the winter.

Picking up dropped apples between June 20 and July 20 and killing
the larvae in them is the most effective cultural operation for combating the
plum curculio in apples. The apples should be picked up not later than
ten days after they fall and either buried with quicklime, boiled, burned,
or fed to livestock. Sheep or hogs in the orchard help to control the pest
by eating the infested apple "drops."

Cross cultivation close to the tree trunks with an extension disc haiTow
may kill many pupae if done between July 20 and August 1.

A Yz per cent solution of carbon disulfide emulsion applied to the soil
at the rate of 3 pints per square foot killed 99.5 per cent of the plum
curculio larvae and pupae in laboratoiy experiments.

With a normal crop of fruit, thorough spraying will give commercial control
of the plum curculio when the number of insects averages less than 25
per tree. Thoroughness of application with adequate machinery in good
repair is the most important factor in the spraying operation.

The caljrx spray, the 7-day spray, and the 3-weeks spray are the most
important for combating the plum curculio in apples. Of these, the 7-day
or first curculio application is the most effective.

Powdered lead arsenate, 2 pounds in each 50 gallons of spray, is recom-
mended in a spray schedule to combat the plum ciu-culio. There is little
danger of excessive arsenical residue following the recommended spray
schedule.

The addition of stickers to the poison has consistently reduced the number
of days necessary to kill the beetles as well as the number of pvmctures made
in sprayed fruit. Fish oil at the rate of 4 liquid ounces to each pound of
poison, regardless of the quantity of diluted spray, and molasses at the rate
of 1 gallon in each 100 gallons of spray, have proved the most satisfactory
stickers.

Lime-sulfur solution combined with lead arsenate slightly but not seriously
decreases the effectiveness of the poison.

Dusting although not thoroughly compared, does not appear to be as
effective as spraying for combating this insect.

52 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 249

LITERATURE CITED

L Bourne, A. I. and Whitcomb, W. D. The Codling Moth in Massachusetts,
Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 233, pp. 55-72, illus., 1927.

2. Butler, 0. and Doran, W. L. Spray Solutions and the Control of Apple
Scab, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bui. 36, 15 p., 1928.

3. Extension Services of New England States. The New England Seven,
9 p., illus., 1928.

4. Fulton, B. B. The Apple Curculio and Its Control by Hogs, Jour.
Agr. Research, 36: 249-261, illus., 1928.

5. Garman, Philip. The Curculio Problem in Connecticut, Conn. (State)
Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 275 (1925), 286-291, 1926.

6. Hood, C. E. Fish Oil, An Efficient Adhesive in Arsenate of Lead
Sprays, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 1439, 21 p. illus., 1926.

7. Leach, B. R. and Lipp, J. W. Control of Japanese Beetle Grubs — Part
I, Treatment of Lawns, Penn. Dept. Agr. Gen. Bui. 440, 21 p., illus., 1927.

8. Leiby, R. W. and Gill, J. B. The Plum Curculio on Peaches in North
Carolina— Its Life History and Control, The Bulletin. N. C. Dept. Agr., 23
p., illus., 1923.

9. Quaintance, A. L. and Jcnne, E. L. The Plum Curculio, U. S. Dept.
Agr., Bur. Ent. Bui. 103, 250 p., illus., 1912.

10. Snapp, O. I. and Alden, C. H. Dusting and Spraying Peach Trees after
Harvest for Control of the Plum Curculio, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 1205, 18 p.,
illus., 1924.

11. Snapp, O. I. Insects Attacking the Peach in the South and How to
Control Them, U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1557, 42 p., illus., 1928.

Publication of this document approved by the Commission on Administration

and Finance

5M-4-29 No. 5327

/

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 250 April, 1929

The Consumer Demand for Apples

By Lorian P. Jefferson

The purpose of production is the satisfaction of the requirements of
consumers. In order to meet them efficiently, it is necessary to know
the character and extent of the demand. This type of investigation has
received comparatively little attention, but the importance of such in-
formation becomes increasingly evident. It was in the hope of benefiting
both grower and dealer that this study was undertaken.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

THE CONSUMER DEMAND FOR ARPLES

By Lorian P. Jefferson,
Assistant Research Professor of Agricwltural Economics

Introduction

This study is undertaken in the firm belief that attention has been
centered too much on methods and volume of production and too little
u])()n the purposes of production. The importance of the consumer as a
factor in the marketing of all products has been too much overlooked.

The purpose of the study is to determine with as great accuracy as
possible the exact nature of the demand for apples. The facts here pre-
sented should be of use to both grower and dealer. The grower should
profit by a knowledge of what the consuming public prefers. He can
plan to meet this demand, and should get better return for his product
if he offers to the dealer just what the consumer wants. The dealer,
likewise, will be benefited because he can offer for sale what his customer.s
wish to buy.

Four classes of material are presented in this report:

1. The first class of data relates to specific demand in Springfield. It
was the intention to use this market as a typical community for the study
of consumer demand, and insofar as information is at hand, this has been
done. Records of receipts and outgoing shipments are, howevei", not
available, nor is information as to prices of apples in Springfield complete
for anj^ period of years. Specific figures used are mostly estimates se-
cured from growers, wholesalers and retailers.

In that portion of the study based upon this class of data, the consumer
demand for api)les is presented from the point of view of the producers,
the wholesalers and the retailers.

2. The second type of information used in the study is the data de-
rived from the records of the Nashoba Apple Packing Association, which
the officials of the organization very kindly placed at the author's ser-
vice. These records are of the greatest value because they deal with
large volumes of the leading varieties, giving prices paid for the dift'erent
grades and sizes of these varieties during four seasons. Upon these
figures is based the discussion of the demand for apples as indicated by
the prices received for them. Thus is added statistical evidence as to
tlie character and weight of consumer demand.

3. The third class of material is derived from some 1400 questionnaires
sent to housewives in Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island.' The
material for Connecticut has not been published in any form. The data for
Massachusetts have been summarized in Bulletin 231, Massachusetts Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, and those for Rhode Island were discussed
in Bulletin 203, Rhode Island Experiment Station; but in order to point

^ The schedules for Connecticut and Rhode Island were made available by the cour-
tesy of Professor I. G. Davis, of Connecticut Agricultural College, and Dr. R. B.
Corbett, of Rhode Island State College.

56 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 250

out differences in tiie character of demand in the three states, and to give
the added weight of so large an amount of evidence, it has been deemed
worth while to present the material as here shown.

Moreover, New England markets are not far apart and shii^ments of
produce from one to another are not uncommon, so that facts concern-
ing demand in neigliboring markets may be of use to both growers and
dealers.

4. The fourth class of material, likewise statistical in character, deals
with wages, both actual and real, in relation to the prices and consump-
tion of apples over a term of years. For the statistics of real wages the
author acknowledges indebtedness to Professor Paul H. Douglass of the
University of Chicago. Other wage statistics are taken from reports of
the United States Department of Labor. The purpose in presenting this
material is to show the relation, if any, between the consumer demand for
apples and the volume of money the industrial classes may have to spend.

The Springfield Market

Springfield Trade Area

In general the trade area of Springfield is estimated by the Springfield
Chamber of Commerce as extending about fourteen miles from the center
of the city. This includes Holyoke, Chicopee, Chicopee Falls, West Spring-
field, Longmeadow, East Longmeadow, Ludlow, Indian Orchard and Aga-
wam. For the purposes of this study, however, some adjustments must be
made because of certain receipts of apples in this area throughout the
weeks of the fall and early winter, which do not go to Springfield. The
apples received in this trade area from cold storage and from other than the
local producing sections are purchased througli the Springfield and Hol-
yoke wholesalers.

The population which may rightly be considered as a part of Spring-
field's apple consuming public numbers about 80,000 in addition to the
population of the city proper, making a total of about 232,000.

As is true in the city of Springfield, so in these surrounding towns com-
bining with the city to form this trade area, large quantities of apples
are sold by the growers directly to the retailers. Some of the retailers
in these towns report that they obtain all their apples from growers dur-
ing the fall. Others buy considerable quantities from growers, although
some 'of their supply is purchased from Springfield dealers throughout the
entire season.

In these towns also there is more or less distribution of apples from
grower to consumer; but this volume is uncertain and difficult to estimate.
It is, however, reasonable to assume that at least as high a ratio exists
here as in Springfield proper, where about one-tenth of a bushel per capita
is estimated as distributed directly by growers to consumers. This adds
about 8,000 bushels to the total volume for the trade area. Allowance
must be made also for the volume supplied by growers to retailers, which
has been estimated as the total supply for twelve weeks of the fall, or
perhaps one-third of the apple season. This adds, conservatively, about
20,000 bushels to the total volume for the Springfield area. No estimate
is attempted of the volume purchased at roadside stands, which doubtless
amounts to a considerable quantity during the early fall.

CONSUMER DEMAND FOR APPLES 57

Receipts

Apples are received in Springfield in carlots from outside New England
— from New York, Virginia and other Southern apple areas, and the
Northwest. They are also received from local growers in Massachusetts
and Connecticut, who sell their fruit to wholesale houses, mostly on com-
mission; from growers who sell to retailers or directly to consumers. Th6
chain stores also do a large business which is not handled through these
channels, as they maintain their own buyers and store their supply in-
dependently of the market agencies. There are also dealers who go out
into the country and buy as a bargain offers, often taking the whole of a
grower's crop, and usually buying "orchard run", just as the fruit comes
from the tree, without sorting or grading. These men have no place of
business, but sell from wagon or truck to anyone who will buy — con-
sumer or retailer. Some years these men have occupied a vacant lot or
store near the shopping district during a few weeks in the fall, but
recently the lots so used have been occupied by permanent business, thus
forcing these buyers elsewhere.

The total receipts for the Springfield trade area for which apples are
supplied through the city market or from nearby growers may be stated
as follows:

Table 1. — Methods of Sale and Estimated Volume of

Apples Received in Springfield Trade Area.

Method of Sale Bushels

Grower to consumer 31,000

Grower to retailer 50,000

By wholesalers 147,000

By chain stores 45,000

At farmers' market 3,000

Total 276,000*

* These estimates are based upon reports from wholesalers, from
retailers in Springfield and neighboring towns, and from growers
who sell apples in the trade area.

Sales of apples by Springfield wholesalers to dealers outside this trade
area are estimated at 53,000 bushels, leaving some 223,000 bushels for
consumption in the Springfield trade area. This provides a per capita
supply of .96 bushels, which is close to the estimated per capita consump-
tion in the United States.

Methods of Distributing Apples

Apples are distributed in the Springfield trade area by wholesalers, by
hucksters or jobbers who buy from the grower or the wholesaler and
sell chiefly at the open air market,^ by retailers and by growers. Consid-
erable quantities of products are handled at this "farmers' market",

- This market is a vacant lot in the wholesale district that is regularly occupied
during the season by growers who sell here their own fruits and vegetables, and by
buyers who purchase their supplies from grower or wholesaler as chance offers. Few
hucksters sell from door to door.

58 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 250

as it is called, but for the most part the quality of the produce sold herr
is not of the best.

The four chain store systems represented in the area also handle large
volumes of apples, bought directly from the grower in New England and
New York. These quantities, because they do not go through the ordin-
ary channels of trade, have been sometimes overlooked in estimating the
volume of products handled.

Demand and Price

The strongest proof of a consumer's preference for any product is the
price he will pay for it in competition with other products. In the case
of apples, the consumer's preference for a definite variety, grade or size
is indicated by what he will pay for it in preference to other varieties or
grades or sizes.

Through the courtesy of the officials of the Nashoba Apple Packing
Association, access was given to the records of the organization for the
four seasons, 1924-1927. These supply the net price to the grower for all
apples sold through the Association during the period, a total of such
volume as to make the figures fairly reliable. These figures are of value
also because the costs of marketing are the same for all lots and all
varieties, and because the method of marketing is the same throughout
the period.

The records of the Nashoba Apple Packing Association have been
studied to determine the preferences of consumers. The volumes of dif-
ferent varieties, grades and sizes of apples handled by the Association
have been analyzed with reference to the prices paid for them.

Varu'tji inifl Price

The relative preference for varieties is best shown by a comparison of

the prices they bring in competition with each other. Following is a table

which shows average net prices received by growers for different grades
of each variety handled in each season.'

Xable 2. — Average Prices to Growers, of Ten Varieties, 1924-1927.*
A Grade (per box)

Variety

Baldwin

Delicious

Gravenstein

Greening

Mcintosh

Northern Spy

Oldenburg

Wagener

Wealthy

"Williams

1924-25

1925-26

1926-27

1927-28

.$2.03

$1.71

$1.12
1.55
1.23

$2.24

1.93

2.25

2.52

1.14

2.2G

1.46

2.32

2.17

2.57

1.18
2.15
1.27

2 l.'J

1.99

2.15

1.92

1.55

1.01
2.57

2.21

3 Of course it must be recognized that not all these varieties are on the niarl'Cet at
the same time, the Williams, Oldenburg and Gravenstein being early varieties which
obviously can not seriously affect the market for the Baldwin and other winter apples.
The early varieties find their competitors rather among other fruits, such a.'* jieaihes

1.53

1.19

1.11

1.08
.88
.66

1.60
.47

1.08
.83
.69

1.95

1.30

1.54

1.56

2.12
1.03

1.80

1.69

1.61
.39

1.64

1.83

1.56

1.29

1.20

CONSUMER DEMAND FOR APPLES 59

B Grade (per box)

Baldwin

Delicious

Gravenstein

Greening

Mcintosh

Northern Spy

Oldenburg

Wagener

Wealthy

\\'illianis

* Averaife prices received iij- Nashoba Apple Paclving Association.

The volume of different varieties varied greatly, the total volumes of
some being too small to warrant conclusions. Obviously small volumes
can not fairly represent the variety; nor is one season enough for consid-
eration. In the study, therefore, statistics of the five leading varieties
are generally used, lest injustice be done those of which small volumes
have been packed.

It is evident that the Mcintosh has been the general favorite during the
four seasons, 1924-25 to 1927-28.

In order to determine the standing on the market of graded and un-
graded fruit, statistics of volumes and prices for the different grades
were compared. The figures supplied by the Nashoba Apple Packing
Association again offer the best available information on prices of graded
fruit.

Unclassified apples, also known as ungraded, are of two kinds, — one is
the "tree run" crop, culls and ciders only being removed; the other is
made up of those apples remaining after apples of B grade and better,
with culls and ciders, have been removed. Obviously these two groups will
usually differ greatly in quality, since the removal of all fruit suitable for
B grade or better, leaves little of very desirable quality to be classed as
"ungraded". The other kind of unclassified, "tree run", usually contains
fruit which could be graded into A or B, and is therefore more desirable.

Since these are both sold as unclassified, no distinction being generally
made on the market, it is difficult to make fair price comparisons. How-
ever, from individual records collected the following data have been com-
piled for two seasons, 1925-26 and 1926-27, showing variety, volume and
price received.^

The preference for "tree run" fruit is evident in the prices received,
which show a difference ranging as high as 67 cents a box.

It would be very desirable if some distinguishing name were found for
the so-called "ungraded" remaining after B grade or better, and culls
and ciders have been taken out. Perhaps "domestic", the name used by the
Nashoba Apple Packing Association, is as suitable as any. The class here

■• These prices were obtained from growers in a study of variety performance, not
yet complete. It must be explained that the volumes of Gravenstein and Wealthy
were not as large as the volumes of Baldwin and Slelntosh. It is not improbable
that larger volumes from a larger number of orchards might change the results for
any of the varieties. These are here presented, as the only data available, for what
they may be worth. They probably indicate the general relationship.

60 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 250

Table 3. — Average Prices Received by Growers for Ungraded Apples,
1925 and 1926 Crops.

Variety After Removing Graded After Removing Culls

Fruit, Culls and Ciders and Ciders Only

per box per box

Baldwin $ .48 $1.14

Gravenstein .75 1.42

Mcintosh 1.17 1.67

Wealthy .88 1.04

called "tree run" (culls and ciders only being removed) might well be
designated as ungraded or unclassified.

In order to determine with accuracy just how profitable grading may be,
just how much more the consumer will pay for graded than for un-
graded apples, it would be necessary to compare lots exactly the same
in every particular — variety, volume, quality, color, etc., even including
market conditions, one lot being sold graded and the other ungraded,
culls and ciders being taken from both lots.

Obviously it is impossible to fulfill all these requirements. Data con-
cerning such exactly comparable lots of apples are not available. The
best figures at hand include no information as to these items in the case
of tree run fruit. Prices of apples sold as tree run, culls and ciders out,
are compared in Table 4 with prices of A and B grade apples.

Table 4. — Comparison of Average Prices of Graded and Ungraded
(Tree Run) Apples, 1925 and 1926 Crops.*

Variety

Baldwin
Gravenstein
Mcintosh
Wealthy

* The prices of graded fruit are from the records of the Nashoba Apple
Packing Association : those for ungraded are from schedules secured in
the aforenamed study of variety performance, not yet completed.

These figures indicate that in general only A grade or Fancy apples of
these varieties brought prices which warranted grading. Only as B grade
apples are considered as a by-product of better grades did the grower find
it worth while to pack them. The market is, insofar as these figures
may be taken as fairly typical, rather indifferent to the grading of Wealthy
apples, the ungraded lots having brought nearly as high a price as A
grade and 30 per cent above the price for B grade.

The preference for A grade as indicated by these prices is more ap-
parent in the case of Gravenstein than in that of any other variety in-
cluded in the table.

It is evident that most consumers definitely prefer A grade apples of
the leading varieties. This preference is apparent in Table 5 in which
are presented the average prices by grades for each of the five varieties
in the seasons for which figures are available.

Ungraded

A Grade

B Grade

(Tree Run)

per box

per box

per box

$1.41

$1.15

$1.16

2.05

1.04

1.42

2.21

1.67

1.66

1.09

.80

1.04

Premium

A Grade

B Grade

for A Grade

per box

per box

per

box

$1.45

$1.24

$

.21

1.52

1.12

.40

2.35

1.69

.66

1.80

1.50

.30

1.28

1.05

.23

1.80

1.41

.39

CONSUMER DEMAND FOR APPLES 61

• Table 5.— Average Prices by Grades, 1924-1927.

Variety

Baldwin
Gravenstein
Mcintosh
Wagener
Wealthy
Average

The preference for A grade fruit varies in degree from season to sea-
son. The Mcintosh shows a higher and more regularly increasing pre-
mium than any other variety, as exhibited in Table 6. The increasing
spread between A and B grade of this variety has been due not only to
the increase in the price of A grade, but to a decrease in the price of
B grade fruit as well.

In the case of the Baldwin, the premium for A grade fruit varies greatly
from year to year. In the two seasons 1924-25 and 1925-26 this premium
averaged about 6 cents a box, while in the season of 1927-28, the average
A grade brought 94 cents a box more than B grade.

Table 6.— Premium for A Grade Mcintosh, 1924-1927.

Season

1924-25
1925-26
1926-27
1927-28
Average

Preferences os to Size

An examination of the prices received by the Nashoba Association
shows that the demand as to size varies with the variety. Only the
Baldwin, Gravenstein, Mcintosh, Wagener and W^ealthy were handled in
sufficient quantities to warrant conclusions as to sizes preferred. How-
ever, in Table 7 are included all varieties packed during two or more
of the four seasons.

It is evident that Baldwins and Greenings, insofar as these statistics
indicate, are preferred in the large sizes, the price increasing with the
increase in size. While the Wealthy shows the same trend, the difference
between prices for the various sizes is comparatively small, and apparently
indicates that consumers care little about the size of this variety.

The Mcintosh, Northern Spy and W^agener returned the highest prices
for size 2% inches, the larger sizes bringing a lower price in each variety."

'^ Kroeck, .T., Factors Affecting the Price of Mcintosh. (Massachusetts Department
of Agriculture) found that the prices received for the 190 boxes examined in the
study showed a preference for 3 inch apples. However, the period covered was short
and the volume comparatively small, but there may be a growing preference for larger
sizes of this variety.

Premium

A Grade

B

Grade

fo

r A

Grade

per box

per box

pe

1- box

$2.32

$1.80

$

.52

2.17

1.69

.48

2.26

1.60

.66

2.57

1.61

.96

2 2^

1 69

.66

62

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BUIT,ETIN 250

Chart I. Prices •f Apples by VnrictleE, Sizes and Grades, 1924-1927.

DOLLAKS

Baldwin C«AviN»TtiM nclNTo«H Va6cncr VtAUTHY

lll.nt S.HM |«,7lieU>c«* 9«,070 »«<M» 1e,0SO»«MM IC,l47i<IM

2i 2r 2i 3+ 2i 2^ Zi 3* 2i Zi t\ 3* ti ziz\ S+ 2i 2i 25- SI-

SIZE IN INCHES

A B All »nd
Graded

GRAPCe

From records of the Nashoba Apple Packing Association. The Prices for Baldwin and
Gravensteiu are for three seasons only.

While the averaije price for Gravenstein 2V-.' inches in size was liiglier tlian
for any other size, a range of but 20 cents between the highest and the
lowest prices indicates that size is not an important factor with this
variety.

The prices by variety and size for the four seasons show irregularities
which can be partly accounted for by export sales. But an examination
of the figiires shows that the quality of the fruit must sometimes have
been a factor in determining the price. No measure of quality other
than that apparent in the grade has been established.

Table 7.- — Average Prices by Variety and Size, 1924-192'i

Variety

Baldwin

Gravenstein

Greening

Mcintosh

Northern

Wagener

Wealthy

Spy

3 inches

21/4 inch

2' 2 inch

2% inch

and over

per box

per box

fer box

per box

$ .84

$1.25

$1.62

$1.76

1.20

1.40

1.20

1.31

.45

.69

.96

1.34

1.62

1.91

2.23

2.16

1.09

.98

1.49

1.27

1.59

1.62

1.80

1.64

1.07

1.17

1.18

1.29

CONSUMER DEMAND FOR APPLES 63

Queries among dealers and buyers for eating houses in Springfield in-
dicate that the preferences as to size in that market are practically the
same as are shown by Nashoha prices. The demand is apparently tending
toward the larger sizes.

Housewives' Preferences

From 1400 ciuestionnaires answered by approximately 600 housewives
in Massachusetts, 600 in Connecticut and 200 in Rhode Island, some in-
teresting information as to buying habits and preferences of consumers
of apples has been gathered.

One question pertained to the sources from which apples are pur-
chased. While volumes purchased from the different sources are not
known, it was learned that practically one-fourth of the households from
which reports were secured buy all or part of their supply of apples
directly from the grower. As might be expected, purchases from growers
are more common in Massachusetts and Connecticut than in Rhode Island,
where there is less opportunity for such purchases, population being more
concentrated and orchards proportionally fewer. One-fourth also buy
from the general markets in their communities; 16 per cent buy more or
less from chain stores; and 15 per cent buy some fruit from fruit stands,
although the number of those who name the fruit stand as first choice of
place to buy is small; 12 per cent patronize roadside stands and 6 per
cent buy from peddlers who sell from house to house.

A tabulation of the sources from wliich consumers of tlie three states
buj' apples is given below.

Table 8. — Sources of Purchases.

Total
Choices Times

Sources

First

Second

Third

Fourth

Fifth

Sixth* I

Mamed

Grower

264.

54

35

15

16

14

398

General Store

152

116

45

25

10

6

354

Fruit Stand

69

7:3

66

33

17

1

259

Chain Store

56

73

46

35

34

6

250

Roadside Market

21

63

44

29

31

11

199

Huckster*

20

25

11

16

11

12

95

Total

582

404

247

153

119

50

1,555

* In Connecticut only.

\'arieties Preferred

The variety preferences differ somewliat in the tliree states. Connecti-
cut gives first place to the Baldwin as an eating apple, this variety having
166 votes, while the Mcintosh — easily first in the group of states — receives
but 149 votes for first place in Connecticut. The Gravenstein, which is
poi)ular in its season in Massachusetts, being mentioned as a desirable
eating apple 52 times, is mentioned only 5 times in Connecticut where
nobody names it as first choice.

It is evident that, in the whole section, more people prefer the Mcintosh
for eating raw than any other variety, (^f 1120 first choices of eating
a]ii)les, 43 per cent are for the Mcintosh. Of 3887 choices for all uses,

64

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 250

19 per cent favor this variety, 17 per cent naming it as a favorite eating
apple, while 2 per cent like it for cooking, only the Baldwin and the Green-
ing ranking higher for this purpose.

The Baldwin is the favorite cooking apple, 15 per cent giving it first
place and 19 per cent naming it as first, second or third choice. Seven
per cent name the Greening as their favorite cooking apple, most of this
group being residents of Connecticut and Rhode Island, this variety being
much less favored in Massachusetts markets. The following tabulation
(Table 9) presents the rating of the varieties named the most times by
these 1400 consumers.

Table 9. — Varietv Preferences, bv States

c

H0IC1<

;S FOR

EATIN

\G RAW

CHOICES FOR

COOKING

Total

Times

Variety

First

Second

Third

Total

First

Second '

Third

Total

Named

Tlaldwin

Connecticut

166

56

31

253

185

46

10

241

494

Masisachusetts

90

88

30

208

269

47

r

321

529

Rhode Island

50

36

25

111

135

52

6

193

304

Total

306

180

86

572

589

145

21

755

1,827

Mcintosh

Connecticut

]49

45

15

209

19

11

6

36

245

Massachusetts

241

57

13

311

12

12

2

26

337

Rhode Island

89

30

9

128

2

3

4

9

137

Total

479

132

37

648

33

26

12

71

719

Greening

Connecticut

16

20

14

50

137

53

16

206

256

Massachusetts

4

4

7

15

45

44

11

100

115

Rhode Island

11

10

6

27

101

74

5

180

270

Total

31

34

27

92

283

171

32

486

578

Russet

Connecticut

30

36

24

90

21

8

4

33

123

Massachusetts

10

27

24

61.

3

2

0

5

66

Rhode Island

8

4

4

16

1

1

3

5

21

Total

48

67

53

167

25

11

7

43

210

Gravenstein

C-^nnecticut

0

2

3

5

1

4

0

5

10

Massachusetts

10

18

24

62

9

13

2

24

76

Rhode Island

7

5

5

17

5

5

3

13

30

Total

17

25

32

74

15

22

5

42

116

Some 70 other varieties are mentioned varying numbers of times, but
none is named often enough to indicate commercial importance. Twenty
of these varieties are regarded as suitable for eating only, while 12 are
considered only as cooking apples; 29 are named but once for any use,
and 23 are not the first choice of anyone for either purpose.

Rccoijnition of Varieties

The Baldwin can be identified by more New England consumers than
any other apple of 87 varieties named. The second best known is the
Mcintosh, but only 7 can identify this variety for every 10 who know
the Baldwin; and only 6 can identify the Greening or the Russet for each
10 who can identify the Baldwin. Other varieties are familiar to smaller
numbers, and 40 of the 87 varieties are known to but one person each;
13 varieties can be identified by 2 persons each; 73 varieties are familiar
to fewer than 10 persons each.

Hardly 30 per cent of those reporting indicate their ability to tell

CONSUMER DEMAND FOR APPLES 65

Eastern from Western apples. Of those who can, 54 per cent must eat the
apple in order to make identification complete, as they tell it by the flavor.
Fifteen per cent profess to be able to tell Western apples by their size,
obviously a very questionable method. Nearly the same number say
they identify them by the color. Only one person is able to identify them
by the variety, and only one indicates that she makes inquiry as to the
source from which they come.

Factors That Influence Buying

The qualities which appeal to the consumer and influence her buying
are chiefly the flavor, appearance, condition, cooking quality, juiciness
and size. One in four considers the flavor of the apples; 19 per cent
are influenced by the condition of the fruit, and 7 per cent more by the
cooking quality; appearance is a factor in the purchase of 11 per cent;
juiciness and size each influences 9 per cent of the consumers.

More than half the housewives reporting, 54 per cent, stated a preference
for apples of uniform size.

The price is named as a factor by 7 per cent and healthfulness by 4
per cent, although both are probably considered by many of those report-
ing, who neglected to mention them.

Color is named by only 4 per cent as a determining factor, although
both wholesalers and retailers declare that the demand is almost entirely
for red apples. Only 21/2 per cent say they buy by the variety, and still
fewer state that they consider when buying the use to be made of the
apples bought. It is evident, however, that the average housewife recog-
nizes the general distinctions between eating and cooking apples. Two
report that they buy by brand.

Regularity of Servhuj

The 418 housewives who report serving apples on their tables, in the
summer, serve them on an average of 3.6 times weekly. In the fall, 471
families find apples in some form on their tables 5 times a week. In the
winter the rate of serving falls back to about the same as in the summer,
493 housewives in this season serving apples an average of 3.7 times a
week. The average for the year is 4.7 times, the most common number
of times reported being 2 to 3.

Who Buys for the Family?

The housewife buys the apples in more than half the households report-
ing, just as she buys most other commodities for the home. The man of
the family buys them in 30 per cent of the homes reporting and the re-
sponsibility is divided in 9 per cent.

The unit quantity of apples purchased by the consumer seems to be
decreasing in size, customers now usually buying by the peck or by the
pound, whereas their grandparents bought by the bushel or the barrel.
The reasons for this are changes in living conditions, such as a tendency
to buy all commodities in smaller quantities and more frequently; the rise
of the neighborhood grocery store, making it easier to "go to market";
the development of super-heated apartment houses with limited storage

(j(i MASS. KXPliRIMENT STATION BUl.l.l^VriN 2.50

space, and that too often not suitable for perishables. Better storage
facilities outside the home make it easy for dealers to provide the public
with good fruit throughout the year, and the housewife is now able t»
order apples as she needs them.

Consumption of Apples

Certain factors which undoubtedly have considerable influence on the
demand for any commodity must not be overlooked, even though they
may not lend themselves to exact measurement.

We are accustomed to take account of the influence which the demand
for a product has on the price it will bring; but we less often con.sider
the influence which the price of a product has upon the demand for it.
Not only the total demand but the character of the demand may be in-
fluenced by the price. The housewife who goes to the market to buy
apples may find that the A grade fruit, which she prefers, is priced so
high that she can not afford it. She may instead accept B grade apples
at a price within her means; she may substitute some other fruit for the
apples she meant to buy; or she may decide that her purse does not
allow the purchase of any fruit whatever. The effective demand of this
consumer has been very definitely affected by the price.

Obviously the volume of any product sold in any market varies with
the available supply. More will normally be consumed when the supply
is large and the price relatively low. The supply, likewise, may affect de-
mand unfavorably as well as favorably. The housewife whose purse is
not too rigidly limited, frequently buys a product because it is not com-
mon, to get a change in diet; or conversely, she may turn away from one
which has been on the market in abundance, regardless of the fact that
tlie price is attractive. She has grown weary of it.

Unemployment, limiting as it does the purchasing power of the group
out of work, has marked influence on the demand for most products. The
unemployment which has been prevalent in Great Britain since the World
War, for example, has affected the demand for practically all products.
The buying power of large groups has been materially reduced, and the
demand for nearly all commodities has been correspondingly less.

Advertising, well-directed, has its effect on the demand for the pro-
duct advertised. A notable example of the results of advertising is the
case of citrus fruit, the demand for which has been greatly increased since
a systematic campaign of advertising has been carried on by the growers.
It is, however, impossible to say that the increased demand is entirely due
to advertising. Such factors as more intelligent distribution and improved
pack and quality of the fruit, even if they can not be accurately measured,
ituist have their influence on the volume and character of the demand.

Trend of Consumption

The com])laint is frequently heard among dealers and growers that
"people aren't eating as many apples as they did", and that consumption
of apples is declining. In order to determine the truth of the statement,
statistics of population and commercial crops are compared in Chart II.
It is apparent that during the seasons from 1918 to 1927 the commercial
crop, exports deducted, has steadily increased. It is equally evident that

CONSUMER DEMAND FOR ARPLES

67

Chart, II. Population and Commercial Apple Crop of the United States, 1918-1927.

POPULATION
M (VLLIOIM

MILLION* •»
bUtHELS

1918

The increasing volume of the commercial crop is due not only to a greater number oi
bearing trees, but to better methods of growing. An increasing proportion of our
total production is salable. Exports have been deducted.

the increase in population during tlie decade has been more rapid than
that of tlie commercial crop. Thi.s indicates, of course, that per capita
consumption in the United States is actually declining-. The trend of this
decline is pictured in Chart VI, which shows the average per capita con-
sumptioD for tlie ten years 1918 to 1927.

The influence of Sforafje

Imjiroved storage facilities have m;ide it possible to have apples on
the market throughout the year. Consumption has been steadied and
spread out over the twelve months, and even the more delicate varieties
are made available to consumers over a much longer period than formerly.
The Mcintosh, a few years ago considered a fall aj^ple only, is now put
into cold storage and its season thereby lengthened by several months.
During the last few seasons, the best prices for Mcintosh have been
secured late in tiie season.

The rate of movement of any product out of storage depends largely
upon the demand for it. Chart III shows the rate at which apples moved
from storage in Boston in 1925-26, probably a fairly representative sea-
son. The movement of both Eastern and Western boxed apples is shown,
and indicates that Eastern apples are in more steady demand during the
season than are Western apples. As shown by this chart, withdrawals
from storage might seem to indicate that the demand for Western apples
in the fall is keener than that for Eastern fruit, whereas New England
apples are actually in quite steady demand throughout the season. In the
fall months this demand is met by supplies of fresh fruit which has been

68

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 250

Chart III. Rate of Movement of Apples from Storage in Boston, 1925-26.

PERCENT

^v

' ^ ' 1 '

E.ASTERM Boxed

50

Western Boxed

zo

^^

-

V

/\

--A

/

/

V

/

\

to

/

\

\ \

^

/

N

/

\

/

^ - -

O N D J P

\QZ5

M A M J J

732 6

A S

kept in farm storages and does not appear in records of cold storage
holdings. During the winter and spring, the movement from storage doubt-
less represents the demand with considerable accuracy.

Chart IV. Index of Baldwin Prices at Boston and Index of Industrial Money

Wages per Hour, 1907-08 to 1927-28.

1913=100

INBCX
300

/

\ 1

\

J

f>

\ 1

\ y

^

/

\ •

^

\ j

\ •

/

^V

-r/

• \

A

/

* t

'

\/ ^

^ \

/\

/

i /

/

\j

\

/ \

/

o /

/

f

'

f \

/

A

. /

/\

A

/

\

«o/

\

/ \

/ \

/

\

/ -*

NJ

/ \

/ \

/

\

,' X

/ 1

' \

/

\

/ •

'^

/

\

/

\

/ /^

'

\.^

I--;

1913 =» 100

V

1

1

1

1

\

1

1

I

1

1

1907-08 1909-10 1911-12

1915-16 1917-16 1919-20 192 h22 1923-24 1925-26 ie27-2S

The prices of Baldwins in Boston were secured by the United States Department of
Agriculture, and the wages from records of the United States Department of Labor.

CONSUMER DEMAND FOR APPLES

60

Influence of Wag^es

Any consideration of factors affecting consumption must obviously in-
clude the question of wages, from which so large a part of our population
derives its income. Wages are classed as the actual money wages re-
ceived, and "real wages", which refers to the purchasing power of the
money wage. It is evident that "real" wages are of more importance than
are money wages, since "real" wages determine the volume and variety
of goods the worker may obtain with liis money. A comparative study of
the index of all industrial wages in the United States with the index of
wholesale prices of Baldwin apples on the Boston market shows practic-
ally no correlation between the two. It is evident that the money wage
does not determine the demand for Baldwin apples, at least. Baldwin
prices are used because they are to be had for a longer period than any
other variety, and because Baldwins have been popular longer than any
other variety. (Chart IV)

A similar comparison of the Baldwin prices and real wages in manu-
facturing industries in Massachusetts reveals little beyond the fact that
the trend of the prices follows in a general way the line of real wages
during most of the period. The last few years, however, show no cor-
relation whatever. (Chart V) Nor is the relation between per capita
consumption of apples and real wages more definite than that between

Chart V. Index of Baldwin Prices at Boston and Index of Real Wages in

Manufacturing Industries of Massachusetts, 1889-90 to 1923-24.

1890-99=100

1924-25 1927-26

The statistics of real wages here used were prepared by Professor Paul H. Douglass
of the University of Chicago. Although these are not available to date, it is doubtful
if any closer correlation between the two Lines would be shown in the later years than
is evident to 1923.

70

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 250

wages and prices. (Chart VI). While it is true that the trend of total
consumption of apples follows more closely the upward trend of real
wages, per capita consumption is more fairly representative for comparison
with these wage data. This lack of correlation between apple prices, per
capita consumption and wages may be taken to indicate that apples, liTce
certain other products, have become such a staple article of diet that
apple consumption is little affected by the rise or fall of money wage?
or by the purchasing power of wages.

Chart VI. Per Capita Consumption of Apples, with Trend, and Index of
Eeal Wages, 1918-1923.

Index
150

lOO

Bu^HtLS

SO

Real Wase© ^

-— "^

.'^'

■^

^

^^

^ -^

y

\

(

A

30N6U

\

4

\

/^

\

/

TF^EN

.> x

:^^

■^

1.0

1918 1919 1920 \Vi\ 1922 1923 1924 t92f 1926 1927

Per capita consumption is calculated on the basis of the commercial crop from which
the volume exported is deducted. This does not include farm consumption, for which
no data are available.

CONSUMER DEMAND FOR APPLES 71

Conclusions

1. It is evident tliat in the three southern states of New England the
Baldwin is the favorite apple for cooking and the Mcintosh for eating-
raw. These varieties can likewise be indentified by more consumers than
can any other varieties.

2. The prices over four seasons show the Mcintosh to be the favorite
apple in the Boston market.

3. Less than one-third of the consumers reporting say that they can
tell the Western from the Eastern apples, and more than half of those
who can distinguish between them must eat the apple in order to make
complete identification.

4. Flavor seems from consumers' reports to be the chief factor influenc-
ing the purchase of apples, although dealers report that color is very
important, most customers desiring only red apples.

5. In the average household apples are served two or three times
weekly, but there are many homes in which they are served more fre-
quently.

6. Storage holdings of apples are largest in December, and movement
out of storage is greatest in January, February and March, tending to
spread the consumption over a longer period than formerly. Indeed, apples
are now on the market twelve months of the year.

7. Prices received for the different grades show that consumers in
general prefer A grade apples to B grade, although prices seem to indi-
cate that in general consumers care little whether the early varieties are
graded or not.

8. Two different classes of apples are now grouped together as "un-
graded". There is need of distinguishing names for them in order to
avoid confusion on the market. The term "ungraded" should be reserved
for tree run fruit from which culls and ciders only have been removed.
The other class — apples remaining when B grade and better, culls and
ciders have been removed — may well be called C grade or "domestic",
or some similar term.

9. The generally preferred sizes are 2% to 3 inches as indicated by the
prices paid for them. More than half the consumers reporting prefer
apples uniform in size.

10. The per capita consumption of apples in the United States is less
than one bushel, and while the total consumption is increasing, this in-
crease is not keeping pace with the increase in population. This indicates
that the per capita consumption is gradually declining.

IL No correlation has been established between wages, either nominal
or real, and the price of apples, nor between real wages and per capita
consumption, this lack of correlation indicating that the consumption of
apples does not depend on wages nor the purchasing power of wages.

Publication of this document approved by
the Commission on Administration and Finance.

5M-5-'29.^ No. 5728

/

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 251 May, 1929

Causes of Differences in Poultry

Profits

By R. L. Mighell and F. H. Branch

Records based on experience in poultry farming show wide differences
in financial returns. It is assumed that these differences can be attributed
to certain specific practices and conditions which may be subject to con-
trol or modification. This study was undertaken to determine the extent
to which the various factors and conditions operated and were effective
in influencing profit in the industry.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

Summary

Records from 144 Massachusetts poultrymen in 1926 and 134 in 1927
were tlie basis for this study of poultry profits.

Labor return per bird increased about 35 cents for each increase of
one dozen eggs in the average production per bird. Average egg
production per bird was the most important factor influencing profits
per bird.

Labor return per bird increased 28 cents in 1926 and 35 cents in 1927
for each increase of one dollar in receipts other than from market
eggs. Sucli receipts included those from hatching eggs, baby chicks,
broilers, roasters, and so forth. These supplementary lines con-
tribute to profitable poultry keeping.

When the number of birds in the flock was reduced after November
1 so that the plant was operating below full capacity, labor return
per bird decreased about 36 cents with each ten per cent reduction
in number of birds.

A five cent difference in average price received for eggs was related
to a difference in labor return per bird of 19 cents in 1926 and 33
cents in 1927.

Fall egg production increased labor return per bird through its rela-
tion to average price received for eggs and annual egg production
per bird.

CAUSES OF DIFFERENCES IN POULTRY PROFITS

By R. L. Mighell, Assistant Research Professor, and
F. H. Branch, Extension Specialist,
Department of Farm Management.^

Purpose and Timeliness of the Study

Expanding production, increasing enipiiasis on high quality products,
and other changes in the economic situation lend timeliness to an analysis
of the factors affecting profits from poultry in Massachusetts. With the
individual poultryman, the future outlook raises such questions as: What
can I do to offset possible lower prices of eggs and poultry? What changes
in organization and operation should I make? Should I keep more hens?
Should I produce more eggs in the fall months? The purpose of this
bulletin is to help answer these and related questions by determining as
nearly as possible on a dollar and cents basis just how much influence
certain factors had on profits from poultry on Massachusetts farms in
1926 and 1927.

Basis for the Conclusions

Tlie data upon wliich this study is based were supplied by poultrynien
who participated in a cooperative poultry account project which has been
conducted by the Extension Specialist in Farm Management. The pur-
pose of this project has been to improve the accounting methods of poul-
trynien and to collect information to be used in the analysis of the poultry
farm business. The data rejiresent poultry production under actual farm
conditions. Records were kept by each cooperating poultryman in a
standard poultry account book. Monthly reports were sent to the Farm
Management Department of the Agricultural College, -where the tabula-
tions, summaries, and final analyses were prepared. The poultrymen were
visited once or twice during the year by the Extension Specialist in Farm
Management.

The poultry accovmt year began November 1 and ended October 31.
The years for which complete records are available ended October 31,
1926, and October 31, 1927. The geographical distribution of the records
analyzed in this study each year is indicated in Table 1.

Variations in Poultry Profits

Farm records nearly always show wide variations in returns from farm
to farm. This is true in this instance, as shown in Tables 2 and 3. Labor
return per flock and per bird is taken as a measure of earnings. Labor
return is the amount of money left to pay labor (including that of the
poultryman and his family), after all other expenses including interest on
investment have been met. Credit is allowed for poultry products used

' Acknowledgment is due to Miss Marian Brown who had direct charge of the
clerical work in connection with the analjsis of the i-ecords.

7C) MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 251

on the farm. Labor return per bird is obtained by dividing labor return
per flock by the number of birds at the beginning of the account year.

This study aims to arrive at the reasons for this wide range in returns
to poultrymen by comparing differences in certain factors found with the
differences in labor returns.

Table L Distribution by Counties of Poultry Records Analyzed in the
Study, for the Two Years 1926-1927.

County

Barnstable
Berkshire
Bristol
Essex
Franklin
Hampden
Hampshire
Middlesex
Norfolk
Plymouth
Worcester
Total

Number of Records Anal\y,ed

1926

18
16
15

27

7
20
18

9

14

144

1927

10
13
1.5

9
16
14

5
10

i;3

134

Table 2. Poultry Flocks Classified According to Labor Return per Flock.

Labor Return i)er Flock
Dollars
-2.50 — 0
0 — 249
250 — 499
500 — 749
750 — 999
1000 — 1249
1250 — 1499
1500 — 1749
1750 — 1999
2000 — 2249
2250 — 2499
2500—2749
2750 — 2999
3000 and over
Total

Number of Flocks Studied

1926

4

29

28

16

13

10

5

6

8

5

2

4

1

13

144

1927

4

24

23

21

12

8

9

9

3

2

4

2

1

13

134

Possible Causes of Differences in Earnings

Many causes are constantly operating to affect the labor return from the
poultry enterprise. Some of these causes are largely technical and in-
clude such items as proper feeding, disease control, and the careful selec-
tion of breeding stock. Other causes are economic in nature. They in-
clude, for example, changing prices of product and feed, the most profit-
able size of flock, and the relationship of poultry to other parts of the

POULTRY PROFITS 7r

Table 3. Poultry Flocks Classified According to Labor Return per Bird.

I-abor Return per Bird Number of Flocks Studied

Dollars 1926 1927

-LOO — 0.00 4 3

0.00— .99 13 10

1.00— 1.99 24 38

2.00 — 2.99 40 39

3.00— 3.99 24 18

4.00— 4.99 18 14

5.00 — 5.99 9 4

6'. 00'— 6.99 10 2

i.OO — 7.99 2 2

8.00 — 8.99 0 2

9.00 — 9.99 0 0

10.00 — 10.99 0 0

ILOO — 11.99 0 2

Total 144 134

farm busine.s.s. The individual poultrynian cannot change everything, but
he may have tlie opportunity of adjusting those factors which can be
controlled to offset adverse changes in others.

It will be understood that not all of the causes of variation in labor
return have been included in this study. Some factors, such as daily
management of the flock, handling of disease and sanitation problems, and
other practices are not easily measured by simple flock records. Still
other factors were not available in the records in enough detail to be of
value. The final analysis was therefore limited to a study of the effect of
the following factors on labor return per bird:

1. Annual egg production per bird; sum of the monthly averages for
each flock.

2. Diversity of enterprise; credits from all sources except market eggs,
expressed in dollars per bird.

3. Index of change in flock size; percentage that the average number
of birds is of the initial number.

4. Price of eggs; sum of the monthly prices for each flock, divided
by 12.

5. Fall egg production in the four months, September through Decem-
ber, expressed as a percentage of the total production for the year.

Most of the flocks studied were composed of Rhode Island Reds, some
were Leghorns, and a few were othel* breeds. Since breed differences are
largely reflected through the factors just enumerated, breed was not in-
cluded as a factor in the study.

Effect of Individual Factors on Labor Return per Bird

Tlie results of the analysis are expressed in terms of the eft'ect of each
factor on labor return per bird. This was foimd preferable to measur-
ing the eft'ect on lalior return from the flock because dift'erences in size
of flock overshadowed the other factors when placed on that basis.

Since a preliminary analysis showed no measurable relationship between
size of flock and labor return per bird, size of flock was not further con-
sidered anu)ng the factors affecting labor return per bird. So far as th^

78

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 251

flocks in this study were concerned, the large flocks made about tlie same
labor returns per bird as the small ones. However, the poultrymen witii
the large flocks had to hire more labor, so tliat the labor returns to tlie
poultrymen themselves were reduced by the amounts paid out in casli
for hired labor.

Further discussion of the relative influence of each factor studied is
given in the latter part of this bulletin under the explanation of the
method of analysis used.

Figure 1. — Net Relation iDetween Annual Egg Production per Bird and Labor
Return per Bird, 1927.

LABOR RETURN
PER BIRD

DOLLARS

120 140 160 ISO

ANNUAL EGG PRODUCTION PER BIRD

The height of the bars represents the a\'erage tread o^ the relationship. Each

add-tional £0 eggs was related to an average increase of 60 cents in labor

return per bird.

Anniuil K(i;i Product ivii }>er Bii\,'

The average relation between egg production per bird and labor return
per bird was found to be. as shown in Table 4 and Figure 1. On tlie
average each additional twenty eggs in production per bird was accom-
panied by an increase of 58 cents in labor return per bird in 1926, and an
increase of 60 cents in 1927. This is about 35 cents and 36 cents average
return for eacli additional dozen eggs laid.

The rather wide differences in average egg production per bird are
shown in Table 5. The extreme variation is from about 70 to 230 eggs
per bird. Many poultrymen can well afford to spend considerable effort
and thought on increasing their average egg production. Those who are
interested in comparing their own production records Avith others can use
Table 5 for that purpose.

POULTRY PROFITS 79

Table 4. Net Differences in Labor Return Associated 'with Differences
in Annual Egg Production per Bird*

Annual Egg Production Labor Return per Bird

per Bird 1926 1927

Dollars Dollars

80 1.00 .69

100 1.58 1.29

120 2.16 1.89

140 2.74 2.49

160 3.32 3.09

180 3.90 3.69

* The data shown in Table 4 and Figure 1 are not simple group averaf;i'.s but are
smoothed averages or '■regressions'' obtained by titling straight lines according to the
method of multiple correlation. They represent the average trend of the relationshiji
while holding constant the other factors studied. Any one of the individual records
might fall above or below a line drawn parallel with the tops of the bars in Figure 1,
but the line would represent the average tendency.

Table 5. Poultry Flocks Classified According to Annual Egg Production

per Bird.

Annual Egg Production Number of Flocks Studied

per bird 1926 1927

60— 79 1 1

80— 99 6 5

100 — 119 20 10

120—139 34 28

140 — 159 40 42

160—179 31 32

180 — 199 9 11

200 — 219 3 3

220 — 239 0 2

Total 144 134

Other Credits Than Market E<j(fs

The average relation found between other credits than market eggs
per bird and labor return per bird is given in Table 6 and shown graphic-
ally in Figure 2. Other credits include receipts from hatching eggs and
chicks, broilers, roasters, and so forth, as well as credits for products used
at home and inventory changes. On the average, in 1926 an increase of
one dollar in other credits than market eggs per bird was associated with
an increase of 28 cents in labor return per bird, and in 1927 by an in-
crease of 35 cents. The difference between one dollar and 28 or 35 cents
can be regarded as approximating the various expenses necessary in the
production of the additional dollar's worth of other credits.

The relative merits of the various sources of other credits than market
eggs is an important field for study. Some poultrymen got increase's
returns from specializing in hatching eggs and baby chicks; others in
pullets and breeding stsock; still others made good returns from broilers
and roasters. The location, available capital and equipment, and the
personal training and ability of the individual farmer frequently deter-
mine the wisdom of specializing in a particular line.

80

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 251

Figure 2. — Net Kelation between Other Credits than Market Eggs iind Labor
Return per Bird, 1927.

LABOR RETURN
PER BIRD

DOLLARS

2 3

OTHER CREDITS —

4

DOLLARS

The height of the bars represents the average trend of the relationship. Each
additional dollar of other credits per bird was related to 35 cents increase in labor
return per bird.

Table 6. Net Differences in Labor Return per Bird Associated with
Differences in Other Credits than Market Eggs per Bird.*

Other Credits

than

Labor

Return

jier Bird

Market Eggs pe

r Bird

1926

1927

Dollars

Dollars

Dollars

2

2.56

2.22

4

3.12

2.92

6

3.68

3.61

8

4.25

4.30

10

4.81

5.00

''With other factors studied held constant at their average values.
(See footnote, Table 4, p. 79.)

POULTRY PROFITS

81

Table 7. Poultry Flocks Classified According to Other Credits than
Market Eggs per Bird.

Other Credits th

an

Number

of Flocks

Studi

Market Eggs per

Bird

Dollars

1926

1927

Less than 2.00

61

44

2.00— 3.99

45

45

4.00 — 5.99

24

23

6.00— 7.99

8

10

8.00— 9.99

2

6

10.00— 1L99

4

3

12.00—13.99

0

1

14.00—1.5.99

0

2

Total

144

134

Index of Change in Flock Size

Flocks with a low death rate will make a greater labor return than others,
and so will flocks in which less culling is necessary. The percentage index of
average flock size includes these and other conditions which cause a re-
duction in flock size during the year. It also includes the effect of an
increase or decrease in the number of pullets which are added to the lay-
ing flock in the fall months. The average relation between tiiis factor
and labor return per bird for the two years studied may be seen in
Table 8 and Figure 3.

Figure 3. — Net Belation between Index of Change in Flock Size and Labor
Return per Bird, 1927.

LABOR RETURN
PER BIRD

DOLLARS

50 60 70 60

INDEX OE CHANGE IN ELOCK SIZE

90

The height of the bars represents the average trend of the relationship. An in-
crease of 10 points in index of change in flock size was related to an increase of 36
cents in labor return per bird.

of Birds to Initial

1 N'

umber

1926

Per Cent

Dollars

50

1.67

60

2.04

70

2.41

80

2.78

90

3.15

100

3.52

110

3.89

82 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 251

Table 8. Net Differences in Labor Return per Bird Associated with
Differences in Index of Change in Flock Size.*
Relation of Average Number Labor Return per Bird

1927
Dollars
1.75
2.11
2.47
2 83
3.19
3.55
3.91

* With other factors studied held constant at their average values.
(See footnote, Table 4, p. 79.)

An increa.se of 10 per cent in the index of ciiange in flock size was related
to an increase of 37 cents lal)or return per bird in 1926, and 36 cents in
1927. The variation in the index of change in flock size is given in Table 9.
The range was from 50 to 130 per cent. The high percentages came about
because of an increase in size of flock in the fall over the preceding year.

Table 9. Poultry Flocks Classified According to Index of Change in

Flock Size.

Number of Flocks Studied

1927

11

25

42

32

14

6

2

1

1

134

Death Loss and CuUiiu/: — The full extent of disea.'^e and death losses in
the poultry business cannot be shown from these records, because some
cooperators who suft"ered large losses did not finish the year's record. For
those who did complete records, however, Table 10 shows something of the
relative importance of deaths and culling. This table gives the cumulated
reduction from death and from culling at 3 month intervals from Nov-
einber 1 for all flocks in 1927.

About one-fourth of the flock reduction during the first six months of
the year was due to death. This is a serious loss, for a bird lost through
death not only decreases the size of the flock, but means one less fowl to
,'ell. .\ culle*d bird reduces the size of the flock, but does bring in some
income from her sale.

Considerable difference in death less is shown by the fact that on two-
thirds of the farms studied death losses ranged from 5.3 per cent to 17.9
per cent of the initial number.

lelation of Average Number

Num

of Birds to Initial

Nun

iber

Per Cent

1926

50— 59

11

60— 69

13

70 — 79

29

80— 89

54

90— 99

24

100—109

6

110—119

4

120—129

2

130—139

1

Total

144

POULTRY PROFITS 83

Table 10. Average Rate of Flock Reduction from Death and Culling, 1927.

Per Cent of Initial Number of Birds Relation of

At end of: Total Deaths to

Died Culled Reduction Total Reduction

Per Cent

3 month.s 2.7 8.5 11.2 24.2

6 month.s 6.7 19.2 2-5.9 25.8

9 months 10.3 37.4 47.7 21.6

12 months 11.6 65.1 76.7 15.1

Differences in death loss and fl(jck reduction did not seem to be re-
lated to size of flock. A classification of death losses and total reduc-
tion by size of flock showed about the same rate of loss in large and small
flocks.

The differences in labor return due to differences in the index of aver-
age flock size also suggest tliat culling may be carried too far by some
individuals. Even though a bird is a doubtful producer, it will often pay
to keep her as long as she more than pays her feed cost, provided the
building space and labor are not needed for other phases of the business.
Some poultrymen have been known to maintain an unusually high egg
production by the practice of rigid culling. At times and up to a cer-
tain limit this may be worth while from the standpoint of advertising,
but not necessarily from the point of view of profitable egg production.
Price of E(/<fs

A brief study of Table 12 will show the fallacy in believing that there
is any one price paid for eggs. Some poultrymen wholesale their eggs,
while others retail. Some candle and grade to gain higher prices. Rather
marked differences in price level also exist between various local markets.
These and other causes account for the price variation existing in the
state over the same period of time.

The analysis of the records indicates that price differences affected
labor return per bird as shown in Table 11 and Figure 4. For example,
in 1927 the average labor return on farms receiving 45 cents for egg.s
M'as $2.32 per bird. The average return in another group of farms receiv-
ing 55 cents was $2.98 per bird. These two groups of farms were similar
with respect to all the factors studied, except price of eggs.

Table 11. Net Differences in Labor Return per Bird Associated with
Differences in Average Price Received for Market Eggs.*

Average Price Received Labor Return per Bird

for Market Eggs 1926 1927

Cents per Dozen Dollars Dollars

40 2.39 1.98

45 2.58 2.32

50 2.78 2,65

55 2.96 2.98

60 3.14 3.32

65 3.33 3.66

*With other factors studied held constant at their average values.
(See footnote, Table 4, p. 79.)

84 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 251

Figure 4. — Net Relation between Price Received for Eggs and Labor Return

per Bird, 1927.

LABOR RETURN
PER BIRD

DOLLARS

45 50

PRICE OF EGGS - CENTS

The height of the bars represents the average trend of the relationship. An in-
crease of 5 cents in average price received for eggs was related to an increase of 33
cents in labor return per bird.

Table 12. Poultry Flocks Classified According to the Average Price
Received for Market Eggs.

Average Price Received

Number

of Flocks

Studied

for Market Eggs

(Unweighted)

1926

1927

Cents per Dozen

40—44

5

11

45—49

37

39

50—54

48

48

55—59

36

21

60—64

13

10

65—69

5

5

Total

144

134

Pall Fj(j<i Production

The net effect of the percentage of fall egg production on labor return
per bird was difficult to measure because of intercorrelation with other
factors. The simple relationship without allowing for other influences
is shown in Table 13.

Fall egg production was found to affect labor return not only through
more favorable prices but also because of its influence on the annual egg
production. The relation of each of these factors to fall production was
analyzed separately.

POULTRY PROFITS

85

Table 13. Gross Differences in Labor Return Associated with Differences
in Fall Production.*

Per Cent of Year's Egg

Production in 4 months

September-December

10

15

20

25

30

35

Labor Return per Bird
1927
Dollars
1.25
1.80
2.36
2.92
8.48
4.04

*Without allowing for possible influence of other factors.

Table 14. Poultry Flocks Classified According to Fall Egg Production.

Number of Flocks Studied

Per Cent of Year

•s Egg

Nun

Production in 4

months

September-December

1926

5— 9

1

10—14

14

15 — 19

29

20 — 24

39

25—29

33

30—34

16

35—39

8

40 — 44

4

Total

144

1927

4

12

26

27

31

20

12

2

134

Price curves for the two years studied are given in Figure 5. The
highest prices Mere received in the four months September to December.
The average price in the four months was about 21 cents above the
average price for the other eight months in 1927.

After first correcting for differences in prices not related to season, the
relation shown in Table 15 was obtained. Those poultrymen who had 30
per cent fall production received 3.3 cents per dozen more for all the eggs
sold in the entire year than did those who had only 20 per cent fall
production.

Table 15. Differences in Annual Egg Production per Bird, and in

Weighted Average Price Received for Eggs, Accompanying Differences

in Fall Egg Production, 1927.

Per Cent of Annual Egg

Production in 4 Months

September-December

10

15

20

25

30

35

*After first correcting for differences in unweighted prices.

Annual

Egg

M

eighted

Production

A

verage

per Bird

Price*

126

14.8

134

46.5

142

48.1

150

49.8

158

51.4

166

53.1

8(j

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 251

Figure 5. — Average Monthly Prices Received for Eggs by Poultry Cooperators,
Years Ending October 31, 1926, and October 31, 1927.

NTS PER

1 1 1 1 1 1 [ 1 —

DOZEN

K

60
.40

"^^isss^^

20

— 1826
— 1927

-

0

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NOV DEC JAN. FEB, MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT

A very close relationsliip also exi.sted between fall egg production and
total annual egg production. Table 15 shows this relationship for the
1927 records. Recent work by Hays and Sanborn^ shows that hatching
before April 15 tends to increase persistency and hence total annual egg
production. The relation shown in Table 15 probably results partly from
this tendency. It may also be due in part to the fact that poultrymen
with high laying strains of birds had earlier hatching dates and got their
birds into production earlier in the fall.

Relative Importance of the Factors

The relation between differences in labor return and diflferences in
each of the factors studied has been considered. It remains to point out
the relative significance of the several factors. This cannot be deter-
mined directly by comparing the tables showing the relation between each
factor and labor return per bird, because the units in which the factors
are expressed are not the same.

The following table places the factors on a uniform basis with respect
to this diificulty by showing the effect on labor return of a change of a
unit of variation in each factor.

' Hays, F. A. and Sanborn, Ruby. Annual Per.sistency in Relation to Winter and
Annual Egg Production. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Te«b. Bui. 9, 1926.

Intensity or Rate of Laying in Relation to Fecundity. Mass.

Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 11, 1927.

POULTRY PROFITS 87

An increase of one Unit* Was accompanied by an increase

of Variation in: in labor return per bird of:

1926 1927

cents cents

Egg production 85 82

Price of Eggs 20 37

Index of change in flock size 54 51

Other credits than market eggs 80 101

* The Unit of A'ariation used for each factor is the statistical measure known as
the standard deviation.

This table indicates that, in general, differences in poultry profits in
both years can be attributed more to differences in egg production and
in other credits than to differences in price of eggs and in index of change
in flock size. On the other hand it also shows that all four factors were
responsible for important variations in labor returns per bird. In many
individual cases the differences in price received for eggs and in loss from
flock reduction were more important than egg production and diversity.

Conclusions

The results of this study show the average dollar and cents differences
in labor return which accompanied differences in egg production per bird,
price received for eggs, diversity in the enterprise, index of change in
flock size, and fall egg production. In other years, the relationships would
be changed depending on the economic situation, tlie technical status cf the
industry, and other factors.

Differences in egg production and in other credits were found to be
more closely related to labor return ]ier bird than differences in price re-
ceived for eggs and in index of change in flock size. However, the wide
variation in each factor showed that there was a considerable range of
opportunity for profitable changes in all four factors.

This study emphasizes the value of keeping poultry records. Only
by keeping some sort of simple flock records will the poultryman be able
to compare the performance of his flock with the results from this and
other studies and thus definitely pick out the weak places in his business.

88 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 251

TECHNICAL APPENDIX

In the foregoing- part of the bulletin, the emphasis was placed on the
presentation of the results secured from the study rather than upon the
statistical method used in arriving at the results. Son.e readers may be
interested in knowing more about the methods used in the analysis. For
their benefit the following teclinical section is included.

For the statist'cai an-ilysis the factors i)revioiisly discussed were ex-
]iressed in the following terms:

A. Index of change in flock size, in terms of tiie ])ercentage which
the ;'.verage number of birds is of the initial number.

B. Annual egg production i)er bird; the sum of tlie monthly
averages for each flock.

C. Price of eggs; the sum of tlie monthly averaae prices for
each flock, divided by 12.

D. Fall egg i)roduction in the four months Se])tember through
December, exjiressed .is a i^ercentage of tiie total jiroduction
for the year.

E. Other credits than market eggs; credits from all sources ex-
cept market eggs, expressed in dollars per bird.

F. Size of flock; the November 1 inventor^' figure for all females
at the beginning of the record year.

G. Labor return from the entire flock.
H. Labor return per initial bird.

Three i)roblems were worked tlirougli. Tiie first one took labor returr.
from the entire flock in 1927 as the dependent variable. Because of the
great differences in size of flock, as shown in Table 16, this factor was
so imjiortant as to overshadow most of the others. Consequently it was
thouglit best in the other analyses to eliminate the factor of size of flock
from the problem and to make labor return per bird the dependent factor.
This reduced the total correlation but brought out more clearly the re-
lationshiji between the other factors in^■<llved.

Table 1(). Poultry- Flocks Classified According to Iiiit'al Size.

Initial Number of Number of Flocks Studied

Birds per Flock 1926 1927

0— 99 23 20

100 — 249 51 34

250 — 499 33 36

,500— 749 15 22

750 — 999 11 8

1000—1249 2 4

1250 — 1499 2 6

1500 — 1749 1 1

1750 — 1999 3 2

2000 and over 3 2

Total 144 134

The probable errors of estimate in Table 17 are valuable in showing
the closeness with which the labor returns could be estimated in the re-
spective years. The measure tells something about hov.' much was left
unexplained. The probable error of estimate for labor return per b=rd
in 1927, for example, means that by use of the regressions we were able
t(! estimate the l;d)or returns and have half of the estimates fall within
7S cents of the actual labor returns.

POULTRY PROFITS

89

Table 17. Multiple Correlation Coefficients and Probable Errors of

Estimates

Coeft'ic'ients

Multiple Correlation R=^
Probable Error of Ustiniate
for Labor Return

Per Flock
1927

.904. ± .Oil

$4-73

Per Initial Bird
1927 1926

.820 ± .019 .797 ± .020

$0.78

$0.7()

The Importance of the Individual Factors

Tin- relative importance of tiie several factors in the two analyses which
took labor return per bird as the dependent factor were as follows:

A. Index of Chanjie in Flock Size

B. Annual Egg Production per Bird

C. Price of E.s>gs

D. Fall Egjr Production

E. Other Credits than Market Eg.us

Total

Per Cent Determinat'on

1926 1927

14.0 10.4

26.7 22.1

0.5 2.5

0.1 — 0.5

22.2 32. «

Combined Importance of A, B, C, D, and E 63.5

Residual \'ariation 36.5

100.0

67.1

32.9

100.0

This indicates that the most important factors affecting labor return
per bird are annual egg production per bird and other credits than market
eggs. Next comes index of change in flock size. The price of eggs and
the fall egg production are really more important than these coefficients
indicate, because of intercorrelation with annual egg jiroduction.

Further light on the price of eggs' is furnished by a study of the rela-
tive variability of the factors considered. The coefficients of variability
(computed by expressing the standard deviations as percentages of the
re-;pecti\e means) were as follows in the two years:

Factor

Index of change in flock size

Annual egg production

Price of eggs

Fall egg production

Other credits than market eggs

Coefficients of Variability

1926

1927

er Cent

Per Cent

18.7

18.0

20.2

18.2

10.2

10.8

29.9

30.1

84.6

79.9

This means that the variability (or diff'erence from farm to farm) in
the price of eggs was considerably less than the variability in the other
factors studied. Hence the variability in labor return due to diff'erences
in price received for eggs is less than the variability due to the other
factors.

To measure the relative influence on egg receipts of diff'erences in egg
production and in price received for eggs, a simple correlation calculated
between egg receipts and egg production for 1927 gave r=: .82 and
r-= 67 per cent. Therefore, since egg production and average price al-
mcst completely determine receipts from eggs, variations in egg produc-
tion were about twice as imi^ortant as variations in price in aff'ecting egg
receipts in 1927.

•Approximately two-thirds of the variation in labor return per bird can
be explained iri terms of four of the factors studied. The remaining
variation is due to factors not included in the study, probably for the
most part diff'erences in feed consumption and cost factors. The discus-

90 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 251

sion in the preceding section of the principal variables and their relation
to labor return per bird connpletes the picture of the significance of each
of the factors.

Other Factors and Unexplained Variation

It will be of interest to refer to the total variation in labor return per
bird and see how much of it has been accounted for by the factors which
have been considered. In 1927 the variation in labor return per bird
was from $ .66 to $11.52. The labor returns per bird estimated from the
regressions varied from $0.18 to $8.04. The fact that the regression
formula gave estimated values for labor return per bird, half of which
fell within a range of about 78 cents either way from the actual labor
return, indicates the degree of reliability of the study as a whole. This
is fairly good, but since the multiple correlation was by no means per-
fect, (leaving 32.9 per cent of the squared variation unaccoimted for), other
factors not studied must have had considerable influence. A small part of
the variation is always due to errors in the collection of the data, but
in this case it seems probable that variations in cost factors, particularly
feed, may account for a large part of the remaining differences.

In order to test the truth of this assumption an analysis was made of
the relationship between costs and the unexplained or residual variation
for the 1927 records.^ The correlation between the residuals and total
costs was found to be r=: .28. It appeared from dot charts that this was
about as much as would be found between feed costs and the residuals.
A correlation coefficient of r^ .28, although not high, has some significance
and shows that costs did account for a part of the dift'erences not ex-
plained. Using the regression from the correlation as a correction formula,
new estimates were made, and new residuals computed to determine how
much closer the average estimate was. The probable error of estimate
was cut down from 78 cents to 65 cents and the average deviation of the
residuals was changed from 76 cents to 71 cents.

^ Residuals were computed by first estimating labor returns from the regression
equation and then subtracting the estimates from the actual labor returns.

POULTRY PROFITS

91

Table 18.

Simple Correlations* with Labor Return per Bird, for Six Factors, and
Intercorrelations. (134 Poultry Farm Records, 1927)

Factors
Correlated

Index of

Change in

Flock Size

A

Annual Egg

Production

B

Price

of Eggs
C

Fall Egg
Production
D

Other

Credits than

MarketEggs

E

Size of

Flock

F

X (Labor Return

per Bird)
A

+ .41

+ .54
+ .13

+ .13
—.15
—.10

+ .42
+ .22
+ .45
—.06

+ .66
+ .23
+ .25
+ .00
+ .40

—.02
—.10

B

+ .06

C

—.22

D

+ .16

E

+ .17

*\Vith 134 records, a correlation coefficient of zero would have a probable error of ± .058.
Hence any correlations of 0.18 or over may be regarded as probably not due to chance variations.

Table 19. Net Correlations* with Labor Return per Bird, for Five Factors, and
Intercorrelations. (134 Poultry Farm Records, 1927)

Factors
Correlated

Index of

Change in

Flock Size

A

Annual Egg

Production

B

Price

of Eggs

C

Fall Egg
Production
D

Other

Credits than

MarketEggs

E

X

A

(Labor Return per Bird)

+ .39

+ .53
—.19

+ .31
—.16
—.24

—.05
—.12
+ .33
—.01

+ .62
—.12

B

—.27

c

—.16

D

+ .26

*With 134 records, a carralation coefficient of zero would have a probable error of + .058.
Hence any correlations of 0.18 or over may be regarded as probably not due to chance variations.

Publication of this document approved by the
Commission on Administration and Finance

3 M.-5-'29. No. 5794

v"^

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 252 JUNE, 1929

Supplements for Copper Fungicides

E. B. Holland, C. O. Dunbar, and G. M. Gilligan

Ever since copper fungicides were introduced, numerous supplementary
products have been recommended for incorporation in the spray with a
view to remedying some real or fancied defect. The contradictory evi-
dence presented by different investigators relative to various supplements
may be due in part to differences in amount of substance employed, in
method of preparation and of application, but more often to an insufficient
number of replications with different crops under varying weather and
soil conditions. The use of supplements is not warranted unless they re-
duce infection and consequent economic losses. This study was under-
taken to determine the intrinsic and relative values of the materials recom-
mended for use as supplements.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

SUPPLEMENTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES

By E. B. Holland, Research Professor of Chemistry, and C. O. Dunbar and
G. M. Gilligan, Research Assistants in Chemistry'

Introduction

Ever since copper fungicides were introduced, numerous supplementary
products have been recommended for incorporation in the spray with a
view to remedying some real or fancied defect. This a])plies particularly to
Bordeaux mixture but also to Burgundy and the acetates. In many cases the
reputed defects were due probably to faulty methods of preparation or
of application, although in some instances the claims were well founded
and deserve attention. Most of these shortcomings have been enumerated
by different investigators in some form or other and various treatments
suggested for their amelioration, of which the following are the most
important:

1. To increase the activity of the fungicide by increasing the concen-
tration of the copper ions.

2. To increase suspension by deflocculating the fungicide, by increas-
ing the viscosity of the dispersion medium, or both.

3. To increase wetting power by reducing the interfacial tension at
the leaf-spray interface and thereby facilitate spreading and distribution.

4.. To increase adhesiveness by foriinng more resistant deposits.

5. To prevent or reduce crystallization or decomposition by the addi-
tion of protectors.

6. To prevent or reduce interactions between fungicides and insecti-
cides in combined sprays.

7. To increase visibility of the deposit.

As a rule supplementary products are added for a specific purpose, but
their influence is manifested generally in more than one direction due to
the interdependence of the various attributes of a spray. Space does not
permit an adequate review of the literature on the subject but attention
is called to some of the earlier investigations.

1. To increase the activity of the fungicide by increasing the concentration

of the copper ions.

The toxicity of a salt in solution is equal to the combined toxicity of its
base and acid or, according to Kahlenberg and True (47)" for the various
copper salts, to the combined action of its ions; but Coupin (18), Clark
(16, p. 37, 40) and Pickering (3, p. 127) have shown that in dilute solu-
tions the action of the acid radical is negligible, although Bain (1, p. 27,
28) noted some exceptions. Pfetfer (73, p. 273, 274) claims that the
physiological action of poisons increases with the degree of ionization
although undissociated portions may be active, and that non-electrolytes
are also poisonous and may imdergo chemical decomposition in a way

^With the cooperation of Dr. E. P. Guba. Assistant Research Professor of Botany.
-Reference is made by number to Literature Cited p. 108.

SUPPLEMENTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES 95

analogous to the dissociation of electrolytes whereby the poisonous prop-
erties are altered. From the above one concludes that the copper in
fungicides must not only be soluble but ionized to become active, and
that the activity is proportional to the concentration of the copper ions
and the potential availability to the total ionizable copper, although the
copper in undissociated compounds may undergo decomposition and be-
come appreciably active. Soluble copper in itself is not a true criterion
of activity.

A considerable range in activity may be obtained with different fungi-
cides, such as basic, slightly alkaline, neutral, and acid Bordeaux mixtures,
Burgundy, the acetates, cuprammoniums and copper sulfate, and with
different concentrations; but toxicity to foliage, poor adhesiveness, invis-
ibility and difficulty of preparation practically preclude the use of some
of these products. Supplements, however, have been employed by various
workers and the process generally consists of adding to Bordeaux or
Burgundy mixtures substances known to produce soluble copper in alka-
line mixtures. These substances may be divided into three groups (a)
sugars, etc. (b) hydroxy-organic acids and (c) biuret compounds. The
resulting soluble compound is usually electronegative and the solution
purple or violet.

(a) Of the first group may be mentioned sucrose, dextrose, lactose,
dextrin and glycerol. They produce soluble copper, but mixtures with
dextrose, lactose and dextrin are particularly liable to decompose on
standing, with the precipitation of cuprous oxide which is not rated highly
as a fungicide.

In numerous tests with Bordeaux 4-2-50 in the station laboratory, solu-
ble copper was observed with 0.016 per cent sucrose, 0.080 per cent lac-
tose, 0.160 per cent dextrin and 0.801 per cent glycerol, but probably
occurred in lower concentrations. In most instances the Bordeaux was
made with drj', laboratory-prepared hydrated lime after being soaked over
night. The amount of added substance varied generally from 0.008 to
0.160 per cent of the spray although larger amounts were employed oc-
casionally.

Many investigators have used sugar and molasses with Bordeaux, Bur-
gundy and special mixtures in field practice. Pons (77), Perret (71, 72)
and Barth (cited 5, p. 295, 296) claim that such preparations are more
active, non-toxic to foliage and of good suspension and adhesive properties.
Doran (22, p. 541) found that sugar and molasses increased the toxicity
of Bordeaux to conidia of apple scab fungus. The reaction between
Bordeaux and sugar, excluding the calcium hj'droxide, is said to be sub-
stantially as follows:

CiiHnoOn+HsO =2 CoHiiOe

2C6Hi206+302=2(CHOH) 4(COOH),+2H,0.

2(CHOH)4(COOH)2+2CuS04 5H20=2(CHOH)4(COO)2 Cu-f2II,S04

+ 10H,O.

According to the above equation, 1 part of sugar converts 1.46
parts of copper sulfate into 1.59 parts of copper saccharate and renders
soluble 0.37 parts of copper. Investigators recommend generally 5 per
cent as much sugar or 10 per cent as much molasses as of copper sulfate
which, if applied to Bordeaux 2-2-50 and 4-4-50, would yield approximately
0.01 per cent and 0.02 per cent soluble copper.

(b) Pickering (75, p. 174, 184, 190) and others have shown that hydroxy-

96 xMASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 252

organic acids such as citric, gallic, glyceric, lactic, malic, saccharic, sali-
cylic and tannic acids, in the presence of alkalies, form soluble cupri
compounds with a small amount of basic salt in some instances. The
structural formulae of the cupri compounds lack confirmation. Organic
acids that do not contain alcoholic hydroxyls form insoluble basic salts
under the same conditions.

In tests made at this laboratory with Bordeaux 4-2-50, soluble copper
was observed with 0.048 per cent gallic, 0.048 per cent pyrogallic and
0.080 per cent tannic acids but probably occurred in lower concentra-
tions. Although hydroxy-organic acids produce soluble copper with Bor-
deaux and Burgundy mixtures, and are less likely to yield cuprous oxide,
there is very little information available relative to their practical use in
this connection. The soluble copper produced by the action of sugars
and of hydroxy acids in the i^resence of alkalies is presTimably a true
solution.

(c) Albuminous substances containing two amino (NH-) groups linked
to different carbon atoms, so-called biuret conipounds, also produce solu-
ble copper in the presence of alkalies. Of the more conmion substances
may be mentioned gelatine, glue, casein, albumen, milk and calcium casein-
ate, although they are seldom employed for this purpose.

In tests with Bordeaux 4-2-50 in the station laboratory, soluble copper
was observed with 0.048 per cent glue and 0.160 per cent casein^; and in
the case of Bordeaux 4-4-50 with 0.05 per cent gelatine, and 0.05 per
cent glue; and traces with 0.10 per cent casein and 0.10 per cent albumen on
standing 24 hours. In additional tests with Bordeaux 4-4-50 and 0.10 per
cent protector, a trace of soluble copper was observed with albumen, in-
creasing with casein and glue to an appreciable amount with gelatine which
gave a purple solution. The soluble copper produced by biuret compounds
seems to be colloidal as it did not pass a collodian sack and apparently
exhibited Brownian movement (Gilligan), but requires further investiga-
tion.

All the soluble organic copper compounds mentioned are evidently less
active and less toxic to foliage than like amounts of soluble copper in
inorganic combination and yet may prove of service in some instances.
The supplements may also increase wetting and spreading and possible
adhesiveness in the case of some proteids.

2. To increase suspension by deflocculating the fungicide, by increasing
the viscosity of the dispersion medium, or both.

The suspension of copper fungicides depends largely on the degree of
dispersion and the character of the particles, as added substances seldom
have a noticeable deflocculating action but merely retard subsequent ag-
glomeration and increase the viscosity of the dispersion medium. Light
amorphous products naturally have a higher power of suspension tlian
those of a dense, crystalline character.

Several references have been noted. Kelhofer (49) claims that sugar
increases the suspension of Bordeaux; Neuweiler (65) that 0.01 to 0.20
per cent of tannin is effective; and Winston, Bowman and Yothers (97)
that 1 per cent of oil emulsion with Bordeaux 3-3-50 settles less rapidly.

An effort was made to determine the eft'ect of numerous substances on

'Dissolved in sodium hydroxide ia this instance.

SUPPLEMENTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES 97

the suspension of Bordeaux mixture made from different batches of dry,
laboratory-prepared hydrated lime after being soaked over night. The
liydrate was not air-separated and undoubtedly was less uniform in com-
position and size of particles than many brands of chemical hydrated
lime. The relatively lower suspension of the resulting Bordeaux would
be expected to respond more readily to the influence of added substances.
Considerable variation is inevitable, however, due to inability to control
the reaction. Bordeaux 4-2-50 was adopted as preferable to that of a
higher lime content, and the amount of added substance (usually called
a protector) generally ranged from 0.008 to 0.160 per cent of the spray,
although larger amounts were occasionally employed. In the latter case
the mixtures were apparently less susceptible to other factors, but exces-
sive dilution of the spray residue is considered objectionable in that it
may reduce materially the effectiveness of the fungicide or in some in-
stances even the physiological activity of the plant. The added substance
was dissolved or dispersed as thoroughly as possible. With extractives the
coarse material was removed by screening. A poorly dispersed protector
tends to have an effect on the suspension of Bordeaux similar to that of
coarse particles of lime. In some instances the inherent properties may
be more than offset by poor dispersion. The solution of copper sulfate
was added to the soaked hydrated lime and then the protector added,
thoroughly mixed and suspension readings taken at the end of 1, 2 and 3
hours. These tests were conducted in rubber-stopjiered, glass museum
jars of the following dimensions: total height, 305. 5mm (14 inches); length
and outside diameter of the body, 303.0 by 63.5 mm (13.0 by 3.5 inches)
and capacity to the neck, 850 to 900 cc. The length of the colunm for
a volume of 780 cc was determined for each jar and the results calculated
in percentage.

Among the substances tested were sugars, dextrin, starches, gums, gum
resins, soapbark extract, pectin extracts, mucilaginous extracts, miscel-
laneous extracts, glycerol, proteids, organic acids, salts of organic
acids, soaps, inorganic salts, earths, etc. The data are too vol-
uminous to permit their publication in entirety, but by excluding
most mixtures that settled more than 10 per cent an hour, a rea-
sonable tolerance, many of the substances are eliminated entirely and
only average results are reported on those retained. The averages do
not represent an equal number of tests. As a rule, the more promising
the results, the more determinations were made in confirmation. An in-
crease in suspension with an increasing amount of substance within limits
that are permissible, and the uniformitj' of results with a given amount,
were considered a criterion of the effectiveness of the substance employed.

The sugars — dextrose, lactose, levulose, manitose and sucrose — did not
appear to have an appreciable influence on the suspension of Bordeaux
4-2-50 although occasionally a test with 0.016 per cent came within the
tolerance. Powdered dextrin, British gum, arrowroot-starch (Maranta), in-
ulin (Alant) and soluble starch (amylo-dextrin) did not increase suspen-
sion within the limits tested. Gum arable (Acacia), at the rate of 0.080
to 0.160 per cent may have had a slight influence, but tragacanth proved
less satisfactory although tests of 0.024 per cent were passable. Several
gum resins were employed but required a solvent and did not increase
suspension.

Soapbark (Quillaja) extract containing saponin had no effect. Several

98 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 252

pectin extracts were tested, of which fruit pectin proved of no value; agar-
agar, at the rate of 0.024 to 0.048 per cent, probably some; Iceland moss
(Cetraria), less and not dependable; and Irish moss (Chondrus), of no
value. The mucilaginous extracts were slightly more promising: — no in-
crease in suspension was obtained with licorice (Glycyrrhiza) ; slight in-
crease, with 0.080 to 0.160 per cent of linseed (Linum), both flaxseed
meal and the fat extracted residue; considerable increase, with 0.016 to
0.160 per cent of quinceseed (Cydonia); and slight increase, if any, with
slippery elm (Ulmus). Miscellaneous extracts from corn stover, hay and
rye straw, used at the rate of 0.801 to 1.603 per cent, increased suspen-
sion appreciably; but to ascribe their action to definite compounds would
be difficult. Glycerol was of no value. Of the proteids, neither gelatine
nor glue increased suspension. In subsequent tests, 0.10 per cent of
albumen, casein, gelatine and glue with Bordeaux 4-4-50, using chemical
hydrated lime, did not increase suspension. Albumen and casein would
not disperse satisfactorily in water.

Various organic acids — butyric, citric, gallic, lactic, pyro-gallic, tannic
and tartaric acids — were employed, of which tannic acid at the rate of
0.016 to 0.080 per cent improved suspension. Salts of organic acids, such
as calcium caseinate, sodium albuminate, benzoate, caseinate, oleate and
resinate, gave no increase. Several of these substances were laboratory
prepared and probably carried an excess of sodium hydroxide. Castile
and resin soaps were of no apparent value, but soap powder at the rate
of 0.016 to 0.801 per cent increased suspension. Soaps are objectionable,
however, in that they react with lime on standing to form a curdy pre-
cipitate.

Of the inorganic substances, calcium and magnesium silicates and alu-
ininum hydroxide proved of no value, but liquid sodium silicate at the
rate of 0.032 to 1.603 per cent, increased suspension. The dry silicate
was less effective. Bordeaux so treated, however, tends to peel from the
leaves on drying (Dunbar). Bentonite, clay, fuller's earth, infusorial earth,
Perkin's earth, talc and Wilkinite were also employed. Of these, 0.016
to 0.160 per cent of Bentonite and 0.048 to 0.160 per cent of Wilkinite
proved of value. These are yellow "ball" clays of similar characteristics,
and with fungicides, other than Bordeaux with excess lime, may serve to
increase the visibility of the spray residue.

The results obtained with the more promising supplements affecting
suspension are reported in Table 1.

Tannic acid, Bentonite and Wilkinite were the most dependable sub-
stances employed for increasing the suspension of Bordeaux mixture, al-
though quinceseed extract, soap powder and sodium silicate deserve men-
tion. Other substances may prove serviceable under different conditions
or in larger amounts; but whether their use with a more highly dispersed
lime is warranted, is an open question and depends somewhat on other
considerations such as ability to increase wetting, spreading and adhesive-
ness and to retard decomposition. Lovett (58) claims that suspension in
itself is a fair indication of power to spread, and most workers will con-
cur in principle. The substances reported may prove of value with other
copper fungicides but probably not to the same degree.

SUPPLEMENTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES

99

Table 1. — Suspension of 4-2-50 Bordeaux with Various Supplements.

Supplement

Check (average 28 tests).
Gums

Arabic

Tragacanth

PectinfExtracts

Agar-Agar

Iceland Moss

Mucilaginous Extracts

Flaxseed Meal

Linseed Meal

(ether extracted)

Quince Seed .

Slippery Elm

Miscellaneous Extracts

Corn Stover

Rye Straw

Organic Acids

Tannic

Soaps

Powder

Inorganic Salts
Sodium Silicate (liquid).

Sodium Silicate (dry). . .

Earths
Bentonite

Wilkinite.

Hours

Percentage of Supplement Added'.
0 000 0.008 0.016 0.024 0.032 0.048 0.080 0.160 0.801 1.603

Percentage Suspension

91.0
61.9
49.9

91.0
79.9
65.9

90.9
66.9
55.7

87.9
67.1
55.2

92.0
81.1
69.4

85.9
59.9
47.2

89.0
73.4
59.6

82.9
65.2
56.8

85.9
69.9
60.7

89.3
79.3
70.8

90.8
77.0
67.5

80.9
59.2
53.5

77.7
64.6
56.5

92.3
83.3
74.3

89.7
78.4
65.5

91.7
82.2
73.1

90.8
80.6
70.4

92.5
80.4
70.0

88.3
74.8
60.6

92.5
81.6
71.6

92.4

85.9

73.3

75.4

57.4

68.0

90.8

72.7

81.5

64.3

72.0

60.1

91.6

88.4

81.6

68.5

71.0

70.8

86.7

84.7

65.7

61.0

56.6

53.9

89.4

72.9

59.1

90.6
80.5
71.5

70.9
58.3
53.1

92.2
83.3
74.1

90.8
79.9
68.0

93.7
85.8
77.4

90.9
80.7
70.5

92.0
83.9
75.9

92.2
84.0
75.9

91.1
82.0
74.0

70.9
64.2
60.7

■89.7
80.9
74.5

85.6
62.0
55.6

90.5
74.2
62.9

76.8
73.7
62.8

92.3
84.4
76.8

88.7
67.6
58.4

87.6
63.5
56.0

90.1
76.9
64.2

95.0

88.7
82.3

92.5
83.9
75.3

91.2
81.9
72.3

90.4
80.1
69.9

94.3

88.3
82.3

91.9

83.2
73.9

81.1
73.0

68.7

94.1

87.2
79.8

90.9
80.0
69.8

89.4
78.9
69.7

94.1
88.1
82.1

94.4
86.3
74.4

84.4
66.0
58.9

80.5
61.3
55.3

95.4
89.7
84.5

92.9
85.3
77.4

92.6

84.8
7.5.5

90.8
80.5
70.6

95.4
92.5

87.2

91.6
83.5
76.3

93.4

85.7
78.3

96.2
92.4

88.2

87.9
65.6
58.9

9M
81.6
7i;3

92.7
84.7
77.2

94.2
87.6
79.6

9?.6
86.2

78.7

93.4
91.5
86.9

96.5
92.6
89.1

95.1
89.8
84.2

92.6
84.2
75.1

97.2
89.6
83.7

97.2
93.3

89.0

95.7 96.6

90.8 92.9
85.8 89.0

97.5
94.7
91.9

95.8
91.2
86.7

94.4

88.5
82.5

81.6
67.0
57.6

98.8
93.5
90.0

100 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 252

3. To increase wetting power by reducing the interfacial tension at the
leaf-spray interface and thereby facilitate spreading and distribution.

A highly dispersed copper fungicide assures better suspension and more
uniform distribution than one of larger aggregates, especiallj' when ap-
plied as a mist or film of invisible drops. Greater adhesiveness of the re-
sulting residue is also obtained. Drench applications on the other hand are
more likely to collect in drops, particularly on the edge of the leaves, or
run off carrying most of the fungicide. The force with which the spray
is applied is also a factor in wetting and spreading. The resistance of
leaves to wetting varies with the character of the leaf surface (epidermis)
and the nature of the spray solution. The epidermis of leaves may be a
relatively thin membrane of cellulose or heavily cutinized (cuticularized),
waxy, hairy, etc., and differs greatly in respect to wetting. The same
applies in a measure to fruits, buds, spurs and older growth. The leaves
of apples, peaches, pears and grapes are cutinized, and fruits like apples
and plums and the leaves of the cabbage are waxy and not easily wet as
they interpose a film of air between the leaf and spray. In most in-
stances, the addition to the spray of organic substances of similar constitu-
tion to those in the plant, i. e., albuminous substances and plant infusions,
and their adsorption or surface concentration at the leaf-spray interface,
reduces the interfacial tension and permits the spray to touch, wet and
form a continuous film over the surface. In the case of waxy surfaces,
the substances added generall\' have a fairly large molecule with a small,
active group soluble in water and with the inactive portion adsorbed in
the surface layer of the spray solution. When the inactive portion is
similar to or soluble in the wax, its adsorption at the leaf-spray interface
reduces the interfacial tension and permits the spray to spread. Soap and
soap emulsions, when compatible with the fungicide, are usually effective
on such surfaces and other substances will be noted.

It is evident, therefore, that wetting is essentially the same on all plant
surfaces and that an effective solute must have a low surface tension
(soaps), or the property of surface concentration (saponin, proteids), and,
in some instances, a solvent action on the epidermal coating in addition.
Since there is no method for measuring interfacial tension between plant
surfaces and spray and as the nature of the surface interposed by the
plant is problematical, it is impossible to foretell the action of added sub-
stances known to reduce surface tension of the spray solution on the plant
surface-spray interface. The fact remains, however, that an increase in
wetting and spreading is necessary in many instances, is desirable in all
cases, and is secured mainly by reducing the interfacial tension. There-
fore, the substances to be added for the various leaves, fruits and other
surfaces must be determined largely by trial and error.

Theory of Wetting and Spreading.

Numerous investigators have contributed extensively on the subject and
a few will be noted. Mausier (62), Gastine (32) and Ruth and Kelly
(82) found a low surface tension of the spray favored spreading. Brun-
nich and Smith (6) assert that wetting power depends primarily on sur-
face tension. Lovett (58) claims that neither suspension nor viscosity
of the spray solution is a true index of spreading but considers suspen-

SUPPLEMENTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES lOi

sion in:.'icative and later (59) a desirable attribute, although not a definite
criterion. Vermorel and Dantony (90) state that spreading occurs when
the cohesion of the molecules of the liquid is less than double their ad-
hesion for the solid and correlate a low "static" surface tension with
spreading, but subsequently decided (91) that it is not an index and that
a high surface viscosity has greater influence. Lefroy (56) states there
are three surface tensions — spray, leaf and interface — involved in spread-
ing and that the first should be low but the others cannot be determined.
AVillows and Hatschek (96) claim that the adsorption or concentration of
a solute at the liquid-solid interface reduces interfacial tension. Cooper
and Nuttall (17) accept the Quincke (79) theory, — that if the surface
tension of the solid is greater than the sum of the surface tension of the
spray and of the interface, spreading will occur; but believe the solvent
action of the spray on the solid and the surface concentration of the solute,
with a high surface viscosity, may vitiate the equation. They consider that
interfacial tension alone will suffice for comparative purposes, and with
soap solutions is directly proportional to the drop number (stalagmometer
reading), since spreading varies inversely with interfacial tension. The
general formula for the wetting of a solid by a liquid, as given by Nuttall
(66, p. 38), is as follows:

T„ must be ^J^* '^■i'^r:
Tj surface tension of liquid/air.
T^ surface tension of solid/air.
T,2 interfacial tension of liquid/solid.

Thus, spreading can be increased by reducing the surface tension of the spray or of
the leaf-spray interface and T, and Tj^ are indeterminate.

CORRECTION
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 252
The formula on page 101 should read:

T must lie ^^ T 4- T
2 1 ^ 12

crease wetting anu sprcaumg iin_ii.v.,. „i.^.^.„.. ..„.., ,. _

ployed in this Station for increasing suspension (Sec. 2) and in addition
emulsions, creosote, some phenol derivatives and several of the higher
alcohols. There is apparently a clear line of demarcation between wetting,
spreading and distribution and adhesiveness and yet the two issues are
sometimes confused. Furthermore, the results are generally based on the
character of the wetting and the visible deposit on the foliage — a matter

100 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 252

3. To increase wetting power by reducing the interfacial tension at the
leaf-spray interface and thereby facilitate spreading and distribution.

A highly dispersed copper fungicide assures better suspension and more
uniform distribution than one of larger aggregates, especially when ap-
plied as a mist or film of invisible drops. Greater adhesiveness of the re-
sulting residue is also obtained. Drench applications on the other hand are
more likely to collect in drops, particularly on the edge of the leaves, or
run off carrying most of the fungicide. The force with which the spray
is applied is also a factor in wetting and spreading. The resistance of
leaves to wetting varies with the character of the leaf surface (epidermis)
and the nature of the spray solution. The epidermis of leaves may be a
relatively thin membrane of cellulose or heavily cutinized (cuticularized),
waxy, hairy, etc., and differs greatly in respect to wetting. The same
applies in a measure to fruits, buds, spurs and older growth. The leaves
of apples, peaches, jiears and grapes are cutinized, and fruits like apples
and plums and the leaves of the cabbage are waxy and not easily wet as
they interpose a film of air between the leaf and spray. In most in-
stances, the addition to the spray of organic substances of similar constitu-
tion to those in the plant, i. e., albuminous substances and plant infusions,
and their adsorption or surface concentration at the leaf-spray interface,
reduces the interfacial tension and permits the spray to touch, wet and
form a continuous film over the surface. In the case of waxy surfaces,
the substances added generally have a fairly large molecule with a small,
active group soluble in water and with the inactive portion adsorbed in
the surface layer of the spray solution. When the inactive portion is
similar to or soluble in the wax, its adsorption at the leaf-spray interface
reduces the interfaninl t^nci^^ ---• •

Numerous investigators have contributed extensively on the subject and
a few will be noted. Mausier (62), Gastine (32) and Ruth and Kelly
(82) found a low surface tension of the spray favored spreading. Brun-
nich and Smith (6) assert that wetting power depends primarily on sur-
face tension. Lovett (58) claims that neither suspension nor viscosity
of the spray solution is a true index of spreading but considers suspen-

SUPPLEMENTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES lOi

sion in:."icative and later (59) a desirable attribute, although not a definite
criterion. Verniorel and Dantony (90) state that spreading occurs when
tJie cohesion of the molecules of the liquid is less than double their ad-
hesion for the solid and correlate a low "static" surface tension with
spreading, but subsequently decided (91) that it is not an index and that
a high surface viscosity has greater influence. Lefroy (56) states there
are three surface tensions — spray, leaf and interface — involved in spread-
ing and that the first should be low but the others cannot be determined.
Willows and Hatschek (96) claim that the adsorption or concentration of
a solute at the liquid-solid interface reduces interfacial tension. Cooper
and Nuttall (17) accept the Quincke (79) theory, — that if the surface
tension of the solid is greater than the sum of the surface tension of the
spray and of the interface, spreading will occur; but believe the solvent
action of the spray on the solid and the surface concentration of the solute,
with a high surface viscosity, may vitiate the equation. They consider that
interfacial tension alone will suffice for comparative purposes, and with
soap solutions is directly proportional to the drop number (stalagmometer
reading), since spreading varies inversely with interfacial tension. The
general formula for the wetting of a solid by a liquid, as given by Nuttall
(66, p. 38), is as follows:

T, must be 2^>. T^H-,.

Tj surface tension of liquid/air.

Tj surface tension of solid/air.

Tj2 interfacial tension of liquid/solid.

Thus, spreading can be increased by reducing the surface tension of the spray or of

the leaf-spray interface and T„ and T,^ are indeterminate.

Freundlich (26, cited 66, p. 39) points out that a liquid may not wet
the surface of some solids owing to its inability to dissolve the surface
layer of moist air adsorbed on them, and sometimes the wetting power of
a liquid (saponin, proteids) is higher than would be expected, due to an
exceptional power of surface concentration (capillary adsorption) mani-
fested by a superficial viscosity first observed by Plateau (76) and later
by Vermorel and Dantony (91). Donnan (21) and Hillyer (43, p. 524)
have shown that a soap solution acts as an emulsifier by virtue of its low
interfacial tension. Ruth and Kelly (82) claim that direct impact and
drenching favor the formation of a film. Harkins, Brown and Davies (37),
Harkins, Davies and Clark (38) and Langmuir (51) treat various phases
of interfacial tension, influence of the size and shape of the molecule, active
and inactive portions, orientation, etc. Moore (64), Nuttall (66) and
Taylor (88) present a review of the subject and its present status.

Subsfcmces Emplof/ed.

The substances that have been used by different investigators to in-
crease wetting and spreading include substantially all those that were em-
ployed in this Station for increasing suspension (Sec. 2) and in addition
emulsions, creosote, some phenol derivatives and several of the higher
alcohols. There is apparently a clear line of demarcation between wetting,
spreading and distribution and adhesiveness and yet the two issues are
sometimes confused. Furthermore, the results are generally based on the
character of the wetting and the visible deposit on the foliage — a matter

102 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 252

of personal judgment, however careful the observations. Most of the
experiments cited apply to foliage having a thin cellulose or cutinized
epidermis, and those pertaining to waxy leaves and fruits are so design-
ated. The theory that "like attracts like" may have unduly influenced
practice in some instances.

Attention is called to the results of other investigators. Recent data
on sugar and dextrin have been seldom noted. The use of saponin to
increase spreading was probably first recommended by Gastine (32) and
later by Chappaz (13) and Lafforgue (50). Cactus (Cereus) extract, con-
taining cactine, apparently has a similar action and was found by High
(42) to increase the spreading of arsenites. Irish or Pearl moss (Chon-
drus), so-called carrageen, was employed by Issleib (46) and, according
to Stearns (86, p. 9-13), facilitates the distribution of arsenicals. Lovett
(58) found that sage tea increased the spreading of arsenicals on plain
but not on waxy surfaces (59). Verniorel and Dantony (94) claim that
0.05 per cent of casein increases the spreading of Bordeaux on grape
vines, and Stearns (86, p. 9-13) and Smith (85) that calcium caseinate in-
creases the spreading of lead arsenate. Some workers report casein of
0.003 to 0.03 per cent (probably with alkali) an eflfective spreader. David
(78) employed 0.75 per cent of glue with Bordeaux but later (63) decided
it was of no particular value. Lowe (60) states that glue increased the
spreading of lead arsenate. Hawkins (40, p. 22-25) found that 0.50 per
cent of glue, fish-oil soap and rosin fish-oil soap reduced the surface tension
of Bordeaux 4-2-50 and their eflficiency increased in the order named. Gal-
loway (28, p. 220, 221; 29, p. 202, 203, 213; 30, p. 131), Fairchild (24)
and Swingle (87) found soaps increased the wetting and spreading of
copper fungicides, and Washburn (95) that 1.50 per cent of while-oil
soap increased the spreading of Paris green and apparently the adhesive-
ness. Trappmann (89) found soap the cheapest wetting material but un-
safe to use with arsenicals. Sodium oleate and sodium resinate are occa-
sionally suggested as substitutes. Various earths and other inorganic sub-
stances have been used but proved of little value as spreaders.

Oil emulsions, soap emulsions of creosote and saponin emulsions of
creosote (32) are said to increase spreading on all surfaces but are seldom
employed with copper fungicides. Pickering (74, p. 2010, 2011; 2, p. 29)
recommended a stable emulsion prepared from copper sulfate, calcium
hydroxide and a high-boiling distillate, but data relative to its eflficiency
are not available. Winston, Bowman and Yothers (97) claim that 1 per
cent of oil emulsion with Bordeaux 3-3-50 increased spreading on citrus.
Moore (64, p. 18, 19) found beechwood and coal tar creosotes, phenol
derivatives, such as carvacrol, eugenol and xylenols, and amyl and benzyl
alcohols excellent for waxy surfaces.

Among the points that should be considered are compatibility with the
fungicide, effectiveness in wetting and spreading, ease of preparation and
cost. The evidence presented is drawn from special experiments with
basic copper sulfate by Dr. E. F. Guba of the Market Garden Field Sta-
tion at Walthain. He employed cucumbers and tomatoes In the green-
house and cucumbers and celery in the field. The amount of substance
added is reported on the basis of the spray— 0.10 per cent is equivalent to
3.8 grams (0.13 oz.) to an American gallon, or 188.5 grams (6.65 oz.)
to the barrel. He found that basic copper sulfate had rather poor wet-
ting and spreading properties as compared with Bordeaux 4-4-50. With

SUPPLEMENTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES 103

O.IO per cent of sugar or 0.05 to 0.15 per cent of dextrin no improvement
was observed. With 0.10 to 0.21 per cent of Tekoe flour a sligiit increase
was reported and with 0.10 per cent of wheat flour "fair" spreading ob-
tained. Starchy products have to be dispersed (gelatinized) before use,
and in the case of flour and its by-products the addition of dilute caustic
soda or potash probably increases their effectiveness by dissolving the
proteids. Alkali was not employejl in this experiment. With 0.05 to 0.15
per cent of gum arable (Acacia) poor wetting and spreading were secured,
which probably holds true for tragacanth.

Soapbark (Quillaja) extract and 0.03 to 0.10 per cent of technical
saponin gave excellent spreading. Guba did not commend either gelatin
or soluble albumen at the rate of 0.05 to 0.10 per cent but obtained ex-
cellent wetting and spreading with the same amount of glue. Gelatine
and glue have to be dispersed in warm water, and a high-grade animal
glue requires aging to develop its maximum efficiency as an adhesive.
Possibly a low-grade animal glue which is more readily soluble or a fish
glue might serve in this connection, although there is no evidence to that
eft'ect. Albumen, casein, dried blood, egg-powder and other nitrogenous
substances require a small amount of alkali for proper dispersion. With
0.10 per cent of skim milk powder, good spreading was secured; but an
equivalent amount, in dry matter, of semi-solid buttermilk proved less
satisfactory and about equal to Tekoe flour. No alkali was added. With
0.10 to 0.13 per cent of calcium caseinate, a commercial preparation, ex-
cellent wetting and spreading were obtained. Laucksite, a soy-bean^fish-
oil adhesive, proved less satisfactory. With 0.10 per cent of Castile soap,
0.10 per cent of Ivory soap and 0.05 to 0.75 per cent of rosin fish-oil soap,
excellent spreading was secured — even better in the case of rosin fish-oil
soap than with calcium caseinate. The resulting curdy precipitate on
standing was objectionable with all soaps. Soaps are effective on both
plain and waxy surfaces, although the amount may have to be increased
to 0.20 to 0.25 per cent in the latter case. With 0.10 per cent of Wilkin-
ite poor wetting and spreading were obtained.

In Guba's experiments saponin, glue, calcium caseinate and soap proved
the most efficient of the substances tested, although wheat flour deserves
mention. Some albuminous substances may react with the copper to form
soluble compounds as previously shown (Sec. 1). Soap mixtures should
be appjied immediately after preparation to avoid the formation of a
curdy precipitate. The cost of most of the supplementary products is
negligible as compared with labor, but the reduction in amount of infec-
tion due to better distribution of the fungicide is not always appreciable
according to our Station observers. This may not hold equally true on
waxy surfaces.

4. To increase adhesiveness by forming more resistant deposits.

The degree of dispersion and uniformity of distribution are important
factors in the adhesiveness of copper fungicides. An increase in spread-
ing assures better distribution and generally a more persistent and pro-
tective deposit. Many investigators endeavor to increase adherence still
further by the formation of more resistant deposits. If carried too far,
however, the fungicidal action may be impaired and the physiological ac-
tivity of the plant reduced materially by the impenetrable coating on the
surface which is particularly noticeable in the case of certain emulsions.

104 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 252

Numerous investigators have contributed to this phase of the subject.
Perret (71) employed 0.20 per cent molasses with Burgundy mixture; Gal-
loway (27, p. 10, 21), molasses with Burgundy on grapes; Gastine (31),
molasses with Bordeaux; and Perraud (69), molasses with Bordeaux on
grapes and evidently considered it beneficial. On the other hand, Girard
(34) used 2 per cent molasses with Bordeaux on potatoes, Guillon and
Gouirand (35, 36), 1 per cent molasses with Bordeaux on grapes; Lavergne
(52), sugar with Bordeaux; Kelhofer (48), 0.10 per cent sugar with Bor-
deaux and Burgundy mixtures; and Butler and Smith (10, p. 441), 0.10 per
cent sugar with Bordeaux and concluded that molasses and sugar were com-
paratively ineflficient or reduced adherence. Kelhofer (48) found tliat
0.10 per cent sugar increased the adhesiveness of both neutral and basic
copper acetates, especially the latter. Fernald (25, p. 6) recommended
glucose or molasses as a sticker for lead arsenate. Lowe (60) found
glucose inefficient with lead arsenate. Perraud (69) claimed that dextrin
and starch with Bordeaux were of no value, but Patrigeon (68) stated that
0.50 per cent of dextrin increased adhesiveness. Parker (67) found that
flour increased both spreading and adhesiveness of lead arsenate, and
Headlee (41, p. 294) that flour doubled the adherence. Perraud (69)
found gum tragacanth fairly efficient.

Stearns (86, p. 9-13) reported that Irish moss (extract) increased the
adherence of arsenicals. Guillon and Gouirand (35, 36) found 0.30 per
cent of gelatine with "acid" Bordeaux of little or no value, and Butler
and Smith (10, p. 437, 442) obtained similar results from casein with
Bordeaux 4-4-50. Butler and Smith (11, p. 284-286) found, however,
that 0.05 per cent of gelatine increased materially the adhesiveness of
neutral and basic copper acetates. Vermorel and Dantony (93) had
previously noted this effect and also claimed (92) that 2 per cent of
casein renders all alkaline copper sprays adherent to grape vines, recom-
mended (93) casein for Bordeaux and showed (94) that 0.05 per cent
increased the adherence of Bordeaux to grape vines. Chauzit (15), De-
grully (19) and the Iowa Experiment Station (45) considered casein
effective with Bordeaux; and Lecomte (53), that 2 per cent of milk in-
creased the adhesiveness of Bordeaux 8-4-50. Headlee (41, p. 294) found
that calcium caseinate or powdered skim milk more than doubled the ad-
herence of lead arsenate. Perraud (69) claimed egg powder and dried
blood inefficient with Bordeaux, while Cazeneuve (12) reported egg white
and dried blood very effective. Galloway (27, p. 10, 21) secured good
results from glue with Burgundy (although 3.5 per cent proved injurious):
and Perraud (69, 70), from glue with Bordeaux. Lowe (60) increased
the adherence of lead arsenate with glue; and Stearns (86, p. 9-13), that
of arsenicals with calcium caseinate. Lees (54) employed glue, flour and
a mixture (55) of whiting, glue and potassium bichromate as stickers for
cover washes. Neuweiler (65) claimed that 0.01 to 0.20 per cent of tan-
nin increased the adherence of Bordeaux. Perraud (69) observed that
rosin increased the adhesiveness of Burgundy; Ravaz and Bonnet (80),
that resin slightly increased the adherence of Bordeaux; Sirrine
(84), that a resin-lime mixture increased the adhesiveness of Bor-
deaux and Paris green to cabbage and cauliflower; and Gillett (33), that
sodium resinate increased the adhesiveness of arsenites. Guillon and
Gouirand (35, 36) found that 3 per cent of soap with Burgundy and 2
per cent with Bordeaux increased adhesiveness; Perraud (69), that 3 per

SUPPLEMENTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES

105

cent of soap increased the adliesiveness of Bordeaux; Cliuard and Porchet
(14), that soap increased adherence on grapes; Shear (83), that rosin fish-oil
soap increased the adhesiveness of Bordeaux on cranberries; Hawkins (39,
40 p. 19), that rosin fish-oil soap increased the adherence of Bordeaux on
grape leaves, and that 0.50 per cent of fish-oil soap and rosin fish-oil
soap increased the adherence of Bordeaux 4-2-50 on grape berries (40,
p. 25); and Washburn (95), that 1.50 per cent of whale-oil soap or soft
soap increased both spreading and adhesiveness of Paris green. Dye and
Newhall (23) found that 2 pounds of resin-fish-oil soap in 50 gallons
increased the adhesiveness of Bordeaux 5-5-50 to celery and possibh'
served as a spreader. Berger (4) claimed that 3 per cent of linseed oil
increased the sticking of Bordeaux 8-8-50; the Iowa Experiment Station
(45), that small amounts seemed effective with Bordeaux; and Hood (44),
that 1 pint of linseed or fish oil in 50 gallons increased substantially the
adherence of lead arsenate. Degrully (20) advocated silicic sol as a sticker
for copper sprays.

The work of Cuba of this Station with basic copper sulfate was con-
ducted largely in the greenhouse on cucumbers and tomatoes with artifi-
cial rain, but also in the field with cucumbers and celery. In many in-
stances the copper on a given area of leaf surface was determined in the
laboratory by electrical deposition and calculated to 100 square inches,
although substantially all of the deposit was on the upper surface. In some
cases there was considerable variation in- the amount of copper in dupli-
cate applications due to unequal distribution, the impossibility of uniform
washing, the small number of leaves available for analysis from green-
house tests, loss in ashing, etc.; nevertheless the results shown in Table 2
are helpful.

Table 2. — Effect of Adhesives on Spray Residue.

Fungicide and Adhesive

Copper on Leaf Surface
PER 100 Square Inches

Deposited

After Washing

Adherence
Observed

after
Washing

(Guha)

Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50

Basic copper sulfate (same concentration as
Bordeaux) :

without adhesive

with — sugar 0.10%

wheat flour (patent) 0.10%

Tekoe flour 0.10%

Tekoe flour 0.21%

gum arable 0.10%

saponin 0.10%

glue 0.10%

Laucksite 0.10%

skim milk powder 0.10%

semi-solid buttermilk. . . .0.10%

calcium caseirate 0.10%

Castile soap 0.10%,

rosin fish-oil soap 0.10%

Wilkinite 0.10%

A verage

Crams
0.0094

0.0091
0.0098
0.0113

0.0028*

0.0077
0.0105

0.0071
0.0092
0.0067
0.0099
0.0091

Crams
0.0068*

0.0045*

0.0030

0.00.56

0.0042

0.0046

0.0040

0.0010

0.0037

0.0056

0.0013

0.0026

0.0028

0.0050

0.0032

0.0029

0.0035

excellent

poor to fair

poor

good

fair to good

fair to good

poor to fair

poor

fair to good

poor

fair to good

fair

*Excluded from average.

106 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 252

Bordeaux 4-4—50 was employed as a standard, and basic copper sulfate
without adhesive as a check. The amount of copper in the unwashed
spray residue was fairly constant and averaged 0.0091 grams to 100 square
inches. Basic copper sulfate with and without adhesive deposited sub-
stantially as much copper as Bordeaux. The results after washing are
less dependable, however, as washing was a factor impossible to control
under the conditions of the experiment. Bordeaux is fairly conspicuous
on the leaf surface due to the excess lime (whitewash). Guba reported
the retention as "excellent", which was confirmed by the copper content.
Basic copper sulfate is less visible. The adherence was reported as "poor
to fair", although the copper was two-thirds that of Bordeaux. Admix-
tures with flour, Wilkinite and other substances increased the visibility of
the residue. Sugar with basic copper sulfate was "poor" and actually
reduced adherence, probably due to the formation of copper saccharate
which is removed by washing and carried more or less of the insoluble por-
tion of the fungicide. Guba employed 0.05 per cent of dextrin with basic
sulfate on cucumbers and celery in the field but did not observe any in-
crease in either spreading or adhesiveness. Flour proved a "good" adhe-
sive, and Tekoe "fair to good" at both concentrations. The efficiency of
both products might have been increased by the addition of a small
amount of alkali to disperse the albuminous compounds. Gum arabic was
"poor to fair" and saponin "poor."

Glue was reported "fair to good", but was more promising in field tests
than the figures indicate. Laucksite, a soy-bean-fish-oil adhesive, was
effective but disliked and is not obtainable in eastern markets. Skim milk
powder was "poor"; semi-solid buttermilk, reported "fair to good", was
ineffective; and calcium caseinate of similar character. Better dispersion
might have proved of advantage. Castile soap increased adherence. Ivory
scap was "fair to good"; and rosin fish-oil soap, reported "fair", was of
little value as an adhesive, although 0.75 per cent (1 ounce per gallon)
in field tests proved superior to 0.10 per cent glue. Wilkinite increased
visibility but not adhesiveness.

Linseed oil, at the rate of 0.10 per cent, with basic copper sulfate has
been employed in field experiments with various crops for two seasons.
The oil disperses readily in the spray and seems to have value as a sticker.
Its use on fruits has been endorsed by some members of the staff.

• In Guba's experiments the addition of a small amount of properly dis-
persed flour, glue and Castile soap to basic copper sulfate, evidently in-
creased the adherence, but whether this was due to better distribution, to
the formation of more resistant deposits, or both, is difficult to say and
likely to vary with the supplement employed and the character of the
leaf surface. Reaction products such as copper albuminate, caseinate,
oleate, palmitate, resinate, stearate and tannate are relatively insoluble in
water and are generally considered of low fungicidal value, but in small
amounts may increase the retention of the deposit on the leaves. Fineness,
stability and water-resisting properties are factors to be noted. Various
proprietary Bordeaux mixtures and copper hydroxide might profit by simi-
lar treatment. The time and labor required for the proper dispersion of the
adhesive, however, is a feature that renders the process objectionable to
most operators.

SUPPLEMENTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES 107

5. To prevent or reduce crystallization or decomposition by the
addition of protectors.

Bordeaux mixture on standing loses its gelatinous character, settles,
gradually acquires a purplish color, and the final, dense aggregates are
said to be sphaero crystals of undetermined composition. Burgundy nux-
ture undergoes a somewhat sinular change and is converted into malachite.
The incorijoration of properly prepared protective substances may serve to
prevent or, at least, retard crystallization and to preserve the highly dis-
l)ersed character of the precipitate with its high power of suspension, excel-
lent wetting and spreading properties and adhesiveness. The use of protec-
tors with coarser suspensions probably act in a like manner but to a lower
degree. Kelhofer (49) advised the addition of sugar to Bordeaux mixture
to prevent crystallization, Butler (7, 8, 9) found 0.03 per cent of sugar
effective, and Lutman (61) reported both sucrose and glucose efficient. The
practice has become fairly well recognized for Bordeaux mixtures that have
to be kept for several hours. Data on the subject are rather meager, as
most copper fungicides are applied immediately after preparation.

6. To prevent or reduce interactions between fungicides and insecticides

in combined sprays.

Generalizations on interactions involving so diversified products as arc
employed in disease and insect control are of questionable value. Most
of the copper fungicides and of the stomach poison arsenicals in current use
are relatively insoluble and fairly stable, but more or less subject to
hydrolysis and readily decomposed by soluble compounds such as nicotine
sulfate, soluble sulfides, soaps, etc. As a rule the arsenicals require more
consideration than Bordeaux, Burgundy and other copper fungicides, as
soluble compounds of arsenous and arsenic acids are extremely toxic to.
foliage. Lime-sulfur should never be combined with copper fungicides;
but in the case of arsenicals, milk of lime, calcium caseinate and protec-
tive colloids in general may serve to retard objectionable reactions. The
order of mixing has been emphasized by Robinson (81) and others. Some
writers treat the subject as merely a matter of compatibles and non-
compatibles.

7. To increase visibility of the deposit.

Bordeaux mixtures containing an excess of lime (whitewash) probably
yield the most conspicuous deposits on the leaf surface covered of any
of the copper fungicides. Several of the supplementary products serve
to increase substantially the visibility of basic sulfate and similar fungi-
cides, of which Wilkinite and wheat flour proved excellent.

Summary.

L The efficiency of insoluble copper fungicides is dependent largely
on the degree of dispersion and other physical characteristics, as deter-
mined by suspension, which is undoubtedly the simplest and most practical
method of evaluation. Wetting, spreading and adhesiveness are so closely
correlated and interdependent that complete differentiation is impossible.

108 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 252

2. So-called "soluble copper" is not a criterion of fungicidal activity,
ar. various organic compounds produce filtrable copper, the activity of
which is lower than that of soluble inorganic compounds which are readily
ionized.

3. Suspension, although largely dependent on dispersion, may be in-
creased in a measure by supplementary products. This is likewise true
of wetting, spreading and adhesiveness.

4. Protectors may retard the formation of larger aggregates, crystal-
lization, decomposition and the interactions between non-compatibles.

5. Of the various supplements tested by the Massachusetts Experiment
Station, wheat flour, glue (or gelatine), soap and tannic acid are promising
in that they seem to increase the efficiency of the spray in more than one
aspect.

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SUPPLEMENTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES 10!)

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110 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 252

39. Hawkjns, L. a. 1910. Grape-spraying experiments in Mieiiiga'n in
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41. Heai;li;e, T. J. 1924. Sticker for lead hydrogen arsenate. N. J. Agr.

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42. High, M. M. 1915. Cactus solutions as an adhesive in arsenical S})rays

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46. IssLEiB, 1914. Die Beseitigung der Insekten, welche den Wein-und

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48. Kelmofer, W. 1907. L^her die Ausfuhrung und die Ergebnisse von

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50. Lafforgue, G. 1913. Les bouillies cupriques mouillantes. Vie Agr. et

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51. Langmuir, I. 1917. I. The constitution and fundamental properties of

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52. Lavergne, G. 1896. Rapport sur le black-rot dans rArmagnac en 1895.

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53. Lecomte, a 1913. Contribution a la recherche d'une l)onne bouillie

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54. Lees, A H. 1915. Winter cover washes. Ann. Appl. Biol. 1:351-364.
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58. Lovett, a. L. 1918. Spreaders for arsenate sprays. Jour. Econ. Ent.

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59 1920. Insecticide investigations. Oreg. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui.

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60. Lowe, V. H. 1896. Combating the Cottonwood leaf beetle. N. Y.

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62. Mausier, 1908. Principles d'apres lesquels doivent etre composes les

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50:764-770.

SUrPLEMEXTS FOR COPPER FUNGICIDES 111

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Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bill. 2:l-.50.
6'5. Nkuwkii.kh, E. 1.026. Karti)ft'elspritzversurlie 1.016-1!)2.5. I.aiidw. .lalirh.

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66. XuTT.\Li,, W. H. 1923. Industrial a])})lioati()n of wetting power. Brit.

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67. Parkkh, "\V. B. 1913. Flour jiaste as a control for red spiders and as a

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68. PATRIC5EOX, G. 1890. Re\ lie viticole; le niildiou; necessite de le coni-

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70 1898. Moyens d'auginenter Tadhercnce des bouillies cupriques

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112 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 252

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Publication of this document approved l»y the
Commission on Administration and Finance

2 M-6-'29. No. 5972.

Massachusetts
Agricultural ELxperiment Station

BULLETIN No. 253 July, 1929

Milk Substitutes for Calves

By J. B. Lindsey and J. G. Archibald

The production of milk for near-by consumption is the principal
industry of Massachusetts dairymen. The maintaining of the herd is an
ever-present problem. Some farmers prefer to purchase mature milkers
and others to rear calves from their own cows. This Station has been
studying the most economical and satisfactory method of growing the
calf until four months of age, and presents the results of its findings in
this bulletin.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST, MASS.

MILK SUBSTITUTES FOR CALVES

By J. B. Lindsey, Research Professor, and J. G. Archibald, Assistant
Research Professor, of Chemistry^

Introduction

The need for satisfactory milk substitutes for raising calves in the market
milk producing sections of New England led tliis Station to investigate the
problem early in its history. The need has become more acute with the passing
of the years and the great development of the fluid milk trade, so that greater
effort has been made at this and other stations to solve the problem.

The earher work carried on by this Station was devoted to attempts to formu-
late a satisfactory calf meal. 2 Many combinations of the various grains and
their by-products were tried, and some were developed which gave fairly satis-
factory growth. None of these, however, approached skim milk in the produc-
tion of growth, and since 1924 the studies have been confined largely to various
methods of feeding skim milk powder and buttermilk powder, alone and in
combination with other feeds. As these are milk products, in the strict sense
of the word they are not milk substitutes; but since the problem is one of local
rather than general shortage of skim milk, and since they solve transportation
and storage problems inseparable from fluid milk, they are to that extent sub-
stitutes for it. Large tonnages of these materials are produced in the butter
making and cream selling sections of the country, and the prevailing prices for
them have been and still are reasonable (9 to 10 cents a pound) .

The following pages describe in detail methods used and results secured in
feeding the milk powders. A summary of the work appears in Table 1.

Description of General Method of Feeding and Management

Practically all calves used in this work have been Holsteins, the majority of
them being the natural increase of the station herd, although some were bought
outside. At least five calves have been used for each separate experiment.

The calves in the station herd are left with the dams from 24 to 48 hours,
depending on the vigor of the calf. At the end of that time they are removed
and taught to drink whole milk from a pail. Occasionally if the dam is a Jersey
and known to give very rich milk, the colostrum is milked out and some of it
is given to the calf from a pail. This obviates the possibility of gorging and
indigestion which is sometimes seen in calves from high testing cows. Calves
bought outside are secured as soon as possible after they are dropped, the average
age being three to four days.

Whole milk only, of rather low fat content, is fed for the first week, usually
not more than six quarts daily, although occasionally with large and vigorous
calves as many as eight quarts have been fed. The process of weaning from
whole milk is begun at from one week to ten days of age, one quart of the whole
milk being wdthheld and a quart of liquid made with warm water and the material
in question given in place of it. This substitution is gradually increased (usually
a quart at a time every second day) until the calf is getting only two quarts of
whole milk, the balance being the substitute. The amount of liquid fed is
increased gradually until at three weeks of age or thereabouts the calf is getting

• Acknowledgment is made here of the services of J. R. Aleock, foreman at the station barn, who
had immediate charge of the work, and whose faithful attention to details contributed to the
success of the experiments.

' For accounts of this work with calf meals, see Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Buls. 164 and 223.

116 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 253

nine quarts daily. Two quarts of whole milk are fed daily until four weeks of
age, and one quart daily until six weeks of age, at which time the process of
weaning from whole milk is completed. Except in some very recent experi-
ments, liquid feeding has been continued until four months of age.

The calves are taught to eat good quality rowen and a dry grain mixture as
early as possible. With the rowen this is done by keeping a small handful in a
manger before them all the time, at first removing each day what they do not
clean up, so that it will not become stale. It is surprising how early they will
nibble at it and relish it if care is used not to give them too much. The grain is
rubbed on their noses or placed in the bottom of the pail when they finish drink-
ing, and as soon as they acquire a taste for it a little is kept before them con-
stantly. The mixture which has been fed in connection with this work is com-
posed of:

Ground oats 30 lbs.

Red dog flour 30 "

Corn meal 25 "

Linseed meal 15 "

Total 100 lbs.

Half a pound of salt is added to each 100 pounds of the grain. This mixture
contains approximately 17 per cent of protein, 5 per cent of fat and not more
than 6 per cent of fiber.

The object in all of the trials was to encourage the calves to eat as much rowen
as possible and of the grain mixture up to 3 pounds daily. Naturally when a
full liquid diet was continued until 4 months of age the consumption was less
than when li(iuid was supplied in a restricted amount.

The experimental feeding period is continued to the end of the fourth month,
at which time the calves are gradually weaned entirely from pail feeding, a
process which takes some two weeks or more. Some feeders prefer to continue
feeding licjuids until the calf is six months old. If an extra fine calf is wanted
this longer period may be justified, but it adds considerably to the cost of raising.

The calves are fed three times a day at regular feeding hours, and the liquid
is always fed warm, at about body temperature. The amount of skim milk
powder or buttermilk powder used in making the liquid is 33^ ounces to one
quart of water or, to express it in another way, one pound to 43^ quarts of water.
This proportion results in a liquid with approximately the same content of dis-
solved or suspended solids as the original skim milk. A richer liquid than this
is apt to cause digestive trouble, while if it is made too dilute the calves will
not make satisfactory growth.

The above statements can serve only as a general guide. Calves vary so in
their appetites and in their ability to stand changes in feed that the feeder's
own good judgment must be exercised at all times. In this work the progress
of the calves has been followed by weighing them each week and adjusting their
ration accordingly.

Detailed Data of Experiments

Group 1. Liquid Skim Milk plus Grain and Rowen
Five calves were fed on skim milk in order to have a standard with which to
compare the other materials. The average amount of skim milk fed to each
calf in this group for the four-month period was 1091 quarts. They made a
daily gain of 1.75 pounds, and consumed 236 pounds of dry matter for every
100 pounds of gain. They were very thrifty looking calves at the finish. Where
skim milk can be obtained for not more than two cents per quart, calf rearing.

MILK SUBSTITUTES FOR CALVES 117

insofar as an economical and satisfactory food is concerned,, ceases to be a prob-
lem. Because of the low fat content of the skim milk, it is well to continue to
feed with it a quart of whole milk daily up to the end of the sixth week. After
that the fat can be more economically supphed in the grain mixture. Yellow
hommy is a very good source of fat, also either standard wheat middhngs or
flour middhngs. Linseed meal is high in fat but contains rather too much
protein to be fed in any considerable quantity with skim milk or other milk prod-
ucts.

Group 2. Skim Milk Powder plus Grain and Rowen

There are two general classes of skim milk powder on the market : that manu-
factured by the "spray dried" process, and that manufactured by the "drum
dried" or "roller" process. Six calves were fed on each kind. Those fed on
"spray dried" powder made an average daily gain of 1.43 pounds, and consumed
276 pounds of dry matter for each 100 pounds of gain. Those fed on "drum
dried" powder made an average daily gain of 1.41 pounds and consumed 312
pounds of dry matter for every 100 pounds of gain. Although they did not
make as good growth as did those fed on Uquid skim milk, all these calves were
thrifty and hearty through the whole four-months period, being entirely free
from digestive disturbances.

Skim milk powder has the same nutritive characteristics as the skim milk
from which it is made, viz., high protein and low fat with a narrow nutritive
ratio. When it is fed, the fat content of the ration should be increased by some
such means as was suggested in the previous section on liquid skim milk.

Group 3. Skim Milk Powder in Limited Amount, plus Grain and Rowen
The animals in the preceding group were given a full liquid diet (9 quarts
daily after the first 2 to 3 weeks) up to the end of the fourth month. Although
excellent growth was obtained, skim milk powder was advancing in price, and
the economy of feeding so much of it was thought to be doubtful. It was there-
fore decided to feed a group of calves on a somewhat smaller allowance. The
procedure followed was to cut the amount of hquid at the end of the second
month from nine quarts to six quarts daily, and to make a further reduction to
three quarts daily at the end of the third month. At the same time the calves
were encouraged to eat more liberally of dry grain and rowen. The six calves
raised by this method made an average daily gain of 1.37 pounds and consumed
279 pounds of dry matter for each 100 pounds of gain. In other words they did
almost as well as those that had received the full liquid feed up to four months
of age, and the cost was somewhat lessened. The decreased cost was due largely
to the much lower cost of the extra rowen they ate. It is interesting to note
that of their own choice they compensated for the cut in liquid feed by consuming
about 100 pounds more rowen per head (see Table 2). They ate almost the
same amount of grain that those on full liquid feed had eaten. The average
amount of skim milk powder consumed per calf up to four months of age was
123 pounds by this system, whereas in the "full feed" method it was 255 pounds.
The "drum dried" skim milk powder mixes more readily with warm water and is
less liable to become caked on standing than the "spray dried." For these reasons
and because it was a httle cheaper, it was used in feeding this and the next two
groups.

Group 4- Skim Milk Powder with Red Dog Flour and Yellow Hominy, plus Dry

Grain and Rowen
The objection has been raised that calves fed on skim milk or skim milk powder,
although they grow well, have a tendency to be thin. This condition has not
been noted at this Station, but there is good foundation for the belief that it

118 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 253

does occur. Where it is observed it is due probably to too narrow a ration;
i.e., too much protein in proportion to carbohydrates and fat, a condition result-
ing from too much skim milk and too little grain in the ration of calves, especially
after the first month. During the first few weeks of the calf's life skim milk is
very nearly an ideal diet, but as it grows older its need for carbohydrates increases
relatively, and its need for protein decreases relatively although not in actual
amount. Starchy feeds like hominy or flour middlings supply the carbohydrate
and tend to restore the balance which has been upset by removal of the fat from
the milk. The difficulty, however, is to get young calves to eat sufficient grain
in the dry form to bring about the optimum balance. It is true that they will
nibble at it when two or three weeks old, but they do not ordinarily eat any
great quantity.

To overcome this difficulty the plan of mixing grain with their liquid feed
was adopted. A mixture was formulated consisting of equal parts of red dog
flour (flour middlings) and yellow hominy feed. Skim milk powder was mixed
up as usual at feeding time, except that 3 ounces of powder per quart of water
were used instead of 3^^ ounces. To the liquid milk made from the powder
was added half as much of the red dog-hominy mixture as it contained of skim
milk powder, viz., 1)^ ounces per quart. During the last month of the experi-
ment the amount of red dog-hominy was increased to 3 ounces per quart of
water. Two groups of calves were fed on this material; for one group of six it
was partially cooked before feeding, the idea being that the cooking might render
the starchy grain more digestible; the other group of five received it uncooked,
the only precaution taken being to keep the mixture agitated while the calf was
drinking so as to prevent the grain from settling out. No trouble was experi-
enced in getting the calves to drink such a mixture; in fact they had the most
vigorous appetites of any calves under test. The average daily gain per calf
was l.t)l pounds when the gruel was cooked and 1.70 pounds for those fed
uncooked gruel. The group receiving cooked gruel consumed 248 pounds of
dry matter for each 100 pounds of gain; those receiving it uncooked consumed
253 pounds of dry matter for each 100 pounds of gain. It would seem from
these results that there was no advantage in cooking the mixture.

The uncooked mixture proved quite superior to skim milk powder fed alone,
and the growth produced very closely approached that produced in the control
lot by liquid skim milk. The calves were the smoothest, best fleshed lot that
have been raised at this Station in many years. It is interesting to note the
extra consumption of grain brought about by this method of feeding. The
average amount of grain which these calves consumed up to four months of age
(including what they ate in dry form) was 212 pounds as compared with 104
pounds in those groups where grain was fed in dry form only. The average
amount of skim milk powder saved by introducing the red dog-hominy mix-
ture into the liquid was 92 pounds per calf, so that a considerable monetary
saving was effected. It is possible that an even greater saving might have
been effected had the same procedure been followed with a group fed the limited
amount of skim milk powder.

The reason for using hominy instead of corn meal was because of its some-
what higher fat content. Yellow corn meal could be substituted if the hominy
were unavailable.

Group 5. Buttermilk Powder plus Grain and Rowen

This is a common commercial article which at times may compete in the

market with skim milk powder. Very little experimental work on its value

for calves had been carried on, so it was included in these investigations. It

was fed in the same manner and at the same rate as the skim milk powder had

MILK SUBSTITUTES FOR CALVES 119

been, viz., 33^ ounces to a quart of warm water, and 9 quarts daily up to four
months of age.

Six calves raised on it made an average daily gain of 1.64 pounds and con-
sumed 271 pounds of dry matter for each 100 pounds of gain. This is a some-
what better growth record than that of the corresponding group of calves fed
on a full feed of skim milk powder. Our experience with the material, however,
was that it had two disadvantages which the skim milk powder did not have:
(1) it was harder to get the calves started on it, and consequently growth was
rather slow at first; (2) it had a tendency to be laxative, some of the calves
scouring quite badly. Despite these drawbacks, after the first few weeks they
made excellent growth as shown above, and at the finish were thrifty looking
calves.

Group 6. Buttermilk Powder in Limited Amount, plus Grain and Rowen

Inasmuch as the buttermilk powder gave results, when fed on a "fuU feed"
basis, superior to those obtained in feeding skim milk powder, it was thought
advisable to feed it in limited amount also. The method followed was identical
with that described in the section on "Skim Milk Powder in Limited Amount."
(Group 3.)

The six calves in the group made an average daily gain of 1.10 pounds and
consumed 290 pounds of dry matter for each 100 pounds of gain. This is a
somewhat lower growth rate than was obtained in any other group thus far
reported. The calves were not as thrifty looking as those raised on a full feed
of buttermilk powder, largely because they consumed considerably less feed.
It has been noted in the previous section that it was hard to get the calves started
on buttermilk powder. The same was true in this group and it is thought that
because of this they were not in good shape to stand the cut in liquid feed at
the end of the second and third months. The average amount of buttermilk
powder consumed by this group up to four months of age was 120 pounds as
compared with 193 pounds in the "full fed" group. UnUke those fed on a Umited
amount of skim milk powder, these calves did not make up for the curtailment
by consuming more grain and rowen than those on full feed. They ate less
grain and about the same amount of rowen, hence their poorer growth.

Results from feeding a limited amount of powder show that skim milk powder
is preferable to buttermilk powder as long as the prices of the two remain about
the same.

Group 7. Diluted Whole Milk plus Grain and Rowen

Some farmers raise their calves on whole milk diluted with water, the dilution
being increased as the calves grow, until just before they are weaned the liquid
they are getting is largely water colored wdth a Uttle milk. This method has
been tried here, the general plan being as follows:

1st week — -whole milk, all the calf will drink, up to 9 quarts as a maximum.

2d and 3d weeks — two parts whole milk, one part water.

4th and 5th weeks — equal parts of milk and water.

6th, 7th and 8th weeks — one part of milk to two of water.

9th, 10th, 11th and 12th weeks — one part of milk to three parts of water.

13th — 17th weeks — one part of milk to four parts of water.

Five calves were raised by this system and consumed an average of 329 quarts
each of whole milk. They ate much more dry grain than did any other group
and more rowen than any others with the exception of those raised on a Umited
amount of skim milk powder. Their growth, however, was inferior to any
previously reported, with the exception of Group 6, the average gain being 1.28
pounds; and they did not make as good use of their feed, consuming 304 pounds
of dry matter for each 100 pounds of gain. The calves were mediocre and on

120

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 253

the whole the experiment was not much of a success. The principal argument
in favor of such a system is that it involves a minimum of labor.

A summary of the work reported in the foregoing pages appears in Tables
1 and 2. Although cost figures are given, it must be remembered that these
will vary with time and place. They are, however, relative. More significant
are the figures for "average daily gain" and "dry matter consumed per 100
pounds of gain." Even with these, it should be remembered that where dif-
ferences between groups are very small, a repetition of the experiment might
not give the same result because of the marked differences often observed between
individual animals.

Table 1. — Summary of Calf Feeding Experiments.

Number

Weight at

Average

Dry matter

Average

Food cos

of

4 months

daily

consumed

food cost

to

Feed on Tk

lAL

calves

of age
Lbs.

gain
Lbs.

for 100 lbs.

of gain

Lbs.

for 100 lbs.
of gain

4 month
of age

Liquid skim milk
(control lot)

5

303

1.75

236

$16.47

$32.15

Skim milk powder
(spray dried)

6

264

1.43

276

19.25

33.30

Skim milk powder
(drum dried)

6

262

1.41

312

18.99

38.41

Skim milk powder

(drum dried in limited
amount)

6

257

1.37

279

16.98

28.23

Skim milk powder

(drum dried plus red dog
and hominy cooked)

Skim milk powder

(drum dried plus red dog
and hominy uncooked)

Buttermilk powder

Buttermilk powder
(in limited amount)

Diluted whole milk

297

1.70

253

16.35

16.73

28.40

32.19

290

1.64

271

16.52

34.94

224

1.10

290

18.88

28.29

246

1.28

304

30.83

The food costs are based on whole milk at 7 cents a quart, skim milk at 2 cents a quart, rowen
at $25 a ton, and all other feeds at prices current in January, 1929.

Table 2. — Average Amounts of Feed Consumed up to Four Months of Age by the
Calves in These Experiments.

Feed on Trial

Liquid skim milk (control lot)

Skim milk powder (spray dried)

Skim milk powder (drum dried)

Skim milk powder (drum dried in limited

amount)
Skim milk powder (drum dried plus red dog

and hominy cooked)
Skim milk powder (drum dried plus red dog

and hominy uncooked)
Buttermilk powder

Buttermilk powder (in limited amount)
Diluted whole milk

Whole
milk

Qts.

131
80
83

161

138

167
154
152
329

Skim
milk

Qts

Skim Butter-
milk milk Grain Rowen
powder powder
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

250
255

123

161

164

88 196

79 140

119 163

115
216

258
141

207 170

193 125 207

120 106 203

166 248

When red dog and hominy were fed cooked, 129 pounds of the grain consisted of the red dog-
hominy mixture; when they were fed uncooked, 114 pounds of the grain consisted of the red dog-
hominy mixture. In both cases the mixture was fed as gruel.

MILK SUBSTITUTES FOR CALVES 121

Summary and Conclusions

In the work here reported, 51 calves have been reared on various milk prod-
ucts. Exclusive of [the liquid skim milk control lot, most rapid growth and
best use of feed consumed were obtained with a combination of skim milk powder,
red dog flour and yellow hominy, fed as a hquid.

Skim milk powder when fed in large quantities (2 pounds or more daily),
especially after the second month, is too expensive. Fed alone it is unbalanced,
having a nutritive ratio of about 1 to 1.5. It should be supplemented with
such starchy grains as hominy, corn meal, or flour middlings. This latter state-
ment is true also for skim milk.

Buttermilk powder has considerable value as a calf feed but is not as suitable
as skim milk powder for the method now recommended of limiting the supply
of milk products in the calf's ration after it is two months old.

Diluted whole milk, fed as described under Group 7, is not recommended. It
produced growth below the average and the cost was higher than for other
methods that produced more growth.

The method which has been the most satisfactory compromise between economy
and good growth has been the feeding of skim milk powder in limited amount (Group
3). If an extra good calf is desired, it is recommended that the skim milk powder
be supplemented with the red dog flour— hommy mixture.

The following general statements seem warranted:

1. Even though milk protein is very necessary, the economy of feeding any
form of milk products after the fourth month is doubtful. It is believed that
the supply of these in the calf's ration can be limited somewhat as early as the
third month.

2. Until the calf is six weeks of age, a small amount of whole milk (1 to 2
quarts daily) is very desirable because of the fat it supplies. After that age the
fat can be supplied more economically in the grain.

3. It is now known that weaning can be commenced at a much earlier age
than was formerly considered proper, but the economies effected in this way may
defeat their own purpose. Careful attention is being given to this phase of
the subject.

4. Heavy grain feeding is unnecessary and uneconomical and may even be
undesirable because it discourages the calf from eating as much roughage as it
otherwise would and as is probably needed in order to develop the animal's
maximum feed capacity. The amount to be fed daily until the calf is six months
of age, from the standpoint both of economy and of satisfactory growth, is not
definitely established, but it is believed that three pounds daily should be suffi-
cient. Calves reared at this Station have done very well on two pounds daily un-
til one year of age, and good cows have been raised on a maximum of three pounds
daily up to the first freshening time. The roughage must be of good quality,
preferably rowen, alfalfa, or early cut first crop hay. Corn silage may be fed
after the first six months.

Condensed Statement of the Method at Present Recommended

At the risk of repetition, the method found to be the most satisfactory com-
promise between low feed cost and good growth is here repeated in condensed
form.

1. Remove calf from dam in from 24 to 48 hours and teach it to drink whole
milk of rather low fat content.

122 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 253

2. Feed six quarts of whole milk daily for the first week or ten days, at the
end of which time substitute for one quart of the whole milk a like amount of
liquid made of warm water to which is added 33^ ounces of the dried skim milk.

3. Increase this substitution every other day by adding another quart of the
prepared liquid and removing a like amount of whole milk, until the calf is
getting only two quarts of whole milk daily, with a maximum of nine quarts of
total liquid.

4. Feed daily a minimum of two quarts of whole milk until the calf is four
weeks old, and one quart from four to six weeks old, after which time the feed-
ing of whole milk should be discontinued. (The small amount of whole milk is
recommended for the beneficial effect of its fat. It may not be necessary, but is
desirable.)

5. Teach the calves to eat a good quality of rowen and a dry grain mixture
as early as possible. This can be done by keeping a small quantity before them
all the time, removing each day, at first, what they do not consume. Rub the
grain on their noses or place a Uttle in the bottom of the pail after they have
finished drinking, and keep a small amount before them constantly. A grain
mixture which has proved satisfactory is composed of :

Ground oats 30 lbs.

Red dog flour 30 "

Corn meal 25 "

Linseed meal 15 "

Total 100 lbs.

Half a pound of salt is added to each 100 pounds of the grain.

6. Reduce the liquid, at the end of the second month, from nine to six quarts
daily, and at the end of the third month, to three quarts daily, encouraging the
calves to eat liberally of the roughage together with reasonable amounts of
grain.

7. Wean the calves entirely from liquid feeding at the end of the fourth month,
which takes a week or more. In case an extra fine looking calf is wanted, the
feeding of some liquid can be continued until six months of age.

8. Feed the calf three times daily at as regular intervals as possible, and be
sure that the pail and other utensils are scrupulously clean.

9. See that the calf has a plentiful supply of clean pure water available at
all times.

Publication of this document approved by the Commission on Administration and Finance.
4M-9-'29. No. 6679.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 254 June, 1929

The Preparation and Effective-
ness of Basic Copper Sulfate
as a Fungicide

By E, B. Holland, C. O. Dunbar, G. M. Gilligan and W. L. Doran

Copper fungicides have been a subject for investigation during the past
few years. The work comprises a study of chemical composition, physi-
cal characteristics and general effectiveness in field work, together with
the use of various supplementary products. The main objective was the
preparation of a Bordeaux substitute that could be readily suspended in
water and used as a spray, or mixed with a free-flowing carrier and applied
as a dust. The product must give practical control of disease but not
necessarily equal to a highly dispersed Bordeaux of the same copper con-
tent. The advantages of such a product in the saving of time, labor and
equipment in preparation, and the gain in uniformity and stability of the
spray mixture are evident. Since basic sulfates are generally considered
preferable to basic carbonates, attention has been directed largely to
them.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

THE PREPARATION AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BASIC
COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE

By E. B. Holland, Research Professor of Chemistry, C. O. Dunbar and
G. M. Gilligan, Research Assistants in Chemistry, and
W. L. Doran, Research Professor of Botany

Basic copper sulfates are insoluble copper compounds resulting from the
action of alkali or alkaline earth hydroxides or carbonates, short of saturation
upon copper sulfate, although other precipitants are occasionally employed.
The reaction has been studied by numerous chemists as shown in a previous paper
(6 p. 741i 74-) '> but the lack of agreement, as a whole, tended to indicate the
production of mixtures rather than a definite compound. When, however, the
amount of precipitant was sufficient for complete precipitation of the copper,
or nearly so, tribasic sulfate, 4CuO.SO,.4H20, was frequently obtained. Proust
(12 p. 34) prepared the compound with fixed alkalies; Kane (7, p. 270), with insuffi-
cient ammonia or potassium hydroxide; Smith (15, p. 498), with insuffi-
cient fixed alkalies and with sodium carbonate; Vogel and Reischauer (16), with
ammonia" Field (5, p. 124), with insufficient fixed alkahes; and Pickering (10,
n 1982 ; 11, p. 1855), with fixed alkalies and with alkaline earths. More recently
Bell and Taber (1, p. 173) and Young and Steam (18, p. 1951, 1952) failed to
obtain a definite salt by the phase rule, and WilUamson (17, p. 790) secured
unsatisfactory results but substantially the tribasic. Britton (3, p. 2152, 2153)
bv an electrometric determination with an oxygen electrode obtained a sodium
hydroxide equivalent of 1.47 for copper sulfate wliich would indicate approxi-
mately 4CUO.SO3. The alkali was added slowly with thorough agitation in
order to secure the formation of an amorphous precipitate. With a copper elec-
trode Britton (4, p. 2798) obtained an equivalent of 1.50 and by phase rule studies
at 25° (4, p. 2800-2802) established a formula of 4CuO.SO3.4H2O. Bell and
Murphy (2) by varying the quantity of copper sulfate with a given amount of
copper oxide obtained in 8 hours at 100°C a neutral solution and the same basic
sulfate. The results of Kruger (8) and Sabatier (14) tend to confirm the formula.
The minerals brochantite and langite are said to be tribasic sulfates with three
and four molecules of water respectively. Smith (15) obtained tetrabasic sulfate
(5CuO.SO3.6H2O) short of alkalinity; and Pickering (10, p. 1982; 11, p. 1855),
by adding alkali or alkaUne earth hydroxide sufficient for initial alkalinity (1.60
mols). Nelson (9, p. 1189) obtained a basic sulfate of 7CUO.2SO3 previously
reported by Proust (12, p. 34).

Preparation of Basic Copper Sulfate

With the exception of the prehminary experiments carbonates have been used
as precipitants in the Station laboratory in preference to the hydroxides. The
carbon dioxide evolved in the reaction prevents decomposition (blackening) in a
measure, and the leavening effect of the gas seems to improve the physical condi-
tion of the resulting product. Precipitated calcium carbonate (CaCOg), precipi-
tated basic magnesium carbonate (4MgC03.Mg(OH)2.5H20) and sodium car-
bonate (NaaCOg) have been employed for the purpose. The following commer-
cial grades of precipitated calcmm and magnesium carbonates are available accord-
ing to the distributor:

'Reference is made by number to Literature Cited, p. 148.

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE 125

Cubic Inches in 1 Pound
Materia! Light Medium Heavy

Calcium carbonate 91 72 47

Basic magnesium carbonate 144 . . 64

The light grades were employed as presumably offering greater surface area-
The fine ground crystalline forms are cheaper but more resistant and less satisfac-
tory. The solubility of both carbonates is low. Sodium carbonate, on the other
hand, is readily soluble, and the crystalUne sal soda with 10 molecules of water is
as serviceable as the anhydrous and monohydrated forms. Soda ash might also
be included if free from caustic alkali. Sodium carbonate is the least expensive,
followed by precipitated calcium carbonate and basic magnesium carbonate. The
cost, however, as with many other chemicals is largely dependent on the amount
purchased, size and kind of containers.

The plan of operation adopted was based on complete precipitation of the
copper with a minimum of precipitant. Pickering had shown previously that 1
mol of copper sulfate required 0.7.5 mol of a divalent hydroxide. In the case of
cacibonates O.SO mol was invariably found necessary under the conditions
employed. The following tentative reactions are offered :

Tribasic copper sulfate
4CUSO45H2O +.3.2CaC03= 4CuO.SOg.4H20+ 3CaS042H20 +0.2CaH2(CO3)3

+2.80CO2-t-9.80H,O
4CuS04.5H20,+ 0.64 (4MgC03.Mg(OH),.5HoO) = 4CuO.SO3.4H2O + SMgSO^

+0.2MgH2(CO3)2+2.16CO2 + 19.64H2O
4CuS04.5H,0+3.2Na2C03 = 4CuO.SO3.4H2O + 3Na2SO4+0.4NaHCO3 + 2.80

CO2 + 15.80HnO

Telrabasic copper sulfate
5CuS045H20+4CaC03=.5CuO.S03.6H30+4CaS042H30+4C03 + llH20
5CuS045H20 + .8(4MgC03.Mg(OH)3.5H20) = 5CuO.S03.6H20 + 4MgS04 +

3.2CO2+29.8OH2O
5CuS045H3O+4Na,CO3=5CuO.SO3.6H3O+4Na2S04+4CO., + 19H2O

1 part by weight of CUSO4.5H2O requires:
0.32059 CaCO^

0.3112a 4MgC03.Mg(OH)o.5H20
0.339.57 NagCOa

The amount of precipitant found necessary would point toward the formation
of tetrabasic sulfate (see Pickering), but as the amount of copper in the tri- and
tetrabasic sulfates with 4 and G molecules of water respectively is 54.055 and 54.240
per cent, differentiation has to be based largely on the sulfuric acid content
17.020 and 13.603 percent SO3. The analyses (page 127) of laboratory samples,
prepared under conditions far short of theoretical control, would seem to indicate,
however, that principally tribasic sulfate was formed together with more or less
hydroxide when excess precipitant was employed or the mixing was inadequate.
The 0.10 mol of precipitant (univalent) that did not react may represent the dilu-
tion at which the ionized sulfuric acid could not decompose the carbonates.

With the insoluble carbonates, hot dilute copper sulfate solution is run slowly
into the suspended carbonate and stirred vigorously with a mechanical agitator
throughout the operation; but with soluble carbonates, the carbonate is let down
into the copper sulfate. The mix with insoluble carbonates should be slightly

126 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

alkaline to litmus and free from soluble copper (ferrocyanide test), basic copper
carbonate, and oxidation products at the completion of the reaction. A neutral
to slightly acid mix with a trace of soluble copper is more dependable when sodium
carbonate is used and likely to yield a better product. The relative concentra-
tion, temperature, rate of addition and agitation should be so coordinated as to
give a basic sulfate of the best physical characteristics possible. Similar results,
however, may be obtained from different correlations. Allowing the precipitate
to stand before filtering affects the bulk and increases the amount of carbonate,
both of which are objectionable. The presence of iron in the copper sulfate also
appears to injure the physical properties. A properly prepared basic sulfate is
soft, pulverulent between the fingers, and free from grit and requires no grinding
except the disintegration of the cake from the filter. Subsequent air separation,
however, improves the physical properties especially for dusting purposes.

Commercial Preparation

The directions recently furnished a manufacturer for the preparation of basic
sulfate with calcium carbonate are practically the same as originally published
except as to size of the batch and the elimination of the excess precipitant. In
adapting a laboratory process to factory conditions there is likely to be some loss
in quality due to the limitations imposed by economic production.

1890 grams (4.17 lbs.) of copper sulfate, substantially free from iron, in 10 gallons of solution,
heated to 80°C, are added gradually to 606 grams (1.34 lbs.) of light, precipitated calcium
carbonate, suspended in 5 gallons of water, at 80°C, stirred vigorously for 30 minutes (includ-
ing the time of precipitation) at 80°C, filtered immediately, washed practically free from
soluble by-products, and dried at a relatively low temperature (35-50°C) to a soft, light, bulky,
free-flowing, bluish powder of fine particles having a "fair" power of suspension and adhesive-
ness and containing about 26.50% of metallic copper.

The above batch yields nearly 4 pounds of material. Some of the gypsum is
lost in the filtrate.

The method for preparing basic copper sulfate with precipitated basic magne-
sium carbonate is substantially the same as with calcium carbonate except that
only 588+ grams (1.30 lbs.) are required when the carbonate holds true to formula.
A preUminary trial with a few grams of material is advisable, however, to establish
the proper ratio. Discoloration (blackening) is more likely to occur than with
calcium, probably due to the basic portion of the carbonate. The discolored
portion absorbs carbon dioxide rapidly on exposure to the air and is apparently
converted into a blue basic carbonate which is considered inferior to the basic
sulfate. The basic sulfate is a relatively pure, soft, blue, free-flowing powder of
fine amorphous particles and contains about 53 per cent of metallic copper as the
by-product, magnesium sulfate, is readily removed by washing. The batch yields
about 2 pounds of material.

The method for preparing basic copper sulfate with sodium carbonate differs
considerably from the calcium carbonate process in the concentrations employed,
in the direct addition of the precipitant to the copper sulfate, and in the control
necessary to coordinate the rate of addition with the efficiency in mixing. An
undue concentration of the sodium carbonate causes the formation of a deep blue
precipitate or a brown precipitate that absorbs carbon dioxide from the air and
becomes more or less hard and gritty.

963 grams (2.12 lbs.) of anhydrous sodium carbonate (or 1127 grams (2.48 lbs.) of Na^COj
IHjO, or 2600 grams (5.73 lbs.) of NajCOalOHaO) in 10 gallons of solution, heated to 70°C
are added gradually to 2836 grams (6.25 lbs.) of copper sulfate in 5 gallons of solution at
70°C, stirred vigorously for 30 minutes (including the time of precipitation) at 70°C, filtered
immediately and washed practically free from sodium sulfate and dried at a relatively low
temperature (35-50°C) to a soft, adhesive, greenish-blue powder of fine amorphous particles
containing about 53 per cent of metallic copper.

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE 127

The sodium carbonate mix is the most difficult of the three to control but the
color and reaction are fairly safe guides. The batch yields about 3 pounds of
material.

Composition of Laboratory Samples

The analyses of two samples of basic copper sulfate prepared in the Station
laboratory with an excess of calcium carbonate have been published (6, p. 747)
but are again reported with a new hypothetical combination based on the theory
of tribasic sulfate with the excess as copper hydroxide, which may or may not be
more accurate. The theoretical composition, however, was merely incidental to
the project and not pursued at length.

Basic Copper Sulfate

Sample No. 1 Sample No. 2

Per cent Per cent

Water, 100°C 7.880 8.900

Cupric oxide, CuO 32.732 32.356

Copper, Cu (26.150) (25.850)

Calcium oxide, CaO 17.750 17.770

Carbon dioxide, CO, 0.803 0.805

Sulfur trioxide, SO3 30.930 30.790

Hypothetical Combination

Tribasic sulfate, 4CuO.S03.4H„0 41.39 40.43

Copper hydroxide, Cu(OH)a 6.39 6.76

Calcium sulfate, CaSO'^.2H5,0 51.36 51.41

Calcium carbonate, CaCOj 1.83 1.83

As some of the hydrated compounds present were apparently unstable, the
hygroscopic moisture determined is of little value and this may also account for
the overrun in the calculations.

Another sample prepared with an excess of basic magnesium carbonate had the
following composition:

Basic Copper Sulfate

Per cent

Water, 103°C 0.694

Cupric oxide, CuO 67.316

Copper, Cu (53.780)

Ferric oxide, FeoOj 0.025

Magnesium oxide, MgO 0.400

Carbon dioxide, CO, 0.939

Sulfur trioxide, SO3 16.180

Hypothetical Combination

Tribasic sulfate, 4CuO.SO3.4HjO 95.06

Copper hydroxide, Cu(OH)2 1.06

Copper carbonate, CuC03.Cu(0H)2 2.97

Ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH) 3 0.04

Basic magnesium carbonate, 4MgCo3.Mg(OH)2.5HjO 0.96

The product obtained with magnesium carbonate is more highly concentrated,
as the magnesium sulfate is removed by washing, and tends to confirm the hypoth-
esis as to formation of a tribasic salt.

Basic copper sulfate prepared with different carbonates varies somewhat in
color, from batch to batch, but as a rule a greenish-blue to a light blue precipitate
is preferable to a deeper colored product. After sieving, a good quality basic
sulfate made from calcium carbonate should have a volume of 5 to 6 cubic centi-
meters to the gram ; from magnesium carbonate, of about 3 c.c. ; and from sodium
carbonate, of about 2 c.c.

128 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

Character of the Commercial Product

From a chemical standpoint basic copper sulfate may be considered the active
principle which together with gypsum and excess lime compose Bordeaux. The
low basic sulfate prepared with calcium carbonate contains about 51+ per cent of
gypsum while the high basic sulfate prepared with basic magnesium carbonate or
sodium carbonate appears to be largely tribasic sulfate. Physically basic sulfate
is not as highly dispersed as Bordeaux and therefore has a lower power of suspen-
sion, distribution (coverage), adhesiveness and general effectiveness. From the
inception of the project the main objective was to prepare a Bordeaux substitute
that could be readily dispersed in water and was substantially as effective in con-
trolUng diseases on vegetables and fruits as Bordeaux, but not necessarily of the
same copper content. The use of basic sulfate as a dust has been of more recent
application.

Since the Station laboratory is not equipped for quantity production, arrange-
ments have been made, from time to time, with different chemical manufacturers
to prepare basic copper sulfate for use in field work according to directions
furnished. The G. Chem. Co. prepared low basic sulfate with calcium carbonate
in 1925, two lots in 1926, and preliminary samples of high basic sulfate with basic
magnesium carbonate in 1927. The M. Chem. Co. prepared high basic sulfate
from sodium carbonate in 1927, and the C. Chem. Co. low and high basic sulfates
with calcium carbonate and sodium carbonate, respectively, in 1928. Several
manufacturers refused the work from lack of time, equipment or willingness to
undertake a new product. With adequate tank agitators, rapid filtering apparatus,
and other necessary equipment there does not seem to be any particular difficulty
in producing basic sulfate, but without such facilities secondary reactions are
likely to take place and more or less carbonate results. Furthermore, lack of
adequate faciUties generally injures the physical properties even more than the
chemical, which is particularly objectionable in the case of copper fungicides where
the size and character of the particles may be greater hmiting factors in disease
control than differences in composition. Basic sulfate, however, is generally
acknowledged as being more efficient than basic carbonate of the same degree of
dispersion. The absence of an appreciable amount of excess precipitant is to be
noted in both high and low basic sulfates, and of by-products in high basic sulfate.
The physical attributes sought are a soft, light, bulky, free-flowing product of
fine amorphous particles having a high power of suspension in water, highly sus-
tained air-floating properties as a dust, and good adherence to foliage and fruit.
These characteristics are seldom attained in entirety but are more fully reproduced
in the laboratory than in the factory in mass production. None of the firms
appeared to have all the equipment needed to perform the work according to
directions. The quality as a whole was rather inferior as judged by laboratory
standards. In^large measure the degree of dispersion is becoming recognized as
the criterion and in practice is generally determined by suspension. The seven
lots are summarized in Table 1.

The copper content of the several samples of low basic sulfate was fairly con-
cordant and likewise those of the high basic sulfate. The amount of carbon
dioxide indicates the presence of comparatively little carbonate except in three
instances. As a whole the green-blue or light-blue lots seemed to be preferable to
the darker colored. Most samples were soft, bulky and free from grit and of
either a fibrous or powdery character. The fibrous samples were quite bulky
and contained well developed spicules of calcium sulfate which were produced
simultaneously with the basic sulfate and attached thereto, forming relatively
large particles which agglomerated readily but did not pack. When the conditions

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE

129

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130 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

of precipitation did not permit the growth of crystals, the product was powdery
and the particles amorphous or too slightly crystalline to be detected. All the
samples of high basic sulfate were amorphous. Nearly all the samples except the
flourlike showed a fair flow in the bottle but poor on a pane of glass, and the
fibrous were inferior to the powdery. The adhesive power of the fibrous samples
to glass was also inferior to the powdery, and sample "g" with particles of 1.8
microns in size the most promising.

Field Work in 1925 with Commercial Basic Copper Sulfate

Attention has been called (6, p. 748) to the relative effectiveness of laboratory
prepared basic copper sulfate and of Bordeaux with various spores as determined
by W. L. Doran of the department of botany of this Station, using the method of
Reddick and Wallace (13). Slightly greater concentration (copper content) of
basic sulfate than of Bordeaux was required to inhibit the germination of the more
resistant fungi. In addition (6, p. 749-750) field experiments were conducted in
1925 by E. F. Guba of the Market Garden Field Station at Waltham, Mass., to
determine the relative effectiveness of basic copper sulfate (lot 1) and of Bordeaux
4-4-50 in controlhng anthracnose and downy mildew on cucumbers and early
and late blights on celery. Observations and yields indicate that basic sulfate
was substantially as effective, per unit of copper, as Bordeaux in both instances.

Field Work in 1926

The field work of 1926 with basic sulfate includes experiments with cucumbers
and celery at the Market Garden Field Station at Waltham, with potatoes on the
farm of E. S. Fulton at North Amherst, and with apples, plums and grapes in the
College orchard and vineyard. The experiments with cucumbers and celery were
conducted by E. F. Guba as in the previous year.

Cucumbers

The cucumber experiment consisted of 3 plots, 132 by 12 feet, of 2 rows each,
planted in hills 6 feet apart each w-ay. The seed was sown three times and that of
June 16 finally gave a successful stand. The plants were sprayed before vining by
a knapsack sprayer and later by a Bean Truck or Arlington X. L. sprayer with
Friend nozzles under 200 to 250 pounds pressure. Frequent applications were
necessary on account of rains. Lead arsenate and lime 2-2-50 were applied on
July 7, 15, 20 and 26 for the striped beetle. \'ining began about August 2.
Basic sulfate (lot 2) 3.84-50 and Bordeaux 4-4-50 with lead arsenate 2-50 were
applied on August 2, 5 and 11; the fungicides alone on August 17 and 25, and the
fungicides with one-half pint of nicotine sulfate for green aphis on September 1.
The basic sulfate was mixed with approximately 6.17 ounces of Wilkinite and 0.88
ounces of crude saponin to increase wetting, spreading and adhesiveness. The
cucumbers were inoculated with anthracnose fungus, CoUetotrichum lagenarium
(Pass.) Ells, and Hals., on August 17 and 27. The fungicides were prominent on
the foliage at the time. Powdery mildew, Erysiphe cidioracearum D. C, appeared
naturally and developed on the check plot.

The season was unfavorable for cucurbits, due to poor growing conditions and a
fairly general infestation of mosaic, bacterial wilt, striped beetles and green
aphis which affected both the stand and the yield. Leaf counts made on Septem-
ber 8 and 10 may serve, however, to indicate the relative effectiveness of the two
fungicides.

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE

131

Table 2.

Relative Effectiveness of Basic Copper Sulfate and Bordeaux in Controlling
Anthracnose of Cucumbers

Fungicide

Basic copper sulfate 3.84-50. ,
Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50. . .
Check

Copper
content

Number
of
appli-
cations

Total
leaves

Healthy
leaves

Diseased leaves

Per cent

No.

No.

No.

Per cen

0.25

10

1251

1215

36

2.88

0.25

10

1544

1498

46

2.98

0.00

0

1857

1221

636

3J,.25

In conclusion Guba states that basic copper sulfate showed no inferiority to
homemade Bordeaux in the control of anthracnose on cucumbers. Both readily
controlled powdery mildew which was apparent on practically all leaves in the
check. Both fungicides appeared to be equally toxic to young cucumber leaves
although the injury could not be considered serious.

Celery

The celery experiment consisted of 4 plots, 64 by 12 feet, of 4 rows, 3 feet apart,
each. The plants were raised in a seed bed and set out on July 15. Basic
copper sulfate (lot 2) 3.84-50 and Bordeaux 4-4-50 were applied on June 25 to the
plants in the seed bed when 1.5 inches high, and again on July 9; in the field on
August 2, 5, 11, 17 aind 25 and September 1, 9 and 21. Nicotine sulfate was added
on September 9. The basic sulfate was applied both with and without the com-
bined spreader.

A knapsack sprayer was used in the seed bed and in the field a Bean Truck or
Arlington X. L. sprayer with Friend nozzles under 200 to 250 pounds pressure
covering 4 rows, 3 nozzles to a row. The entire planting was inoculated with a
spore suspension of Cercospora apii Fries and Septoria apii (Br. and Cav.) Rost.
on the nights of September 9 and 21, following treatments. The celery was
boarded on October 7 and harvested on October 19 and 25, at which time leaf
counts were made of the two interior rows of each plot.

Table 3. Relative Effectiveness of Basic Copper Sulfate and Bordeaux in Controlling
Early and Late Blights of Celery

Number
Copper of Total Healthy

Fungicide content appli- leaves leaves Diseased leaves

cations

Per cent No. No. No. Per cent
Basic copper sulfate 3.84-50. . 0.25 10

Leaf count Oct. 19 5468 5400 68 1.2i.

Oct. 25 2310 2258 52 2.25

Mean 1 .54

Basic copper sulfate 3.84-50,

with spreader and adhesive 0.25 10

Leaf count Oct. 19 4232 4171 61 l.U

Oct. 25 2272 2200 72 3.1 7

Mean 2.04

Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50. . . . 0.25 10

Leaf count Oct. 19 4054 3960 94 2.32

Oct. 25 3035 2965 70 2.31

Mean 2.31

Check 0.00 0

Leaf count Oct. 19 4930 2793 2137 U.S5

Oct. 25 2366 1467 899 38.00

Mean 41.61

132 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

From the leaf counts made on October 25, early blight was rather more promi-
nent on the sprayed plots and late blight on the check. The celery from the treated
plots was excellent with a neghgible percentage of infection. That from the check
plots showed considerable early and late blights, confined largely to the outer
J eaves, which did not materially affect its value. The basic sulfate without
spreader was fully as effective as with the combined spreader or as Bordeaux.
Saponin increased wetting and spreading, but Wilkinite proved of no particular
value unless possibly to increase visibility (Guba).

Potatoes
Experiments were conducted on the farm of E. S. Fulton at North Amherst
under the supervision of W. L. Doran of the department of botany of this Station
to determine the relative effectiveness of basic copper sulfate and of Bordeaux in
controlling early and late bUghts on potatoes. Uncertified Green Mountain seed
was used without disinfecting. The fungicides were basic copper sulfate (lot 3)
4-50 with combined spreader and homemade Bordeaux 4-4-50, to which was
added lead arsenate when necessary for the control of the Colorado potato
beetle. Applications were made on July 15 and 26 and August 9 and 18 with a
Yellow Jacket equipment under a pressure of 175 pounds, 2 nozzles to a row, and
about 90 gallons to the acre. Leaf hopper or tipburn injury, leaf-roll and late
bUght were the principal infestations of the season. Leaf hoppers were very
prevalent and no nicotine sulfate was employed. Early blight was inappreciable;
late blight was late in appearing and probably did not constitute a serious factor.
On harvesting there was not over 1 or 2 per cent of tuber rot. The yield was
calculated from the weight of the two inside rows (equivalent to J^ acre) in each
plot on the basis of marketable potatoes, 60 pounds to the bushel.

Table 4. Relative Effectiveness of Basic Copper Sulfate and Bordeaux in Controlling:
Early and Late Blights of Potatoes— As Shown by Yields

Number Number

Copper of of Yield Gain or loss over

Fungicide content appli- rows per cheek

cations treated acre

Per cent Bit. Bu. Per cent
Basic copper sulfate 4-50

East plot 0.25 4 8 190.4 —6.4 —3.25

West plot 0.25 4 8 189.6 —7.2 —3.66

Average 190.0 — 6.8 — 3.46

Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50

East plot 0.26 4 8 192.0 —4.8 —2.U

West plot 0.26 4 8 217.6 -f20.8 +10.57

Average 204.8 -(-8.0 -|-4.07

Check 0.00 0 4 196.8

Observations and yields indicate that basic sulfate was rather less efficient in
controlling late blight than Bordeaux, although only one of the sprayed plots
showed an increase in yield over the check. Furthermore, the number of applica-
tions would have been decidedly inadequate in so rainy a season had bhghts
appeared earlier.

Fruits.

Experiments were conducted in the College orchard and vineyard under the
supervision of J. K. Shaw and O. C. Roberts to determine disease control and
foUage injury of basic sulfate on Baldwin and Mcintosh apples, Monarch plums
and Moore's early grapes. The highest concentration employed was 4 pounds
to 50 gallons with combined spreader. Concentrations of 3 and 2 pounds were

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE V.V.\

obtained by increasing the dilution of the previous mixture. For apples a large-
sized Friend spray apparatus, under 300 pounds pressure, with two Boyce guns,
parallel nozzles and s^-inch discs was used. Prepink (May 7), pink (May 13),
and calyx (June 2) appHcations were made of about 6 gallons to a tree. Basic
sulfate failed to control scab as effectively as liquid Ume-sulfur, injured the foliage
and russeted the fruit. The latter was not particularly serious with the lowest
concentration.

For plums and grapes a 50-gallon hand outfit, under approximately 175 pounds
pressure, equipped with rod and disc nozzle, was employed. The plums were
sprayed on May 24 and June 8 and the grapes on May 19, June 8 and July 17.
Roberts reported that the spreading and adhesiveness of basic sulfate appeared to
be satisfactory. The effectiveness could not be determined as there was practi-
cally no disease present. FoUage injury was observed on aU the plants sprayed,
increasing with concentration, but evidently was not appreciable on the fruit of
plums and grapes.

Miscellaneous

Dr. W. P. Brooks of Amherst sprayed currants, English gooseberry, nine varie-
ties of grapes, tea roses and plilox vrith. basic sulfate 4-50 with combined spreader
and did not observe any foliage injury.

L. F. Kinney of Ivingston, Rhode Island, sprayed seedlings of Rhododendron
Cataivbiense in flats with basic sulfate 2.5-50 without injury.

Field Work in 1927

The field work of 1927 with basic copper sulfate includes experiments with
cucumbers and celery at the Market Garden Field Station at Waltham, with
potatoes on the Experiment Station plots at Amherst and on the farm of G. Fred
Pelissier at Hadley, and mth apples and grapes in the College orchard and vine-
yard. The basic sulfate wasJappHed both as a spray and mixed with a free-flowing
talc as a dust. The experiments with cucumbers and celery were conducted by
E. F. Guba as in previous years.

Cucumbers
The objective was to determine the relative eflficiency of spray and dust applica-
tions of basic sulfate in controlling anthracnose and mildews on cucumbers. The
experiment consisted of 3 plots, 120 by 12 feet, of 2 rows each, planted in hills 6
feet apart each way. Several preliminary treatments were found necessary to
control insects. Bordeaux 4-4-50 was applied for flea beetles after the first
leaves appeared (June 8) ; sodium fluosilicate dust for striped beetles on June 17,
21 and 30 and July 8; and lead arsenate, lime and nicotine sulfate 1.50-2-0.5
pt.-50 for striped beetles on July 14. The regular spray consisted of basic sulfate
(lot 5), lead arsenate and raw linseed oil 2-1.5-0.5 pt.-50 and contained about 0.26
per cent copper and 0.07 per cent arsenic. The dust consisted of basic sulfate
(lot 5), lead arsenate and talc and contained about 7.02 per cent copper and 4.01
per cent arsenic. The plants were treated on July 21 when vining began and on
July 28 and August 4. A 3-gallon knapsack sprayer and a 2-quart Feeney duster
were employed for application. The spray left a thin, hardly perceptible residue
which disappeared entirely after the least rainfall. The oil was not found satis-
factory as a spreader or adhesive. Dusting resulted in a heavy deposit on the
foUage and protection of the lower surface of the leaves. Neither appKcation
caused perceptible injury. The vines made a poor growth due to severe stunting
and foliage injury resulting from applications of sodium fluosilicate from which

134

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

they did not recover and also from inability to control the striped beetles and
accompanying mosaic. The cucumbers were inoculated with a spore suspension
of anthracnose, Colletolrichum lagenarium (Pass.) Ells, and Hals., on July 21, and
leaf counts made on August 11.

Spray .
Dust . .
Check .

Table 5.

Effectiveness of Basic Copper Sulfate in Controlling
Anthracnose of Cucun^bers

pplication

Copper
content

Per cent

Number
of
appli-
cations

Total
leaves

No.

Healthy
leaves

No.

Diseased leaves
No. Per cent

0.26

3
3
0

374
461
340

29
88
30

345
373
310

92.25

7.02

80.91

0.00

91.18

Dr. Guba reported that it was impossible to maintain protection this season due
to continuous heavy rains. The dust, however, appears to have afforded slight
protection.

Celery

Three plots, 120 by 12 feet, of 4 rows, 3 feet apart, each, were employed. The
spray consisted of basic sulfate (lot 5) and raw linseed oil 2-0.5 pt.-50 and contained
about 0.26 per cent copper. The oil proved unsatisfactory but was omitted only
on August 26. The dust consisted of basic sulfate (lot 5) and talc and contained
about 7.02 per cent copper. Treatments were made on August 10, 17 and 26
and September 2, 12 and 20. The celery was inoculated with a spore suspension
of early and late blights on August 26, boarded on September 26, harvested on
October 14 to 16 and the yield of marketable celery determined.

Table 6. Effect of Basic Copper Sulfate on the Yield and Grade of Celery

Increase
Number over

Form of application Copper of Number of Bunches check

content appli- Grade 1 Grade 2 Total Total

cations bunches

Per cent Per cent

Spray 0.26 6 163 45 208 38.67

Dust 7.02 6 192 26 218 U5.33

Check 0.00 0 93 57 150

Grade 1: 3 good siz^d stalks to the bunch, 18 bunches to the box.
Grade 2: 4-7 small stalks to the bunch, 18 bunches to the box.

The yield and the grade were increased by the use of basic sulfate, particularly
the dust.

Potatoes

Dusting experiments were conducted on the Station rotation 0.05 acre plots Nos.
7, 17, 53, 54 and 55 and 0.03 acre intervening strips under the supervision of
J. P. Jones to determine the effectiveness of basic copper sulfate in controlling
early and late blight on potatoes. The seed was Massachusetts certified Green
Mountain, grown in Charlemont and disinfected with corrosive sublimate.
The seed was planted on May 7, and the crop harvested on September 16. The
cultural and fertilizer treatment was of the usual character. The plots were
dusted on June 16 and 25, July 1, 8, 19 and 29 and August 6 with a mixture of basic
sulfate (lot 5), lead arsenate and talc containing about 7.52 per cent copper and

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE 135

4.00 per cent arsenic. The mixture applied on July 29 did not contain arsenic.
The amount of dust required increased with the growth of the plants but averaged
about 48.10 pounds an acre for each treatment. The persistence of the Colorado
potato beetle necessitated the continued use of arsenic. Two per cent nicotine
dust was appHed on July 27 and August 3 at the rate of about 20 pounds an acre
but did not prove particularly effective. Weather conditions and ladybugs,
however, prevented the rapid spread of aphis and leaf hoppers were not abundant
(A. I. Bourne). Foliage injury was inappreciable as a whole although occasionally
burning was observed where a large amount of dust accidently lodged on the plant
(J. P. Jones). For applying the dusts two hand dusters, the American Beauty
and the double action Cheeseman, were tested and gave "fair" distribution, but
the former was considered easier to operate and was employed.

(!rowth was excellent until July 19, when yellowing of the lower leaves was
observed, apparently due to age or to excessive shading by the dense growth of
vines, as there was no evidence of disease and leaf hoppers and aphis were not
particularly destructive. By August 6 most of the leaves were severely injured by
tip burn and on August 20 nearly all were dead (Jones). The amount of early
blight was negligible but some late blight appeared about the first of September
after most of the foliage was dead and caused 1 to 2 per cent of tuber rot (Doran).
The yield of the several plots is reported on the basis of 60 pounds to the bushel.

Table 7. Yield of Potatoes on the Rotation Plots. (^Per Acre.)

Location of plots

Total
Yield

Grade 1

Grade 2

Grade 3

Rotted

Rotted

Bu.

Bu.

Bu.

Bu.

Lbs,

Per cent

On high ground

241.8

121.3

79.8

40.3

22.5

0.16

On slope

199.2

99.4

60.0

36.2

213.3

1.81

Grade 1: All disease free potatoes above 1.75 inches in diameter.

Grade 2: All disease free potatoes above 1 inch in diameter, not included in Grade 1.

Grade 3: All disease free potatoes 1 inch or under in diameter.

The low yield has been ascribed to leaf hoppers and aphis (Jones) and to the
effect of previous crops (Snell). The fact that the yield was appreciably larger
and the amount of rot less on the plots which were better located as to elevation
and natural drainage (Snell) would seem to indicate that the abnormal precipita-
tion during August was a limiting factor. As there were no check plots the effec-
tiveness of the dust must be judged largely from observations of the foliage and
the amount of tuber rot.

A spraying experiment was conducted on the farm of G. Fred Pehssier at Hadley
(8 acres) to determine the relative effectiveness of basic copper sulfate and Bor-
deaux in controlling early and late blights on potatoes. The seed was certified
Rural Russets, raised by K. C. Livermore of Honeoye Falls, New York, and dis-
infected with corrosive sublimate. Planting was begun on May 4. The entire
field received similar cultural and fertilizer treatment and was sprayed seven
times from June 27 to September 9 at the rate of 100 gallons an acre. To the
major portion of the field was applied a mixture of Bordeaux 4-4-50 and lead
arsenate 2-50 containing about 0.24 per cent copper and 0.09 per cent arsenic.
Chemical hydrated lime or finishing lime (Tiger Brand) was used in place of
quickhme, pound for pound, in preparing the Bordeaux. To an inner strip of one
acre wasappUed a mixture of basic sulfate (lot 5), lead arsenate and raw linseed oil
2-2-0.5 pt.-50 containing about 0.25 per cent copper and 0.09 per cent arsenic.

13(3 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

A traction field force pump of 100 gallons capacity with a boom covering 4 rows,

3 nozzles to a row, was employed. Repeated use of lead arsenate was found
necessary to check the Colorado potato beetle. Leaf hoppers were not promi-
nent and aphis constituted a minor factor; nevertheless, two treatments of
nicotine sulfate were applied to one acre but the results did not warrant the added
expense (Pelissier). W. L. Doran observed some late bhght but "not over 1 or
2 per cent of late Wight rot in the entire field regardless of the fungicide used."
A considerable number of vines were still green when the crop was harvested on
October 10. The yield calculated from a single determination of 5 rods, of 2 rows
each, was 301.8 bushels an acre for basic sulfate and 451.7 bushels for Bordeaux.
Neither the life of the vines nor the amount of disease could account for any such

differences.

Apples

A spraying experiment was conducted on Block E of the Station orchard under
the supervision of J. K. Shaw and W. L. Cutler to determine the relative effective-
ness of basic sulfate and lime-sulfur in controlling scab on Mcintosh and Baldwin
apples and the amount of injury. A mixture of high and low basic sulfates (lots

4 and 2) was employed in two concentrations, dilute and triple-strength. When-
ever the low basic sulfate was used, in whole or in part, the amount was doubled.
The dilute mixture consisted of basic sulfate, lead arsenate and saponin 0.50^1.50-
0.055^-50 and contained about 0.06 per cent copper and 0.07 per cent arsenic.
In the third and fourth applications raw linseed oil 0.50 pt.-50 was substituted for
saponin. The triple-strength mixture was the same as the dilute except as to
copper content and contained about 0.19 per cent copper. A standard mixture of
liquid lime-sulfur, lead arsenate and calcium caseinate 1.25 gals.-l. 5-0. 5-50 was
applied to similar trees for comparative purposes. A Friend power sprayer with
250-gallon tank under 275 pounds pressure and Friend guns with ?32 disc nozzles
were employed for the several mixtures. Care was taken to cover the trees
thoroughly but to avoid drenching.

In the pre-pink spray (April 21) the dilute basic sulfate mixture with saponin
injured the fruit buds a little, about the same as lime-sulfur, but the concentrated
damaged the buds seriously. In the pink spray (April 25) the dilute mixture with
saponin injured the buds slightly more than lime-sulfur, but the concentrated
kUled the buds and injured the young leaves. In the calyx spray (May 19) the
dilute mixture with Unseed oil caused less injury than lime-sulfur. The use of the
concentrated was discontinued. A later application (July 1) of the dilute mixture
with linseed oil substantiated previous results. The oil dispersed readily in the
mixture and increased adhesiveness. Mcintosh foliage is particularly sensitive to
copper injury. Trees with 85 per cent bloom, set 71 per cent with dOute basic
sulfate and 88 per cent with lime-sulfur. Very little or no scab was observed with
basic sulfate or lime-sulfur.

A dusting experiment was conducted in the College orchard under the supervi-
sion of Brooks D. Drain to determine the effectiveness of basic copper sulfate in
disease control on Mcintosh apples and Bartlett pears and the amount of injury.
High and low basic sulfates (lots 5 and 2) were employed in two concentrations,
dilute and double-strength. The dilute mixture consisted of basic sulfate, lead
arsenate, and talc and contained about 2.50 per cent copper and 2 per cent arsenic.
The double-strength contained about 5.00 per cent copper but was otherwise the
same. Crude saponin, 1 pound in 100, was incorporated in both mixtures applied
on May 7 and June 2 to apples and on June 2 to pears but was excluded from the
mixtures applied on August 5 to apples and pears.

'25 grams.

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE i:}7

Drain reported that with both dusts there was a small amount of russet on

Mcintosh apples but no foliage injury. A few scab spots were detected on trees

receiving the dilute mixture. Bartlett pears showed neither scab nor injury. In

addition Drain stated that the dust distributed well, and appeared to have good

adhesiveness.

Grapes

Experiments were conducted in the College vineyard, under the supervision of
O. C. Roberts, to determine the relative effectiveness of spray and dust applica-
tions of basic copper sulfate (lots 5 and 2) and of Bordeaux 4-4-50 in disease
control and foliage injury on grapes. Two concentrations of sprays and two of
dusts with lead arsenate in all cases were employed as with apples. Crude
saponin 25 gms.-50 was used in the first three spray applications and raw linseed
oil 1 pt.-50 in the fourth. Crude saponin 1 pound in 100 was incorporated in the
first three dust applications and omitted in the fourth. The variety Worden was
used in the tests. The vines, located in a portion of the vineyard where condi-
tions were relatively uniform, were divided into 6 groups fplots), of 3 rows each,
with approximately 9 vines to a row. Five plots received dilute and concentrated
sprays, dilute and concentrated dusts, and Bordeaux, respectiveh\ The sixth
served as a check. The details of the treatments were as follows:

Copper Number of Amount of

Fungicide Content Applications Material

Per cent

Dilute spray 0.06 4 35.5 Gals.

Concentrated spray 0.19 4 37.0 Gals.

Dilute dust 2.50 4 8.0 Lbs.

Concentrated dust 5.00 4 7.5 Lbs.

Bordeaux 0.24 4 35.5 Gals.

Check 0.00 0 0.0

Spray and dust treatments of basic sulfate were applied when the first leaves
were about to appear (May 14), when the shoots were about 12 inches long (June
11), when the grapes were about the size of peas (July 18), and when the grapes
were from K to ^ grown (August 11). The weather conditions at the time of
application were as follows;

May 14 — clear, no wind, 53° Fahr.

June 11 — partly cloudy, light breeze, 70° Fahr.

July 18 — clear, light southerly breeze, high humidity, 65° Fahr.

August 11 — partly cloudy, no wind, 65° Fahr.

The Bordeaux was applied on May 14, June 10, July 12 and August 11. The
sprays were applied under 75 to 100 pounds pressure with a double action, Deming
barrel hand pump equipped with two lines of hose to which were attached rods and
disc nozzles. The dusts were applied with an American Beauty hand duster.
The adhesiveness of the spray was considered poor, partly due, it is believed, to
the similarity in color of the spray residue and foliage, while that of the dusts was
highly commended.

The concentrated spray and dust caused considerable injury to the foliage, the
dilute spray a little and the dilute dust practically none. The leaves remained
green 10 to 14 days longer than with Bordeaux and complete defohation was
delayed fully as many days. The Bordeaux was the most injurious of all treat-
ments and the "burned" condition of the foliage was decidedly apparent. This
may have been due to carbonating of the lime. The rainfall during the summer
was comparatively high and the temperature low. Some mildew was detected on
the check rows during the latter part of August and the first of September, but no
black-rot was observed on any vines. There was not sufficient disease present

138 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

at any time to constitute a real test of the fungicides. The fruit was of good
quality from all vines including the checks, and there seemed to be no appreciable
injury from the various treatments. The yields are not reported on account of
pilfering of the fruit.

Field Work in 1928

The field work of 1928 with basic sulfate includes experiments with celery on the
vegetable garden plots at the College, with potatoes on the Experiment Station
plots and on the College farm, and with apples and grapes in the College orchard
and vineyard. Low and high basic sulfates were employed in both spray and dust
applications.

Celery

Spraying and dusting experiments were conducted on the College grounds,
under the supervision of G. C. Stout, to determine the relative effectiveness of
low and high basic sulfates (lots 6 and 7), Bordeaux 4-4-50 and a commercial
monohydrated copper sulfate-hydrated lime dust (copper-lime dust) in controlling
early and late blights on celery. The basic sulfates with raw linseed oil 1.25 pts.-50
as a spreader and sticker were applied as sprays at a concentration of 0.24 per cent
copper, the same as Bordeaux 4-4-50. The basic sulfates mixed with a free-
flowing talc were applied as dusts which contained 6.80 per cent copper, the same
as the guarantee of the copper-lime dust. The sprays were appUed with a barrel
pump under about 75 pounds pressure and the dusts with a Niagara hand duster.
The field was divided into plots of 4 rows each to which the several fungicides were
applied, and 2\ rows for checks. The celery plants (Giant Pascal) were set rather
late and made a poor growth due to unfavorable weather conditions. The fungi-
cides were applied on July 30, August 9, 21 and 31 and September 28. Doran
observed late blight on August 18 but no difference between plots. On October
29 there was late blight on the older leaves of all plots. No copper injury was
noted. From general appearance the sprays were the most effective, followed
by the dusts and checks. Bourne observed a few plant lice equally distrib-
uted. The celery [did not reach marketable size, but the two middle rows of
each plot were pulled and weighed for yield records.

Table 8. Relative Effectiveness of Low and High Basic Sulfates, Bordeaux and Copper-
lime Dust in Controlling Early and Late Blights of Celery, — As Shown by Yields

Number
Copper of Increase

Fungicide content appli- Yield over

cations check

Per cent Lbs, Per cent

Low basic sulfate spray 0.2i 5 206 n5.2i

High basic sulfate spray O.U 5 228 171.i3

Bordeaux 4-4-50 0.2i. 5 273 105.95

Check (one row only) 0.00 0 42

Low basic sulfate dust 6.80 5 94 20.51

High basic sulfate dust 6.80 5 102 S0.77

Commercial copper-lime dust 6.80 5 138 76.92

Check (one row only) 0.00 0 39

There were no replications and the plots suffered unequally from adverse
weather conditions so that the experiment has little significance except to indicate
that 0.24 per cent sprays were more effective than 6.80 per cent dusts.

BASIC COPPER SILFATE AS A FUNGICIDE 139

Potatoes

A spraying experiment was conducted on a 3.55 acre strip on the Farm field
north 1, under the supervision of M. H. Cubbon, to determine the relative effec-
tiveness of low and high basic sulfates (lots G and 7) and Bordeaux 4-4-50 in
controlling early and late blights on potatoes. The field was undulating from east
to west and suffered from excessive water in the dips. It was divided into 2 sec-
tions (150 by 495 feet), east and west, of 13 four-row plots each. The east half
was evidently more uniform than the west. The entire field was manured at
the rate of 15 tons to the acre, and in addition the east half received 1100 pounds
an acre of a high commercial fertilizer and the west half 600 pounds of the same
mixture. The seed was certified Green Mountain disinfected with corrosive
sublimate. The potatoes were planted on May 14 and 15 at the rate of 25 bushels
an acre on the two southern rows of each plot 1 to 9 inclusive and 15 bushels an
acre on the northern rows of plots 1 to 9 and all rows of plots 10 to 13 inclusive.
The crop was harvested between September 17 and October 10. The basic sul-
fates with linseed oil 0.50 pt.-50 were applied at a concentration of 0.24 per cent
copper, the same as Bordeaux 4-4-50 and with lead arsenate 2-50 when necessary.
Chemical hydrated lime was used in preparing the Bordeaux. A "Gray Jacket"
traction field force pump with a 100-gallon tank, under 200 to 300 pounds pressure,
and a boom covering 4 rows, 3 nozzles to a row, was employed. The amount of
spray varied somewhat with the pressure from 100 to 135 gallons an acre. The
plants were slow in starting but made a fair growth considering the season. The
vines were sprayed practically every week as long as the tops continued green, 10
treatments. Doran observed some early blight and tipburn on August 10 and
late blight on August 17. Insects were not a limiting factor (Bourne). The yield
records were determined from the 2 middle rows of every plot.

On 25 out of 28 plots the fungicides reduced the amount of rot. The Bordeaux
was the most effective followed by high and low basic sulfates. The extreme
variations in results due to inequalities m soil, natural drainage, excessive rainfall,
etc., warrant only general deductions as to trend. The Bordeaux was unquestion-
ably superior to the basic sulfates probably due to its greater dispersion.

Dusting experiments were conducted on the Station rotation 0.08 acre plots
Nos. 51, 54 and 57 and on the west half of Field B 0.205 acre plot, under the super-
vision of J. P. Jones, to determine the relative effectiveness of low and high basic
sulfates and a commercial monohydrated copper sulfate-hydrated lime dust
in controlling early and late blights on potatoes. On plot 51 potatoes alternate
every other year with onions and on plot 57 with tobacco, while on plot 54 potatoes
have been grown continuously for five years. These plots received the equivalent
of 2500 pounds of 5-8-7 fertilizer an acre. The northern portion of the west
half of Field B was in potatoes in 1927 and the southern portion in mangels. Field
B received approximately the equivalent of 2000 pounds of 5-8-7 fertilizer an
acre. The seed was certified Green Mountain disinfected with corrosive sub-
limate. The potatoes were planted on May 10 and harvested on September 14
when the vines were nearly dead. The growth during the entire season indicated
. adequate fertilizer treatment. The vines remained green longer than usual in
spite of late blight, probably because tipburn injury was negligible (Jones).
The basic sulfates (lots 6 and 7) were mixed with a free-flowing talc, with and with-
out lead arsenate, and contained 5.41 per cent copper and 4.00 per cent arsenic in
the first instance and 6.80 per cent copper in the latter. The commercial copper-
lime dust was guaranteed to contain 6.80 per cent copper ' and when mixed with lead
arsenate was calculated to contain 5.41 per cent copper and 4.00 per cent arsenic.

'Actually tested 7.70%.

140

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

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142 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

The several dusts were applied every week from June 22 to September 8,
twelve treatments. With the exception of the last treatment rain fell within two
days following the apphcation, removing most of the dust. The first 6 treatments
contained arsenic which was omitted on August 3 and thereafter except on August
23 when the basic sulfates with lead arsenate were applied. Lead arsenate
and talc were applied 8 times to the checks which was probably more than was
needed. A method of weekly applications is a systematic procedure that is
apparently unnecessary early in the season except possibly of lead arsenate for
insects, but more frequent applications later in the season following rains might
prove more effective in controlling blight (Jones). Doran observed some early
and late blights and tipburn on August 17 and considerable late bhght on Septem-
ber 10. The yield records were determined from the two middle rows of every
4-row section except the one-half outside sections of Field B, of which both rows
were taken.

All the dusts reduced the amount of rot, but the low basic sulfate proved slightly
the most effective in this respect. The physical characteristics of fungicides are a
factor in the flow and economical coverage when appUed as a dust. Neither of the
basic sulfates was suitable for application in this form, while the copper-lime dust
was light, bulky and of good flow.

.4 pples
A spraying experiment was conducted on Block B of the Station orchard under
the supervision of J. K. Shaw and W. A. Cutler, to determine the relative effective-
ness of low and high basic sulfates and Ume-sulfur in controlling diseases, primarily
scab, on Mcintosh and Red Astrachan apples, and the amount of injury to foliage
and fruit. The basic sulfates (lots 6 and 7) with lead arsenate and raw linseed oil
1.50-0.50 pt.-50 were appUed at a concentration of about 0.07 per cent copper
and 0.071 per cent arsenic. A standard mixture of Ume-sulfur (33°B) and lead
arsenate 1.25 gals.-1.50-.50 was employed for comparative purposes. The sprays
were applied with a Friend power sprayer with 2.50-gallon tank, under 275 pounds
pressure, and Friend guns with 3/32 disc nozzles. In the pre-pink spray (May 2)
and pink spray (May 9) the basic sulfates injured the fruit buds a little more than
lime-sulfur. In the calyx spray (May 24) the basic sulfates injured the fruit to
some extent, as considerable russeting was observed later, but failed to control
scab. Lime-sulfur also gave poor control but proved superior to the basic sulfates
and caused less injury. The copper sprays mixed well and their adherence was
very good (Cutler). Doran made the following observations as to injury and scab
on foliage.

Table 11. Relative Effectiveness of Lovir and High Basic Sulfates and Lime-sulfur in

Controlling Scab on Mcintosh and Red Astrachan Apples, and the

Amount of Injury,— As Shown by the Foliage

Plot Fungicide June 14 July 16

1 Low basic sulfate Leaves yellow and falling badly. Trees defoliated.

Not much scab. Fruit russeted.

2 High basic sulfate Leaves yellow and falling badly. Trees defoliated.

Not much scab. Fruit russeted.

3 Lime-sulfur Leaf injury negligible. No leaf injury.

Not much scab. Fruit not russeted.

Doran noted practically no injury to apple foliage from lime-sulfur, but the
basic sulfates defohated the trees seriously and russeted the fruit. The fohage
of the Red Astrachan was injured more than that of the Mcintosh.

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE

143

Table 12. Relative Effectiveness of Low and High Basic Sulfates and Lime-sulfur in

Controlling Scab on Mcintosh and Red Astrachan Apples, and the

Amount of Injury, — As Shown by the Yield

Fungicide

Row

fumber

Yield

of

Total

per

trees

yield

tree

Lbs.

Lbs.

Mcintosh

Low basic sulfate B 30

High basic sulfate D 29

Lime-sulfur F 30

Check

Red Astrachan

Low basic sulfate A 30

High basic sulfate C 28

Lime-sulfur E 29

Check

228 7.60

117 4.03

119 3.97

all fruit dropped

700 23.33

673 24.04

1067 36.79

all fruit dropped

Evidently the fungicides were not the limiting factor with Mcintosh, but
may have had more influence with Red Astrachan.

Doran and Bourne made fruit counts on 1851 Mcintosh apples from the several
plots on October 8, and obtained the following results :

Table 13. Relative Effectiveness of Low and High Basic Sulfates and Lime-sulfur in

Controlling Scab on Mcintosh, and Amount of Injury, —

As Shown by Fruit Counts

Fungicide

Clean

Per cent
Low basic sulfate 7.59

High basic sulfate 23.90

Lime-sulfur 62.65

Check

Scab

Russet

Per cent

Per cent

55.26

68.73

48.66

43.14

28.31

9.44

all fruit dropped

None of the fungicides gave proper control of scab on Mcintosh apples under
the conditions of operation, which indicates that the applications were improperly
timed. From the standpoint of clean fruit and a minimum of russet injury,
lime-suKur was superior to basic sulfates on Mcintosh that year.

A dusting experiment was conducted on Block A of the Station orchard, under
the supervision of J. K. Shaw and W. A. Cutler, to determine the relative effective-
ness of low and high basic sulfates, copper-lime dust and lime-sulfur spray in con-
trolling scab on .5 varieties of apples, and the amount of injury to foliage and fruit.
The basic sulfates (lots 6 and 7) were mi.xed with le!ad arsenate and a free-flowing
talc and contained 3.00 per cent copper and 2.00 per cent arsenic. The copper-
lime dust was guaranteed to contain 3.94 per cent copper' and 2.92 per cent
arsenic. A standard mixture of lime-sulfur (33°B) and lead arsenate 1.25 gals.-
1.50-50 was employed for comparative purposes. The dusts were applied with a
Niagara power duster and the spray with a Friend power sprayer with 250-gallon
tank, under 275 pounds pressure, and Friend guns with 3/32 disc nozzles. The
trees on plots 1, 3 and 5 received nitrates while those on plots 2, 4 and 6 did not and
were less vigorous and had thinner foliage. In the pre-pink dust (May 7) which
was delayed nearly a week on account of the duster being out of order, and the

'Actually tested 4.28'7 .

144

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

pink dust (May 14) the basic sulfates and copper-lime dust seemed to give similar
results with very little burning. In the calyx dust (May 24) none of the dusts was
effective in controlling scab. The dusts were applied in the morning when there
was very little wind but did not adhere as well as expected (Cutler). Doran made
the following observations as to injury and scab on foliage:

Table 14. Relative Eflfectiveness of Low and High Basic Sulfate Dusts, Copper-lime

Dust, and Lime-sulfur Spray in Controlling Scab, and

Amount of Injury,— As Shown by the Foliage

Plot Fungicide June 14 July 16

0 Check No burning Not much leaf burn.

Scab very severe. Scab most severe.

1 Low basic sulfate No burning. Not much leaf burn.

More scab than with lime-sulfur. Scab very severe.

2 Lime-sulfur No burning. Not much leaf burn.

Scab moderate. Less scab than with dusts.

3 High basic sulfate No burning. Moderate leaf burn.

Scab severe on Mcintosh. Scab very severe.

4 Lime-sulfur No burning. Not much leaf burn.

Much less scab than with dusts. Scab bad.

5 Copper-lime dust No burning. Not much leaf burn.

More scab than with lime-sulfur. Scab severe.

6 Lime-sulfur No burning. Not much leaf burn.

Considerable scab on Mcintosh. Less scab than with dusts.

As a whole Doran noted comparatively little injury to apple foliage from either
copper dusts or lime-sulfur spray. The high basic sulfate may have been slightly
the most injurious. None of the treatments afforded adequate protection to the
foliage against scab probably because of too late application and adverse weather
conditions. The best control was obtained with lime-sulfur although inconsistent
and "bad" on plot 4. Scab was severe or very severe with all dusts and most
severe on the check trees. A closer differentiation would require leaf counts which
was not attempted. The effect of insects was negligible (Bourne). .As all the
plots did not receive the same fertilizer treatment the yields were not comparable
and are omitted.

Doran and Bourne made fruit counts on 1825 Mcintosh apples from the several
plots on October S and obtained the following results :

Table 15. Relative Effectiveness of Low and High Basic Sulfate Dusr.s, Copper-lime
Dust, and Lime-sulfur Spray in Controlling Scab on Mcintosh,
and Amount of Injury, — As Shown by Fruit Counts

Plot

1
3
5
2, 4, 6
0

Fungicide

Clean

Per cent
Low basic sulfate 2.50

High ba=ic sulfate 7.84

Copper-lime dust 14.44

Lime-sulfur 27.66

Check ■ • • •

Scab

Russet

Per cent

Per ceni

97.50

2.50

91.37

8.24

71.66

20.14

70.29

3.55

None of the fungicides gave control of scab on Mcintosh apples because of too
late application (Shaw). From the standpoint of scab control and a minimum of
russet injury, lime-sulfur spray was rather more effective than the copper dusts.

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE 145

Grapes

Spraying and dusting experiments were conducted in the College vineyard,
under the supervision of O. C. Roberts, to determine the relative effectiveness of
low and high basic sulfates (lots 6 and 7), Bordeaux 1.17-1.17-50 and a commercial
copper-lime-lead arsenate dust in controlling diseases on Worden grapes and
the amount of injury to fohage.

The basic sulfates with lead arsenate and linseed oil 1.50-0.83 pt.-50 were
appUed as sprays at a concentration of 0.07 per cent copper and 0.07 per cent
arsenic, the same as Bordeaux 1.17-1.17-50 with lead arsenate 1.50-50. Chemical
hydrated lime was employed in preparing the Bordeaux. Oil was used with the
arsenic check spray but not with the Bordeaux. The basic sulfates, mixed with
lead arsenate and a free-flowing talc, were applied as dusts which coptained 3.00
per cent copper and 2.00 per cent arsenic. The commercial dust was guaranteed
to contain 3.94 per cent copper^ and 2.92 per cent arsenic. The arsenical check
dust was composed of lead arsenate and talc and contained 2.00 per cent arsenic.
The spray was applied under 75 to 100 pounds pressure with a double action,
Deming barrel hand-pump equipped with 2 Unes of hose to which were attached
rods and disc nozzles. The first two applications of dust were made with an
American Beauty hand duster which proved unsatisfactory because of its irregular,
intermittent discharge. The last application was made with a Peerless duster
which gave an even continuous flow.

The fungicides were applied on the following dates and under the weather
conditions stated:

June 7 — cloudy, humid, 68° Fahr. Spray and dust.

July 16 — clear, moderate southwest wind. Spray.

July 18 — clear, moderate southwest wind, 85° Fahr. Dust.

August 13 — clear, 75° Fahr. Spray.

August 14 — clear, humidity somewhat higher than on the 13th, 76° Fahr. Dust.

Doran found a little downy mildew in the vineyard on August 22 and observed
traces on the check plot on September 11. No black rot was detected at any time .
As there was practically no disease during the season the efficiency of the several
fungicides could not be determined. Bourne noted a few leaf hoppers in the
vineyard uniformly distributed over the plots.

Doran, Bourne and Roberts made the following observations on September 21
and 25 relative to foUage injury:

Low basic sulfate spray — burn practically the same as for high basic sulfate,
adherence good.

High basic sulfate spray — more burn than on check plot, spray residue adhered
well to fruit.

Bordeaux — burn less than from basic sulfates, adherence good.

Check — spray burn mild and generally distributed.

Low basic sulfate dust — burn practically the same as high basic sulfate.

High basic sulfate dust — no more burn than on check plot.

The yield had no significance due to pilfering of the fruit and is omitted.

In the practical absence of disease little could be learned of the relative value
of the fungicides. The commercial copper-Ume-lead arsenate dust was sticky
and would not flow freely (Roberts).

Discussion of Results

The results of the four years of field work appear to warrant the following
deductions as to the effectiveness of basic copper sulfate in controlling diseases on
various garden crops and fruits and the amount of injury likely to ensue.

"Actually tested 4.28%.

146 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

Cucumbers — Low basic sulfate spray (0.25 per cent Cu) was equal or superior
to Bordeaux (0.25 per cent Cu) in controlling anthracnose and powdery mildew on
cucumbers as determined by yield in 1925 and by leaf counts in 1926. Both
fungicides appeared to be slightly injurious to the young leaves in 1926. Neither
spray (0.26 per cent Cu) nor dust (7.02 per cent Cu) application of high basic
sulfate afforded protection under the continuous heavy rains of 1927, although the
dust was slightly the more effective. Neither caused injury.

Celery — Low basic sulfate spray (0.25 per cent Cu) was equal to Bordeaux
(0.25 per cent Cu) in controlUng early and late blights on celery as determined by
yield in 1925 and by leaf counts in 1926. Both spray (0.26 per cent Cu) and dust
(7.02 per cent Cu) applications of high basic sulfate increased the yield and grade
of celery in 1927, but the dust proved the more effective. Low and high basic
sulfate sprays (0.24 per cent Cu) were fully equal to Bordeaux (0.24 per cent Cu)
and superior to low and high basic sulfate dusts (6.80 per cent Cu) on celery in
1928 as determined by yield, although the experiment has little significance as
the plants did not reach marketable size due to adverse weather conditions.

Potatoes— Low basic sulfate spray (0.26 per cent Cu) was not equal to Bordeaux
(0.25 per cent Cu) in controlling early and late blights on potatoes, as determined
by yield in 1926; nor was high basic sulfate spray (0.25 per cent Cu) in 1927.
Tuber rot, however, did not exceed 1 to 2 per cent in either case (Doran). Low
and high basic sulfate sprays (0.24 per cent Cu) were not equal to Bordeaux
(0.24 per cent Cu) on potatoes in 1928 as determined by yield of grade No. 1 and
by reduction in amount of rot. Evidently a spray of 0.24 per cent copper derived
from basic sulfate is not fully adequate to prevent late blight and tuber rot on
low lands in a wet season. This was true also of Bordeaux on the College farm in
the wet season of 1927, when the rot averaged from 20 to 25 per cent by count.
With high basic sulfate dust (7.52 per cent Cu), there was about 1 per cent by
weight of tuber rot in 1927. There were no checks. Low and high basic sulfate
dusts (6.80 per cent Cu) were not equal to a copper-lime dust (7.70 per cent Cu)
on potatoes in 1928, as determined by yield of grade No. 1 and by reduction in
amount of rot collectively. The low basic sulfate dust, however, in spite of a lower
copper content reduced rot rather more than the copper-lime dust.

Fruits — Low basic sulfate sprays (0.13, 0.19 and 0.25 per cent Cu) were not
equal to standard lime-sulfur in controlling scab on Baldwin and Mcintosh
apples in 1926, and injured the foUage and russeted the fruit, especially in the
higher concentrations. The injury on the foUage of Monarch plums increased
with the concentration, but was not appreciable on the fruit. With mixed high
and low basic sulfate sprays (0.06 and 0.19 per cent Cu) and with Ume-sulfur,
there was about the same percentage of scabby fruit on Baldwin and Mcintosh
apples in 1927. The dilute spray with Unseed oil was no more injurious than
lime-sulfur and was reported a promising mixture for apples (Cutler). The con-
centrated spray killed the buds and injured the leaves. With mixed high and
low basic sulfate dusts (2.50 and 5.00 per cent Cu) on Mcintosh apples and
Bartlett pears in 1927, there were only a few scab spots on Mcintosh with the
dilute mixture. Both dusts caused a small amount of russet on Mcintosh but no
fohage injury. The copper content was reported about right (Drain). Low and
high basic sulfate sprays (0.07 per cent Cu) were not equal to Ume-sulfur in con-
trolUng scab on Mcintosh and Red Astrachan apples in 1928 as determined by
fruit counts on Mcintosh, although none of the fungicides gave adequate control,
probably because of too late appUcation. The basic sulfates defoliated the trees
seriously and russeted the fruit more than Ume-sulfur. Low and high basic

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE 147

sulfate dusts (3.00 per cent Cu) and a copper-lime dust (4.28 per cent Cu) were not
equal to lime-sulfur in controlling scab on Baldwin, Mcintosh, Northern Spy,
R. I. Greening and Tompkins King apples in 1928 as determined by fruit counts on
Mcintosh, although none of the fungicides gave satisfactory control on either
fruit or foliage, probably because of too late application. Basic sulfate dusts
did not injure the foUage appreciably, but russeted Mcintosh apples a little more
than lime-sulfur.

The effectiveness of low basic sulfate sprays (0.13, 0.19 and 0.25 per cent Cu)
on Moore's early grapes in 1926 could not be determined in the absence of disease.
The injury to foliage increased with the concentration but was not appreciable on
the fruit (Roberts). The relative effectiveness of spray (0.06 and 0.19 per cent
Cu) and dust (2.50 and 5.00 per cent Cu) applications of mixed basic sulfates and
of Bordeaux (0.24 per cent Cu) in controUing mildew and black rot on Worden
grapes in 1927 could not be determined, as practically no disease developed. The
leaves remained green 10 to 14 days longer with basic sulfates than with Bordeaux,
and complete defoliation was equally delayed. The dilute dust caused practically
no injury to the foliage, the dilute spray a little, the concentrated dust and spray
considerable and Bordeaux most of all. With the latter the "burned" condition
was decidedly apparent. Low and high basic sulfate sprays (0.07 per cent Cu)
and dusts (3.00 per cent Cu) and dilute Bordeaux (0.07 per cent Cu) were applied
to Worden grapes in 1928, but their effectiveness could not be determined in the
absence of disease. There was some foliage injury without marked differences.
The least was probably on the check, followed by the basic sulfate dusts, Bordeaux
and basic sulfate sprays.

Low basic sulfate spray (0.25 per cent Cu) was applied to currants, English
gooseberry, nine varieties of grapes, tea roses and phlox in 1926 without injury
being observed (Brooks). Low basic sulfate spray (0.16 per cent Cu) did not
injure rhododendron seedlings in flats (Ivinney).

As to supplementary products, Wilkinite proved of little value except possibly
to increase visibiUty. Saponin was of value in increasing wetting and spreading,
and raw Unseed oil in increasing adhesiveness The oil was the most promising.
It mixed well and the spray residue adhered firmly to the foliage and fruit of apples
and grapes (Cutler, Roberts); while on cucumbers, celery and potatoes, oil
was not approved (Guba, Cubbon). The dusts with talc as the vehicle distributed
well (Guba, Drain) and appeared to have good adherence (Drain).

Summary and Conclusions

1. Commercial basic copper sulfate has proved effective in controlling disease
on cucumbers and celery and promising on potatoes, but requires further demon-
stration on orchard fruits and grapes.

2. A greater "copper" concentration of basic sulfate than of Bordeaux is
necessary in some instances to assure equal control, due to the lower dispersion.

3. The low basic sulfate appears to be slightly more effective per unit of copper
than the high basic sulfate, probably because the physical condition has averaged
better.

4. The concentration necessary in sprays differs widely from that needed in
dusts, as the large proportion of inert vehicle in dusts depresses the activity of the
fungicide. The following concentrations of basic copper sulfate and of lead
arsenate in sprays and dusts are suggested tentatively for field practice.

148

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 254

Crop

Sprays

Dusts

Cu

As

Cu

As

Per cent
0.05
0.05
0.30
0.25
0.30

Per cent
0.07*

o:o7

0.09**
0.09

Per cent
3.50
3.50
7.50
7.50
7.50

Per cent
2.00

Grapes

2.00

Cucumbers

Potatoes

4.00
4.00

*1.50— 50.
**2.00 — 50.

5. Basic sulfate is insoluble and slowly available and must be applied at the
proper time and concentration to insure protection.

Literature Cited^

1. Bell, J. M., and Taber, W. C.

1908. The three-component system— CuO, SO3, HgO — at 25°. Jour.

Phys. Chem. 12:171-179.
2 and Murphy, G. M.

1926. Basic copper at 100°. Jour. Amer. Chem. See. 48 (1): 1500-1502.
3. Britton, H. T. S.

1925. Electrometric studies of the precipitation of hydro.xides. Pt. IV.

Precipitation of mercuric, cadmium, lead, silver, cupric, uranic and ferric

hydroxides by the use of the oxygen electrode. Jour. Chem. Soc. [London]

127 (2): 2148-21.59.
4

1925. An electrometric and phase rule study of some basic salts of copper.
Jour. Chem. Soc. [London] 127 (2) : 2796-2807.

5. Field, F.

1862. On some of the basic salts of copper. Phil. Mag. and Jour. Sci. (4)
24:123-126.

6. Holland, E. B., Dunbar, C. 0., and Gilligan, G. M.

1926. The preparation and effectiveness of basic copper sulphates for
fungicidal purposes. Jour. Agr. Research 33:741-751.

7. Kane, R.

1839. Ann. Chim. et Phys. (2) 72:269.

8. Kruger, .

1924. Jour. Prakt. Chem. 108:278.

9. Nelson, O. A.

1928. Effect of alkalinity on basic cupric sulphates. Jour. Phys. Chem.

32:1185-1190.
10. Pickering, S. U.

1907. The interaction of metallic sulphates and caustic alkalis. Jour.

Chem. Soc. [London] 91 (2) : 1981-1988.
11

1910. The constitution of basic salts. Jour. Chem. Soc. [London] 97

(2) : 1851-1860.
12. Proust, J. L.

1800. Recherches sur le cuivre. Ann. Chim. et Phys. (1)32:26-54.

■The original articles were not always available.

BASIC COPPER SULFATE AS A FUNGICIDE 149

13. Reddick, D., and Wallace, E.

1910. On a laboratory method of determining the fungicidal value of
a spray mixture or solution. (Abstract) Science (n. s.) 31:798.

14. Sabatier, P.

1897. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. [Parisl 125:101.

15. Smith, J. D.

1843. On the constitution of the subsalts of copper. No. 1. On the
subsulphates. Phil. Mag. and Jour. Sci. (3) 23:496-505.

16. Vogel, A., and Reischauer, C.

1859. Jahresber. Pharm. 11:3.

17. Williamson, F. S.

1923. Basic copper sulphate. Jour. Phys. Chem. 27:789-797.

18. Young, S. W., and Steam, A. E.

1916. The basic copper sulphates. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 38 (2) :1947-
1953.

E Publication of this document approved by the Comftiiasion on Administration and Finance.
2M-10-'29. No. 7035.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 255 November, 1929

Studies in Mineral Nutrition

By J. B. Lindsey and J. G. Archibald

It was formerly held that the dairy animal obtained sufficient mineral
matter from the roughages and grains consumed. More recently, based
on some experimental evidence, this opinion has been questioned, and
many have advised the feeding of supplementary minerals in the form of
ground bone, ground limestone and the like. In order to get additional
light upon the subject, this Station has conducted experiments with
growing and mature dairy animals and presents its findings in Part I
of this bulletin.

As a part of the work, many determinations were made of the mineral
constituents of the grains and roughages fed, and likewise of the amount
found in the ordinary roughages grow^n in different sections of Massa-
chusetts. These analyses are brought together in Part II of this bulletin.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

STUDIES IN MINERAL NUTRITION

By J. B. Lindsey, Research Professor, and J. G. Archibald, Assistant
Research Professor, of Chemistry^

Part I. MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS FOR DAIRY COWS

This bulletin is the final report on six and one-half years' investigation on the
feeding of mineral matter to dairy cows. Three progress reports^ have already
appeared and to these the reader is referred for detailed conclusions up to the time
these reports were published. The results previously reported were obtained from
a study of the feeding of tricalcium phosphate in the form of steamed bone meal
specially prepared for animal feeding. In brief, the conclusion reached was that
the benefit received from adding steamed bone meal to the ration of dairy cows
under conditions existent in New England is very shght.

For the past two years (1926-1928) the mineral supplement fed has consisted
of a mixture of dicalcium phosphate, sometimes called precipitated bone, and
calcium carbonate or limestone, in the respective proportions of four to one.

It has been shown that lambs and goats assimilate dicalcium phosphate con-
siderably better than they do tricalcium phosphate in the form of steamed or
calcined bone. It was thought worth while therefore to give the dicalcium

phosphate a trial.

Method of Experimentation

The variation from the experimental procedure described in our previous
reports, other than the substitution of the dicalcium phosphate for the tricalcium
has been a- further impoverishment of the mineral content of the basal ration.
This has been done by substituting for a portion of the hay larger amounts of dried
apple pomace which is quite low in mineral matter. The maximum amount of
pomace fed daily to any one cow has been seven pounds. The amount of calcium
carbonate fed (1 part in 5 of the mixture) was added to maintain the same ratio
between calcium and phosphorus that existed when the steamed bone was fed.

At the commencement of the experiment with dicalcium phosphate (precipitated
bone), the herd consisted of 10 milking Holstein cows, 2 milking Jersey cows, 3
Holstein heifers and 1 Jersey heifer. At the conclusion, some old cows having
been sold and some heifers having freshened, there were 10 milking Holsteins,
3 milking Jerseys and no heifers. The animals were well housed and received
good care, and except in bad weather were turned daily into adjacent sheltered
yards for exercise and sunlight. The cows were barn fed during the entire year;
the young stock were turned to pasture from approximately May 20 to October 15.

The entire herd was fed on a basal ration of first-cut hay, dried apple pomace
and a grain mixture during the entire period of observation except during the
summer months, when, in addition, non-leguminous green material in the form
of oats, millet and corn was fed in amounts not exceeding 25 pounds daily to any
one animal.

1 The work at the station barn was carried out by J. R. Alcock, whose faithful attention to
his duties contributed to the success of these experiments. A. W. Magoon assisted Mr. Alcock
during the latter part of the experiments.

2 The Value of Calcium Phosphate as a Supplement to the Ration of Dairy Cows. Jour. Agr.
Research. Vol. XXXI, pp. 771-791. October 15th, 1925.

Mineral Matter for Dairy Cows. Mass. Agr. Expt. Station Bulletin No. 230. April, 1926.

Mineral Supplements for Dairy Cows. Paper read at the Annual Meeting of the American
Society of Animal Production, Chicago, November 26, 1926. Abstracted in Proceedings of that
Society for 1926.

MINERAL NUTRITION 153

The milking cows received daily an average of 17 pounds of hay; 53^ pounds
dried apple pomace; 113^ pounds grain mixture; and 23 pounds green feeds. ^
Salt was added to the extent of % pound to each 100 pounds of the grain mixture,
and lump salt was always available in boxes in the out-of-door sheds. In addi-
tion the so-called mineral cows received daily, mixed with the grain, an average of
8 ounces of the dicalcium phosphate-calcium carbonate mixture. Running
water was before the animals at all times. The cows were fed and milked twice
daily. The hay, which was grown on the station grounds, was composed of mixed
grasses, timothy usually predominating, and generally was of good quality. The
average analysis of the feeds was as follows:

Protein Calcium Phosphorus

Hay 7.58 0.48 0.21

Dried apple pomace 5.29 0.15 0.11

Grain mixture 17.00 0.06 0.54

The apple pomace was weighed into wooden trays daily, moistened, and the
grain mixed with it before being fed. The hay and green forage were weighed
daily into 4-bushel baskets.

Composite samples of all feeds were taken from each lot purchased. A 5-day
composite sample of the milk of each cow was taken monthly. All feeds and milk
were submitted to chemical analyses.

Results of the Experiment

The effect of the supplement has been judged by the same criteria as those used
in measuring the effect of bone meal, viz.:

1. General appearance and live weight of the cows.

2. Growth of young cows and heifers.

3. Milk yield.

4. Composition of the milk, especially its ash content.

5. Reproduction.

General appearance

As in previous work on mineral supplements, the general condition of the cows
has been followed closely, observations being recorded from month to month.
In general the cows in both groups have maintained themselves well. A study
of the detailed record of their condition at the commencement of the experiment
and again at the close shows that the cows receiving the supplement had a slight
advantage in this respect (see Table 1).

Live weight

Respecting maintenance of live weight six individuals were mature when the
experiment was begun and consequently can be considered from this standpoint.
The stage of gestation at the beginning having been noted, the date during the
present season when they were at a similar stage has been ascertained and the
average of two weighings on consecutive days as near that date as possible has
been taken (see Table 2).

3 Green feed substituted for a portion of the hay.

154

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 255

Age

Table 1. ^Showing Condition of Cows

General condition

Cow No.

July 1, 1928

Breed
Non-Mineral Group

July 1, 1926

July 1, 192

6

11

Grade Holstein

good

fair

10

13

Grade Holstein

fair

good

15

9

Grade Holstein

very good

good

35

7

Grade Holstein

good

good

42

5

Grade Holstein

excellent

good

43

6

Purebred Jersey

good

excellent

88

3

Grade Holstein

excellent

very good

99

3

Grade Holstein
Mineral Group

fair

fair

11

13

Grade Holstein

good

fair

12

11

Grade Holstein

excellent

excellent

22

8

Grade Jersey

fair

good

33

7

Grade Holstein

good

excellent

40

6

Grade Holstein

good

good

71

4

Grade Holstein

fair

good

98

3

Grade Holstein

good

fair

100

3

Grade Jersey

good

excellent

Cows 10 and 11 were sold on August 8, 1927. Age and condition are given for that date.
Cow 42 was slaughtered on January 10, 1928. Age and condition are given for that date.

The mature cows receiving the .supj^lement made a considerable gain in weight
during the two years of the experiment, while the other group showed little change.
The supplement may have made this difference, but with this number of animals it
is unsafe to draw a positive conclusion.

Table 2. — Maintenance of Body Weight in the Mature Cows

Cow No.

Weight on
July 1, 1926

Lbs.

N

Weight on a

comparable date

this season

(1928)

Lbs.

on-Mineral Group

Gain or loss
Lbs.

6

1270

1300

+30

10

1205

1170

—35

15

1315

1345

+30

gain for the

group

+25

Mineral Group

11

1275

1300

+25

12

1405

1510

+105

22

700

820

+120

gain for

the

group

+250

The second weight for Cows 10 and 11 was taken in August, 1927, when they were sold.

Growth of young cows and heifers

Ten of the animals were immature at the commencement of the experiment:
six of them young cows (under 5 years of age) and four unbred heifers. In
the case of the young cows variations due to variable stage in gestation have been
taken into account as with the mature cows. With the heifers unbred when the
experiment started, obviously this method could not be used, but three of the four
are in an almost identical stage of gestation this season and the fourth is also
bred, though not as far advanced, so from that standpoint their weights can be
considered comparable (see Table 3).

MINERAL NUTRITION 155

Tabl.

B 3. — Growth of

Young Cows and Heifers

Cow No.

Weight on
July 1, 1926

Lbs.

Weight on a

comparable date

this season

(1928)

Lbs.

Gain
Lbs.

Young Cows

Non-Mil

neral Group

35

910

1010

+100

42

1260

1350

+90

43

830

850

+20

Total gain

+21D

Mineral Group

33

1215

1355

+ 140

40

900

980

+80

71

955

1345

+390

Total gain

+610

Heifers Non-Mineral Group

Weight on
July 1, 1928
88 685 1135 +450

99 570 1140 +570

Total gain .... .... +1020

Mineral Group

98 575 1130 +555

100 445 855 +410

Total gain +965

The final weight of No. 42 was taken in October, 1927. No later weight is available as the
cow was in isolation stall.

No. 88 was in a somewhat earlier stage of gestation than the other three heifers.

The presence of one Jersey in each age class (No. 43 in the young cow class, No.
100 in the heifer class) complicates analysis of these weight data somewhat. A
truer picture of the case is obtained if the growth increments are presented on a
percentage basis (see Table 4).

Table 4. — -Percentage Increase in Weight of Young Cows and Heifers

Cow No. Mineral group Non-mineral group

33 11.5

40 8.9

71 40.8

35 11.1

42 7.1

43 2.4

Average 19.9 7.0

Heifer No.

98 96.5

100 92.1

88 65.7

99 100.0

Average 94.6 81-3

At first glance this looks like a considerable difference in favor of the "mineral"
group, but it is discounted by the fact that they average six months younger in
the case of the young cows and two months younger in the case of the heifers than
the "non-mineral" group. Unfortunately the weights of the groups at identical
ages are not comparable due to considerable differences in stage of gestation.
If Nos. 43 and 71 be dropped out of the young cow group the others are of identical
age, and the difference is seen to be very small, 8.75 percent increase in the "non-

156 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 255

mineraJ" group as against 10.4 per cent in the "mineral" group. Among the
heifers, if No. 88 were of the same age as the other three (4 months younger than
she actually is) her rate of increase in weight would in all probability be enough
higher to offset the difference of 13.3 per cent actually found. All things con-
sidered, the growth of the young animals was probably not materially influenced
by the addition of the mineral supplement.

Another angle from which growth records have been viewed is that of weight
of the young stock born and reared during the course of the experiment and now
in the herd, as compared with the weight of their dams at a similar age. Of
the ten animals listed in Tables 3 and 4, two are as large as their dams were at the
same age, six are larger, and two are smaller. The grouping in the experiment
is as follows:

Mineral supplement No mineral supplement

Larger than dam 3 Larger than dam 3

Same size 1 Same size 1

Smaller 1 Smaller 1

All are Holsteins and sired by the same bull, except the two which are the same
size as their dams were, which are Jerseys. These facts dispose of possible varia-
tion due to influence of different sires; and the identical make-up of the two groups
is further evidence that the mineral supplement had little, if any, effect on growth.

Milk yield

The average production of the herd has been well maintained all through the
experiment. The corrected^ daily yield per cow for the whole herd and for the
two groups is shown in Table 5.

Table 5. — Daily Yield of Milk, Total Solids, and Fat. per Cow

No. of Milk Total Solids Fat

Cows Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

Whole Herd

1st year 10 26.47 3.32 1.07

2d year 11 27.59 3.46 1.09

Mineral Group

1st year o 25.03 3.14 1.00

2d year 5 25.38 3.25 1.02

Entire experiment 10 25.21 3.20 1.01

Non-Mineral Group

1st year : 5 27.92 3.49 1.14

2d year 6 29.64 3.65 1.15

Entire experiment 11 28.85 3.58 1.14

The "non-mineral" group was somewhat superior to the "mineral" group in
production but it would be unwise to conclude from this that the mineral supple-
ment had a detrimental effect in this respect. The probability is that the differ-
ence is due to variations in the inherent capacity of the individuals in the two
groups to produce milk. An endeavor has always been made to keep the groups
as evenly matched in this respect as possible, but due to the impossibility of
predicting in advance the performance of a cow, or more especiallj^ of a heifer,

* Corrections for differences in length of lactation and stage of gestation have been made
according to the method of Gaines and Davidson, described in Illinois Agr. Expt. Sta. Bulletin
No. 272. Corrections for age have not been necessary as the groups were of approximately the
same age, and the age of the herd as a whole did not increase, as some older cows were sold and
heifers took their places. Corrections for breed are taken care of by including in the corrected
summary the total solids and fat produced as well as the total milk yield.

MINERAL NUTRITION 157

in any given year, this is a matter which is difficult to regulate in practice. That
the endeavor in this particular instance was not successful is evidenced by the
figures.

The conclusions that seem justified are two:

(I.) That the low ash ration apparently had no immediate adverse effect on

jiroduction.
(2.) That the mineral supplement apparently had no immediate favorable

effect.

Composition of the milk

The milk from each cow in the herd was sampled for five consecutive days each
full month that she was in milk. Total solids and fat have been determined each
month during the course of the experiment. Total ash, calcium and phosphorus
have been determined every three months.

Table 6. — Composition of the Milk

Whole Herd Mineral group Non-mineral group

Total solids 12. .53 12.58 12.53

Fat 3.99 3.96 4.03

Total ash 0.711 0.712 0.710

Ash as per cent of total solids 5.67 5.66 5.66

Calcium 0.121 0.123 0.120

Phosphorus 0.099 0.102 0.097

Expressed as percentar e of the liquid milk.

These figures have been corrected for differences in the breed make-up of the groups. Cor-
rections for stage of lactation have not been necessary, as the average stage of lactation at the
time the samples were taken was the same in both groups.

The differences between the groups in this respect are seen to be very slight, and
while they favor the "mineral" group (except in the fat content) they are not of
sufficient magnitude to be of any significance.

Reproduction

Reproductive troubles have not been serious in either group. The average
length of time after calving before reappearance of oestrum has been:

Mineral group 38 days

Non-mineral group 45 days

Regarding regularity in recurrence of oestrum the records show the following:

Good Fair

Mineral group 11 1

Non-mineral group 9 3

The average number of services required to breed has been:

Mineral group 1.13 times

Non-mineral group 1.30 times

Seventy-one per cent of the breedings have been from one service, only one
cow in each group giving serious trouble in this respect.
Other irregularities have been:

One premature birth (8 months) in the "mineral" group.
One case of nymphomania (chronic buller) in the "mineral" group.
One case of cervicitis (inflammation of the neck of the uterus) in each group.
Three cases of retained afterbirth (two of them in the same cow in successive
years) in the "non-mineral" group.

158 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 255

One calf died in utero at about the sixth or seventh month stage as a result of
cervical and general uterine infection in the dam. This was in the "non-
mineral" group.
Apparently the cows that received the mineral supplement were a little closer
to normal in their reproductive function than those that did not receive it. They
came in heat a little sooner after calving, recurrence of heat was slightly more
regular, and they bred a little more readily. Other irregularities were about
evenly divided between the two groups. In any case the reproductive troubles
have not been greater than are ordinarily encountered in practical herd manage-
ment.

The condition of the calves at birth and subsequently is also of interest in this
connection. Twenty-six calves have been dropped in the herd during the course
of the experiment. Classification of these according to group and condition
appears below.

Vigorous Good Fair Delicate

Mineral group 3 9 1 1

Non-mineral group 3 5 4 0

The main difference hei-e is seen to be in the "good" and "fair" groups. The
statistics undoubtedly favor the "mineral" group but they need to be examined
as to the make-up of the groups with respect to sex and breed, as these determine
to a considerable extent the apparent vigor of a calf. Bulls are usually more
lusty than heifers; Holsteins are generally more rugged than Jerseys.

Of the four "fair" calves in the "non-mineral" group three were heifers, and the
fourth, although a bull, was a Jersey. On the other hand, of the nine "good"
calves in the "mineral" group, six were heifers, and three of these heifers were
Jerseys. These situations just about offset each other so that the balance is still
somewhat in favor of the "mineral" group. It would seem that the cows receiv-
ing the mineral supplement produced on the whole somewhat better calves. It
must be stated, however, that some very fine calves have come from the cows that
have not received the supplement.

Summary and Conclusions

The object of this work has been to determine the value for dairy cows of a
mineral supplement consisting of 80 per cent di calcium phosphate (precipitated
bone) and 20 per cent carbonate of lime (ground limestone) added to a ration
supposedly deficient in lime. Previous work with tricalcium phosphate in the
form of steamed bone meal as a source of lime and phosphorus showed little,
if any, advantage in supplying these elements in that form. As dicalcium
phosphate is somewhat more soluble and had given better results elsewhere with
lambs and goats than the tricalcium phosphate, it was thought worthy of a trial
with cows.

A special effort was made to have the basal ration of the cows as deficient in
lime as possible. To this basal ration there was added for half of the herd (known
as the "mineral" group) sufficient of the phosphate-carbonate mixture to the-
oretically make good the deficiency. The experiment was carried on for two years
with the following results:

1. All the cows in the herd maintained their general condition well. The
mature cows that received the mineral supplement maintained themselves slightly
better in this respect than did those not receiving the supplement. They also
made a considerable gain in weight while the "non-mineral" group showed little
change.

MINERAL NUTRITION 159

2. The mineral supplement had little, if anj-, effect on the growth of the j'oung
cows and heifers.

3. The low ash ration apparently had no adverse effect on milk production,
and the mineral supplement apparently had no favorable effect.

4. The composition of the milk was not significantly affected.

5. Reproductive troubles were not serious in either group, but the cows receiv-
ing the mineral supplement were a little nearer normal and produced on the whole
somewhat better calves than did those that did not receive it.

6. It must be emphasized that none of the differences between the groups was
sufficiently striking to warrant as a general recommendation the use of the dical-
cium phosphate-calcium carbonate mixture.

Where cows are average producers (5000-8000 pounds), and where they are
fed normally on good quality roughage the need of a mineral supplement is not
indicated. For heavy producers (10,000 pounds and upwards) it is probably
good insurance to supply supplemental lime and phosphorus, but the efficacy
of such a practice is by no means well established.

It has been nothing short of amazing to note the persistency with which the
cows devoted to this study have maintained their milk production and for the
most part their own well-being on low ash rations over a period of years. If these
cows which average over 9000 pounds of milk yearly (several of them being 11,000
to 12,000 pound cows) can make such a showing on abnormal rations, it seems
reasonable to infer that the average New England cow on good quality roughage
must have a considerable margin of safety as far as minerals are concerned. It
seems probable that the mineral problem is a regional or local one. If soils on
which roughages are grown are so deficient in lime or phosphorus as to produce
feeds low in these ingredients, then the addition of a mineral supplement may
prove helpful. It is not believed that such conditions with respect to calcium
prevail in New England, while possible deficiencies of phosphorus in our roughages
are made good bj" the liberal grain feeding practiced in this section of the country.

Part II. MINERAL MATTER IN CATTLE FEEDS

In order to ascertain the mineral content of the ordinary roughages grown by
farmers in Massachusetts, numerous samples of hay and corn silage — the two
staple coarse feeds — were collected with the aid of the county agents from different
sections of the State, and analj^zed for the most important mineral constituents.
It was surprising how few analyses were on record, especially of the calcium con-
tent of cattle feeds. In the following pages are given the results, together with
such brief comments as seem necessary.

Mineral Matter in Massachusetts Roughages^

Sixty-eight samples, including thirty-two of hay, twenty-four of corn silage and
twelve miscellaneous roughages were collected and analyzed. They were obtained
from thirty-three farms in twenty-nine towns, located in eleven counties.

The results, in order to be comparable, are expressed in the case of hay on a 10
per cent water basis and in the case of silage on a 78 per cent water basis, and also
on an elemental basis; that is, as the elements, calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P)
instead of as the oxides CaO and P2O5, etc. In Table 1 they are arranged on the
basis of location in the State, beginning with Barnstable County in the southeast
and continuing to Berkshire County in the west.

• All of the analytical work was done by H. D. Haskins and L. S. Walker of the Control Service.
The methods followed were those of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.

160 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 255

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MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 255

Table 2. — Average of All Samples

Material State of Material

Water Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Potassium

Per cent

Hay Dry matter basis none

Hay Natural moisture 10

Silage Dry matter basis .

Silage Natural moisture .

none

78

{Ca)

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0.46

0.41

.20-.69
0.36
0.08

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0.18

0.16

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0.20
0.04

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0.20

0.18

0.25
0.06

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Per cent
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1.40

1.26

1.24
0.27

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the line represents the average.

Comments on the analyses of hay

Calcium and phosphorus are the minerals most likely to be deficient in the ration
of the dairy cow. In cases where calcium falls below 0..30 per cent, it might be
considered deficient. Whether this represents the normal conditions on the
particular farms where the samples were taken, it is not possible to state. The
average of 0.41 per cent is believed to be normal and sufficient for the purposes of
nutrition. A few samples show a low phosphorus percentage, namely, 0.10-0.14
per cent, but the average of O.IG probably is satisfactory. There is not much
danger of a phosphorus deficiencj" in New England for the reason that considerable
grain is fed, which is high in this ingredient. The magnesium and potassium are
believed to be ample in amount, although there are wide differences in the potash
percentage (0.75 to 2.23). Hays containing the lesser amounts maj^ have been
grown on soils naturally low in available potash.

Comments on the analyses of silage

Compared with hay, on a dry matter basis the silages average rather less calcium
(0.36 compared with 0.46 for hay) and potassium (1.24 compared with 1.40 for
hay) and about the same percentages of phosphorus and magnesium. Individual
samples var}^ widely, depending probably upon available soil mineral constituents
and stage of growth. The data show no pronounced deficit of mineral constitu-
ents.

Relation of botanical composition of the hay to the ash content

Twelve samples of hay were all or nearly all timothy; twenty were mixed
grasses.

Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Potassium

Timothy 40 .19 .18 1.55

Mixed gras.ses 50 .17 .22 1.31

Differences of importance are not noticed, although rather less calcium is
found in the timothy than in the mixed grasses.

Relation of number of ears in silage to ash content

Eleven of the samples were well-eared; thirteen had few or no ears.

Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Potassium

Not eared 37 .19 .28 1.39

Well-eared 2S .19 .21 1.07

MINERAL NUTRITION 163

These figures confirm what is ah'eady known with respect to the variation in
the ash content after the corn plant matures; namely, that with the exception of
the phosphorus, all the ash constituents diminish relatively as the plant approaches
maturity. The phosphorus remains constant or nearly so because the tendency
to diminish, which is characteristic of the other constituents of the ash, is offset
by the fact that the seed contains a much higher percentage of phosphorus than
do the other parts of the plant.

Mineral Matter in Miscellaneous Roughages and Concentrates

In addition to the mineral analyses of roughages collected in various sections of
Massachusetts, numerous mineral analyses have been made of different roughages
and concentrates used in connection with our experiments in mineral nutrition
during the last few years. Most of the roughages were grown upon the experi-
ment station and college farm or on farms near by. The concentrates came from
different sections of the country. Those marked "Feed Control" were collected
in this State by the station inspection service. In addition, for the sake of com-
parison, other sources were drawn upon. Those marked "M. and L." refer to
Mentzel and Lengerke, the German tabulation, and those marked "Forbes''
were taken from Bulletin 255 of the Ohio Experiment Station and were made
under the direction of E. B. Forbes.

The percentages of only the most important mineral elements are presented,
namely, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium and sulfur. Silica, while
not stated, was found in amounts varying from one to two or more per cent in
roughages and grain hulls and less than one per cent in most concentrates. Iron
and aluminum were present in quite small amounts as well as traces of sodium.
The legume roughage contains the most calcium, followed bj' the non-legumes,
while not much more than .1 to .2 per cent is to be found in the concentrates;
the latter, on the other hand, contain considerable amounts of phosphorus. The
roughages contain liberal amoimts of potassium, and most concentrates contain
fair to liberal quantities. Both roughages and concentrates have reasonable
amounts of magnesium, although the amount of this element varies considerably
in different plants, grains and by-products.

The variations in the percentages given by the different authorities as a rule
are not marked. Bj'-products are likely to vary in composition to a limited extent.
In general it may be said that the roughages furnish most of the calcium and the
concentrates most of the phosphorus.

164

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 2r,5

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Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 256 November, 1929

The Cost of Government
in Massachusetts

1910-1926

By Hubert W. Yount and Ruth E. Sherburne

The rapid increase in demands for public service, together with the re-
sulting increase in taxes, has placed a severe strain on farmers in many
Massachusetts towns. This study analyzes the costs of public service in
such towns compared with larger towns and cities, and points out the more
intportant handicaps under which small towns operate.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

SUMMARY

1. Total public expenditures for State and local purposes increased from
$122,000,000 in 1910 to $357,000,000 in 1926, or 192 per cent.

2. Expenditures per capita in towns having less than 1000 population in-
creased 265 per cent between 1910 and 1926, as compared with a general in-
crease for the state of only 130 per cent.

3. In terms of purchasing power, public expenditures per person in 1926
were not more than 55 per cent above 1910.

4. The three principal causes of the increase in public expenditures are
the rise in the price level, the increase in government services, and the growth
of population.

5. Approximately five-sixths of total expenditures are for local town or
city pur|)oses.

6. Interest and debt payments required one-eighth of total expenditures
in 1926. Payments for these purposes are not important in most small towns.

7. Schools and roads take more than 40 per cent of total expenditures, and
the percentage has been increasing gradually.

8. The construction and maintenance of highways takes about one-sixth
of the total budget of Massachusetts, State and local. In 1926 highways took
51 per cent of total expenditures in towns with less than 500 population, but
less than 13 per cent in cities.

9. One-fourth of total expenditures is for education. The importance of
this item tends to vary inversely with the size of the town; in towns with less
than 1000 population, expenditures for education average more than 40 per
cent of the total.

10. Education in small towns costs more per person, more per pupil, and
more per $1000 of assessed valuation than in larger towns and cities, and fre-
quently the service received is distinctly inferior.

11. State financial aid to small towns for education and highways is partly
overcoming the financial handicap of rural communities.

12. Only 5 per cent of the expenditures per person in towns with less than
1000 population are for charity, public health and recreation. The percentage
tends to increase with the size of the town or city, certain cities rvmning as
high as 25 per cent.

13. The cost per person for general government is twice as much in small
towns under 1000 population as in large towns and cities.

14. Legal requirements imposed upon towns, while responsible in part
for the increase in expenditures, have been offset by various forms of State aid.

15. About 70 per cent of the total cost of government is met by taxes.
The remainder is paid from departmental earnings and receipts, gifts and
grants, and from borrowed funds.

16. Taxes on real estate have been increasing somewhat faster than other
taxes. This is particularly marked in rural towns in which the tax burden is
carried largely by real estate.

17. The tax Tper $1000 of assessed valuation, i. e., the tax rate, has in-
creased much more rapidly in farm towns than in manufacturing towns and
cities.

18. For the state as a whole, borrowing does not appear to be excessive,
but certain larger towns and cities are approaching the danger point on the
basis of ordinary criteria of safety.

THE COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASSACHUSETTS,

1910-1926'

By Hubert W. Yount, Assistant Professor, and Ruth E. Sherburne,
Research Assistant, in Agricultureil Economics

CONTENTS

Page Page

Summary __ 168 Charity, health and correction 199

Introduction 169 General government 202

The increase in public expenditures 171 Town expenditures required by law 204

The purpose of public expenditures 175 Sources of funds to meet increasing

Causes of the increase in public ex- expenditures 207

penditures 177 Increase in departmental earnings 216

Interest and debt 182 The public debt .,...> „ 220

Highways 184 Appendix 223

EJducation 188

INTRODUCTION

In common with other states, public expenditures in Massachusetts have
been increasing rapidly in recent years. The necessity of finding revenue to
meet the increased cost of the different ser\'ices performed by state and local
governments as well as to support many new activities has focused attention
on problems of public finance. This ^tudy was begun in 1925 in cooperation
with the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture as one of a series of similar studies in several states.
The purposes of this investigation were:

1. To show the increase in State and local expenses since 1910.

2. To show the increase in expenditures for different purposes.

3. To analyze the causes of increasing expenditures for State and
local purposes.

4. To show how revenues have been obtained to meet increasing
expenditures.

5. To analyze and compare the costs of similar governmental activ-
ities in farm and urban comnnmities.

6. To compare benefits received from public expenditures with the
costs in farm and urban communities.

7. To determine to what extent state financial aid is reducing the
tax burdens in agricultui'al towns.

^ This is the second of two studies dealing with taxation and public finance in
Massachusetts, carried on in cooperation with the Bureau of Agricultural Economics
of the United States Department of Agriculture. The first study was published in
April, 1927, as Experiment Station Bulletin 235, "Farm Taxes and Assessments in
Massachusetts." This was concerned primarily with problems of assessment and the
relation of the individual to local taxation. The authors are indebted to R. Wayne
Newton, formerly Associate Agricultural Economist with the Bureau, for suggestions
and criticisms of the present study; also to Professor D. W. Sawtelle, formerly of the
Djpartmont of Agriciiltural Economics, Massachusetts Agricultural College, for ma-
terial service in certain of the tabulations and in preparation of the charts.

170

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

The Unit of Government in Massachusetts

Taxes are levied and funds are spent by three different civil units in
Massachusetts. These are the central state government, counties, and cities
or towns. The local city or town is the most important unit of go\ernment,
carrying on many of the functions performed by counties in other sections of
the country. The county is relatively unimportant, since county activities
are limited to the support of certain courts, the recording of land titles, a
small amount of highway construction, the support and administration of
training s.chools for habitual truants and other school offenders, and other
minor functdons. Certain counties aJso support agricultural high schools in
whole or in part, and a few counties maintain hospitals for the care of tu-
bercular children.

CHARI

1. Increase iu Public Expenditures for the State, Counties and Identical
Cities and Towns, 1912-1926. (Expressed in Percentages.)

PE-RCEINTAGE

Increase
240

180

Towns Towns

Under Over Counties Cities State

5000 50OO

Total

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS. 171

The more important functions performed by th€ city or town are the
assessment and collection of poll and property taxes, the maintenance of
local schools, the construction and maintenance of local highways, the admin-
istration of poor relief, and the control of local public health and sanitation.

The more important functions of the central state government^ in
addition to the usual legislative and executive or police functions, are the
construction and maintainance of highways, the supervision and support of
educational actiAities, the care of the feeble-minded and ins>ane, and the
maintenance of correctional institutions. The State also levies and collects
various corporation taxes and the state income tax, and distributes the pro-
ceeds to towns and cities as provided by law.

Table 1. — Total Annual Expenditures in Massaclmsetts, by Jurisdictions,

1910-1926.^

(Thousands of dollars)

Central

Towns

Towns

Year

State
Gov't

Count ies-

Under
5,000

Over

5,000

Cities

Total

1910

$19,093

$ 3,642

$ 6,127

•117,406

$ 76,025

$122,293

1911

19,922

3,406

6,341

17,272

78,487

126,428

1912

21,774

3.482

9,733

18.196

85,581

138,766

1913

26,208

3.795

10,804

19.233

94,150

154,190

1914

29,163

4,012

9,263

21,227

99,088

162,753

1915

27,338

4.007

10,154

21,130

100,395

163,024

1916

28,629

4.346

10,134

21,801

101,154

166,064

1917

34,122

4.760

10,685

23,080

107,950

180,597

1918

38,100

5,510

10,466

22.564

110,344

186,984

1919

55,213

5,536

12,904

26.155

127.262

227,070

1920

46,716

6.901

16.005

32,752

150.350

252,724

1921

44,174

10,343

17,600

36,423

167.991

276,531

1922

45,274

9,217

18,844

38,359

173.723

285,417

1923

46,385

9,025

20,343

41.439

186.683

303,875

1924

48,076

9,210

21,293

49,200

203,828

331,607

1925

47,979

10,132

22.630

49,974

206.627

337,342

1926

49,802

9,870

23,968

53,416

219.915

356,971

^ Expenditures for all purposes, including new eonstruction.
- Payments on debt not available.

THE INCREASE IN PUBLIC EXPENDITURES'

From 1910 to 1926, reported annual expenditures for State and local
purposes increased from $122,293,000 to $356,971,000, or 192 per cent. (Table
1) However, the data are not strictly comparable before 1912, since a few
simall towns did not report until that year. The relative increase in expendi-
tures for the State and for counties, cities and towns from 1912 to 1926 is
shown in Table 2 and in Chart 1. In official reports, miunicipalities are
classiified as cities, or as towns over or under 5,000 population, according to
the most recent census. When a large town becomes a city or when a town

^ Hereafter called State.

s Data on public expenditures have been taken from the following sources:
State expenditures: 1910-1922, Annual Reports of the State Auditor, Mass.
Pub. Doc. 6; 1923-1926, Annual Reports of the Commission on Administra-
tion and Finance, Mass. Pub. Doc. 140.
County expenditures: 1910-1926, Annual Reports on the Statistics of County

Finances, Mass. Pub. Doc. 29.
Town and city expenditures: 1910-1926, Annual Reports on the Statistics of
Municipal Finances, Mass. Pub. Doc. 79.

172 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

Table 2. — Increase in Expenditures, by Jurisdictions, 1912-1926.

Increase for

r Identical Towns

Increase
Jurisdiction „ ^ awd Cities as

Per cent ^,

Classified in 191S

Per cent

Central State Gov't 228.7

Counties 283.5

Cities 2'57.0 247.3

Towns over 5,000 293.6 304.1

Towns under 5,000 246.3 311.7

Total 257.2

grows to more than 5,000 population, expenditures are reported under the
new classification. Therefore the annual figures for the three groups are not
always conipiarable. From 1910 to 1926 the number of cities increased from
33 to 39; towns ov-^r 5,000 population increased from 71 to 79; while towns
under 5,000 population decreased from 249 to 237.

In order to show the true increase in expenditures for each group, tabu-
lations were made according to the classification of cities and towns in 1912.
The second column in Table 2 i& the more significant since it shows the in-
crease in expenditures for groups of identical citites and towns.

From the table it will be seen that total expenditures increased two and
one-half times from 1912 to 1926, while town expenditures trebled. The in-
crease was greatest for small towns, and least for the State. The percentage
increasie for counties, while large, is not significant &s counties spend less
than three per cent of the total. (Table 2)

hicrease vn Expenditures Per Ca/pita
Due to the changes within the municipal groups, increases in expendi-
tures per capita are more significant than increases in totals. The increase
in expenditures per capita for each group from 1910 to 1926 is shown in
Table 3.

Table 3. — Total Expenditures per Capita.

Jurisdiction 1910 1926^ Increase

Per sent

Central State Gov't $ 5.67 $12.02 112.0

Counties 1.08 2.38 120.A

Cities 33.11 75.58 128.3

Towns over 5,000 26.64 64.48 H2.0

Towns under 5,000 19.68 59.04 20i.6

Towns under 1,000 18.82 68.59 26A.5

Total for the State 37.51 86.14 129.6

'■On the basis of 1925 population according to the State Census.

On this basis the cost of government has increased a great deal more in
sinaU towns than in the larger towns and cities^ In a general way, expendi-
tures per capita have tended to increase in inverse relation to the size of the
town. This is shown grapliically on Chart 2. Expenditures by the State
and by counties have increased relatively less than for any otlier group.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

178

CHART 2. Total Expeudltures per Capita for All Purposes and for Local Purposes
in Cities and Towns, 1910 and 1926, and the Percentage Increase.

Dollars Pep Capita

20 40 60 80

Cities
Towns Over 50oo

1910

^WWVVWVJ

192.6

avvv\(m

m^^^ 1

I9IO

^^^^*

^^^^M

1

100

120

COHRECTIOr
issachusetts Agricultural S^perinent Station Bulletin 256.

le title and col-ainn headings of Table 2 on page I72 should he:

Taole 2. — Expenditures ly Jurisdictions, 1926
(Percenta.?;es of 1912)

. . , "To^'al For Identical To^Tns

Jurisdiction as and Cities as

Reported Classified in I912

about one-teirth as nvuch as cities.

Approximately one-sixth of the total expenditures were made by the State
and counties for general puposes, while five-sixths were for local town or city
purposes.

The Relation between Population and

Expenditures Per Capita

Table 4 shows total expenditures per capita for towns and cities, grouped
according to population, for the years 1907, 1912, 1917, 1922 and 1926. Sub-
stantial differences will be noted between groups each year. However, a change
has taken place in the relation of population to expenditures per person. Until
1917, there was a fairly distinct tendency for expenditures per capita to bear
a direct relationship to population, that is, for expenditures per capita in large

172 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

Table 2. — Increase in Expenditures, by Jurisdictions, 1912-1926.

Increase for

J Identical Towns

Jurisdiction „ , and Cities as

Per cent .„ , .

Classified m 1912

Per cent

Central State Gov't 228.7

Counties 283.5

Cities 257.0 247.3

Towns over 5,000 293.6 304.1

Towns under 5,000 246.3 an 7

Per cent

Central State Gov't $ 5.67 $12.02 112.0

Counties 1.08 2.38 1204

Cities 33.11 75.58 128.3

Towns over 5,000 26.64 64.48 142.0

Towns under 6,000 19.68 59.04 204.6

Towns under 1,000 18.82 68.59 264.5

Total for the State 37.51 86.14 129.6

^ On the basis of 1925 population according to the State Census.

On this basis the cost of government has increased a great deal more in
small towns than in the larger towns aJid cities. In a general way, expendi-
tures per capita have tended to increase in inverse relation to the size of the
town. This is shown grapliically on Chart 2. Expenditures by the State
and by counties have increased relatively less than for any other group.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

178

CHART 2. Total Ezpenditures per Capita for All Purposes and for Local Purposes
in Cities and Towns, 1910 and 1926, and the Percentage Increase.

Dollars Pep Capita

0 20 40 60 80

Cities

1910

i9a6

Towns Over 5ooo

I9IO

)

1926

1910

Towns Under 5000

1926

State Total

I9IO WWV^WVM

I9e6

Cities
Tov/NS Over 5 coo
Towns Under 5000

State Total

240

Relative Importance of State and Local Expenses

The relative importance of the expenditures of the various groups is
shown in Chart 3. Citi«ss spent over three-fifths of the total of $356,971,000
in 1926. Towns of less than 5,000 population, which are largely rural, spent
about one-tenith as mruch as cities.

Approximately one-sixth of the total expenditures were made by the State
and coimties for general puposes, while five-sixths were for local town or city
purposes.

The Relation between Population and

Expenditures Per Capita

Table 4 shows total expenditures per capita for towns and cities, grouped
according to population, for the years 1907, 1912, 1917, 1922 and 1926. Sub-
stantial differences will be noted between groups each year. However, a change
has taken place in the relation of population to expenditures per person. Until
1917, there was a fairly distinct tendency for expenditures per capita to bear
a direct relationship to population, that is, for expenditures per capita in large

174

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

CHART 3. The Cost of Govemment, Showing the Percentage Distribution for the
State, Counties, and Cities and Towns, 1926.

2.8 Yo

Towns
Undlr

5000

Towns

6 7<^1 Over 5ooo

15 O c/o

State
13 9 =/o

Cities
Qi 6 %

Table 4. — Total Expenditures Per Capita, by Size of City or Town,
1907, 1912, 1917, 1922 and 1926.

Size of City

or Toivn 1907

Towns

Under 1,000 $18.12

1,000-2,000 .. 17.91

2,000-3,000 . 19.21

3,000-4,000 15.53

4,000-5,000 . 21.83

5,000-7,000 23.11

7,000-10,000 . 23.10

10,000-15,000 25.07

Over 15,000 69.78

Cities

Under 25,000 25.91

25,000-50,000 27.33

50,000-75,000 29.58

75,000-100,000 26.92

100,000-150,000 23.88

150,000-200,000

Over 200,000 52.43

$20.76

$24.38

$50.86

$68.59

24.57

26.67

48.89

61.41

23.88

29.53

49.18

64.46

21.14

25.90

47.72

51.05

23.17

22,49

34.34

51.71

25.59

30.48

51.65

54.42

27.42

32.48

49.78

66.85

24.98

30.27

51.50

60.01

38.69

36.32

60.53

73.50

31.38

32.62

50.91

60.07

30.48

36.36

55.69

62.67

31.20

39.57

58.16

81.14

32.63

30.22

45.14

50.04

28.22

37.87

63.39

67.98

38.60

58.57

66.23

52.37

55.47

81.65

101.57

COST OB' GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

175

towns to be larger than in small towns. The change is apparent in the figures
for 1926. The cost per person is distinctly higher in towns of less than 3,000
than in towns of 3000 to 7000. Towns of more than 7000 show higher expendi-
tures per capita than the midgroup, and the average is about the same as for
small towns and for cities. The rise in expenditures per capita in towns under
1000 has been larger than for any other group, and present costs per person
for this group are approximately the same as for the larger towns and cities.
The reasons for this increase will be discussed in another section.

The Purpose of Public Expenditures

The increase in expenditures is more significant when analyzed according
to the purpose for which the moneys have been spent. The increase in the costs
of the several types of public service performed by State and local govern-
ments is shown in Chart 4 and Table -5. The percentage increase is shown in

Table 5. — Total Annual Expenditures in Massachusetts, by Purpose,

1910-1926.'

(Thousands of dollars)

Highways

Charity,

Public

Year

Interest

and

Education

Health and

Other

Service

Total

and Debt

Waterways

Correction

General

Enterprises^

1910

$24,595

$16,205

$24,258

$22,116

$26,027

$ 9,092

$122,293

1911

25,296

16,101

25,427

22,789

26,468

9,347

125,428

1912

25,056

19,205

27,382

25,560

29,483

11,080

138,766

1913

27,814

23,874

29,926

27,827

31,537

13,212

154,190

1914

28,986

26,769

31,601

29,531

32,240

13,626

162,753

1915

30,424

22,677

33,242

30,348

33,153

13,280

163,024

1916

31,819

23,918

33,690

30,816

33,332

12,489

166,064

1917

32,262

26,431

37.138

34,786

37,996

11,984

180,597

1918

34,901

24,764

37,767

36,789

41,237

11,526

186,984

1919

34,430

33,088

42,325

41,314

41,916

11,997

227,070

1920

37,066

40,453

58,964

47,506

53,229

15,506

252,724

1921

38,108

46,366

68,309

52,204

54,083

17,461

276,531

1922

40,668

44,459

75,115

52,533

55,474

17,168

285,417

1923

39,563

48,631

81,729

56,828

57,571

19,653

303,875

1924

41,445

57,867

87,455

62,045

61,509

21,286

331,607

1925

42,822

53,708

89,576

63,048

64,790

23,398

337,342

1926

46,265

60,238

93,621

65,550

65,956

25,341

356,971

- Expenditures for all purposes, including new construction.

- For cities and towns only.

Table 6. It should be noted that the increases are in amounts expended for
certain general purposes, and do not measure the increase in the cost of the
same government service. It is obvious to any taxpayer that he is receiving
more service than ever before. The figures given measure the increase in ex-
penditures for this service.

From the tables it is apparent that the costs of highways and education have
been and are stiU the two most important items in the public budget. They
have become relatively more important, since expenditures for these purposes
were almost four times as much in 1926 as in 1910, while expenditures for all
other purposes were less than three times as much as in 1910. It is significant
to note that the increase for meeting debt and interest charges has been less
than for any other service. The change in the relative importance of the sever-
al groups of services is shown by comparing the importance of each in the pub-
lic budget in 1910 and 1926. (Table 7). In 1910 one-third of all expenditures

176

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 266

CHART 4. Increase in the Cost of Various Groups of Public Services, 1910-1926.
(Expressed in Percentages.)

Education

Highways and
Vatelrways

Charity,
Helalth and
coraection

Othlr

GtNElRAL

Intlrelst
AND Debt

Total

PEftCENTAGE. IncRELASE

lOO 200

300

Table 6. — Increase in Cost of Certain Types of Government Service,

1910-1926.

Type of Service Increase

Per cent

Interest and Debt 88. 1

Highways and Waterways 271.7

Education 285.9

Charity, Health and Correction _ 196.4

Other General Expenses 163.4

Total 191.9

was for schools and highways; in 1926, 43 per cent were for these purposes.
The increase for these two services has been accompanied by a decline in the
charges for interest and debt from 20 per cent to less than 13 per cent. Other
general expenses, including administration and fire and police protection, have
declined nearly 3 per cent. Expenditures for charity, health and correction
have retained their relative importance. The division of the public dollar ac-
cording to purpose for which it is spent is shown in Chart 6.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

177

Table 7. — Expenditures for Various Purposes, in Percentage of
Total, 1910 and 1926.

1910 1926

Interest and Debt 20.11 12.96

Highways and Waterways 13.25 16.87

Education 19.84 26.23

Charity, Health and Correction 18.08 18.36

Other General Expenses 21.28 18.48

Public Service Enterprises 7.44 7.10

Total „ 100.00 100.00

CHART 5.

The Cost of Government, Showing the Percentage Distribution for
Different Services, 1926.

Highways and
Waterways

Interest and

Debt
^ 3 . o «/o

OTHER

GENERAL

18.5 -To

o

Si

CO 2>-

Education

CmaRity, Mealtm

AND

Correction
18.3 <%

Causes of the Increase in Public Expenditures

The increase in expenditures has been variously ascribed to the war, to
high prices, or to municipal extravagance, and there is no single explanation.
The reasons are manifold, and some apply to one group of cities and towns,
some to another group.

178 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 25G

The Effect of the War

The war has been responsible for the increase in expenditures in two ways.
During the war, public expenditures for local purposes were kept to a mini-
mum due to demands for economy. There were definite restrictions on municipal
expenditures, particularly from bond issues. Consequently, State expenses alone
show a significant increase during the war years, and the largest single war
cost, the soldiers' bonus, was a post-war expense.

At the close of the war most cities and towns were several years behind
in their building program. This deficiency had to be met together with current
needs, at a level of prices at least 50 per cent higher than the pre-war level.
Therefore the war was partly responsible for the increase in expenditures
through the postponement of necessary building during the war, and indirectly
through inflated prices.

The significance of post-war expenditures may be illustrated by comparing
the average annual increase for pre-war and post-war periods.

Average Annual Increase in
Total Massachusetts Expenditures

1910-1918 $ 8,086,000

1919-1924 21.,103,000

During the six years following the war, the average annual increase was ap-
proximately three times as much as before and during the war.

Increase in Population

The normal increase of population has been responsible for part of the
increased cost of government. The population of Massachusetts increased 23
per cent between 1910 and 1925. Most of this increase has taken place in the
cities and large towns. According to the population census of 1925, 110 of the
smaller towns show a net loss in population since 1900. Obviously the in-
crease in tlie cost of government in these towns must be accounted for on some
other basis than increasing numbers of people. However, for the state as a
unit, population has tended to increase at an annual rate of from 1 to 2 per
cent. This has certainly been one cause of increasing public expenditures.

The Rise in Prices

The general rise in prices has been one of the most important causes of
increased expenditures. During the five-year period, 1922-1926, wholesale prices
averaged more than 50 per cent above 1913, according to the all-commodity
index of the United States Bureau of Labor. The cost of government is de-
termined largely by the price of materials and by the cost of labor services.
Wages and salaries normally increase in about the same proportion as prices
but slightly later, and it is to be expected that government costs should in-
crease with prices. On this basis, government costs in 1926 would be 50 per
cent higher than in 1910 for exactly the same amount of service; or, to state it
another way, the tax dollar in 1926 would buy only two-thirds as much service
as in 1910.

However, wages and salaries follow retail prices more closely than whole-
sale prices, and during the past five years retail prices have averaged from 60
to 70 per cent above pre-war figures, according to the Bureau of Labor. Wages
of factory workers in New York have averaged more than double the pre-war

COST OF GOVERNiMENT IN MASS. 179

scale, and this condition is considered typical of the general wage situation.
Salaries of school teachers in Massachusetts have more than doubled, as will
be shown later. Prices of building materials have also averaged higher than
the general price level, or about 70 per cent above 1913 prices.

School and highway costs may be taken to illustrate the effect of the rise
in prices. The cost of new construction is 70 per cent above pre-war figures
for materials, while wages have doubled. Wages for personal services in main-
taining schools and highways have also doubled. Therefore the costs for iden-
tical service would be from 70 to 100 per cent more than before the war, due
solely to higher prices. The same conclusion is valid for all other public services
with the exception of debt and interest charges, since most government service
is personal service.

The increase in expenditures for schools and highways becomes less sig-
nificant when considered in connection with higher prices. Most cities and towns
attempted to catch up with their building program between 1020 and 192.5, and
at the same time to repair or rebuild thousands of miles of streets and high-
ways, which was made necessary by the rapid increase in motor traffic. This
construction at high prices has necessarily increased expenditures both from
taxes and from bond issues.

Increase in Public Service

Another reason for the increase in public expenditures that is often over-
looked by the taxpayers is the public demand for more and more service. There
are two aspects of this increase in service; a demand for increasing the scope
of present governmental activities, and an insistent demand that our State and
local governments undertake new activities.

Highways and education illustrate the first point. People are demanding
more and better streets and highways, boulevards, bridges, highway signs,
more frequent highway repairs, street oiling or watering, snow removal, etc.
The activities of the street and highway departments of cities and towns are
constantly being increased.

In the same way, educational opportunities are being enlarged due to
specific demands from the public. University and agricultural extension
courses, night vocational schools, agricultural and other vocational courses in
our high schools, all have been added to educational activities. At the same
time there has been a demand for more courses and more subjects in our
elementary schools, high schools, technical schools and colleges. More attention
is being paid to health and recreation which has resulted in demands for gym-
nasiums and playgrounds, expensive to construct, and costly to maintain.

Other activities have been undertaken in connection with health, charity,
and the care of the defective classes of society. The State has been especially
active in the construction and maintenance of institutions for the care of the
feeble-minded and insane. Physical examinations in the schools to correct phys-
ical defects, and supervised play in public playgrounds are new activities de-
signed to improve public health. The state police is a new activity, brought into
existence by the necessity for regulation of traffic on congested highways.

All of these new activities, together with the expansion of functions already
being performed, add to the number of people on the public payroll and to
public expenditures, all by and with the consent of taxpayers who believe that
the increased expenditure is justified by the benefits received.

180

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 266

Mwnicipal Extravagance

The statement is often made that municipal extravagance has been respons-
ible for the increase in public expenditures. In some cases this has been true,
if by extravagance is meant expenditures for things not essential to the pub-
lic welfare. However, judgment as to what is extravagant may well be based
on what the voters demand and are willing to pay for. A town or city may
put more money into beautiful schools, libraries, parks, boulevards, or city
buildings than appears to be justified by its size and rate of growth; but if
such things are demanded by the public they are not extravagances of of-
ficials, at any rate.

One factor in the situation is that a great many voters are not property
owners. In 1926 more than one-half of the individual taxpayers paid poll tax
as the only direct tax, and apparently a substantial majority of the voters
either did not own property, or were taxed merely on personal property. As
long as this situation exists it is somewhat doubtful if the rate of increase in
town and city expenditures can be confined to the requirements of a normal
increase in population. In rural and other towns where most voters are prop-
erty owners, it seems likely that as soon as taxes become burdensome the
property owners will regulate expenditures more nearly in accordance with
their ability to pay.

Table 8. — Index Numbers of Population, Commodity Prices, and Public
Expenditures in Massachusetts, 1910-1926.

1910 = 100

Year

Population^

All

Commodity

Prices^

Total Expenditures

Expenditures
per Capita

Actual Deflated

Actual Deflated

1910

100

100

100 100

100 100

1911

102

92

103 112

101 109

1912

104

98

113 115

109 111

1913

106

99

126 127

119 120

1914

108

97

133 137

123 127

1915

110

100

133 133

121 121

1916

111

125

136 109

122 99

1917

112

175

148 85

132 75

1918

113

192

153 80

135 71

1919

113

204

186 91

164 81

1920

114

223

207 93

181 81

1921

116

146

226 155

195 134

1922

118

147

233 159

197 135

1923

120

151

248 164

207 137

1924

121

147

271 184

224 152

1925

123

157

276 176

224 143

1926

125

131

292 193

234 155

^ Census figures are available only at five-year intervals. Other years were estimated from
the average change between census periods.

2 United States Bureau of Labor index converted to a 1910 base.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

181

The Significance of the Increase in Expenditures

While the increase in expenditures has been large, it has been shown that
the growth of population together with the change io prices has exercised con-
siderable influence on this increase. The effect of these factors is shown by
index numbers in Table 8 and Chart 6, where total and per capita expenditures
for each year have been reduced to percentages of expenditures in 1910. The
index of total expenditures for 1926 is 292. Allowing for the increase in popu-
lation, the per capita index in 1926 is 234.

CHART 6. Public Expenditures, Total and per Capita, Actual and Deflated by the
Index of Wholesale Prices, 1910-1926.

(Expressed in Index Numbers ■with 1910 as the Base.)

INDEIX NUriBLR

1910 = 100

350

300

250

200

iQO

926

These figures make no allowance for the increase in prices. If the Bureau
of Labor Index of Wholesale Prices, converted to a 1910 base, is used as a
measure of the changing value of the dollar, expenditures may be stated in
terms of dollars with a constant value, their value in 1910. On this basis, total
expenditures in 1926 were only 93 per cent higher than in 1910, and per capita
expenditures gained only 55 per cent in the 17-year period.

From the chart it will be noted that during the war years the increase in ex-
penditures did not equal the increase in prices, and for five years expenditures
in deflated dollars were lower than in 1910, both in total and per capita. Tax
payers were apparently getting the same service as before, but paying less for
the service in terms of purchasing power.

182

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

The significance of the preceding discussion may be shown by reducing all
expenditures to simple figures. In 1926 total expenditures were .$2.92 for every
dollar spent in 1910, and $2.34 per person for each dollar per person spent in
1910. In terms of purchasing power, allowing for higher prices, $1.93 was
spent in 1926 for every dollar spent in 1910, and $1..5.5 per person was spent for
every dollar per person in 1910.

If the cost of government service followed wholesale prices exactly, the
figures would indicate that the amount of government service per person has
increased 55 per cent since 1910. However, it was previously pointed out that
government costs follow retail prices more closely than wholesale prices. If
expenditures per person be deflated by the Federal Reserve Board Index^ of
the general price level, it appears that the net increase in amount of govern-
ment service per person from 1910 to 1926 was 37 per cent. In the opinion
of the authors, this is a fair estimate, and nearer the true situation than the
55 per cent shown above.

Interest and Debt

The payment of interest and annual payments on the principal of borrowed
funds either to sinking funds or to redeem outstanding serial bonds are impor-
tant fixed costs of government. Table 7 shows that one-eighth of the total
annual expenditures is for these purposes, and that the percentage has been
decreasing. In 1910, payments on account of debt were the largest" group of
Cfxpenses; while by 1926 the cost was less than any of the more important
groups of services.

Table 9. — Expenditures for Interest and Debt, by Jurisdictions,
1910-1926.

(Thousands of dollars)

Central

Towns

Towns

Year

State
Gov't

Counties*

Under
5,000

Over

5,000

Cities

Total

1910

$ 2,442

$ 194

$ 648

$ 3,062

$ 18,249

)ti ii4,595

1911

2,486

180

698

3,244

18,688

25,296

1912

2,420

159

1,059

3,256

19,162

26,056

1913

2,971

172

1,131

3,456

20,084

27,814

1914

3,381

175

986

3,788

20,656

28,986

1915

3,353

175

1,077

3,425

22,394

30,424

1916

3,447

167

1,133

3,598

23,474

31,819

1917

3,973

187

1,181

3,713

23,208

32,262

1918

5,342

235

1,120

3,753

24,451

34,901

1919

4,614

187

1,158

3,601

24,870

34,430

1920

5,957

242

1,171

3,826

25,870

37,066

1921

5,045

250

1,373

4,120

27,320

38,108

1922

4,634

213

1,404

4,374

30,043

40,668

1923

3,810

196

1,556

4,562

29,439

39,563

1924

3.366

212

1,549

5,155

31,163

41,445

1925

3,263

319

1,715

5,750

31,775

42,822

1926

3,161

324

1,831

6,158

34,791

46,265

* Payments on debt not included.

Table 9 shows the cost of interest and debt for the various civil units.
Cities pay three-fourths of the total, towns over 5,000 pay only one-eighth, and
the State pays about one-twelfth. Counties and small towns spend less than

* This index number includes retail prices, wages, and the cost of living.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

183

5 per cent of the total. The importance of interest and debt payments in the
budget for each group is shown in Table 11.

Until 1922 paj-ments by the State government for interest and debt amount-
ed to more than 10 per cent of State expenditures, but since that tune the per-
centage has been dropping. The County figures on debt payments are not
available except for the past few years.

Table 10. — Expenditures per Capita for Interest and Debt, by Size of
Citv or Town, 1926.

Number

Per Cent

Size of City

of Cities

of Total

or Town

or Towns

Interest

Debt

Total

Expenditures

Towns

Under 1,000

83

.$ .86

$1.03

$ 1.89

2.75

1,000-2,000

74

1.60

2.73

4.33

7.02

2,000-3.000

39

1.82

3.63

5.45

8.Jt5

3,000-4,000

28

1.56

2.84

4.40

S.62

4,000-5,000

17

1.78

3.34

5.12

9.90

5,000-7,000

26

1.74

3.66

5.40

9.90

7,000-10,000

22

3.08

4.47

7.55

11.30

10,000-15,000

19

2.19

3.55

5.74

9.53

Over 15,000

12

4.31

5.99

10.30

H.OO

Cities

Under 25,000

13

2.74

5.71

8.45

li.OH

25,000-50,000

11

3.60

6.34

9.94

15.85

50,000-75,000

5

4.62

7.43

12.05

H.S5

75,000-100,000

2

2,85

3.79

6.64

13.27

100,000-150,000

6

4.78

7.47

12.25

18.00

150,000-200,000

1

3.49

6.10

9.59

13.98

Over 200,000

1

9.10

6.84

15,94

15.68

The proportion of the total municipal expenditures required for interest
and debt payments tends to increase with the size of the town, but this does
not seem to be true for the larger cities. (Table 10). In Table 11 it will be
noted that interest and debt pajnnents take twice as much of the budget in
cities as in small towns. Considerable variation occurs between towns or cities
in the same group. Thus, in cities of from 100,000 to 150,000 population, inter-
est and debt payments per person ranged from $8.97 to $16.61 in 1926.

Many of the small towns have little or no debt, and the average is increased
considerably by a few towns that are relatively wealthy and have borrowed
much more than other towns of their size. Thus, 6 of the 44 towns of less
than 500 population in 1926 paid 58 per cent of the total interest and debt of
the group. For towns of less than 1,000 population, 68 per cent of interest and
debt payments were made by 17 towns, in one of which per capita payments

Table 11.- — Ratio of Payments for Interest and Debt to Total
Expenditures, 1926. (Percentages)

JurL^dicfio)) . Interest Debt Total

Central State Gov't 2.7 3.7 6.4

Counties 3.3 — ' 3.3

Towns under 5,000 2.7 4.9 7.6

Towns over 5,000 4.5 7.0 11.5

Cities 7.0 8.8 15.8

^ Debt figures not available.

184 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

averaged $11.50. Similar variations occur in the other groups, and the prin-
cipal significance of Table 11 is that it shove's the average change in the relative
importance of interest and debt with an increase in population.

Highways

The construction and maintenance of streets and highways takes about
one-sixth of the total budget in Massachusetts. Over $59,000,000 was spent for
highways in 1926, which is the last year for which complete figures are available.
This figure was more than 270 per cent higher than in 1910. From 1910 to
1919 highway expenditures doubled, and they have almost doubled again since
that time.

Tables 12 and 13 show the relative changes in highway expenditures by
jurisdictions from 1910 to 1926.

Table 12. — Expenditures for Highways, by Jurisdictions, 1910-1926.^
( Thousands of dollars)

Central

Towns

Towns

Year State

Counties

Under

Over

Cities^

Total

Gov't

5,000=

5,000-

1910

$ 2,008

$ 383

$ 1,373 •

$ 2,421

$ 9,600

$ 15,785

1911

2,114

369

1,338

2,518

9,050

15,389

1912

2,710

533

2,189

2,767

10,401

18,600

1913

3,388

601

2,437

2,865

11,979

21,270

1914

3,937

705

2,286

3,300

13,230

23,458

1915

2,910

681

2,568

3,306

12,127

21,592

1916

3,301

841

2,556

3,541

11,698

21,937

1917

4,828

899

2,594

2,760

12,889

24,970

1918

4,009

904

2,457

3,172

12,179

22,721

1919

3,787

929

3,453

4,344

17,550

30,063

1920

5,697

1,886

4,902

5,656

20,526

38,667

1921

7,564

4,759

4,559

6,394

21,758

45,034

1922

7,882

3,694

4,837

6,140

20,649

43,202

1923

9,252

3,095

5,643

6,715

22,885

47,590

1924

11,540

2,384

5,825

8,363

29,011

57,123

1925

10,962

2,704

6,524

8,124

24,955

53,269

1926

12,484

2,294

7,441

9,594

27,848

59,661

'^ Includes new construction.

- Payments for both maintenance and construction are shown in Table A 1.

State highway expenses have increased much more rapidly than municipal
highway expenses due to the rapid development of the State highway system,
and to the fact that cities and large towns had well developed street systems

Table 13. — Increase in Highway Expenditures, 1910-1926.

Jurisdiction Increase

Per cent

Central State Gov't 521. T

Counties 499.0'

Towns under 5,000 441.9'

Towns over 5,000 296.3

Cities 190.1

Total 278.0

^ This large increase is not significant, since county highway expenditures are
only 5 per cent of all highway costs.

^ 1910 base figures were not complete.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS. 185

before tlie recent increase in automobile travel. Tlie increase in county ex-
penses is due in part to the building of several important bridges. Highway
expenditures in towns have apparently increased much more rapidly than in
cities.

Cities now pay approximately one-half of the total cost of highways, either
for streets or for highways within their limits. The State pays approximately
one-fifth, and the percentage has increased rapidly during the past few years.
The distribution of highway expenses for selected years is shown in Table 14.
The State, counties and small towns pay relatively more, while cities and large
towns together pay only 62 per cent of the total instead of three-fourths as in
1910.

Table 14. — Distribution of Total Highway Expenditures for Selected Years.

(Percentages)

Central Towns Towns .,,

Year State Counties Under Over Cities _

Groups
Gov't 5,000 5,000

1910

12.72

2.42

8.70

15.34

60.82

100.00

1915

13.48

3.15

11.89

15.31

56.17

100.00

1920

14.73

4.88

12.68

14.63

53.08

100.00

1925

20.58

5.08

12.25

15.25

46.84

100.00

1926

20.92

3.85

12.47

16.08

46.68

100.00

With the exception of 1924 a larger part of public funds is now devoted
to highway jDurposes than at any time since 1910. Table 1.5 illustrates the
change in the relation of highway expenditures to total expenditures.

Table 1.5. — Relation of Highway Expenditures to Total Expenditures,

by Jurisdictions,' 1910-1926.

(Percentages)

Central Towns Towns

Year State Counties Under Over Citie.?

Gov't 5.000 5.000

All

Groups

1910

10.51

10.52

22.41

13.91

12.63

12.91

1915

10.64

17.00

25,29

15.65

12.08

13.24

1920

12.19

27.33

30.63

17.27

13.65

15.30

1925

22.85

2 6.69

28.83

16.26

12.08

15.79

1926

25.07

23.24

31.05

17.96

12.66

16.71

Highway costs take a larger share of public expenditures than in 1910 for
each of the groups except cities, which remains about the same. In 1926, 16.7
cents out of every dollar spent was for highways compared with 12.9 cents in
1910. The change of 3.8 cents represents a 29 jjer cent increase in the relative
importance of highways. One-fourth of the State expenditures is now devoted
to highways, compared with only 10.5 per cent in 1910. The increase for coun-
ties has been about the same as for the State. While a larger share of municipal
expenditures is required for highway purposes than formerly, the increase has
not been as great in cities as in towns. More than 31 per cent of the budget of
small towns is for highways, while cities spend slightly over 12 per cent. The
importance of highways in the town budget tends to decrease as the town be-
comes larger. This is illustrated by Table 16. In the 83 towns of less than 1,000
population, highways take 49 per cent of the total expenditures and the per

186

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

Table 16.-

-Expenditures

per Capita

for Highways, by S

ze of

City or Town,

1926.

Number

Per Cent

Size of City

of Cities

Maintenance Construction

Total

of Total

or Town

or Towns

Expenditures

Towns

Under 1,000

83

$18.49

$13.11

$31.60

AO.OO

1,000.2,000

74

12.23

8.77

21.00

Si. 20

2,000-3,000

39

11.08

6.88

17.96

27.89

3,000-4,000

28

7.94

5.15

13.09

25.60

4,000-5,000

17

7.25

5.87

13.12

25.U0

5,000-7,000

26

7.28

4.87

12.15

22.30

7,000-10,000

22

7.44

3.68

11.12

16.65

10,000-15,000

19

5.77

4.36

10.13

16.88

Over 15,000

12

6.91

6.05

12.96

17.62

Cities

Under 25,000

13

5.59

2.96

8.55

H.25

25,000-50,000

11

4.15

4.63

8.78

H.OO

50,000-75,000

5

5.33

4.00

9.33

11.50

75,000-100,000

2

3.45

2.33

5.78

11.55

100,000-150,000

6

4.45

5.11

9.56

H.07

150,000-200,000

1

5.31

3.20

8.51

12.iO

Over 200,000

1

5.34

6.34

11.68

11.50

capita payments for highways are three times as large as the average for
cities.

Comparatively large highway costs in rural towns are significant for two
reasons. First, if the town spends the largest part of its income for highways
other functions may suffer, which means that rural towns are unable to enjoy
certain services available to larger towns and cities. In 1926, 51 per cent of
the expenditures of the 44 towns of less than 500 population was for highways.

The rural towns have more miles of road per taxpayer than the more
densely populated towns, and the assessed valuation per mile of road is lower.
This means that with equal tax rates for highway purposes, the roads can not
be kept in as good condition as in towns where the assessed valuation per mile
of road is high. In respect to highways, small towns are therefore under a
double disadvantage in that they spend proportionally more for roads than
larger towns and receive less in service because of a lower expenditure per
mile which may leave roads in poorer condition.

The Significance of High Costs for Highways

Large expenditures for highways have been justified by the increased ease
of transportation. Massachusetts has a high percentage of surfaced roads,
which has materially reduced cost of intra-state transportation. The network
of State highways, largely constructed during the past ten years, has opened
relatively isolated farming districts and has expanded the farmers' market
area in all directions. Fruit and vegetable growers now haul their products
from the Connecticut Valley to Boston, a distance of 100 miles. Farmers in
the hill towns of the western part of the state now sell fluid milk, collected at
the door, instead of cream and butter, thereby increasing their farm income.
The area supplying perishable food stufiFs to our cities has been much increased
through motor transportation and good roads. Roadside selling by farmers has
been made possible by the expansion of the highway system.

Increasing expenditures for better roads have brought substantial returns.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS. 187

Automobile traffic has grown to such an extent that it is estimated that auto-
mobiles and motor trucks pay taxes and fees equal to nearly 30 per cent of
the annual expenditures for highway purposes'. In addition, a portion of the
original cost of new streets and highways has been paid by taxes on the in-
crease in the assessed valuation of real estate, due to such improvements. This
increase has been justified by the greater earning power of farm property re-
sulting from improved highways. State and county highways through farming
districts have cost the local towns relatively little, and the increase in prop-
erty values has added to the assessed valuations giving more taxes with which
to improve town roads.

In addition to the above advantages accruing to the local towns, State
financial aid for highway purposes partly offsets the disadvantage of such
towns previously mentioned. Most rural towns receive considerably more high-
way service than they pay for, either as State highways or as direct financial
aid from the State for local highway purposes.

State Aid for Highways

Small towns have been unable to construct and maintain the highways
made necessary by the increase in automobile traffic. The State has therefore
found it necessary to assist them in two ways; first, by the construction and
maintenance of State highways, to the cost of which towns may or may not
contribute; and second, by grants of money to towns for highway purposes
or through the donation of services by the State highway division. State aid
proper falls under the second classification.

Table 17. — Minimum Town Appropriations Necessary to Receive
State Highway Aid.

Town Town

Road Mileatje Appropriation Road Mileage Appropriation

Ratio per Mile Ratio per Mile

Less than $1.40 $15.00 $3.-50-5.50 $ 75.00

1.40-2.00 25.00 5. 50-7. CO 100.00

2.00-2.80 40.00 7.00-9.00 125.00

2.80-3.50 50.00 9.00-12.00 150.00

The division of highways of the Department of Public Works, is authorized
by law (Small Towns Act, 1918) to spend up to $150 per mile for the repair
and improvement of roads in towns in which the property valuation is less
than $4,000,000, and in which the road mileage ratio is less than $12. The road
mileage ratio is the proportionate amount of each million dollars of State taxes
paid by the town divided by the number of miles of public highway within the
town. In order to secure this aid, towns must make minimum appropriations
as shown in Table 17. Both town and State appropriations under this act must
be expended under the direction of the State division of highways upon such
roads in each town as are jointly agreed upon by the division and the selectmen

5 Estimates based on receipts previous to the gasoline tax and automobile excise
tax established in 1929.

State registration, licenses, fines and fees $12,500,000

Property taxes paid to cities and towns 5,000,000

Total $17,500,000

188 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

of the town. The act Ihnits expenditures to roads in thinly settled areas and
specifies that none shall be made in districts where houses or other structures
devoted to business are situated at intervals averaging less than 200 feet for
the distance of a quarter of a mile. The State paid out $807,000 under this act
in 1926.

The division of highways is also authorized by law to spend 5 per cent of
each annual appropriation for the construction of State highways in the build-
ing and repair of highways in towns of less than $1,000,000 assessed valuation.
A second 5 per cent may be devoted to this purpose provided the towns appro-
priate an amount equal to that allotted by the division. Five per cent may also
be used in towns with an assessed valuation of more than $1,000,000 provided
the towns appropriate an amount equal to that allotted by the division, over
and above the average annual higiiway appropriation for the five preceding
years.

Lender the above act (General Laws, Chapter 81, Section 23) the amount
spent in towns with a valuation of less than $1,000,000 making no additional
appropriations is limited to 40 per cent of the five-year average town appro-
priation for highways, except that a minimum of $400 is allowed to towns in
which the annual highway appropriation has averaged less than $1,000 for five
years.

In addition to the provisions above, the division of highways is authorized
to spend 20 per cent of the net amount received from motor vehicle fees and
fines in the improvement of town and county roads not State highways. At
the present time this would amount to more than $2,500,000. In 1926, $1,590,-
000 was used by the State in the "construction of town and county ways."

Education

Total expenditures for educational purposes by all public agencies amount-
ed to $93,600,000 in 1926. Of this amount, .$3,675,000 was for libraries and $89,-
925,000 was for schools and other educational purposes. Education is therefore

Table 18. — Expenditures for Education, by Jurisdictions, 1910-1926.'
(Thousands of dollars)

Central

Towns

Towns

Year

State
Gov't

Counties

Under

5,000-

Over

5,000=

Cities^

Total

1910

$1,789

$ 95

$ 2,051

$ 4,350

$ 15,973

$ 24,258

1911

1,872

95

2,010

4,338

17,112

25,427

1912

2,028

102

3,073

4,548

17,631

27,382

1913

2,309

•210

3,311

5,005

]9,091

29,926

1914

2,346

194

2,791

5,574

20,696

31,601

1915

3.071

197

3,190

5,627

21,157

33,242

1916

2,753

215

3,304

5,925

21,493

33,690

1917

3,099

'331

3,529

6,528

23,651

37,138

1918

3,276

410

3,445

6,286

24,350

37,767

1919

3,730

456

4,192

7,253 '

26,694

42,325

1920

4,828

448

5,414

10,399

37,875

58,964

1921

5,332

577

6,419

11,754

44,227

68,309

1922

6,342

582

7,232

13,251

47,708

75,115

1923

6,557

741

7,569

14,267

52,595

81.729

1924

6,448

631

7,930

17,431

55,015

87,455

1925

6,914

644

8,261

16.701

57,056

89,576

1926

7,097

653

8.365

16,689

60,817

93,621

^Includes new construction.

^ Payments for both maintenance and 'construction are shown in Table A 1.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

189

the most important public activity in Massachusetts, receiving about one-fourth
of the public expenditures. Chart 7 shows the amount spent for education annu-
ally from 1910 to 1926. The amount spent for education by each civil group is
shown in Table 18.

Expenditures for education have increased considerably for all groups, and
the total amount in 1926 was 286 per cent more than in 1910.

CHART 7. The Increase in Expenditures for Education, Total and per Capita, 1910-
1926. (Expressed in Index Numbers with 1910 as the Base.)

Index Numbi-K

1910 = 100

400

550

50 0

250

200

50

1

^

/ y

/

•/

.of ^^°

,^0^

JJ

J«ts

1

i

1910

19IZ

1914

19(6

1918

1920

1922

1924

1926

Table 19. — Increase in Expenditures for Education, 1910-1926.

Juriiiilictio)t Increase

Per cent

Central State Gov't 296.7

Counties 587.4'

Towns under 5,000 307.9'

Towns over 5,000 283.7

Cities 280.7

Total 285.9

1 This increase, while large, is insignificant, due to the fact that county expendi-
tures for education are only .7 per cent of the total.
- 1910 base figures were incomislete.

190

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

From Table 19 it is apparent that educational expenditures in the towns
have increased much more rapidly than in cities. County expenditures for ed-
ucation were insignificant prior to the establishment of county agricultural
schools, and the increase has been due principally to the development of these
schools.

Cities pay 65 per cent of the total cost of education, the large towns 18
per cent, and towns under 5,000, 9 per cent. County expenditures are less than
1 per cent. The relative proportions used by the State, and by counties, cities
and towns have changed very little since 1910.

Table 20. — Relation of Expenditures for Education to Total Expenditures,

by Jurisdictions, 1910-1926.

(Percentages)

Tear

Central
State
Gov't

Counties

Towns
Under
5,000

Towns
Over

5,000

Cities

All
Groups

1910

9.37

2.61

33.47

24.99

21.01

18.08

1915

11.23

4.92

21.42

26.63

21.07

20.39

1920

10.33

6.49

33.83

31.75

25.19

23.33

1925

14.41

6.36

36.50

33.42

27.61

26.55

1916

14.25

6.62

34.90

31.24

27.65

26.23

Education tends to take a larger share of public expenditures each year.
From 1910 to 1926 the percentage of total expenditures for educational pur-
poses increased from 18 per cent to 26 per cent. The relative proportion of
total expenditures going to education varies from 6 per cent in the counties to
35 per cent in the small towns. The ratio of expenses for education to total ex-
penditures in cities and towns tends to vary inversely with the population, the
small towns expending proportionally from one-third to one-half more than the
larger towns and cities. (Table 20).

In 1926, 35 per cent of the budget of towns under 5,000 population was for
education, compared with 28 per cent for cities. The difference of 7 per cent

Table 21. — Expenditures per Capita for Schools, by Size of City or Town,

1926.

Size of City

Number of

Per cent

or Town

Cities or
Towns

Maintenance

Outlays

Total

of Total
Expenditures

Towns

Under 1000

S3

$22.32

.$1.01

$23.33

3 J,. 03

1000-2000

74

18.23

1.41

19.64

31.95

2000-3000

39

16.77

3.90

20.67

32.00

3000-4000

28

15.24

2.15

17.39

3i.l0

4000-5000

17

14.51

5.57

20.08

3S.S0

5000-7000

26

15.47

2.94

18.41

33. SO

7000-10000

22

15 83

4.59

20.42

30.50

10000-15000

19

14.55

4.78

19.33

32.20

Over 15000

12

15.82

3.19

19.01

25.80

Cities

Under 25,000

13

13.86

3.46

17.32

2S.S5

25,000-50.000

11

14.09

3.79

17.88

28.50

50.000-75.000

5

15.90

5.69

21.59

26.60

75,000-100,000

2

12.83

1.36

14.19

28.35

100.000-150,000

6

15.21

2.45

17.66

26.00

150,000-200.000

1

17.15

3.34

20.49

29.88

Over 200,000

1

10.13

S.f^O

25.02

2i.fi 5

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS. 191

means that small towns spent proportionally 25 per cent more than cities. A
more detailed statement of the differences between towns is contained in Table
21.

Educational Activities of the State Government

State expenditures for education are intended to meet needs not adequately
covered by local disbursements. In 1926, the State spent $6,7.59,000 for educa-
tion. This amount included .$350,000 contributed by cities and by the Federal
Government.

The training of teachers for elementary schools is usually conceded to be a
proper function of the State, and nearly one-fourth of the State expenditures
for education in 1926 was devoted to the support of the ten normal schools.

The costs of some of the more important State educational institutions and
activities in 1926 were as follows:'

Normal Schools $1,628,000

Vocational Education 1,544,000 (including Federal grants)

Massachusetts Agricultural

College 916,000 (including Federal grants)
Education of the Deaf and

Blind 758,000

Teachers' Retirement 529,000 (including pensions and

cost of retirement admins-
tration)

Aid to Shall Towns 452,000

University Extension 354,000

Textile Schools 288,000

Nautical School 94,000

It will be noted that most of the above activities are of a vocational nature.
Approximately five-sixths of the State expenditures for education are for voca-
tional purposes.

County Expenses for Education

Counties spent $653,000 for education in 1926, of which $464,000 was for
agricultural high schools and county agricultural extension teaching. The re-
mainder was for countj' training schools for habitual truants and other school
offenders. These two activities are the distinct functions of the county, and
while they are important from the standpoint of results, the cost is only .7 per
cent of the total for education.

Causes of the Increase in Town and City School Expenses''

Increase in Nwmber of Pupils

The increase in number of pupils has been important in increasing school
expenses. Schools are subject to the law of decreasing costs, in that with a
given school plant, an increase in the number of pupils lowers the cost per
pupil up to the point where the existing buildings and equipment become in-
adequate. After this point is reached, the new construction necessary to avoid

* These totals represent gross expenditures and make no allowances for earnings
and other receipts of the several divisions.

^ All figures in this section have been taken from reports of the State Depart-
ment of Education, unless otherwise indicated.

192

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

crowding increases the cost per pupil both because of the building cost and the
increased teaching staff. Apparently school buildings in many cities and towns
reached the limit of their capacity during the war years when building was
curtailed. The increase in number of pupils is shown in Table 22. The total
membership of all public day schools increased .39 per cent, while the enroll-
ment in high schools doubled.

Table 22. — Average Membership in Massachusetts Public Schools,

1910-1925.

Year All Public Hu/h Elementary

Day Schools Schools Schools

,1910 479,069 59,068 420,001

1915 541,088 76,396 465,692

1920 563,693 88,628 475,065

1925 666,817 118,125 548,692

Growth of High Schools

Increased high school attendance has made necessary more buildings and
teachers. In 1920, high schools took 19.5 per cent of the total expenditures for
school maintenance; in 1925 this percentage was 25.5. The increase in high
school enrollment has increased school expenses more than would a similar
growth in grade schools. Salaries in high schools are higher than in grade
schools, classes are smaller, and the building and equipment requirements per
pupil are greater.

Nezv Buildings and Equipment

The value of school property increased from .^119,000,000 in 1920 to nearly
$184,000,000 in 1925, or 54 per cent. During the same period the value of school
buildings increased from $93,000,000 to $150,000,000, or 61 per cent. High school
building values practically doubled, while elementary schools increased only 43
per cent. A comparison of these figures with the increase in school enrollment
indicates the probability that on the average, present building facilities are
fairly adequate.

Increase in Teachers' Salaries.

The average salary paid Massachusetts school teachers has more than
doubled during the past ten years, which is about the same rate of increase as
in other occupations. Salaries in towns under 5,000 population have increa.sed
much more than in cities, but salaries in cities are still 50 per cent higher than

Group

Table 23. — Average Salaries of Teachers.

1915

Cities $983

Towns over 5,000

with high schools 698

Towns under 5,000:

with high schools |

without high schools f

State average 836

Increase

1920

1925

1915-1925
Per cent

$1,506

$1,875

90.7

1,472

1,548

121.7

1,243

1,069

1,307
1,142

\ 158.6

1,658

1,729

106.7

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

193

in small towns. For the state as a whole, salaries doubled between 1915 and
1920; the increase since that time has been small. (Table 23).

The Educdtionitl Handicap of Small Toxciis

Small towns spend more per person, more per pupil, and more per $1000
of assessed valuation than larger towns and cities. At tlie same time they have
more poor buildings, less equipment per pupil, and a larger percentage of in-
experienced teachers.

Table 2-1. — Investment per Pupil in School Property and in Buildings,

1920 and 192.5

•oup

1920

192

5

G

Total

Total

Property

B

uilditigs

P

ropertj

B

uildings

Cities .

$222 ,

$171

$278

$223

Towns

over 5,000 with high schools

216

174

325

273

Towns

under 5,000 with high schools

148

123

205

174

Towns

undpr 5.000 without high schools

136

116

154

133

Differences in School BuihUnijs and Equipment

The relative difference in school property between towns and cities of dif-
ferent sizes is shown by Table 24. It is apparent that, in a general way, the
value of school property per pupil varies with population. The towns of more
than 5,000 population had a higher value of property per pupil in 1925, due
to new building since 1921. (Talile 25). In 1920 the expenditures per pupil for
construction and equipment were about the same for cities and large towns,
but from 1921 until 1925 the per pupil outlays were much larger for the towns.

Table 25. — Assessed Valuation and Expenditures per Pupil, 1915 and 1925.

Group

Assessed
Valuation

Expenditures

Per cent of

Total School

Expenditures

frotn State Aid

1915

Cities

. $9,303

$41.88

$41.56

$ .02

$ .30

.047

Towns over 5,000 with high

schools

. 6,772

35.71

34.71

.11

.89

.031

All towns under 5,000

. 7,041

39.92

33.41

5.81

.70

li.500

. 8.506

40.41

39.13

.804

.48

1.980

1925

Cities 10,436

88.43

80.78

6.55

1.10

7-4

Towns with 5,000 with high

schools 7,706

80.19

70.75

7.11

2.33

8.3

Towns under 5,000 with high

schools 7,330

85.39

68.78

12.97

3.64

15.S

Towns under 5,000 without

high schools 6,759

89.03

62.85

23.87

2.31

£6.8

State Average 8,801

86.54

77.09

7.84

1.95

9.0

194

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

Extensive school construction for the state as a whole began in 1922 and 1923
and has been increasing each year.

The small increase in value of school property in the rural towns is ac-
counted for partly by the closing of small schools and partly by the shifting of
five towns to Group 3 through the construction of new high schools.

One-Room Schools

There were 657 one-room school buildings in use in 1925, or 130 less than
in 1920. Nearly three-fourths of these were in towns of less than 5,000 popula-
tion, but the number in use in this group has decreased 19 per cent since 1920.
The consolidation of schools has in many cases reduced the number of teachers,
with a consequent lower cost per pupil.

Table 26. — Training of Teachers in Public Elementary Schools,
1922 and 1924

Group

Cities

Towns over 5,000 with high

schools

Towns under 5,000 with high

schools

Towns under 5,000 without

high schools

College or

Normal School

Graduates

Per cent

1922
S8.5

80.4

67.8

49.6

1921,
89.0

81.2

66.7

58.1

Secondary

School with one

or more years'

experience

Per cent

1922 192!,
6.3 6.6

10.3
12.1
14.2

10.2
15.2
14.5

Secondary
School only

Per cent

1922 192i
4.6 3.9

8.7
1S.9
32.4

7.8
17.1
25.4

Not a Graduate
of a Secondary
School
Per cent

1923 192 If
.6 .5

1.2
3.8

1.0
2.0

Training of Teachers

Small towns of necessity employ many teachers with inadequate training.
(Table 26). In 1924 only 58 per cent of the teachers in the small towns were
graduates of normal schools or colleges, while one-fourth had no training above
the high school and no teaching experience. In towns of less than 1,000 popula-
tion, of which there were 70" reporting, 32.5 per cent of the teachers were grad-
uates of normal schools and colleges, while 47.5 per cent had no training or ex-
perience beyond the high school.

Table 27. — Number of Pupils per Full-time Teacher, 1925.

EJementarij High

Group Schools Schools Average

Cities 30.5 24.5 29.2

Towns over 5,000

with high schools 30.3 21.8 28.2

Towns under 5,000

with high schools 30.2 17.1 26.5

Towns under 5,000

without high schools 26.3 26.3

Towns under 1,000

without high schools 19.7 19.7

State average 30.3 23.1 28.7

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

193

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196 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

Eficient use of Teachers

It is impossible for small towns to use teachers as efficiently as large
towns due to the small enrollment in many schools. Table 27 shows diflferences
in number of pupils per teacher in cities and towns of different sizes.

Seventy towns of less than 1,000 population averaged less than 20 pupils
per teacher, or only about two-thirds as many as the state average.

Cost per Person

Table 28 shows the per capita payments for school maintenance and for
outlays, including new buildings and equipment, by size of town, for 1926.
Towns of less than 1,000 population pay considerably more per capita for school
maintenance than other groups.

Cost per Pupil

The cost per pupil is a better method of measuring the cost of education
than the cost per capita. Table 25 shows the cost per pupil and the sources of
funds. It will be noted that the total expenditure per pupil is fairly uniform
for all groups, due to State Aid, the small towns receiving from the State over
26 per cent of the amount spent for schools.

The average cost per pupil for small towns is affected considerably by the
large number of towns included in the group. If the towns under 1,000 popu-
lation are considered separately, the results for 192-5 are as follows:

Assessed valuation per pupil $6,854.00

Expenditure per pupil 107.34

Expenditure per pupil from local taxes 57.16

Expenditure per pupil from State aid 50.18

Tax for education per $1,000 valuation 8.34
Percentage of expenditure per pupil received from

State aid 46.7

The cost per pupil in this group is 21 per cent higher than the average for
towns of less than 5,000 without high schools, and 24 per cent above the aver-
age for the state.

It is also important to note that in a general way expenditures from local
taxes vary directly with the size of town, and while the small towns spend more
per pupil, the amount from local taxes is not as great as in the larger towns.

Table 29. — Relation of School Funds from Local Taxes and from State

Aid to Assessed Valuation, 1925.

(Expressed in dollars per $1000 valuation)

Tax Required

Actual Tax if Schools Amount

for School were Supported Received as

Support entirely by State Aid

Local Taxes

Cities $7,74 $ 8.47 $0.73

Towns over 5,000

with high schools 9.18 10.40 1.22

Towns under 5,000

with high schools 9.38 11.65 2.27

Towns under 5,000

without high schools 9.30 13.17 3.87

Towns under 1,000 8.34 15.65 7.31

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS. 197

The Relation between Cost per Pupil and Ability to Pay

One measure of the ability of a town to paj' for schools is the assessed
valuation per pupil. According to Table 25 the assessed valuation per pupil
in towns of less than 5,000 population not maintaining high schools is only 64
per cent of the city valuation in 1925; the amount per pupil raised by local
taxation in small towns was 78 per cent of the amount raised in cities. There-
fore, on the basis of ability to pay, the towns spent relatively more than the
cities. This is shown in Table 29, where the tax per .$1000 valuation for school
support in 1925 was 20 per cent larger in the small towns than in cities. How-
ever, the towns of less than 1000 population receive more in State aid, and the
local tax per .$1000 valuation was only $8.34 for school support. If total school
expenditures were met locally it would require a tax of $15.65, or more than
one-half of the total taxes in most towns. State aid reduces local school taxes
by nearly one-half in the 70 towns of less than 1000 population.

State Aid for Schools

It has been pointed out that State aid to small towns makes it possible for
them to spend more per pupil than larger cities and towns, thereby more nearly
equalizing educational opportunities between towns. The larger part of State
Aid for education is provided for under the General School Fund Law passed
in 1919 (General Laws, Chapter 70, Sections 4, 5, 10-17). Funds are distributed
from two parts of the General School Fund: Part I, a portion of the income
tax; and Part H, the income from the Massachusetts School Fund.

Distributions are made from Part I on two bases: (1) the salary, training
and experience of teachers; and (2) the assessed valuation per pupil according
to the last state valuation.* All distributions under Part I arc used to increase
teachers' salaries. Reimbursement to towns is based on salary, training and
experience as follows:

Reimbursement
Education and Experience Salary per Teacher

College or normal school graduate

with two full years' experience .$950 or more .$200

College or normal school graduate
with one year's experience, or
one year normal scliool and three

years' experience 850 or more 150

No requirement 750 or more 100

A second distribution, based on the relation between the number of pupils
and the proportionate amount of State tax paid l)y the town, is made as fol-
lows :

Reimbursement
Pupil Tax Ratio^ per Teacher

Less than $.60 ' .$250

.60 - .65 200

.65 - .70 150

.70 - .80 125

.80 - .85 100

.85 - .95 50

^ This basis of reimbursement was adopted in 1926.

* The state valuation attempts to equalize differences in assessment practice be-
tween towns to give valuation figures that are more nearly comparable between towns
than the valuations of local boards of assessors.

198 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

The proportion of every million dollars of State taxes paid by the town is di-
vided by the net average membership of public day schools to give the quotient
in Column L Certain other provisions have been made for the benefit of small
towns.

The first distribution is intended to encourage the employment of better
trained teachers at fair salaries. The second distribution is intended partially
to equalize ability to pay between towns of high and low valuations. In recent
years more than $4,000,000 of the income tax was distributed under the educa-
tional provisions of the General School Fund Law. About one-eighth of this
was distributed to towns of less than 5,(K)0 population.

Distributions under Part II of the (General School Fund Law are made
from the income of the Massachusetts School Fund, a permanent fund of over
$5,000,000 supplemented by certain incoiiic tax payments. In 1925 total pay-
ments amounted to $405,000, ot which $189,000 were received from the Income
Tax Fund of 1924. Distributions are made to towns with an assessed state
valuation of less than $3,000,000 in which the local tax for school support is
more than $5.00 per $1000 valuation. The method of distribution is complicated,
but the amount received by each town varies directly with the local school tax
and inversely with the valuation. The total amount is distributed to towns of
less than 5,000 population, about one-half going to the group not maintaining
high schools.

Other Aid

Where two or more towns whose joint valuation is less than $3,500,000
form a superintendency union and hire a school superintendent, the State may
and does pay two-thirds of the salary and traveling expenses of the superin-
tendent up to two-thirds of $2,500 for salary and $400 for traveling expenses.
Over $82,000 was paid under this provision in 1925. The State also pays a part
of the tuition and transportation costs of high school pupils in towns of less
than 500 families not maintaining high schools, if the valuation per pupil is less
than the state average. Reimbursement for tuition is as follows:

Assessed Valuation Tuition

of Town Reimbursement

$500,000 or less Full

$500,000 - 1,000,000 Three-fourths

Over $1,000,000 One-half

Reimbursement for transportation up to 40 cents per day is made as follows:
Preceding 3-year average
Expenditure for Schools

Per $1000 Valuation from Transportation

Local Taxation Reimbursement

$4 - 5 One-half

5-6 Three-fourths

Over 6 Full

During the year ending November 30, 1925, small towns received $165,000
as reimbursement for high school tuition, and $128,000 for high school trans-
portation.

The State also aids in the support of high schools in towns of less than
500 families, provided the valuation per pupil does not exceed the state average,
and the high school is approved by the State Department of Education. Re-
imbursement of $250 is made for each full-time teacher, and a proportionate
amount for part-time teachers. The maximum amount allowed to any town is
$1260.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

199

With the aid of the Federal Smith-Hughes Fund, the State supports con-
tinuation and vocational schools to the extent of reimbursing cities and towns
for one-half the net cost of maintenance, except that agricultural departments
of high schools are reimbursed for two-thirds of the salary of instructors. In
1925, State reimbursement to cities and towns for vocational education amount-
ed to $l,218,000from State funds and $179,000 from Federal funds. Cities and
towns maintaining English-speaking classes for adults were also reimbursed
one-half of the cost of maintenance, or $167,000.

Libraries

The State board of library commissioners is authorized to spend $10,000
annually in aiding free public libraries in towns with a valuation of less than
$1,000,000. They may also purchase books to the value of $100 for distribution
to towns having no library, if the town fulfills certain requirements in appoint-
ing a library committee and in providing for the care and distribution of the
books.

Table 30. — Expenditures for Charity, Health, and Correction,

by Jurisdictions, 1910-1926.^

(Thousands of doll<irs)

Central

Towns

Towns

Year

State
Gov't

Counties

Under
5,0002

Over
5,000=

Cities^

Total

IfflO

$ 7,329

$ c74

$ 537

$ 2,088

$ 11,588

$ 22,116

1911

7,714

586

535

2,150

11.804

22,789

1912

8,225

608

832

2,172

13,743

25,560

1913

8,839

598

934

2,426

15,030

27,827

1914

9,820

648

968

2,655

15,440

29,531

1915

9,418

673

895

2,743

16,519

30,248

1916

10,139

689

911

2.706

16,371

30,816

1917

11,618

992

925

2,769

18,482

34,786

1918

13,124

1,470

926

2.680

18,589

36,789

1919

13,732

1,155

1.294

3.458

21.675

41,314

1920

15,430

1,211

1,332

3.908

25,625

47,506

1921

15,879

1,305

1,517

4.711

28,792

52,204

1922

16,212

1,885

1,468

4,435

29,333

52,533

1923

16,862

1,128

1,537

5.193

32,108

56,828

1924

16,745

1,063

1,893

6,031

36,313

62,045

1925

16,979

1.341

1,712

5,709

37,307

63,048

1926

17,507

1,582

1,791

6.766

37,904

65,550

* Includes new construction.

2 Payments for both maintenance and construction are shown in Table A 1.

Charity, Health and Correction*

Massachusetts spent $6.5,500,000 for these activities in 1926, and the amount
has increased in about the same proportion as total expenditures since 1910.
Table 30 shows the amount spent each year.

Cities now pay 57.9 per cent of the total cost of such activities, as compared

^ City expenditures for prisons have not been included under correction, since
under the state classification of accounts, these are charged to protection of persons
and property.

200

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 2o()

Table 31.

-Expenditures for Charity, Health and Correction, 1926.
(Amounts in thousands of dollars)

Per Cent

Per Cent

Per Cent

of Total

of Total

of Total

Expendi-

Expendi-

Expendi-

Amount

tures

Amount

tures

Amount

tures

Central State Gov't

Counties...

Towns under 5.000

Charity

$ 4,832

9.7

$

$ 855

S.6

Soldiers'

Benefits

86

.4

Health and

Sanitation ..

10,117

20.3

735

7.J,

641

2.6

Recreation

209

.9

Correction

2,558

5.1

847

s.r,

Total

17,507

35.1

1,582

16.0

1,791

7.5

Towns over 5,000

Citt

ES

Total

Charity

1,870

3.5

12,042

5.5

19,599

5.5

Soldiers'

Benefits

184

.3

1,070

.5

1,340

.U

Health and

Sanitation

3,766

7.1

18,702

8.5

33,961

9.5

Recreation

946

1.8

6,090

2.7

7,245

2.0

Correction

3,405

.9

Total

6,766

12.7

37,904

17.2

65,550

18.3

with one-half in 1910. The relative amount paid by the State has declined from
33 per cent in 1910 to 27 per cent in 1926. Counties and small towns pay 5 per
cent and the relative amount has not changed appreciably since 1910.

Over .$33,000,000 were spent for public health and sanitation in 1926 (Table
31); and if recreation is included, nearly two-thirds of the total expenditures
for this group were for the improvement of public health. Over $19,000,000
were for charitable purposes, amounting to 30 per cent of the group expendi-
tures, but only 5 per cent of all expenditures. Cities and the State support 86
per cent of the charitable activites, the towns spending one-seventh of the total,
the counties nothing.

Table 32 shows the percentage distribution of expenditures for charity,
health and correction among the civil groups. The State and counties spend
most for correction, while pracfically all expenditures for recreation are made
by cities or large towns. All civil groups spend a part of their appropriations
on some phase of public health or sanitation, and expenditures for these pur-
poses tend to increase in importance with the size of the city or town.

Table 32. — Distribution of Expenditures for Charity, Health and Correction,

by Jurisdictions, 1926.

(Percentages)

Central

To\V]!S

Towns

AU
Groups

Purpose

State

Counties

Under

Over

Cities

Gov't

5,000

5,000

Charity

24.7

4.4

9.5

61.4

100.0

Soldiers'

Benefits

6.4

13.7

79.9

100.0

Health and

Sanitation

23.8

1.7

1.5

8.9

44.0

100.0

Recreation

2 9

13 1

84 0

100 0

Correction

75.2
26.7

24.8
2.4

10.3

57.9

100.0

Total

2.7

100.0

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS. 201

State Expenditures for Charity, Health and Correction'"

The State carries on activities of this nature which municipalities can not
perform to advantage.

The Department of Mental Diseases is concerned with the mental liealth of
the citizens of the Commonwealth. This department spent .$8,173,000 in 1926, or
about one-sixth of the total State expenditures. Of this amount, $7,826,000 were
on account of institutions, including twelve state hospitals for the insane, and
three schools and one colony for the feeble-minded and mentally deficient.

Expenditures of the Department of Public Welfare in 1926 amounted to
$4,832,000. The more important activities of this department include the care of
neglected children, the maintenance of a hospital school for crippled children,
and the maintenance of four schools for the training of juvenile delinquents.
Under the division of general aid and relief $1,732,000 were paid out as re-
imbursment to the cities and towns for aid to mothers with dependent children,
and in connection with contagious diseases, and the support and burial of
paupers.

The Department of Public Health expended $1,944,000 in 1926. Of this
amount $1,472,000 were used by the division of tuberculosis, principally for the
maintenance of state tuberculosis hospitals and for subsidies to cities and towns
maintaining such hospitals. Minor activities are the enforcement of food and
drug laws, sanitary regulations and the regulation of communicable diseases.

The Department of Correction expended .$2,5-58,000 in 1926. Of this amount
$2,360,000 were for the support of institutions including the state prison, the
state farm, the prison camp and hospital, and two reformatories.'^

State or military aid is given to soldiers, sailors, marines, and army or
navy nurses, and to such of their dependents as comply with certain regula-
tions. This aid is usually granted directly by the city or town and reimburse-
ment is made by the State Commissioner of State Aid and Pensions. In 1926
such reimbursement to cities and towns amounted to .$295,000 out of a total of
$330,000.

Municipal Expenses for Charity, Health and Correction

Table 33 shows the per capita payments for such activities ip towns class-
ified according to population in 1926. Payments for each activity show a tend-
ency to increase with population, but charity and soldiers' benefits show less
variation than the other items. This group of activities takes from two to four
times as much of the budget in cities as in the 83 towns witli less than 1,000
population.

Per capita expenditures for health in the small towns are only half those
for charity, while in the large towns and cities payments for health average
almost twice those for charity. However, in view of differences in the cost of
living, it seems probable that small town expenditures for charity are approx-
imately equal to those of larger towns and cities. Small towns do not need as
elaborate sanitary systems and regulations as the larger towns and cities, but
it is a question whether present low expenditures per capita adequately meet

1" A detailed statement of the activities of the State is contained in the annual
reports of the various departments and divisions. The summary presented here is
intended to give only a general idea of the scope and cost of State activities.

" In Table 30 the cost of juvenile training schools -svas included under correc-
tion, since this is the practice in most states.

202 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

local health requirements. It seems likely that the disproportionate amounts
spent for schools and roads prevent many welfare activities in small towns.

Low per capita expenditures for recreation also point to a significant de-
ficiency in small towns. The need for some type of recreation is at least as
great in small towns as in cities, but the small number of people concerned, to-
gether with high taxes for ordinary purposes, have limited appropriations for
recreational purposes.

Table 33.— Expenditures per Capita for Charity, Health and Recreation, by
Size of City or Town, 1926.

Number

Health

Per Cent

Size of City

of Cities

Soldiers'

and

of Total

or Town

or Towns

Charity

Benefits

Sanitation

Recreation

Total

Expendi-
tures

Towns

Under 1000

83

$1.49

$ .19

$1.20

$ .21

$3.09

i.SO

1000-2000

74

2.10

.23

1.46

.46

4.25

6.90

2000-3000

39

2.37

22

1.79

.88

5.26

8.20

3000-4000

28

2.08

.20

1.90

.52

4.70

9.20

4000-5000

17

2.14

.20

1.35

.28

3.97

7.60

5000-7000

26

2.26

.22

2.32

.45

5.25

9.60

7000-10000

22

2.19

.27

4.60

.81

7.87

11.80

10000-15000

19

2.83

.23

3.60

.93

7.59

12.65

Over 15000

12

1.76

.18

6.87

2.05

10.86

lh.77

Cities

Under 25,000

13

2.35

.43

3.62

.71

7.11

11.83

25,000-50,000

11

3.18

.38

4.35

1.19

9.10

H.50

50,000-75,000

5

3.54

.27

7.52

1.83

13.16

16.20

75,000-100,000

2

1.90

.33

4.93

2.65

9.81

19.60

100,000-150,000

6

3.13

.35

6.84

1.57

11.89

17.50

150,000-200,000

1

5.30

.22

6.63

.89

18.04

19.00

Over 200.000

1

6.75

.44

8.16

3.84

19.19

18.90

General Government

In the summary tables all other government costs not specifically classified
were grouped into "other general". This group includes all activities connected
with the assessment and collection of taxes, the protection of persons and
property, pension payments, and the maintenance of minor departments of the
State government. In 1926, other general expenditures amounted to $65,956,000,
or 18 per cent of all public expenditures. The increase in expenditures for this
group of activities since 1910 has been relatively less than for other functions.
The amounts for each civil group are shown in Table 34.

State Activities"

The executive, judicial, legislative and financial functions of the State take
approximately 10 per cent of total State expenditures. In addition, eight de-
partments concerned with enforcing certain regulations as part of the police
power of the State, and in rendering service to business and industrial groups,
have been included in "other general"."

'- A detailed analysis of expenditures of the State government for general purposes
is contained in Table A12.

" The departments of conservation, agriculture, banking and insurance, civil
service and registration, industrial accidents, labor and industries, public safety, public
atilities.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

203

Table 34. — "Other General" Expenditures, by Jurisdictions, 1910-1926.^

(Thousands of dollars)

Central

Towns

Towns

Year

State
Gov't

Counties

Under
5,000=

Over
5,000=

Cities"-

Total

1910

$5,105

$ 2,396

$ 1,226

$ 2,968

$ 14,332

$ 26,027

1911

5,024

2,176

1,294

3,056

14,918

26,468

1912

5,786

2,080

1,934

3,359

16,324

29,483

1913

6,097

2,214

2,011

3.498

17,717

31,537

1914

6,36S

2,290

1,693

3.788

18,101

32,240

1915

7,501

2,281

1,849

3,729

17.793

33,153

1916

7,008

2,434

1,790

3.713

18,387

33,332

1917

9,143

2,351

1,969

3.949

20,584

37,996

1918

10,3063

2,491

1,969

4,013

22.458

41.237

1919

26,325'

2,809

2,195

4.648

27.939

63.916

1920

13,0183

3,114

2,470

5.462

29,165

53,229

1921

9,022

3,452

2,797

5.980

32,832

54,083

1922

8,947

3,643

3.020

6.245

33,619

55,474

1923

8,863

3,865

3,066

6,407

35,270

57,471

1924

9,233

4,920

2,992

7,054

37,310

61,509

1925

9,442

5,124

3,190

7,481

39,573

64,790

1926

8,976

5,017

3,302

8.171

40,490

65,956

^ Includes new construction.

' Payments for both maintenance and construction are shown in Table A 1.

•Increase due to soldiers' bonus.

Municipal Actitnfes

The two principal groups of municipal expenditures under "other general"
are general government and protection of persons and property. General
government includes the legislative, executive and financial functions as well as
the care of municipal buildings, and minor general departments. Protection of
persons and property includes police and fire departments, support of the
militia, inspections, and forestry. Expenditures for police and fire protection
make up 95 per cent of total expenditures for protection. The amounts spent
for general government and for protection are shown in Tables 3-5 and 36.

Table 3-5. — Expenditures for General Government.
(Amounts in thousands of dollars)

Cities

Towns

over 5.000

Towns

under 5.000

Year

Per cent
of Total

Per cent
of Total

Per cent
of Total

Amount

Expenditures

Amount

Expenditures

Amount

Expenditures

1910^

$3,288

i.t

$ 70S

i-1

$ 442

7.3

1915

3.425

3.i

943

i.5

667

6.6

1920

5.1.34

S.i

1.387

i-s

906

5.7

1925

6.641

S.2

2,015

i-o

1,132

.5.0

1926

7,195

S.J

2.294

i-s

1.220

5.1

* Not all towns reported in 1910.

:04

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

Table 36. — Expenditures for Protection of Persons and Property.
(Amounts in thousands of dollars)

Cities

Towns

over 5,000

Towns under 5,000

Year

Amount

Per cent

of Total

Expenditures

Amount

Per cent

o/ Total

Expenditures

Per cent
of Total
Amount Expenditures

1910'
1915
1920
1925
1926

$9,461
11,820
19,717
25,970
27,216

12. i
11.8
13.1
12.6
12.1,

$1,745
2,140
3,154
4,491
4.896

9.8

10.1

9.6

9.0
9.S

$ 490 8.0

749 7.i

1,075 6.7

1,578 7.0

1,618 6.8

^ Not all towns reported in 1910.

Expenditures Per Capita for General Government and for
Protection of Persons and Property

Table 37 shows the per capita payments for these purposes for town.s
classified according to population. The cost per person for general govern-
ment is greater in small towns than in the larger towns and cities. Payments
for protection tend to vary in direct proportion to population, and the amount
per capita spent in cities is over three times the amount spent in towns of less
than 1,000 population. Expenses for protection take only 2.68 per cent of total
expenditures in the smallest towns, but over 12 per cent in cities.

Town Expenditures Required by Law

A considerable part of the cost of government in small towns is due to
certain legal requirements. These requirements take various forms, but may be
roughly classified into three groups.

1. The performance of certain town activities is required by law.

2. I'lie manner of performance of certain functions is frequently pre-

scribed by law.

3. Minimum expenditures for the performance of certain functions are

occasionally specified, or the granting of State aid is made conting-
ent upon the town's spending a minimum amount for the purpose
for which aid is granted.

Under the first two classes are included the general governmental activities
of the town. The town officers and their duties, the method of keeping accounts
and the forms of numerous reports required by the various state departments
are specified by law. The most important legal requirements are in connection
with education and highways.

Every town is required to provide educational facilities for children re-
siding within the town. The State specifies certain subjects to be taught, a
minimum term of 160 days, and a salary of at least $750 for each full-time
teacher." Every town of more than 500 families must maintain a high school
in which a four-year course is taught for a minimum term of 180 days. Towns

" Legal requirements for schools, General Laws, Chapter 71.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

205

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206 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

of less than 500 families may maintain a high school, but if not, the town must
provide tuition, and transportation up to 40 cents per day, for all pupils who
desire to attend high school and who are properly certified by the town school
committtee. Where the distance to a school within the town is greater than
two miles the town must furnish transportation to pupils. Towns are also re-
quired to provide a school physician and a nurse, except that towns with a valu-
ation of less than $1,000,000 may be exempt from the requirement of a school
nurse. Where three or more towns form a superintendency union, the State
specifies the minimum salary to be paid the superintendent, furthermore, only
teachers and superintendents who are approved by the State Department of
Education may be employed by the town school committee.

In connection with the granting of State aid for education, it has already
been pointed out that grants from the Income Tax Fund are in proportion to
salaries paid, thereby inducing the towns to pay higher salaries to teachers.
Reimbursement from the Massachusetts School Fund is made only to towns in
which the school tax is $5.00 or more per $1000 valuation, and the grant is in
proportion to the size of the tax. Reimbursement for high school tuition and
transportation for pupils attending school in other towns is proportional to the
school tax. These are several encouragements offered the towns to develop their
school system which involve increasing local taxes.

The legal requirements for town expenditures on highways are principally
in connection with State highways. Before the era of automobile registration
fees it was customary to build State highways from bond issues. One-fourth
of the cost of highways financed in this manner was assessed against the county
in which the road was built. The amount so assessed was paid within six years
with interest at 6 per cent. Since the counties have no important sources of
revenue other than the county tax levied on the towns, it followed that the
towns formerly paid one-fourth the cost of State highways financed by loans.
This liability is diminishing since most State highways are now being built
from motor vehicle fees.

The cost of maintaining State highways is high, and one-half of the amount
spent for the maintenance and repair of State highways is assessed against the
town in which the repairs are made. On the other hand, the burden of this re-
quirement has been minimized by two provisions: (1) The maximum amount
which can be assessed under this section is proportional to the valuation of the
town as follows:

Town Valuation Maximum Assessment per Mile

Less than $1,000,000 $ 50.00

1,000,000 - 2,000,000 100.00

2,000,1500 - 5,000,000 200.00

Over 5,000,000 $500 in any year, total

of $2000

(2) If the assessments are burdensome the selectmen of the town may petition
the State highway department for exemption, and if such exemption is granted
the State bears the entire cost.

Towns are of course required by law to keep all town roads in repair so
that they are reasonably safe for travel, and a further incentive for good roads
is given by making the towns liable for damages, either property or personal,
sustained on roads not in good repair. All roads not State highways but con-
structed in whole or in part with money furnished by the State must be kept
in repair by the towns in which they are located; and in case the town does

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS. 207

not make necessary repairs, the State division of highways may make the re-
pairs and add the cost to the State tax for that town.

Until recently towns were required to keep all highways within their
boundaries, including State highways, sufficiently clear of snow and ice to be
reasonably safe for travel. As a result, in some of the hill towns costs of snow
removal have occasionally equalled the expenditures for highway repairs. The
State division of highways is now responsible for keeping State highways open.
Snow removal by towns is confined principally to main roads, usually surfaced
through routes whether of State, county or town construction.

The cost of making suitable highway improvements is so great that many
towns are unable to finance necessary improvements without aid from the State.
With one exception such State aid is conditional upon the town's spending a
minimum amount, and while this amount is based upon the ability of the town
to pay, the net effect is to increase town expenses.

The benefits of such State aid are not questioned, but it should be recog-
nized that too many forms of State aid which require additional expenditures
by the town may cause some towns to spend more than they can afford. In
general, all of the requirements that have been suggested and discussed are
reasonable and proper. It must be admitted that in all cases where minimum
compensation for service is fixed by law, the amount is low and imposes no
hardship on the town. The effect of prescribed forms, reports and methods of
performing various functions has been to bring more system into small town
finances with a consequent increase in eff'iciency.

SOURCES OF FUNDS TO MEET INCREASING EXPENDITURES"

Increasing expenditures have made it necessary to find additional funds.
Three methods have been used.

1. Taxation

a. By increasing existing taxes

b. By levying new taxes

2. Increasing departmental earnings

3. Borrowing

The Increase in Taxes

Table 38 shows the increase in tax levies since 1910. Taxes for State and
local purposes in 1926 were $278,000,000, or more than three times as much as in
1910. In addition, federal internal revenue amounting to $119,000,000 was col-
lected in Massachusetts, making a total of over $396,000,000 in taxes paid by the
people and industries of the Commonwealth. (Chart 8). Federal internal rev-
enue from Massachusetts in 1926 was more than 20 times as much as in 1910.

The relation betweeen taxes for State purposes and the cost of govern-
ment is shown on Chart 9. About 70 per cent of the cost of government is met
by taxes, and this percentage has remained fairly constant since 1910. Taxes
have increased rapidly since 1919 in order to keep pace with increasing expend-
itures.

^^Data on sources of funds have been taken from the following sources:

Annual Reports of the State Auditor, Mass. Pub. Doc. 6; Annual Reports of
the Commission on Administration and Finance, Mass. Pub. Doc. 140; Annual
Reports on the Statistics of County Finances, Mass. Pub. Doc. 29 ; Annual Re-
ports on the Statistics of Municipal Finances, Mass. Pub. Doc. 79: Annual
Reports of the Commissioner of Corporations and Taxation, Mass. Pub. Doc.
16; Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, U. S. Treas.
Dept. Doc.

208

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

CHART 8. Taxes Collected for State and Local Purposes, and for All Purposes,
Including Federal Internal Revenue, 1910-1926.

Millions ot
Dollars
600

500

300

200

,

\

/

\

/

^^

^^

^ f

J 1

___^

-^

-f

^w "^'''

o /
-J /

^.t^

ToT

1910 \Q\Z \Q\A- 1916 I9ie 1920 1922 192^ 1926

CHART 9. Taxes and Cost of Government Compared with the Normal Expected In-
crease if Both Changed with Population and the Price Level, 1910-1926.
(Expressed in Index Numbers with 1910 as the Base.)

INDLX NUMBLR

1910 = 100

350

300

250

200

150

/

<€'

V-O^

^"^y

^^^
^^x'.

^ ^

4''

1

\

y -

\

100--=^^

50

1910

1914

1918

1922

1926

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

209

The largest increase has been in property taxes, from $67,000,000 in 1910
to .'r-i 10,000,000 in 1926, an increase of $143,000,000 or more than 200 per cent.
This increase in property taxes makes up nearly three-fourths of the total in-
crease in taxes since 1910. In comparison, taxes on corporations, including in-
come and excise taxes, have increased 85 per cent. Inheritance taxes collected
in 1926 amounted to nearly $7,000,000, or more than four .times the amount col-
lected in 1910. The poll tax, which is one of the oldest taxes, has increased
nearly 31 per cent, or at about the same rate as population. The increase in
poll taxes from 1920 to 1923 was due to a special tax for the soldiers' bonus.

CHART 10. A Comparison of Public Expenditures with Total Taxes, Property Taxes,
and Taxes ou Real Estate, 1910-1926.

MILLIONS or
D0LLAR5

400

360
320
260
240
200
160
120
50
40

^

- ^/

-^

/

Total

<>pf^^

y^

^

,^JS^

^l

^-J^

^

^

9^

uVu t.^^

1910

1914

1918

1922

!926

The Relative Importance of Different Tatxes

The relative unportance of the various taxes is shown in Table 38 and in
Chart 10. It will be noted that property taxes make up over three-fourths of
all taxes collected for State and local purposes. Corporation taxes, the next
group in importance, are less than 10 per cent of the total, while all of the re-
maining taxes are only about one-eighth of the total. The importance of prop-
erty taxes has been decreasing slightly with the introduction of new taxes,-
although in 1910 property taxes were 80 per cent of the total collected.

Federal internal revenue now makes up nearly one-third of the total taxes
collected in Massachusetts as compared with about 7 per cent in 1910.

210

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

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COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS. 211

Nero Taxes^'^

While the principal increase has been in property taxes, two new taxes
have been introduced since 1910 that add a substantial amount to total tax
levies. The income tax introduced in 1917, together with automobile registra-
tion fees, furnishes 8.7 per cent of total taxes for State and local purposes. The
entire income tax, less the cost of collection, is distributed to cities and towns.
The fees from automobile registration, together with drivers' licenses and court
fines for highway penalties, make up most of the revenue of the State highway
division. While not a new source in the strict sense of the word, higher registra-
tion fees, together with increase in total collections, have made this source of
revenue more important to the State government than any other.

Massachusetts was one of the first group of states to use a State income
tax as a partial substitute for a property tax on intangible property. The tax
has been in operation for twelve years and has been successful not only in rais-
ing additional revenue but in partially equalizing the tax burden between
owners of real property and the owners of intangibles. It has also brought
about a better distribution of taxes between property owners and the salaried
groups not previously contributing directly to the cost of government.

Massachusetts was one of the first states to study systematically the prob-
lem of taxing corporations. As a result there are now approximately twenty-
five taxes applying to different types of corporations. More than one-half of all
corporation taxes collected are distributed to cities and towns on various bases.
The total estimated corporation taxes for State, local and federal purposes are
shown on Chart 11.

The Tax Rate

The tax rate per $1000 assessed valuation is commonly used as a measure
of the increase in taxes as well as of tax differences between towns. In 1926 the
tax rates of the various cities and towns in Massachusetts varied from $10 to
$50.40 per thousand of valuation with an average rate of $30.34 for the state.
Table 39 shows the number of cities and towns having various rates in selected
years.

Table 39.— Tax Rate in Cities and Towns, for Selected Years.

Tax Rate in
Dollars per

N

umber of

Cities

or Towns

$1,000
Valuation

1910

1915

1920

1925

$ 0.10-10.00

21

10

ti

1

10.10-20.00

284

222

87

29

20.10-30.00

49

121

211

195

30.10-40.00

0

0

48

127

40.10-50.00

0

0

2

3

From Table 39 it appears that in 1925 only 30 cities and towns had rates
of $20.00 or less, while in 1910, 305 were below this figure. Since 1920, rates
have varied more between municipalities than in previous years, due to the in-
crease in expenditures and to the failure of many towns and cities to raise

" Since this was written, the gasoline tax has been added, and the automobile ex-
cise tax has replaced the local taxation of motor vehicles.

212

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 25(J

CHART 11. Total Taxes Paid by Massachusetts Corporations for All Purposes, In-
cluding Estimated Local Property Taxes and State and Federal
Taxes, 1916-1925.

Millions of

OoLLARd

350

250

200

150

100

1925

assessed valuations of property. In I9I7 the State income tax law removed in-
tangible property from the jurisdiction of local assessors. Since that time the
local tax rate has applied only to real estate and tangible personal property.

The tax rate has been increasing gradually since 1910, indicating that taxes
have increased faster than ability to pay as measured by assessed valuation.
This is shown by Table 40, obtained by dividing the total property taxes levied
each year by the total assessed valuation for that year.

Table

40.

— Average

Tax

R

\te per

$1,000 Assessed

Valuation,

1910

-1926.'

Year

Rate

Yea r

Rate

Year

Rate

1910

$17.07

1916

$18.87

1921

$26.65

1911

17.02

1917

19.90

1922

27.49

1912

17.07

1918

21.03

1923

27.07

1913

17.83

1919

23.32

1924

27.71

1914

18.51

1920

25.65

1925

28.53

1915

19.05

1926

30.34

1 Adapted from reports of the Commissioner of Corporations and Taxation.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IX MASS.

213

The rate of $30.34 per $1000 valuation in 1926 is 78 per cent higher than the
rate in 1910. It is customary to compare the present situation with that of the
pre-war years by using the 1910-14 average for the earlier period. On this basis,
the 1926 rate was 73 per cent above the 1910-14 average. The post-war years
marked by price inflation and consequent high costs brought about 7.5 per cent
of the increase from 1910 to 1926.

Limitations of the Tax Rate as a Measure of Tax Differences

The tax rate is not an accurate measure of tax differences between towns
or cities, nor is it an accurate measure of the increase in taxes within a given
city or town. The use of the term, tax rate, for such purposes frequently leads
to gross misstatements of fact.

Assessment practice varies considerably between municipalities. If all towns
and cities assessed property at the same percentage of full value, the tax rate
would be a fair method of comparison. In practice, however, the ratio of
assessed to actual values frequently varies as much as 20 to 30 per cent be-
tween towns. Many towns meet increasing expenditures by raising the tax rate
rather than by bringing assessed values into line with increasing property
values. Therefore the tax rate is not a fair basis of comparison in such cases.
However, it is a better measure of the increase in taxes for the state as a whole
than for the indvidual city or town.

The Burden on Real Estate

In the agitation for tax reduction, considerable attention has been given to
the increasing burden on real estate. For the state as a wiiole taxes on real
estate have increased proportionally more than most other taxes. For instance,
taxes on real estate increased 246 per cent from 1910 to 1926. During the
same period corporation taxes increased 8-5 per cent. The increase in tlie in-

Table 41. — Index Numbers of Assessed Valuation, Property and Poll Taxes,

1910-1927.

1910 = 100

Assessed

Valuation

Taxes

Year

Real
Estate

Land
only

Personalty

Total

Total
General
Property

Real

Estate

Poll

Total

Local

Tax

1910

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

1911

104

103

106

104

104

105

101

104

1912

108

107

115

110

110

108

103

110

1913

113

111

120

114

119

118

105

119

1914

116

113

126

119

129

126

107

128

1915

120

116

128

122

131

134

109

135

1916

124

118

137

123

140

137

111

140

1917

128

120

78

116"

134

146

115

133

1918

130

121

92

121

149

159

112

148

1919

134

124

99

126

171

181

112

170

1920

147

131

106

137

206

218

270

208

1921

152

132

110

142

221

235

271

223

1922

158

136

108

146

236

252

308

237

1923

167

140

108

153

242

262

311

244

1924

176

144

113

161

262

283

128

258

1925

187

149

115

170

284

309

131

279

1926

196

153

114

177

314

346

131

309

1927

202

152

113

181

313

346

131

308

1 Income Tax Act went into effect.

214 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

come tax from 1917, the first year in operation, to 1926 was about 74 per cent.
For the same period taxes on real estate increased 138 per cent. This latter
comparison is the more important if income is a fair measure of ability to pay.

The increase in taxes on real estate is more significant when compared
with the increase in assessed valuation. Table 41 shows that the index of real
estate valuation in 1927 was 202, compared with the index of taxes on real
estate of 346. Taxes on real estate have also increased relatively more than
total expenditures.

Increasing taxes on real estate are felt more keenly than other taxes be-
cause they are such a large percentage of alj taxes. However, the importance
of the increase is not as great as is generally supposed. The following figures
show the percentage relationship of taxes on real estate to total taxes and to
total expenditures.

Ratio of Taxes on Real Ratio of Taxes on Real

Estate to Total Taxes Estate to Total Expendi-

for State and Local tures for State and

Purposes Local Purposes

Year (Per Cent) (Per Cent)

1910 61.7 41.9

1915 62.1 42.2

1920 56.7 44.3

1925 64.6 45.3

1926 63.9 49.8

It will be noted that real estate is paying about 2 per cent more of total taxes
and 8 per cent more of total expenditures than in 1910. However, the increase
of 8 per cent means a change of almost 20 per cent in the ratio of real estate
taxes to total expenditures. Approximately one-half of the total expenditures
was obtained from taxes on real estate in 1926.

The Increase in Taxes in Agricultural Towns

It has been pointed out that taxes have increased enormously for the state
as a whole. In order to determine whether this increase has been greater in
agricultural towns than in other towns, seven groups of five adjoining agri-
cultural towns were taken as samples in different parts of the state. The
assessed valuations and taxes levied were computed for each group at intervals
of five years, as shown in Table 42.

Increases both in assessed valuation and in taxes levied have varied widely
for different sections. The Connecticut Valley region shows the greatest in-
crease both in assessed valuation and in taxes. From 1910 to 1925, valuation
increased 127 per cent, all property taxes 338 per cent, and all taxes on real
estate 325 per cent. The Middlesex section shows the least increase in assessed
valuation, only 10 per cent; while all property taxes increased 175 per cent,
and real estate taxes 253 per cent. The hill towns in the western part of the
state show the lowest increase in taxes of all the section considered. Taking the
seven groups together, property taxes increased 218 per cent, and real estate
taxes 245 per cent; while the total assessed valuation increased only 66 per
cent and real estate valuation only 82 per cent. Taxes increased much faster
than assessed values in every section considered.

With one exception assessed values of land have not increased as much
as the assessed valuation of all property or of real estate. The Connecticut
Valley shows an increase in land values of 134 per cent, and the nearest ap-

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

21?

Table 42. — Index Numbers of Assessed Valuations and Property Taxes in
Thirty-five Agricultural Towns, 1910-192.5.

1910=100

Year

Assessed V

aluation

Taxes

Section

Real

Land

Total

Total

Estate

only

Personalty

General

Real

Property

Estate

Western Hill

1910

100

100

100

100

100

100

1915

119

114

111

136

145

138

1920

142

132

120

174

203

189

1925

166

155

131

201

260

243

Connecticut

Valley

1910

100

100

100

100

100

100

1915

142

110

144

153

157

154

1920

206

158

227

238

288

280

1925

227

175

234

258

438

425

Central

Plateau

1910

100

100

100

100

100

100

1915

124

116

95

155

139

130

1920

139

133

101

160

277

162

1925

157

152

111

177

322

313

Northeastern

1910

100

100

100

100

100

100

1915

153

120

116

91

152

131

1920

127

136

127

100

187

200

3 925

158

172

157

114

295

324

East Central

1910

100

100

100

100

100

100

1915

115

126

118

89

132

141

1920

144

155

132

129

206

219

1925

173

194

150

120

296

327

Southeastern

1910

100

100

100

100

100

100

igi.'i

115

122

120

89

128

135

1920

142

149

145

114

196

205

Ai'tJ.IlAHA**

1925

202

214

175

153

314

332

Middlesex

1910

100

100

100

100

100

100

1915

127

113

106

150

151

133

1920

96

125

115

49

197

250

1925

110

146

123

51

275

353

Total

1910

100

100

100

100

100

100

1915

129

122

117

125

143

138

1920

138

149

142

111

210

233

1925

166

182

160

121

318

345

proach to this is found in the southeastern section with an increase of 75 per
cent.

In order to compare the increase in assessed valuation and property taxes
in agricultural towns with the increase in other towns and cities, ten towns and
cities with populations between ten and twenty thousand were taken as typical
of the large towns and small cities. The increase in the strictly urban districts
was shown by data from ten of the larger cities. The comparative data in
Table 43 show that assessed valuation increased 113 per cent in the large towns,
66 per cent in the rural towns, and 60 per cent in cities. The small increase in
cities is due in part to the operation of the Income Tax Act of 1917. Therefore
assessed valuation of real estate furnishes a better means of comparison. The
agricultural towns show an increase of 82 per cent compared with 125 per
cent for the large towns and 73 per cent for the cities. Land values also in-
creased faster in the large towns. Property taxes have increased in about
the same proportion as total assessed valuations, the large towns ranking first,
the cities second, with the smallest increase in the agricultural towns. Taxes
on real estate in the agricultural towns increased 245 per cent compared with
272 per cent in the large towns and 183 per cent in the cities.

216

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

Table 43. — Index Numbers of Assessed Valuation, Taxes, and Tax Rates per
.flOOO Valuation, in Cities and Towns, 1910-192.5.

10

10

35

Manu-

35

Manu-

Yfar

State

Farm

facturing

10

State

Farm

facturing

10

Average

Towns

Towns

Cities

Average

Towns

Towns

Cities

Total Assessed Valuation

Assessed Value of Real Estate

1910

100

100

100

lot)

100

100

100

100

1915

122

129

126

lis

120

122

122

118

1920

137

1.38

177

133

147

149

176

139

1925

170

166

213

160

187

182

225

173

Alt General Property Taxes

Ta

Kes Levied

OH Real Estate

1910

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

1915

136

14,3

148

132

134

138

142

131

1920

206

210

250

200

218

233

245

209

1925

284

3.1 S

359

262

309

345

372

283

All General Property Taxes, Rale per

Real Estate Taxes, Rate per

SI, 000 Valuation

$1,000 Valuation

1910

100

100

100

100

100

lOo

100

100

1915

111

111

117

112

112

113

116

111

1920

150

1.52

141

1.50

148

157

139

150

1925

167

192

168

164

165

190

165

164

Apparently taxes in the agricultural coniniunities have not increased as
much as in large toM'ns, but somewhat more than in cities. In order to measure
accurately the increase in taxes, total property taxes should be compared with
the increase in assessed valuation. This is done in the last section of the table
where the index of taxes divided by the index of assessed valuation shows the
actual increase in taxes or the index of the tax rate. First, comparing all prop-
erty taxes with the increase in valuation, the farm towns show an increase of
92 per cent in the tax rate, compared with 68 per cent for the manufacturing-
towns and 64 per cent for the cities. On the same basis taxes on real estate
have increased 90 per cent in the agricultural towns, 65 per cent in the manu-
facturing towns and 64 per cent in cities. The farm towns show a relative
increase in property and real estate taxes of 40 per cent more than the manu-
facturing towns and cities. For the state as a whole the tax rate in agri-
cultural towns increased 37 per cent more from 1910 to 1925 than property
taxes in non-farming communities.

There are several reasons for this situation. Property values have in-
creased relatively faster in cities but the difference is partly due to increasing
the tax rate in small towns rather than increasing assessed values of real estate.

Cities have relatively more personal property than small towns, and re-
ceive more from the income tax. Consequently in the rural sections real estate
has had to bear the larger portion of the increase.

Increase in Departmental Earnings

One method of meeting increasing expenditures is to charge for certain
public .services rendered. Such departmental earnings may arise out of control
and regulatory activities involving the issuing of licenses and permits, or they

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

217

Table 44. — Receipts of the Central State Government, by Source, 1910-1926.
(Thousands of dollars)

Motor Vehicle

General

Corpor-

Licenses,

Property

ation

Inheritance Fines

Depart-

Miscel-

Year

Tax

Taxes

Tax

and Pees

mental

laneous'

Total

1910

$ 5,500

$ 5,311

$ 1,672

$ 404

$ 2,869

$ 2,127

$17,883

1911

5,500

5,428

2,214

504

2,694

2,060

18,400

1912

6,250

5,839

2,154

645

3,220

2,212

20,320

1913

7,989

5,792

2,355

803

3,106

2,249

22,294

1914

8,761

5,399

2,308

966

2,966

2,297

22,697

1915

9,750

5,649

3,283

1,245

3,286

2,569

25,782

1916

8,000

5,870

4,284

1,617

3,570

2,727

26,068

1917

10,921

5,589

3,944

2,046

4,090

2,490

29,080

1918

11,076

9,412

5,882

2,250 ■

5,865

4,554

39,039

1919

11,662

10,466

5,060

3,237

5,392

3,334

39,151

1920

13,293

10,493

4,632

3,413

9,933

7.254

48,018

1921

16,027

12,254

7,360

4,853

6,093

7,397

53,984

1922

12,000

7,989

6,843

5,886

7,110

8.502

48,330

1923

12,000

8,044

6,087

8,143

6,995

7,084

48,353

1924

10,000

11,492

6,313

8,471

7,343

3,674

47,293

1925

12,000

8,316

5,963

10,035

7,270

3,786

47,370

1926

12,000

9,131

6,475

13,265

7,853

2,765

51,489

^ Includes miscellaneous revenue, licenses and fees, income from sinking
other invested funds, gifts and grants.

Table 45.- — Receipts of Counties, by Source, 1910-1926.
(Tho'osands of dollars)

Departmental Receipts

General
Property

Year

Tax

Health and

Total

Education

Highways Correction

Miscellaneous

1910

$2,703

$30

$686 $138

$506

$4,063

1911

2.657

27

200 133

524

3,541

1912

2,729

26

163 127

497

3.542

1913

2.951

26

217 118

505

3,817

1914

3.149

34

55 109

509

3,856

1915

3.433

53

60 108

594

4.248

1916

3.626

42

102 125

577

4,472

1917

3.857

54

137 133

561

4,742

1918

4.055

68

147 149

515

4,934

1919

4,252

81

227 176

1,005

5,741

1920

4.644

79

855 278

1.153

7.009

1921

5AQA

144

4,117 792

1.006

11,463

1922

5.622

167

161 422

1.007

7,379

1923

5,809

205

103 385

1.215

7,717

1924

6.009

251

52 440

7,768 1

14,520

925

7,1.38

240

444 692

1.312

9,726

1926

7.497

262

100 629

1.598

10,086

^ Increase due to special assessment.

218

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

may result from the direct shifting of a portion of the cost of service to those
who receive the benefits.

The amount of departmental receipts other than taxes is shown in Tables
44 to 48. The amount of such receipts has increased steadily since 1910 for all
civil groups. Receipts of the various departments of tlie State government
have more than doubled since that date, in fact the increase has kept pace
with the growth of expenditures and the increase in taxes. Many State de-
partments meet a substantial portion of their expenses with their earnings or
receipts, and nearly one-sixth of all State revenue is from this source. The
department of mental diseases pays more than 10 per cent of all its expendi-
tures from departmental earnings and receipts; the department of education
pays nearly one-sixth of its expenses; the department of correction paj^s almost
one-half; and if motor vehicle fees may be regarded as a departmental receipt,
the department of public works is self-supporting.

Departmental receipts in towns and cities furnish between 3 and 4 per
cent of all revenue at the present time. In small towns the amount of such
receipts is small and the relative importance has declined since 1910. In cities
the percentage of departmental receipts to total receipts increased from 2.8
in 1910 to 3.2 in 1926.

State Aid in Small Town Receipts

In 1926 more than one-third of the revenue receipts of towns of less than
500 population was from "gifts and grants", principally from the State. More
than one-half of the towns and cities of the Commonwealth had a population
of 2500 or less, and for this group State aid made up more than 10 per cent
of all revenue receipts. The average for the remaining cities and towns was
about 1 per cent. For towns of less than 5000 population the ratio of State

Table 46.— Receipts of Towns under 5,000, by Source, 1910-1926.
(Thousands of dollars)

Year

Genera]
Property,
Poll, and Public

Income Corporation Service

Tax Taxes Departmental Enterprises

iliscellaneous'

Total

1910

$3,780

$ 548

$ 405

$ 239

$ 753

$ 5,725

1911

3,852

638

392

326

730

6,938

1912

5,643

853

589

456

1,087

8,628

1913

5,883

S82

626

519

1,138

9,048

1914

5,261

723

496

437

805

7,722

1915

5,900

685

525

492

1,004

8,606

1916

6,619

637

523

512

1,078

9,369

1917

6,918

653

531

544

1,047

9,703

1918

7,224

711

566

566

1,015

10,082

1919

8,307

794

683

614

1,301

11,699

1920

10,409

753

707

693

1,392

13,954

1921

11,098

1,047

684

743

1,508

15,080

1922

12,423

986

734

821

1,808

16,722

1923

13,630

843

732

882

2,140

18,227

1924

13,390

820

871

895

2.067

18,043

1925

14,551

793

692

961

2,283

19,280

1926

15,965

816

672

1,021

2,422

20,896

^ Gifts, grants and miscellaneons.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

219

Table 47.— Receipts of Towns over 5,000, by Source, 1910-1926.
(Thousands of dollars)

General

Property,

Poll, and

Public

Income

Corporation

Service

Year

Tax

Taxes

Departmental

Enterprises

Miscellaneous

Total

1910

$ 9,484

$ 1,196

$ 671

$ 2,193

$ 1,143

$ 14,687

1911

9,665

1,339

703

2,252

1,233

15,192

1912

10,106

1,421

694

2,399

1,246

15,866

1913

10,826

1,361

719

2,556-

1,310

16,772

1914

12,190

1,390

776

2,621

1,370

18,347

1915

12,543

1,388

807

2.651

1,395

18,784

1916

13,601

1,351

885

2,793

1,418

20,048

1917

13,500

1,503

829

2,838

1,311

19,981

1918

14,692

1,765

949

2,996

1,215

21,617

1919

16,883

1,973

1,144

3,394

1,321

24,715

1920

20,724

1,838

1,167

3,894

1,089

28,713

1921

22,458

2,481

1,195

3,728

1,202

31,064

1922

25,062

2,205

1,295

4,061

1,716

34,339

1923

26,686

2,072

1,327

4,346

1.617

36.048

1924

29,886

2,276

1,694

4,778

1,694

40,328

1925

31,902

2,107

1,352

5,314

1,723

42,398

1926

35,038

2,278

1,418

5,635

1,816

46,185

aid to total receipts tended to vary inversely with the population. In a few
towns this aid was as much as 50 per cent of the revenue receipts, while in
some small towns the grants were insignificant.

State aid tends to equalize revenues between towns, and makes possible
more uniform governmental service at a lower tax per capita. In 1926 the per
capita tax receipts of small towns were from 10 to 20 per cent below those of
large towns and cities, while per capita expenditures were about the same.

Table 48.— Receipts of Cities, by Source, 1910-1926.
(Thousmids of dollars)

General

Property,

Poll, and

Public

Income

Corporation

Service

Year

Tax

Taxes

Departmental

Enterprises

Miscellaneous

Total

1910

$ 43,537

$ 4,746

$ 1,902

$ 9,223

$ 7,979

$ 67,387

1911

45,183

5,115

1,921

9,302

8,861

70,382

1912

47,097

5,059

2,058

9,790

8,557

72,561

1913

49,537

4,933

2,289

10,041

8,805

75,605

1914

52,058

4,598

2,473

10,230

9,008

78,367

1915

57,605

4,824

2,816

10,462

9,314

85,021

1916

60,556

5,740

3,093

11,187

9,510

90,086

1917

60,745

6,623

3,353

11,635

8,849

91,205

1918

72,027

6,969

4,136

12,242

9,260

104,634

1919

85,865

7,748

5,788

13,393

8,998

121,792

1920

97,271

8,327

4,898

14,419

8,062

132,977

1921

101,197

12,714

5,106

15,015

8,598

142,630

1922

111,581

9,167

5,955

15,753

9,895

152,351

1923

119,132

9,925

6,778

16,807

10,369

163,011

1924

125,087

11,514

7,060

17,108

10,763

171,532

1925

132,469

10,469

5,852

16,915

10,313

176,018

1926

151,080

11,203

6,280

17,854

11.711

198,128

220 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

THE PUBLIC DEBT

Borrowing has long been the customary method of providing money for
the construction of public works.

Money may be borrowed for a short time in order to meet necessary ex-
penses before taxes are collected, i.e., revenue loans; or for a period of years
for permanent improvements through the issuing of bonds, notes, or other
certificates of indebtedness. Bonds may be issued by the State, by counties, by
cities, by towns, and by various fire, water or other hnprovement districts. The
long-time indebtedness is usually spoken of as the public debt. Bonds and
notes are either serial, a certain amount of the loan being paid off each year;
or sinking fund, in which a certain amount of money is set aside at interest
each year to accunmlate for the repayment of the entire loan. According to
law, all of the recent long-time municipal loans have been either serial bonds
or notes.

In the discussion of the public debt, the following terms have been used.
Net debt refers to the outstanding debt exclusive of sinking funds. State debt
refers to the direct indebtedness of the State government. Contingent debt
is the indebtedness which has been incurred by the State for the benefit of the
municipalities in the Metropolitan Boston district. This contingent debt is
legally a direct obligation of the State, but the entire charge for interest and
serial payments is borne by the municipalities. Enterprise debt refers to the
debt which has been incurred in the establishment of public service enterprises.
General debt is used to describe that incurred for purposes of general govern-
ment other than public service enterprises. Municipal debt is that incurred by
towns and cities whether for general purposes or for public service enterprises.

The Amount of Debt"

The total net outstanding State and municipal debt at the beginning of
1927 was slightly more than $335,000,000. Of this amount, municipal debt made
up $270,000,000 or 81 per cent. The remainder was State debt of which $50,-
000,000 was contingent debt chargeable to municipalities in the Metropolitan
Boston area. Therefore, over 95 per cent of the net outstanding public in-
debtedness is a direct obligation of the cities and towns. The net State debt
for general purposes was only $16,168,000 at the beginning of 1927. Approx-
imately one-fourth of the municipal debt is for public service enterprises such
as gas, electric light, and water companies. The net general debt incurred
either by or for cities and towns (including State contingent debt) was $260,-
000,000, or more than 90 per cent of the total net general debt. (Table 49).

The greatest increase has been in the city debt, but the percentage increase
has been greatest in towns of over 5,000 population. The net general debt of
cities increased only 45 per cent from 1910 to 1926, while in towns over 5000 the
increase was 118 per cent. The increase of 90 per cent in the indebtedness of
towns under 5000 is an understatement of the true situation, since there are
fewer towns of this class now than in 1910. Making full allowance for the

" Statistics on debt were obtained from the following sources :

Annual Reports of the State Treasurer, Mass. Pub. Doc. 5; Annual Reports of
the State Auditor, Mass. Pub. Doc. 6; Annual Reports of the Commission on
Administration and Finance, Mass. Pub. Doc. 140 ; Annual Reports on the Sta-
tistics of County Finances, Mass. Pub. Doc. 29 ; Annual Reports on the Sta-
tistics of Municipal Finances, Mass. Pub. Doc. 79.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

221

shifts of towns from one group to another, the rate of increase has been much
greater for the towns than for the cities.

Municipal indebtedness has been increasing at an average rate of nearly
$4,000,000 each year since 1910. Most of this increase has been in general pur-
pose loans for cities and towns. The State debt, both general and contingent,
was less in 1926 than in 1910.

Table 49.— Net Municipal and State Indebtedness, 1910-1926.
(Thousands of dollars)

Municipal Debt

State Debt

Year

Direct

Enterprise

Total

Contingent

Direct

Total

Grand
Total

1910

$120,244

$48,302

$168,546

$60,737

$20,341

$81,078

$249,624

1911

121,339

49,493

170,832

59,907

20.482

80,389

251,222

1912

122.629

51,862

174,491

58.440

20.790

79,230

253,721

1913

129.062

54.687

183,749

57,402

24,281

81,683

265.432

1914

132,429

57,232

189,661

56,442

28,260

84,702

274,363

1915

133.953

60,g35

194,788

55,638

30,405

86,043

280,831

1916

135,793

60.508

196,301

55,090

30,577

85,667

281,968

1917

134,327

60.156

194,483

54.325

33,659

87,984

282,467

1918

126,950

58,673

185,623

53.002

32,058

85,060

270,683

1919

130,694

57,519

188,213

51.126

40,433

91,559

279,772

1920

134,091

56,835

190,926

57.108

35,128

92,236

283,162

1921

143.981

57.761

201,742

54,955

29,312

84,267

286,009

1922

156.956

• 58.017

214,973

53,283

23,713

76,996

291,969

1923

170.568

59.399

229,967

51,731

20,792

72,523

302,490

1924

185,345

61,351

246,696

50.382

18,923

69,305

316,001

1925

193,507

65,121

258,628

51.261

17.655

68,916

327,544

1926

200,478

69,583

270,061

48.976

16.168

65,144

335,205

Causes of the Increase in Public Indebtedness

The war caused a temporary increase in State debt and a temporary drop
in municipal debt. Since 1919 the net direct State debt has been reduced by
more than one-half, while the municipal debt has increased about 50 per cent.
Before the war the annual average increase in net municipal debt was about
$5,000,000; since 1920 it has been more than $13,000,000; while during the war
there was a decline. The increase has been due to the same factors that
caused the increase in all public expenditures.

Considering the rise in prices, the total increase in indebtedness has not
been excessive. In terms of 1913 dollars, or in purchasing power, the average
annual increase in public debt since 1915 has been less than from 1910 to 1915.
On the same basis the large loans from 1920 to 1925 did not make up for the
preceding five-year period when few new loans were made.

One method of measuring indebtedness is the ratio of net debt to assessed
valuation, provided assessed valuation is comparable to real valuation. From
1910 to 1926 the ratio of net municipal debt to valuation dropped from 4.31
per cent to 3.88 per cent. From 1920 to 1924 the ratio increased, but apparently

terprise

Total D

Debt

1.09

4.35

.59

2.96

.39

1.53

222 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

is again declining. The ratio of total State and municipal debt to assessed val-
uation has dropped from 6.38 per cent to 4.92 per cent between 1910 and 1926,
indicating that for the state as a whole, loans have not been excessive. How-
ever, in individual cities and towns the ratio of debt to assessed valuation has
been increasing. This increase is explained by low assessed valuation in some
instances; in others, it reflects greater optimism on the part of taxpayers or
their officials.

The ratio of outstanding debt to annual expenditures is another measure
of indebtedness. In 1910 the net outstanding debt was more than double the
total expenditures for that year; in 1925 net debt was slightly less than total
expenditures. The declining ratio of debt to expenditures indicates that for the
state as a whole borrowing has been conservative, or it may even indicate that
borrowing has not been equal to needs.

Individual cities and towns have not all followed such a conservative policy.
The diflference between cities and towns is shown by Table 50.

Table 50. — Ratio of Net Debt to Assessed Valuation, 1926
Group General Debt

Cities 3.26

Towns over 5,000 2.37

Towns under 5,000 1.14

Apparently the ratio of debt to valuation tends to increase with the size of
the town or city, due partly to the legal restrictions on indebtedness of small
towns. Since enterprise debt is usually for the purpose of acquiring or ex-
panding a self-supporting gas, electric, or water plant, the variations in enter-
prise debt between cities are not especially significant.

Diflferences between individual cities and towns are much greater than the
above table indicates. Thus for the 39 cities, the ratio of total debt to valua-
tion in 1926 varied from 1.54 per cent in Somerville to 6.01 per cent in Revere.
Excluding enterprise debt, the ratio of general debt varied from 1.25 per cent
in Lawrence to 5.48 in Revere. Differences for the 39 cities were as follows:

Ratio of General Debt

to Assessed Valuation Nwmber of Cities

(Per cent)

1.00-1.99 7

2.00 - 2.99 10

3.00 - 3.99 15

4.00 - 4.99 6

5.00 - 5.99 2

There is no relation between the size of the city and the ratio of debt to
assessed valuation.

For towns of more than 5000 population, the range in the ratio of debt to
valuation is greater than for cities. Ten towns have ratios above 5 per cent,
and in 17 towns the ratios are less than 1 per cent. There is apjjarently little
relation between size of town and ratio of debt to valuation in this group.

Since cities and towns assess property at varying percentages of value, the
ratio of debt to valuation is not as significant as it would be if assessment
practices were uniform. For some purposes, the net debt per capita is a better

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS. 223

measure of the differences between towns and cities. Tiie differences in general
debt per capita for cities and for towns over .5000 are as follows:

Per Capita

N

umber

of

Towns

N-.

urnber of

General Debt

over

5,000

Cities

$ 0-19.99

28

4

20 - 39.99

30

10

40 - 59.99

11

18

60 - 79.99

7

5

80 - 99.99

2

2

100 - 119.99

1

0

There is apparently little relation between per capita valuation and per
capita debt. Towns of 5000 or more population show greater variation in per
capita debt than do cities, and the group average is only $33 compared with
$55 for cities. Only ten towns in this group have more than $60 per capita
general debt. There is a close correlation between size of town and per capita
debt, and most of the high figures are for towns of more than 10,000 population.

Debt in towns of less than 5000 population is not a serious problem. Sixty-
six towns in this group reported no debt in 1926, and in many other towns debt
incurred for public service enterprises is of more importance than general debt.
Only a few towns in which assessed valuations are high reported more than $50
general debt per pefson. The pay-as-you-go policy adopted by many towns is
responsible for low per capita indebtedness. Only four of the 237 towns of this
group showed a ratio of general debt to assessed valuation of more than 4 per
cent on January 1, 1927.

Siunmarizing, the total indebtedness of the State and local governments
does not appear excessive when considered in connection with the common
measures of safety. However, many cities and towns are approaching the
danger point if their assessed valuation is a fair measure of ability to pay.
Cities and towns vary greatly in per capita indebtedness and in the ratio of
debt to assessed valuation. In general the outstanding debt per person is in
proportion to the size of the city or town, whUe there is little relation between
valuation and debt. Direct taxes per person tend to increase with indebtedness.
This is partly due to the legal requirement that a certain amount of the loan be
repaid each year, but principally to the fact that those cities and towns finding
it necessary to borrow extensively have already attempted to meet their in-
creasing expenditures by heavier taxes.

APPENDIX

In the following tables, where total expenditures are shown for various
functions, payments for both current maintenance and permanent outlays are
included unless otherwise stated.

224

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

Table A 1. — Expenditures for Various Purposes, 1910-1926.
(Thouscmds of dollars)

Towns under 5,000

CHARITY, HEALTH AND

HIGHWAYS

EDUCATION

CORRECTION

Main-

Main-

Main-

Year

tenance

Outlays

Total

tenance

Outlays

Total

tenance

Outlays

Total

1910

$872

$501

$1,373

$1,843

$208

$2,051

$487

$50

$537

1911

879

459

1,338

1.817

193

2,010

474

61

535

1912

1.302

887

2,189

2.714

359

3,073

714

98

812

1913

1,420

1.017

2,437

2.824

487

3,311

762

172

934

1914

1,305

981

2,286

2.461

330

2,791

687

281

968

1915

1,438

1,130

2,568

2.803

387

3,190

798

97

895

1916

1.629

927

2,556

2,946

358

3,304

827

84

911

1917

1,676

918

2,594

3,194

335

3.529

835

90

925

1918

1,707

750

2,457

3.334

111

3,445

895

31

926

1919

2,165

1,288

3,453

3,969

223

4,192

1,105

189

1.294

1920

3,148

1,754

4,902

5,059

355

5,414

1,146

186

1,332

1921

2.928

1.631

4,559

5,841

578

6,419

1,262

255

1,517

1922

2.915

1.922

4,837

6,231

1.001

7,232

1.364

104

1,468

1923

3.559

2.084

5,643

6,620

949

7,569

1,395

142

1,537

1924

3,427

2.398

5,825

6,575

1.355

7,930

1.360

533

1,893

1925

3.500

3.024

6,524

6.913

1.358

8,261

1,570

142

1,712

1926

4.394

3.047

7,441

7.175

1.190

8,365

1,619

172

1,791

Towns

Dver 5,00

0

1910
1911
1912
1913
1914

$1,668
1,697
1.771
1,870
2.193

$753
821
996
995

1,107

$2,421

2,518
2,767
2,865
3,300

$3,494
3,549
3,789
4,023
4,532

$856
789
759
982

1.042

$4,350
4,338
4,548
5,005
5,574

$1,369
1,389
1,460
1,590
1,862

$719
761
712
836
793

$2,088
2,150
2,172
2,426
2,655

1915
1916
1917
1918
1919

2.270
2.356
2,543
2,496
3,036

1,036
1.185
1.217
676
1.308

3,306
3,541
3,760
3,172
4,344

4,646
4,812
5,178
5,559
6.458

981

1,113

1,350

727

795

5,627
5,925
6,528
6,286
7,253

1,997
2.071
2.112
2.307
2.771

746
635
657
373
687

2,743
2,706
2,769
2,680
3,458

1920
1921
1922
1923
1924

3,884
3,946
3.950
4,197
4,533

1.772
2.448
2.190
2.518
3.830

5,656
6.394
6,140
6,715
8,363

S.730

9.922

10.390

10,875

12,000

1,669
1,832
2.861
3.392
5.431

10,399
11,754
13,251
14,267
17,431

3,056
3.570
3.614
3.669
4.156

852
1.141

821
1,524
1.875

3,908
4,711
4,435
5,193
6,031

1925
1926

4,754
5,613

3.370
3.981

8,124
9,594

12,676
13,374

4.025
3,315

16,701
16,689

4.511

4.871

1.198
1.895

5,709
6,766

Cities

1910
1911
1912
1913
1914

$5,925
5.909
6.242
6.690
6.711

$3,675
3,141
4.159
5.289
6.519

$9,600
9,050
10,401
11,979
13,230

$13,174
13,868
14,912
15.988
16.762

$2,799
3.244
2.719
3.103
3.934

$15,973
17,112
17,631
19,091
20,696

$8,481

8,935

9.715

10.676

11.495

$3,107
2,869
4,028
4,354
3.945

$11,588
11,804
13,743
15,030
15,440

1915
1916
1917
1918
1919

6,496
7,083
7,875
8,374
10.117

5.631
4.615
5.014
3.805
7.433

12,127
11,698

12,889
12,179
17,550

17.712
18.507
19.917
21,927
24,532

3.445
2.986
3.734
2.423
2,162

21,157
21,493
23,651
24,350
26,694

12.727
12.872
14,379
15.902
18.122

3.792
3.499
4,103
2,687
3.553

16,519
16,371

18,482
18,589
21,675

1920
1921
1922
1923
1924

12.012
11.379
10.989
12.556
12,843

8,514
10,379

9,660
10,329
16.168

20,526
21,758
20,649
22,885
29,011

33,268
37,480
39.306
42.193

44.477

4,607
6,747
8,402
10.402
10,538

37,875
44,227
47,708
52,595
55,015

21.094
23.193
23.711
25.219
28,229

4.531
5.599
5.622
6.889
8.084

25,625
28.792
29,333
32,108
36,313

1925
1926

11.958
14.029

12.997
13.819

24,955

27,848

45,566
49.092

11.490
11.725

57,056
60,817

29,118
30.404

8,189
7.500

37,307
37,904

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

225

Table A. 1.— Expenditures for Various Purposes, 1910-1926.— Concluded.
(Thousands of dollars)

Towns under 6,000

OTHER GENERAL

PUBLIC SERVICE
ENTERPRISES

TOTAL

Interest

and Debt
Total

Grand
Total

Main-
tenance

Outlays

Total

Main-
tenance

Outlays

Total

Main-
tenance Outlays

$1,117
1.163
1,686
1.818
1.521

$109
131

248
193
172

$1,226
1,294
1,934
2,011
1,693

$143
180
290
313
267

$149
286
376
667
272

$292
466
666
980
539

$4,462
4,513
6,706
7,137
6,241

$1,017
1,130
1,968
2,536
2,036

$648

698

1.059

1.131

986

$6,127
6.341
9,733

10,804
9,263

1,676
1,609
1,781
1.852
2,018

173
181
188
117
177

1,849
1,790
1,969
1,969
2,195

290
292
349
430
420

285
148
138
119
192

575
440
487
549
612

7,005
7,303

7,835
8,218
9,677

2,072
1,698
1,669
1,128
2,069

1,077
1,133
1,181
1.120
1,158

10,154
10,134
10,685
10,466
12,904

2.241
2.480
2.600
2.612
2,700

229
317
420
454
292

2,470
2,797
3,020
3,066
2,992

514
544
574
626
611

202
391
309
346
493

716
935
883
972
1,104

12,108
13,055
13,684
14,812
14,673

2.726
3.172
3,756
3,975
5,071

1.171
1,373
1.404
1,556
1,549

16,005
17,600
18,844
20,343
21,293

2,728
2,929

462
373

3,190
3,302

642
677

586
561

1,228
1,238

15,353
16,795

5,562
5,342

1.715
1,831

22,630
23,968

Towns

over 5,000

$2,770

$198

$2,968

$1,015

$1,502

$2,517

$10,316

$4,028

$3,062

$17,406

2,888

168

3,056

1.071

895

1.966

10,594

3,434

3,244

17,272

3,024

335

3,359

1,237

857

2,094

11,281

3,659

3,256

18,196

3,154

344

3,498

1.246

737

1,983

11,883

3,894

3,456

19,233

3,382

406

3,788

1.328

794

2,122

13,297

4,142

3,788

21,227

3,488

341

3,729

1,405

895

2,300

13,706

3,999

3,425

21,130

3,463

250

2,713

1.515

803

2,318

14,217

3.986

3,598

21,801

3,677

272

3,949

1,655

706

2,361

15,165

4,202

3,713

23.080

3.843

170

4,013

2.082

578

2,660

16,287

2,524

3.753

22.564

4,385

• 263

4,658

2.143

708

2,851

18,793

3,761

3,601

26.155

5.020

442

5,462

2.706

795

3,501

23,396

5,530

3.826

32.752

5,526

454

5,980

2,552

912

3,464

25,516

6,787

4.120

36,423

5,813

432

6,245

2.664

1,250

3,914

26,431

7,554

4.372

38,359

5.768

639

6,407

2,904

1.391

4,295

27,413

9,464

4.562

41,439

6,276

778

7,054

3,125

2.041

5,166

30,090

13,955

5,155

49.200

6.555

926

7.481

3,397

2.812

6,209

31,893

12,331

5,750

49,974

7.037

1,134

8.171

3.710

2.328

6,038

34,604

12.654

6,158

53,416

Cities

$13,171
13,538
14.678
15,330
16,196

$1,161
1,380
1,646
2.387
1.905

$14,332
14.918
16.324
17.717
18,101

$3,241
3,330
3.557
3.829
4.010

$3,042
3.585
4.763
6.420
6.955

$6,283

6,915

8,320

10,249

10,965

$43,992
45,580
49,104
52,513
55,174

$13,784
14,219
17,315
21,553

23,258

$18,249
18,688
19,162
20,084
20,656

$76,025
78,487
85,581
94,150
99,088

16.699
17.287
19.403
21.420
27.136

1.094
1.100
1.181
1.038
803

17,793
18,387
20,584
22,458
27,939

3.848
4.377
5.387
6.196
6.137

6.557
5.354
3.749
2.121
2.397

10,405
9,731
9,136
8,317
8,534

57,482
60,126
66,961
73,819
86,044

20,519
17,554
17,781
12,074
16,348

22,394
23,474
23,208
24,451
24,870

100,395
101,154
107,950
110,344
127,262

28.155
30.710
32.030
32,535
34,216

1.010
2,122
1.589
2.735
3.094

29,165
32,832
33,619
35,270
37,310

8,106
7.899
7.621
8,771
8,819

3.183
5.163
4,750
5,615
6,197

11,289
13,062
12,371
14,386
15,016

102,635
110,661
113,657
121,274

128,584

21,845
30,010
30,023
35,970
44,081

25,870
27,320
30,043
29,439
31,163

150,350
167,991

173,723
186,683
203,828

36,794
38.438

2,779
2.052

39,573
40,490

9.175
9.906

6.786
8.159

15,961
18,065

132,611
141,870

42,241

43,254

31,775
34,791

206,627
219,915

226

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

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COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

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230

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 25«

Table A 6. — Increase in Costs per Capita of Local Government, Schools and
Highways, by Size of Town, 1912 to 1926. (Percentages)

Total for

SCHOOLS

HIGHWAYS

Population

Local
Govern-

Construc-
tion and

ment

Main-

Equip-

Main-

Construc-

tenance

ment

Total

tenance

tion

Total

Under 1,000

230.6

202.4

431.6

208.2

453.6

428.6

443.9

1.000-2.000

149.9

185.7

76.3

173.5

287.0

214.3

252.9

2,000-3,000

169.9

181.8

983.3

227.6

251.7

234.0

244.7

3.000-4.000

141.5

172.6

54.7

149.1

191.9

248.0

211.7

4.000-5.000

123.2

155.9

331.8

188.5

130.2

296.6

183.8

5,000-7,000

112.7

174.3

108.5

161.1

169.6

396.9

230.2

7,000-10,000

143.8

180.2

270.2

196.4

176.6

249.1

195.0

10,000-15,000

140.2

197.5

505.1

240.3

123.6

164.2

139.5

Average

149.8

190.9

235.7

197.0

238.8

301.8

261.6

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS.

231

Table A 7.-

-Expenditures of Cities and Towns, 1926.
(Thousands of dollars)

Towns

Towns

Cities

Over

Under

5,000

5,000

Alaintenance $141,870

Departmental _

General Government _

Protection of Persons and Property...

Health and Sanitation

Highways - - -..

Charities

Soldiers' Benefits

Schools

Libraries

Recreation

Pensions

Unclassified
Public Sei vice Enterprises

Electric Light

Water.

All Other
Cemetenes
Administration of Trwsf Funds

Outlays

Departmental

General Government

Protection of Persons and Property..

Health and Sanitation

Highways _

Charities -

Schools - —

Libraries

Recreation

Unclassified

Public Service Enterprises..

Electric Light

Water

All Other

Ce meteries

Interest S...

Loans, general purposes

Loans, piiblic service enterprises...
Loans, cemeteries

Debt

GRAND TOTAL..

130,SA7

6,725

26,034

13,274

14,029

11.149

1.070

46.548

2,544

4,911

3,296

1.267

9,906

2,023

6.786

1,098

873

ZU

43,254

S5,0S9

470

1,182

5.428

13,819

893

11.599

125

1,179

344

8,159

699

4,313

3,147

5fl

15,524

11,398

i.tSl

5

19,267
$219,915

$34,604

30.613

1,916

4,325

2,119

5,613

1,852

184

12,750

623

716

91

424

3,710

1.811

1,857

42

277

12,654

10,265

378

572

1.647

3,981

18

3,240

75

230

124

2,328

474

1,845

9

61

2,429

l,9i9

U79

1

3,729

$53,416

516,794

15,960

1,159

1.335

546

4,394

850

86

6,908

267

137

4

274

677

294

377

6

156

1

5,342

U,765

60

282

95

3.047

5

1,175

15

72

14

561

126

433

2

16

650

3A9
101

1,181

$23,967

1 Adapted from the Report on the Statistics of Municipal Finances — 1926,
Massachusetts Public Document No. 79.

232

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

Table A 8. — Total Expenditures of the Central State Government,
1910, 1915, 1920 and 1924.'

(Thousandu of dollars)

1915

1920

19242

General Government _ $ 2,115 $ 3,325 $ 4,391 $ 4,446

Legislative 401 510 996 794

General Administration 1,150 2,081 2,472 2,463

Judicial '. 564 734 923 1,189

Education 1,789 3,071 4,727 6,448

General 1,116 1,657 2,787 3,572

Vocational — Agricultural 274 537 967 1,126

Vocational — Technical 308 710 683 1,340

Gifts, Grants and Trusts — Agricultural 71 86 110 115

Gifts, Grants and Trusts — Technical 20 81 281 295

Total Gifts, Grants and Trusts 91 166 391 HO

Total Agricultural _ Sis 623 1,077 l.Ul

Total Technical _ _„ 328 791 96i. 1,635

High-ways and Waterways 2,428 3,995 7,483 12,284

Highways 2,008 2,910 5,1,79 10,i96

Hightvay Trust _ 218 1,0U

Total Highways 2,008 2,910 5,697 11,540

Waterways „ 420 1,085 1,786 744

Charity 1,273 2,017 3,403 4,099

Mental Diseases 3,198 4,274 7,353 8,142

Corrections 1,907 1,868 3,017 2,906

Health 951 1,259 1,657 1,598

Public Safety 182 238 303 777

General 182 238 206 268

State Police 97 509

Labor 109 369 452 473

Conservation _ 435 542 437 712

General _ _ 2 3 4 14

Forestry „.. 363 391 218 486

Fisheries and Game 70 148 215 212

Agriculture _ _ „. 155 368 267 393

General _ 52 102 118 135

Dairy and Animal Husbandry 103 266 149 258

Public Utilities _ 136 222 198 194

Banks and Insurance _ 137 231 340 452

Banking 55 119 208 301

Insurance 82 112 132 151

MiUtary 1,810 2,041 6,456 1,739

Maintenance and Operation 735 1,112 1,581 823

Gratuities 5 3,509 270

Pensions and State Aid 1,028 878 1,327 603

Trust 47 46 39 43

Miscellaneous 26 165 174 47

Interest and Debt 2,442 3,353 5,957 3,366

Interest 1,286 1,817 2,838 1,459

Debt ; 424 819 1,619 1,191

Sinking Funds _ 732 717 1,500 716

Payments from Revenue 1,710 2,636 U,U57 2,650

GRAND TOTAL §19,093 $27,338 $46,716 $48,076

^ This analysis was made by a careful consideration of all available financial re-
ports. The attempt here has been to classify State expenditures by purpose rather
than by departments. The figures, therefore, will not coincide with the department
total in many cases. Reports for the years 1910, 1915 and 1920 were placed on the
same accounting basis as for 1924, and the same items have been included in each
classification for each year.

2 State expenditures have remained fairly constant since 1924.

COST OF GOVERNMENT IN MASS. 233

TfiMe A 9. — Receipts jier Capita, for Cities and Towns, 1926.

Number of

Receipts per Capita

Per cent of Total
Receipts

Siee of City

Cities or
Towns

or Town

From

From Gifts

From

From Gifts

Taxes

and Grants

Total

Taxes

and Grants

Towns

Under 500

44

$37.64

$21.68

$64.04

5S.S

33.9

500-1,000

39

36.65

12.58

54.74

67.0

23.0

1,000-1,500

40

43.43

6.01

55.64

7S.1

10.8

1,500-2,000

34

42.22

4.90

52.95

79.7

9.3

2,000-2,500

20

39.02

4.81

50.30

77.6

9.6

2,500-3,000

19

51.35

2.19

61.42

S.3.6

3.6

3,000-4,000

28

39.53

.97

46.49

S.5.0

2.1

4,000-5,000

17

38.02

1.02

43.14

SS.l

S.i

5,000-7.000

26

39.24

.43

47.44

S2.7

.9

7,000-10,000

22

44.14

.40

58.21

75.8

.7

10.000-15,000

19

41.77

.73

51.16

SI. 6

1-i

Over 15,000

12

52.66

.33

63.71

S2.7

.5

Cities

Under 25,000

13

41.47

.56

53.74

77.2

1.0

25,000-50,000

11

44.48

.34

54.37

SI. 8

.6

50,000-75.000

5

52.12

.62

67.13

77.6

.9

75,000-100.000

2

39.65

.41

45.66

S6.S

.9

100,000-150,000

6

51. .30

.65

60.46

SIS

1.1

150.000-200,000

1

52.56

.11

64.78

Sl.l

.2

Over 200,000

1

77.69

.39

94.99

81.S

4

Table A 10. — Principal Sources of Receipts for Governmental Purposes,

1926. (Percentages)

Cenlral Toicns Toicns

Source of Receipts State under over Cities

Gov't 5,000 5,000

General property tax 23.31 76.40' 75.87' 76.25'

Corporation taxes 17.73 3.90 4.93 5.66

Departmental 15.25 3.22 3.07 3.17

Public service enterprises 4.89 12.20 9.01

Motor vehicle fees 25.76

Inheritance tax 12.58

Miscellaneous 5.37 11.59 3.93 5.91

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

^ Includes poll tax.

234

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 256

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^ 2

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 257 December, 1929

The Cutaneous Vaccine
for Fowl Pox

By Norman J. Pyle

Investigation of fowl pox at this Station hais for its purpose the deter-
mination of an efficient preventive and curative treatment for the disease.
This is of vital importance to the Massachusetts poultry industry because
the disease causes serious loss by decreasing egg production during the
season when eggs are highest priced.

The study of the cutaneous vaccine, as here reported, Included investi-
gations of its efficiency, its practical use and method of administration, its
action on body weight, temperature, and early egg production, and the
duration of immunity which followed its administration.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

THE CUTANEOUS VACCINE FOR FOWL POX

By Norman J. Pyle, Assistant Research Professor of Avian Pathology,

Cutaneous vaccination against fowl pox' (chicken pox, contagions epithel-
ioma) has been given considerable attention during the last few years in this
country and abroad. The work of De Blieck and Van Heelsbergen (1) is
widely known and needs little reference here. Their vaccine, known as
"Antidiplitherin", is described as "a thoroughly living vaccination material".
Reports of similar investigations by Johnson (2), Pyle (3), Edgington and
Broerman (4), and Saiwyer (5) have been published. These writers concur
in the conclusion that poultry can be fully protected against fowl pox by
the administration of an unattenuated virus suspension or cutaneous vaccine
to the scarified skin or denuded feather follicles.

The early work of the writer (3) dealt largely with the type of immunity
that is- conferred against fowl pox. A serological study of fowls which were
immune to the disease, showed a low degree of specific antibody concentra-
tion in their sera. Attempts to produce a passive immimity were not success-
ful. An efficient cutaneous vaccine v/as developed and a tentative method of
standardizing it was suggested. Birds wiiich were completely immune to
both the natural infection and the experimental infection following cutane-
ous vaccination, were found to have no specific antibodies in their sera.
Therefore, it was concluded that a cutaneous immunity was the chief pro-
tecting force against fowl pox. The work of Verge (6) is a practical dem-
onstration of this type of immunity in relation to fowl pox, while that of
Besredka (7) goes deeply into the theoretical explanation and application of
the phenomenon.

The work herein reported considers additional inform.ation on the use
and efficiency of this vaccine, its reaction on birds of various ages, its cura-
tive as well as its preventive effect, a modification in its virus content, the
duration of immunity which it produces, and the action of the glycerol con-
tent of the diluent on the virus in the vaccine.

The Cutaneous Vaccine and Its Administration

The cutaneous vaccine as described and standardized by the writer (3),
with the exception of one modification which will be mentioned later, was

1 Fowl pox is manifested by wartlike scabs on the unfeathered portions of the
head and the accumulation of cheesy material, pseudo-membranes, or "cankers" on the
membranes of the mouth, larynx, and in the cleft palate. The latter group of symp-
toms is characteristic of the internal form of fowl pox or avian diphtheria ("canker").
The two forms of the disease are due to the same cause, a filtrable virus. When there
is a muco-purulent discharge from the eyes and nose, or these organs and the infra-
orbital sinuses are distended with cheesy exudates, the disturbance is known as roup.
Roup may occur in Massachusetts concurrently with fowl pox or it may be seen alone.
It is generally accepted that its specific cause is as yet unknown, but there is evidence
to the effect that the filtrable virus of fowl pox is at least implicated. The eyes may
be involved in avian diphtheria, and if they are, it is difficult to differentiate it from
roup.

CUTANEOUS VACCINE FOR FOWL POX 237

used in all the experiments described in this bulletin. It contained 200 mgm.
of powdered pox virus suspended in 50 cc. of sterile 40 per cent glycerol-
physiologicaJ saline solutiotn. Phenol was not added to the vaccine and the
preparation was not attenuated by heat. The virus varied in age from six
weeks to seven months and it consistently produced definite lesions of fowl
pox in from four to seven days, or sooner, after its inoculation on the combs
of birds of the same age as those which were to be vaccinated.

The site selected for vaccination was on the outside of either leg just
a!bo\e the "hock" joint (tibio-femoral articulation). An area of approxi-
mately one square inch was denuded of feathers at this point. If the feathers
were plucked from a point higher on the leg there was danger of tearing
the skin. The vaccine was then rubbed into the open follicles with a small
camel's hair brush which had been cut dovra to about one-fourth of an inch
from its quill insertion, in order to give it a necessary stiifness. Not less
than three and not more than seven to ten follicles were vaccinated. The
immunity which followed a "take" involving but a few follicles appeared to
be as complete as when more follicles were concerned. Very little of the
vaccine was used, it being the purpose to have the vaccinated area as dry
as possible when the bird was released.

In denuding the area it wasi found preferable to pull the feathers in a
direction parallel to their insertion in the follicles and not at right angles
to this direction. In other words, the feathers should be pulled downward
and not upward toward the back of the bird. This prevents hemorrhage
from the small blood vessels at the base of the dermic papillae. The suf-
fusion of blood into the follicles had a tendency to flush out or prevent the
deposition and retention of vaecine in the open follicles. The feathers are
ustually pulled in the reverse direction because of its ease as compared to
the preferred method.

In the earlier eftcperiments (3) a cotton swab attached to a wooden
applicator was used to brush the vaccine into the open follicles. It was
very satisfactory, but had to be replaced after having been used on from
15 to 25 birds. When the camel's hair brush was suggested by Johnson (2)
it was adopted and has been used since almost exclusively. However, the
ordinary brush must be reenforced before being used. The quill of the
brush is softened by soaking it in water'for a few minutes and a small, taper-
ing glass rod or piece of glass tubing is forced down into the quill without
splitting it until it comes in contact with the hairs of the brush. When the
quill hardens, the rod or tubing will be held firmly in place and prevent the
hairs of the brush from pushing up into the quill when being used. A brush
so reenforced can be used on several hundred birds. The brushes are kept
in 2.5 per cent phenol when not in use and just before using are washed in
sterile physiological saline solution.

In the routine vaccination of a nimiber of birds it wa5 found desirable
to have plenty of vaccine on hand. Two or three cubic centimeters were
poured from the stock container (50 cc. vaccine bottle) into a sterile Stender
dish. Any similar piece of glassware may be used. This quantity was suf-
ficient to vaccinate approximately 100 birds, but it was discarded after hav-
ing been used on from 35 to 50 birds because it became too adulterated with
epithelial debris and an exudate of mucous consistency from the follicles and
the inferior umbilicus of the feather quills. The Stender dish and its conr-
tents were discarded into a beaker of disinfectant. A second sterile Stender

238 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION' BULLETIN 257

dish and 2 or 3 cc. of vaccine were taken, and so on until all birds were
vaccinated. A number of brushes were kept at hand and used alternately,
with each group of 35 to 50 birds.

About the third or fourth day after vaccination the majority of the
follicles showed a slight swelling which gradually became more pronounced,
until on the eighth to tenth day after vaccination, individual follicular scabs
began to de\elop which later becanie coalesicent in most of the cases. The
sca^bs began to drop off on or a,bout the eighteenth to twentieth day after
vaccination, and were usually entirely gone by the twenty-eighth to thirty-
first day. At this time the inmiunity was complete.

The cutaneous vaccine should not be used in a flock unless the disease
was prevalent in former seasons and it is reasonably certain that it will
appear again. All the young stock on the premises should be vaccinated.
The cutaneous vaccine is unattenuated and, therefore, will serve to introduce
the infection to unvaccinated, susceptible birds by contamination of litter,
feed, water, etc. Yearlings or older birds may or may not be treated. As
a rule, they have developed a resistance against the disease during a pre-
vious outbreak.

Preventive Flock Vaccination and Its Effect on Early Egg Production

During the last four years opportunity has been given to study fowl pox,
aivian diphtheria, roup, and colds as they occurred in the spontaneous or
natural form in the two flocks maintained at this institution. These out-
breaks have occurred annually during this period at a time when egg pro-
duction was at its peak. Pens would drop in total egg production to an
alarming degree. This also occurred in other flocks throughout the State,
The economic situation was serious. An imposing annual loss and disar-
rangement of breeding programs were necessarily anticipated from year to
year. Experimental vaccines, bacterins (8), and one conunercial vaccine had
been used in several of these flocks with some success. By late sunruner of
1928 such confidence had been placed in the cutaneous vaccine that it was
decided to use it on the two important flocks above mentioned.

Flock 1.

This flock, maintained by the College poultry department for teaching,
breeding, and commiercial purposes, contained, aside from the older stock,
1511 birds which were hatched during the late winter and spring of 1928.
They consisted for the most part of Rhode Island Reds and one or two pens
each of White Leghorns and Barred PljTiiouth Rocks. They were all trap-
nested and some were pedigreed. They were cutaneously vaccinated as they
were brought in from the range to the laying houses. The first lot of the
1511 pullets and cockerels was housed on September 5; the last lot on October
11. The yearlings and older birds were not vaccinated because they had
either gone through the disease during the previouis year or, in the opinion
of the writer, had developed enough resistance to withstand a natural out-
break of the infection.

The birds were first bled for the detection of pullorum disease {Salmon-
ella pullorum infection) bj^ means of the agglutination test as they were
taken from the crates. Next they were handed to the operator who vac-
cinated them. After this they were placed in the laying pens. A varying

CUTANEOUS VACCINE FOR FOWL POX 239

number of follicles was vaccinated, never less than three or more than ten.
This was done for the purpose of comparing the nunilber of follicles impli-
cated in the vaccine reaction with the effect on the bird.

All the birds were examined periodically after the treatment. In some
of the more crowded pens small diphtheritic patches, rarely larger than the
head of a pin, developed on the mucosa of tile mouth in abo^t 5 to 10 per
cent of the birds. In some pens 2 to 3 per cent of the birds showed small
pox nodules on the comb and eyelids. These lesions developed about four
or five days after the treatment and disappeared within the next seven days.
They were regarded as of negligible importance. These lesions developed
within the usual incubation period of the disease and were permitted to do
so because of the fact that cutaneous immunity in fowl pox, as demonstrated
in our previous work (3), does nut begin to develop definitely until the
twentieth day after vaccination, becoming complete on the twenty-ninth to
thirty-first day.

With the exception of the slight lesion cases which developed soon after •
the vaccination, there has not been one case of fowl pox or avian diphtheria
in this flock since the treatment. Furthermore, colds and roup have been
practically absent. This latter fact is interesting, but by no means con-
clusive evidence that cutaneous vaccination protects against colds and roup
as well as fowl pox. With outbreaks of fowl pox occurring on this plant
annually for the previous four years, one would expect it to recur the fifth
year.

Two or tiiree months after this flock was vaccinated it was accidentally
subjected to natural infection. A group of 60 White Leghorn cockerels had
been quartered in a fenced-in enclosure on the premises. These birds were
not vaccinated because they were a reserve group from which birdsi were
to be taken for indicatory experiments. The natural infection appeared in
these birds, and some escaped through the fence, exposing the vaccinated
birds to the infection. Lesions of the disease did not appear in the vac-"
cinated birds as a result of this exposure to the natural infection.

It was impossible to control the work properly by leaving unvaccinated
birds in the various pens. The flock is an important one because of the varied
uses made of it. It must be kept in the best of condition, and it was feared
that unvaccinated birds would come down with the infection later on and
seriously interfere with the flock program.

A careful analysis was made of the egg production of all vaccinated
birds. Many of the pullets were laying at the time that they were vac-
cinated; some pens laying as high as 10 per cent. Several feeding experi-
ments were being carried on at the same time and the birds were being
constantly handled for student instruction. Production records of unvac-
cinated controls were not available. Therefore, a complete and accurate
summary of the effect of vaccination on this early egg production could
not be made. The results, however, to some degree were comparable to
that of flock 2.

Flock 2.

This flock is maintained by the Agricultural Experiment Station for its
work in genetics. It had been affected by annual outbreaks of potx, diph-
theria, colds, and roup and had been treated similarly to flock 1. In the

240

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 267

late summer of 1928 there were 1202 birds on this plant, 905 of which were
Rhode Island Red pullets and cockerels. The remainder consisted of older
stock. The young birds were vaccinated cutaneously soon after they were
transferred from the range to the laying houses. As in flock 1, blood
samples were collected for the detection of pullorum disease just prior to
vaccinating the birds. The older birds, likewise, were not treated. No un-
vaccinated young birds were left as controls because of reasons similar to
those mentioned In connection with flock 1. The vaccinated birds were
divided into groups as follows:

House 1 — 263 pullets, housed September 10, vaccinated September 12.
House 2 — 24'9 pullets, housed September 17, vaccinated September 20.
House 3 — 244 pullets, housed September 24, vaccinated September 26.
South long house^l49 cockerels, housed on various dates, vaccinated
September 27.

Unimportant lesions, similar to those seen in flock 1, appeared shortly
after the vaccination and disappeared rapidly. All birds were free of fowl
pox and diphtheria throughout the year. Likewise, colds and roup were en-
tirely absent. There was no mortality whatever that could be traced to the
results of the vaccination.

All birds were trapnested, and a careful study was made of their egg
records prior and subsequent to the vaccination in order to determine what
effect, if any, the vaccination might have on their early egg production.
The results of this study are shown in Chart 1. As stated, there were no
available control birds in this flock. For this purpose the early production
records of house 1 for 1926 were taken and are marked "Control" in the

CHART 1. The Effect of Cutaneous Vaccination on Early Egg Production.

CUTANEOUS VACCINE FOR FOWL POX 241

chart. Those of 1927 were unsuitable because the use of a connmercial vac-
cine had caused a pronounced decrease in productiort during this early
period. The control curve shows a nnarked decrease in production beginning
on October 9. This was due to a natural outbreak of the infection which
occurred at that time. A curve for house 3 is not shown on the graph be-
caus^e the birds in this pen were of a late hatch and had not come into pro-
duction at the time this study was ma,de.

Interpretation. — The birds in house 1 were producing 5 per cent on
September 10, the day they were housed. They were vaccinated on Septem-
ber 12. On Septemlber 22 the gradual increase in percentage of early egg pro-
duction was sllightly retarded, wavering somewhat until October 7 when it
a,gain began to increase. The birds in house 2 were housed on September 17
and vaccinated on September 20. In this case the curve wavered between
Septemlber 29 and October 11. The effect of the vaccination on the early egg
production was similar for the two houses.

This slight retardation in the increase of early egg production cor-
responds to the decrease in egg production following vaccination in pullets
more advanced in production, whicli was shown in our previous report (3).
It began on the eightli day after vaccination and had reached its lowest
point on the twenty-first day after vaccination. This slight effect on the
increase in early egg production should not be considered of any great im-
portance. Any preventive treatment given to the domestic fowl will have a
similar effect. The benefits derived from this method of vaccination war-
rant its use. The results of this experiment indicate that it is safe to vac-
cinate birds cutaneously against fowl pox as they are transferred from the
range to laying houses, even though they are in the early stages of egg pro-
duction at the time.

The birds used in the above experiments were in good physical condition
and free of any infectious, dietary, or marked parasitic disturbance. It is
possible that if their health had been otherwise there might have been some
adverse effect following the vaccination. All the investigators who have
worked with this vaccine mention its danger when administered to unhealthy
flocks.

The Effect of Cutaneous Vaccination on Body Weight and Temperature

The following experiments were designed to determine what change, if
any, would take place in Ijody weight and temperature of birds of various
ages following cutaneous vaccination. The results would indicate at what
age it is safe to vaccinate a flock in this manner. Our previous work had
been carried out on birds of approximately five and six months of age or
older. It is undesira,ble to vaecinate after birds are well into egg produc-
tion because Of the marked decrease that follows. It was demonstrated in
the previous experiment that early production was not affected to any great
degree, but the results ma^y not always be favorable, especially if the vac-
cine is administered improperly or carelessly by one who has not had pre-
vious experience in using it. Therefore, it seems desirable to vaccinate on
range where the birds are not subjected to the crowded conditions of the
laying houses, where the chance of contact infection following vaccination
is greatly lessened, and the contamination of the houses with the virulent
vaccina,tion material is avoided.

242

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 257

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CUTANEOUS VACCINE FOR FOWL POX 245

Weight and rectal temperatures were recorded daily between 10 A. M.
and 12 M. during the extent of the three experiments described. For the
purpose of comparison the readings of the three experiments are grouped
together in Table 1. The minimum and maximum temperatures and weights
are recorded for each of the three stages of each experiment. The pre-
liminary stage represents the period during which readings were taken in
order to determine the normaJ rectal temperature and increase in body
weight. It covers the time from the beginning of the experiments to the
day of vaccination. The stage of infection is that period of time from the
day on which the birds were vaccinated to thd day on which the scabs had
entirely disappeared from the va,ccinated area. The stage of recovery is
that period of time during which the birds would natturally return to normal
if there were a deviation from the normal during the stage of infection.

All birds in these experiments were confined to individual experimenital
cages. The birds in experiment 1 were hopper-fed whole yellow corn and
a commercial laying mash. This ration was supplemented with 1 per cent
cod liver oil, and cabbage was fed twice weekly. Those in experiment 2
were fed intermediate scratch feed and a growing mash in hoppers, sup-
plemented with 1 per cent cod liver oil. In experiment 3 the birds were first
fed a mixture of two-thirds growing mash and one-third fine scratch feed
with 1 per cent cod liver oil until 100 days old, and later growing miash
and intermediate scratch feed ad libitum in separate hoppers, 1 per cent
cod liver oil bein'g mixed with the mash.

Oroup 1.

Ten White Leghorn cockerels, approximately 210 days of age, were used
in this experiment. Six of the birds were vaccinated cutaneously with the
standard vaccine containing 200 mgm. of virus in 50 cc. of 40 per cent
glycerol-physiological saline solution. The remaining four birds were used
as unvaccinated coiitrols. Forty days after vaccination the comibs of tlie
entire group were scarified and inociilated with a heavy suspension of fowl
pox virus in order to determine if immunity against the disease had de-
veloped. No lesions appeared as a result of the inoculation in the vac-
cinated birds. The unvaccinated controls showed from a moderate to a
severe type of infection as a result of the inoculation. The vaccination had
caused the development of a complete protection (cutaneous immunity)
against the disease.

Oroup 2.

Thirty Rhode Island Red puUets and cockerels of the same strain and
hatch were used in this experiment, twenty-four being vaccinated and six
left unvaccinated as controls. They were 80 days old on the day they were,
vaccinated. Three different vaccines were used in this experiment; one, a
widely distributed commercial cutaneous vaccine; the second, the standard
200 mgm. vaccine; and the third, a vaccine identically the same as the stand-
ard vaccine except that it contained but one-half as much virus, or 100 mgau

When vaccinating birds so young, it was; necessary to exercise unusual
precautions. In many cases the feather follicles were so small that it was

246 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 257

difficult to brush the vaccine into them. Frequently it was necessary to vac-
cinate slightly higher up on the leg tlian usual, where the follicles were some-
what more mature and open to< a greater extent.

In connection' with the tentative standardization of the cutaneous vac-
cine (3), it wasi noted that when less than 200 m,gm. of virus were used in
the vaccine, it failed to produce local reactions ("takes") in all trials. When
mtore than this anioimt of virus was used a more pronounced generalized
reaction was the result, Tliese conclusions were based on the results obtained
after working with birds from five to six months of age or older. In this
and the following experiment the 100 mgin. vaccine produced clear-cut "takes"
in every instance. The birds) used in these experinients were yoimger and
ha,d not developed the degree of natural cutaneous resistance to the vaccine
that older birds had developeu.

Group 3.

Eighteen Rhode Island Red pullets of the same hatch and strain were
used, and six were left unvaccinated as controls. They were 68 days old on
the day of vaccination. Here a,gain three vaccines were used, containing 300,
200 (standard), and 100 nigm. of virus, respectively. The immaturity of the
follicles in these birds) necessitated more careful vaccination than in the pre-
vious expermient.

Interpretation. — The normal temperature of the domestic fowl varies
considerably. The records in Table 1 show a slightly higher normal range of
temperature in the White Leghorn cockerels than in the Rhode Island Red
pullets and cockerels. This perhaps can be attributed to the greater activity
of the former breed. They were older than the Rhode Island Reds, but this
should not have influenced the temperature in this case.

A careful anaJys'is of the temperatures taken during the stage of infec-
tion in all the experiments shows a slight increase over those taken during the
preliminiary stage. The increase averages less than 1° F. and is but slightly
more noticeable in the vaccinated than in the unvaccinated control groups.
The average temperature of both groups in all experiments during the stage
of recovery is lower than that recorded during the stage of infection.

It is difficult to draw any definite conclusion from these data on rectal
temperatures. The slight increase in temperature during the stage of infec-
tion was of little importance.

Table 2 shows the minimiun, maxmium, and average gain in weight at-
tained by each group, as a whi>le, during the stage of infection in the three
experiments. It presents the weight records of Table 1 in a fonn suitable
for more ready interpretation. The figures for each group were obtained by
determining the diflFerence between the minimum and maximum weight for
each bird during the stage of infection in the three experiments. The smallest
of the^ differences is the group minimiun and the largest the group maximum.
The sum of these differences for each bird, divided by the number of birds
represents the average gain of the group.

CUTANEOUS VACCINE FOR FOWL POX

247

Table 2. — Total and Daily Gain in Weight During the Stage of Infection
Following Cutaneous Vaccination. (Summarized from Table 1.)

EXPERIMENT 1— White Leghorn Cockerels— age 210 days

Treatment

Controls

Vaccinated (200 mgm.)

Length

of
stage,
days

Total

gain in
grams

weight,

Daily

gain in
grams

weight.

Min.

Max.

Aver.

Min.
1.6

Max.
10.0

Aver.

40

250

128

5.1

80

270

168

3.2

10.8

6.7

EXPERIMENT 2— R. I. R. Pullets and Cockerels— age 80 days

Controls

26

140

400

283

5.4

15.4

10.9

Vaccinated (commercial)

26

70

560

380

2.7

21.5

14.6

Vaccinated (200 mgm.)

26

130

390

283

5.0

15.0

10.9

Vaccinated (100 mgm.)

26

290

540

390

11.2

20.8

15.0

EXPERIMENT 3— R. I. R. Pullets and Cockerels— age 68 days

Controls

33

606

825

743

18.4

25.0

22.5

Vaccinated (300 mgm.)

33

497

641

567

15.1

19.4

17.2

Vaccinated (200 mgm.)

33

380

567

449

11.5

17.2

13.6

Vaccinated (100 mgm.)

33

500

529

513

15.1

16.0

15.5

Interpretation. — In forming conclusions from these data it is necessary to
bear in mind that individual birds vary considerably in tendencies governing
increase in weight. This is influenced by several factors; chiefly, by the rela^
tive amiount and the quality of the feed consumed by the individual. The
variation iri initial weight is another factor which must be considered wheq
interpreting these figures. This influenced the average gain in weight of a
group, as a whole, to some extent even though each group was carefully
selected as to comparable weight.

In general these data indicate that the vaccine does not cause a retarda-
tion in the gain in weight following its administration to birds 80 days of
age or older. They do indicate, however, that there is a slight retardation in
gain in weight following its administration to birds 68 days of age. This
.slight retardation in gain in weight was relatively unimportant for the same
reasons mentioned in connection with the slight retardation in early egg
production. Recovery was rapid.

The 100 mgm- vaccine produced a follicular reaction comparable to that
of the other vaccines and, therefore, its use appears to be indicated on birds
of an age comparable to those in experiments 2 and 3. It contains one-half
as niucli virus as the standard vaccine, which offsets to some degree the
danger of spreading the infection and contaminating the premises.

24-8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 257

The Use of the Cutaneous Vaccine in a Flock Infected with Fowl Pox

Late in Septenilber, 1928, attention was called to a small flock of Rhode
Island Reds that was affected with fowl pox to a slig'ht degree. It was de-
cided to vaccinate cutaneously all birds in the flock in order to stay the
spread of the infection if possible. The flock was located within walking
distance of the College, and periodic pers,onal observations of the results of
the vaccination could be made. All the birds, confined in three separate
units, were vaccinated and observations made of the results as follows:

Unit 1.

According to information received from the owner, the infection had
started in this snuall unit, consisting of a pen of 17 hens and 1 cock. Fowl
pox had never been present on the premises. Its source of introduction into
the flock could not be traced. Eight of these birds showed tj^ical lesions
of fowl pox of a severe form, which apparently had been present for about
one week. All 18 birds were vaccinated cutaneously with the standard vac-
cine on September 26. Those birds showing lesions of pox demonstrated no
follicular reaction whatever, while those not showing lesions responded to
the vaccination with a slight follicular swelling, which was not followed by
scab formation. This SiWeUing appeared on the third day but was not present
on the eighth day after vaccination. The infection in this pen entirely dis-
appeared by October 23.

Unit 2.

This unit consisted of 125 pullets confined to an open yard about 75 feet
distant from unit 1. These birds were vaccinated cutaneously on September
26, at which time they were moved from the yard to a laying house, closely
adjoining unit 1. At the time of vaccination all birds were closely examined
and three were found with slight, miimature lesions of pox. It was evident
that they had but recently become infected. About 90 per cent of the birds
showed a slight follicular swelling in three days and a more pronounced
swelling seven days after vaccination. On the thirteenth day the swellings
were most prominent, and the first evidence of follicular scab development
was noticed. No additional infection developed in this pen, and on October
23 the birds were well into production.

Approximately 10 per cent of these birds, including the three infected
ones, failed to show any follicular reaction following vaccination. There was
little probability tliat they had acquired iniiiiunity through a previous, un-
noticed infection. They might have been non-susceptible or naturally immune
to the disease. However, it appeared probable that these birds were fairly
well advanced in the stage of incubation at the time they were vaccinated
and sufficient cutaneous resistance had developed to prevent the vaccine from
"taking". But in such cases one would expect to see a few minor pox lesions
develop.

Similar results were obtained later in the year. White Leghorn cockerels
were obtained for experimental purposes from a flock in which several cases
of pox had existed. It was known that these birds had been in contact with
the infected ones but had never shown lesions of the disease. When cutane-
ously vaccinated they failed to react with the development of swollen follicles
and follicular scabs. The explanation of these results requires further in-
vestigation.

CUTANEOUS VACCINE FOR FOWL POX 249

Unit 3.

This group consisted of 22 cockerels confined in a small house and large
run adjacent to units 1 and 2. Upon examination five of the birds showed
moderately severe pox lesions. They were vaccinated cutaneously on Septem-
ber 26. The vaccine did not "take" on the infected birds. The others showed
the typical follicular reactions which appeared in units 1 and 2. No addi-
tional infection appeared in this unit.

Interpretation of Results. — Since it was im.possible to use controls in this
flock no conclusions can be drawn from the results. In carrying out the work
it was hoped that some indication of the efficiency of the cutaneous vaccine,
when used in this way, could be obtained. The results appear to indicate that
cutaneous vaccination prevented further spread of the infection, and that the
vaccination should be used immediately after the appearance of the natural
infection in a flock.

The Duration of Cutaneous Immunity Against Fowl Pox

It has been definitely established that after recovery from an attack of
fowl pox, either spontaneous in nature or artificially induced, a bird is im-
miune to subsequent attacks for an indefinite period of time. Few and excep-
tional cases have occurred where birds have succumbed to a second attacli of
the disease. This acquired immunity is of long duration and in the majority
of cases probably lasts throughout the remainder of life.

Cutaneous vaccination results in the development of a complete immunity
in those cases; where the treatment is followed by the typical follicular swell-
ing and scab formation. This has been repeatedly demonstrated by all in-
vestigators who have worked with this problem. This cutaneous immunity is
apparently, also, of long duration. Sawyer (5) states that the birds are pro-
tected for at least two years and probably during life. Edgington and
Broemian (4) report that, when young fowls are vaccinated during the sum-
mer or fall, they will be protected against fowl pox during the following
winter and spring. Johnson (2) found tlie duration of immunity to be sliglit-
ly less than 11 months, at least.

Early in November, 1927, a groujj of 100 trapnested, pedigreed Rhode
Island Red pullets was vaccinated cutaneously at the College poultry plant
of this institution. The report of that work is found in a previous bulletin
(3). No opportunity was afforded to check the immunity produced in these
birds by virus inoculation of the comb until they had completed their pullet
year. Tlie results of the check immunity tests on birds from this group are
contained in Table 3.

For the complement-fixation studies in relation to cutaneous imjnunity
(3) several Rhode Island Red cockerels had been vaccinated cutaneously dur-
ing December, 1927, and January, 1928. Representative members of this
group were found to be completely inunune to fowl pox after check inocula-
tion on the comb with a virulent virus suspension. The remainder were bled
periodically for serologic tests and thereafter held over for the duration of
immunity tesits recorded in Table 3.

The unvaccinated controls used in this experiment were of the same age
and breed as those vaccinated. They had never been subjected to the infec-
tion. All birds used in this experiment were kept in individual experimental
cages and quarantined from any source of contamination with fow^l pox in-
fection.

250

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 257

Table 3.-

-Duration of (

Cutaneous Ir

ranunity Against Fowl

Pox.

(Rhode Island

Reds.)

Duration

Bird

Previous

Date of

Date of

Results of

of

number

treatment

vaccination

inoculation inoculation —

immunity-

Lesions

Days

Male 70

Unvaccinated

5-28-28

Severe

Male no band

Unvaccinated

5-28-28

Severe

Male V 83

Vaccinated

12-19-27

5-28-28

None

161

Male no band

Vaccinated

12-19-27

5-28-28

None

161

Male 63

Unvaccinated

6-5-28

Moderate

Female 6484

Vaccinated

11-3-27

6-5-28

None

215

Female 6546

A''accinated

11-3-27

6-5-28

None

215

Male 104

Unvaccinated

8-11-28

Moderate

Male V 81

Vaccinated

12-22-27

8-11-28

None

233

Male V 82

Vaccinated

12-27-27

8-11-28

None

228

Female 6469

Vaccinated

11-3-27

8-11-28

None

282

Male no band

Unvaccinated

9-8-28

Severe

Male no band

Unvaccinated

9-8-28

Severe

Male V 86

Vaccinated

11-3-27

9-8-28

None

249

Male V 87

Vaccinated

1-12-28

. 9-8-28

None

240

Female 6480

Vaccinated

11-3-27

9-8-28

None

310

Female 6496

Vaccinated

11-3-27

9-8-28

None

310

Female 6502

Vaccinated

11-3-27

9-8-28

None

310

Female 6507

Vaccinated

11-3-27

9-8-28

None

310

Male no band

Unvaccinated

•

11-9-28

Moderate

Male V 84

Vaccinated

12-22-27

11-9-28

None

322

Male V 85

Vaccinated

12-28-27

11-9-28

None

322

Female 6531

Vaccinated

11-3-27

11-9-28

None

371

Female 6570

Vaccinated

11-3-27

11-9-28

None

371

Interpretation. — To determine duration of immunity, inoculations with
virulent virus were made on the conlbs of cutaneously vaccinated birds, on five
different dates from May 28 to Novemlber 9, 1928. At each of these tests one
or two unvaccinated birds were inoculated to serve as checks on the virulence
of the virus used. The data show that all control birds developed a moder-
ate to severe comb infection following the inoculation with the viriUent virus.
Without exception lesions were absent in the cutaneously vaccinated birds.

The results indicate that Rhode Island Reds, when cutaneously vaccinated
early in their pullet and cockerel year, are completely immune to subsequent
fowl pox infection for at least 371 days after vaccination, except for a period
of 29 to 31 days immediately after the treatment, during which the immunity
is developing. Additional birds were not available for imn)unity tests beyond
this period of tinie. It is probable that the duration of inmmnity exceeds
371 days.

The Action of the Glycerol in the Diluent on the Virus Content of the

Cutaneous Vaccine

It was shown in a previous report (3) "that when the cutaneous vaccine
is 25 days or less in age at the time it is administered, it produces a complete
immunity. When older it does not confer absolute protection against the ex-
perimental infection". It was suggested that this might have been due to an
actual aging of the virus, the action of the glycerol upon it, or some other
unsuspected factor. Beach (9) in experimenting with his subcutaneously ad^
ministered lesion tissue vaccine, found that there was a change in the virus
contained in ihe vaccine as a result of aging. Older vaccines did not produce
as extensive and severe lesions as did the younger vaccines, when tested for
their virulence. However, the lesions produced by the older vaccines showed
a persistency and prominence comparable to those produced by the younger

CUTANEOUS VACCINE FOR FOWL POX 251

vaccines. Apparently the only differences between the lesions produced by
the two groups of vaccines were their extensiveness and severity. Beach was
inclined to believe that this change "in the virus content as a result of aging
was more probably a decrease in amount due to the death of part of the virus
than to a decrease in virulence".

The results obtained by the writer {'S) were similar to some degree to
those just described. The standard vaccine, administered at intervals of 6, 11,
16, 19, and 25 days after manufacture, produced pox eruptions (follicular
swellings and scab formation) all in comparatively the same period of time.
The follicular reaction resulting from the vaccine administered on the twenty-
fifth day was just as severe and prominent as that administered on the sixth
day. When the vaccine was administered on the thirty-first, fortieth, and
forty-sixth day after nvanufacture a follicular swelling developed, but not the
u,s|ual scab formation. It was evident that the standard vaccine became at-
tenuated after 25 days of aging.

The following experiment was designed to determine whether the glycerol
might be the cause of this attenuation. Glycerol was used in Beach's vaccine
and probably was the cause of the evident "death of part of the virus". It
was also borne in mind that the results of such an experiment might indicate
some method by which the tentative method of standardizing the cutaneous
vaccine (3) could be improved upon.

The action of the glycerol on the virus content of the vaccine necessarily
had to be approached in an indirect manner. It has been shown that pow-
dered fowl pox scabs contain, in addition to a filtrable virus which is the active
cause of the disease, several contaminating organisms (8), such as Pseudo-
monas aeruginosa and various staphylococci. If the glycerol in the diluent
inhibited the midtiplication of these contaminators or disinfected them, it is
reasonable to believe that the glycerol would affect the filtrable virus in a
similar manner.

TecJinic .

Virus of known virulence was used in making the standard and control
vaccines; that is, it produced pronounced lesions of fowl pox within four to
seven days after inoculation on scarified comlbs of susceptible birds. The
standard vaccine contained 200 mgm. of virus suspended in 50 cc. of sterile
40 per cent glycerol-physiological saline solution. The control vaccine con-
tained the same amount of virus suspended in sterile physiological saline solu-
tion alone. Immediately after manufacture and at times as stated in Table
4, both vaccines were cultured on agar slants and in poured Petri culture
dishes of standard size. At first, slecond, and third dilution, plates were
poured, but as these were sterile after incubation they were discontinued.
When not in use the two vaccines were kept in an electric refrigerator at a
temperature of from 45° to 50° F.

The agar used was made according to the usual formula of Bacto Pep-
tone 10 grams, NaCl 5 grams, Liebig's beef extract 5 grams, Bacto Agar 20
grams per liter of distilled water. The hydrogen ion concentration was cor-
rected to pH 7.2. Twelve centimeters of agar were used in the tubes for
pouring plates.

At all times when the two vaccines were cultured, four plates were
poured and four slants inoculated for each vaccine. One-tenth of 1 cc. of

252

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 267

vaccine was added to each tube of cooled, melted sugar for plating and one
loopful of vaccine thoroughly streaked over each agar slant. They were in-
cubated for 24 hours, after which the number of colonies were counted. The
Wolfhiigel plate and mathematical computation were used when needed to
count the plates. The respective averages of the four plates and four slants
were computed and recorded as shown in the following table.

Table 4. — Action of Glj'cerol Content of the Diluent on the
Contaminating Organisms in the Cutaneous Vaccine.

CONTROL VACCINE

STANDARD VACCINE

Age of

SALINE DILUENT

GLYCEROL-SALINE DILUENT

vsccine when

cultured,
hours

Average number of colonies

4 plates

4 slants

4 plates

4 slants

Fresh

925.75

54.50

1582.00

66.25

24

667.75

17.66

938.00

44.25

48

315.00

10.25

274.75

12.75

72

128.75 J 21.50

108.25

8.00

90

175.50

18.00

114.50

5.00

142

327.00

19.25

50.25

3.00

166

264.50

20.50

25.25

1.50

190

261.75

17.50

20.25

1.25

214

340.50

18.50

25.00

.50

238

263.50

18.00

17.50

1.50

255

276.75

18.00

15.00

1.75

308

228.25

13.00

7.00

.50

332

236.00

16.25

9.25

.50

356

279.25

21.75

11.50

1.00

380

345.25

18.25

13.25

.50

423

154.00

11.00

6.75

Sterile

471

142.50

12.50

6.00

.50

495

119.00

13.75

11.50

.75

519

101.75

16.50

14.00

.50

538

611.50

53.75

14.25

.50

567

640.00

46.75

6.25

1.00

586

127.75

52.25

8.25

.25

615

1897.75

90.25

6.00

Sterile

635

709.00

127.75

4.00

Sterile

659

4840.00

162.50

4.50

Sterile

683

10414.25

311.25

11.25

SterUe

707

15431.00

670.00

10.00

.25

Interpretation. — A comparison of the control and standard vaccine plates
in Table 4 shows that the glycerol content of the standard vaccine had a
decided inhibiting and disinfecting action on the contaminating organisms in
the vaccine. A comparison of .slants shows a similar result. At the end of
707 hours the standard vaccine was nearly sterile asi far as contaminating
organisms were concerned. This near sterility was first noticeable at 423
hours. This is comparable with the attenuation of the vaccine, as described,
which was marked when it was older than 25 days (600) hours.

A repetition of this experiment gave comparable results. The average

CUTANEOUS VACCINE FOR FOWL POX 253

number of colonies on four plates was 1.0 at the end of 567 hours, and the
average number of colonies on four slants was 0 at the same time. The ex-
periment was concluded at this point.

It seems reasonable to believe that, if the glycerol content of the stand-
ard vaccine had such an effect on the contaniinators, it w-ould also have a
relatively similar eifect on the filtrable virus. The results of the experiment
indicate that this is so.

A 40 per cent content of glycerol has always been used in the standard
cutaneous vaccine. Its disinfecting action, as shown above, precludes the use
of phenol in the vaccine as a preservative. This content of glycerol serves to
aid greatly in keeping the virus in s.uspension. There seems to be no reason
for increasing the content of glycerol. It is probable that if the percentage
were decreased the attenuation would not be so great. But after all, a low
expiration date on a vaccine of this type is desirable, for it emphasizes the
fact that the vaccine should be used when comparatively fresh. It has been
repeatedly demonstrated that the nnattenuated vaccine is the only efficient
preventive against fowl pox.

Summary

Following a brief historical sketch of the subject, the cutaneous vaccine
for fowl pox isi described. Recommendations for its use and practical ad-
ministration are given.

Two flocks containing 2,4-16 birds A\ere vaccinated cutaneously just before
being placed in the winter laying quarters. They remained free of fowl pox
throughout the year. Annual outbreaks of the disease had occurred in these
flocks for the four previous years. The gradual increase in early egg pro-
duction was slightly retarded subsequent to the vaccination, beginning on the
eighth or ninth day and ending on the twenty-first day after the treatment.
The results of the work indicated that it was safe to vaccinate birds cutane-
ously as they were transferred from the range to laying houses, even though
they were in early egg production at the time.

A slight increase in rectal temperature, averaging less than 1° F., occurred
following cutaneous vaccination. The vaccination did not result in a retarda-
tion in the gain in weight of 80-day-old and 210-day-oId birds. A slight
retardation in gain in weight did occur, however, in 68-day-old birds. These
results, however, were not considered as evidence against the vaccination of
birds of such an age in such a manner.

The 100 milligram vaccine produced follicular swellings and scab
formations comparable to the standard, the 300 milligram, and the commer-
cial vaccines on birds of 68 and 80 days of age. Therefore, its use appeared
to be indicated on birds of these ages.

The use of the standard cutaneous vaccine in a flock that was in the
early stages of fowl pox infection and but slightly afipected, apparently pre-
vented further spread of the infection.

The results of inoculations with virulent virus suspensions on the combs
of cutaneously immimized birds indicated that the duration of immunity was
at least 371 days.

The glycerol content of the diluent had a decided inhibitory and disin-
fectant action on the contaminating organisms in the vaccine. Assuming that
it had a relatively similar eflfect on the filtrable virus of the vaccine, the at-
tenuation of the cutaneous vaccine as a result of aging may be thus explained.

254 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 257

Bibliography

(1) Van Heelsbergen, T.: Vaccination against diphtheria and fowl pox

with Antidiphtherin. Yet. Rec, 1925, v, No. 24.

(2) Johnson, W. T.: Fowl pox prevention by immunization. Jour. Amer.

Vet. Med. Assoc, 1927, Ixxi, N. S. xxiv, 750-763.

(3) Pyle, Noiuman J.: Cutaneous immunity in relation to contagious epi-

thelioma. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bid. 14, 1928.

(4) Edgingix)n, B. H. and Broerman, Alvin: Fowl-pox and its preven-

tion. Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bimo. Bui. 135, 206-210, 1928.

(5) Sawyer, C. E.: Chicken pox. Western Wash. Expt. Sta. Ann. Rpt.

N. S. 10- W, 43-46, 1928.

(6) Verge, Jean: Recherches Experimentales sur I'Affection Diphtero-

Variolique des Oiseaux. 1926. 230 p. Toulouse, France: J. Bonnet.

(7) Besuedka, a.: Local immunization. Edited and translated by Harry

Plotz, 1927. 181 p. Baltimore, U. S. A.: Williams and Wilkins.

(8) Pyle, Norman J.: The therapeutic efficiency of avian diphtheria, roup.

and bird pox vaccines and bacterins. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech.
Bui. 10, 1926.

(9) Beach, J. R.: The inununization of fowls against chicken-pox (Epi-

thelioma contagiosum) by subcutaneous injection of virus. Hilgardia
(CaJif. Agr. Expt. Sta.), 1927, iii, 41-97.

Pubucation of this document approved by the
Commission on Administration and Finance

3m-l-'30. No. 7636

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 258 December, 1929

Inbreeding In Relation To
Egg Production

By F A. Hays

For many years inbreeding has been successfully used in establishing
poultry breeds where foundation stock was available only from very
diverse sources. In recent years, however, work in this field has been
confined largely to flocks of an established breed, and the value of in-
breeding from such restricted foundation stock is questionable. The
experiment here reported was planned to show the effect of various
degrees of inbreeding within a so-called established breed — in this case
Rhode Island Reds.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST, MASS.

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION

By F. A. Hays, Research Professor of Poultry Husbandry

Introduction

Inbreeding has been practiced for more than a century and a half by breeders
of domestic animals as a method of establishing uniformity in herds and flocks.
In the formation of new breeds the general pohcy has been to cross together
several existing breeds or strains each carrying distinctive characteristics that
were desired. The plan of matings for the polyhybrids thus obtained has gener-
ally been to select and inbreed the few animals showing desirable qualities until
a degree of uniformity has been attained. Inbreeding was a necessity because
few animals exhibited the characteristics desired and because it enabled breeders
to "fix" the desired quaUties. There is ample evidence in breed history to indi-
cate that inbreeding has been advantageous in founding breeds where the original
stock came from very diverse sources.

At present, evidence is not conclusive that inbreeding within a herd or flock
of an established breed, and hence from a restricted foundation, is advantageous.
This second type of inbreeding is comparable to most experimental inbreeding as
carried on in recent years.

The very exhaustive analysis made by Wright (1922b, 1922c) of the results
of inbreeding guinea pigs for 13 years using brother-sister matings led him to
make two very significant deductions: 1. Compared with control stock derived
from the same source as the inbreds and raised under identical conditions, the
inbreds have undergone a genetic decUne in vigor in all characteristics. The
decUne in fertility was most marked. The inbreds were less resistant to tuber-
culosis than the controls. Sex ratios were not affected by inbreeding. 2. Marked
improvement immediately appeared in the progeny coming from crossing two
inbred strains. This improvement was most pronounced through two genera-
tions of crossing inbred lines. Size of Utter, body weight, disease resistance,
livability and fertility were all greatly improved.

Extensive studies on the effects of inbreeding albino rats are reported by
King (1918a, 1918b, 1918c). This worker found that after 15 generations of
brother-sister matings, body weight averaged greater in inbreds than for controls.
No decline in fertility or in vigor as measured by length of life was observed.
High fecunditj'^, early sexual maturity and vigorous growth all appeared to be
inherited as a group in the inbreds. Sex ratio declined from 110 to 100 in 25
generations of inbreeding.

With reference to inbreeding poultry, published results are less exhaustive than
those of Wright and King. Since the primary interest in this report is the effects
of inbreeding upon characteristics concerned in fecundity in poultry, reference
will be made to but a few reports on such phases of work.

Dunn (1923) reports the results of brother-sister matings in several hnes using
White Leghorns for a period of three years. He notes a decline in hatchabiUty
and in fecundity. Mortality rate both for chicks and laying pullets rose. Growth
was slower and sexual maturity was delayed. His inbred flock was checked
against similar unselected stock not inbred. The decline in reproductive power
of his inbreds was so great as to preclude maintaining some lines. No selection
is reported except on the basis of size of family. Dunn notes that the birds
used in this experiment came from very restricted ancestry.

Hays (1924) reports some results from inbreeding Rhode Island Reds for

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 257

three years. The report is concerned chiefly with characteristics known to
affect fecundity. His results indicate that inbreeding did not affect body weight.
Both fertility and hatchability showed decUne. There was some evidence of
reduced variability in winter egg production under inbreeding. Winter egg
production showed a decline after the degree of inbreeding exceeds 25 per cent
(Wright, 1922a, Coefficients of inbreeding).

Goodale (1927) presents data on White Leghorns using brother-sister matings
through six generations. His data indicate some retardation in sexual maturity
in successive generations. Body weight was not affected. W^inter and annual
egg yield also show a very perceptible fall. This investigator suggests the proba-
bility that more experience may enable the breeder to maintain brother-sister
matings indefinitely.

Dunn (1927) reports further progress in inbreeding White Leghorns as well
as the effects of crossing inbred lines. His results on inbreeding agree with those
previously stated. No family has survived beyond the fifth generation of in-
breeding. Of the four original families of 1920, only one remained in 1927, and
of four families started since 1920 only two now survive. Hatchability declined
in six years from 75 per cent to 41.5 per cent for the inbreds, while the controls
increased from 49. S per cent to 59.2 per cent. Dunn obtained very marked
improvement in hatchability, mortality rate of chicks, body weight and sexual
maturity by crossing inbred families. There was also increased winter egg pro-
duction over that of inbreds, but these winter egg records were not equal to the
records made by the foundation birds when the experiment began.

Experimental evidence, therefore, does not indicate that close inbreeding of
fowls of a pure variety and from a restricted ancestral foundation is to be recom-
mended in breeding for egg production.

Experiment at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station

The experiment reported here was begun in 1923 and closed in 1929. The fowls
used were Rhode Island Reds bred for high fecundity since 1913. No outside
stock was introduced between 1916 and 1923, but the foundation birds of the
flock came from several rather diverse sources. Inbreeding was not practiced
in developing the flock for high fecundity, but a considerable proportion of com-
mon blood had accumulated in the 10-year period so that the flock is rather
closely bred.

Objects of the Experiment

The chief object of this experiment was to study the effects of different degrees
of inbreeding upon characteristics affecting egg production in Rhode Island
Reds and to further study the effects of heterosis on fecundity traits.

Plan of Experime7it

A group of intensely inbred hens was mated to an outside male of "Standard"
breeding to study effects of heterosis.

The check group included various degrees of heterosis (Group 1, 2 and 3)
for the first three years, and for the last three years the checks were inbred.

Inbred groups began with four different degrees of inbreeding to found groups
4, 5, 6 and 7, and the inbred Hnes were crossed during the last three years of the
experiment.

This experiment was planned to demonstrate: First, the effects of crossing a
"Standard"-bred male upon intensely inbred hens from the production-bred
flock; second, the effects of different degrees of inbreeding upon fecundity traits;
third, the effects of inbreeding the outbred check group; fourth, the results from
crossing the different inbred lines.

258

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

Inbred groups in rhis experiment represent a very narrow foundation in that
one hen, C 1124, and three of her daughters furnish the female ancestry. The
male ancestry of the inbred groups also falls into narrow limits in that the sire
of the three foundation daughters was used, and the other two males were related
to these females. Inbreeding birds from such a limited foundation should imme-
diately uncover weaknesses as well as desirable qualities but should not be
expected to have much effect on uniformity. On the other hand, where inbreed-
ing is practiced with birds from diverse ancestry, greater uniformity in progeny
should result. This last point may be studied in the check group of this experi-
ment when the birds were inbred from 1926 to 1928.

Basis for Selection

Selection of breeders each year after 1923 whenever there were surplus birds
to choose from was based on the following considerations: Genetic early maturity
(Hays 1924), high intensity, no winter pause, non-broodiness and high persist-
ency (Hays 1927). Selection was also made for high hatchability, low chick
mortality, low mortality in the laying houses, heavy body weight and large
families.

Attention should be called to the fact that the five heritable traits so inti-
mately concerned in egg production are not measurable in males. Such circum-
stances add greatly to the difficulties of selecting breeding stock to improve such
a complex characteristic as high fecundity. The progeny test of males appears
the only possible method of handling this problem and such a method is far from
exact.

Whenever a surplus of pullets and cockerels occurred, complete families were
culled on the above basis. No culling was done in any family retained, and all
pullets from famiUes retained were kept to finish a full laying year if theiy sur-
vived. Only a superior sample (from a physical standpoint) of the cockerels
from a family was kept after the family reached six months of age.

Table A records the number of matings, the number with resulting progeny,
and the number eliminated, each year.

Table A — Recokd op Matings and Progeny, 1923-1928

Matings

Matings with Progeny

Families Kept

Matings

Eliminated

Per Cent

Mating
Year

Total Number

Number

Per Cent

Number

Checks

In-

breds

Checks

In-
breds

Checks

1,1-
breds

Checks

In-
breds

Checks

brc'is

1923 .

1924 .

1925 .

1926 .

1927 .

1928 .

4

8

7

3

9

8

4
9

13

28
24

4
5
2

3
9

7

2

7
6

11
25

14

100
60

29

100

100

S8

50
100

67

85
89
58

4
5
2

2
5
3

1

7
4

9

8

0
38
71

33
U
63

75

0

56

46
68
67

Table A shows that during the first three years of the experiment when the
check birds were outbred and the inbred lines carried as such, the number of
matings was practically the same in each group. During the last three years
there were 20 check matings and 65 inbred matings.

During the first three years 11 check matings and 15 inbred matings gave
progeny. There was a rapid decline in percentage of successful matings in the
check group. The inbred group, on the other hand, showed an increase in this

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 259

respect in the second and third year over the first. These changes run almost
parallel with hatchabiUty records as will be noted under "Character of Female
Breeders." When the check birds were inbred during the last three years of the
experiment, practically all of the matings were successful. The former inbreds
which were intercrossed during this period fell below the checks, yet they showed
improvement over the initial three-year period when they were inbred.

The last two columns of the table indicate the number of famihes kept to be
tested for egg production and from which to select future breeders, as well as the
percentage of matings eliminated. Matings were eliminated by lack of progeny,
very small numbers of progeny or for pronounced inferiority in desirable fedundity
traits. This fact should be observed, however: that during the first three
years of the experiment, all check famiUes with offspring were retained and 12
out of 15 inbred families were kept. During the last three years of the experi-
ment more culhng was possible because more families were available. In 1926
two of the three check families with progenj^ were kept and 7 out of the 1 1 inbred
famiUes were kept. In 1927, 5 out of 9 check families were retained and only
9 out of 25 inbred famiUes were kept. For 1928, 3 out of 7 check famihes were
kept and 8 out of 14 inbred families were retained. These data, therefore,
indicate that family culhng for undesirable qualities was only possible during the
last two years reported.

Ehmination of famihes for all causes is shown in the last column of the table.
The check group suffered less from ehmination during the first three years when
they were cross-bred and when no selection was practiced. The inbred group
during the same period without selection lost 75 per cent of its possible families
the first year, none the second year and 56 per cent the third year. In the last
three-year period family losses in the checks were 33, 44, and 63 per cent, respec-
tively, as compared with 46, 68 and 67 per cent for the inbreds. In general, these
data indicate that losses of families were not greatly increased by inbreeding
either in the original inbred groups or later in the check groups.

In the selection of breeders each year only the best available were utilized
from the standpoint of fecundity traits. Theoretically such a procedure should
make for progress, provided the standard for breeders was raised each year. The
character of available material, however, often made raising the standard for
breeders from year to year impossible as will be shown under "Character of Female
Breeders."

Purpose of This Report

In the field of pedigree breeding there is a demand for specific information
regarding the behavior of fecundity traits under inbreeding. These individual
traits concerned in egg production have already been discussed in numerous
publications from this Station. The outstanding purpose of this report is there-
fore to furnish specific information on the question of how inbreeding actually
affects egg production by its influence upon known fecundity traits such as age
at first egg, intensity, winter pause, etc. Since these fecundity traits are known
to be inherited, it is necessary to consider each breecUng female as a unit and
each of her daughters as a unit to discover any possible effects of inbreeding on
egg production. A general summary of results would be of little value in con-
structive breeding where attention must be focused upon individual traits or
characteristics. This report therefore presents the necessary data on the char-
acteristics being studied and will furnish a guide in pedigree breeding.

Method of Presenting Data

The data obtained in this experiment are presented in detail each year as the
experiment processed. The year's results are given under the following sections :

260

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

(1) Character of female breeders with respect to traits affecting egg production,
together with annual egg records, hatching records and number of offspring;

(2) mean egg weight, hatchability of dams, complete mean weight records for
one year on surviving progeny, mortality in chicks to September 1, and mor-
taUty rate of pullets in the laying houses grouped by mothers; and (3) complete
record of all surviving daughters with respect to traits affecting egg production,
and annual egg record of each.

It is hoped that such a presentation will enable the reader to follow the results
of each mating and to see at a glance why any particular mating gave the results
indicated. It is also a simple procedure to discover improvements or faults
introduced by crossing inbred lines as well as by inbreeding the check lines.
Complete data are given rather than summaries because such records are neces-
sary in studying a very complex characteristic like annual egg production. More-
over, genetic analyses only apply to the many individual traits affecting egg
production when each trait is considered as a unit for each individual of a family;
hence family averages or summaries are of small value as a w^orking basis. An
attempt is made in the comments following each table to show just why specific
matings or types of matings are successful or otherwise.

Experimental Data on Effects of Heterosis

A supplementary test to the inbreeding experiment was made to study the
effects of heterosis in 1923 and 1924. Six hens hatched in 1921 were used in this
experiment. These birds were intensely inbred to B 357 for three generations.
They were all mated as yearlings in the spring of 1923 to a "Standard"-bred
cockerel from a prominent flock. The individual records of these hens are given
below:

Table 1. — Character of Inbred Hens

Bird

Age at
First
Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annual
Production

1923
Hatch-
ability

Off-

No.

First
Year

Second
Year

.spnng

C 1332
C 2084
C 3132
C 3544
C 3545
C 4014

Days

232
221
228
205
217
168

Lbs.

5.13
5.06
4.25
5.13
5.06
4.38

Days

31

4
0
0
0
0

Eggs

1.9
2.1
1.6
3.1
2.5
5.4

Days

0
0

15
0
0

32

Days

288
262
240
208
188
252

Eggs

148
173
144
119
160
162

Eggs

62

165

108

Dead

163

87

%

83
80
75
53
86
52

No.

12

25
11

6
22

6

The individual records of these inbred hens show that two of the six were gen-
etically early maturing, that all were lacking in weight, that two-thirds were non-
pause and one-third pause birds, only two were high in intensity, four were non-
broody and two broody, all were lacking in persistency, all were poor layers, only
one exhibited high hatchability, three medium hatchability and two low hatch-
ability, and that the number of offspring from each was rather limited.

The cockerel (C 75450) to which the above hens were mated in 1923 came from
a flock bred strictly for "Standard" qualifications. His weight was about 11
pounds when the breeding season began and he was true to "Standard" require-
ments, except for smut in the under-color. This male came from an outside
source and was in no way related to the females with which he w^s mated.

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 261

If the unsatisfactory character of the above six hens from the egg production
standpoint was due to low vigor resulting from inbreeding, mating with such a
male would bring the stimulus of heterosis to the progeny and might enable the
daughters to lay more eggs than their mothers. On the other hand, if the out-
side male used lacked the necessary inherited characteristics responsible for high
production, the daughters would be low producers even though they carried the
stimulus of heterosis.

Results of 1923 Matings

From the six hens mated to the above described cockerel, 82 progeny resulted.
It is interesting to note the sex ratio of the chicks surviving to an age when the
sex could be distinguished by external appearances. In the 72 chicks the sex of
which was recorded, there were nearly twice as many males as females. These
high sex ratios were not due to a pronounced higher post-natal mortality in female
chicks because more than half of all chicks hatched were males. There may have
been a higher death rate of females in the shell but this record was not obtained.
The seasonal effects on sex ratio pointed out by Jull (1924), as well as the low an-
tecedent production of the mothers, may in part explain the higher sex ratio
observed.

262

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

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INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 263

Table 2 shows that the mean weight of eggs that actually hatched from the six
different dams ranged from 51.2 grams to 61.3 grams, with a mean of 56.3 grams.
The weight of eggs appeared independent of hatchability but was correlated
with weight of chicks. Large eggs did not give more vigorous chicks than small
eggs as judged by mortality rate up to September first.

These data do not indicate that the percentage of fertile eggs hatched, termed
hatchability, is any indication of the probable mortality rate in chicks up to
September first, and these data agree with those of Dunn (1922).

Male and female chicks did not differ in weight when taken from the incubator.
At four weeks of age males began to weigh more than females. The weight
difference for the sexes became very pronounced at 150 days when the cockerels
weighed practically one pound more than the pullets, or about 23 per cent. At
one year of age, males averaged 7.67 pounds and females 6.16 pounds. Mortality
rates for pullets in the laying houses were excessive so that the number of complete
annual egg records is very small.

In studying the effects of heterosis upon the characteristics known to affect
egg production, it seems advisable to consider only those daughters which lived
to finish their first laj'ing year. The data are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. — Recoed of All Surviving Daughters from the 1923 Matings

Dam

No.

Bird

No.

Age at
First
Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annual
Produc-
tion

Days

Lbs.

Days

Eggs

Days

Days

Eggs

C 1.332 .

C 9126

213

6.40

48

1.4

0

250

119

C 2084 .

C 7311

C 8395

C 8690

I C 9176

338
228
228
238

7.10
6.24
6.79
5.90

0
13
29

1.2
1.8
1.3

45

0

22

24

180
151
251
257

101
114
155
136

C 3132 .

C 7696

204

5.60

44

1.3

0

230

88

C 3545 .

/ C 7876
1 C 9138

272
237

6.49
6.37

8
0

1.5

2.4

0
0

249
143

86
165

By comparing Table 3 with Table 1, it is possible to discover differences be-
tween mothers and daughters which may be assigned largely to the sire used.
By this method, something of the effects of heterosis on traits concerned in egg
production may be disclosed.

Age at sexual maturity was affected. Two mothers known to be genetically
early maturing unfortunately faUed to produce any of the daughters with com-
plete records. Thus all the daughters in Table 3 came from late-maturing
mothers. But the actual age at which these daughters began laying generally
exceeded that of their dams. The fact seems evident, therefore, that this mating
did not reduce the age at sexual maturity in the daughters of these inbred mothers.

The body weight of these pullets when they laid their first egg showed the
pronounced effect of heterosis. Every individual daughter weighed more than
her dam at first egg, and the mean weight of all daughters at first egg was about
32 per cent greater than that of the dams.

The effect of heterosis on winter pause was apparently insignificant. Inasmuch
as six of the daughters came from pause dams and only two from a non-pause
dam, it is probable that heterosis had no effect on winter pause.

Intensity as measured by winter clutch size ran low in the daughters. Since
the two dams C 3544 and C 4014 that evidently carried genes for high intensity
had no daughters with complete records, there could be no intense daughters

264 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

unless male C 75450 transmitted high intensity. This male evidently lacked the
genes for high intensity for his daughters laid in smaller clutches than their dams.

Effects of heterosis on broodiness were not apparent in the daughters studied.
Male C 75450 apparently did not increase the degree of broodiness as his daugh-
ters show no greater proportion of broody individuals than existed in the inbred
mothers to which he was mated.

No genetically persistent daughters appeared in Table 3. Since the inbred
mothers used were lacking in persistency, it is evident that the sire of these
daughters also lacked the gene P for high persistency.

In pullet-year egg production these hybrid daughters were inferior to their
dams. This may be explained by their late maturity, low intensity and lack of
persistency.

The only recognizable benefit that came from heterosis in these matings was
marked increase in body weight. From the standpoint of annual egg production,
no benefits were derived. Male C 75450 was evidently lacking in early maturity,
high intensity and high persistency.

1924 Matings

In order to test further the effects of heterosis, it seemed advisable to continue
the matings in 1924. Successful matings were obtained from but two of the
hens used in 1923 (Nos. C 1332 and C 3132). These two inbred hens were
mated to a cockerel (C 7954) sired by C 75411, an outside "Standard"-bred male
from the same source as male C 75450 used in 1923. Cockerel C 7954 was a son
of C 6286, a Station hen that was not inbred.

The observation was made that the progeny of 1923 were slightly heavier than
those of 1924 from hens C 1332 and C 3132. It was noted also that there was
no mortality of daughters from these two hens in the laying houses for the year
1923; while the mortality rate was 33 and 50 per cent, respectively, for 1924.
Evidently the direct outcross made in 1923 gave more vigorous offspring than the
less pronounced outcross of 1924.

Early sexual maturity was apparently not affected by inbreeding and came
as a dominant from the dams both years. Winter pause occurred in all 1924
daughters and was expected from the two dams used. Both dams used in 1924
lacked high intensity, but one daughter was high in intensity, showing that the
sire must have contributed genes for high intensity. The first dam was non-
broody but had one daughter showing broodiness. The second dam carried
broodiness and her one daughter was not broody. These facts suggest that the
first hen carried one gene for broodiness and that the male used carried the other
broody gene. Both the dams for 1924 were low in persistency. The fact that
4 out of the 5 daughters were persistent shows that male C 7954 carried P, the
gene for high persistency. The annual egg records of the five birds hatched
in 1924 were higher than for the birds hatched in 1923, indicating the importance
of high intensity and high persistency.

In general, the results of outcrossing on two successive years indicated that
body weight may be increased and vigor somewhat improved in the first genera-
tion, but that undesirable traits from the standpoint of fecundity will be intro-
duced unless the outcross is made with stock carrying the characteristics neces-
sary to heavy egg production. This type of mating was not continued after
1924 and the progeny of 1924 were not used for breeding.

Inbreeding Experiment

In the spring of 1923 an experiment was begun using Rhode Island Reds to test
the effects of different degrees of inbreeding upon the characteristics directly
affecting fecundity and upon other characteristics of importance in breeding for

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 265

high egg production. The plan was to establish several inbred groups repre-
senting different degrees of inbreeding and to continue these groups as such for
a period of years. It was also thought necessary to establish several definite
types of check groups with which to compare the different inbred groups.

Plan of Matings — 1923

Birds Available. — In the 1923 matings one hen (No. C 1124) and six of her
daughters were used, one inbred hen (C 4746) coming from brother-sister mating,
one outside "Standard"-bred male (C 75411), one male (C 5085) from brother-
sister mating, male C 4658 not inbred but of straight Station breeding, male
C 4884 a half brother (common sire) to the six sisters used in the experiment,
and male C 1616 the sire of the six sisters used. Male C 1616 was out of hen
B 8316 with a pullet year record of 279 eggs. She was broody three times. His
paternal granddam was B 699 with a record of 222 eggs and non-broody. His
maternal granddam had a record of 186 and was non-broody. Male C 1616 had
a very mediocre progeny record in 1922 in that his daughters from three hens
averaged only 166 eggs. All birds were single comb Rhode Island Reds and all
had been bred without introducing outside stock for seven years until males
C 75411 and C 75450 were brought in as cockerels for these experiments from
a "Standard"-bred flock.

Check Groups.

1. Two full sisters (not inbred) Nos. C 6127 and C 6286, mated to "Standard"-
bred male C 75411.

2. A third sister (C 5465), mated to inbred male C 5085 coming from brotl^er-
sister mating.

3. An inbred female (C 4746) from brother-sister mating, mated to "Standard"-
bred male C 75411.

Inbred Groups.

4. A fourth sister (C 6287), mated to her cousin (C 4658).

5. A fifth sister (C 5746), mated to her half brother (C 4884) (common sire).

6. Foundation dam (C 1124), mated to her nephew (C 4658).

7. A sixth sister (C 5745), mated to her sire (C 1616).

Table 4. — Character of Female Breeders — 1923

Group
No.

Bird
No.

.\ge at
First
Egg

Woisht

at First

Egg

Pause

.\vRrage
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

-Annual
Persist-
ency

.\nnual
Produc-
tion

1923
Hatch-
ability

Off-
spring

Days

Lbs.

Daya

Egys

Days

Days

Eai/s

%

Nr.

1
1

C r)127
C 6286

161
168

5 31
5.31

40
20

1.9
3.3

0
0

3.56
3.50

166
226

76

88

13
22

2

C .5465

176

5.38

9

2.4

0

365

171

36

6

3

O 4746

192

5.81

54

3.7

0

365

214

89

18

4

C 6287

184

5.88

0

3.6

Died

in April, 1923

-

-

.")

C 5746

186

5.06

8

1.9

Died I

n March, 1923

36

3

6

C 1124

176

4.81

22

4.3

13

365 2.38

79

13

7

C 5745

172

5.00

17

3.0

16

Injured

~

0

Table 4 shows the character of the females used as breeders for their pullet-
laying year. Attention is again directed to the fact that all of the above females,
except C 4746 and C 1124, were full sisters, and that C 1124 was their mother

266 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

and C 4746 was a closely inbred hen. A marked degree of uniformity in age at
first egg was exhibited by these six sisters, the range being between 161 and 186
days. All were genetically early maturing.

These six sisters were also rather uniform in body weight at first egg, ranging
from 5.00 to 5.88 pounds. Foundation dam C 1124 was a small hen weighing
but 4.81 pounds when she laid her first egg.

Winter pause was shown by all the sisterp, except C 6287, and was present
in the foundation hen C 1124 and inbred hen C 4746. Lines of birds descending
from such a foundation would, therefore, be expected to carry winter pause.

The characteristic intensity or clutch size in the six sisters was variable. Three
of the birds probably carried both genetic factors for large clutch size, and the
other three were low for intensity. Both foundation hen C 1124 and inbred hen
C 4746 were high in intensity.

Broodiness was present in but one of the four sisters completing the year. In-
bred hen C 4746 was non-broody, but foundation hen C 1124 carried broodiness
in the pullet year.

All of the females with a complete record showed high persistency. Such
foundation females should therefore be very satisfactory foundation breeders
from the standpoint of high persistency.

Only three of the sisters had a complete annual egg record. These records
were 166, 171 and 226. Hen C 6286 was able to make a record of 226 eggs
because she carried early maturity, high intensity and high persistency. The
other two sisters were notably deficient in intensity. Inbred hen C 4746 carried
early maturity, high intensity, high persistency and non-broodiness but showed
a long winter pause. Her record was 214 eggs. Foundation hen C 1124 laid
238 eggs. She carried winter pause and broodiness as major defects. On the
whole, such foundation females could not be expected to estabhsh superior lines
for egg production under inbreeding because they possessed too many undesir-
able characteristics.

Results of Matings — 1923

The sex ratio observed in chicks living until their sex could be recorded by
external appearances is of little value the first year of the experiment because of
the small number of offspring. In the check groups there were 18 males and 31
females, and 6 males and 6 females came from the one successful inbred mating.

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 267

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268

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

Table 5 shows that all but two of the dams laid eggs under the standard weight
of 56.7 grams. There was no indication, however, of any relationship between
weight of eggs and hatchability. One of the sisters (C 5465) showed very low
hatchability.

Chick weight at hatching was correlated with egg weight in this table. Mor-
tality rate in chicks up to September first tended to run higher from the low
hatching mothers.

The inbred female progeny of C 1124 sired by her nephew were slightly lighter
in weight at first egg than were the daughters of any of the other hens. This
may be due entirely to the fact that C 1124 was a smaller hen than any of the
others and not be a concomitant of inbreeding.

The mortality rate in the laying houses was conspicuously greater in the inbred
progeny from C 1124 than from check group 1, but check group 3 shows a higher
rate than the daughters of C 1124. The number of offspring from check group 2
was inadequate to be of statistical value.

Table 6. — Record of All Surviving Daughters from the 1923 Matings

Dam No.

Bird No.

Age

at First
Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annual
Produc-
tion

Days Lbs. \ Days Eggs
Check Group 1

Days Days \ Egg.

C6127

C 6286 .

C 4746 .

C 1124

C9023

298

6.14

-

-

25

128

C 753S

311

_

10

1.0

0

2,52

C 7539

227

6.63

8

2.1

22

217

C 7955

223

6.81

16

2.4

17

366

C 7956

225

5.82

21

3.4

38

138

C7957

197

6.35

35

3.3

0

366

C 8533

216

5.00

0

1.8

0

307

C 8851

226

6.00

56

1.4

0

2,50

C 9039

218

5.35

17

1.6

0

244

Check Croup 3

C7718 1
C 8746 I

235
237

Inbred Group 6

f C 8364

222

6.00

0

C 8365

203

6.05

7

[ C 8645

192

5.37

27

3.1
1.7

2.5
2.1
2.5

19
20

351

221

0

349

0

3.59

0

339

82

158
95
201
151
175
193
94
155

167
137

215
222
219

Check Group 2 — Two daughters which died before the end of the year.
Inbred Group 4 — All eggs were infertile.
Inbred Group 5 — Three chicks, all died in April.
Inbred Group 7 — Only one chick produced.

Inbred daughters may be compared with the check daughters in Table 6. The
inbred daughters were smaller when they laid their first egg, were superior in
early maturity and in absence of winter pause, carried somewhat higher intensity,
were free from broodiness, and were more persistent layers. The annual egg
records of the checks averaged about 150 eggs while the inbreds averaged 219
eggs. These data agree with those already presented in that bj^ securing heterosis
many desirable fecundity traits may be sacrificed unless much care is taken in
selecting the outside stock for desirable fecundity traits.

Plan of Matings — 1924

Much difficulty was experienced because of losses, in making the matings for
1924 conform with the plan of 1923.

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 269

Check group 1 was made up of four pullets hatched in 1923. These were two
daughters from each of the original full sisters used in 1923. These four pullets
were mated in 1924 to an unrelated cockerel from a very heavy laying family of
straight Station breeding. Check group 1 was therefore made up in 1924 of
hybrid pullets mated to a male of pure Station breeding.

Check group 2 again consisted of hen C 5465 with the addition of one of her
daughters, C 8808. These two birds were mated to male C 5055 that was inbred
coming from half brother-sister mating, but he was also half brother to C5465
and related to her daughter.

Check group 3 again included inbred hen C 4746 and the group was supple-
mented by two of her daughters, C 7718 and C 7719. Hen C 4746 was again
mated to the outside male C 75411 and her two daughters from this mating in
1923 were mated to the unrelated production-bred male C 7494 that was used in
group 1.

Inbred group 4 consisted of one of the original sisters C 6127 mated to male
C 4658. The mothers of these two birds were full sisters and their sires were
half brothers, thus making an approach to brother-sister mating.

Inbred group 5 was made up of one of the original sisters C 6286 mated to her
half brother, both having a common sire. To this group were added two inbred
sisters (brother-sister mating) . These last two birds were mated to male C 8289
whose dam was B 8254 the identical paternal and maternal granddam of his
mates.

Inbred group 6 contained foundation hen C 1124 mated to her son C 8086,
and this son was sired by a son of her full sister.

Inbred group 7 consisted of two sisters C8079 and C 8333 linebred to B 699
and mated to male C 8354 also linebred to B 699.

Table 7 — Character of Female Breeders — 1924

Group

No.

Bird

No.

Age at
First
Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annual
Produc-
tion

1924
Hatch-
ability

Off-
spring

Days

Lhs.

Days

Egos

Days

Days

Eggs

%

No.

1
1

1
1

C 7970
C 8545
C 7539
C 7957

228
231
227
197

7.02
6.75
6.63
6,35

0

8
35

3.3

2.1
5.3

0

22
0

Sick ir
Sick ir
217
366

June

1 June

95

175

0

0
13

0
0
0
1

2
2

C 5465
C 8808

176
183

5.38
5.70

9

28

2.4
3.3

0
D

365
ied in .Ju

171

ly

43

68

15
21

3
3
3

C4746
C 7718
C 7719

192
235

291

5.81
7.24
7.45

54
9
14

3.7
3.1
1.1

0
19
Died

365 214

3.55 167

in September

44
11
0

12
3
0

4

C 6172

161

5.31

40

1.9

0

356

166

93

21

5
5
5

C 6286
C 4577
C 6192

168
184
198

5.31
5.63
5.19

20
0
0

3.3
2.4
2.5

0
0
0

3.50
365
353

226
216
248

64
13
43

7
2
6

6

C 1124

176

4.81

22

4.3

13

365

238

78

7

7
7

C 8079
C 8333

209
205

6.10
5.35

7
0

1.3
3.0

0
D

350
ed in M

188
ay

72
68

21
21

Table 7 discloses that 5 out of the 9 females used as check breeders were late
maturing and that none of the birds used in the inbred groups was late maturing.
These late maturing birds were all sired by the "Standard" color male C 75411
introduced from an outside source, and they serve to illustrate the results of mat-
ing early maturing hens to a late maturing male.

270 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

In weight at first egg the check groups excelled the inbred groups and showed
the effects of heterosis. All of the inbred birds exhibited satisfactory weight
at first egg, however, with the single exception of hen C 1124.

Winter pause was prevalent in the female breeders used in 1924 as in 1923.
One check female, two in inbred group 5 and one in inbred group 7 did not exhibit
winter pause.

Intensity measured by mean winter clutch was not greatly different from the
records for 1923. Five of the nine check birds were genetically intense and four
lacked intensity. Three of the seven inbred mothers carried high intensity in
1924, as compared with three out of four in 1923. Apparently intensity was not
holding up in the first generation of inbred daughters.

In the check groups two broody and four non-broody birds were used in 1924,
compared with all non-broody females in 1923. Only one out of six of the inbred
mothers of 1924 was broody compared with all broody in 1923. There was there-
fore an apparent gain in non-broodiness over 1923.

Only one female breeder of 1924 lacked genetic high persistency and she was
check bird C 7539. All of the breeders of 1923 were highly presistent and the
trait seemed to carry on in 1924.

Annual egg records for all check mothers made during their pullet year were
very mediocre with the single exception of C 4746 in group 3. The inbred moth-
ers of 1924 were for the most part very good layers, but C 6127 in group 4 and
C 8079 in group 7 were both mediocre layers.

Reference to the 1924 hatching records of these birds indicates that the inbreds
were decidedly superior to the checks. The best hatching record was made by
C 6127 mated to a rather closely related male. The inferior hatching records of
most of the checks must be due to the outside bloodhne introduced. The num-
bers of offspring obtained from many of the matings were inadequate for analytical
purposes.

ResiiUs of Matings — 1924

The sex ratio of surviving chicks from the check group was 115 to 100, while
the ratio in the inbred chicks was 82 to 100. This fact would suggest that inbred
males were less able to survive in the early struggle for existence than were the
check males. The detailed data do not indicate, however, that inbreeding as
such actually reduced the sex ratio.

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 271

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272

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

A comparison of Table 8 with Table 5 at once emphasizes the superior char-
acter of the 1924 dams in egg size. In 1923 only two dams laid a standard weight
egg of 56.7 grams, while in 1924 four of the five check dams laid standard weight
eggs and four of the seven inbred dams laid eggs of standard weight.

Hatchability ran higher in the inbred groups than in the checks. In fact,
only one check hen reached medium hatchability. Egg weight and chick weight
were again closely correlated. Chick mortality rates to September first were
very sUghtly higher in the inbred groups than in the checks. These data do not
indicate an important relationship between the percentage of fertile eggs hatched
and the percentage of range mortaUty.

The mean number of offspring per mother did not differ greatly in the check
group and the inbred group for the mothers actually producing chicks, but there
were more unsuccessful matings among the checks than among the inbreds.

A comparison of the weight records of offspring for one year shows that the
check birds were decidedly heavier than the inbreds from hatching time on. A
significant difference in the weight of males and females did not appear until four
weeks of age. Table 8 also shows that the mean weight of pullets was greater at
first egg than at the age of one year. This difference was not due to a loss of
weight during the year but to the fact that the mortahty rate in the laying houses
was greater among the heavy birds both in the check and in the inbred groups.

Mortality rates for pullets in the laying houses were decidedly high. Several
of the families were completely obhterated. The gross mortaUty rate for the
inbreds was significantly greater than for the checks. These losses were aug-
mented by a severe epidemic of pox and roup attacking all the flock.

Table 9. — Record of All Surviving Daughters from the 1924 Matings

Dam No.

Bird No.

Age

at First

Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annual
Produc-
tion

Days

Lbs.

Days

Eggs

Days

Days

Eggs

C 7957 .

C 7718

C 6127

C 6192 .

Check Group 1

I E 208 1 186 I 6.45 | 56

Check Croup 3

IE 220 1 321 I 6.90 | 0

Inbred Group 4

I 1-4 1

E 654
E 2132

315
192

5.85
5.12

1.8

2.4

0 I

0
30

306

131
171

Inbred Group 5

f E 425

177

5.15

4

4.1

0

365

\ E 611

179

5.44

21

2.0

0

365

[ E 666

181

4.97

15

2.8

29

172

168

239

170
134

225
203
213

Inbred Croup 7

0 8079 .

■!

E 876
E 2343

233
226

6.17
6.12

5
0

1.5
2.5

0
16

316
151

170
103

C 8333 .

f

■ 1

E 914
E 2352
E 2353

185
204
184

5.57
5.10
4.88

19
0
13

2.7
2.2

2.2

38
0
0

365
130
217

183
158
138

Check Group 2 and Inbred Group 6 had no complete records.

Table 9 shows that the three check groups of 1924 were practical failures from
the standpoint of reproduction. Only two davighters from the three check groups
aurvived to complete the laying year. The character of the parents used in 1924

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 273

would make for less heterosis than existed in 1923, and this may in part explain
the high mortahty of 1924, yet cross-breeding as such did not appear to increase
vigor as measured by laying house mortality. The fragmentary records would
indicate that broodiness was reduced in the check birds but that intensity was
lower than in 1923.

Judging the results of inbreeding by the progeny record leads to the deduction
that only group 5 was successful and gave satisfactory egg production. In this
group the three daughters recorded are all from hen C 6192 whose sire and dam
were full brother and sister. She was mated in 1924 to a son of her single grand-
dam. The three daughters in group 5 were all inferior to their dam in fecundity,
however.

In group 7 the daughters were all mediocre producers. The first two were
from C 8079 and the last three from C 8333. Both of these dams were early
maturing but the first gave only late daughters. These daughters represented
line breeding to hen B 699 with a record of 222 eggs. They exhibited no improve-
ment over their dams and showed no advantages in line-breeding.

In general, the inbred birds were satisfactory in weight but the tendency to
late sexual maturity appeared. Many of them lacked persistency and nearly all
lacked vigor. They did not exhibit marked uniformity in characteristics affecting
fecundity.

Plan of Matings — 1925

Check group 1 again consisted of four outbred daughters hatched in this group
in 1923. These were mated in 1925 to an intensely production-bred male unre-
lated to them but a full brother to the male used in this group in 1924.

Check group 2 still included the original sister C 5465 but she was mated to a
male, E 1824, that was inbred to her sire.

Check group 3 was made up of inbred hen C 4746 again mated to outside
male C 75411. A male, C 7984, from the heavy producing strain was also mated
to a hybrid pullet, C 7718, coming from mating male C 75411 to an inbred hen.

Inbred group 4 again included hen C 6127 mated to C 8086. Both of these
birds were out of foundation hen C 1124 but were not related on the sire's side.
They were half brother and sister.

Inbred group 5 contained the original sister used in 1924 mated to her son
who was inbred to foundation male C 1616.

Inbred group 6 was made up of two inbred daughters of foundation hen C 1124
mated to her son that was also related to his mates on the paternal side. Hen
C 1124 was also mated to her son C 8086, the same male as in 1924.

Inbred group 7 contained hen C 8079 mated to her son E 1592, and three of
her daughters mated to their brother.

274 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

Table 10. — Character op Female Breeders — 1925

Group
No.

Bird

No.

Age at

First
Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

.Average
Winter
Clutch

Total
Days
Broody

Annual

Persist-
ency

.Annual
Produc-
tion

1925
Hatch-
abihty

Off-
spring

Days

Lbs.

Days

Eggs

Days

Days

Eggs

%

No.

1
1
1
1

C 7538
C 7530
C 8851
C 9023

311
227
226
298

6.63
6.00
6.14

10

8

56

1.0
2.1
1.4

0
22

0
25

252
217
250
128

158
95
94
82

75 3
Died in March
All infertile
Died in April

2

C 5465

176

5.38

9

2.4

0

365

171

No eggs

3
3

C4746

C7718

192
235

5.81
7.24

54
9

3.7
3.1

0
19

365
361

214
167

All infertile
67 4

4

C 6127

161

5.31

40 .

1.9

0

356

166

75

9

5

C 6286

168

5.31

20

3.3

0

350

226

100

4

6
6
6

E 540
E 795
C 1124

355
249
176

5.92
4.81

0
22

1.6
4.3

13

365

238

All infertile
All infertile
67 2

7
7
7

7

C8079
E 876
E 1934
E 2343

209
233
197
226

6.10
6.17
5.. ^6
6.12

7
5
4
0

1.3
1.5
1.7
2.5

0
0

16

350
316

151

188
170

102

78 14
56 5
All infertile
29 1 2

Table 10 presents the characteristics of the female breeders used in 1925.
The general inferiority of these birds compared with the foundation females used
in 1923, shown in Table 4, is very evident. The check birds tended to late
maturity and to heavy body weight. They also tended toward low intensity
and to very mediocre egg production. The hatching records for the checks were
decidedly inferior, and only seven chicks were produced.

The inbred birds showed less tendency to late maturity than did the checks.
The inbreds were also of satisfactory weight, but many of them were low in in-
tensity. They were satisfactory from the standpoint of non-broodiness and
persistency, but their annual egg records were lower than for the foundation
mothers of 1923. Hatching records were poor so that only 36 chicks were
produced.

Results of Matings — 1925

The number of progeny produced from the 1925 matings was too small for
studying the sex ratios. Their complete weight and mortality records are given
in Table 11.

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 275

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276

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

Table 11 gives some information concerning the breeding ability of the females
used in 1925. Egg weight was appreciably above the standard of 56.7 grams,
or 24 ounces per dozen, except for foundation hen C 1124 and hen E 876, that
came from a high fecundity strain.

Hatchability was far superior to 1924 and none of the birds fell below medium
hatchability. Eggs weighing about 61 grams showed higher hatchability than
either larger or smaller eggs. The correlation between egg weight and chick
weight at hatching stands out prominently.

Hatching weights of chicks did not indicate that the sexes differed significantly,
or that weight could be used as a basis for distinguishing sex of day-old chicks.

Mortality in chicks up to September first ran significantly higher in the inbred
groups than in the checks. Those groups closely inbred showed a mortality
of 50 per cent or more. These data would appear as something of an indication
of low vigor in the inbreds.

The data on weight records given in Table 1 1 are too meager to be of great value'.
They do, however, point to a few general tendencies. In the first place, the check
birds tended to be heavier at a given age than the inbreds. There was no mor-
tahty in the laying houses for the check pullets, while the mortality for some
of the inbred families reached 50 per cent. There is general evidence that the
inbreds were less vigorous than the checks.

Table 12 . — Record of All Surviving Daughters from the 1925 Matings

Dam No.

Bird

No.

Age at
First
Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annual
Produc-
tion

Days

Lbs.

Days

Eggs

Days

Days

Eggs

Check Group 1

C 7.538 ,

IF 7

206

6.45 1 65
Check Group 3

1.3

0

346

124

C 7718 .

f 1 F 525
t 1 F 943

193
167

5.78 1 41
5.20 1 65

Inbred Group 4

2.6
2.2

0
55

352
365

205
149

C 6127 .

( 1 F 1449
\ 1 F 2149

191

208

5.10 1 49
6.50 1 5

Inbred Group 5

2.0
2.1

0
0

319

287

181
132

C 6286 .

1 F 1465

188

4.55 1 45
Inbred Group 7

1.5

0

325

123

C 8079 .

/ F 1589
\ F 2147

189
245

5.30 22
6.60 23

1.8
1.6

0
0

365

252

206
151

Check Group 2
Inbred Group 6

— No ch

— No da

icks.
ughters.

Since only three check daughters and five inbred daughters had complete
records, the data in Table 12 are of Uttle value. The fact does stand out that
broodiness has been eliminated in large measure. All of the inbreds were low
in intensity, and all were low producers. There is some evidence, among the
inbreds, of increased uniformity in intensity, non-broodiness and persistency.
In general, the data show that inbreeding for three years has reduced vigor, egg
production, and possibly variabihty in characteristics affecting egg production.
No particular type of inbreeding has proved superior, and only occasionally were
inbred matings successful.

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 277

Crossbreeding Inbred Lines

Plan of Matings — 1926

For the matings of 1926 it was decided best to crossbreed the inbred lines
among themselves and to inbreed the former check lines. The plan of matings
for 1926 was as follows:

Check group consisted of three females F 7, F 525 and F 943, all coming from
a cross of Station-bred stock with outside "Standard" male C 75411. These
three birds were mated to their sire C 7984.

All available inbred females were divided into two pens. The first pen was
mated to male F 1489 from group 7, he being from a mother-son mating and not
related to any of the females used. In this pen were placed two of the original
sisters C 6127 and C 6286, and pullets F 725, F 1449 and F 2149, all from a
half brother-sister mating. The other pullet in this pen was F 1465 from mother-
son mating, not related to male F 1489.

The second pen of inbreds was mated to male F 433 from a half brother-sister
mating, he being inbred to foundation hen C 1124. The females used in this
pen were: C 1124 a double granddam of the male; E 425 whose pedigree showed
her mother to be inbred but not related to her sire and E 425 was not related to
male F 433; F 1340 not inbred and not related to male F433; three sisters,
F 1488, F 1589 and F 2147, from a mother-son mating and not related to male
F 433. The results of inbreeding the checks and of crossing the inbred Unes may
be studied in the following tables:

TABLE 13. — Character of Female Breeders — 1926

Bird

No.

Age

at First

Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual

Persist-
ency

Annual
Produc-
tion

1926
Hatch-
ability

Off-
spring

Days

Lbs.

Days Eggs

Check Pen

Days
Inbred

Days

Eggs

7

206

6.45

65

1.3

0

346

124

45

525

193

6.78

41

2.6

0

352

205

71

943

167

5.20

65

2.2

55

365

149

64

Inbred Pen 1 — Crossed

C 6127

161

5.31

40

1.9

0

356

166

100

F 725

184

5.32

80

1.3

-

-

-

100

F 1449

191

5.10

49

2.0

0

319

181

65

F 2149

208

6.50

5

2.1

0

287

132

All infert

C6286

168

5.31

20

3.3

0

3.50

226

50 1

F 1465

188

4.55

45

1.5

0

325

123

- 1

Inbred Pen 2 — Crossed

C 1124

176

4.81

22

4.3

13

365

238

80

4

F 1488

203

5.55

50

2.4

_

82

13

F 1589

189

5.30

22

1.8

0

365

206

88

16

F 1995

226

5.25

28

1.5

-

_

_

—

3

F 2147

245

6.60

23

1.6

0

252

151

58

17

The three check birds, available for mating to their sire in 1926, may be con-
sidered rather inferior in several ways. They did show early sexual maturity
and satisfactory body weight, but were very inferior in winter pause and one
was broody. All were genetically highly persistent, but low intensity made them
inferior layers. Their hatching records fell below average also.

Inbred pen 1 was made up entirely of early maturing females and their weight
at first egg was satisfactory. All but one showed a pronounced winter pause
and only one carried high intensity. All were free from broodiness in the pullet

278 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

year, and all but one were highly persistent. In annual egg production the pen
was mediocre and only slightly superior to the check pen. Two birds in this pen
showed 100 per cent hatchabiUty, but the others were inferior. The number of
chicks produced by each hen was rather small for an eight-week hatching period.
Inbred pen 2 had two late maturing birds, and mean weights were comparable
with pen 1. All carried winter pause, and only one had high intensity. In non-
broodiness the group ranked well and also in persistency. The production records
of these dams excelled that of pen 1, and they showed more consistent high hatch-
ability. The numbers of offspring from this pen were rather limited also.

Results of Matings — 1926

Sex ratios in surviving progeny were not far from equality. From all three
pens there was produced a shght excess of males, but numbers were small so
that deductions are unsafe. Complete mortality and weight records on these
progeny are given in Table 14.

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 279

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280

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

Table 14 indicates that the check birds laid slightly heavier eggs which pro-
duced heavier chicks than the inbreds. The most significant point brought out
by this table is the fact that chick mortality rate increased in the check group
under inbreeding, and that chick mortality was decreased in one inbred pen by
crossing. Three hens in the inbred pens gave no chick mortality to September
first, and two others gave 6 and 8 per cent, respectively. Four of the hens in
the inbred pens did give excessive chick mortality which would indicate that
vigor was low even when inbred strains were intercrossed. Hen C 1124 gave
no chick mortahty when mated to her son as shown in the table.

Progeny records for one year as given in Table 14 showed a higher mortality
rate in the laying houses for the original check pen when inbred than when out-
bred in previous years. The mortalit}^ rate of the check pullets in the laying
houses was also significantly heavier than for the inbred strains crossed together
in 1926. Numbers were small, however, so that too much weight should not be
attached to these results.

Table 15. — Record of All Surviving Daughters from the 1926 Matings

Dam No.

Bird No,

Age

at First
Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annual
Produc-
tion

F 525
F943

C 6127 .
F725

F 1449 .

C 6286 .

F 1488 .

F 1589 .

F 2147 .

G 1218
G 1219
G 1221

G 1241
G 1242

372
764
766
768

G 1331

Days Lbs. Days Eggs

Check Pen — Inbred

Inbred Pen 1

Inbred Pen 2 — Crossed

Days Days

357
198

G 418
G 1626

169
239

5.15
5.60

0
13

2.0
1.7

0
0

G 601

191

6.30

32

2.4

13

323

G 311

186

6.37

52

1.9

0

357

G 1745

194

5.78

10

1.9

0

353

G 740
G 741
G 1183
G 1184
G 1817

194
183
216
185
199

5.55
5.30
6.25
5.72
6.00

30
63
32
0
12

2.0
2.0
1.3
1.9
1.7

0
0
0
0
0

223
253
229
3.57
327

G 1418

178

5.83

38

1.3

12

320

198

5.55

0

3.0

0

345

191

5.70

25

2.5

0

226

186

5.45

0

3.2

0

251

184

5.. 57

9

2.1

0

365

184

4.67

58

1.9

0

365

189

6.08

53

1.6

42

344

217

5.40

0

2.0

14

315

216

5.80

5

1.9

14

2.50

206

6.45

46

1.4

0

278

153

6.15

38

1.4

0

357

206
134

181

201

212

130
135
101
234

201

142

224
190
174

237
181

167
205
141
147
171

The progeny test of the matings of 1926 is recorded in Table 15. Unfortu-
nately the number of offspring is small. The data appear to indicate greater
uniformity in age at first egg for daughters from the inbred pen than from the
check pen. Genetic early maturity seemed very well established in the daugh-
ters. Body weight at first egg was above breed requirements but lacked uni-
formity in all of the pens. Winter pause was more prolonged in the inbred daugh-
ters, and there were only four of them lacking this undesirable trait. In clutch
size every daughter but two of the inbreds was deficient. It may be said that in

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 281

this experiment a strain of low intensity has been estabUshed. These daughters
also exhibited a low degree of broodiness. Even in the check pen broodiness
was practically eliminated. The first inbred pen showed 5 daughters high in
persistency to 3 low in persistency, and the second inbred pen showed 6 high to
4 low. These daughters therefore ran lower in persistency than the first genera-
tion of inbred daughters hatched in 1923. The three check daughters of 1926
showed improved persistency over 1923 (see Table 14). Annual egg records for
the check daughters averaged 174 in 1926 as compared with 149 in 1923. The
check group was less variable in annual production, and the inbred pens exhibited
no change. In general, it may be said that crossbreeding these inbred strains
did not result favorably in 1926.

Plan of Matings — 1927

Original check groups were again inbred in 1927. The check pen carried
male G 417 from a sire-on-daughter mating and related to his mates. The
females in this pen consisted of F 7, a half sister to male G 417 and F 525, his
mother. Females G 601 and G 1321 were sired by the father of male G 417
mated to a full sister of the mother of male G 417. The other birds in this pen
were G 418, G 1351, G 1352, G 1626 and G 1627, all full sisters to male G 417.
This pen, therefore, represented a very high degree of inbreeding of the original
check groups.

Inbred pen 1 was made up of eleven females mated to male G 315. This male
was not inbred but came from one of the inbred strains. The hens in the pen
consisted of C 6127, one of the original sisters in the inbreeding experiment;
F 1449, a full sister to the sire of male G 315; three sisters, G 311, G 911 and
G 2016, that are also half sisters to male G 315; and six sisters, G 739, G 1183,
G 1184, G 1738, G 1739 and G 1817, that are also half sisters to male G 315.

Inbred pen 2 consisted of ten females mated to male F 433. Male F 433 came
from a half brother-sister mating tracing directly to foundation hen C 1124.
The females in the pen were: C 1124, double granddam of male F 433; F 1489
and F 2147, sisters from son-mother mating but not related to male F 433; five
sisters, G 372, G 373, G 764, G 766 and G 768, not inbred but all daughters of
male F 433; G 1241 and G 1242, sisters whose mother was a full sister to the
dam of the preceding five hens and whose sire was male F 433.

Inbred pen 3 included seven females all mated to male G 624, a brother to
male G 417 from a sire-on-daughter mating. The females consisted of three
sisters, G 724, G 1219, and G 1221, also not inbred or related to male G 417;
G 1418, neither inbred nor related to male G 417; and two sisters, G 1672 and
G1745, not inbred and not related to male G 624.

282 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

Table 16. — Character of Female Breeders — 1927

Bird
No.

Age

at First
Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annual
Produc-
tion

1027
Hatch-
ability

Off-
spring

Days

Lhs.

Days

Eggs

Days

Days

Eggs

%

No.

F

7

K

52.T

(J

418

G

601

G 1321

G 1351

G

1352

G

1626

G 1627

C 6127

F 1449

G

311

G

7.S9

(i

911

G

1183

G 1184

G 1738

G 1739

G

1817

G 2016

C 1124
F 1589
F2147
G 372
G 373
G 764
G 766
G 768
G 1241
G 1242

206

6.4^1

65

1.3

0

346

124

52

193

5.78

41

2.6

0

352

205

59

169

5.15

0

2.0

0

357

206

31

191

6.30

32

2.4

13

323

181

83

144

4.15

-

Sick

—

-

26

206

5.25

23

2.7

-

-

—

84

323

_

_

_

-

-

90

239

5.60

13

1.7

0

198

134

77

236

5.11

19

1.2

-

-

-

85

176
189
245
189
331
217
216
206
184
184

Inbred Pen 1 — Crossed

161

5.31

40

1.9

0

356

166

39

191

5.10

49

2.0

0

319

181

70

186

6.37

52

1.9

0

357

201

24

217

5.05

38

1.7

-

-

-

11

166

5.57

-

-

Sick

-

-

36

216

6.25

32

1.3

0

229

101

5

185

5.72

0

1.9

0

357

234

26

196

5.87

29

1.5

-

—

-

20

215

6.40

25

1.4

_

-

-

13

199

6.00

12

1.7

0

327

201

13

220

6.40

17

1.4

-

-

-

19

Inbred Pen 2 — Crossed

4.81
5.30
6.60
6.08

5.40
5.80
6.45
5.57
4.67

22
22
23
53

0

5

46

9

58

4.3
1.8
1.6
1.6

2.0
1.9
1.4
2.1

1.9

13
0
0

42

14
14
0
0
0

365

238

0

_

365

206

71

31

252

151

72

29

344

167

20

4

-

-

5

2

315

205

52

23

250

141

89

16

278

147

7

2

365

237

80

12

365

181

All infer

tile

15
20
11
35

7
36

9
30
29

7

31

6

3

15

1

10

8

^

4

Inbred Pen 3 — Crossed

G 724

105

5.70

5

2.0

-

-

_

68 28

G 1219

191

5.70

25

2.5

0

226

190

44 18

G 1221

186

5.45

0

3.2

0

251

174

75 24

G 1418

178

5.83

38

1.3

12

320

142

35 14

G 1672

190

5.25

4

2.2

-

-

All infertile

G 1745

194

5.78

10

1.9

0

353

212

13 I 6

Table 16 does not show any striking differences in the characteristics of the
female breeders used in the check pen as compared with those used in the inbred
pens. This fact is further brought out by their annual egg records which depend
very largely upon the traits tabulated above (Hays and Sanborn, 1927). If
significant differences occur in the character of progeny produced by the four
pens, such must be ascribed either to genetic differences in the male parents or
to inbreeding.

Results of Malings — 1927

Inbreeding affected the sex ratio of surviving chicks.

The plan of matings for 1927 shows that the check-pen offspring represented
a rather high degree of inbreeding, that inbred pen 1 progeny were almost en-
tirely from half brother-sister matings, that inbred pen 2 progeny came largely
from sire-on-daughter matings and inbred pen 3 progeny represented crosses of
inbred hues.

Check pen progeny showed the low sex ratio in surviving chicks that has been
previously referred to in this report as possibly associated with close inbreeding.
Inbred pen 1 showed a high sex ratio even though the chicks came largely from

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 283

haK-brother-sister matings. Inbred pen 2, with progeny largely from sire-on-
daughter matings, gave equality of sexes. In inbred pen 3 where inbred lines
were crossed there occurred a low sex ratio which has been characteristic of close
inbreeding.

These data appear to indicate that inbred male chicks are less able to survive
than are female chicks. Such a difference probably arises from more vicious
fighting among males than among females. Inbred males are probably less
vigorous than ordinary production-bred males with which they run and many
succumb in the struggle.

284

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 285

The check pen was superior to the three inbred pens in mean weight of eggs
hatched and in hatching weight of chicks. In the percentage of fertile eggs
hatched, the check pen surpassed the others. Inbred pen 1 with progeny from
half brother-sister matings was superior to any other pen in vigor of chicks.
There were three families from this pen with no mortaUty up to September first,
while not a single family in the other pens was free from mortality during this
period. The fact should be noted that inbred pen 3 where the inbred lines were
crossed had a slightly greater chick mortahty than the other pens.

Progeny weight records for one year show that the pullets descending from the
original check group after this group was closely inbred were smaller at first egg
than the pullets of the inbred groups. The same situation also existed for both
males and females at one year of age.

The mortaUty rate for pullets in the laying houses was very significantly
greater in the check group than in either inbred groups 1 or 3. The daughters
from inbred pen 2, largely from sire-on-daughter matings, showed a mortaUty
rate somewhat greater than occurred in the check daughters. Possibly on the
whole the check daughters were less vigorous than the inbred daughters.

Table 18.—

Record oe

All Surviving Daughters from the

1927 Matings

Dam No.

Bird No.

Age

at First

Egg

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annual
Produc-
tion

Days

Lhs.

Days

Eggs

Days

Days

Eggs

¥7

F 525

C! 418

•G601
G 1627

F 1449

~G 1184

G 1738
G 1817

Check Pen — Inbred

H 706
H2968

H2091
H2476
H2951

H 2151
H2687
H2688
H 2689
H 3201

H 222
H 225
H 745
H 1265
H 1268
H 1766
H 2162
H 2163
H 2165

H 2839
H3290
H 3292

188
204

199
214
210

215
196
187
201
200

177
156
151
179
184
221
165
198
209

209
193
199

5.43

52

1.3

0

2.56

5.35

0

2.1

0

308

4.67

34

1.7

0

•310

5.65

21

1.6

0

270

5.88

0

1.8

0

312

5.35

17

1.9

32

237

5.38

0

1.9

0

350

5.40

0

2.8

0

310

5.60

4

1.9

0

342

4.44

25

1.5

0

354

5.75

42

1.9

0

337

4.65

41

2.8

0

317

5.06

63

1.8

0

295

5.48

39

2.3

0

349

5.72

4

2.0

0

366

5.75

0

2.9

0

333

4.. 59

34

1.6

0

366

5.80

20

2.4

0

292

5.25

14

1.6

9

278

4.30

18

1.8

0

339

4., 52

0

1.8

0

281

5. 55

22

2.3

0

270

Inbred Pen 1 — Crossed

H 235

175

5.10

42

3.5

48

364

H 830

169

5.18

4

3.1

0

314

H 1140

164

5 . 35

29

1.8

0

366

H 1564

175

4.68

43

2.2

0

319

H 2513

213

6.05

21

3.0

0

342

H 3062

212

5.12

32

1.9

0

331

H3063

184

5.40

26

3.5

28

366

H3064

203

5.85

12

2.5

30

366

H2791

212

5.60

0

3.6

0

362

H2792

204

5.58

6

2.0

0

300

H3379

221

6.42

0

3.5

•

335

H 18.56

228

5.10

22

1.9

0

329

H2832

187

5.77

0

2.2

%

366

H 3325

203

5.. 50

40

1.9

0

309

103
173

159
141
160

131
170
153
188
161

149
149
136
185
193
225
190
175
132

168
165
157

229
211
208
121
215
180
209
219

215
163
187

194
209

158

286

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

Table 18. — Record of All Surviving Daughters from the 1927 Matings —

Concluded

Dam No.

Bird No.

Age
at First

Weight

at First

Egg

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutcn

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annual
Produc-
tion

F 1589

F 2147

G 1241

G 1221

G 1418

Days \ Lbs. Days 1 Eggs

Inbred Pen 2 — Crossed

Inbred Pen 3 — Crossed

Days

H 008

160

5.10

51

4.4

0

248

H 1621

174

5.01

22

2.7

0

366

H2328

151

4.60

50

2.6

19

366

H2586

209

5.65

18

2.4

0

366

H 2,587

197

5.70

20

2.5

17

361

H2oS8

198

5.60

58

2.8

20

366

H 2.!)89

193

6.37

0

2.7

0

324

H 3014

217

5.00

7

2.4

0

331

H 3557

167

4.82

0

4.3

43

3.56

H 314

159

5.20

0

2.8

11

366

H 310

165

5.88

47

2.6

0

366

H 601

172

5.. 50

15

1.7

0

366

H 602

174

5.30

22

2.2

19

366

H 1100

176

6.03

48

1.9

0

331

H 1711

164

5.59

10

3.0

0

366

H 1712

178

5.66

12

2.2

0

366

H 2172

179

6.71

25

2.4

22

342

H2o99

214

6.78

20

2.1

18

307

H 30.54

187

6.47

19

2.3

IS

366

H 3055

213

7.15

0

1.8

17

299

H 3056

169

5.87

21

2.1

11

366

H 2267

215

5.66

21

1.8

0

366

H 60

261

5.48

0

5.2

0

178

H2802

199

5.05

0

2.8

0

366

H2804

166

4.93

19

2.6

0

366

H 3244

173

5.37

0

2.7

30

366

H 3246

199

5.77

0

3.4

0

330

H3247

173

5.74

4

3.6

0

366

H 101

168

6.00

82

2.2

0

366

H2248

184

6.05

0

4.1

0

366

H 2774

169

4.77

33

3.6

0

233

H3192

179

5.58

0

2.8

0

366

H3193

226

5.10

0

2.8

0

334

H3194

204

5.90

9

4.1

24

366

H3195

205

5.45

0

2.6

0

174

154
212
205
228
206
193
223
224
219

246
182
182
228
160
226
199
197
145
220
169
194

185

142
202
181
216
228
211

193
237
203
221
216
2.54
155

Table 18 shows the progeny records from the 1927 matings. In the check
daughters under the second generation of inbreeding, early sexual maturity was
well established. This group of daughters was, however, significantly lighter in
weight at first egg than the inbred daughters. Winter pause was more common
in the check daughters than in inbred daughters from pen 3. Check daughters
were very deficient in intensity. The majority showed small clutch size, and
they were inferior to all of the inbred groups in this respect. Broodiness during
the pullet year had almost disappeared in the checks. Lack of high persistency
was notable in the check daughters. They showed about equal numbers with
high and low persistency, while the inbreds showed a much greater proportion
with high persistency. As might be anticipated, the annual egg records of the
check daughters fell far below the records of the inbreds.

The three inbred pens may be cited as examples of results from different de-
grees of inbreeding. Inbred pen 1 daughters, coming from half brother-sister
matings of the original inbreds, were satisfactory in early maturity and in body
weight. This group of daughters showed 3 non-pause to 11 pause, and less than
half were high for intensity. From the standpoint of non-broodiness, they were
satisfactory, there being 11 non-broody to 3 broody. In persistency the pro-

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 287

portions were 11 high to 3 low. The mean annual egg record for pen 1 was not
satisfactory, largely because of low intensity in more than half of the daughters.

Inbred pen 2 was made up largely of daughters from father-daughter matings.
The character of the mothers of these birds did not differ greatly from the mothers
used in pen 1. Table 18 shows the daughters from pen 2 to be somewhat superior
to those from pen 1 chiefly in body weight, persistency and annual egg record.
Their high mean annual egg record was due largely to the nine daughters of hen
F 1589 that averaged 207 eggs. These appear first in Table 18 and are followed
by the 12 daughters of F 2147, her full sister. These two dams were both inbred
but not related to their inbred mate used in 1927. This type of mating gave
significant uniformity in the traits being studied in the daughters of F 1589 but
not in the daughters of ler sister F 2147.

Inbred pen 3 daughters came from dams G 1221 and G 1418. The first six
listed were from G 1221. The daughters from these matings did not exhibit
uniformity in age at sexual maturity or in body weight. They were superior to
the other groups with respect to winter pause. The two families of daughters
were about equal in clutch size and in persistency. In annual egg records there
was a considerable degree of uniformity. This pen indicates that in two matings
out of six the crossing of inbred strains was advantageous. The offspring from
other matings was not carried through the year.

Plan of Matings — 1928

In 1928 the mating pens consisted of one check pen and three of the original
inbred pens. In this concluding year of the experiment it seemed desirable to
attempt to discover if any possible mating combinations would be particularly
advantageous from the standpoint of high fecundity. The mating pens were
made up as follows:

The check pen contained male G 624, representing a sire-on-daughter mating
and traced to the outside "Standard" male C 75411 that was used in the original
check matings. The females used were G 418, a full sister to male G 624; G 601,
half sister to male G 624 and from a sire-daughter mating; two outbred sisters,
G764 and G1331, unrelated to male G 624; G 1218, not inbred and unrelated
to male G 624; G 1817, not inbred or related to male G 624; and two sisters,
H 224 and H 747, from half brother-sister mating and intimately related to male
G 624 through his sire.

Inbred pen 1 was composed of nine females mated to male G 315. This male
was not himself inbred but traced directly to C 1124. The females used were as
follows: F 525 from former check group and unrelated to male G 315; hen F 1449,
from a half brother-sister mating from C 1124 and distantly related to male
G 315 through C 1124; F 1589, representing a sire-on-daughter mating and
related to male G 315 whose grandsire is her sire; G 1184, not inbred but a half
sister to male G 315; G 1241, a full sister to male G 315; G 1626. from a sire-
on-daughter mating but unrelated to male G 315; G 1745, not inbred but almost
a full "blood" sister to male G 315; two sisters, H 2687 and H2688, from full
brother-sister matings but not related to male G 315.

Inbred pen 2 was made up of seven females mated to male G 1965. This male
came from mating male F 433 that was inbred to hen C 1124, back to hen C 1124.
He therefore represents distinct inbreeding to foundation hen C 1124. The
females in the pen were two sisters, H 314 and H 602, not inbred but carrying
C 1124 in their paternal ancestry and being half sisters to male G 1965; H 2267,
coming from a sire-daughter mating both tracing to C 1124, and a half sister to
male G 1965; two sisters, H 2774 and H 3192, not inbred but tracing to C 1124
on their dam's side and but remotely related to male G 1965 through C 1124:

288

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

and two sisters, H 2802 and H 3246, granddaughters of F 433 but not inbred
though related to male G 1965.

Inbred pen 3 included eight females mated to male H 317. This male was
outbred but traced to hen C 1124, as his only paternal greatgranddam. The
females used were three sisters, H 1565, H 3063 and H 3064, which traced to
C 1124 in the third generation on both sides of their pedigree; pullets H 2791
and H 2792, full sisters which trace to C 1124 in the fourth generation; sisters
H 1854 and H 1856, carrying the same relationship to C 1124 as the two pullets
just mentioned and differing only in that their dam was a full sister to the dam
of the two pullets in question; pullet H 2151 from a full brother-sister mating,
but unrelated to male H 317.

Table 19. — Character of Female Breeders — 1928

Bird
No.

Age

at First

Weight
at First

Pause

Average
Winter
Clutch

Total

Days

Broody

Annual
Persist-
ency

Annua]
Produc-
tion

1928 Off

Hatch- On-
abiliry I spring

G 418

G 601

G 764

G 1218

G 1331

G 1817

H 224

H 747

F 525

F 1449

F 1589

G 1184

G 1241

G 1626

G 1745

H 2687

H 2688

Days Lbs. | Days Eggs Days Days

Check Pen — Inbred

Eggs

Inbred Pen 1 — Crossed

Inbred Pen 2 — Crossed

Inbred Pen 3 — Crossed

%

169

5.15

0

2.0

0

3.57

206

29

191

6.30

32

2.4

13

323

181

.50

217

5.40

0

2.0

14

315

205

95

198

5.55

0

3.0

0

345

224

87

153

6.15

38

1.4

0

357

171

70

199

6.00

12

1.7

0

327

201

40

207

5.76

0

1.8

-

_

-

79

195

5.09

0

2.2

-

-

-

33

193

5.78

41

2.6

0

352

205

100

191

5.10

49

2.0

0

319

181

83

189

5.30

22

1.8

0

365

206

45

185

5.72

0

1.9

0

357

234

36

184

5.57

9

2.1

0

365

237

62

239

5.60

13

1.7

0

198

134

-

194

5.78

10

1.9

0

353

212

46

196

5.38

0

1.9

0

350

170

74

187

6.40

0

2.8

0

310

153

0

H 314

159

5.20

0

2.8

11

366

246

78

H 602

174

5.30

22

2.2

19

366

228

87

H 2267

215

5.66

21

1.8

0

366

185

0

H 2774

169

4.77

33

3.6

0

233

203

100

H 2802

199

5.05

0

2.8

0

366

202

-

H 3192

179

5..')8

0

2.8

0

366

221

17

H 3246

199

5.77

0

3.4

0

330

228

17

No.

2
16
37
20
14

6
11

0

25

19

5

8

8

0

12

20

0

31
20
0
10
0
0
0

H 1565

185

5.80

37

2.0

-

_

-

10 r

0

H 3063

184

5.40

26

3.5

28

366

209

72 i

31

H 3064

203

5.85

12

2.5

20

366

219

28 '

0

H 2791

212

5.60

0

3.6

0

362

215

46 1

18

H 2792

204

5.58

6

2.0

0

300

163

13

0

H 1854

229

5.62

8

3.0

_

-

0 1

0

H 1856

228

5.10

22

1.9

0

329

194

59 i

19

H 2151

215

6.. 35

17

1.9

32

237

131

84 :

i

27

The check pen females used as breeders in 1928 were all early maturing but
one. They all showed satisfactory weight but there was a wide variation in
weight. Five of these birds lacked winter pause to three showing winter pause.
There was but one of the eight high for intensity. Two of the group were broody
as pullets, and one had an incomplete record. In persistency all were genetically
high as shown by the ability to lay for not less than 315 days before going into
complete molt. Their annual egg records were moderately high and fairlv uni-

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 289

form. The hatching records of these pens were comparable with those of the
inbred pens, there being 2 genetically high, 2 medium and 4 low (Hays and
Sanborn, 1924).

Practically all of the birds in the three inbred pens traced to foundation hen
C 1124. Her line of inbreds was the only survivors of the original inbreds as
the plan of matings for 1928 shows. Pen 2 females were superior to those of
pen 1 or pen 3, particularly from the standpoint of intensity and annual egg
production. Pen 2 did show more broodiness, however, than pen 1, but less
broodiness than pen 3. Inbred pens 1 and 3 were very similar in the character-
istics being considered. The two pens appeared to differ only in amount of
broodiness and slightly in persistency. Their mean annual egg records were
almost identical. These two pens really represented descendants of foundation
hen C 1124, and pen 2 represented a more intimate concentration of the heritage
from C 1124.

Results of Matings — 1928

The sex ratios on surviving chicks were sUghtly lower in the three original
inbred pens after intercrossing than in the original check pen under inbreeding.
The ratio was 95 males to 100 females in the first group compared with 102
males to 100 females in the second group.

290

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

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INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 291

Table 20 shows the mean weight of the eggs that actually hatched from the
different females. The check pen birds all laid very large eggs and all were
appreciably heavier than 56.7 grams which is considered a satisfactorj' weight.
Inbred pen 1 also gave very large eggs with the exception of one bird whose eggs
averaged but 54.7 grams. Inbred pen 2 contained one small-egg bird, and half
of the females in inbred pen 3 laid small eggs.

Hatchabihty was low from the very large eggs. The hatching record of
inbred pen 2 was superior to any of the other pens and the eggs were slightly
below the other pens in mean weight. It is probable that the most satisfactory
egg weight for high hatching in this flock ranges from 55 to 60 grams.

Chick mortality to September first ran highest for inbred pens 1 and 3 and
lowest for inbred pen 2. There was one female each in the check pen and in
inbred pens 1 and 2 that showed no chick mortaUty to September first. In
general, there was a shghtly greater chick mortality for the inbred pens than for
the check pen.

The mean numbers of chicks produced per hen in each pen were approximately
equal. To the age of four weeks, there was no significant difference in mean
weight in the four pens. At the four-week weight the check group of chicks were
somewhat heavier than the inbreds, and this difference was increased at the age
of 150 days. In mean weight of pullets at first egg, the check pullets were slightly
superior as might be anticipated from the fact that thej^ traced to heavier foun-
dation stock than did the inbreds. The experiment was concluded March 1,
1929, so that weights at one year were not recorded.

Table 21. — Record to March 1 of All Surviving Daughters from the 1928

Matin GS

Dam Number

Bird
Number

Age at
First Egg

Weight at
First Egg

Average
Winter Clutch

Check Pen

Days
- Inbred

Pounds

Eggs

\

I 585

170

5.60

10

2.5

1

I 587

233

5.80

54

2.0

G 601 •

1 588

209

5.30

46

1.9

1 1048

-

—

-

_*

I 2170

205

4.85

5

2.1

I 2527

198

5.65

0

2.1

I 449

179

5.42

25

5.6

I 1072

-

-

-

_*

I 1073

171

5.15

4

2,7

I 1603

194

6.50

0

3.3

I 1605

204

5.45

0

2.4

1 2121

201

5.20

0

3.1

G 764 ■

I 2122

215

6.00

0

3.2

I 2.585

197

4.90

0

4.2

I 2587

212

6.65

44

3.5

I 3230

227

5.25

0

2.9

I 3232

211

5.85

0

2.7

I 3233

186

5.25

0

4.0

I

I 3234

221

5.50

0

2.6

I 532

237

5.20

0

4.4

G 1218

I 534
I 1081

169
171

5.85
5.50

4
24

3.7
3.4

I

j I 2907

223

5.75

0

4.9

* No eggs.

292

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

Table 21 — Record to March 1 of all Surviving Daughters from the 1928
Matings — Concluded

Dam Number

Bird

Number

Age at
First Egg

Weight at
First Egg

Pause

Average
Winter Clutch

Days

Poun ds

Days

Eggs

Inbred Pen

1 — Crossed

(

I 676

161 '

5.85

49

2.0

1

I 1621

185

4.95

57

2.9

I 1522

181

5.05

0

2.6

I 1523

161

5.37

8

1.8

I 1524

217

5.05

0

2.3

I 2534

208

4.85

17

1.5

F 525

I 2535

209

7.10

43

1.8

I 2536

203

5.00

t)

3.7

I 2926

202

4.90

0

2.3

I 2928

207

4.60

6

3.0

I 32G8

199

5.10

20

1.4

I 3210

192

5.25

0

1.9

I 3211

205

5.80

26

2.8

I 483

180

5.03

49

1.5

I 484

185

5.10

39

2.5

I 485

209

5.00

40

2.2

I 487

213

5.45

6

1.7

F 1449

I 518

228

5.05

4

1.4

I 519

197

4.65

7

1.8

I 1006

222

6.20

0

2.0

I 1007

214

5.60

0

3.1

I

I 1563

204

5.40

0

1.7

f

I 489

211

5.55

41

2.3

G 1184 i

I 1638

194

5.05

39

2.1

[

I 1639

206

5.30

0

2.0

(

I 493

159

5.15

39

1.8

I 494

lo9

4.65

25

3.0

G 1241 1

I 603

176

4.85

18

1.9

I

I 604

234

5.55

12

1.4

I 472

209

5.50

0

2,0

I 474

181

5.06

53

2.2

I 860

171

5.55

9

1.8

I 1479

273

5.55

6

3.4

I 1480

181

4.90

28

2.4

H 2687

I 2483

169

5.25

45

3.1

I 2484

187

5 . 05

39

3.0

I 2857

199

5.60

4

1.0

I 3151

184

-

12

3.3

I

I 3152

198 1 5.05

0

3,3

Inbred Pen

2 — Crossed

I 457

176 : 5.11

34 2.3

I 610

203

5.10

15

2.8

I 1137

175

5.05

33

1.9

I 1792

151

4.69

11

3.0

H 314

I 2231

219

5.60

12

2.9

I 2232

223

5.40

0

2.1

I 2655

201

5.50

12

2.2

I 2996

178

5.20

15

2.8

I 2998

234

5.05

0

3.3

I

I 3328

203

5.60

16

2.6

I 2440

201

5.40

0

5.1

I 2442

186

5.40

13

5.7

I 2866

182

5.00

9

2.9

H 2774

I 2868

196

4.90

0

4.0

I 2869

184

5.00

0

2.5

I 3523

188

4.25

8

3.9

[

I 3524

187

4.20

18

2.2

Inbred Pen

3 — Crossed

I 478

173

5.13

24

2.3

I 940

170

5.80

30

2.ti

I 941

194

5.55

9

2.2

H 2151

I 1283

179

5.10

37

1.7

I 2434

205

5.80

41

1.7

T 3108

208

5.70

0

2.2

I 3452

198

4.80

0

3.1

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 293

Table 21 supplies the daughters' records up to March 1, 1929. Only those
daughters with complete records to this date are included in the table.

In the age at first egg there were 56 early-maturing and 7 late-maturing inbred
daughters compared with 16 early and 5 late in the checks. This gives a ratio
of 8 early to 1 late inbred and about 3 early to 1 late check. There was, there-
fore, a larger proportion of late-matiu-ing birds in the check group under in-
breeding.

In body weight at first egg the check pullets were superior to the inbreds.
This may be due in part to heavier birds used in the ancestry of the checks and
in part to a greater age for the checks at time of weighing.

In percentage of puUets free from winter pause, the check group excelled.
There were 12 non-pause to 9 pause birds in the check group. In the three
inbred pens there were 17 free from pause to 46 showing pause. Thus 57 per
cent of the check pullets lacked pause compared with but 27 per cent free from
pause in the inbreds.

From the standpoint of intensity the check pullets were superior to the inbreds.
In the checks there were 15 with high intensity and 6 with low intensity, com-
pared with 24 high and 39 low for the inbreds. Thus about three-fourths of the
checks exhibited high intensity, while slightly more than half of the inbreds
showed high intensity. Here again is further evidence that the surviving inbred
lines were deficient in intensity and that the check line made progress in intensity
even under inbreeding.

These incomplete records offer some evidence of superiority in the check group
over the inbreds which may enable them to make higher annual records than the
inbreds. Probably this apparent superiority in characteristics affecting fecundity
in checks over inbreds is ascribable to greater diversity in the foundation stock of
the checks which would prevent inbreeding from uncovering weaknesses so readily
as in the narrow inbred group. There is no evidence of reduced variability in
age, body weight, pause, or intensity in either the check or the inbred groups
in Table 21.

Graphic Presentation of Results

A graphic presentation of the results of this inbreeding experiment is given
in charts 1 to 10. Each chart gives the means of dams and resulting daughters
for each year of the experiment both in the check groups and in the inbred groups.
Such a series enables the reader to see at a glance just what took place in gen-
eral as the experiment progressed. The charts include only mothers that actually
bad daughters whose records were obtained. These charts are intended only
to present a composite picture of results. They are in no sense a duplication of
the data already presented and they are of no value for genetic analysis.

294

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

INBRED DAMS
CHECK GAliS

— INBRED DXUOHTIRB

— • — ' — '— CKECi: PAUQHTEF.S

1923

I'iZt

1520

1927

1S2»

1925
KITIHO YlAKfl
CHART 1. — Effect of Inbreeding on Sexual Maturity

Chart 1 shows how age at sexual maturity behaved. The fact will be noted
that both inbred dams and check dams were of the same age, about 176 days,
at first egg in 1923. In 1924 the age for inbred dams increased to 186 days,
while the check dams increased to 197 days. In 1925 inbred dams were 193 days
old and check dams were 235 days old when they laid their first egg. The
daughters from the dams in the inbred group showed a mean age of 206 days in
1923, 208 days in 1924, and 204 days in 1925. Inbreeding apparently did not
affect the mean age of daughters. The check daughters of 1923 averaged 238
days; those of 1924, 254 days; and those of 1925, 189 days. Early sexual
maturity in the three check daughters for 1925 came from their sire, C 7984,
that came from the production-bred strain, and he transmitted the dominant
genes for early maturity to his daughters.

During the last three years of the experiment, when the checks were inbred
and the inbred strains intercrossed, all dams and all daughters in both groups
averaged 200 days or less at first egg. This places them in the class of genetically
early maturing birds. On the whole, chart 1 does not indicate for this experiment
that inbreeding aiTected age at sexual maturity.

INBRED DAifS
CHECK DAMS

— INB.RED DAUGHTERS

— ' — • — • - CHECK DAUGKTEHS

1926

1927

1923 192'» 1925

WATINO YEARS
CHART 2. — Effect of Inbreeding on Weight at First Egg. (Weight in Pounds)

1924

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 295

In body weight at first egg the inbred mothers increased from the initial mean
of 4.81 pounds to 5.72 pounds in 1925. The check mothers began with a mean
weight of 5.45 pounds and increased to a mean of 7.24 pounds in 1925. The
inbred daughters averaged 5.81 pounds the first year, and their average was 5.61
pounds in 1925. The check daughters averaged 6.23 pounds in 1923, 6.68
pounds in 1924, and 5.81 pounds in 1925. The chart therefore indicates that
even though the mean weight of mothers selected each year was increased, their
daughters in both groups decreased in mean weight at first egg.

During the last three years of the experiment there was a close correlation in
body weight between mothers and daughters. In 1926 the check daughters
averaged 5.68 pounds at first egg, and in 1928 their mean weight was 5.55 poimds.
Inbred daughters in 1926 averaged 5.76 pounds and in 1928, 5.23 pounds. Check
daughters still remained heavier than inbred daughters even after three years of
inbreeding. In view of the fact that the foundation hen of all inbred hues
(C 1124), weighed but 4.81 pounds at first egg, the inbred group has behaved as
might be anticipated. The check group, however, has shown a sUght dechne
in weight from inbreeding as compared with crossbreeding.

100

90

80

70
60

50
u-o
30

20

niBRSD DAMS
CHECK DAMS
INBREB DAU0HTES3
CHECK DAUGHTERS

igaM. 1925 • 1926 19<

BATING YEARS
CHART 3. — Effect of Inbreeding on Winter Pause

192«

Chart 3 presents the percentage of non-pause mothers and daughters through-
out the experiment. In the beginning there were no non-pause mothers chosen
for the inbred group. In 1924, 43 per cent of the inbred mothers producing
daughters lacked winter pause. In 1925 all inbred mothers again showed winter
pause. All check mothers with daughters up to 1925 carried winter pause.

Inbred daughters from the 1923 matings gave 33 per cent non-pause. For 1924
the percentage had risen to 40. In 1925 all inbred daughters exhibited winter
pause. Check daughters of 1923 showed 20 per cent free from pause; in 1924
there was an increase to 50 pe" cent; and in 1925 the check daughters, like the
inbred daughters, all showed winter pause. Inbreeding has not intensified
winter pause because both inbred daughters and check daughters closely agree in
the three years in question.

When the plan of matings was changed in 1926, all inbred mothers from
which progeny were retained showed winter pause. In 1927, 20 per cent of the
inbred mothers were free from pause. In 1928, 38 per cent of inbred mothers
lacked winter pause. All of the check mothers of 1926 carried winter pause.

296

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

20 per cent of those used in 1927 lacked pause, and 67 per cent of those usea in
1928 lacked pause. The two groups of mothers were alike with respect to
winter pause up to 1928. In 1928 check mothers were far superior to inbred
mothers in freedom from winter pause.

The percentage of daughters free from winter pause for the inbreds was as
follows: 1926, 22 per cent; 1927, 31 per cent; and 1928, 27 per cent. For the
same three-year period, check daughters exhibited 33 per cent, 27 per cent and
57 per cent free from pause. These data show that inbreeding has not affected
winter pause in the inbred groups, because the inbred daughters of 1928 carried
practically the same percentage of non-pause as existed in the inbred daughters
of 1923. On the other hand, inbreeding the check birds for three years with
selection for absence of pause in female parents has increased the percentage of
non-pause birds from 20 per cent in 1923 to 57 per cent in 1928.

- INBRSD DAMS

- CHECK DAJIB

- IKBRID DAUGHTERS

- CHECK DAUGHTERS

1927

1928

UATINO TEARS
CHART 4. — Effect of Inbreeding on Intensity

Chart 4 points to a very great difference between the percentage of mothers
showing genetic high intensity (clutch size 2.6 or more) and the percentage of
their daughters showing high intensity. This difference was most pronounced
in the inbred group during the first three years. The character of mothers used
for inbreeding to produce these daughters should warrant a goodly proportion
of high intensity daughters each year. Chart 4 suggests that possibly the
inbred mothers laid at a slower rate because of low vigor. This observation is
confirmed by the check group, when inbred during the last three years of the
experiment. The check mothers used were superior to the inbred mothers in
intensity during the first two years reported.

Inbred daughters were aU decidedly low for intensity even in the first year of
inbreeding, in the second year only 30 per cent showed high intensity, and in the
third year all lacked high intensity. The check daughters of 1925 had practi-
cally the same degree of intensity as in 1923 — about 30 to 33 per cent.

When the inbred fines were crossed from 1926 to 1928, the resulting daughters
showed an inprovement in intensity over previous inbred daughters. The
check daughters coming from inbreeding the check lines gave no individuals
with high intensity in 1926, 14 per cent high in 1927, and 71 per cent high in 1928.

These results suggest that inbreeding from a restricted foundation, as used
for this inbred group, does greatly reduce intensity. On the other hand, when

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 297

the foundation was less restricted, as in the check groups used, progress could
be made by inbreeding with selection for high intensity.

1^23

- ISBRED DAUGHTERS

- CHECK DAUGHTERS

1924

1S25 1926

HATIKG TEAH8
CHART 5. — Effect of Inbreeding on Broodiness

1527

1928

From chart 5 it will be noted that the one inbred mother in 1923 which had
daughters with complete records was broody, while the mothers mated in 1924
show but 17 per cent broodiness, and the mothers in 1925 were 100 per cent free
from broodiness. On the other hand, the initial group of check mothers was
made up entirely of non-broody birds. The check mothers of 1924 showed
75 per cent non-broody, and the check mothers of 1926 were all broody during
their pullet year.

The daughters' broody records for these three years are rather enlightening.
The three inbred daughters of 1923 exhibited no broodiness during their pullet
year. One of these daughters was non-broody for two years, one died early the
second summer, and the third became broody during her second year. Since
broodiness is a dominant trait (Ha\'s, 1924), the mother of these daughters
might be expected to transmit the broody trait to about one-fourth of her daugh-
ters, even though mated to a male lacking the broody genes. This is an illustra-
tion of the fact pointed out by Hays and Sanborn (1926) that many genetically
broodj- birds do not exhibit the trait during the first laying year. The per-
centage of non-broody inbred daughters was 60 in 1924, and all were non-broody
in 1925. There were but two daughters concerned in 1925, however. The check
daughters of 1923 showed 45 per cent non-broody; those of 1924, 100 per cent
non-broody; and those of 1925, 67 per cent non-broody. There are indications
that broodiness was fast disappearing in the check birds as well as in the inbreds.

Concerning the last three years of the experiment when the plan of matings
was changed, the data on the daughters are complete for onlj- two years. The
inbred mothers used were practically free from broodiness, while the check
mothers were inferior to those user* from 1923 to 1925. On the whole the degree
of non-broodiness in the inbred daughters has changed but little in the five-year
period, while broodiness has decreased for the checks.

298

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

IIIBRE3 DAMS
CHECK DAM3

— — - IBBRSD DA'JOHTSRB

— ' — « •- CHECZ D*UGHT£R8

iga"*

1935

1927

192a

UATINO YIAHS,
CHART 6. — Effect of Inbreeding on Persistency

Chart 6 indicates that all the check breeders which actually produced daugh-
ters showed genetic high persistency or the ability to lay for 315 days or more
before molting. The inbred mothers also ran high in persistency until 1926,
1927 and 1928, when they decUned to 75 and 80 per cent highly persistent.

The check daughters showed but 27 per cent high in persistency in 1923 and
increased to 100 per cent in 1925. When the check groups were inbred the re-
sulting daughters declined to 67 and 45 per cent high in persistency in 1926 and
1927. Inbred daughters were 100 per cent highly persistent the first year of
the experiment. In the second year of inbreeding only 40 per cent carried high
persistency, and in the third year the figure was 60 per cent high. When the
inbred strains were intercrossed there was some increase in the proportion of
highly persistent birds, the final figure being 82 per cent high. These data indi-
cate that inbreeding has reduced persistency. This fact appears both in the
original inbred groups and in the check groups when inbred. A rather significant
point also is the fact that daughters resulting from crossing inbred strains did not
exhibit as high persistency as the inbred daughters appearing in the first genera-
tion of inbreds in 1923.

230

220
2X0
200
190
ISO
170
160
150
lUO

INBRED DAU3
CHECK DAUB

IHBRED OA'JGHTERa

! I CHECK DAUOHTERfl

/

192}

192ii 1925

UATINO YEARS
CHART 7. — Effect of Inbreeding on Annual Producti

192*

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 299

In chart 7 the inbred mothers having daughters were superior in annual egg
production to the check mothers. Original inbred mothers showed a mean an-
nual egg record of 238, compared with the original check mothers whose average
was 194 eggs. The same relationship holds for the two groups up to 1928 when
the mean egg record for inbred mothers was 201 and for check mothers 203.

The first group of inbred daughters hatched in 1923 showed a mean record of
219 eggs. Inbred daughters of 1924 gave a mean egg record of 170, and the in-
bred daughters of 1925 laid 159 eggs. Check daughters of 1923 averaged 146
eggs, those of 1924 averaged 204 eggs, while those of 1925 fell to 159 eggs. Com-
pared with the check groups, inbreeding did not affect annual egg yield. On
the basis of absolute values, however, the inbred daughters exhibited a marked
and consistent decline as inbreeding progressed. On the other hand, the check
daughters exhibited an upward trend in egg yield as the experiment progressed.
On the whole, the data show that fecundity, as measured by annual egg yield,
decHned consistently in the three years of inbreeding.

For 1926 and 1927 when checks were inbred and inbred lines were crossed,
the check daughters showed no significant change in annual production over the
previous three years. Inbred daughters in these two years exhibited an increased
production over the previous two years of inbreeding, but did not attain a pro-
duction equal to that of the initial flock of inbred daughters. Intercrossing in-
bred lines has increased production over that of the second and third years of
inbreeding, but the daughters failed to attain the level exhibited by either the
foundation females or the first generation of inbred daughters.

192U 1925

JIATINO YEARS
CHART 8. — Effect of Inbreeding on Hatchability (Per Cent)

192s

Chart 8 shows the mean hatchabiUty of dams with daughters throughout the
experiment. It will be observed that the mean hatchability of the inbred dams
in 1923 was 79 per cent. In 1924 the mean fell to 62 per cent, and in 1925 rose
again to 77 per cent. Check mothers showed a mean hatchability of 72 per cent
in 1923, 36 per cent in 1924 and 67 per cent in 1925. Inbreeding has apparently
not affected hatchability the first three years.

Inbred strains when crossbred in 1926 gave the same mean hatchability,
namely, 78 per cent, that was obtained during the last year of inbreeding, but
the figure dropped to 50 per cent in 1927. In 1928, the mean hatchabihty of
inbreds closely approached the original level of 79 per cent. Check females
exhibited no change in hatching record in 1926 when inbred, and their hatchability
slowly increased later to the same figure as shown by the inbreds, namely, 77

300

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

per cent. These data do not indicate that inbreeding has any great influence on
the percentage of fertile eggs that hatch in those hens which actually produced
adult daughters. This point should not be confused with previous data show-
ing that under inbreeding more females fail to hatch any chicks.

S

/•

\

/

/

/

1923

1921+

IHBRED PROOENT

• — I •- CHECK PROCEMT

\

\.

V

\~

1926

1927

1928

1925
KATISO TEiflS
CHART 9. — Effect of Inbreeding on Chick Mortality (Per Cent Mortality to Sept. 1)

On chart 9 the mean mortality records by families for all progeny from hatch-
ing time to September first are presented. Inbred chicks showed a mortality
rate of 8 per cent in 1923, 19 per cent in 1924, and 50 per cent in 1925. The
chicks of the check group gave a mortality record of 25 per cent in 1923, 16 per
cent in 1924, and 17 per cent in 1925. These data show that the losses in the inbred
groups increased each year while the losses in the check group remained about
constant. If chick mortality is a measure of \'igor, inbreeding has reduced vigor.

Crossing inbred lines in 1926, 1927 and 1928 has not consistently reduced chick
mortality. The mean records are 19, 31 and 20 per cent respectively. Inbreed-
ing the check groups has not significantly affected chick mortality. The figures
are as follows: 1926, 23 per cent; 1927, 34 per cent; and 1928, 8 per cent. The
mortaUty records for the two groups rather closely approach each other. As
a whole, these data signify that inbreeding did reduce chick vigor.

100

90

- imRED D.WGHTEPJ

I < — •- CHECZ Di'JOHTEaS

70

60

\

to
30
20
10
0

'\

\
\
\

\ ^

\
'\

\ /
\ /

\

1923

192'+

1925

UATINS YEAH3

1926

1927

1928

CHART 10. — Effect of Inbreeding on Laying House Mortality (Per Cent Mortality

Laying House)

INBREEDING IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION 301

The mortality records by families of daughters in the laying houses are pre-
sented graphically in chart 10. The mortahty for the inbreds was 50 per cent
in 1923, 71 per cent in 1924, and 21 per cent in 1925. For the check group, the
figures were 48 per cent in 1923, 49 per cent in 1924, and 0 per cent in 1925.
There has been a higher death rate in the inbred group for the three-year period;
and in 1925, 21 per cent of the inbred daughters died while no check daughters
were lost. The absolute mortality rate for the three years showed wide varia-
bility, but the close parallelism of the rates for inbreds and checks should be
stressed as the only significant item to indicate lower vigor in the inbreds.

Inbred lines when crossed showed a constant laying-house mortality of 20 to
22 per cent. Check groups when inbred showed a mortahty of 45 and 31 per
cent for the two years recorded. Since laying-house mortality is one of the
most exacting measures of vigor (Hays and Sanborn, 1928), it seems apparent
that inbreeding does reduce vigor.

Summary

A study of the effects of heterosis over a two-year experimental period is
reported.

The only desirable effect of heterosis observed from the standpoint of fecundity
was greater body weight at a given age. The very great danger of failure from
the standpoint of high fecundity when outside stock is introduced is clearly
illustrated.

Inbreeding data are presented on mothers and offspring covering a six-year
period. The check group was made up from a more diverse ancestry than the
inbreds.

The foundation females in the inbred group consisted of one hen and her daugh-
ters. The males used were also related to these females.

During the first three years of the experiment check groups were made up of
different types of outbred and straight Station-bred stock.

In the first three years the inbred groups represented different degrees of
relationship, such as full brother-sister, sire on daughter, mother and son, half
brother and sister.

In the last three years of the experiment, the check groups were closely inbred
and the available inbred strains were intercrossed.

Inbreeding the check groups during the last three years gave results superior
to those obtained with the original inbreds during the first three years. This
would suggest that birds from a more diverse ancestry may be closely bred with
greater safety than those from a very restricted ancestry.

The data presented do not indicate that sexual maturity was consistently and
regularly retarded by inbreeding.

Body weight at first egg was not affected by inbreeding.

Winter pause, low intensity and low persistency were probably concomitants
of inbreeding.

Inbreeding tended to lower production.

Inbreeding decreased fertility.

Inbreeding probably decreased hatchability.

Inbreeding tended to lower the sex ratio.

Inbreeding reduced chick vigor as well as vigor of pullets during their first
laying year.

Uniformity in characteristics affecting fecundity was Uttle affected in the inbred
groups from restricted ancestry, but the check birds from more diverse ancestry
became more uniform in these characteristics when inbred.

Inbred strains when intercrossed gave progeny superior to those from the second
and third years of inbreeding, but not equal to the foundation stock.

302 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 258

In this experiment, inbreeding operated to intensify inherent weaknesses ex-
isting in the foundation stock. This trial, therefore, furnishes striking evidence
of the importance of most rigorous standards in selecting stock for inbreeding
purposes.

On the whole, these studies furnish no evidence of advantages that may be
gained by inbreeding over the ordinary method of flock improvement by rigid
selection for characteristics affecting fecundity when close matings are avoided.
Since desirable fecundity traits for the most part are transmitted in Mendelian
fashion, more satisfactory progress may be made by selection on the unit factor
basis rather than on the individual bird basis as is necessary for inbreeding.

REFERENCES

Dunn, L. C. 1922. Hatchability and chick mortality. Poultry Sci. 1, No. 2.

Dunn, L. C. 1923. Experiments on close inbreeding in fowls. Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Expt. Sta.

Bui. 111.
Dunn, L. C. 1927. The effect of inbreeding and cross-breeding on fowls. Verhand. Internat.

Kong. Vererbungswissenschaft. Berlin, p. 607-617.
Goodale, H. D. 1927. Some phases of reproduction in domestic fowl. Proc. World's Poultry

Congress, p. 87-92.
Hays, F. A. 1924. Inbreeding the Rhode Island Red fowl with special reference to winter egg

production. Amer. Nat. 58: 43-59.
Hays, F. A. 1927. The inheritance of persistency and its relation to fecundity. Proc. World's

Poultry Congress, p. 92-95.
Hays, F. A., and Ruby Sanborn. 1924. The inheritance of fertility and hatchability in poultry.

Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 6.
Hays, F. A., and Ruby Sanborn. 1926. Broodiness in relation to fecundity in the domestic fowl.

Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 7.
Hays, F. A., and Rubv Sanborn. 1927. Net correlations of characters concerned in fecundity.

Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 12.
Hays, F. A., and Ruby Sanborn. 1928. Vigor in production-bred flocks. Mass. Agr. Expt.

Sta. Bui. 242.
Jull, M. A. 1924. The relation of antecedent egg production to the sex ratio in the domestic

fowl. Jour. Agr. Research 28: 199-224.
King, Helen D. 1918a. The effects of inbreeding on the growth and variability in the body

weight of the albino rat. Jour. Expt. Zool. 26: 1-54.
King, Helen D. 1918b. The effects of inbreeding on the fertility and on the constitutional vigor

of the albino rat. Jour. Expt. Zool. 26: 55-98.
King, Helen D. 1918c. The effects of inbreeding, with selection, on the sex ratio of the albino

rat. Jour. Expt. Zool. 27: 1-35.
Wright, Sewall. 1922a. Coefficients of inbreeding and relationship. Amer. Nat. 56: 330-338.
Wright, Sewall. 1922b. The effects of inbreeding and cross-breeding on guinea pigs. I. DecUne

in vigor. II. Differentiation among inbred families. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 1090.
Wright, Sewall. 1922c. The effects of inbreeding and cross-breeding on guinea pigs. III. Crosses

between highly inbred families. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 1121.

Publication of this Document
approved by the
Commission on Administration and Finance
3M— 2— '30. No. 7834

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 259 December, 1929

Rate of Growth
in Rhode Island Reds

By F. A. Hays and Ruby Sanborn

In selecting birds for various purposes, poultrymen make extensive use
of body weight as an index of the characteristics desired. The weight
records presented in this report cover an eleven-year period on all living
individuals in a flock bred primarily for high fecundity, and show some-
thing of their significajice. The results may serve as guides to the weights
which may be expected in this breed if high fecundity is the chief goal,
when methods of management and climatic conditions are comparable.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

RATE OF GROWTH IN RHODE ISLAND REDS

By F. A. Hays, Research Professor of Poultry Husbandry, and
Ruby Sanborn, Research Assistant in Poultry Husbandry!

Introduction

Weight records are readily obtainable and probably furnish the most
universal measure of results in poultry experimentation. Extensive data on
rate of growth as measured by body weight are also of very great value to
breeders as standards to guide their operations. In recent years, through the
development of flocks with special reference to heavy egg production, there
has arisen an additional use of body weights of growing chickens as a pos-
sible criterion of sexual maturity, egg size, vigor and other essentials.

In order to overcome the eflfects of varying environmental conditions such
as temperature, humidity, amount of sunshine, or available green food, it is
necessary to carry weight records over a series of years and on large num-
bers of individuals. Greater uniformity and consistency will be attained also
if the records are made on a single strain of the breed or variety being
studied.

Character of Data Available

The records used in this study cover the eleven-year period from 1918
to 1928, inclusive. The data were collected on the Massachusetts Agricultur-
al Experiment Station flock of Rhode Island Reds, bred since 1913 with
special reference to heavy egg production. This flock has been carried with-
out introducing outside stock since 1916. Close matings have been avoided,
but there is a considerable degree of relationship within the flock.

Hatching dates have remained constant throughout the period. There were
eight hatches each year at weekly intervals beginning the nearest Sunday to
March 25. Chicks were taken from the incubators 36 hours after hatching
and placed in 10 by 12 brooder houses Mith coal stoves. As a rule from 200
to 250 chicks were placed in each house. All chicks were driven outside on
the ground for a short period on the fourth day and were given access to
outside runs with abundant grass at all times thereafter. No cod liver oil was
used in feeding chicks, and a four-year range rotation with abundant grass
was regularly employed. Chicks were not fasted before weighing at two
weeks of age. All later weights were taken after the birds had been fasted
for 12 hours.

The records presented on egg weight, chick weight at hatching and weight
at two weeks were secured on stock used in hatchability studies and inbreed-
ing studies from 1923 to 1928.

The four-week records cover the entire period from 1918 to 1928 on all
Rhode Island Reds in the flock.

Records of weight at 16 weeks were obtained only in 1918 and 1921 and
include all Rhode Island Reds in the flock.

^ Credit is also due Mr. Gordon Bcarse for assistance in compiling the records.

RATE OF GROWTH OF CHICKS 305

The 21-week weight records were started in 1923 and extend through
1928. All Rhode Island Reds in the flock were weighed.

All weight records were taken individually on all living chicks.

Weights are reported in grams and also in pounds or fractions thereof.
This is in agreement with the practice followed by all experiment stations in
the Northeastern States.

Scope of This Report

This report furnishes a considerable body of records of weight of chicks
at hatching, at 2 weeks, at 4 weeks, at 16 weeks and at 21 weeks of age.

Information is also given on the relation of egg weight to weight of
chicks at hatching, at 4 weeks and at 21 weeks, to indicate possible advantages
in large egg size from the standpoint of chick growth.

Extensive data on the relation of hatching date to weight of chicks at
diflferent ages are also presented.

A study is made on the relation of age of mothers to weight of chicks
at 4 weeks, 16 weeks and 21 weeks of age.

The importance of early growth as a criterion of vigor and of later egg
production is fully considered. Pullets that weighed under .5 pound at four
weeks of age are compared for mortality rate in the laying houses and for
annual egg production with those that weighed .5 pound or more. Pullets
that weighed under 4.5 pounds at 21 weeks of age are compared for mortal-
ity rate in the laying houses and for annual egg production with those that
weighed 4.5 pounds or over.

1. Weight of Chicks at Different Ages

WeUjht at Hatching'

Hatching weight of these Rhode Island Red chicks varied somewhat from
year to year. These variations in the six-year period covered are probably not
significant. In general, the males were slightly heavier than the females. The
mean hatching weight of the 640 males was 36.8 grams; of the 689 female
chicks, 36.6 grams. Males were but .55 per cent heavier than females, and
such a difference can not be considered significant.

Card and Kirkpatrick (1918) record the average weight of 865 Rhode
Island Red chicks when hatched as 37.20 grams. Their weight records agree
rather closely with those given in Table 1.

JuU and Quinn (1925) report the mean hatching weight of male Rhode
Island Red chicks as 38.76 grams, and of female chicks as 37.93 grams. Their
records include 228 chicks and show heavier chicks and a significantly greater
difference in the weight of the sexes than do the data in Table 1.

JuU and Titus (1928) report the mean hatching weight of 83 Rhode Is-
land Red males as 34.9 grams and of 74 females as 34.3 grams. The mean
weight of their 157 chicks at hatching was 34.6 grams.

The data presented in Table 1 on the mean M'eight of chicks at hatching
agree with those of Halbersleben and Mussehl (1922), their figure being 36.2
grams. Unfortunately their report fails to state what breed or variety of
poultry was studied.

306

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 2.59

Table 1. — Normal Weight of Chicks.

Year

MALES

FKMALES

TOTAL

Average

weight

Average weight

Average

weight

Number

Grams

(Lbs.)

Numbei
At

Grams (Lbs.)
Hatching

Number

Grams

(Lbs.)

1923

102

36.6

{ .08)

132

36.5 ( .08)

234

36.6

( .08)

1924

133

37.5

( .08)

123

37.1 ( .08)

256

37.3

( .08)

1925

47

38.8

( .09)

57

39.0 ( .09)

104

38.9

( .09)

1926

44

37.6

( .08)

37

36.3 ( .08)

81

37.0

( .08)

1927

165

35.5

( .08)

186

35.4 ( .08)

351

35.5

( .08)

1928

149

36.9

( .08)

154

36.9 ( .08)

303

36.9

( .08)

Total

640

36.8

( .08)

689

36.6 ( .08)

1329

36.7

( .08)

At 2 Weeks of Age

1923

22

114.0

( .25)

34

103.8 ( .23)

56

107.8

( .24)

1924

49

98.6

( .22)

52

91.7 ( .20)

101

95.0

( .21)

1925

13

80.6

( .18)

12

81.6 ( .18)

25

81.1

( .18)

1926

41

90.6

( .20)

34

78.7 ( .17)

75

85.2

( .19)

1927

157

83.1

( .18)

172

80.8 ( .18)

329

81.9

( .18)

1928

128

90.5

( .20)

143

89.0 ( .20)

271

89.7

( .20)

Total

410

89.6

( .20)

447

86.3 ( .19)

857

87.9

( .19)

At 4 Weeks of Age

1918

712

230.5

( .31)

745

206.0 ( .45)

1457

218.0

( .48)

1919

686

224.9

( .50)

704

204.3 ( .45)

1390

214.4

( .47)

1920

300

189.9

( .42)

317

176.5 ( .39)

617

183.0

( .40)

1921

729

200.1

( .44)

718

189.6 ( .42)

1447

194.9

( .43)

1922

720

268.1

( .59)

712

242.1 ( .53)

1432

255.2

( .56)

1923

554

259.5

( .57)

618

237.9 ( .52)

1172

248.1

( .55)

1924

895

246.4

( .54)

962

234.2 ( .52)

1857

240.1

( .53)

1925

626

222.7

( .49)

774

209.6 ( .46)

1400

215.5

( .48)

1926

702

238.5

( .53)

774

214.7 ( .47)

1476

226.0

( .50)

1927

1330

196.5

( .43)

1461

183.6 ( .40)

2791

189.7

( .42)

1928

1400

198.2

( .44)

1429

189.0 ( .42)

2829

193.6

( .43)

Total

8654

222.4

( .49)

9214

206.3 ( .45)

17868

214.1

( .47)

At 16 Weeks of Age

1918

675

1655.1

(3.65)

720

1268.7 (2.80)

1395

1455.6

(3.21)

1921

570

1477.9

(3.26)

677

1180.6 (2.60)

1247

1316.4

(2.90)

Total

1245

1574.0

(3.47)

1397

1226.0 (2.70)

2642

1390.0

(3.06)

At 21 Weeks of Age

1923

385

2352.5

(5.19)

520

1853.8 (4.09)

905

2066.0

(4.55)

1924

360

2506.3

(5.53)

628

1915.6 (4.22)

988

2130.9

(4.70)

1925

473

2346.4

(5.17)

590

1915.5 (4.22)

1063

2107.2

(4.65)

1926

434

2429.7

(5.36)

577

1888.8 (4.16)

1011

2121.0

(4.68)

1927

360

2575.9

(5.68)

735

1981.5 (4.37)

1095

2176.9

(4.80)

1928

1093

2335.5

(5.15)

786

1866.2 (4.11)

1879

2139.2

(4.72)

Total

3105

2400.1

(5.29)

3836

1905.7 (4.20)

6941

2126.9

(4.69)

Upp (1928) found the average weight of 1858 Rhode Island Red chicks
at hatching to be 37.70 grams. These figures agree substantially with those
reported in Table 1.

From available data, the normal weight of Rhode Island Red chicks at
{hatching lies between 34 and 38 grams, and sex differences in weight are of
little significance wiien the chicks are hatched.

Weight at Two Weeks of Age

Available records of weight at two weeks of age cover a six-year period
from 1923 to 1928. There is no significant evidence of progressive changes in
mean weight at this age observable in Table 1. The 410 males averaged 89.6
grams; the 447 females, 86.3 grams. The males therefore showed a mean
■weight 3.82 per cent greater than that of the females.

RATE OF GROWTH OF CHICKS 307

Card and Kirkpatrick (loc. cit.) found the average weight of Rhode
Island Red chicks at two weeks of age to be 73.48 grams. Their records in-
cluded 798 individuals.

Kaupp {loc. cit.) after weighing several hundred chickens gives the mean
weight at two weeks for Rhode Island Reds as 72.58 grams.

Upp {loc. cit.) reports the mean weight of his 1858 chicks when two
weeks of age as 60.69 grams.

Kaupp {loc. cit.) in his records found the cockerels when two weeks of
age to be 5.88 per cent heavier than the pullets.

Jull and Titus (1928, loc. cit.) report the two-week mean weight of 83
male Rhode Island Red chicks as 79.6 grams and of 73 female chicks as 84.6
grams. The mean weight of the 156 chicks was 82.0 grams.

Available data indicate that the birds used in the studies at the Mass-
achusetts Station were significantly heavier at two weeks than were birds
studied at other stations. The normal weight of Rhode Island Red Chicks at
two weeks probably ranges from 60 to 88 grams, and males run from 3 to 6
per cent heavier than females.

Weight at Four Weeks of Age

Mean weight of chicks at four weeks shows rather wide yearly fluctuations
in Table 1. In the eleven-year period covered by the data there is a range
from 183.0 grams in 1920 to a maxuiium of 255.2 grams in 1922. The very
heavy weights recorded from 1922 to 1926 are probably due in part to liberal
feeding of semi-solid buttermilk. During 1927 and 1928 milk was fed only in
powdered form mixed in the mash.

Weight differences in the sexes appear a little more pronounced at four
weeks of age. The 8654 males averaged 222.4 grams, and the 9214 females
averaged 206.3 grams. Males weighed 7.80 per cent more than females at this
age. Mean four-week weight of both sexes consisting of 17,868 individuals
was 214.1 grams.

Card and Kirkpatrick {loc. cU.) give the mean four-week weight of 714
chicks as 165.11 grams.

Kaupp {loc. cit.) found 185.98 grams to be the average weight of a large
number of Rhode Island Red chicks.

Upp {loc. cii.) presents records on 1581 chicks with an average four-
week weight of 115.63 grams.

Jull and Titus (1928 loc. cit) report the mean four- week weight of 82
males as 204.5 grams. On 73 females they report a mean weight of 205.6
grams. Their 155 chicks averaged 205.0 grams.

Kaupp {loc. cit.) also records the males as being 12.5 per cent heavier
than the females at four weeks.

These data suggest that there exists a wide variability in weight of chicks
of the same strain from year to year, and also that there is a very great dif-
ference in weights obtained at four weeks by different investigators. Prob-
ably an average weight of 200 grams at four weeks would be about normal
under present methods of feeding and management. Males average to weigh
somewhere between 8 and 12 per cent more than females at this age.

308 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 259

Weight at Sixteen Weeks of Age

Data are available on the sixteen-week weight for only two years — 1918
and 1921. A wide variation in mean weight in the two years is evident. A
total of 1245 males averaged 1574.0 grams; the 1397 females averaged 1226.0
grams. Males were 28.38 per cent heavier than females. The total population
of 2642 birds gave an average of 1390.0 grams.

Card and Kirkpatrick {loc cit.) present records on 288 pullets at 16
weeks. These pullets averaged 1318.6 grams.

Kaupp (Joe. cit.) gives the average weight of both sexes at 16 weeks as
1510.5 grams. The average weight of males he gives as 1633.0 grams and of
females as 1415.2 grams. His males were 15.39 per cent heavier than the
females.

Jull and Titus {loc. cit.) report the mean weight of 77 cockerels at 16
weeks as 1852.0 grams, and of 72 pullets as 1506.6 grams. The average of
the 149 birds was 1685.1 grams.

In general, the data indicate that the Rhode Island Reds studied at the
Massachusetts Station were somewhat smaller at 16 weeks than those of Card
and Kirkpatrick, Kaupp, and Jull and Titus. The males at Massachusetts
were 28 per cent heavier than the pullets, while the males weighed by Kaupp
were only 15 per cent heavier than the females.

Weight at Twenty-one Weeks of Age

Both males and females were weighed individually when 21 weeks of age
for the six-year period from 1923 to 1928. Table 1 shows the number of birds
weighed and the mean weight each year. Only minor fluctuations appear from
year to year. It is very significant that the mean weight of both males and
females in 1928 was almost the same as was recorded for 1923. A rather
wide gap exists between the mean weight of males and females throughout
the period. The summary shows that the 3105 males averaged 2400.1 grams,
and that the 3836 females averaged 1905.7 grams. The males were 25.94 per
cent heavier than the females.

Card and Kirkpatrick {loc. cit.) report the mean weight at 21 weeks of
251 Rhode Island Red pullets as 1746.8 grams which appears to be a rather
low weight.

Kaupp {loc. cit.) gives the average weight at 21 weeks as 2041.2 grams.
The mean weight of males in Kaupp's flock was 2272.5 grams, and the mean
for females was 1846.2 grams. The males were 23.09 per cent heavier than
the females.

Available data indicate that Rhode Island Red males at 21 weeks of age
weigh about 2300 grams or about 5 pounds; that females weigh about 1900
grams or about 4.1 pounds; and that n;ale& average about 25 per cent heavier
than females at this age. The fact that the Massachusetts strain has been
bred for early sexual maturity along with heavy body weight probably ac-
counts for the superior weight of these birds at 21 weeks. They were some-
what smaller than either those studied by Card and Kirkpatrick {loc. cit.) or
by Kaupp {loc. cit.) at 16 weeks.

RATE OF GROWTH OF CHICKS 309

2. Relation of Egg Weight to Weight of Chicks

Egg size as measured by weight is of considerable economic importance
due to the tendency for the market price to depend in no small degree upon
the size of the eggs.

Egg size is often considered as affecting hatchability. Benjamin (1920)
was unable, however, to discover a significant correlation between size and
hatchability. Dunn (1922) found no relation between egg size and hatchabil-
ity. Halbersleben and Mussehl (loc. cit.) also confirmed Dunn's findings, as
was later done by Hays and Sumbardo (1927). From these and other studies
it appears very unlikely that egg size does affect hatchability.

Egg size has been shown by a number of workers to be intimately cor-
related with the size of chicks hatched. Benjamin (loc. cit.) presents data to
show that chick size at hatching depends upon the size of the egg, and that
weight differences observed at hatching tend to persist for a considerable pe-
riod of time in White Leghorns. Halbersleben and Mussehl (loc. cit.) show
that the weight of chicks at hatching averages 64 per cent of the egg weight,
but they do not mention the breed studied. Jull and Quinn (loc. cit.) report
that Rhode Island Red chicks at hatching average 66.06 per cent of the weight
of the eggs hatched. Upp (loc. cit.) reports that Rhode Island Red chicks
average 68 per cent of the weight of the eggs hatched. Upp also notes that
weight differences in chicks hatched from large and small eggs are observable
at two weeks of age, but that such differences have disappeared by the age
of four weeks.

Table 2. — Range in Egg Size of Female Breeders

rumber of

Number of

Weight of eggs set

female

eggs

breeders

weighed

Grams per egg Ounces per doz.

12

60

Under 48.6 ' 20

21

133

48.6—50.8 21

63

363

50.9—53.2 22

101

604

53.3—55.5 23

13.5

821

55.6—57.9 24

130

763

58.0—60.3 25

161

901

Over 60.3 26

In Tables 2 and 3 are given data collected on the Massachusetts Station
flock from 1925 to 1928. Both hens and pullets were used for breeding each
year reported. The tables show the grouping of the various mothers with
respect to egg size during the hatching season, together with the mean weight
of their chicks at hatching, at four weeks and at 21 weeks of age.

Table 2 indicates that the dams of the chicks whose weights are reported
ranged in egg size from 48.5 grams (20 oz. eggs) to 60.4 grams (26 oz. eggs).
A total of 623 dams was reported on, from which 3645 hatching eggs w'ere
weighed. Only about 6 eggs from each hen were weighed at the beginning of
the hatching season to obtain an index of her egg weight. Weights at. two
weeks of age were recorded on only a small percentage of the chicks each
year, while four-week weights were taken on all chicks each year. The num-
ber of birds weighed at 21 weeks is smaller than at four weeks because of
mortality and because certain undesirable families were discarded previous to
the 21-week weighing.

310

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 259

Table 3. — Influence of Weight of Eggs on Weight of Chicks at Certain Ages.

Average

weight
of —

eggs set

MALES

FEMALES

TOTAL

oz. pei-

Average

weight

Average weight

Average

weight

doz. Number

Grams

(Lbs.)

Number

Grams (Lbs.)

Number

Grams

(Lbs.)

At Hatching

20

0

0

0

21

4

33.8

( .07)

5

32.4 ( .07)

9

33.0

( .07)

22

B

33.6

( .07)

4

32.8 ( .07)

12

33.3

( .07>

23

65

32.9

( .07)

90

32.9 ( .07)

155

32.9

( .07)

24

48

34.9

( .08)

41

35.5 ( .08)

89

35.2

( .08)

25

62

36.0

( .08)

75

36.4 ( .08)

137

36.2

( .08)

26

181

38.8

( .09)

189

38.6 ( .09)

370

38.7

( .09)

At 4 Weeks of Age

20

63

169.8

( .37)

68

168.7 ( .37)

131

169.2

( .37)

21

126

190.0

( .42)

116

179.4 ( .40)

242

184.9

( .41)

22

374

198.5

( .44)

417

180.8 ( .40)

791

189.2

( .42)

23

531

198.4

( .44)

643

184.0 ( .41)

1174

190.6

( .42)

24

813

203.8

( .45)

927

192.0 ( .42)

1740

197.5

( .43)

25

903

209.7

( .46)

973

200.3 ( .44)

1876

204.8

( .45)

26

1036

221.1

( .49)

1059

208.4 ( .46)

2095

214.7

( .47)

At 21 Weeks of Age

20

24

2284.5

(5.04)

46

1835.8 (4.05)

70

1989.6

(4.39)

21

58

2252.2

(4.97)

60

1768.6 (3.90)

118

2006.3

(4.42)

22

174

2379.9

(5.25)

153

1923.9 (4.24)

327

2166.6

(4.78)

23

266

2334.2

(5.15)

274

1849.2 (4.08)

540

2088.1

(4.60)

24

501

2337.1

(5.15)

553

1881.8 (4.15)

1054

2098.2

(4.63)

25

570

2425.4

(5.35)

671

1935.5 (4.27)

1241

2160.5

(4.76)

26

644

2454.5

(5.41)

786

1951.0 (4.30)

1430

2177.8

(4.80)

Weight at Hatchingi

Hatching weight records are available on but a very small number of
chicks from 21, 22 and 23 ounce eggs. The records available suggest no dif-
ference in size of chicks from these three classes. In 24, 25 and 26 ounce
classes, there is observable a consistent upward trend in weight of chicks. A
significant difference in hatching weight of male and female chicks does not
appear in these data. The 772 chicks averaged 61.0 per cent of the weight
of the eggs from their dams during the hatching season.

Weight at Four Weeks of Age

A study of the four-week weights obtained for the chicks from the dif-
ferent egg size groups discloses a striking correlation between egg size and
four-week weight both in males and females. There is a regular and consist-
ent increase in chick weight with an increase in egg weight. Chicks from 20-
ounce eggs averaged 169.2 grams, while those from 26-ounce eggs averaged
214.7 grams — an increase of 26.9 per cent. These data fully confirm the find-
ings of Benjamin {loc. cit.) with White Leghorns, but do not agree with those
of Upp (loc. cit.) which showed that hatching weight differences in Rhode
Island Reds disappear in about four weeks.

Weight at Twenty-one Weeks of Age

Reference to Table 3 indicates a much less intimate relation between the
weight of either males or females at 21 weeks and the weight of eggs from

RATE OF GROWTH OF CHICKS 311

which they were hatched than was observed at four weeks of age. In fact,
the differences in weights of both males and females in the different egg
weight cJaisses are so slight as to be statistically insignificant. When both
sexes are considered together, the birds from the 22-ouince eggs show the
same mean weight as those from the 26-oimce eggs. Birds from 22 to 26
ounce eggs are about 9.1 per cent lieavier than birds from 20 and 21 ounce
eggs.

In general, these data indicate that weight differences in chicks at hatch-
ing are not persistent, and that such differences in Rhode Island Reds will
disappear by the time the birds are about 21 weeks of age.

3. Relation of Hatching Date to Weight of Chicks

Date of hatching has a significant effect upon the weight of growing
chicks as has been pointed out by Hays and Sanborn (1924) and others. The
data reported in Table 4 cover available records on Rhode Island Reds from
1918 to 1928 and are the same records reported in Table 1 but regrouped ac-
cording to hatching date. It will be noted that the range in hatching dates is
but 49 days, since there were eight weekly hatches on corresponding dates
each year. Effects of hatching date upon weight would probably be more
pronounced if longer hatching seasons had been employed.

Weight at Hatching

The summary for the six-year period at the end of Table 4 does not in-
dicate a very important relation between date of hatching and weight of chicks
when hatched. There does appear to be a slight decline in the weight of the
later-hatched chicks in comparison with those hatched earlier, but it is very
unlikely that this small difference of slightly more than one gram is significant.
The data in hand would seem to indicate, therefore, that within the limits of
the 49-day range in hatching dates considered no effect on hatching weight
might be expected.

Weight at Two Weeks of Age

The effects of hatching date upon chick weight begin to be noticeable at
two weeks of age. The summary in Table 4 shows that the first two hatches
averaged 94.85 grams, while the last two hatches averaged 83.95 grams. The
chicks in the first two hatches were 12.98 per cent heavier than those in the
last two hatches. There is observable a rather consistent decline in weight as
the hatching date becomes later, especially after April 15. Just why the
earlier chicks should attain more weight at the age of two weeks than do the
later chicks is not clear.

Weight at Four Weeks of Age

The summary for Table 4 illustrates the perfect consistency of the rela-
tion between hatching date and chick weight at four weeks. The weight re-
cords include 17868 chicks so that the data are adequate for the purpose. A
seven-day increase in hatching date is accompanied by a decrease in chick
weight, ranging from 8.4 to 17.9 grams. For the 11-year period reported, the
first hatch chicks averaged 28.79 per cent heavier than the last hatch chicks.
There can be no question, therefore, that under Massachusetts conditions.

312

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 259

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MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 259

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316 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 259

late March hatching is superior to later hatching from the standpoint of
chick weight at four weeks of age.

Weight at Sixteen Weeks of Age

Records of 16-week weights of chicks are available only for 1918 and
1921. The total number of chicks weighed was 2642. Although this number
is rather small, it nevertheless furnishes some criterion of the relation of
hatching date to chick weight at this age. The summary at the end of Table
4 discloses a fairly consistent decline in 16-week mean weights with weekly
advances of the hatching date. The first hatch chicks averaged 21.70 per
cent heavier than the last hatch chicks at the same age. This difference is
somewhat less pronounced than was observed at four weeks when the first
hatch chicks weighed 28.79 per cent more than the last hatch chicks.

Weight at Twenty-one Weeks of Age

Data on weight at 21 weeks cover the six-year period from 1923 to 1928.
The total number of birds included is 6941. The summary indicates some-
thing of a downward trend in mean weight as the hatching date advances.
The 1002 birds in the first hatch averaged 17.13 per cent heavier than the 668
birds in the last hatch. A more rapid growth rate enables the early hatched
pullets to attain more weight when sexually mature because hatching date
within these limits does not affect age at sexual maturity (Hays, Sanborn and
James 1924, loc. cit.). On the whole, for Rhode Island Reds under Massa-
chusetts conditions, late March hatching is superior to later hatching from
the standpoint of body weight to at least 21 weeks of age.

4. Relation of Age of Mothers to Weight of Chicks

The writer (Hays, 1929) has shown that in the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural Experiment Station flock of Rhode Island Reds the mean weight of eggs
during the hatching season from 84 birds was as follows: pullets, 55.90 grams;
yearlings, 60.12 grams, with no further increase in egg weight after the year-
ling season. Since there is an intimate correlation between egg weight and
chick weight at hatching, it seems logical to anticipate that chicks from hen
mothers would be superior in weight at hatching and might retain this greater
weight for a period after hatching. Table 6 gives the record of chick weights
at hatching, at 4 weeks, at 16 weeks and at 21 weeks of age from hen mothers
and from pullet mothers.

Weight of Eggs

The mean egg weight during the hatching season for all of the females
whose oft'spring was weighed is recorded in Table 5. The mean weight of
eggs for the pullet mothers was 56.19 grams and for the hens was 59.56
grams. These data agree well with previous data already referred to
from this Station on the mean weight of pullet eggs and yearling eggs dur-
ing the hatching season (Hays, 1929, loc. cit.). Egg weights recorded in Table
6 are also in complete agreement with those reported by Jull and Quinn {loc.
cit.).

RATE OF GROWTH OF CHICKS 317

Table 5.— Relation of Age of Mothers to Egg Weight.

MEAX WEIGHT OF HATCHING EGGS GRAM8

Year I'ullet mothers Hen mothers

1925 56.39 60.97

1926 53. 92 60.67

1927 55.42 58.91

1928 56.86 58.48
Average 56.19 59.56

Weight of Chicks at Hatching

The 743 chicks from pullet mothers had a mean weight of 35.9 grams, and
the 586 from hen mothers averaged 37.7 grams. The chicks from hen mothers
were 5.01 per cent heavier than those from pullet mothers. Jull and Quinn
(loc. cit.) report about the same relative difference in hatching weight of
both male and female chicks from pullet mothers versus hen mothers but
their chicks were slightly heavier than those reported in Table 6.

Weight of Chicks at Four Weeks of Age

At the age of four weeks both male and female chicks from hen mothers
were heavier than those from pullet mothers. The 8759 chicks from hen
mothers averaged 17.7 grams or 8.62 per cent heavier than the 9109 chicks
from pullet mothers. The fact should be noted in this connection that the
hen eggs incubated averaged 6.00 per cent heavier than the pullet eggs, and
the chicks from hen mothers were 5.01 per cent heavier at hatching than those
from pullet mothers. These data therefore indicate that the relative weight
difference in chicks from pullet mothers and hen mothers persisted at four
weeks of age.

Weight of Chicks at Sixteen Weeks of Age

At the age of 16 weeks there was still a significant weight difference in
both male and female chicks from pullet mothers and from hen mothers. The
mean 16-week weight for 2003 chicks from pullet mothers was 1366.9 grams,
and for 639 chicks from hen mothers the weight was 1462.2 grams. The chicks
from hen mothers were 6.97 per cent heavier, indicating a significant differ-
ence in weight at 16 weeks between chicks from pullets and from hens.

Weight of Chicks at Ticenty-one Weeks of Age

Table 6 presents data to indicate that when chicks froim pullet mothers
were compared with those from hen mothers at 21 weeks of age, weight dif-
ferences observed earlier had practically disappeared. The 1259 males from
pullet dams averaged 2366.9 grams compared with 1846 males from hen moth-
ers with an average weight of 2422.8 grams. Since the actual difference was
small, and because there was lack of consistency from year to year as shown
in the table, it is very probable that the difference is not significant. For the
female chicks, the mean weights from the two classes of mothers were almost
identical at 21 weeks. When the sexes were taken together, pullet offspring
had practically the same mean weight as hen offspring.

In general, the data in Table 5 and 6 show that hen mothers laid larger

318

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 259

Table 6.- — Relation of Age of Mothers to Weight of Chicks.

MALES FEMALES TOTAL

Year Mothers-

Average weight Average weight Average weight

Number Grams (Lbs.) Number Grams (Lbs.) Number Grams (Lbs.)

At Hatching

1923 Pullet

96

36.6 (

08)

126

36.6 (

08)

222

36.6 (

08)

Hen

6

36.3 (

08)

6

36.2 (

08)

12

36.3 (

08)

1924 Pullet

24

35.8 (

08)

23

33.0 (

07)

47

34.4 (

08)

Hen

109

37.9 (

08)

100

38.0 (

08)

209

38.0 (

08)

1925 Pullet

10

38.3 (

08)

9

37.9 (

08)

19

38.1 (

08)

Hen

37

38.9 (

09)

48

39.2 (

09)

85

39.1 (

09)

1926 Pullet

31

37.2 (

08)

33

35.9 (

08)

64

36.5 (

08)

Hen

13

38.5 (

08)

4

40.3 (

09)

17

38.9 (

09)

1927 Pullet

113

34.8 (

08)

126

34.9 (

08)

239

34.8 (

08)

Hen

52

37.1 (

08)

60

36.5 (

08)

112

36.8 (

08)

1928 Pullet

76

36.8 (

08)

76

36.5 (

08)

152

36.6 (

08)

Hen

73

37.0 (

08)

78

37.3 (

08)

151

37.2 (

08)

Total Pullet

350

36.1 (

08)

393

35.8 (

08)

743

35.9 (

08)

Hen

290

37.7 (

08)

296

37.7 (

08)

586

37.7 (

08)

At 4 Weeks of Age

1918

Pullet

454

225.6

( .50)

474

202.0

( .45)

928

213.5

( .47)

Hen

258

239.1

.53)

271

213.0

.47)

529

225.7

.50)

1919

Pullet

364

220.0

.49)

385

202.0

.45)

749

210.7

( .46)

Hen

322

230.4

.51)

319

207,0

.46)

641

218.8

( -48)

1920

Pullet

149

178.8

.39)

161

169.3

.37)

310

173.9

.38)

Hen

151

200.9

.44)

156

184. 1

.41)

307

192.3

.42)

1921

Pullet

663

199.2

.44)

654

188.5

.42)

1317

193.9

.43)

Hen

66

209.5

.46)

64

201.1

.44)

130

205.4

.45)

1922

Pullet

354

253.4

.56)

392

231.6

.51)

746

241.9

.53)

Hen

366

282.4

.62)

320

255.1

.56)

686

269.6

.59)

1923

Pullet

234

255.1

.56)

265

237.6

.52)

499

245.9

.54)

Hen

320

262.8

.58)

353

238.1

.53)

673

249.8

.55)

1924

Pullet

310

227.8

.50)

356

224.8

.50)

666

226.2

.50)

Hen

585

256.3

.57)

606

239.7

.53)

1191

247.8

.55)

1925

Pullet

217

209.9

.46)

282

196.1

.43)

499

202.1

.45)

Hen

409

229.5

.51)

492

217.4

.48)

901

222.9

.49)

1926

Pullet

352

228.8

.50)

378

203.3

.45)

730

215!6

.48)

Hen

350

248.2

.55)

396

225.5

.50)

746

236.2

.52)

1927

Pullet

465

180.4

.40)

589

171.6

.38)

1054

175.5

.39)

Hen

865

205.1

.45)

872

191.7

.42)

1737

198.4

.44)

1928

Pullet

824

197.2

.43)

787

186.1

.41)

1611

191.8

.42)

Hen

576

199.6 (

.44)

642

192.6 (

.42)

1218

195.9 (

.43)

Total Pullet

4386

212.9

.47)

4723

198.5

.44)

9109

205.4

.45)

Hen

4268

232.1

.51)

4491

214.5

.47)

8759

223.1

.49)

At 16 Weeks of Age

1918 Pullet
Hen

1921 Pullet
Hen

Total Pullet
Hen

427
248
505
65
932
313

1617.3 (3.57)

1720.3 (3.79)

1482.3 (3.27)

1443.7 (3.18)

1544.1 (3.40)

1662.9 (3.67)

458
262
613
64
1071
326

1249.3 (2.75)
1302.7 (2.87)

1185.4 (2.61)
1134.0 (2.50)
1212.7 (2.67)
1269.6 (2.80)

510
1118

129
2003

639

1426.8 (3.15)

1505.8 (3.32)
1319.5 (2.91)
1290.0 (2.84)

1366.9 (3.01)
1462.2 (3.22)

At 21 Weeks of Age

1923

Pullet

158

2371.3

(5.23)

223

1864.1

(4.11)

381

2074.4

(4.57)

Hen

227

2339.5

(5.16)

297

1846.0

(4.07)

524

2059.8

(4.54)

1924

Pullet

95

2453.3

(5.41)

178

1874.3

(4.13)

273

2075.8

(4.58)

Hen

265

2525.3

(5.57)

450

1932.0

(4.26)

715

2151.9

(4.74)

1925

Pullet

130

2319.2

(5.11)

172

1899.0

(4.19)

302

2079.9

(4.59)

Hen

343

2356.7

(5.20)

418

1922.3

(4.24)

761

2118.1

(4.67)

1926

Pullet

174

2459.5

(5.42)

260

1885.7

(4.16)

434

2115.8

(4.66)

Hen

260

2409.8

(5.31)

317

1891.3

(4.17)

577

2124.9

(4.68)

1927

Pullet

87

2481.3

(5.47)

181

1962.7

(4.33)

268

2131.1

(4.70)

Hen

273

2606.0

(5.75)

554

1987.7

(4.38)

827

2191.8

(4.83)

1928

Pullet

615

2320.2

(5.12)

357

1852.7

(4.08)

972

2148.5

(4.74)

Hen

478

2355.4

(5.19)

429

1877.4

(4.14)

907

2129.3

(4.69)

Total Pullet

1259

2366.9

(5.22)

1371

1884.0

(4.15)

2630

2115.2

(4.66)

Hen

1846

2422.8

(5.34)

2465

1917.8

(4.23)

4311

2134.0

(4.70)

RATE OF GROWTH OF CHICKS

319

eggs than pullet mothers. These eggs hatched into larger chicks which re-
tained their weight advantage to about 16 weeks of age. At 21 weeks of age,
chicks from pullet mothers approached the same mean weight as chicks from
hen mothers. In the light of these data and other data presented by Hays
(1928), chicks from hen mothers appeared to be superior to those from pullet
mothers only up to about four months of age.

5. Relation of Early Growth to Future Vigor and Egg Production

Table 7 presents data on the relation of body weiglit of pullets at four
weeks of age and at 21 weeks of age to vigor and to their later egg pro-
duction. Vigor in this case is measured by the mortality rate in the laying
houses during the first laying year for all pullets housed. This measure of
vigor was suggested by Hays and Sanborn (1928) in previous studies on the
same flock. Pullets were classed as small if they weighed less than .5 lb. at
four weeks of age and as large if they weighed .5 lb or over. At the age of
21 weeks the small group was made up of birds weighing less than 4.5 lbs.
and the large group of birds weighing 4.5 lbs. or more. Such a grouping is
purely arbitrary but furnishes a working basis in selecting pullets to be re-
tained for egg production purposes.

Vigor

Table 7 shows that the small pullets at four weeks of age exhibited a
higher mortality rate in the laying houses than the large pullets in each of
the five years reported. This consistent difference suggests superior vigor in
the large birds. However, when the weighted mean mortality rate is con-
sidered for the entire period, there is a difference of but 1.41 per cent in
favor of the large group. On the whole, these data, while not conclusive, sug-
gest the probability that rapid growth up to four weeks of age is associated
with superior vigor to some extent.

Table 7. — Relation of Weight of Pullets to Mortality Rate in Laying Houses
and to Annual Egg Production.

At 4 Weeks of Age
SMALL— UNDER .5 POUND LARGE— ..5 POUND OR OVER

Year

Number

Mortality in

Annual

Number

Mortality in

Annual

in

laying houses

ess

in

laying houses

egg

laying

produc-

laying

product-

houses

Number Per cent

tion

houses

Number Per ccn t

tion

1923

168

50 29.76

183.7

333

83 2Jf.92

189.5

1924

193

110 56.99

187.5

364

179 49.18

191.2

1925

346

94 27.17

199.6

264

52 19.70

202.8

1926

312

109 3Jf.9J,

197.5

256

69 26.95

200.5

1927

586

147 25.09

195.9

153

33 2^.5?"

193.8

Total

1605

510 31.78

195.3

1370

416 30.37

195.6

At 21 Weeks of Age
SMALI^UNDER 4.5 POUNDS LARGE— 4.5 POUNDS OR OVER

1923

377

100

26.53

190.1

121

26

21.1f9

185.2

1924

388

199

51.29

190.6

167

87

52.10

188.7

1925

389

97

2i.9U

198.4

186

38

20.43

203.9

1926

390

121

31.03

198.3

178

58

32.5S

199.4

1927

429

103

2i.01

197.8

303

74

2i.lf2

192.4

Total

1973

620

31.43

195.5

955

283

29.63

194.9

320 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 269

Further reference to Table 7 brings to light the fact that body weight of
pullets at 21 weeks of age is not an index of vigor. The table clearly shows
that the mortality rate for pullets weighing 4.5 pounds or over at 21 weeks
was substantially the same as for pullets weighing under 4.5 pounds at the
same age. The table also indicates that 4.5 pounds is a rather high standard
of weight for pullets of the flock studied, because less than one-third (31
per cent) of the birds actually fell into the large class. These data are in
agreement with previous data reported by Hays and Sanborn (1928 loc. cit.)
to the effect that weight at first egg (about 180 days) is independent of
mortality rate in the laying houses.

From the standpoint of vigor, the data in Table 7 indicate: First, that
heavy weight at 4 weeks of age does indicate superior vigor in pullets; and
second, that heavy weight at 21 weeks of age is not a criterion of vigor.

E(/g Production

A study of the mean annual egg records of pullets in the large and small
weight classes at 4 weeks of age suggests a slight superiority in the large class
in the first four years reported. However, when the mean annual production
of the 1605 birds clastsed as small is compared with the same figure for the
1370 birds classed as large at the end of the table, all differences disappear.
The actual average annual egg records are 195.3 and 195.6 respectively.

Pullets weighing less than 4.5 pounds at 21 weeks of age exhibit no
significant difference in their first-year egg records from pullets weighing 4.5
pounds or more at 21 weeks. The mean egg record of 1973 birds in the first
class is 195.5 eggs: and for the 955 birds in the second class, 194.9 eggs. On
the basis of these data, neither four-week weights nor 21-week weights furnish
any criterion of future egg yield.

Summary

1. The normal weights of Rhode Island Red chicks in the Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station flock are 36.7 grams (.08 lb.) at hatching;
87.9 grams (.19 lb.) at 2 weeks; 214.1 grams (.47 lb) at 4 weeks; 1390.0 grams
(3.06 lbs.) at 16 weeks; and 2126.9 grams (4.69 lbs.) at 21 weeks.

2. The dams of a part of the chicks used in these studies are grouped
in classes with respect to their egg weight during the hatching season. Chick
weight at hatching varied from 33 grams for the small egg dams, up to 38.7
grams for the large egg dams. The weight differences in these chicks persisted
at 4 weeks of age, when the chicks from the large eggs were 26.9 per cent
heavier than the chicks from the small eggs in the extreme classes. At the
age of 21 weeks, weight differences in chicks hatched from large and small
eggs had disappeared.

3. Hatching date ranging over a 49-day jaeriod affected the weight of
chicks throughout most of the growing season. The difference in mean hatch-
ing weight of the chicks in the first and last hatches was not striking, but
the early hatched chicks were 12.98 per cent heavier than the late hatched
chicks at 2 weeks of age, 28.79 per cent heavier at 4 weeks of age, 21.70 per
cent heavier at 16 weeks of age, and 17.12 per cent heavier at 21 weeks of
age.

RATE t)F GROWTH OF CHICKS 321

k Tlie weights of chicks from pulU^t mothers were compared with those
from lien mothers. At hatching, tlie chicks from hen motliers were 5.01 per
cent heavier than those from jiullet motliers. At t weeks of age the chicks
from liens were 8.62 per cent heavier. At lb" weeks of age the chicks from
hens were 6.97 per cent iieavier than those from pullets. When the chicks
reached the age of 21 weeks there appeared to be no significant difference in
weights between those from hen mothers and those from pullet mothers.

5. The chicks used in these studies averaged 61.00 per cent of the weight
of the eggs from which they were hatched.

6. The mean weight of hatching eggs from pullet mothers was 56.19
grams and from hen mothers 5!). 56 grams.

7. Pullets weighing less than .5 pound at i weeks of age were slightly
less vigorous than those attaining .5 pound or more at that age.

8. No difference in vigor was observed, however, in iniilets weighing-
less than 4.5 pounds at 21 weeks of age and those weighing t.5 pounds or
more at that age.

9. Heavy weight at t weeks of age or at 21 weeks of age was no criter-
ion of pullet-year egg production.

References

Benjamin, E. W. 1920. A study of selections for the size, shape and color of
hens' eggs. N. Y. (Cornell) Agr. Expt. Sta. Memoir 31.

Card, L. E. and W. F. Kirkpatrick. 1918. Rearing chickens. Conn. (Storrs)
Agri. Expt. Sta. Bui. 96.

Dunn, L. C. 1922. The relationshiii between the weight and the hatching
quality of eggs. Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 109.

Halbersleben, D. L. and F. E. Mussehl. 1922. Relationship of egg weight to
chick weight at hatching. Poultry Sci. 1:11;3-1H-.

Hays, F. A., Ruby Sanborn and L. L. James. 1921. Correlation studies on
winter fecundity. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 220.

Hays, F. A. and A. H. Siunbardo. 1927. Physical character of eggs in rela-
tion to hatchahility. Poultry Sci. 6:196-200.

Hays, F. A. 1928. Relation of age of parents to hatchahility, livability and
fecundity in the domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 7:106-115.

Hays, F. A. and Ruby Sanborn. 1928. ^'igor in production-bred flocks. Mass.
Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 212.

Hays, F. A. 1929. The inheritance of egg weight in the domestic fowl. Jour.
Agr. Research 38:511-519.

Jull, M. A. and J. P. Quinn. 1925. The relationship lietween the weight of
eggs and the weight of chicks acctn-ding to sex. Jour. Agr. Research
31:223-226.

Jull, M. A. and H. "W. Titus. 1928. Growth of chicks in relation to feed con-
sumption. Jour. Agr. Research 36:54-1-550.

Kaupp, B. F. 1921. The rate of growth of single comb Rhode Island Reds.
Poultry Sci. 1:39-43.

Upp, C. W. 1928. Egg weight, day old chick weight, and rate of growth in
single com!) Rhode Island Red chicks. Poultry Sci. 7:151-155.

PUBLICATIOX OF THIS DOCUMENT APPROVED BY THE

CoMMissiox ON Administration and Finance
3 m-2-"30. No. 8044

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 260 MARCH, 1930

Annual Report

For the Fiscal Year Ending Nov. 30, 1929

The main purpose of this report is to provide an opportunity for
presenting in published form, recent results from experimentation in fields
or on projects where progress has not been such as to justify the general
and definite conclusions necessary to meet the requirements of bulletin or
journal.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Trustee Committee on Experiment Station

Preston, Charles H., Hathorne, Chairman
Arnold, Sarah Louise, Lincoln
Frost, Harold L., Arlington
Richardson, Carlton, D., West Brookfield
Russell, Howard S., Waltham

Term Expires
1932
1930
1931
1932
1936

Gilbert, Arthl'r W., Belmont, State Commissioner of Agriculture, ex officio

Experiment Station Staff, December, 1929

RoscoE W. Thatcher, President of the College
SiEVERS, Fred J., L-'rector Kennex, Fred C, Treasurer

Lindsey, Joseph B., Vice-Director Church, Lucia G., Secretary

Gaskill, Edwin F., Assistant to the Director

*Beaumont, Arthur B., Agronomy
*Cance, Alexander E., Agricultural

Economics
*Chenoweth, Walter W., Horticultural
Manufactures
DoRAN, William L., Botany
Fellers, Carl R., Horticultural
Manufactures
♦Fernald, Henry T., Entomology
*Foord, James A., Farm Management
*Frandsen, Julius H., Dairy Manufactures
*tFRANKLiN, Henry J., Cranberries
*Gage, G. Edward, Bacteriology
*Gaskill. Edwin F., Station Service
*Graham, John C, Poultry Husbandry
*Gunness, Christian I., Agricultural

Engineering and Meteorology
*Haskins, Henri D., Fertilizer Law
Hays, Frank A., Poultry Husbandry
Holland, Edward B., Plant and Animal

Chemistry
Jones, John P., Agronomy
*Lentz, John B., Veterinary Science
Lindsey, Adrian H., Agricultural
Economics
*Lindsey, Joseph B., Plant and Animal
Chemistry
Morse, Fred W., Plant and Animal
Chemistry
*OsMUN, A. Vincent, Botany
*Sears, Fred C, Pomology
Shaw, Jacob K., Pomology
*Smith, Philip H., Feed, Dairy and
Seed Laws
Van Meter, Ralph A., Pomology
Van Roekel, Henry, Veterinary Science
*Waugh, Frank A., Vegetable Gardening
♦Wood, Basil B., Library

Archibald, John G., Plant and Animal

Chemistry
Bailey, John S., Pomology
Bourne, Arthur I., Entomology
BuLLis, Kenneth L.. Veterinary Science

*Davies, Esther, Home Economics Re-
search
DeRose, H. Robert, Fertilizer Law
Dunlap, Glenn L., Veterinary Science
France, Ralph L., Bacteriology
Fuller, James E., Bacteriology
Gibbs, Charles S., Veterinary Science

}Gltba, Emil F., Botany
Jefferson, Lorian P., Agricultural

Economics
Jones, Carlton P., Plant and Animal

Chemistry
Jones, Linus H., Botany
Kelly, Oliver W., Seed Law
Kuzmeski, John W., Feed Law
McLaughun, Frederick A., Feed Law
Mack, Merrill J., Dairy Manufactures
MiGHELL, Ronald L., Farm Management
RozMAN, David, Agricultural Economics

JTiedjens, Victor A., Vegetable Gardening

JWhitcomb, Warren D., Entomology
Wright, Kenneth E., Dairy Manufactures
Zielinski, John B., Jr., Fertilizer Law

Alcock, James K., Plant and Animal

Cherraistry
Allen, Harry L., Plant and Animal

Chemistry
Ball, Alyn S., Botany
Church, Cornelia B., Home Economics

Research
Clarke, Miriam K., Veterinary Science
Cutler, Walter L., Pomology
*FtLTON, F. Ethel, Editor
Howard, James T., Feed, Fertilizer and

Dairy Laws
Hughes, Mary C, Pomology
IKelley, Joseph L., Cranberries
Miner, Gladys I., Botany
Sanborn, Ruby, Poultry Husbandry
Sherburne, Ruth E.. Agricultural

Economics
Shilung, Katherine E., Agricultural

Economics
Snell, Moses E., Agronomy

*In Charge.

tAt East Wareham.

JAt Waltham.

CONTENTS

Introduction 328

Department of Agrricultural Economics :

Consumer demand for apples 329

The economic worth of different varieties of apples - 329

The nature of the consumer demand for poultry products 329

Part-time farming 329

Prices of eggs and poultry products 329

The study of competitive factors influencing the supply of market

milk and cream in Massachusetts 330

Department of Agricultural Engineering:

Investigation of apple storages 330

Fertilizer distributors 331

Department of Agronomy:

Nitrogen assimilation by Havana tobacco 331

Relation of the form of nitrogen to root-rot of Havana tobacco 331

Nitrogen assimilation by grasses and clovers 332

Ecological study of pasture vegetation 332

Alfalfa variety tests 332

Tests of varieties of soy beans and field peas 332

The value of cover crops for onions 333

Sulfate versus muriate of potash for onions 333

Lime in relation to onion growth 333

Fertilizer ratios for onions 334

Onion breeding 335

Influence on onions of rate of seeding and spacingbetween rows 335

Relation of aluminum compounds to the ill effects of certain crops

when grown in rotation 335

Quantity of nitrogen and phosphorus for tobacco 337

The magnesium requirement of certain common crop plants 338

Department of Bacteriology and Physiology:

Nitrogen-fixation in relation to legumes and non-legumes under defined

agronomic conditions • 338

Laboratory service ^39

Studies on the indol tolerance of the Colon-Aerogenes group of
bacteria as a possible means of differentiating fecal and non-
fecal strains occurring in drinking water supplies 340

Department of Botany:

Tobacco diseases 340

Black root-rot 340

Brown root-rot 341

Control of diseases of greenhouse vegetables 341

Leaf-mold of tomatoes 341

Downy mildews of cucumber and lettuce 342

Eradication of nematodes in greenhouse soils - 342

Eggplant wilt • 343

Onion blast 343

Carnation blight 343

Forcing gladiolus with the aid of artificial light 343

Influence of light quality on plant growth 344

The effect of pot structure on soil temperature 344

The Cranberry Station:

Injurious and beneficial insects affecting the cranberry 345

Cranberry disease work 3'*-''

Weather observations with reference to frost prediction 346

Varieties 346

Department of Dairy Industry:

A study of packaged ice cream 346

The quinhydrone electrode in tiie dairy laboratory 347

The utilization of frozen fruits in ice cream 347

A study of frozen sweet cream for use in ice cream .' 347

A study of electric refrigerated milk cooling tanks 348

A study of the changes that occur in the storage of frozen sweet cream 348

Department of Entomology:

Dates of hatching of scale insects and when to si)ray for them 348

Investigation of materials which promise value in insect control 348

Control of onion thrips 349

Spray residue problem and its relation to orchard practices 350

Control of the plum curculio in apples v 350

Biology and control of the carrot rust fly 350

Systematic study of oil sprays 351

Farm Department :

Intensive grassland management under the Hohenheim system 351

Department of Farm Management :

Enterprise relationships and farm organizations on selected dairy

farms in western Massachusetts 352

The place of poultry production on Massachusetts farms 353

Types of farming in Massachusetts 1840-1925 353

Factors responsible for variations in production and cost of milk in

Massachusetts 353

Other activities - 353

Feed Control Service :

Feed control 353

Seed control 353

Dairy law 354

Advanced registry testing 354

Miscellaneous work 354

Fertilizer Control Service :

Fertilizer inspection , . 355

Miscellaneous analytical work 356

Vegetation pot experiments 356

Department of Home Economics Research:

Present practices of Massachusetts elementary schools with regard to
school feeding and transportation and their effects upon health

of pupils 357

The comparative value of milk and tomato as supplementary feeding

in a rural elementary school 357

Department of Horticultural Manufactures:

The extraction of fruit juices by heat 358

Manufacture and preservation of cranberry products 358

Utilization of onions by canning 358

The nitrogen distribution of the edible portion of the onion 358

Utilization of frozen fruits in ice cream 358

Pasteurization of dried fruit 359

Non-project research 359

Department of Landscape -Gardening:

Lawns and lawn grasses and lawn management 359

Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry:

The efficiency of cojiper fungicides 360

Supplements for copper fungicides 360
The effect of fertilizer and cultural treatment on the nitrogenous

compounds of Havana seed leaf 360

Oil sprays 360

Nitrogen fixation in the presence of or as a result of the growth of

legumes versus non-legumes under certain defined agronomic conditions 360

Chemie;.! . hanges in the cranberry during ripening and after harvesting 361

Record of the Station herd 361

Milk substitutes in the growing of young calves 362

Mineral supplements for dairy cattle 362

Mineral constituents of forage crops 362

Mineral requirements for the growth of dairy heifers 362

A comparison of two systems of dairy cattle feeding — high roughage

and low grain versus low roughage and high grain 362

The chemical composition of grass from plots fertilized and grazed

intensively 363

Utilization of onions by canning 363

Department of Pomology:

The interrelation of stock and scion in apples 365

Tree characters of fruit varieties 365

The genetic composition of peaches .'. 366

Testing methods of pruning 366

Effect of pruning on bearing apple trees 366

Comparison of cultivation and sod in a bearing orchard 366

Comparison of clover sod and grass in sod mulch orchard "66

Tests of different amounts of nitrate of soda 367

Comparison of cultivation and heavy mulching for apples and pears 367

The effects of fertilizer limitation on fruit plants 367

Role of potash and lime in fruit tree nutrition 367

Effect of potash and lime on ajiple trees 367

Study of varieties of tree fruits * 368

Fruit bud formation in the strawberry 368

Work not on a project basis

The "set" of Mcintosh apples in Middlesex and Worcester counties 368

A study of the storage of Mcintosh apples under various conditions 369

Cross-pollination aand sterility studies with certain apple varieties 369

Studies of the arsenical residue on apples 369

Department of Poultry Husbandry:

Broodiness in poultry • •, 370

Breeding poultry for egg production 370

Statistical study of heredity in Rhode Island Reds 370

A genetic study of Rhode Island Red color 370

Determination of genetic laws governing results in inbreeding poultry 370
Heredity and environmental characteristics affecting variability In

egg production -^'^

Factors governing egg weight and shell character in domestic fowl 371

Relation of intensity or rate of laying to feather pigmentation 371

Department of Vegetable Gardening:

Conditions affecting the production and vegetative propagation of

Washington asparagus ^'^ '

Cold resistance in sweet corn in its relation to quality, size, and earliness 375

Greenhouse lettuce 375

Improvement of vegetable varieties through root and seed selection 375

The genetics of greenhouse cucumbers 37o

Department of Veterinary Science:

The cutaneous vaccine for fowl pox 376

Laboratory service • - *""

Poultry disease elimination law 376

Farm and Station Bang's disease 377

Publications
Changes in staff

377
382

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT

STATION— 1929

INTRODUCTION
F. J. Slevers, Director

With the rapid industrial changes and developments which have been
especially evident daring the last half century throughout many portions
of the world, and particularly in this country, an increasing portion of the
consuming public has become farther removed from its direct dependency
upon products of the farm. Prior to this period of marked industrial
progress, or evolution, the difficulty of wresting the products of agricul-
ture from the soil and of preparing them for use was so pronounced
that it required practically all of the labor of our entire employed popu-
lation. The farm and the home furnished the main market for the em-
ployment of labor; and the demands of the average consumer, beyond
the bare necessities of life, were comparatively few. This applied especially
to those demands that involved cash expenditures. The expenses and
cash outlays for most farm practices were not considered sufficiently sig-
nificant to make it necessary to keep farm accounts or to determine with
any degree of accuracy just what the costs of farm management opera-
tions were. That the economics of farm and home management did not
require the same consideration as today is evidenced by the fact that many
farms and farm homes were maintained for long periods of time even
though there was little indication of cash income.

Coincident with the economic conditions during this period, investiga-
tional work at the experiment stations was largely concerned with projects
pertaining to quantity production, and little consideration was given to the
matter of costs and quality. As a result many practices that were de-
veloped and considered scientifically sound, based on such an economic
or lack of economic background, are found to be no longer satisfactory
imder present systems where costs of operation and consumer's demand
for qualitj' in product are factors of foremost consideration.

An up-to-date program of research in agriculture as it pertains to
present-day practices on the farm and in the home must not only give the
same consideration as formerly to quantity of product, but is further
complicated by the demand that results must be interpreted on a basis
where the economics of production and the quality characteristics of the
product are properly evaluated. In the promotion of research at Mass-
achusetts Agricultural Experiment Station it has been the hope to main-
tain this desirable balance, and the progress made during the last year
on the several projects under investigation is reported in the following
pages.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 329

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Alexander E. Cance in Charge

Consumer Demand for Apples. (Lorian P. Jefferson). The study of
the consumer demand for apples has been divided into three parts. The
first two sections, "The Mcintosh Apple on the New York Market" and
"A Study of the Consumer Demand for Apples", have already been pub-
lished as Bulletins 243 and 250 respectively. The third section deals with
the competition between apples and other fruits, and between different
varieties of apples. The data for making these comparisons have been
secured from public and private records, and much of the statistical work
has already been done. The study will be completed in 1930.

The Economic Worth of Different Varieties of Apples. (Lorian P.
Jefferson). This project, which has been under way for several years,
has still two years to run. Data are being secured for a series of seasons,
numbers of trees, yields by grades, and prices, looking to a determination
as to which varieties are the most profitable for Massachusetts growers.
While the statistics already secured have been tabulated, no summary
has yet been made nor has any attempt been made to draw conclusions.

The Nature of Consumer Demand for Poultry Products. (Lorian P.
Jefferson). This study is based on data collected from consumers and
retailers, and should supply information as to the type of demand in
specific markets through the State and thus be of use to both producer
and dealer. The gathering of this material has not yet been completed.

Part-Time Farming. (David Rozman). The field work in connection
with the project on part-time farming is now completed, and the material
is being prepared for publication. Three different areas were investigated.

A house to house survey was carried on in the town of Holden with a
view to determining the extent and relative importance of part-time farm-
ing in a rural community. As a result it was found that of 585 operators
engaged in some kind of agricultural activities in the town of Holden, 519
were part-time farmers, and only 66 bona fide farmers. Part-time farmers
contributed 42.6 per cent or almost one-half of the total value of agri-
cultural products raised in Holden.

A second part of the study was carried on in the Lowell and Taunton
areas represented by towns situated in the vicinity of these industrial
centers. The main object of this part of the investigation was to deter-
mine the economic and social set-up of a representative group of part-
time farmers. To this end a number of part-time farmers in both areas
were visited with a detailed questionnaire taking records of their occu-
pations, date of settling on the land, extent of farming operations, living
conditions, and earnings both on the farm and outside of it. A total of
115 records was obtained in the Lowell area and 84 in the Taunton area.

The data obtained in this study portray an important feature of Mass-
achusetts agriculture and have a special bearing on the problems of land
utilization, food supply, and agricultural competition in the State.

Prices of Eggs and Poultry Products. (A. H. Lindsey). Until Septem-
ber 1 this project was under the leadership of H. W. Yount, who completed
the work on the first two parts. Data have been gathered and tabulations
and correlations completed for part three. Eggs were purchased in the

330 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

Boston market in April and August to supplement November data, as
quality factors do not have the same relation to price at different seasons
of the year. Price factors as determined in the study have been used In
forecasting the price of eggs throughout the year.

Wholesale price quotations on the Boston market form the basic
material for the study. The trend of egg prices since 1904 has been
upward to 1916 and sharply upward to 1920. Since 1920 the trend has
been downward, declining more abruptly after 1925. Although consumer's
purchasing power has been increasing since 1920, the increasing receipts
have been such as to cause a decrease in the corrected prices to a point
below the price in the period ending 1916.

The seasonal movement shows a definite change since 1920. The period
of high prices in the fall occurs earlier, and the decline from the high
period to the low point of prices is more rapid than formerly.

Prices are determined by the operation of a number of factors. The
importance of the various factors changes during different periods of the
year. From April to November, during the period of rising prices, demand
factors have a greater influence in price determination than supply factors.
In the same way, during the period of falling prices from the third week
in November to early in April, the supply factors are dominant.

The Study of Competitive Factors Influencing the Supply of Market
Milk and Cream in Massachusetts. (A. E. Cance). Very little has been
done on this project during the year owing to lack of time. During the
j'ear 1930 it is hoped to make a study of the demand for special milk in
certain cities and towns in Massachusetts and to make a survey of the
clianges in the local supply areas, with a view to a better understanding
of the effect of prices and demand on local milk production in Massachu-
setts.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
C. I. Gunness in Charge

Investigation of Apple Storages. (C. I. Gunness). The purpose of this
investigation is to determine what is a satisfactory and economical storage
house for Mcintosh apples. A study of weather data and soil tempera-
tures indicates that a common storage without artificial cooling can not
be depended upon to provide sufficiently low temperatures to give proper
storage for an early variety of apple like the Mcintosh. The use of ice
in cooling an insulated storage has been found to reduce the temperature
about 10° when fans are used to circulate air over the ice. It is quite
evident, however, that under present labor conditions it is not practical
to use ice for artificial cooling in competition with mechanical refrigera-
tion. During the present season an investigation is being carried on in
cooperation with the Department of Pomology on the maximum tempera-
ture at which apples can be stored satisfactorily. Three lots of apples
were stored at 4.5°, 40°, and 32° from picking time until December 1.
The apples were then all placed in the 32° room for the balance of the
season. No results are available as yet. Another phase of the investiga-
tion deals with the efficiency of different floor materials as insulators.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 331

Fertilizer Distributors. (C. I. Gunness). A study of two types of
broadcast distributors indicates a great diiference in the uniformity of ap-
plication by the various machines. No results can be given at this time
as additional machines are to be tested, and all are to be tested with a
variety of materials.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
A. B. Beaumont in Charge

Nitrogen Assimilation by Havana Tobacco. (A. B. Beaumont). Two
nitrate salts, four ammonium salts, ammonium nitrate, and fifteen organic
nitrogen compounds were used. In the selection of organic carriers pref-
erence was given those amino acids reported as constituents of cotton-
seed, since cottonseed meal is the principal carrier of nitrogen in Connecti-
cut Valley tobacco fertilizers. Cottonseed meal, itself, was used. Several
series of plants were grown in non-sterile and sterile water and sand
cultures. Analytical data on the chemical composition of the web of the
leaf were obtained for plants grown in non-sterile water cultures. (Analy-
ses were made by P. R. Nelson of the Chemistry Department.)

Taking yield data, growth characteristics, and chemical composition
as criteria of assimilation, it is concluded that, of the various nitrogen
compounds studied, the nitrates are the most readily assimilated by
Havana tobacco, with urea, ammonium salts, asparagine and cystine next
in order of assimilation. Of the various amino acids of cottonseed meal,
only one, cystine, showed any appreciable assimilability; and cystine is
said to be present in cottonseed in small amounts only. Cottonseed meal
itself, or its hydrolyzed products, gave no evidence of being assimilated
in the unchanged form. Evidence points toward the need of ammonifica-
tion and nitrification of this organic nitrogen carrier before it can be
fully assimilated by Havana tobacco.

Relation of the Form of Nitrogen to Root-rot of Havana Tobacco. (A. B
Beaumont). Ammonium salts and certain amino and amide compounds
have been found toxic to Havana tobacco in varying degrees. Browning
and rotting of the roots and dying and dropping of the lower leaves were
symptoms that accompanied this toxicity when the plants were grown in
unsterilized media and containers. Tobacco grown under sterile condi-
tions, but with the same forms of nitrogen, produced clean white roots.
This is taken as evidence that the symptoms mentioned are secondary
rather than primary effects of the form of nitrogen used.

Plants grown in unsterilized solutions containing nitrogen as sodium or
calcium nitrate or urea produced healthy roots of a white or slightly
brownish white appearance. Mixtures of nitrates and ammonium salts were
toxic in proportion to the concentration of the latter. Nitrate nitrogen
tended to counteract the ill effect of ammonium nitrogen on tobacco. In
view of the data obtained, the toxicity of ammonium salts and certain or-
ganic compounds cannot be satisfactorily explained on the ground of
either physiological acidity or hydrogen-ion concentration. Rather, it
seems that improper metabolism caused by poor assimilation of nitrogen
offers the best explanation of all but the extreme cases of toxicity.

332 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

Nitrogen Assimilation by Grasses and Clovers. ( A. B. Beaumont).
Data secured thus far indicate that nitrogen in the form of nitrate, am-
monium salts, and urea is assimilated by the common tame grasses. No
distinct differences in growth in the respective media have been obtained,
as was the case with tobacco. Some, but inadequate, evidence has been
obtained that clovers assimilate nitrogen directly from nitrates and urea
but not from ammonium salts.

Ecological Study of Pasture Vegetation. (A. B. Beaumont). Further
data have been obtained on the effect of lime and fertilizer nutrients
on the growth of pasture vegetation. Yield records have been secured
from certain plots; but on account of the excessive summer drought,
differences which have appeared in other seasons did not show in the
figures. In a new experiment with different forms of nitrogen applied
as top dressings, the quick response of pasture grasses to nitrates, am-
monium salts, and urea was very evident. Response to calcium cyanamid
was slow. Subnormal rainfall may have been a significant factor in the
behavior of the cyanamid. From our several experiments with nitrogen
compounds it is very clear that comparatively large amounts of nitrogen
do not eliminate white clover from the pasture flora.

Alfalfa Variety Tests. (A. B. Beaumont and R. E. Stitt). Further
evidence has been obtained which shows that certain varieties of alfalfa
originating in southern climates are not winter-hardy in Massachusetts.
Tentative ranking of ten varieties grown in Test No. 1, in decreasing
order of hardiness after two winters, is as follows:

1. Hungarian

2. Grimm, Ontario Variegated, Utah, Kansas, Dakota 12

3. Cossack, Argentine

4. Arizona, Ladak

No outstanding differences have appeared which could be attributed
to fertilizer and lime treatments. At this stage of the test, it is very
evident that varietal or strain differences are much more significant than
are differences in fertilizer treatments within the range studied.

In Alfalfa Variety Test No. 2, 19 strains were seeded in 1928. The
seasons" work on this test support the results from Test No. 1. A third
test field of alfalfa varieties was started in August 1929. This is part of
the extensive testing of legume varieties being conducted by this Station
in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States
Department of Agriculture.

lests of Varieties of Soy Beans and Field Peas. (A. B. Beaumont and
R. E. Stitt). Twenty varieties of soy beans were grown from seed fur-
nished by the Bureau of Plant Industry. Dunfield, Illini, Medium Green,
Harbinsoy, Ito San and Habaro produced the largest yields of hay, but
there were big differences in the quality based on size of stem. Large
differences were also obtained in yield of seed, habit of growth, and
other characteristics.

Five varieties of Canada field peas were grown. Planting time was de-
layed on account of the heavy rains of May. The plots were abnormally
weedy and results are of little significance. Chang and Wisconsin pro-
duced the most hay, and O. A. C. 181 and Wisconsin the most seed to
the acre.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 33.3

The Value of Cover Crops for Onions. (J. P. Jones and M. E. Snell).
The work on this project was begun in 1925. The plan has been to seed
several cover crops on different plots at the last shove-hoeing and by
comparison witii adjacent plots without cover crops determine the effect
on yield and quality of onions. Four j'ears' records are now available.
Considering the average effect on yield, red clover and rye appear to have
been injurious, while crimson clover, timothy and redtop have been with-
out effect. In 1928 and 1929 crimson clover and redtop increased the yield
by 19 and 14 per cent respectively, but this was offset by decreased yields in
the two previous years. A more consistent positive response is necessary
before any of the cover crops thus far tested can be recommended as
having a favorable influence on the yield and quality of onions.

Sulfate versus Muriate of Potash for Onions. (J. P. Jones and M. E.
Snell). To answer the question frequently raised by growers as to the
relative merits of sulfate and muriate as sources of potash for onions,
the Station has conducted a comparative test of these two materials during
the past four years. Summarizing the results for the entire period of the
experiment, sulfate of potash gave an average yield of 137 bags per
acre, while muriate gave 136 bags. In 1929, the year in which the onions
were least affected by troubles such as blast, 242 bags per acre were
obtained with sulfate of potash as contrasted with 250 bags with muriate,
an insignificant difference. From the standpoint of growth of onions,
it appears to make little difference which of these two forms of potash
is used. In case of planning to grow tobacco on the land in the near
future, it is perhaps best to fertilize with sulfate of potash to avoid any
harmful effect on the burn of the tobacco frequently attributed to the
chlorine carried by muriate of potash.

Lime in Relation to Onion Growth. (J. P. Jones and M. E. Snell).
The experiments conducted during the past five years have shown lime
to be almost indispensable in the successful growth of onions on acid soils.
This has been demonstrated both on the Experiment Station farm and on
several farms in the Connecticut Valley. The average of four years'
results on the Experiment Station farm showed an increase of about 70
per cent in yield of No. 1 onions. Two tons of lime per acre have been
about as effective as higher applications. In the last two years there
has been a decline in the percentage response to lime. For instance, in
1926 and 1927 an increase of 87 and 96 per cent, respectively, was record-
ed for two tons of lime per acre, while in 1928 and 1929 the increase
was only 51 and 33 per cent. Since the application was made five years
ago, these results might indicate an exhaustion of the lime. On the other
hand, this same trend is evident on the plots which received seven tons
of lime per acre, and it scarcely seems possible that lime should be lacking
with so large an initial application, even at the end of five years. The
difference is believed to be due to a variation in seasons. In 1928 the
blast hit the onions quite early, before the bottoms had begun to show
appreciably. The tops were killed rapidly, and the injury seemed to be
equally severe on limed and unlimed plots. The limed plots produce
bulbs earlier and hence have an advantage when the blast occurs some
time after bulbs have begun to form, as was the case in 1927; but in 1928,
with the blast appearing just about at the beginning of bulb formation,

334 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATKlN BULLETIN 260

this advantage was greatly minimized. In 1929, however, there was no
blast, and differences in earliness of bulb formation were not so impor-
tant because quite favorable growing conditions prevailed throughout the
season, allowing ample opportunity for the bulbs on both the limed and
imlimed plots to mature. While 33 per cent increase in 1929 on the
limed plot seemed small in comparison to that of previous years, the actual
increase in yield per acre was approximately as large an any yet obtained.

When it was recognized that considerable lime must be added to acid
soils to grow onions satisfactorily, there was some apprehension that
severe damage might result through black root-rot injury should the
grower wish to plant the ordinary strains of tobacco on his highly limed
onion land. The Station therefore undertook some experiments looking
toward the successful' growth of onions at a soil reaction sufficiently
acid to prevent any serious injury by black root-rot in case tobacco was
grown later. Superphosphate has been credited by the Rhode Island Ex-
periment Station and others as having an effect on acid soils, similar in
some respects to that of lime. Large applications of superphosphate, alone
and in combination with small amounts of lime, have been tried for the last
two years. There is evidence that 500 to 1000 pounds of agricultural
lime per acre in combination with 600 to 1000 pounds of superphosphate
in addition to that in the regular fertilizer may be as effective as two tons
of agricultural lime; but superphosphate alone, even in large applications,
has not given satisfactory results. It has also been learned in this con-
nection that onions can be grown satisfactorily at a reaction of pH 6.0.
If the lime used in growing the onions has not raised the pH above this
point, little injury may be expected from black root-rot should tobacco
be grown on the land subsequently, especially if the soil is well drained.

Fertilizer Ratios for Onions. (J. P. Jones and M. E. Snell). This ex-
periment was begun in 1925 with the idea of getting some estimate (1)
of the relative amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash required by
onions, (2) of the merits of fractional application of nitrogen, and (3)
of the value of organic forms of nitrogen. All fertilizers have been
applied at the rate of 2500 poimds jier acre. The results at present show
that increasing the phosphorus without at the same time increasing the
potash is unproiitable. For instance, the 4-12-4 has given no better results
than the 4-8-4, but the 4-12-8 has given an average increase of 18 per
cent in yield over the 4-8-4 during the past four years. However, in 1929
the 4-12-8 did not give appreciably better results than the 4-8-4 or the
4-12-4, the large average increase being due to the large difference ob-
tained in the three previous years.

The data on the amount of nitrogen indicate that a fertilizer carrying
4 per cent ammonia, applied at the rate of 2500 pounds per acre, will
provide adequately for the first application. If necessary more nitrogen
can be added later as a top-dressing, either in the form of fish or of
nitrate of soda. Increasing the ammonia from 4 to 6 per cent by top-
dressing has improved the yield by about 12 per cent over applying the
entire 6 per cent in the first application of fertilizer. It is interesting to
note that during the dry season of 1929 top-dressing with fish gave no
increase in yield, while top-dressing with nitrate of soda gave a 13 per
cent increase.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 335

Tlie 4-12-8 was used in the comparison of organic and inorganic forins
of nitrogen. On one set of plots 50 per cent of the nitrogen applied
came from tankage, 25 per cent from nitrate of soda and 25 per cent
from ammo-phos; on the other set, about 20 per cent of the nitrogen was
from calcium nitrate and the remaining 80 per cent from ammo-phos,
both inorganic forms of nitrogen. With these materials differences were
obtained which indicate that having some of the nitrogen in an organic
form is preferable. However, the use of other sources of nitrogen might
show the difference between the organic and inorganic forms of nitrogen
to be less significant.

Onion Breeding. (J. P. Jones and M. E. Snell). The onion breeding
work was continued in 1929 along the same line as reported last year,
M-ith major emphasis on selecting, inbreeding and mass breeding several
strains of the yellow globe and Japanese set onions. In cooperation with
G. B. Snyder, some effort was made to test a number of other varieties
in addition to the yellow globe. This phase of the work should be pushed
more vigorously during the coming year.

Influence on Onions of Rate of Seeding and Spacing Between Rows.

(J. P. Jones and M. E. Snell). It was observed during the season of
1928 that the severity of the in.jury resulting from blast was greatly in-
fluenced by the thickness of the stand of onions. As a part of the studies
irjade in connection with the blast problem, an experiment was laid out
in 1929 to determine definitely the extent to which thickness in the row
and space between the rows affected blast. There was no blast in the
summer of 1929; hence nothing was learned regarding this. It was,
however, possible to observe how such differences in planting affected
yield and quality of onions in the absence of disease. Seeding at the
rate of 3.5 pounds per acre impaired the yield out of proportion to the
improvement in quality; seeding at the rate of 6.8 pounds per acre in-
creased the yield, but not sufficiently to counteract the effects of reduc-
tion in qualitj\ Rows 13 inches apart were found to give larger yields
than those 15 or 18 inches apart, and there was little difference in quality.
With seed showing a germination of 99 per cent as this did, it was con-
cluded that for practical conditions seeding at the rate of between 4 and
5 pounds per acre, in rows 13 inches apart, will give the best returns.

In this experiment, as well as in some of the other onion experiments,
counts were made of the number of plants per foot of row about the
first of August. It was estimated from these data that onl,v about 50
})er cent of the seed planted actually produced plants that are likely to
mature.

Relation of Aluminum Compounds to the 111 Effects of Certain Crops
when Grown in Rotation. (J. P. Jones and M. E. Snell). This project
includes the rotation and cover crop experiments and also that dealing
with the specific effects of other crops on tobacco. In 1929 the work
was redirected, looking toward a better understanding of some of the
unusual results obtained with rotations. Among other things, considera-
tion has been given to the possible relation of aluminum compounds to
the depressing effect of some of the preceding crops on the yield and
quality of tobacco.

Field results: — The results in 1929 were not greatly different from those

336 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

of previous years. The animal husbandry rotation consisting of corn,
hay, and tobacco (the tobacco following hay) again produced a very
poor crop of tobacco. The first four years timothy alone was seeded in
the corn for hay, but during the last two years the plots have been divided,
with timothy on the west and clover on the east halves of the plots. It
was thought that the clover might improve the growth of tobacco in this
rotation, but on the contrary the tobacco has been poorer after clover
than after timothy two years in succession, 1928 and 1929. The tobacco
was fertilized with 3500 pounds per acre of a 5-4-5 fertilizer mixture and
approximately 10 tons of manure, — a more liberal treatment than was
given the continuous tobacco plots which yielded satisfactorily. Corn in
this rotation has generally grown well; but the timothy hay, although
adequately top-dressed with fertilizer, has always been more or less of a
failure. Clover, on the other hand, has grown vigorously, yielding in some
instances dovible the amount of hay obtained from timothy.

In the cash crop rotation consisting of potatoes, onions and tobacco
(tobacco following onions), the tobacco has always been superior to that
produced in the animal husbandry rotation but not usually comparable to
that grown in continuous culture. In 1928 the tobacco in this rotation
yielded about as well as that on the continuous no-cover plots, but in
1929 the comparison was less favorable. The onions have never been
especially successful, while the potatoes have been good in some years and
poor in others. In 1929 a low yield of both onions and potatoes was
obtained.

The comparison of timothy, redtop and rye as cover crops for tobacco
was made again in 1929. The results for the past year showed timothy to
be as satisfactory as either redtop or rye, and the yield of tobacco to be
about as high as that on the plots without a cover crop. During the four
years tested, redtop and rye have both given as good yields of tobacco as
the no-cover plots. Timothy, on the contrary, has depressed the yield of
tobacco three years out of six, but during the last three years it has
given results just about as good as the no-cover plots.

The plots treated with manure in addition to the commercial fertilizer
produced a very satisfactory crop during the season of 1929. Taking the
six-year records available from these plots, very slight superiority can
be claimed for the manure in comparison with a regular tobacco fertilizer.
It has, however, been possible to reduce the fertilizer about 25 per cent
without impairing the yield or quality of the tobacco. In response to re-
quests from growers, the plots were divided in halves in 1929 and a
sawdust stable manure was compared with the well rotted manure from
the Station stables. The sawdust manure was obtained from the Quon-
quot stables where sawdust is used exclusively and liberally for bedding.
This manure when in a pile looked more like sawdust than manure. The
tobacco grew about equally well on the two types of manure. No in-
jurious effect was noted from the sawdust. One year's results are not
sufficient, however, to make any claims about the use of this manure
year after year.

Tobacco after corn grew quite vigorously in the season of 1929 but
yielded only 1692 pounds per acre in comparison with 1785 pounds after
hay and 1890 pounds after tobacco. After onions and potatoes the yields

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 337

were about the same but somewhat lower than after corn and hay. This
is an unusual result because in previous years better yields have been
obtained after onions and potatoes than after corn and hay.

In 1929 brown root-rot affected the roots of the tobacco but slightly
on the cover and no-cover crop plots but did injure the roots of the to-
bacco in rotation with corn and hay very severely and to a less extent
that in rotation with potatoes and onions.

In the greenhouse, with water cultures, aluminum has been found to
])roduce an effect on tobacco roots similar to that of brown root-rot in
the field. Thinking that aluminum in the soil might be a factor in caus-
ing brown root-rot in the field, treatments were made on the rotation
plots to eliminate any effect of soluble aluminum. These treatments
consisted of large applications of superphosphate, which experiments at
other stations have proven to be successful in counteracting the injurious
effects of aluminum. The results were not particularly encouraging.
Brown root-rot was just as severe where the superphosphate treatments
were made as where they were not. The yield was not increased by the
superphosphate, which is contrary to experience with similar treatments
on other plots in the absence of brown root-rot. It might be said from
this year's experience, if it can be assumed that superphosphate renders
soluble aluminum inactive, that the brown root-rot found in the field is
not caused by an excess of soluble aluminum, and that it is a different
type from that observed in the greenhouse water cultures as resulting
from aluminum injury.

Soil nitrate determinations were made during the growing season of
1929 to see whether plowing under carbonaceous residues had reduced the
available nitrogen, as found by other experiment stations. The data ob-
tained are in agreement with those of previous years in showing no case
where the residues turned under in the rotations have reduced the avail-
able nitrogen to the point where it limited the growth of tobacco.

Quantity of Nitrogen and Phosphorus for Tobacco. (J. P. Jones and
M. E. Snell). The phase of this experiment dealing with the amount of
nitrogen required in growing tobacco was started in 1926. The recom-
mendations which seem justified from work on the experimental plots to
date are: (1) In the absence of barnyard manure, 150 pounds of ammonia
per acre is the minimum that should be considered in fertilizing tobacco;
(2) a somewhat better yield has been obtained each year with 200 pounds
of ammonia per acre than with 150 pounds, and for many fields the larger
application may be nearer the optimum; (3) although in previous years
250 pounds of ammonia per acre produced slightly superior yields, in
1929 it gave no better yields than the 200-pound treatment; and it has
been concluded that this large application will prove profitable only in
unusual situations.

Among the observations made on tobacco, it Mas noted that the re-
duction in growth due to the deficient nitrogen was always apparent
before the typical yellow color signifying nitrogen starvation. In 1928, a
rainy season, the yellow color was found much earlier than in 1929,
a dry season. Although reduced growth could be seen readily on the
low nitrogen plots in 1929, yellowing of the leaves was scarcely per-
ceptible even at the time of harvest.

338 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

In the experiments with quantity of phosphorus, attempt has been made
tc measure the stimulative eflfect on the growth of tobacco of large ap-
plications of superphosphate, rather than to determine the optimum nu-
trient requirement of tobacco for phosphorus. During the first season,
1928, when one-half, one, two, and four tons of superphosphate per acre
were applied in addition to that in the regular tobacco fertilizer, notable
increases in yield were obtained, the maximum being from the two-ton
treatment. In 1929 much larger yields were obtained, but there was no
response to the excessive applications of superphosphate. In another
experiment, however, the yields were markedly stimulated by four tons
of superphosphate. A very interesting feature of these experiments has
been the observation on maturity. Contrary to what is generally ex-
pected from excessive applications of phosphorus, there has been no
evidence that the tobacco has matured unusually early or any differently
from that not receiving the extra phosphorus.

The Magnesium Requirement of Certain Common Crop Plants. (J. P.

Jones and M. E. Snell). This experiment was started in the season of
1929 and is a redirection of previous work which had shown a magne-
sium deficiency in the soil of one of the old experimental fields at the
Station, illustrated by certain symptoms on both corn and tobacco. The
work as now outlined consists of an attemj^t to observe the symptoms of
a lack of magnesium on several of the commonly grown crops, such as
onions, clover, timothy, alfalfa, and potatoes. The season was too dry
in 1929 to permit a satisfactory growth of these crops; hence the observa-
tions made are not considered sufficiently satisfactory to draw conclusions
at this time. It has also been proposed in connection with this work to
make some chemical studies of this and other soils, hoping to account
more definitely for the lack of magnesium. Progress is being made on
this phase of the work, but no results can be included in this report.

DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
G. E. Gage iii Charge

Nitrogen-Fixation in Relation to Legumes and Non-Legumes under De-
fined Agronomic Conditions. (James E. Fuller). This project has been
followed out as outlined for the last year: namely, to study soils of differ-
ent units to determine the ability of these units to fix atmospheric nitrogen;
to isolate organisms from the units and study the distribution of nitrogen-
fixation organisms as compared with the nitrogen-fixation power of the
soil units; and lastly, to study factors which may influence the presence and
activity of nitrogen-fixing organisms isolated in the studies. The pre-
liminary phase of this project has been completed and has been written
up and accepted for publication by Soil Science. It wiU appear in the
next May or June issue of that journal. The first part of this study was
carried on by Dr. Leon A. Bradley and was taken over in 1928 by Dr.
James E. Fuller. A summary of this preliminary investigation as carried
out on an experimental field (Field A) divided into twenty-four plots,
Has furnished the following information.

ANNUAL REPORT,, 1929 33y'

Four definitely planned experLmental conditions were established for
the defined agronomic work:

1. Units planted with legumes and receiving fertilizer.

2. Units planted with legumes and not receiving fertilizer.

3. Units receiving fertilizer but not planted with legumes.

4. Units not receiving fertilizer and not planted with legumes.

From this summary there appears to be sufficient nitrogen-fixation in
the soil of Field A to account for the nitrogen reserve. The nitrogen-
fixation in the experimental field is correlated with the presence of a
strain of Azotobacter capable of fixing substantial quantities of nitrogen
when cultivated in pure culture in a nitrogen-free medium. Nitrogen-
fixation and the distribution of the Azotobacter appear to have remained
reasonably constant over a three-year period. The growth of the legume
and non-legume crops has not influenced nitrogen-fixation or the distri-
bution of the Azotobacter. The hydrogen-ion concentration of the soil
of the experimental field does not^ appear to be the controlling factor
in the nitrogen-fixation or the distribution of the Azotobacter. The data
as accumulated in this study have furnished considerable information
which may later be placed on a basis for the establishment of practical
methods by which the nitrogen-fixation organisms naturally present in soil
may be stimulated to greater activity.

Laboratory Service. (Ralph L. France). More than one thousand
examinations of samples were made by the department during the past
year. Of this number, seven hundred were control tests of various town
milk supplies in the Connecticut Valley. In many cases monthly control
tests are made, and in other cases the testing is done at different times
during the month. At the present time the activities in this phase of the
laboratory work are somewhat limited because samples can be transported
only short distances. Then, too, the Massachusetts State Department of
Health carries on activities especially for those dairies and town health
departments located in the Boston or metropolitan district. Many samples
from private water supplies have been submitted to the laboratory for
examination. These have been for complete bacteriological and chemical
examination, for the most part, to determine the purity of the water in
question. It is of some interest to us from the standpoint of public
health to note that nearly 50 per cent of the private supplies were found
to be unsafe. This indicates the need of more active education in the
construction and location of private water supplies. It also indicates the
need of a sanitary survey of water supplies as regards those located on
private property.

The sale of legume cultures has materially decreased during the year.
This is no doubt due to the activities of certain commercial concerns which
are supplying cultures free to purchasers of legume seeds in bushel lots.

Other services rendered by the laboratory are:

1. Bacteriological analyses of food and food products, milk and milk
products, and water.

2. Chemical analyses of milk and water.

3. Preparation and distribution of viable and efficient cultures of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria for leguminous crops.

4. Testing of nitrogen-fixing bacteria for quality.

340 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

6. Bacteriological examinations concerning sewage disposal.

6. Bacteriological examinations of swimming tank waters for purity.

Studies on the Indio] Tolerance of the Colon-Aerogenes Group of Bac-
teria as a Possible Means of Differentiating Fecal and Non-Fecal Strains
Occurring in Drinking Water Supplies. (Ralph L. France). The results
to date are very promising and it is hoped that the study will supply a
more accurate method of testing water for fecal contamination.

The laboratory is now in its second year of service and the indications
are that it is well established and conducted for the kind of work as-
signed to it. This type of supplementary investigational program will aid
materially in the value of the service.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
A. Vincent Osmun in Charge

Tobacco Diseases. (W. L. Doran).

Black Root-Rot. A paper on the effects of soil temperature and reaction
on growth of tobacco infected and uninfected with black root-rot has been
accepted for publication in the Journal of Agricultural Research for Decem-
ber I, 1929.

In the field experiments, the pH values of soil in limed plots have
remained practically unchanged at about 6.0 for the past four years.
Neither alfalfa nor timothy, grown two seasons on limed plots, has
resulted in soil significantly more acid than has continuous tobacco. Of
the acidifying treatments of limed soil, the most effective were sulfuric
and orthophosphoric acids applied together in two successive years, and
sulfur (400 lbs. per acre) applied in two successive years. The applica-
tion of any of these treatments in only one year (1926) had but slight
effect, if any, on soil reaction after 1927. Examination of roots indicated
that black root-rot in these plots was suppressed in proportion to the
effectiveness of the acidifying applications.

Yields on unlimed plots without acidification and with tobacco grown
continuously were 28 per cent greater than on limed plots (last limed in
1923). Yields on limed plots were increased by all the acidification treat-
ments as compared with yields on limed plots without acidification. Sul-
fur (200 lbs. per acre) applied in 1926 and 1927, and sulfuric and ortho-
phosphoric acids applied together in the same years gave the greatest
increases.

Investigation of the use of various chemicals for the prevention of
black root-rot and other soil-borne diseases of tobacco seedlings has
continued. Acetic acid treatment of the soil was tested in several com-
mercial seed beds. In every case the treatment resulted in suppres-
sion of weeds and successful control of both damping-off and black
root-rot. It compared favorably with steam sterilization against which
it was checked.

Tests with monochloracetic acid were not encouraging. Interesting
and promising results were obtained with pyroligneous acid. Experiments
were conducted with the object of adding to our knowledge of the effect of

AN^NUAL REPORT, 1929 341

soil conditions on the efficiency of acetic acid and formaldehyde as soil
disinfectants.

Study was made to determine whether the inhibiting effect of acid
soils on Thielavia basicola may be directly due to some other factor than
hydrogen-ion concentration, more especially active aluminum. Results
indicate that aluminum sulfate is about as effective as sulfur and sulfuric
acid in acidifying soil and in suppressing the black root-rot fungus.

Earlier experiments indicated that phosphoric acid is markedly favor-
able to the parasitisni of Thielavia basicola and that its influence may be
as great as that of soil reaction, or greater. The effect of this chemical
en black root-rot, growth of tobacco, and soil reaction is now being
studied in a new series of pot experiments.

Brown Root-Rot. Field studies have continued on the plots originally
planned for investigation of black root-rot. In general, there was prac-
tically no brown root-rot on plots in continuous tobacco since 1921; some
brown root-rot occurred wherever tobacco followed either timothy or
alfalfa, but was somewhat more severe in limed plots following timothy.
The presence of brown root-rot was generally accompanied by reduction
of yield, but a consistant relation between disease and yield was not
always found.

On the theory that timothy sod is injurious to tobacco because of the
large amount of cellulose and the low amount of available nitrogen pres-
ent, Johnson and coworkers of the Wisconsin Station recommend ap-
plications of nitrogen where tobacco follows timothy. In order to deter-
mine the effect of nitrate (calcium nitrate), and the time of its application
to timothy sodi, on tobacco and on brown root-rot, a series of pot ex-
periments was conducted. From these it may be concluded that heavy
applications of calcium nitrate to timothy sod reduce the severity of brown
root-rot; and that the nitrate increases growth much more when applied
to brown root-rot soil than when applied to soil which does not contain
the cause of brown root-rot.

Assuming a hypothetical relation between brown root-rot and activities
of soil organisms resulting in a lack of nitrogen or in the formation of
substances (undetermined) toxic to tobacco, it would seem possible that
certain inorganic salts applied to the soil might affect the disease through
their toxicity to the organisms or by chemically inactivating certain toxic
substances. Experiments based on this theory are under way, but it is
too early to report definite results.

Control of Diseases of Greenhouse Vegetables. (E. F. Guba, Waltham).

Leaf-Mold of Tomatoes. Work on this disease during the last year has
been concerned mainly with house management as a means of contr'ol.
The conidia of the causal fungus germinate at a relative humidity of 100
per cent, which in the greenhouse is attained on the leaf surfaces when the
atmospheric humidity is above 8-5 per cent. Proper adjustment of air
circulation, water and heat is necessary to maintain conditions unfavorable
to conidial germination, and this ordinarily involves much labor and at-
tention by the operator. In this investigation equipment for the auto-
matic control of temperature and humidity has been employed. In the
light of knowledge previously gained in laboratory study of the causal
fungus and observations in the greenhouse, a set of house management

342 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

practices was evolved to provide proper conditions for the control of leaf-
mold. Experimentsi were conducted for comparison of "good" and "bad"
growing conditions as related to control of the disease. Proper manage-
ment resulted in decreasing leaf infection about 70 per cent and yield
of fruit was increased 18 per cent.

Downy Mildews of Cucumber and Lettuce. (W. L. Doran). The first
appearance of downy mildew on cucumbers in the field was recorded on
August 19, only a few days later than for the last five years, — and this
despite the extremely dry summer, in which neither onion nor potato
mildew was observed in this region. The disease was no less severe in
some fields where cucumbers had not been grown for at least three years
previously than on fields where cucumbers were affected with the disease
last year.

Lettuce mildew rarely occurs in the field here except in cool weather
in fall. Attempts to maintain the fungus on infected plants (Belmont
variety) set in the field in May failed, probably because of the warm, dry
weather. Observations indicate that high air temperature constitutes an
important natural defense against this disease in the field.

In the greenhouse, work continued on the relation of management and
the use of fungicides to the control of these diseases. Experiments to
determine whether potash and lime applied to the soil tend to decrease
susceptibility of cucumber plants to attack by downy mildew produced
only negative results.

Pseudoperonospora of cucumber and Bremia of lettuce were success-
fully grown for several weeks on detached cotyledons of host seedlings
floated in a 5 per cent solution of sucrose in Petri dishes. It is thus
possible, by occasional transfers, to maintain these fungi when conditions
in the greenhouse do not favor their growth.

Study of over-wintering of downy mildew of cucumber added nothing
to previous knowledge of this phase.

Eradication of Nematodes in Greenhouse Soils. (L. H. Jones). Work
previously reported has shown that a combination of acetic acid with cal-
cium cyanide will eradicate nematodes. Of considerable importance is
the fact that two treatments with this combination must be used, with
an interval of about seven days between the treatments. The role of the
acetic acid in the combination chemical is apparently that of a carrier
for the lethal cyanide. The effect is to maintain the fairly volatile cyanide
gas in the soil much longer than it would ordinarily persist if the acetic
acid were not used. If this same principle could be applied by usyig a
dry chemical in place of the liquid acetic acid the idea would have a better
opportunity for adoption in agricultural practice. Paradichlorobenzene,
the P. D. B. used in eradicating peach borers, seems to fulfill the same
r61e as acetic acid. It is a dry chemical and when mixed with calcium
cycnide the combination remains a true mixture. There is no caking and
once a uniform mixture is attained it remains as such. One treatment with
this combination reduces the numbers of nematodes considerably, but era-
dication is not obtained unless two treatments are used with an interval
of one week between applications. The use of the paradichlorobenzene
with calcium cyanide has been tried by varying the proportions of each
chemical and also the amount applied. In general the results indicate that

ANNUAL REPORT, ]929 343

a 1:1 ratio is the best, and three grams of the mixed chemicals for a six-
inch pot of soil proved the most efficient rate of application. Before this
method can be demonstrated on a commercial scale, there are certain
problems that must be solved by the laboratory method.

Eggplant Wilt. (E. F. Guba, Waltham). Addition of chemicals to the
hills at planting time, with the object of sterilizing the soil about the
roots, gave no control of the wilt disease. Negative results were also
obtained with the use of a paper mulch. Studies in several fields of the
New York Purple variety indicate that the eggplant tolerates a high de-
gree of soil acidity, and that this cortdition usually is accompanied by an
insignificant amount of wilt. These findings point to the changing of
soil reaction as a means of controlling wilt, and efforts are being directed
toward this objective.

Onion Blast. Several departments cooperated in work on various
phases of the problem presented by the disease of onions known as blast.
A field survey and spraying and dusting experiments were conducted by
A. I. Bourne (Department of Entomology) and W. L. Doran (Depart-
ment of Botany). Weather conditions were unfavorable to the develop-
ment of blast, and the trouble did not occur. Drought injury and thrips
injury were severe in many fields. Because of the absence of blast and
downy mildew, no data were obtained on the effect of dusts and sprays
on these diseases. The joint effects of chemicals and mechanical injuries
were such that it was concluded safe to spray six times with 4-4-50 Bor-
deaux, but not nine times; three times with 8-4-50 Bordeaux, but not five
times; and six times with milk of linie, but not nine times. Copper-lime
dusts proved more injurious than any of the Bordeaux mixtures.

L. H. Jones (Department of Botany) worked on the physiology of
onion blast. Growing onions under conditions of reduced light and high
humidity tended to reduce root growth and to produce tender tops. Sub-
sequently, when exposed to hot sunshine and drying wind, these plants
were injured in a manner resembling the condition known as blast.

Carnation Blight. (E. F. Guba, Waltham). The toxicity of fungicides
to spores of the causal fungus (Alternaria dianthi S. & H.), the preven-
tion of infection of potted plants which were artificially inoculated with
spores of the pathogene, and the control of the disease in the field have
been studied. In the toxicity tests with spores, naphthalene dust proved
the most effective of twelve fungicides employed. In an experiment on
the prevention of infection, five fungicides were used, each applied alone
and in combination with fish oil. Calcium arsenate with fish oil and
Bordeaux mixture with fish oil gave the best results. Results of a sec-
ond experiment substantiated those of the first and indicated no advan-
tage in the use of saponin as a spreader. Thirteen distinct treatments
were compared in a spraying experiment in the field. Bordeaux com-
bined with calcium arsenate and fish oil was the most effective of the
fungicides used. Copper-lime dust and calcium arsenate proved the least
effective. Calcium arsenate, alone or in combination with lime-sulfur,
caused injury to the plants.

Forcing Gladiolus with the Aid of Artificial Light. (L. H. Jones).
The embryonic flowers of the gladiolus are formed a few weeks after the
corms are planted. Under normal out-of-door cultural conditions this

344 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

period would be during the longest daylight exposures of the year. A
preliminary pot experiment indicated that a marked increase in bloom
could be obtained by supplementing the daylight of late fall and early
winter employing 100-watt electric light bulbs.

An experiment based on this light factor in which four plots were
used was set up in January, 1929. Black curtains separated the plots
receiving artificial light from those receiving no artificial light at night.
In each plot 195 corms were planted and a careful record was made of
the number of flowering spikes and the number of flowers on each spike.
The results showed that light had caused an increase of 63 per cent in
the number of spikes and an average increase of 30 per cent in the num-
ber of flowers on a spike.

The time of year has considerable influence on the time interval from
planting to flowering, and this time interval is increased by the use of
artificial light. In these experiments artificial light retarded the date of
flowering by approximately fifteen days.

The variety Crimson Glow was used in conducting this investigation.

Influence of Light Quality on Plant Growth. (A. V. Osmun). Prelim-
inary experiments have been conducted to test the effect of so-called
health glass (glass which transmits a considerable percentage of the
ultra-violet rays) on plant growth and development. Plantings were
made in a lean-to greenhouse in which one-half of the ordinary glass had
been replaced by Vita glass. Radishes grown under Vita glass showed
a gain of 71 per cent in weight of the entire plant and 124 per cent in
weight of roots as compared with an equal number of -plants grown under
ordinary glass. Similarly, lettuce gained 76 per cent in weight and
formed! much more compact heads when grown under Vita glass. No
consistent results were obtained with calendulas and pansies.

The Effect of Pot Structure on Soil Temperature. (L. H. Jones). A
series of tests conducted with various types of plant containers has shown
that the structure of the container has a marked influence on the tempera-
ture of the soil. The regulation three-inch standard clay pot will main-
tain a soil temperature as much as 20° F. below that of the air in a
greenhouse on a hot day. On the other hand, a pot of vitreous material
or a glass tumbler will maintain a soil temperature that lags only 1° or
2" behind the rise and fall of the air temperature.

Between these two extreme types of pots, the former very porous
and the latter with no porosity, there are intermediate types of pots
that maintain their soil temperatures according to the amount of moist
area presented by the pot to the air in the case of the porous pots, or
else the soil temperature will be influenced by the insulating value of the
pot material in the case of the non-porous pots.

The cooling effect by evaporation of moisture from the outside of the
pot persists as long as the ]iot is able to withdraw moisture from the
soil) to moisten its surface.

ANNUAL REPORT, ]929 345

THE CRANBERRY STATION

(East Wareham, Massachusetts)

H. J. Franklin in Charge

Injurious and Beneficial Insects Affecting the Cranberry. (H. J. Frank-
lin).

(a) Penetrol, an activating oil developed under the auspices of the
Crop Protection Institute, was tried with nicotine sulfate and also with
pyrethrum soap in tests to control the black-headed fireworm, with nega-
tive results.

(b) Dipple's oil was tested as a repellent against the cranberry fruit-
worm moth, with negative results.

(c) The relationship of birds to cranberry pests was studied somewhat.
Birds were killed and the contents of their digestive tracts examined.

(d) Entomogenous fungi parasitic on the black-headed fireworm were
cultured and disseminated on cranberry bogs to test the possibilities of
practical control of the fireworm by the use of these fungi. Dr. William
H. Sawyer, Jr., was in charge of this work. Practicable methods for
growing the fungi in quantity were developed, but the results of field
dissemination were not successful enough to make this method of con-
trol seem very practicable.

(e) Japanese beetle traps and baits were tried against the cranberry
root grub beetle, with mostly negative results.

(f) The life histories of the cranberry black bug {Plagiognatkus repetitus
Knight) and the false blossom leafhopper {Euscelis striatulus) were studied.

(g) Various kinds of fish were tested as possible water indicators
to be used when flooding cranberry bogs to determine readily when such
flooding has become dangerous. This study gave very promising results.
Dr. H. F. Bergman was in charge of this work.

(h) Profitable studies were conducted on the distribution and habits
of the cranberry white grub (Phi/llophaga anxia Lee).

(i) Spray tests against the false blossom leafhopper, with nicotine
sulfate and with pyrethrum soap, brought out very clearly the fact that the
latter controls the pest much more effectively than the former, while the
two insecticides used together caused considerable injury to the vines.

Cranberry Disease Work. (H. J. Franklin in cooperation with the
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. D. A.). Dr. Neil E. Stevens of the
Bureau of Plant Industry was at the Cranberry Station during much of
the growing season and cooperated actively as usual in this work.

(a) Final and conclusive proof was developed that the false blossom
disease is carried freely from diseased to healthy vines by the leafhopper
(Eusixeli^ striatulus Fall.) This is very important and should lead shortly
to a much better control of this serious disease than has been achieved
in the past. Other experiments gave little evidence, if any, that the
cranberry black bug, cranberry spittle insect, sharp-nosed leafhopper
(PlatymetopiU'S ma(jdalensis Prov.), or springtails (Collembola) have
anything to do with the spread of the disease. The history of the spread
of this disease in Massachusetts was given further careful study to make
it as complete as possible.

346 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

(b) Dr. Stevens continued and extended his studies of the relationship
of weather to the keeping quality of the fruit, and his incubator tests of
keeping quality.

(c) Dr. Stevens made studies of the relative thickness of the cuticle
of the berries of many different varieties to see if this showed any cor-
relation to varietal disease resistance. The study gave negative results
which were, nevertheless, highly significant and of great importance.

Weather Observations with Reference to Frost Prediction. (H. J.
Franklin in cooperation with the U. S. Weather Bureau).

(a) Reports of local weather observations made at 8 a.m. (Eastern
Standard Time) were made daily by telegraph to the office of the Weather
Bureau at Boston. General weather observations were made and recorded
at 8 a.m., noon, and 8 p.m. and were reported on a card form to Boston
daily.

(b) Further weather records likely to have a bearing on frost fore-
casting were accumulated from observing stations in North Harwich, East
Wareham, Carlisle, Holliston and Worcester, as well as the regular cran-
berry observing stations at Marstons Mills, South Carver, Norton, Halifax,
South Hanson, and Pembroke.

(c) Studies of observations already recorded yielded important new
knowledge on this subject, making possible further definite improvement
of the formulae for computing temperature minima. In the formulae thus
modified, the dew-point and the reading of the wet bulb thermometer are
the significant data mathematically combined.

(d) Forecasts of minimum bog temperatures were made in the frost
seasons at noon and at 7 p.m. (Eastern Standard Time). These forecasts
were distributed by the New England Telephone & Telegraph Company
as heretofore, the cost of distribution being paid by the Cape Cod Cran-
berry Growers' Association.

Varieties. Dr. Sawyer made hydrogen-ion determinations of the foli-
age of many of the cranberry varieties at different times of the day and
night and of the growing season. It was thought that this work might
show a correlation between pH values and productiveness or disease re-
sistance in cranberry varieties; but while the pH of the different varieties
showed interesting variations, no very certain correlation of this kind was
disclosed.

DEPARTMENT OF DAIRY INDUSTRY

J. H. Frandsen in Charge

A Study of Packaged Ice Cream. (K. E. Wright). This project has
continued uninterruptedly during the year. Much work has been done
as a check on preliminary conclusions reported in the last Biennial Report.
Research work has also been done on several other phases of this prob-
lem. Considerable study has been made in an effort to determine just
why a maximum drawing temperature of 25.5°F. seems necessary in the
case of a 12 per cent fat, 10 per cent serum solids, 15 per cent sugar,
and .45 per cent gelatin mix. A study of the rate of cooling samples
drawn from the freezer at various temperatures indicated no difference
as far as evolution of heat fusion and crystal formation are concerned.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 347

From a study of the effect of aging on the texture of ice cream, the
following conclusions have been drawn:

1. A high initial temperature in the aging period of the ice cream
mix favored the development of greater basic viscosity.

2. The maximum viscosity was found to be imparted when the mix
was held at a temperature of 80 to 100°F. for two to four hours, with-
out agitation.

3. The whipping property was decreased as the viscosity increased.

4. The rate of melting was decreased as the viscosity increased. The
manner of melt-down was also influenced by difference in viscosity.

5. The texture was improved as a result of greater viscosity develop-
ment.

6. The influence of aging in ice cream has been attributed largely
to the factors affecting crystallization of the gelatin portion of the
product on the basis of the data obtained.

The Quinhydrone Electrode in the Dairy Laboriatory. (Work started
by A. W. Phillips and now conducted by K. E. "Wright.)

Further study indicates that since different kindls of milk bacterial
flora function in different ranges of pH, and since milk has a relatively
high buffer value and perceptible changes in pH do not take place with
appreciable additions of acid or alkali, the quinhydrone electrode deter-
mination of pH cannot be used for determining accurately the keeping
quality of milk. This work agrees with conclusions reached by A. W.
Phillips.

The Utilization of Frozen Fruits in Ice Cream. ( M. J. Mack). This
project, now in its second year, is being conducted in cooperation with
the Department of Horticultural Manufactures. Fruits made available
in a study of cold packing methods are being used in the manufacture
of fruit ice cream.

The varieties of fruits which were found to be most satisfactory for
freezing are likewise superior for use in ice cream. The optimum percent-
age of fruit in fruit ice cream was found' to be approximately 15 per
cent for cold packed strawberries; 8 to 10 per cent for raspberries, plus
a suitable amount of raspberry extract; 15 to 20 per cent for peaches'
in combination with an extract; and 12 per cent for cherries. The desir-
able ratio of fruit to sugar in the pack used for ice cream making was
found to be 2:1 and 3:1 for cherries and strawberries, and 3:1 for rasp-
berries and peaches. Fruit frozen without sugar or with corn sugar as
a substitute for cane sugar was unsuitable for use in ice cream.

The fruit should be added to the ice cream directly after the freezing
operation is started in order to insure the maximum of fruit flavor and
even fruit distribution as well as more rapid freezing and whipping of
the ice cream. Fruit ice creams have a lower freezing point than plain ice
cream and should be drawn from the freezer at a temperature at least
1 to 1.5°F. lower than is necessary for plain ice cream. Fruit ice creams
cool faster in the freezer, whip faster, and require a shorter time of
brine flow than does plain ice cream made from the same basic mix.

A Study of Frozen Sweet Cream for Use in Ice Cream. (M. J. Mack).
Sweet cream of good quality can be stored satisfactorily in the frozen

348 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

state during surplus periods for later use in ice cream. Cream of low
acidity will remain in good condition for several months if sufficiently
low temperatures are employed; i.e., 0°F. or lower. Ice cream of desir-
able flavor can be made from frozen sweet cream provided not more than
one-third of the fat content of the product is derived from this ingre-
dient.

Ice cream mixes containing frozen sweet cream are high in viscosity,
due in part to excessive clustering of the fat globules after homogeniza-
tion. Frozen sweet cream has been found to be an overrun deterrent,
such mixes requiring about 10 to 20 per cent more time to whip. An
attempt is being made to find a method for storing sweet cream so that
it can be used without increasing the mix viscosity and length of freezing.
Data secured to date indicate that combining some of the gelatin or
sugar with the cream previous to freezing will produce a resultant mix
of lower viscosity and a more normal freezing time.

A Study of Electric Refrigerated Milk Cooling Tanks. (J. H. Frand-
sen and H. G. Lindquist.) Work on this project was started in the
summer of 1929, the object being to determine the efficiency and cost
of cooling milk in electric refrigerated cooling tanks. Several different
makes of electric refrigerated units have been installed and data col-
lected as to the length of time required to cool milk from 90 to .50°F.,
and the amount of current necessary to cool milk under ordinary farm
conditions. The data thus far collected are not sufficient to warrant
definite conclusions.

A Study of the Ckanges that Occur in the Storage of Frozen Sweet
Cream. (H. G. Lindquist). Preliminary experiments have been made, I)ut
not enough work has been done to justify conclusions.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY
H. T. Fernald in Charge

Dates of Hatching of Scale Insects and When to Spray for Them.

(A. I. Bourne). The necessary observations on critical stages in seasonal
development of these insects and their correlation with climatic conditions
for the past season have been recorded.

The scarcity of previous work along these lines gives almost no back-
ground of accumulated facts to assist in interpretation of results. This
has necessitated observations over a long period, to determine accurately
the influence of abnormal seasons.

It has been found that the variations in temperature in late fall and
the severity of the following winter exert a great influence upon the rate
of development of these insects.

The marked contrast in weather conditions in the years 1928 and 1929
has afforded unusual opportunity to determine the effect of such extremes,
particularly upon the spring appearance of young scales in the single-
brooded species. Oyster-shell Scale, and upon similar development in the
suiiinier generation of a two-brooded species, the Pine Leaf Scale.

Investigation of Materials Which Promise Value in Insect Control.
CH. T. Fernald and A. 1. Bourne). Tlie chief attention this season has

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 349

been directed toward the comparative efficiency of different types of oil
sprays for European red mite control, as well as checking them from the
standpoint of safety to the trees.

Against a moderate infestation of red mite, almost all of the oils
tested gave satisfactory control, indicating that in general, under such
conditions, thoroughness of application and proper timing are more essen-
tial than the mere choice of oil s.pray.

In some cases, after conference with manufacturers, oils were applied
at an advanced strength over that previously recommended, in order to
meet Massachusetts conditions better.

The effect of combining certain types of oil sprays with sulfur or cop-
per fungicides was studied, both from the standpoint of safety to the trees
and of effectiveness against red mite. The results of these tests indicated
that these oils can be so used, safely and without impairing their insecti-
cidal value.

The abnormally high temperature in early April afforded opportunity
to study the effects of oil sprays for delayed dormant application under
conditions very unusual in Massachusetts. The burning which resulted
pointed out the posibility of maximum temperature requirements for safe
application of oil sprays in addition to the minimum limits with which
Massachusetts growers are familiar.

A study of a recently developed sulfonated, oxidized oil spray was
begun, particularly as to its possibilities as an activator for nicotine.
Preliminary tests have shown that a dilution of one-half to one per cent,
when combined with nicotine sulfate, gives satisfactory control of some
insects, with concentrations of nicotine much lower than those at present
recommended. This means a material reduction in the cost of such sprays
which are at present relatively expensive.

Control of Onion Thrips. (A. I. Bourne). The summer of 1929 was
characterized by conditions of severe drought. Such an abnormally dry
season was very favorable for thrips development. Throughout the early
summer the infestation was comparatively light and of little consequence.
During July and August, when the effects of the continued drought be-
came more pronounced, thrips increased rapidly and' many onion fields
suffered severely from the combined effects of thrips and dry weather.
In the absence of blast and mildew, however, the plants on the whole re-
mained green and vigorous considerably later than in the years when
those diseases were prevalent. The period of abundance and activity of
thrips was proportionally lengthened.

Some growers became interested in the possibilities of biological con-
trol of thrips, purchased a quantity of lady beetles from a western state,
and liberated them in a field where thrips were abundant. The effort was
not crowned with any conspicuous success. Examination of onion fields in
the Valley, throughout the season, resulted in the collection of at least
five different species of predacious beetles, all of them well established in
this region. The beetles imported from the West belong to one of these
species.

Field tests demonstrated the nicotine-soap combination to be an effective
killing agent against thrips, and the machinery for application practic-
able. In cooperation with the Department of Botany studies were made

350 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

of the relative efficiency of combined sprays of nicotine and copper
fungicides, for the control of thrips and blast or mildew, or both.

Preliminary tests were made of a new spray material designed to serve
as an activator of nicotine, with the view of lowering the strength of the
nicotine sulfate spraj^ from present requirements without impairing its
efficiency against thrips.

In cooperation with the Department of Botany, observations of onion
fields in the Yallej^ were made throughout the season to note the ap-
pearance and extent of blast and the correlation, if any, of this disorder
with insect activities.

Control of the Plum Curculio in Apples. (W. D. Whitcomb, Waltham).
High temperatures in May and June stimulated the beetles to make two
to three times as many punctures per day as were observed in previous
years. Parasitism was exceedingly low. Early in the season the num-
ber of punctures made in sprayed and unsprayed fruit was approximately
equal, but two weeks later the beetles made 103 punctures in the un-
sprayed fruit and 12 in the sprayed fruit. Laboratory poison experiments
again indicated that lead arsenate at the rate of 2 pounds in 50 gallons
of water is the minimum dosage which should be used, and that calcium
arsenate is superior to lead arsenate in equal units by weight. Fish oil
sticker again increased the effectiveness of the poison but less than in
previous years.

In confinement, beetles were attracted to and fed freely on dried frilit
baits containing various poisons. However, preliminary trials with these
baits in the orchard failed to show beneficial results, indicating that the
method of exposing the baits needs further study.

Spray Residue Problem and Its Relation to Orchard Practides. (A. I.
Boiirne). Spraying and dusting experiments on the three standard varie-
ties of apples. Wealthy, Mcintosh, and Baldwin. Mere continued in 1929.

The experience of the past summer has demonstrated the very great
influence which the type of season has upon the problem of spray residue
on fruit at harvest. Compared with the two previous years, the rainfall
in 1929 during the period between the calyx spray and harvest was rela-
tively insignificant, as noted below.

Rainfall- — inches

1927 1928 1929

Wealthy 13.0 23.5 7.8

Mcintosh 14.6 24.6 8.4

Baldwin 18.5 25.0 10.3

Under such conditions, miich of the spray deposit normally removed
from the fruit by rainfall persisted throughout the season. Consequently,
sprays could not be applied after early summer with any assurance of
safety, especially on Wealthy or Mcintosh. On the other hand, even the
late summer applications of sulfur — lead dusts on these same varieties were
made without encountering any difficulties as to residue.

Biology and Control of the Carrot Rust Fly. (W. D. Whitcomb, Wal-
tham). The general infestation by the first generation of the carrot rust
fly was much less than in 1928 due to unfavorable conditions for
oviposition: consequently injury by the second generation was also some-
what lighter.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 3'51

Flies emerged from 92 per cent of the pupae confined in slightly moist
sand and loam, and from 80 per cent of those in moist sand and loam,
but from only 50 per cent and 33 per cent of those in wet loam and dry
sand, respectively. Due to climatic conditions the flies emerged from 10
to 14 days earlier than in 1928. This condition continued through the
summer and resulted in the emergence of thirteen third generation adults,
the first observed at Waltham.

Preliminary studies were made with potted carrots grown from seed
treated with mercury compounds. Where calomel was dusted on the soil
as well as the seed, the plants showed 35 per cent less injury than plants
from untreated seed. Plants from Semesan treated seed showed very
little infestation.

Studies were made of the effect of different sprays on the adult flies.
The relation of planting dates to percentage of injury by first generation
larvae was also studied as well as relative susceptibility of different
varieties.

Mulch paper effectively checked the first generation infestation, but
the second generation damage Avas from 5 to IT per cent greater under
the paper.

Studies were made with insecticides and repellents. Some of the
materials showed considerable promise, although the protection from sec-
ond generation attack was somewhat less pronounced.

Systematic Study of Oil Sprays. (H. T. Fernald). The entomological
part of the project during 1928-29 has been restricted mainly to confer-
ences with the Department of Chemistry which is cooperating in the pro-
ject, in order to keep in touch with the work done and to obtain a thorough
understanding of the chemical processes made use of. It now seems
probable that some of the materials desired for field tests may be avail-
able for this purpose the coming spring, and these tests will be made by
the Department of Entomology.

FARM DEPARTMENT
Enos J. Montague in Charge

Intensive Grassland Management under the Hohenheim System. (E. J.

Montague, C. H. Parsons and R. C. Foley). In the spring of 1928 an
experiment in intensive grassland management, under the Hohenheim
System, was put into operation. This originated in Germany during the
World "War and has since been used successfully in the Netherlands and
the British Isles. It is designed to provide a luxuriant growth of grass
rich in protein, thereby making it possible for the dairy farmer to pro-
duce on his own farm most of the feed necessary for his herd, at least
during the summer months. On the College farm this system has
greatly reduced the amount of concentrates fed in the summer and has
yielded an average return per acre of $69 a year from the plots to which
complete fertilizer was applied, as compared with an average return of
$22 from the unfertilized plot.

The Hohenheim System is based upon four distinct principles-: division

352 MAJSS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

of the area into plots, combination of grazing and hay land, use of con-
centrated fertilizers, and rotational grazing.

About seventy-five acres of land that had formerly been in a crop and
pasture rotation were divided and fenced off into nine equal plots. The
first six were used exclusively for grazing. As checks, Plot 4 was un-
fertilized both seasons, and in 1929 Plot 6 received only phosphoric acid
and potash. Plots 7, 8, and 9 were cut for hay in early June and then
used for reserve pasture during the latter part of the season. In the
early spring Nitrophoska II, a high analysis complete fertilizer, was ap-
plied. Calurea, a concentrated nitrogenous fertilizer was applied- as a
summer top-dressing three times during the season. The cattle were
divided into groups^ — high producers, low producers, and dry cows and
young stock — and were rotated from plot to plot, the first use of the
fresh pastures always being available to the high producers who were
followed in turn by the other two groups.

Accurate records were kept of the condition of the cattle, milk pro--
duced, additional feed consumed, and cost of all field operations. A daily
record was kept for every plot of the number of each class of stock and
tlie amount of milk produced. The day before the cows were turned
onto a plot, grass samples were taken and analyzed for protein content
by the Department of Chemistry. These were found to average 17.5 per
cent crude protein in dry matter on the fertilized plots, as compared
with 12.2 per cent on the plot which received no nitrogen.

Both pasture seasons have been abnormal; the first extremely wet and
the second very dry. From the results obtained it is expected that a nor-
m.al season will show much greater possibilities for the system; therefore,
it is planned to continue the experiment.

The results so far seem to warrant the following conclusions:

1. A heavy, thick turf is essential for the best results from fertilizer
application-

2. The application of fertilizer increases the quality and quantity of
pasture grass.

3. Nitrogenous fertilizers are necessary for the greatest return, when
a good pasture turf is established.

4. Proper management of the herd and plots, combined with fertilizer
treatment, is essential for the greatest net returns from an inten-
sive grassland system.

DEPARTMENT OF FARM MANAGEMENT
J. A. Foord in Charge

Enterprise Relatiomships and Farm Orgfanizations on Selected Dairy
Farms in Western Massachusetts. (R. L. Mighell). This project, begun
in the latter part of 1928, has been continued throughout the year and
quite complete records of the year's work on 19 selected dairy farms in
the western part of the state have been obtained. Records of labor and
its distribution, as well as of the financial and material income and out-
go, have been secured and should yield valuable data when tabulations
and comparisons are made.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 353

The Place of Poultry Production on Massachusetts Farms. (R. L.

Mighell and F. H. Branch). Work on this project was completed and the
results published as Bulletin No. 251. (See list of publications).

Tjrpes of Farming in Massachusetts 1840-1925. (Marian Brown). This
project was planned as a historical study to form a basis for future
work. Most of the material and data had been collected at the time of
Miss Brown's resignation in October, and will be prepared for publication
by another member of the department.

Factors Responsible for Variations in Production and Cost of Milk in
Meissachusetts. (R. L. Mighell). Some progress has been made in re-
viewing the literature and accumulating data on this project, but more
work must be done before definite conclusions can be reached.

Other Activities. The Department has cooperated with the State De-
partment of Agriculture and the Massachusetts Industrial Commission in
a business survey of Connecticut Valley farms, the planning and super-
vision of the field work being entirely cared for by this department.
Records of approximately 350 farms, mostly those producing onions and'
tobacco, have been secured, and a careful tabulation and study are
being made of the data.

FEED CONTROL SERVICE
Philip H. Smith in Charge

The Feed Control Service comprises not only feed inspection, but
several other activities, as listed below:

Feed Control (General Laws, 1920, Chapter 94)

Seed Control (General Laws, 1927, Chapter 94)

Dairy Law (General Laws, 1920, Chapter 94)

Advanced Registry Testing

Miscellaneous Work
Feed Control. (P. H. Smith, H. R. DeRose, J. W. Kuzmeski, M. W.
GoodwinS J. B. Zielinski, Jr., F. A. MacLaughlin). During the fiscal
year, 1640 samples of feeding stuffs officially collected were examined in
the control laboratories. The results indicate that guarantees placed upon
these products are with few exceptions reliable, and that such lapses as
occur are not serious. The retail feed business is gradually being ab-
sorbed by chain systems, which may in time seriously affect the revenue
accruing to the State through the reduction of the number of brands
of feeding stuffs sold. During the past year the gross receipts from this
source were $19,800 derived from 990 registrations at $20 a brand. Of
this sum, $11,000 is appropriated to the Experiment Station for the pur-
pose of feed control.

Seed Control. (P. H. Smith, O. W. Kelly, C. L. Beane'). The seed
laboratory has been established at the Experiment Station primarily for
the purpose of inspecting seed samples collected by the State Commis-
sioner of Agriculture, who is designated under the act as administrative
officer.

^Resigned October 1, 1929.

^Resigned November 1, 1929, to accept the position of chief clerk in the Department
of Botany.

354 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

The work accomplished during the two years that the law has been in
operation indicates that, on account of the general good quality of seed
offered, the laboratory can consistently devote less time to seed inspec-
tion and rather more time to research problems pertaining to seed.

Summary of Samples Analyzed. 1929

Non-Official Official Total

Purity analysis only 27 55 82

Germination test only 228 181 409

Both purity and germination test required 131 249 380

Totals 386 485 871

In cooperation with the Department of Vegetable Gardening, 93 samples
of onion seed were examined; and 31 samples of alfalfa and clover seed
were submitted to the Department of Agronomy for field tests in order
to determine trueness to type.

Dairy Law. (P. H. Smith, J. T. Howard, H. L. Allen). The work
under this law involves:

1. The testing of Babcock glassware for accuracy.

2. The examination and award of certificates of proficiency in the use
of the Babcock test.

3. The annual inspection of creameries, milk depots, and board of
health laboratories where the test is used as a basis for fixing the
value of milk and cream.

4. An amendment to the Dairy Law enacted at the 1929 session of the
General Court authorizes the adoption of Rules and Regulations in
order to promote uniformity and accuracy in testing. These rules
and regulations have been published and distributed to operators.
This amendment also makes possible investigation in order to de-
termine if these rules and regulations are followed.

During the year ending December 1, 1929, 8515 pieces of Babcock glass^
ware were tested. Condemned bottles amounted to less than one per
cent of the total tested. Eighty-nine certificates of proficiency were
awarded. One hundred and fifty-three creameries, milk depots and milk
inspectors' laboratories were visited in order to check methods and pass
upon equipment in use. As a result of this inspection, major repairs were
ordered on 12 machines, minor repairs on 30, and 2 machines were con-
demned outright. Sealed glassware was ordered at four places, and
cream scales at the same number.

Advanced Registry Testing. (P. H. Smith). At the present time the
work of Advanced Registry Testing is cared for by the services of one
clerk and seven supervisors. The volume of work does not change materi-
ally from year to year. In November, 1929, there were on test 568 cows,
located on 78 different farms. Many of the pure bred cattle clubs are
now giving recognition to Herd Tests in addition to the testing as it has
been practiced in the past where individual animals of expected high
production were selected for record Avork. The Herd Test is an incentive
to breeders to maintain a high average production in their herds, with
the consequent weeding out of inferior animals-
Miscellaneous work. (P. H. Smith, H. R. DeRose, J. W. Kuzmeski, J. B.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 365

Zielinski, Jr.). Numerous analyses are made for residents of the State
and' other departments of the College. AnaJyses requested must be
comparable to the general routine work of this department-

Summary of Mucelkmeoiis Work, 1929

Materials sent in:

Milk and cream, butter fat only 602

Milk, solids and fat 76

Feeds 97

Pasture grass, dry matter 562

Pasture grass, fodder analyses 45

Pasture grass, nitrogen 47

I<^or other departments of Experiment Station and College:

Milk for butter fat 127

Moisture tests, forage crops 70i6

Complete fodder analyses 192

Moisture tests and nitrogen 168

Chicken bones 2

FERTILIZER CONTROL SERVICE
H. D. Haskins in Charge

Fertilizer Inspection. (H. D. Haskins, H. R. DeRose, M. W. Goodwin,
J. W. Kuzmeski, J. B, Zielinski, Jr.). During the season of 1929, 104
firms or individuals have registered, in Massachusetts 638 brands of fer-
tilizer, unmixed fertilizing materials and agricultural lime. The follow-
ing table shows the nature of these materials as well as statistics with
reference to their inspection.

Brands Brands
Products Registered Collected

Mixed fertilizers 365 347

Ground bone, tankage

and fish 66 61 144 81

Nitrogen products,

organic and mineral .
Phosphoric acid products

Potash products

Dried pulverized natural

manures
Miscellaneous materials
Lime products

Totals 638 598 1834 913 9086

In securing representative samples for the years inspection, the four
agents sampled 22,257 sacks or containers, representing 8285 tons of
material; about 266 towns and 1005 agents were visited.

Fromi July 1, 1928 to July 1, 1929 the following tonnages of fertilizer
and plant food were soldi in Massachusettsi:

Number of

Samples

Number of

Determina-

Collected

Analyses

tions

1131

536

7341

78

69

229

143

440

33

30

102

42

231

32

30

68

38

115

17

16

69

16

110

16

15

29

22

163

31

30

62

35

267

356 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

Fertilizer and Plant Food Tonnage

Plant Food Elements
Fertilizer Available

Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash
Tons Tons Tons Tons

Mixed fertilizers 41,529 1730 3206 2549

Unmixed fertilizer chemicals and

materials 18,788 1115 1737 596

Pulverized natural manures 2,174 51 32 68

Totals 62,491 2896 4975 3213

Full details of the fertilizer and lime inspection work may be found
in Bulletins 51 and 52, Control Series.

Miscellaneous Analytical Work. (H. D. Haskins, H. R. DeRose, M. W.
Goodwin, J. W. Kuzmeski). Between Novemiber 1, 1928 and April 1,
1929, the activities of the department included cooperative chemical work
with other departments of the institution. The general nature and extent
of this work is shown by the following summary:

Soil, complete mineral analysis 20

Corm plants, complete ash analysis 9

Alfalfa, partial ash analysis 6

Timothy, partial ash analysis 4

Tobacco leaf, complete ash analysis 4

Tobacco leaf, dry matter and partial ash analysis 59

Tobacco stalks, dry matter and partial ash analysis 67
Soil, for carbon, nitrogen, carbonic acid, organic

and volatile matter 26
Processed organic ammoniates, complete analysis

including nitrogen activity tests 24

Manure, complete fertilizer analysis 4

Insecticides 2

Millet seed and straw, dry matter and nitrogen 9Q

Gladiolus bulbs, ash analysis 1

Ground seeds of plants, ash analysis 4

The department has also made the following analyses for farm organiza-
tions, institutional departments, and private individuals. For this latter
service a nominal charge is made.

Fertilizers 21

Peat and pond deposits 22

Lime products 5

Pulverized manures 4

Cotton waste products 4

Mulch 3

Soils for partial analysis 23

Wool waste 2

Boiler sludge 2
In addition to the above, the department has cooperated as usual with
the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.

Vegetation Pot Experiments. (H. D. Haskins, A. B. Beaumont, G. J.
Larsinos). This experiment, comprising 96 pots', was conducted in further

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 357

study of the nitrogen availability of processed low grade organic sub-
stances high in nitrogen which are used in mixed commercial fertilizers.
Also, pots were included to note the effect of the use of varying amounts
of manganese sulfate. Results of both experiments are reported in Con-
trol Bulletin 51.

DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS RESEARCH
Esther Davies in Charge

Present Practices of Massachusetts Elementary Schools with Regard
to School Feeding and Transportation and Their Effects upon Health of
Pupils. (E. Davies and C. B. Church.). The field work for this project
has been completed, most of the data tabulated, and a report of the find^-
ings with regard to food service has been prepared. The 222 towns of
less than 5,(i00 population included in the study have a total elementary
school enrollment of 57,600 pupils, 15,000 of whom must be furnished
transportation to and from school. These towns have 800 school build-
ings: 370 one-room, 208 with two or three rooms, and 222 with four or
more rooms. In 71 per cent of the buildings there is no food service of
any sort at any time in the entire school year, and only one-fourth of
the others have anything more than a haphazard service during the winter
months. In general, the decision with regard to food service rests en-
tirely with the individual teacher, and there is neither encouragement nor
appreciation of her efforts on the part of the school administration.

Detailed records as to the cause and the duration of absences from
school were kept by the teachers of 16 schools scattered throughout the
State. The average number of days attended is greater for the children
who walk to school than for those transported. The incidence of ab-
sence due to illness is the same for the two groups, but the illness ab-
sences of the transported group are of longer duration. The greatest
difference between the two groups is in the amount of time absent from
school in order to work at home. The transported group, either because
of distance from the truant officer or because there are more tasks which
can be delegated to the farm child, has three times as high a percentage
of absence due to labor at home as has the group who walk to school.

The report gives an analysis of the situation now existing with regard
to school feeding and transportation, and recommendations of improve-
m.ents which might be ma^^e without appreciable added financial burden
on the rural towns.

The Comparative Values of Milk and Tomato as Supplementary Feeding
in a Rural Elementary School. (E. Davies and C. B. Church). This
project was undertaken to determine to what extent the nutritional status
of the elementary school child can be improved by school feeding, and
whether — given the usual home diet of rural Massachusetts — milk or a
vitamin C rich food is the better for the purpose. Work was begun in
September, 1929, in the schools of a typical rural town, and the experi-
mental feeding is to be continued for two school years. No conclusions
can be reached before the end of the experimental period.

358 MASS. EXPEIRTMENT STATION BUDLETIN 260

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURAL MANUFACTURES
W. W. Chenoweth in Cheiirge

The Extraction of Fruit Juices by Heat. (C. R. Fellers). This project
has been continued, using small fruits including raspberries, blackberries
(wild and cultivated), blueberries, currants, plums and grapes. Wfth
the experimental data complete, the results of the two-year study on
small fruits will soon be jDresented as a bulletin.

The use of pectin in fruit jellies has been studied, and work has been
done on a method for home extraction of pectin from cull apples' or thin-
nings. In cooperation with the Department of Dairy Industry, the sub-
stitution of pectin for gelatin as an ice cream stabilizer was found to
decrease overrun.

The use of frozen apples for cider making was found to be satisfactory,
the expressed juice being very heavy and rich in pectin. This juice with
added sugar gives an excellent cider jelly.

Manufacture and Preservation of Cranberry Products. ( C. R. Fellers
and F. P. Griffiths, W. W. Chenoweth)- Several barrels of cranberries
were canned in various types of tin cans and glass jars and some stored
for a year at 90° F., 70° and 45°. The effect of cold storage upon the
quality of canned cranberry sauce was very marked, the discoloration and
abnormal flavor being very much reduced. A good cranberry sauce was
fc'und to jell at 216-218° F., contained approximately 43 per cent siugar,
and showed a bloom jelly strength of about 150 grams. Close cooperation
with the several cranberry jjackers and the State Cranberry Station at
East Wareham has been maintained in this project.

The development of a cranberry syrup was attempted. It was found
impossible to eliminate a very troublesome pectinous precipitate from the
syrup. The condition was remedied somewhat by using a very short
extraction period and expressing the juice before all of the pectin had
been liberated.

Candied cranberries were made in the laboratory and seem to be in
many ways superior to the commonly used candied cherries.

Utilization of Onions by Canning. (C. R. Fellers). Further progress
has beeni made, particularly in methods of preparation of onions for
canning. A short blanching (1.5- — 3 min.) in boiling water loosens the
outside skin and greath^ facilitates its removal. The use of zinc enamel'-
lined tin cans to prevent a black or smut formation has again proved very
efficacious. The onion contains much loosely combined sulfur which is
liberated during the canning process and combines with metals of the
container to form sulfides. Since zinc sulfide is white, there is little
objection to it.

Work on onion pickling and drying has been continued- Several pounds
of onion powder for flavoring foods was prepared. It is believed this
product has good commercial possibilities.

The Nitrogen Distribution of the Edible Portion of the Oniibln. (F. P.
Griffiths). The total nitrogen and various amino acid fractions were
estimated. The Van Slyke separation method was used.

Utilization of frozen fruits in ice cream. This joint project carried on
in the departments of Dairy Industry and Horticultural Manufactures is

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 359

now in its second year. Two fruit crops consisting of strawberries, rasp-
berries, blackberries, cherries, and peaches have been' cold packed with
various ratios of cane and corn sugars, stored at 15° F., and used in fruit
ice cream mixes. The most satisfactory varieties of strawberries were
Howard 25, Howard 17, Bliss, King Edward, Beacon, First Quality and
Marshall, while Herbert, Cuthbert and St. Regis varieties of raspberries
were very suitable for cold packing. The optimum fruit to sugar ratio
was 2 to 1 and 3 to 1 for strawberries and cherries and 3 to 1 for rasp-
berries and peaches. Corn sugar discolored the fruit and was unsatis-
factory. Fruits frozen without sugar lost, to a considerable degree,
their characteristic fresh flavor and color. Prompt freezing at 0°F.
followed by cold storage at 15° F. or less kept the fruit in good condi-
tion for over a year. Such frozen fruit was comparable to fresh fruit
for use in ice cream, jams, jellies, and juices.

Pasteurization of Dried Fruit. (C. R. Fellers and J. A- Clague). Re-
search has been conducted on the heat treatment of dried fruits, partic-
ularly dates and figs, with the view of developing an effective pasteurizing
procedure for these products. A preliminary report on this work is now
in press {American Journal of Public Health). A heat treatment of 180° F.
for 60 minutes at 75 per cent humidity will effectively destroy Escherichia coll
in packaged dates and actually improves the quality, texture, and color of
the fruit.

Non-Project Research. (C. R. Fellers). The canning of citrus juices,
the fermentation and preservation of citron, and a preliminary study of
cider preservation with benzoates have been carried on-

DEPARTMENT OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING
Frank A. Waugh in Charge

Lawns and Lawn Grasses and Lawn Management. (L. S. Dickinson).

As the summer of 1929 was unusually dry, important observations have
been made concerning the advisability of fertilizing turf during a hot dry
season. Excellent turf of each of the basic grasses^ — bent, Kentucky blue
grass, and fescue — has been maintained by monthly applications of castor
bean pomace or cottonseed meal. Check plots receiving no fertilizer
were severely dried, thus permitting an invasion of weed growth.

Additional field studies have been made of the fungus causing snow
mould, and laboratory experiments have been conducted during the sum-
mer concerning the large brown patch disease (Rhizoctonia solani). These
experiments verified the field observations, and it now appears that an attack
of this disease can be accurately forecast.

Seven species of grasses imported from Germany are being tried as
fairway grasses, and there have been many strains of bent added to the
trial plots. Also, several strains of bent have been discarded, as they did
not appear to be adapted to putting conditions.

The series of plots established in the fall of 1928 in cooperation with

the United States Golf Association wintered very well, and while only
one year old they are furnishing many data. In this series the annual
blue grass and European red fescue plots were much affected by the hot
dry season.

360 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BUULETIN 260

Approximately one acre more land has been assigned to turf culture
studies. This will be used for variety plots, turf nursery, and student
plots.

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY
J. B. Lind&ey in CKarge

The Efficiency of Copper Fungicides. (E. B. Holland and others). A
summary of the laboratory work relative to the preparation of low and
high basic copper sulfates and of the composition and physical character-
istics of the laboratory and manufacturers' samples has been presented'
in BuJletin 254 together with the results of several year's field tests of
their eflficiency as fungicides, both as sprays and dusts, in the control of
diseases on cucumbers, celery, potatoes and fruits. The project is held
in abeyance awaiting further developments of the subject.

Supplements for Copper Fungicides. (E. B. Holland and others). Data
from many experiments made at this Station, both in the laboratory and
in the field, pertaining to the use of supplements for incorporation into
different copper fungicides intended to remedy some real or fancied de-
fect have been published in Bulletin 252, to which the reader is referred
for full information.

The Effect of Fertiliz^er and Cultural Treatment on the Nitrogeno<us
Compounds of Havana Seed Leaf. (P. R. Nelson). The work on tobacco
originally undertaken by E. B. Holland and continued by P. R. Nelson
endeavored to measure the effect of varying amounts of nitrogen, high and
low topping, and different stages of maturity on the nitrogen compounds
of "seconds" grown on the experiment plots during the season of 1928.
This is a sub-project of the Department of Agronomy and is further
reported by that department.

Oil Sprays. (E. B. Holland). A study of oil sprays ha.s been under-
taken with the view of determining the relative composition of the dif-
ferent brands of stock emulsion and miscibles that have been enrLployed
by the Department of Entomology. An effort is being made to produce
similar products of definite composition for field tests. Definite results
are not yet available for publication-

Nitrogen Fixation in the Presence of or as a Result of the Growth of
Legumes versus Non-Legumes Undler Certain Defined Agronpmi£ Condi-
tions. (F. W. Morse). The crops produced this year (1929) were red
clover for a legume and timothy for a non'-legume. They were the sec-
ond year's product from the seeding in the spring of 1926 described in
last year's report. Both lots wintered well. Conditions were favoraJble
for growth until early in June, after which there was little rainfall. The
crops were cut, sampled and weighed on July 1 and 2. They were a rep-
etition of those produced in 1924, therefore a comparison of results for
the two seasons is of interest. The comparison is made between the
products of the areas that have not received nitrogen in fertilizers since
1882.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 361

Dry Matter and Nitrogen Removed from the Plots
{Kilograms 'per Acre)

Dry

matter

Nitrogen

1924

1929

1924

1929

Clover, Plot 7

1552

1712

43.2

41.2

Clover, Plot 9

1868

1838

49.9

41.9

Grass Plot 7

406

508

3.4

4.9

Grass Plot 9

496

623

4.5

6.1

The particularly interesting result is that after an interval of five years
of continuous cropping and removal of nitrogen, the soil which has not
grown a leguminous crop in that period held its own and something more,
measured by both dry matter and nitrogen in the crops removed^ this
year.

Chemical Changes in. the Cranberry During Ripening and After Hajr-
vesting. (F. W. Morse). The work during the past year has been prin-
cipally the analysis of numerous varieties of cranberries and samples
from different bogs. Numerous specimens of the 1929 crop have been
received from New Jersey and Wisconsin cranberry growers, as well as
from the Cape Cod region. At this time it is possible to report nothing
more than the range of percentages found by the determination of total
acid, total sugar and dry matter in the varieties so far examined.

Ten varieties of the crop of 1928 were received from Cape Cod growers
in November of that year. During October and November of this year,
there have been analyzed 41 varieties of the crop of 1929 which were
representative of all three states — Massachusetts, New Jersey and Wis-
consin. The results expressed as minima and maxima so far observed
are as follows:

Dry Matter Total Sugar Total Acid
% % %

1928 .10 varieties 11.3-13.1 3.45-5.22 2.14-2.79

1929 41 varieties 11.2-13.5 2.50-5.45 2.07-2.71

The much wider range in percentages of sugar in 1929 was probaBly
due to a wide variation in the maturity of the fruit when harvested. The
study of cranberries during ripening has shown that sugar is rapidly
increased during the last week on the vines, accompanied by a noticeable
development of color of the berries. Several samples of this year's crop
were very light colored, and the lowest percentages of sugar were found
among them.

Riedord of the Statioln Herd. (J. B. Lindsey and J. G. Archibald). This
project has been carried on over a long period of years incidental to
other work. The records for 192i8 show that twelve cows (ten grade
Ilolsteins, one grade Jersey, and one pure bred Jersey) completed a
normal lactation period during the jear. The average production was
9045 pounds of milk testing 12.27 per cent solids and 3.8 per cent fat,
with a feed cost per cow of $164.97, or 4.01 cents per quart of milk.
Feed cost was based on hay at $20, silage at $8, greem feed at $8 a ton,
and grain at market price. Under conditions prevailing it was not prac-
ticable to determine the overhead.

362 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

In 1929 the herd included 20 cows milked during the year. A number,
however, had only short lactation periods, varying from a few days to
six months. The records of ten cows having normal lactation periods are
as follows: Average yearly production 8534 pounds, testing 12.40 per
cent total solids and 3.97 per cent fat, with a feed cost of $143-63 per
cow, and 3.70 cents per quart of milk. The feed cost of roughage was
figured on the same basis as for 1928, with grain at prevailing market
prices. The feed cost of milk M'as a little less in 1929 than in 1928 due,
in a measure, to the increased use of roughage and less grain.

Milk Substitutes in the Growing of Young Calves. (J. B. Lindsey and
J. G. Archibald). Results of -work on this project over a period of
several years have recently been published in Bulletin No. 253. The
method which has been the most satisfactory compromise between economy
ajid good growth has involved the use of skim milk powder in limited
amount (about 125 pounds per calf) up to four months of age.

The project is being continued with the idea in mind of developing a
system based largely on dry feeding after the first few weeks, little or
lio liquid except water being fed.

Mineral Supplements for Dairy Cattle. (J. B. Lindsey and J. G. Archi-
bald). The final report of six years" investigation of this subject has
recently been published in Bulletin No. 255. Little, if any, benefit was
noted from the feeding of bone meal. Some slight benefit was noted)
from feeding dicalcium phosphate (precipitated bone), but not sufi'icient
to warrant recommendation of its general use. Average producing cows
(5000-8000 lbs. yearly) fed on good quality roughage with the amounts
of grain ordinarily fed in New England seem to obtain sufficient mineral
matter from their ordinary feed. Heavy producers may benefit from the
addition of mineral supplements, but the efficacy of the practice is Uy
no means well established.

Mineral Cjonstituents of Forage Crops. (J. B. Lindsey and J. G.
Archibald). Results of this project form a part of the above-mentioned
Bulletin No. 255. No pronounced deficit of mineral constituents has been
noted in the 'Massachusetts roughages exaimined in the course of this
work. The calcium content of the hays analyzed is worthy of note, it
being somewhat higher than the values given by other authorities-
Mineral Requiirements for the Growth of Dkiry Heifers. (J. B. Lindsey
and J. G. Archibald). Work on this project, organized about three years
ago, is being actively pursued. At date of writing (Decemiber, 192'9)
eight heifers have been carried through two years of intensive experimen-
tal trials, four on a ration high in calcium, and four on a raition low in
that element. An accurate check has been kept on the intake and excre-
tion of calcium and phosphorus by these animals, and careful growth
records have been kept. The work has not yet reached a stage where
definite conclusions are warranted. Of necessity it must be a long-time
project.

A Comparison of Two Systems of Dairy Cattle Feeding — High Rough-
age and Low Grain vs. Low Roughage and High Grain. (J. B. Lindsey
and J. G. Archibald). This project was organized a year ago in order
to obtain some definite experimental evidence on a problem which is
much discussed by practical feeders and on which various recommendations

ANNUAL REPORT, 1P29 363

have been made from time to time, but without a definitely established!
basis of fact.

The Station herd has been divided iinto two groups, one receiving grain
at the rate of one pound to four and one-half pounds of milk, 40 pounds
of silage and what hay they will clean up; the other group receiving grain
at the rate of one pound to two and one-haJf pouindis of milk, 25 pounds
of silage and what hay they will clean up. The cows are being carefully
observed, and the usual checks om live weight each month, milk production,
and the reproductive function, are being maintained. It is too soon to
draw definite conclusions from the trial. The plan is to contimue it for
at least three lactation periods of all the cows.

The Chemical Composition of Grass frpm Plojts 'Fertiliaaedi Vnd Graced
Intensively, (J. G. Archibald). The department has cooperated during
the past two years in a study of an intensive system of grassland man-
agement being carried out on the College farm. A study has been made
of the chemical composition of grass as affected by the intensive fertilizer
treatment and grazing which the system involves. Results for 1928 have
been published in the Journal of the American Society of Agronomy for
June 1929. The study for 1929 has not yet been completed. Briefly: the fer-
tilizer treatment increased the percentage of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
ether extract, and decreased slightly the percenta,ge of crude fibre and
calcium, in the dry matter of the grass. Acre production of all consti-
tuents was increased, nitrogen being nearly dou'bled^ while phosphorus
and ether extract were increased by about one-half.

A stuiiy of the seasonal variations in composition showed that grass
kept in the vegetative stage by grazing may be quite different in chemical
composition in midsummer from what it was in the spring. The seasonal
factors, rainfall, temperature and sunshine, exert their influence irrespec-
tive of the stage of growth of the plant.

Utilization of Onions by Canning. (C. P. Jones). The object of the
studies on the chemistrj- of the onion has been ta ascertain (1) its min^
eral and proximate food constituents, (2) the cause of its discoloring ac-
tion upon the tin in which it is processedi, and (3) the reason for the
darkening of the onion itself in the canning process. Manj'^ of the in-
organic and organic constituents of the onion have been already deter-
mined. Furtlier additions relative to both are to be made.

Discoloration of Can. Preliminary studies made on the discoloration
of plain tin cans by commercially processed fruits, vegetaibles', flesh pro-
ducts and soups, and by laboratory canned materials indicated that sulfur
from the protein molecule caused the discoloration. Experiments conduct-
ed with cysteine hydrochloride further confirmed this view. In the case
of the onion, other sulfur compounds are present in addition to those
associated with the protein molecule, and Mere therefore considered as
possible discoloring factors.

Unfortunately, lack of laboratory facilities prevented the extraction,
recovery and consequent identification of the sulfur oils contained in the
onion. However, several analogous oils (technical alkj'l sulfide and disul-
fide, allyl sulfide, and mustard oil) were investigated as to the probability
of such sulfur compounds constituting discol'bring agents. This was found
not to be the case, with the exception of mustard oil. The presence of

l<64 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

mustard oil would result, through decomposition, in the discoloration of
the can to some degree.

Tests indicated that the metallic film formed on the sides of the can
was a sulfide of tin rather than of iron.

Black deposits occurring on the head space end of some enameled cans
were removed and tested for their metallic constituents. Both iron and
zinc were found present. Zinc oxide is a constituent of the enamel coat-
ing. The amount of iron obtained indicated other forms besides^ the
sulfide, presumably oxides.

D is color ation of the Onion. In all cases canned onions were found to
be normal both in firmness and color when removed from the can, while
the onion liquor was of a pale green color. Exposure to the air or to
the influence of oxidizing agents resulted in the development of a dark
olive green color of tissue and to a dark green to brown coloration of
the liquor, regardless of whether the product was processed in plain tin
or enameled cans. Onions processed in glass, on the other hand, when
exposed to the same oxidizing conditions, discolored slowly, changing in
color to a light brown only upon long standing. This pronounced differ-
ence in color between onions processed in glass and those canned in tin
was believed to be due to the influence of soluble iron.

Examination of the liquor from both the plain and enameled cans
proved! the presence of considerable ferrous iron in solution. Much more
iron was recovered from the liquor of the plain can than from the
enameled can.

A flavonol pigment, probably quercetin, was proved to be present in
the onion bulb. It was found distributed throughout the fleshy inner
tissues as well as in the dried outer scales. Experiments carried out with
commercial quercetin showed that ferrous ions failed to produce any
colored compound, whereas ferric ions resulted in the formation of an
olive green to reddish brown ferric compound and also reddish brown
solutions depending upon the proportion of iron to pigment.

These investigations indicate that the discolored film produced upon the
sides of the plain can in the processing of the onion is due to the format
tion of sulfide of tin, the source of the sulfur being the sulfur compounds
of specific proteins; while the black deposit occurring on the head space
end of some enameled' cans was largely iron, part as a sulfide and part as
oxide. The discoloration of the onion itself is due probably to the pres'-
ence of iron and quercetin or a similar pigment in solution. The de-
velopment of the discoloration is believed to involve the following steps:
First, metallic iron from the can is rendered soluble by the action of oxy-
gen contained within the head space of the can and also by the solvent in-
fluence of the acids and salts of the onion; secondly, the ferrous iron thus
formed reacts with the pigment forming the ferrous compound of the
pigment; and finally, this ferrous iron, when exposed to the atmosphere,
oxidizes and forms an olive green ferric derivative of flavonol-

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 3*65

DEPARTMENT OF POMOLOGY
F. C. Sears in Charge

The Interrelation of Stock and Scion in Apples. (J. K. Shaw and
J. S. Bailey). The usual records of growth, bloom, and yield of the trees
in the eleven-acre orchard have been taken during the year. The trees
have responded to increased applications of nitrate of soda with better
growth, and the 1930 crop should be somewhat greater than the rather
small crops of previous years. The grass has been suppressed over a
space about five feet in diameter around the tree trunks in an effort to
prevent girdling by mice. No such injury has appeared since this practice
has been followed. Inasmuch as the lease of this land expires in two
years, it is probable that the report on this project will be held until the
expiration of the lease. No new tendencies have appeared in the past year.

The orchard set in 1928 consisting of Mcintosh and Wealthy trees on
Clonal stocks from the East Mailing, England, Experiment Station, have
made a good growth, it being necessary to replace only two trees. It
will, of course, be several years before any report can be made of the
comparative value of these stocks for the two varieties used. It seems as
though there may be possibilities for commercial orchards on these stocks
which may be expected to produce semi-dwarf trees which will come in
bearing early, thus reducing the capital investment in an orchard at the
start of production.

Root cuttings from several of these stocks were set in the spring of 1928
and were large enough to bud the second season. In order to make this
method of propagation practical, it must be shown that they have consider-
ably greater value than seedling stocks. Probably the more usual method
of mound layering is preferable. It is planned to dig the several hundred
of these stocks now in the nursery rows in the spring of 1930, increasing
them so far as possible and establishing a new nursery for layering these
stocks.

Tree Character of Fruit Varieties. (J. K. Shaw and A. P. French).
A study of varietal characteristics of nursery trees continued the past
summer, largely in connection with the work of the leaders of this project
in certifying varieties for the Massaclnisetts Fruit Growers' Association.
More than two million trees were examined. Substantial progress has been
made in determining characteristics for the identification of sweet cherry
varieties, and it is now thought possible to detect mixtures of cherry
varieties with a fair degree of certainty. This should be valuable, as
cherry varieties have been badly mixed in the nursery. Little work has
been done with pear and plum varieties for there is at present little de-
mand for these fruits. There are few serious difficulties in variety iden-
tification. The problem of peach variety continues troublesome, and yet
there is enough known to detect many mixtures and misnamed trees.

A variety nursery was estaiblished in the spring of 1929, and grafts and
buds of more than one hundred varieties of apples are included- These
include all the varieties of apples that are extensively grown in American
nurseries, also many new varieties that may have a place in the near
future. A few varieties of peaches were also included. It is planned to
make a critical studv of these varieties as one-vear trees in 1930 and as

366 MAlSS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

two-year trees in 1931. The photographic method will be used, and it
is felt that real iDrogress can be made in recording various differences so
they may be understood by anyone familiar with nursery trees.

The Genetic Composition of Peaches. (J. S. Bailey). The orchard of
about 1200 selfed and cross-fertilized seedlings planted in the spring of
1928 made satisfactory growth during the past season, and only a very few
trees died. Few studies were made the past season, but with the trees
in good growth it is expected that studies will be made the coming summer.
Some additional work in crossing varieties was done the past summer, but
for some unknown reason very few fruits were secured.

The freezing apparatus designed for use in the study of fruit bud
hardiness in connection with this project has been completed and con-
siderable data have already been accumulated bearing on the killing point
of buds of different varieties and on the effect of various conditions on
the killing point. This work is slow and painstaking, and considerable
time will be required before sufficient data can be accumulated to war-
rant definite conclusions-
Testing Methods of Pruning. (J. K. Shaw). This project has been
continued' the past year, but no attempt to summarize the results has
yet been made. No obvious differences have appeared in the quality and
quantity of the fruit borne on the heavy pruned, light pruned, and un^
pruned trees.

Effect of Pruning on Bearing Apple Trees. (F. C. Sears and J. K. Shaw).
The past season was the third year of this experiment on old bearing
trees- There seems to be a slight though not very consistent increase in
size of fruit on the heavy pruned trees. The fruit from these trees is
graded according to the State Grading Law each year, and notes of size,
color development, and various insects and diseases have been made. No
striking differences have appeared; yet the data must be carefully ex-
amined before safe conclusions can be drawn.

Comparison of Cultivation and Sod in a Bearing Orchard. (J. K.

Shaw). The experimental program as modifiedl in 1927 has been con-
tinued. Where nitrate of soda has been used on trees in cultivation with-
out fertilizer, there was distinct increase in yield. Whether a midsummer
application of nitrate of soda has increased yield is yet uncertain. The
same may be said relative to the sod plot which has for the past three
years received potash in addition to nitrogen.

The fertilizer test in the orchard formerly devoted to the study of head
formation has continued as for the past four years. No careful study of
data has been made, but it seems clear that the nitrogen has improved
the trees, although perhaps the unfertilized plots show better performance
than one would expect from trees on rather poor soil which has been
without fertilizers since the planting of the trees in 1916-

Comparison of Clover Sod and Grass in Sod Mulch Orchard. (J. K.

Shaw). This project is a comparison of a complete fertilizer with phos-
phorus, potash and lime designed to bring in a sod of white clover which
may be expected to furnish nitrogen for the trees. The white clover
appeared first in 1927 and has been slowly spreading, as the fertilizer
treatment has been continued. The trees with complete fertilizer con-

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 367

tinue to yield more heavily, but it will be interesting to see what happens
if the white clover spreads over the entire area of the plot.

Test of Different Amounts of Nitrate of Soda. (J. K. Shaw,). This
test on thirty-year-old Baldwins in sod has continued as in the past. No
injury to the trees has yet resulted from the use of twenty-five pounds
of nitrate of soda per tree- Owing- to the small number of trees in-
volved in this experiment, a considerable number of years will be re-
quired before it is safe to draw any conclu.sions.

Comparison of Cultivation and Heavy Mulching for Apples and Pears.

(J. K. Shaw). This experiment has been continued as in previous years.
The mulched trees continue to yield heavier crops and no injurious effects
of the large amount of nitrates in the soil under the mulch have been
observed. There seems to be a heavier drop from the trees on the mulch
plot just before harvesting, but this is not very serious as the apples
are little damaged and may be sold for good prices. It is felt that the
system of mulching trees with enough hay or straw to suppress the
growth of grass around the trees has possibilities in Massachusetts or-
charding.

The Effects of Fertilizer Limitation on Fruit Plants. (J. K. Shaw).
This project has been continued as in previous years and nothing new
has appeared during the past s^son. Owing to the fact that the trees,
now seven years old, must have sent their roots beyond the boundaries
of the plots which are only ten feet wide, it is planned to remove these
trees and reset the area with other trees on uniform roots. While the
differences between plots have been marked^ there are also very great
differences between individual trees on the same plot.

Role of Potash and Lime in Fruit Tree Nutrition. (J. K. Shaw). The

study of the soils on the orchards referred to in the previous paragraph
by means of experiments carried out in Wagner pots, has been continued.
Soil from the field plots was placed in the pots after various fertilizer
chemicals had been mixed in the soil. The general question of whether
the beneficial effects of potash and lime observed in the field were genuine
has again been answered in the affirmative, although not quite as em-
phatically as last year.

Addition of nitrate of soda to soil from the potash plots failed to in-
crease growth as much as lime; therefore, it seems that the increase of
soil nitrates in plots receiving lime cannot be the sole cause of improved
growth. It is planned to continue this study next year.

Effect of Potash and Lime on Apple Trees. (J. K. Shaw). This project
is carried out in an orchard planted in 1915 and involves comparisons
of nitrate of soda, potash, superphosphate, and lime, alone and in various
combinations. Certain plots are fertilized so as to establish a sod of
white clover. This has been successful in many cases and seems to have
been beneficial to the trees. Still the trees receiving nitrogen have yielded
better than those without, although the difference is not great. No
superiority of color of apples from plots receiving complete fertilizer over
those from plots receiving nitrogen alone has been observed. In general
there is a tendency for plots receiving nitrogen to be inferior in color to
those neceiving no nitrogen from fertilizers. Observation in this orchard

»6.8 MASS. EXiPBRIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

must be continued for several years longer before final conclusions can be
drawn.

Study of Varieties of Tree Fruits- (J. K. Shaw and O. C. Roberts).
The observations on many varieties of tree fruits growing in the College
orchards, which have been carried on for several years, were continued
this year. With the accumulation of a considerable number of years'
records, it should be possible to make some deductions as to the relation
of climatic conditions to bloom and yield.

Fruit Bud Formation in the Strawberry. (R. A. Van Meter). This
project was started in the spring of 1928 to study the effect of soil nitrates
on fruit bud* formation and on fruit production. Forty-five plots of
thirty plants each were established in 1928, involving nine fertilizer
treatments replicated five times, as given in the last annual report. No
differences were observed in the appearance of plants on the different
plots either during the summer of 1928 or in the spring of 1929 prior
to fruiting. The summer of 1928 was moist and all plots grew well.

At harvest time the fruit from each plant was checked and graded for
size. Differences between treatments were slight, but there seemed to be
a consistent difference in favor of the later applications.

A new series of forty-five plots of sixty plants each was estaiblished
in the spring of 1929. These are in nine series, treated as follows:

1. No nitrates

2. August 5, nitrate of soda

3. August 16, nitrate of soda

4. August 16, sulfate of ammonia

5. September 3, nitrate of soda

6. September 16, nitrate of soda

7. September 16, sulfate of ammonia

8. October 4, nitrate of soda

9. October 22, nitrate of soda

Nitrate of soda was applied at the rate of 309 pounds per acre, and
sulfate of ammonia at the rate of 232 pounds per acre. Superphosphate
at the rate of 600 pounds per acre and muriate of potash at 150 pounds
per acre were worked into the soil along the rows immediately after
planting. All plants made an excellent growth, and no differences be-
tween plots were observed during the summer.

Work not on a Project Basis- As in previous years, work has been
done along lines not definitely classified under the various listed projects.
This is mostly by members of the Pomology Department not on the Sta-
tion Staff. The principal work along these lines is briefly mentioned.

The "Set" of Mcintosh Apples in Middlesex and Worcester Counties.
In the spring of 1929 county extension services and certain growers in
these two counties reported that Mcintosh apples failed to set properly
and asked for assistance from the Experiment Station. Prof. Bailey and
Mr. Roberts spent some time in these two counties cooperating with the
county agents in studying this situation. Considerable data were col-
lected and these indicated that the set was not as poor as had been re-
ported. This observation seems to be supported by the fact that the crop
at harvest was at least fair. The Mcintosh is one of the varieties that
blooms rather freely every year, but suffers a severe early drop. In this

ANNUAL REPNORT, 192i9 369

respect it stands in sharp contrast to the Baldwin, Wealthy, and many
other varieties. In most years a light set of Mcintosh is not serious,
but in years when the set is naturally rather light, it results in serious
limitation of the crop. The problem is a complicated one and it is
planned to undertake some co-operative tests with various growers in
these two counties in the season of 1930. It is believed that in this way
information can be assembled that will help point the way to improved
practices that may lessen the danger of light crops in years when the
variety fails to set well.

A Study of the Storage of Mcintosh Under Various Conditions^ (O. C.

Roberts in co-operation with C, I. Gunness of the Agricultural Engineering
Department). The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship
between temperature and the satisfactory storage of Mcintosh apples.
In conducting this experiment the apples were picked at various stages
of maturity and placed in storage rooms with the temperatures at 45',
40", 32°, and air-cooled storage re&pectively. As a result of this ex-
periment it is hoped that the maximuin temperature at which Mcintosh
ijiay be held satisfactorily will be determined.

Cross-Pollination and Sterility Studies with Certain Apple Varieties-

(F. C. Sears, O. C. Roberts and others). Work on the cross-pollination
of apple varieties was continued this year along similar lines as reported
previously. Mcintosh, Cortland and Northern Spy were used as the
pistillate varieties. The pollen varieties included the Mcintosh, Delicious
Wealthy, Early Mcintosh, Cortland, and Macoun. The last three, rep-
resentative of Mcintosh seedlings, were used especially on Mcintosh.
The results of this season's work showed Early Mcintosh and Macoun as
being of doubtful value as pollinizers for Mcintosh, while Cortland was
more satisfactory than the other two. However, the performance of
Cortland was not as good as the previous year.

The effectiveness of the use of bouquets of suitable varieties on the
set of Mcintosh was studied. Two Mcintosh trees were covered with
tobacco cloth tents to exclude the possibility of natural pollination. A
hive of bees was placed under each tree. Then a bucket containing a
bouquet of Delicious, Wealthy, and Ben Davis flowers was placed in one
of the trees, while in the other tree no pollen varieties were provided.
The tree in which the bouquet was placed set approximately five times as
many apples as the tree without the bouquet.

Studies of the Arsenical Residue on Apples. (O. C. Roberts cooperating
with the Department of Entomology, and the Boston Federal Food,
Drug, and Insecticide Administration). A study of the arsenical residue
on apples has been continued this year as formerly with a few slight
modifications. Dusts have been used in the later applications to deter-
mine if the use of such materials would control the pests and at the same
time avoid an excessive deposit of arsenical residue. This appears to be
a promising procedure.

370 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY
J. C. Graham in Charge

Broodiness in Poultry. (F. A. Hays). The intense broody and the
non-broody lines are being continued, and a considerable number of
recessives lacking both genes for broodiness have appeared. As previously
pointed out, there is some difficulty in increasing the population of reces-
sives because of high mortality record. The wide variability in degree of
broodiness in the broody line is receiving special attention at this time.
The degree of broodiness in the flock as a whole has been reduced very
significantly; first, by reducing the percentage of broody birds, and second,
by decreasing the number of broody periods per individual.

The average length of the broody period has remained constant at
fifteen days, throughout the history of the flock. The flock of 1927
showed only 9.5 per cent of the birds going broody as pullets. This
places the flock on the same basis with respect to the broody trait as the
White Leghorn.

Breeding Poultry for Egg Production, (F. A. Hays and Ruby San-
born). The mean annual egg production of the 552 birds hatched in 1927
was 197-3 eggs. This flock was superior to previous flocks in early
iriaturity, intensity and non-broodiness, but was slightly deficient in per-
sistency. Records would indicate that the average decrease of eight eggs
per bird was due to lack of persistency and to modifying environmental
influences. The flock hatched in 1928 showed a very significant increase
in vigor as measured by mortality rate in the laying house, the mean
mortality rate for this flock being 14.85 per cent. The most significant
increase was observed in flock hatchability for the spring of 1929, the
mean percentage of fertile eggs hatched being 78, the highest in the
history of the flock.

Age at first egg, body weight at first egg, high intensity and low
broodiness have been well established in the flock. At the present time
especial effort is being made to establish by genetic methods a flock lack-
ing the winter pause and breeding true for genetic high persistency and
high hatchability, together with maximum vigor.

Statistical Study of Heredity in Rhode Island Reds. (F. A. Hays and
Ruby Sanborn). The data on the effects of inbreeding upon fecundity,
covering a period from 1923 to 1928, have been assembled and submitted
for publication as a Station bulletin. Eleven years' records on growth
rate in Rhode Island Reds have also been assembled and are ready for
publication as a Station bulletin.

A Genetic Study of Rhode Island Red Color. (F. A. Hays). Consider-
able progress has been noted in the estaiblishment of desirable plumage
color in the egg-laying strain of Rhode Island Reds. In the spring of
1929 a small flock of standard-bred Reds was obtained and will be used as
a check against the Station strain in color breeding studies.

Determination of Genetic Laws Governing Results in Inbreeding Poul-
try, (F. A. Hays). A study, carried on for five years, of the effects of
different degrees of inbreeding upon fecundity was concluded on March
1, 1929, and submitted for publication. The project is being carried on
at present using as a foundation birds measuring up to the highest

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929

371

possible standard in characteristics affecting fecundity. The matings of
1929 consisted of sire on daughters in three different groups. The mat-
ings of 1930 will be made up using half-brothers and sisters. The same
rigid standard for selection will be employed as long as the experiment
continues.

Heredity and Environmental Characteristics Affecting Variability in
Egg Production. (F. A. Hays). Data are now being accumulated under
this project, and the second-year group of daughters are now housed to
be tested for laying. The selection of the 1929 breeding stock was within
the three lines established by the 1928 matings.

Factors Governing Egg Weight and Shell Character in Domestic Fowl.
(F. A. Hays). The matings for 1929 in this project were made between
individuals hatched in 1928 from the small, medium and large egg groups-
The daughters hatched in 1928 from the mothers laying 52-gram eggs
or 53-gram eggs in December did not show a significant difference in
mean winter egg weight. On the other hand, the daughters from the
mothers averaging 59-gram eggs in December showed a winter egg
weight very superior to that of the other groups.

Egg weight in the entire flock has shown a very significant increase
in the last two years. The flock hatched in 1928 reached a 24-ounce
average in February. Egg weight records are now available for a com-
plete year on 225 birds. A paper entitled the "Inheritance of Egg Weight
in the Domestic Fowl" was published in the Journal of Agricultural Research
for May 1, 1929.

Relation of Intensity or Rate of Laying to Feather Pigmentation. (F. A.
Hays). Sufficient data under this project will be available next year
for study. In a general way there appears to be considerable relation
between intensity and shade of pigmentation in the Rhode Island Red.

DEPARTMENT OF VEGETABLE GARDENING

(Market Garden Field Station, Waltham)

Frank A. Waugh in Charge

Conditions Affecting the Production and Vegetative Propagation of
Washington Asparagus. ( V. A. Tiedjens). During the 1929 season
investigations on the vegetative propagation of asparagus were continued.
One-year-old roots weighing 160 pounds a thousand, and having crown
bud development indicating high potential yielding power, were divided
into two, three, four, and five or more crown sections. The results may
be summarized as follows:

Ni:

imber

Number

Number of

Average

Condition

pl

anted

of

stalks

weight

of

skips

per plant

of roots
Grams

growth

Whole

crown.s

144

0

8.4

88

Uniform height

Crowns

cut in two

52

0

6.2

74

Uniform height

Crowns

cut in three

52

3

5.8

62

Some variation

Crowns

cut in four

78

17

6.1

50

Some variation

Crowns

cut in five or more

26

2

5.5

61

Some variation

372 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

The skips in the above table are within reason except perhaps in the
crowns cut in quarters. In this lot the number of skips is greater than
usual. The size of the roots from the cuttings compares very favorably
with the whole roots. Some of the roots from the cuttings were fully
as large as the roots from the uncut crowns.

Due to the distribution and variation in size of buds on the crowns,
it is impossible to make divisions so that each section from the same
crown will have buds of equal size. The first buds developed on a
seedling crown are much smaller than those developed late in the growing
season. The small buds left over from the early seasonal growth are more
or less dormant and will not produce as large a root growth as the
sections having the larger buds that were developed late in the growing
season. However, the potentialities for large root development are prob-
ably uniform for all the sections coming from the same root. The size
of the buds on the cuttings is not necessarily correlated with the size of
the stalks that follow. The size of the stalk is determined by the amount
of stored food reserves in the roots attached to the section of the crown
planted. The stalk may, therefore, be much smaller in diameter than
the bud from which it came. The distribution of the buds on the crown
determines where the crown may be divided, and thus the number of roots
to the section is determined before the cutting is made. The plants that
die may be accounted for by the section of the crown that they represent.

This method of propagation is feasible and applicable to commercial
conditions. By this method it is possible to grow seedlings properly spaced,
select 1,000 of the best out of every 10,000 roots, and increase these by
crown cuttings to 3,000 or 5,000.

Vomparison of Size ■■of Roiots.- — A comparison between 100 two-year roots.
100 selected one-year roots, and 100 cull roots gave an average of 6.7
stalks per plant for the two-year-old roots, and 7.4 stalks for the selected
one-year roots. The same number of skips, 3 per cent, was counted in each
plot. In the plot of 100 cull roots the number of stalks per plant was 5.4,
Vi'ith 20 per cent skips. There was a big difference in height of stallks
between the cull and selected one-year roots in favor of the selected roots.
The two-year roots produced stalks slightly higher than the selected one-
year roots.

Stem Cuttings. — An attempt was made to make stem cuttings on one
and five-year-old plants. Cuttings were made from the stems below the
branches having dormant buds and from the spears which had not broken
open. These cuttings were grouped in four series, subjected to the fol-
lowing treatments, and placed in moist, sterile sand in a propagating
frame.

Series I — Lot 1 immersed one hour in 3.8 per cent nitrate of soda solu-
tion; lot 2 immersed one hour in 1 per cent sodium thiocyanate
solution; lot 3 immersed one hour in 3.8 per cent nitrate of soda
solution plus 1 per cent corrosive sublimate solution; lot 4,
check.

Series II — The time was increased to 2^/^ hours.

Series III — The same as Series II but the cut ends were sealed with low
temperature paraffine-

Series IV- — Immersed 6V2 hours.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 373

The spears in most cases decayed even when treated with corrosive sub-
limate, and proved very unsatisfactory as a source of material. None of
the cuttings produced any signs of root growth, but considerable stem
growth was made. The buds on the older part of the stem, that ordin-
arily are permanently dormant under field conditions, were stimulated to
growth by the various treatments but did not show any material advantage
over the check cuttings. Sodium thiocyanate for one hour was the mo.st
promising. Stalks from the one-year plants gave 30 to 50 per cent
repsonse regardless of treatment, while the stalks from five-year-old plants
gave 10 to 16 per cent response in growth of dormant buds. Sealing the
ends of the stems gave no material diflference except to make growth
slower. There was considerable difference in bud and stem growth be-
tween cuttings from one and five-year plants.

On the whole the results were interesting but gave no information on
root growth. The work will be continued another year along the most
promising lines.

Plant Progenies. — Selecting from individual plant progenies for higher
yielding plants was continued m the Martha and Mary Washington varie-
ties- Thirty-three lots of seeds each lot representing a plant, were planted
in the field in August, 1928, and a duplicate lot planted in the greenhouse
February 8, 1929. Both were transplanted in the field in April, 1929, for
comparison. The roots were spaced four inches apart. They were the
same size in both cases, but the greenhouse lot was transplanted with
green tops. The selections sown in the field varied from 51 to 100 per
cent stand, while the greenhouse lot varied from 8 to 73 per cent stand.
The average nunnber of stalks per plant ^\■as 4.5 for the greenhouse lot
and 5.8 for the field lot; the average number of stalks per plant varied
from 3.0 to 6.8 for the various selections. This difference is probably an
indication of the inherent vigor of the various mother plants.

There is a feeling among growers that the stalks of the Mary Washing-
ton variety break over more readily than the other varieties- This was
noticeable in the plant progenies, for 7 out of 12 Mary Washington selec-
tions showed a sprawly growth, while none of the 39 Martha Washington
selections showed the sprawly condition. This, apparently, is a weakness
in the Mary Washington variety.

Number of Seeds to the Berry. — The average number of seeds to the
berry varied from three to five in the different selections. A few berries
on some plants had seven and eight seeds. The weight of 100 seeds varied
from 1.6 grams to 3.2 grams.

The seed from one plant was grouped in six lots according to the num-
ber of seeds in the berry and was planted. The visible growth and per-
centage stand were best in the lot of seed coming from the two-seed
berries. The seed of each lot was weighed, and the weight of 100 seeds
decreased consistently from 2.6 grams for the single-seed berry lot to 2-0
grams for the six-seed berry lot.

The seed from three other plants was divided into four sizes with
sieves. The weights in each case decreased as in the previous example.
In each case the second heaviest, and the second largest seed, gave the
most vigorous appearing plants. For a comparison, field run seed was
screened into four sizes and planted with the four plants mentioned. In

574 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

this group the growth made from the first and second largest seed was
similar and did not show any advantage for the second largest seed, as
was the case in the seed from the four plants. The consistency of this
vigor in the second largest seed between the four plants seems to be sig-
nificant and will be investigated further.

The results indicate the fallacy in comparing the effect of size of seed
on plant growth by using field run seed. The variation in size of seed
between plants makes it imperative that studies of this nature be conduct-
ed with seed from the same plant.

Field run seed was divided into large, medium, and small and planted
three inches apart by hand in rows. The average stand (4 rows of each
lot) was 61 per cent for the large seed, 70 per cent for the medium seed,
and 64 per cent for the small seed. The consistency in stand in the indi-
vidual rows of each lot makes the dift^erence significant. The average
number of stalks per plant for the three lots was not significantly different
nor was there any difference in root growth.

Depth of Planting. — Two hundred selected one-year roots were planted
2, 4^ 6, and 8 inches deep in 1928. The preliminary results are summarized
in the following table:

Depth of Skips Number of plants

planting

Inches % Vigorou.s Medium Weak

2 2 165 28 3

4 9 144 30 8

6 17 120 33 13

8 30 65 38 37

These results were obtained on a medium silt loam with a gravelly sub-
soil. Four to six inches seems to be the best depth of planting to give a
good growth and have the roots deep enough so that the surface can be
cultivated in the spring.

Relation of Depth of Planting Seedlings to the Angle of Crown Growth.
Seedlings starting their first storage roots were transplanted to the ex-
perimental plot. After a season's growth the roots were dug and the
angle of inclination for the crown growth measured.

Depth of Medium sand

planting Sand and loam Loam
Inches

1 — 14.0° — 11.6° —16.6°

2 —10.0° —5.8° —1.9°

3 -1-6.0° -1-7.1° +1.6°

4 +11.0° +17.0° +6.4°

The results show that the optimum depth for planting seed was be-
tween 2 and 3 inches for the three types of soil. At that depth the new
buds on the crown developed horizontally. Shallower than 2 inches, the
buds tended to develop below the horizontal plane, whereas at greater
Hepths the buds developed above the horizontal plane.

Fertilizer Studies. — In the spring of 1929 fertilizer experiments on as-
paragus were started in Waltham, Concord, and Eastham. Five acres
are devoted to the plots. A comparison of fertilizer ingredients, time of
application of fertilizers, amounts of fertilizers to apply, relation of high
phosphoric acid to maturity, and relation of fertilizer to earliness, are

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 375

the main problems being investigated. Although there were variations
between the plots at the end of the 1929 season, there was no correlation
between the variations and the treatment of the plots. There was no con-
sistency between duplicate and triplicate plots. The extremely dry sea-
son made it possible to locate the favorable spots in the field which were
probably due to moisture.

Cold Resistance in Sweet Corn in Its Relation to Quality, Siz)e, and
Earliness. (V. A. Tiedjens). Breeding a cold resistant early yellow
.sweet corn was continued. A large number of ears were selected from a
selfed lot of first generation seed. Considerable earliness has been in-
corporated in the Whipple Yellow strain used in the cross. Many of the
Fi selections were mature from two to ten days before the Whipple Yel-
low parent, and were fully as large.

Greenhouse Lettuce. (V. A. Tiedjens). Three pounds of the Bel-May
greenhouse lettuce seed grown in 1929 were parceled out to growers in
small quantities. Preliminary reports from the growers show this lettuce
to be superior to Belmont and May King for greenhouse forcing.

Improvemenet of Vegetable Varieties Through Root and Seed Selection.
(V. A. Tiedjens). Selection of fotindation stock for the Field Station
selection of the Wyman beet and Hutchinson carrot was continued. The
demand for the Hutchinson carrot seed this year exceeded the supply
by 400 pounds.

Thirty-one lots of Dwarf Horticultural beans from as many seedsmen,
and fifteen lots of French Horticultural beans were compared, preliminary
to establishing uniformity for these two varieties. Much mixture was
found in most of the samples. Ten of the lots which showed some pro-
mise were saved for further study. There was considerable difference in
earliness and susceptibility to drought between the two varieties.

Five samples of Blue Hubbard squash were secured for self-pollinating
to establish a uniform variety of Blue Hubbard. A strain of Green Hub-
bard from the Vermont Experiment Station was grown and found to be
very uniform for type characteristics. The season was not conducive to
their development, however, so that the squash were under size. This
was also true of the Blue Hubbard varieties.

The Genetics of Greenhouse Cucumbers. (V. A. Tiedjens). The work on
this project has progressed along lines reported previously. Some crosses
having commercial possibilities are being compared.

A new selection producing no pistillate flowers during the summer
months and only an occasional pistillate flower during the winter months has
been isolated and is being studied in crosses to determine how prevalent
the sterility may become in commercial houses. The factor for this
character probably had its origin in the English variety and may account
for low yielding plants in commercial houses, as most of the commercial
varieties carry some English "blood".

Bitter Cucvmihers. Preliminary studies have been made on the relation
of fertilizer treatment to bitter cucumbers. Nitrate of soda, urea, calurea,
and calcium nitrate were compared with and without manure. The plants
were grown in half barrels, and the chemicals were applied as top-dressing
every two weeks. The first cucumibers were picked April 20, and the
first bitter cucumbers occurred after May 10. The tubs receiving no

376 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

manure gave 31 per cent bitter cucumbers, while the manure tubs gave
42 per cent bitter cucumbers, with no difference between the chemical
treatments, There was some correlation between bitterness and growth.
Of the fancy fruit, 30 per cent were bitter; of the wasp shaped types 35
per cent were bitter; and of the seconds and nubbins 50 per cent were bit-
ter. Generally, the more time that was required to mature the fruit, the
greater was the possibility that it would become bitter. There was no
correlation between the location of the cucumber on the vine and its
flavor. Bottle-necked cucumbers had a 75 per cent chance of being
bitter near the stem end-

DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SCIENCE
J. B. Lentz in Charge

The Cutaneous Vaccine for Fowl Pox. (N. J. Pyle). From the eighth
to the twenty-first day following the use of vaccines, egg production was
slightly decreased. In birds 68 days of age, gain of weight indicated
that growth was not seriously affected and that the weaker vaccine ap-
peared to be as efficient as the stronger, "standard" vaccine. An im-
munity duration of at least 371 days was established. Attenuation of the
vaccine appeared to be associated with its glycerol content. Details of
this work are in the printer's hands.

Laboratory Service — Pathology. (G- L. Dunlap). This service was
used by 284 persons, of which number 112 made personal calls, either de-
livering specimens or discussing the reports of examination.

Of the 1,055 specimens examined, 1,002 represented poultry and the
remainder consisted of other domesticated animals. Approximately one-
fourth of the poultry specimens harbored intestinal parasites, led by
coccidia. Avian tuberculosis and fowl cholera were entirely absent in
the material submitted.

Trlchuris ovis, a sheep parasite, and tetrameres, a poultry parasite,
are being reported for the first time from this laboratory.

A diagnostic fee of two (2) dollars, to be paid before a report is issued,
is associated with this service. Failure of payment accounts for 26 un-
claimed reports.

This service deserves credit for valuable assistance given to the pullorum
disease testing work.

Poultry Disease Elimination Law. (W. R. HinshaM* and E- F. Sanders;
H. Van Roekel and K. L. Bullis). Control Series Bulletin 48 reports the
1928-29 Pullorum Disease Testing Season. Compared with the 1927-28
season, the respective increases are: 72,001 agglutination tests, 63,8!61
birds tested, 92 flocks, 90 negative flocks, and 72 flocks 100 per cent test-
ed and negative. Similar comparison shows the average infection to be
reduced 2.27 per cent.

The proper age to start testing birds has received some attention.
Preliminary results, obtained from a limited number of flocks, .seem to
show that the disease can be eradicated just as efficiently when testing is
begun before laying, as when testing is postponed until the flock is in
production.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 377

Among the reasons for failure to eradicate pullorum disease the fol-
lowing were found to have been operating in some Massachusetts flocks:
not all birds on the premises were tested, retcsting at intervals during the
season was not practised, chicks which were hatched before the test had
been completed were raised, positive birds were not removed from the
flock (109 reports studied showed 84 positives left in 26 flocks), infertile
eggs from untested flocks were fed, custom hatching with no discrim-
ination against untested flocks was practised, and purchases were made
without careful investigation regarding the pullorum disease status of the
flock of origin.

The progress of this work has been due to no one particular factor.
Poultrymen, extension workers, administrative oificers, and members of
the laboratory staif have appreciated the value of cooperative effort.
During the year the laboratory has received 188 visitors, who wished either
to discuss their own individual problems or to prepare themselves to
assist other poultrymen. The Seventeenth Annual Poultry Convention,
during the 1929 Farm and Home Week, gave an entire afternoon to this
subject, and over 250 persons showed that close, personal contact of all
concerned improves the service.

At this time no definite conclusions can be made regarding the 1929-30
season. The month of October, \vith over 100,000 tests, surpassed the
record of any single previous month in the laboratory's history. The
advantages of this early testing, to both the poultrymen and the laboratory,
are so evident that no discussion is required.

Farm and Station Bang's Disease. The laboratory, in assisting this
project, has recorded 972 agglutination tests.

^

PUBLICATION
General Bulletins

247 Biennial Report: For the Fiscal Years Ending Nov 30, 1927 and
1928. 55 pp. February, 1929.

The main purpose of this report is to provicU" an opportunity for presenting in
published form, recent results from experimentation in fields or on projects
where progress has not been such as to justify the general and definite conclu-
sions necessary to meet the requirements of bulletin or printed manuscript.

248 Tomato Leaf-Mold: The LTse of Fungicides for Its Control in Green-
houses. Guba, E. F. 24 pp. March, 1929.

The culture of greenhouse tomatoes is an important industry in ^Massachusetts,
and the area devoted to this crop has increased considerably in recent years.
Leaf-mold is the most serious disease affecting the crop. The loss of one to two
months of pickings of the fall crop and one month of the spring crop as a re-
sult of this disease is common. Past recommendations regarding the proper
choice of fungicides for its control are conflicting and not based on experimental
evidence, and growers who have used fungicides have not obtained control.
This investigation has considered the merits of different types of fungicides.

/An effective materifil, and a practical method of application, have been discov-
ered which are recorded in this bulletin.

249 The Plum Curculio in Apples in Massachusetts. Whitcomb, W. D.
28 pp. March, 1929.

The plum curculio is the most injurious insect pest of apples in Massachusetts,
frequently damaging more fruit than all other insects together. As a result of

378 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

the heavy loss to fruit growers, studies of this insect were begun in 1926 in
the eastern part of the State, and this bulletin reports the progress of the work
to date.

250 The Consumer Demand for Apple.s- Jefferson, Lorian P. 18 pp.
April, 1929.

The purpose of production is the satisfaction of the requirements of consumers.
In order to meet them efficiently, it is necessary to know the character and ex-
tent of the demand. This type of investigation has received comparatively lit-
tle attention, but the importance of such information becomes increasingly evi-
dent. It was in the hope of benefiting both grower and dealer that this study
was undertaken.

251 Causes of Differences in Poultry Profits. Miehell, R. L., and Branch,
F. H. 19 pp. May, 1929.

Kecords based on experience in poultry farming show wide differences in finan-
cial returns. It is assumed that these differences can be attributed to certain
specific practices and conditions which may be subject to control or modifica-
tion. This stud> was undertaken to determine the extent to which the various
factors and conditions operated and were effective in influencing profit in the
industry.

252 Supplements for Copi^er Fungicides. Holland, E. B., Dunbar, C. O-,
and Gillifjan, G. M. 20 -)p. June, 1929.

Ever since copper fungicides were introduced, numerous supplementary prod-
ucts have been recommended fir incorporation in the spray with a view to
remedying some real or fancied defect. The contradictory evidence presented
by different investigators relative '^o various supplements may be due in part to
differences in amount of substance employed, in method of preparation and of
application, but more often to an insufficient number of replications with dif-
ferent crops under varying weather ana soil conditions. The use of supplements
is not warranted unless they reduce int.'ction and consequent economic losses.
This study was undertaken to determine tie intrinsic and relative values of the
materials recommended for use as supplemer.ts.

253 Milk Substitutes for Calves. I.indsey, J. B., and Archibald, J. G-
9 pp. July, 1929.

The production of milk for near-i)y consumpti -n is the principal industry of
Massachusetts dairymen. The maintaining of tht herd is an ever-present prob-
lem. Some farmers prefer to purchase mature milkers and others to rear calves
from their own cows. This Station has been studying the most economical and
satisfactory method of growing the calf until four months of age, and presents
the results of its findings in this bulletin.

254 The Preparation and Effectiveness of Basic Copper Sulfate as a
Fungicide. Hollandl, E. B., Dunbar, C. O., Gilligar, G. M, and
Doran. W- L. 27 pp. June. 1929.

Copper fungicides have been a subject for investigation during the past few
years. This work comprises a study of chemical composition, physical char-
acteristics and general effectiveness in field work, together with the ;ise of va-
rious supplementary products. The main objective was the preparation of a
Bordeaux substitute that could be readily suspended in water and used as a
spray, or mixed with a free-flowing carrier and applied as a dust. The product
must give a practical control of disease but not necessarily equal to a highly
dispersed Bordeaux of the same copper content. The advantages of such a
product in the saving of time, labor and equipment in preparation, and the gain
in uniformity and stability of the spray mixture are evident. Since basic sul-
fates are generally considered preferable to basic carbonates, attention has been
directed largely to them.

255 Studies in Mineral Nutrition. Lindsey, J. B., and Archibald, J. G.
16 pp. November, 1929.

It was formerly held that the dairy animal obtained sufficient mineral matter
from the roughages and grains consumed. More recently, based on some ex-
perimental evidence, this opinion has been questioned. »"'l many have advised

ANNUAL REPORT, 1920 379

the feeding of supplementary minerals in the form of ground bone, ground lime-
stone and tlie like. In order to get additional light upon the subject, this Sta-
tion has conducted experiments with growing and mature dairy animals and
presents ita findings in Part I of this bulletin.

As a part of the work, many determinations were made of the mineral con-
stituents of the grains and roughages fed, and likewise of the amount found in
the ordinary roughages grown in different sections of Massachusetts. These
analyses are brought together in Part II of this bulletin.

256 The Cost of Government in Massachusetts, 1910-1926. Yount, Hubert
W., and Sherburne, Ruth E. 68 pp. November, 1929.

The rapid increase in demand for public service, together with the resulting
' increase in taxes, has placed a severe strain on farmers in many Massachusetts
towns. This study analyzes the costs of public service in such towns compared
with larger towns and cities, and points out the more important handicaps un-
der which small towns operate.

257 The Cutaneous Vaccine for Fowl Pox. Pyle, Norman J. 20 pp.
December, 1929.

Investigation of fowl pox at this Station has for its purpose the determination
of an efficient preventive and curative treatment for the disease. This is of
vital importance to the Massachusetts poultry industry because the disease
causes serious loss by decreasing egg production during the season when eggs
are highest priced.

The study of the cutaneous vaccine, as here reported, included investigations
of its efficiency, its practical use and method of administration, its action on
body weight, temperature, and early egg production, and the duration of im-
munity which followed its administration.

258 Inbreeding in Relation to Egg Production. Hays, F. A. 48 pp.
December, 1929.

For many years inbreeding has been successfully used in establishing poultry
breeds where foundation stock was available only from very diverse sources.
In recent years, however, work in this field has been confined largely to flocks
of an established breed, and the value of inbreeding from such restricted foun-
dation stock is questionable. The experiment here reported was planned to
show the effect of various degrees of inbreeding within a so-called established
breed — in this case Rhode Island Reds.

259 Rate of Growth in Rhode Island Reds. Hays, F. A., and Sanborn,
Ruby. 20 pp. December, 1929.

In selecting birds for various purposes, poultrymen make extensive use of body
weight as an index of the characteristics desired. The weight records presented
in this report cover an eleven-year period on all living individuals in a flocl<
bred primarily for high fecundity and show something of their significance. The
results may serve as guides to the weights which may be expected in this breed
if high fecundity is the chief goal, when methods of management and climatic
conditions are comparable.

Control Bulletins

44 Inspection of Commercial Fetdstuffs- Smith, Philip H., and others.
28 pp. November, 1928.

45 Inspection of Comn.ercial Fertilizers. Haskins, H. D., and others.
47 pp. December, 1928.

46 Inspection of Agricultural Lime Products. Haskins, H. D., and Good-
win, M. W- 6 pp. December, 1928.

47 Seed Inspection. Smith, Philip H., and others. 11 pp. February,
1929.

48 Eradication of Pullorum Disease in Massachusetts, 1928-1929. H"in-
shaw, W. R., and others. 36 pp. July, 1929.

49 Seed Inspection. Smith, Philip H., and others. 55 pp. October, 1929.

380 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

50 Inspection of Commercial Feedstuffs. Smitli, Philip H. 33 pp. Nov-
ember, 1929.

51 Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers. Ha.skins, H. D., and others.
61 pp. November, 1929.

52 Inspection of Agricultural Lime Products. Haskins, H. D-, and De-
Rose, H. R. 8 pp. December, 1929.

Meteorological Reports

481-492, inclusive. Monthly reports giving daily weather records with
monthly and annual summaries.

Reports of Investigation in Journals

(Numbered Contributions)

82 The Inheritance of Egg Weight in the Domestic Fowl. Hays, F. A.
Jour. Agr. Research 38:511-519. May 1, 1929.

83 The Mineral Constituents of Cranberries. Morse, Fred W. Jour.
Biol. Chem. 81:77-79. Jan., 1929. \/

84 Effect of Heat on Malic Acid. Morse, Fred W. Jour. Amer- Chem.
Soc. 51:1276-1279. April, 1929.

85 Lime Penetration Resulting from Surface Application to Pasture Land.
Nelson, P. R. Soil Science 27:143-146. Feb., 1929.

86 A Water Culture Technic for Studies in Tobacco Nutrition- Beau-
mont, A. B., and Larsinos, G. J. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 21:150-155.
Feb., 1929.

87 Dental Defects in Relation to Child Nutrition. Davies, Esther S-
Jour. Home Econ. 21:106-107. Feb., 1929.

88 Monograph of the Genus Pestalotia De Notaris, Part I. Guba, E. F.
Phytopathology 19:191-232. Mar., 1929.

89 Does Root Selection Accomplish Its Purpose in Asparagus Culture?
Tiedjens, Victor A- Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 25:37-40, 1928.

90 Cultural Practices and Green Asparagus. Tiedjens, Victor A. Proc.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 25:31-35. 1928.

91 An Intensive System of Grassland Management. Parsons, C. H.
Amer- Soc. Anim. Prod. Proc. 1928.

92 The Effect of Other Crops on Tobacco. Jones, J. P. Jour. Amer.
Soc. Agron. 21:118-129. Feb., 1929. -^^

93 Spraying for the Control of Onion Thrips. Bourne, A. I. Jour.
Econ. Ent. 22:679-683. Aug., 1929.

"94 Observations on the Carrot Rust Fly {Psila Rosae Fab.) in Massachu
setts. Whitcomb, W. D. Jour. Econ. Ent. 22:672-675. Aug., 1929

95 The Chemical Composition of Grass from Plots Fertilized and Grazed
Intensively. Archibald, J. G., and Nelson, P. R. Jour. Amer. Soc.
Agron. 21:686-699. June, 1929.

96 The Effect of Apple Blossom Removal on Flower Bud Formation.
Bailey, John S. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 25:198-201. 1928.

97 Deficiency of Magnesium the Cause of a Chlorosis in Corn. Jones,
J. P. Jour. Agr. Research 39:873-892- Dec. 1, 1929.

98 Effects of Soil Temperature and Reaction on Growth of Tobacco
Infected and Uninfected with Black Root Rot. Doran, William L.
Jour. Agr. Research 39:854-872. Dec. 1, 1929.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1929 381

99 A Comparison of Field Methods of Determining: Soil Reaction. Beau-
mont, A. B., and Thayer, C. H. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 21:1102-
1108. Nov., 1929.

100 Further Evidence Concerning the Significance of Nitrogen in Soil
t)rganic Matter Relationships. Sievers, F. J. Jour. Amer. Soc.
Agron. 22:10-13. Jan., 1930-

r Other Contributions to Journals

(Unnumbered)
Trends in the Dairy Industry of New England. Cance, A. E. Rpt. 3d

Ann. N. E. Inst. Coop., 1929-
Tendencies in Milk Production in Massachusetts. Sherburne, Ruth E.

(Joint author). Ann. Amer. Acad. Polit. and Social Sci. March, 1929.
Repair of Soil Filter Tubes. Larsinos, G. J., and Beaumont, A. B. Soil

Sci. 27:243. 1929-
Computation of No-Filler Fertilizer Mixtures. Beaumont, A. B., and

Knudsen, H. R. Ifidus. and Engin. Chem. 21:385-388. 1929.
Concentrated Fertilizers: Problems for the Chemist and Agronomist-

Beaumont, A. B. Jour. Chem. Educ. 6:899-905. 1929.
Ca'uTes of Cull Apples. Doran, W. L., and Bourne, A. I. Mass. Fruit^

Growers' Assoc. Rpt. 1929. ^

Some Results of the Fruit Disease Survey in 1928. Doran, W. L. Mass.

Fruit Growers' Assoc Rpt. 1929.
Lowering Weight Texture Handicaps on Plant-Packaged Ice Cream.

Wright, K. E. Ice Cream Trade Jour. 25: No. 2. 1929.
Increasing Package Acceptability. Wright, K. E. Ice Cream Field 15:

No. 2. 1929.
Frozen Fruit for Ice Cream. Mack, M. J., and Fellers, C. R. Ice Cream

Trade Jour. 25: No. 8. 1929. Also, Ice Cream Field 15: No. 4. 1929.
Utilization of Cold Packed Fruits in Ice Cream. Mack, M. J., and Fellers,

X. R. Ice Cream Review 13: Nos. 1 and 2. 1929-
A New Beneficial Insect in Massachusetts. Whitcomb, W. D. Jour. Econ.

Ent. 21:937-938. 1928.
Fruit Insects of 1928. Bourne, A. I. Mass. Fruit Growers' Assoc. Rpt.

1929. ^ ,

When Are Meats and Fish Spoiled. Fellers, C. R. Amer. Jour. Pub.

Health 19::389-392. 1929.

Cranberry Sauce Manufacture. Fellers, C. R., and Griffiths, F. P. Can-
ning Age, Dec, 1928.

Mincemeat, A Diversified Food Product. Fellers, C. R. Fruit Products
Jour. 8:9-11. Dec, 1928.

Simplified Sugar and Syrup Calculations for Preservers and Canners-
Fellers, C. R., and Mack, M. J. Fruit Products Jour. 8:16-19. Mar.,

1929.
Utilization of Cold Packed Fruits in Frozen Dairy Products. Fellers,

C. R., and Mack, M. J- Fruit Products Jour. 9:8-11. Sept., 1929;

9:46-47. Oct., 1929.
A Canned Grapefruit Defect. Fellers, C. R. Canner, Oct. 19, 1929.
Glass Packed Chicken. Fellers, C R., and Griffiths, F. P. Glass Packer

2:315-318. Aug., 1929.
Unwashed Containers as Canned Food Contaminants. Fellers, C. R.

Glass Packer 1:92-94. Dec, 1928.

382 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 260

CHANGES IN STAFF, DECEMBER 1, 1928, TO NOVEMBER 30, 1929

Appointments

Bul]is, Kenneth L, D.V-M., Assistant Veterinary Pathologist, Poultry

Disease Elimination Law, October 28, 1929.
Gibbs, Charles S., M.S., Ph.D., Assistant Research Professor Veterinary

Science, November 4, 1929.
Hughes, Mary C, Laboratory Assistant, Pomology, October 28, 1929.
Lindsey, Adrian H., Ph-D., Professor, Agricultural Economics,' September

1, 1929.

Shilling, Katherine E., B.S., Laboratory Assistant, Agricultural Economics,

April 1, 1929.
Van Roekel, Henry, M.S., D-V.M., Chief of Laboratory, Poultry Disease

Elimination Law, August 13, 1929.
Zielinski, John B., Jr., B.S., Junior Chemist, Fertilizer Law, October 1,

1929.

Resignations

Barton, Rena L., Laboratory Assistant, Pomology. _Died August 22, 1929.
Brown, Marian V., B.S., Research Assistant, Farm Management, October
12, 1929.

Dufresne, Virginia R., A.B., Laboratory Assistant, Agricultural Economics,
March 1, 1929.

Goodwin, Marvin W., B.S., Junior Chemist, Fertilizer Law, September
30, 1929.

Griffiths, Francis P., B.S., Research Assistant, Horticultural Manufactures,
transferred to Instruction March 1, 1929.

Hinshaw, William R., M.S., V.D.M., Chief of Laboratory, Poultry Disease
Elimination Law, July 31, 1929.

Nelson, Paul R., M.S., Research Assistant, Plant and Animal Chemistry,
September 21, 1929.

Pyle, Norman J., V.M.D., Assistant Research Professor, Veterinary Science,
September 30, 1929.

Sanders, Ellmore F., D.V.M., Assistant Veterinary Pathologist, Poultry
Disease Elimination Law, October 12, 1929.

AVaite, Clifton B., Collector of Blood Samples, Poultry Disease Elimin-
ation Law, September 30, 1929.

pubucation of this document approved by the
Commission on Administration and Finance

2500— 4-'30. No. 8756.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 261 FEBRUARY, 1930

Ecological Studies of the Mexican
Bean Beetle

By Harvey L. Sweetman and H. T. Fernald

Since 1921 the Mexican bean beetle has spread from its native habitat,
the Southwest, over most of the East where it has also been very injurious
to the bean crop. During 1929 it was found for the first time in Con-
necticut and Massachusetts. A study of temperature and moisture condi-
tions necessary for the development of the insect is here used in an attempt
to determine whether it is likely to become a serious pest under the
climatic conditions prevailing in New England.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed' to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

ECOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE

By Harvey L. Sweetman' and H. T. Fernald,
Professor of Entomology

The Mexican bean beetle, EpUachna corrupta Muls., is a native of south-
western North America. It has been a pest of beans in southwestern United
States since about the middle of the last century. The beetle has spread over
most of the East since 1921 and has been very injurious to the bean crop
through most of its ran^e. It was found in New England in 1929 in Connecti-
cut and Massachusetts, having apparently spread from New York State. The
insect is capable of becoming a very serious pest of the bean crop in New
England if the environmental conditions prove to be favorable to its repro-
duction and spread. The data presented here are the results of a study of
the influence of the physical environment upon the bean beetle.

Review of Ecological Literature

The ecological factors affecting the bean beetle have received very little
attention from most workers. The discovery of the insect in Alabama in 1920
caused much speculation regarding the effects of climate on it.

Hinds (1920) stated that there were not any climatic or geographical bar-
riers to prevent the pest from spreading, but later (1922) attributed the slow
dispersal southward in Alabama to the prevailing winds. Montgomery (1920)
thought that losses from the bean beetle were not great in the Southwest
because of climatic and other conditions. This thought is somewhat mis-
leading as serious injury is rather common in that territory. Howard (1922a)
considered a temperature of 100° F. or over in dry weather to be very de-
structive, and found (1922b) that the larvae were killed in a few minutes
when in direct sunlight if the temperature was above 90° F. Later (1924)
death of the larvae was noted as occurring during heavy rains, but drouth
was not thought to be injurious as long as the plants were green. Howard
and English (1924) witnessed large numbers of the immature stages being
destroyed during a hot, dry period, but this was due partially to lack of food
and to exposure to direct sunlight. They foimd also that moist places were
essential for successful hibernation and that the beetles migrated if the hiber-
nating quarters became too dry. Howard (1922b, 1924) had emphasized the
fact that the adults required moist, but well drained, places for successful
overwintering. Later Howard (1927) in collaboration with Transeau (1927)
found that the regions in which damage occurred in Ohio coincided with areas
that were originally mixed mesophytic forest. The previous year De Long
(1926) in Ohio had stated, "There is an ecological factor that is controlling
very decidedly the distribution." Graf (1925) from a climatological study
concluded that temperature and moisture were not important factors in limib-
ing the distribution of the pest. Later (1928) he stated that low winter
temperature alone could not be depended upon to control the pest. Eddy
(1926) and Eddy and McAlister (1927) in South Carolina consider low hu-
midity and high temperature very detrimental to the immature stages, and a

■' Candidate for a graduate degree in Entomology.

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE 3

high moisture environment beneficial. Eddy and Clarke (1929) note that
warm, moist weather favors spring emergence from hibernation. Thomas
(1924) in Alabama emphasized the importance of high moisture for hiberna-
tion and a temperature l)etween 65° and 91° F. and relative humidity between
40 and 95 per cent for egg production. His records were not secured under
controlled conditions. Pejiper (1926) noted the destruction of inmiature
stages in South Carolina during a heat wave. Marcovitch (1926) found that
drouth destroyed the insect in Tennessee and was a more important limiting
factor than cold. He considered the himiid conditions of the East favorable
to the pest. Douglas (1928) foimd that temperature alone would not cause
emergence of tlie adults from hibernation quarters, but that moisture was
es.sential and more important than temperature. Cecil (1928) stated that the
beetle would successfully survive the winter temperatures prevailing in New
York State. The writer (1929) demonstrated the necessity of humid condi-
tions for the bean beetle to maintain itself in abundance, and showed that its
distribution in the West, as well as the East, depended upon that factor.

All of the above conclusions are based upon outdoor observations where
several possible factors maj'^ have been important in producing the results
mentioned. A considerable diiference of opinion between the various workers
is evident, and some of the citations are decidedly misleading and contrary
to fact, as will be brought out later. Accurate data of the physical factors
affecting the immature stages are especially lacking.

Description of Stages and Injury

All stages, — eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults, — of the bean beetle are con-
spicuous in the field.

The eggs are pale or orange yellow in color, nearly elliptical in outline, and
about twice as long as wide. They are attached at one end and laid irregu-
larly in groups of about fifty on the under sides of the leaves.

The larvae have four instars, molting three times previous to the jDupation
molt. The newly hatched larvae are about 1.5 mm. long, pale greenish-yellow
in color, with their bodies armed with spines. The developing and mature
larvae are yellow, with six rows of spines which become strongly branched and
black at the tips (Plate I, B). When over half grown they appear to be
"humped", the longest spines and thickest portion of the body being in the
middle. The abdomen in all instars tapers to the anal segment which is pro-
duced to form a sucker-like apparatus by which the larvae are aided in cling-
ing to the leaf, and by which they fasten themselves previous to molting.

The pupae are light yellow in color, spineless, and about the size of the
adults. They hang head downward from the under surfaces of the leaves and
are partly covered and protected by the shed larval skins, which are attached
by the posterior end to the surface on which they are fastened.

The adults are robust, hemi-ovoid beetles with rather slender legs, and are
about one-fourth of an inch in length and one-fifth of an inch wide. When
newly emerged the color is yellow, gradually darkening with age to bronze or
brownish. Each wing cover is usually marked with eight small black spots
(Plate I, B).

Both the adult and larval stages are destructive (Plate I, B). The beetles
cut irregular holes through the leaves, leaving portions of tissue and the
larger veins. The larvae are voracious feeders, and do more harm than the

4 MASS. EXPERIxMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

adults. At first they feed in colonies near the old egg mass on the lower sur-
face of the leaf, but soon become scattered as they crawl to other leaves in
search of food. They consume the lower layers of the leaf, leaving the upper
epidermis and large veins. The upper tissue soon dies and bleaches out, leav-
ing a whitish skeletonized appearance (Plate I, A).

Seasonal History

The adults of the Mexican bean beetle emerge from hibernation in the
spring after the advent of warm weather, and locate suitable food plants,
principally beans. Egg-laying begins in about a week or ten days after their
appearance, the eggs generally being attached to the under side of the leaves.
Incubation of the eggs requires about ten days to two weeks. The larvae feed
upon the leaves and pods for about three to five weeks, then attach themselves
to the leaves and pupate; the adults emerge eight to twelve days later. The
number of generations in a season is dependent upon the climatic conditions
and length of season, varying from one to four in the different localities. The
beetles enter hibernation in the fall in moist places, remaining dormant or
semi-dormant, depending upon the region, until spring.

Food Plants

The bean beetle is primarily a bean pest, attacking by preference the com-
mon beans, including bush and pole varieties of snap beans, pinto, navy, lima,
and tepary beans. It can subsist on a number of other plants and has severe-
ly injured cowpeas and soybeans in several states. Howard and English
(1924) list the following plants as being attacked:

Common Name Scientific Nam,e

Tepary bean Phaseolus acutifolius

Garden bean P. vulgaris

Including navy, pinto, kidney, pole beans, etc.
Lima bean P. lunatus

Beggarweed Meibomia tortuosa,

M. canescens,

M. viridiflora

Hyacinth bean Dolichos lablab

Cowpea and Black-eyed Pea Viffna sinensis

Soybean Glycine hispida

Adsuki bean Phaseolus annularis

Alfalfa Medicago sativa

Sweet clover Melilotus alba

Distribution

The bean beetle is a native of southwestern United States and Mexico. In
the West it is now found in Wyoniing, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico,
and Texas. It was discovered in Alabama in 1920 and has increased its range
rapidly to the north and east since then. It spread to Georgia, Tennessee,
North and South Carolina, and Kentucky in 1921; Virginia in 1922; We«t Vir-

PLATE I.

A. Bean Plant Injured by the Mexican Bean Beetle. B. Adult and Larval
Stages and Feeding Injury on a Bean Leaf. (After Neale F. Howard, U. S. Bureau
of Entomology).

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE 5

ginia and Ohio in 1923; Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Mississippi in 1924.; Mary-
land in 1926; New York, Michigan, and Ontario in 1927; Delaware and New
Jersey in 1928: and Connecticut and Massachusetts in 1929. Unless some
unusual climatic condition develops, the pest will probably reach eastern
Massachusetts in the next two or three vears.

Effects of Temperature and Moisture Under Controlled
Laboratory Conditions

Bioloffica] Mnterial.

Adults find Larvae. A stock cage of adults, feeding on growing plants, was
kept in the greenhouse at all times. When experiments were started, beetles
of about the same age and with similar previous history were used. The in-
sects used in the original set of experiments were collected in late September
and were of unknown ages and previous history. Care was used to propor-
tion these beetles among the experimental cages according to the color, as the
general liody color becomes darker with age. The experimental cages were
made of glass tubing about two inches in diameter, with the ends covered
with cheese cloth, which permitted free access of air currents. The final
method used for keeping the food fresh was to place the leaf petioles in a
small vial of water. A grooved cork was used, to prevent evaporation from
the vials aflfecting the cage conditions. By changing the leaves twice daily,
the food was kept in excellent condition. Whenever the above method of
handling the plants was not used, it is so stated when that experiment is
considered. The larvae were cared for in a similar manner.

Eggs and Pupae. The eggs were handled by cutting away the surrounding
leaf tissue and placing them in open vials. The drying of the leaf particles to
which they were attached, and the consequent wrinkling sometimes injured a
few eggs, and at times prevented some of the larvae from emerging, but this
factor was considered when tabulating results. The pupae were treated
similarly.

Phi/.sical Factors Involved.

Temperature is an extremely important factor in the life of the bean beetle.
It is closely allied with moisture and does not affect the insect as a single
factor except when approaching the high and low temperature limits. Mois-
ture is as important to all stages of the insect as temperature, and in some
stages is more so. It probably affects the insect principally through evapora-
tion. The evaporation rate is in turn influenced by the temperature and air
movement. The velocity of the air is extremely important, as the tempera-
ture and relative himnidity about the plants approach a state of equilibrium
with the environment away from the plants in direct proportion to the move-
ment of the surrounding air. No direct effects of light on the bean beetle
have been observed, but light is taken in indirectly through the food. It is
extremely important to keep the insects supplied with fresh food. The larvae,
especially, show signs of restlessness shortly after the plants begin to wilt.

Description of Apparatus.

A well-insulated cabinet containing six separate compartments was used.
Each section was two feet by two feet by three feet in size. The top was

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

made of glass so that the light intensity could be controlled from outside the
cabinet. The doors, which were about two feet square, contained glass so
that the insects and instruments could be observed without opening the com-
partments. The temperature was maintained with electrical heating units
operated with thermostats, and cold running water, the two working against
each other. Relative humidity was controlled by placing saturated salt solu-
tions in wide pans, so as to have a large amount of surface exposed. In order
to secure uniform conditions, fans were used to keep the air in motion. The
fans were placed so that the air passed directly over the salt solutions. The
experimental material was placed on wire shelves at about the middle of the
compartment so that the air currents were directed through them, thus expos-
ing the contents to the surrounding environment.

Environmental Conditions Obtained.

Temperature of any degree desired could be obtained, but relative humidity
much below 32 per cent could not be secured. Generally a salt could be found
that would give the approximate humidity sought above 32 per cent to nearly
saturation of the atmosphere. All temperature records are in degrees centi-
grade, and moisture data in percentage of relative humidity.

These experiments were conducted as a part of the Mexican bean beetle
project of the "VA'yoming Agricultural Experiment Station. Since the en-
vironments were controlled, the effects of temperature and moisture on the
insect could not have been due to any geographical peculiarity in Wyoming.

Series of temperatures ranging from 17° to 37° at intervals of 5° were used.
Moisture conditions varying from 32 to 93 per cent were maintained in the
various temperature environments. Since it is impossible to discuss the effects
of temperature on the Mexican bean beetle without taking into consideration
the influence of moisture, the reactions of the insect to both factors are con-
sidered jointly.

Experiments xvith Adults.

Constant Conditions. A temperature of 37° was foimd to be above the
maximum effective temperature regardless of the humidity that was main-
tained in the cabinets. Death resulted in every case in less than forty-eight
hours, and the majority were killed in less than twenty-four hours (Table I,
37°). It is evident that the temperature alone was the major factor in de-
struction in this case, as death occurred in all humidity conditions used.

When a constant temperature of 32° was maintained, very interesting re-
sults were secured, as the interaction of both temperature and moisture are
evident (Table I, 32°). Heavy egg production occurred in the dry environ-
ment, while the yield was exceedingly low in the moist conditions. The in-
hibitory action of a high himiidity on oviposition was evident, as laying beetles
in 92 per cent himiidity discontinued deposition in the second week and all
but one female was dead by the end of the third week. Non-laying beetles
in 90 per cent humidity were not stimulated to cg^ production and all were
dead by the end of the third week. All of the beetles were living at the end
of five weeks in 32 per cent humidity. An earlier series with humidities of
40, 70, and 90 per cent gave results showing the same tendencies, but the data
are not included in the table since the food was not kept fresh and starvation
may have influenced the results in the dry environment. The amount of food
consumed in 70 per cent humidity was much reduced, while very little food

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE 7

was consumed in the higher luiinidities in either series. Possibly the inability
of the beetles to eliminate water in the higii moisture environments was an
important factor in producing death. These results show that a constant
temperature of 32° can be very favorable to the oviposition rate and length
of life of the bean beetle with a low humidity, and extremely unfavorable with
a high humidity. When the beetles were varied between dry and wet environ-
ments, the number of eggs obtained was intermediate between the yields
obtained in the constant conditions (Table I, 32° Moisture Varied). A cal-
culation of the number of eggs to be expected according to the hours of
exposure imder regularly varied conditions of humiditj', as determined by the
results with constant himiidity, gives figures which agree fairly closely with
tlie actual number laid. Apparently the inhibitory action of 92 per cent hu-
midity on egg production of the beetles was not carried over to any great
extent into periods when the percentage of moisture was reduced to 32
per cent.

A tennjcrature of 27° proved to be m,uch more favorable to heavy egg pro-
duction than 32° (Table I, 27° Moisture Constant). Three different series of
experiments are given, but all of them show the same tendencies. The first
series was made up of beetles of unknown ages collected in the field in
September. Many of these beetles had been laying previous to exposure to
the experimental conditions. Humidities of 60 per cent or above were favor-
able tc heavy oviposition, while a low humidity of 32 per cent showed a re-
duction of over one-half in the number of eggs deposited. A sufficient num-
ber of eggs was laid in the dry conditions for the bean beetle to maintain
itself in nimibers as far as egg production is concerned. A slight reduction
in the egg yield occurred in 8.5 and 93 per cent humidity.

The varied moisture conditions gave results similar to the constant environ-
ments (Table I, 27° Moisture Varied). The beetles used in this series were
collected in September after the natural oviposition period had ended. Many^
of the females had probably laid a large number of eggs previous to collec-
tion. A rather wide range of humidity appears to be suitable for good egg
production at 27°, although a reduction in oviposition occurred in both high
and low moisture environments. The two varied conditions in which the
lieetles were kept in 93 per cent humidity for sixteen hours show a markedly
large reduction below the expected number of eggs, which is only partially
accounted for by the death of a few of the beetles. This result indicates that
this high humidity at 27° was slightly unfavorable to egg production.

The results secured at 22° were not as extensive as at 27°, but they are
very similar in so far as they are comparable. Data from two experimental
series are shown (Table I, 22°). One cage of beetles in the 40 per cent humid-
ity showed a lowered egg production indicating a possible inhibitory effect
in this low humidty. A similar decrease in egg production in the 90 per cent
humidity cabinet indicated that this high moisture environment was still un-
favorable, as was found with higher temperatures.

The results secured in the 17° environment with 50 per cent humidity are
very important (Table I, 17°). Since this humidity is near a critical point
between favorable and unfavorable moisture conditions for egg production at
higher temperatures, care must be used in interpreting the data. It is quite
probable that 17° is very close to the minimum effective temperature for ovi-
position of the bean beetle. This conclusion becomes more certain when the
varied data are analyzed (Table II, 17°). The number of eggs laid appears

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

fq

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in C-. T*

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Oth c o c c c ;

cDcDcDco xxxx in mm

c c o o m m m m co. c-i co

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE

inxco 0)-^c>i otJO
o-*o o-*o coinoi
oooc- coxo: inoic-

O O 05 00 O CO CO ■* 05
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c! o m

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cico

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lo rt r:

rH CI

Cl rt

rH Cl Cl CO Cl O rl Cl Cl

O rt o o o

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10 10*0 »o »o

ooc ooo ooo

CO ro CO Cl Cl

CJ =3 3

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10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

to be in proportion to the number of hours the beetles were kept in the higher
temperatures, indicating that vcrj- little, if any, stimulation to egg develop-
ment occurred at 17°.

Varied Conditions. A number of experiments were planned to ascertain the
effects of definitelj' varied conditions on egg yields. One factor, either tem-
perature or moisture, was held constant, or approximately so, while the re-
maining one was varied. Temperature environments, which were easily con-
trolled, ranged from 17° to 32° at intervals of 5° (Table II). Varied
temperature conditions were obtained by transferring the experimental cages
from one cabinet to another at definite intervals, a twenty-four hour day
being divided into eight and sixteen hour periods. This process of alternation
was continued day after day, so that each cage was in one environment for
eight hours, another sixteen, then back to the eight hour condition, and so on,
for the duration of the experiment. Moisture environments in two cabinets
with different temperatures could not always be maintained with the same
humidities, so that percentages of moisture as similar as possible were chosen.
Thus combinations of high humidity percentages, as 86 and 92, 80 and 92, and
80 and 86, are considered approximately equal in their effects on egg produc-
tion. Likewise combinations of low humidity percentages, as 32 and 40, and
40 and 50, can be considered as having similar effects on egg development.
The one humidity combination of 32 and 50 per cent is considered as a varied
moisture environment within the low humidity region. The experimental cages
were transferred from one cabinet to another, as described above, when the
effects of varied moisture conditions were sought. Data obtained from the
cages that were kept in the constant environments are 23laced under each
heading for comparative purposes. In each instance the beetles were taken
from the same stock cages as those used in the varied surroundings. The
data are arranged about the temperatures 32°, 27°, etc., so that a direct com-
parison can be made with the results from the constant conditions. This
necessitates the repetition of son^e of the data in more than one place, but
the discussion is not repeated unless necessary. An expected number of eggs
was calculated from the data secured under constant conditions and placed
in the last colun.n of the table. These figures are based on the ninnber of
hours the beetles were kept in the respective temperatures and in high and
low humidity, and serve as an aid in comparing the actual results obtained
in the varied conditions with those secured in constant environments. A
temperature of 37° was excluded from the varied experiments Ijecause of the
disastrous results obtained imder constant conditions.

The results obtained from varied temperature environments with 32° are
given in Table II (32°). The humidity combinations, exce^jt 32-.50 and 50-32,
are considered as approximately constant. The total number of eggs laid by
the beetles exceeded the expected number in every instance, but the excess
was much greater in the high humidities. The reduced egg yield at 32° in
the high moisture environments (Table I) seemed to be largely offset when
the alternating temperature was reduced to 27° for sixteen hours daily, but
was still evident with only eight hours' exposure daily at 27°. When 22° was
used as the alternating temperature with 32°, the numbers of eggs laid were
rather uniform in both high and low humidities. The results, 2057 to 2231
eggs, compared favorably with the number laid, 2217, in the 32° constant
temperature cabinet with low humidity. When 17° was used as the alter-
nating temperature in connection with low humidity, the number of eggs

i

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE

11

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12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

deposited was in proportion to the hours of exposure at 32°, showing that
very little development of the eggs, if any, occurred at the lower temperature.

The stimulating effect of a varied temperature over a constant one is well
illustrated by comparing the actual number of eggs found with the expected
result. The fact that a varied temperature is more stimulating to develop-
mental processes than a constant one is not new to science, but very few
papers can he found which actually give data that demonstrate this. This
conclusion shows that results obtained from constant temperature studies are
inaccurate when compared with field conditions, but not necessarily imprac-
tical, as a great deal of information can be gained from such studies with a
large saving in time, labor, and equipment.

Results were obtained from varied temperature environments about 27°
with high humidity only (Table II, 27°). The stinuilation to heavy egg pro-
duction caused by varied temperature conditions is readily seen. The expected
egg yield was not reached in one test, the 27°-22° combination. This result
is probably not significant as the actual number of eggs laid in all other
varied environments in the table exceeded the calculated results. The yield
was markedly reduced when the beetles were exposed to 32° for 16 hours.

Varied temperature environments about 22° were much more complete than
at 27° (Table II, 22°). Heavy egg laying resulted in all combinations of
temperature above 17°. The large number of eggs (25 per cent more than
was expected) produced in the 22°-27° condition was much greater than with
any other set of teii.peratures and suggests that the optimum temperature is
somewhere between 22° and 27°. The reduction in the number of eggs laid
at a constant temperature of 22° with 40 per cent humidity was offset under
varied temperature conditions above 22°. The wide range of humidity that
was suitable for good egg production at 27° was equally satisfactory at 22°
in combination with higher temperatures.

In Table I the minimum effective temperature was shown to be near 17°.
When 17° was combined with higher temperatures good egg yields that ex-
ceeded expectations were found (Table II, 17°). It is evident that the bean
beetle is capable of producing a sufficient number of eggs to maintain itself
in numbers at low temperature between 17° and 22°, even when the humidity
is below .50 per cent.

Canstant and l^oried Environments. The effects of temperature and
moisture on the oviposition rate in both constant and varied environments can
be further illustrated by plotting the data in Tables I and II (fig. 1). The
figures represent the average numiber of eggs deposited per week in the va-
rious environments. More data are needed to determine accurately the limits
in the low temperature and low humidity regions. However, general conclu-
sions can be drawn from the data. Three zones are shown in the figure. The
area marked "Zone F' probably covers the combinations of temperature and
moisture in which the bean beetle is capable of producing a sufficient number
of eggs to maintain itself in economic numbers, as far as egg production is
concerned. Zone II represents the region where the insect jirobably will
maintain itself, but not in economic nxmibers; while Zone III covers the con-
ditions in which it will seldom be found. Keeping the lieetles in variable
environments enlarged the range of suitable temperature and moisture com-
binations over that obtained from constant conditions; but the results were
essentially the same in other respects. The suitable temperature range for

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE

13

oviposition (about 12°) was quite narrow in comparison with the spread
of favorable moisture conditions (about 60 per cent). It is apparent that it
would require an extremely arid climate to lower the oviposition rates of the
beetles sufficiently to reduce the numbers of the pest below that of economic?
importance. However, any reduction in oviposition, produced by arid con-
ditions, would have an important influence on the total population if the con-
ditions were dry enough to seriously affect larval development.

Summary. A temperature of 37° kUled the adults in a few hours.

A temperature of 32° with high humidity was very destructive to the adults,
but with low humidity was favorable to length of life and egg production.
When alternated with lower temperatures the adverse effects were largely
overcome below 27°, and partially oft'set at that temperature.

Figure 1. The Weekly Average Oviposition Rates of Beetles Maintaiued under
Controlled Environments. • — Constant Environments ; O — Varied Environments.

30

40

37

32

504

^27Y •

'ii22

17

23

4

184

104

72

435

132

50

60

70

80

90

287

o oo

377212

20

1S7 2%3

o

181

103

35

ZONE W

ZONE n

/ 82 299

250
498

ZONE I

fl3

ZONE n

ZONE m

266

om

467

192
78

■ 37

30

40

■32

360 552

o o

4 70 457
493 123 210

• • o •

180 263

160 ^

^42 492

-27

430

f54 S&

~50 60 70 80

RELATIVE HUMIDiry-PER CENT

90

22

17

A temperature of 27° was favorable to length of life of the adults with all
humidities used, and to egg production with moist conditions of 60 per cent
or above. High moisture environments were more favorable than low humid-
ity conditions, but the difference was not so great as with higher tempera-
tures. When alternating temperatures were used with 27°, good egg produc-
tion resulted with lower temperatures. Humidities of 93 per cent or above
may be detrimental to egg production.

A temperature of 22° with humidities of 40 to 90 per cent was favorable to
length of life of the adults and to ^^^ production, although the number of
eggs laid was reduced in the dry conditions. High egg yields with alternat-
ing temperatures resulted with all conditions above 17°.

A temperature of 17° was favorable to length of life of the adults but was

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

near the mininiuni effective temperature for egg production. With alternat-
ing temperatures above 17°, the rate of oviposition was in proportion to the
number of hours at the highest temperatures, the highest yields occurring in
the 32° combinations with low humidity.

Experiments with Etjgs.

Constant Environments. The results of incubating the eggs at 37° are given
in Table III (37°). Three different humidity environments were used, but
the eggs failed to hatch regardless of the moisture present, showing that a
constant temperature of 37° is unsuitable for incubation of the eggs. The
embryos not only failed to develop at this temperature but were killed, as
later exposure to lower temperature conditions did not produce any develop-
ment.

The incubation of the eggs at 32° gave results similar to those at 37° (Table
III, 32°). Development failed to take place regardless of the humidity of
the environment, showing that the failure to hatch was again due to the high
temperature. An alternation of the eggs between wet and dry conditions did
not change the results.

Table III.— The Effects of Moisture on the Eggs of the
Mexican Bean Beetle.

RELATIVE

HUMIDITY— Per Cent

Total Total

Daily exposu

e of

number number

Per cent

Days to

8 hrs.

16 hrs

24 hrs.

of eggs hatched

hatched

hatch

Temperature

37 =

C—

Moisture Constant

40

276

0

0.0

75

246

0

0.0

90

221

0

0.0

Temperature

32"^

C—

Moisture Constant

32

411

0

0.0

40

355

0

0.0

70

477

0

0.0

90

493

0

0.0

92

353

0

0.0

Temperature

32

° C-

-Moisture Varied

32

92

371

0

0.0

92

32

395

0

0.0

Temperature

27

C—

Moisture Constant

32

1700

0

0.0

60

3175

773

2i.i

'e.o

62

704

177

25.0

5.5

72

3031

679

22.i.

5.9

79

1932

563

29.3

5.9

80

335

34

10.2

5.5

85

1059

155

lh.6

5.8

93

3195

953

29.5

5.7

Temperature

22 =

C—

Moisture Constant

40

494

0

0.0

60

485

13

3.0

"l.Z

90

398

146

37.0

6.8

40

304

107

35.2

7.8

86

365

227

62.2

6.6

Temperature

22

° C-

-Moisture Varied

40

86

279

121

U-i.U

7.0

86

40

298

187

62.8

7.6

Temperature 17° C. — Moisture Constant

50 484 213 U.O 12.4

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE 15

When the eggs were incubated at 27°, entirely different results were ob-
tained (Table III, 27°). Larvae were secured in all moisture environments
from 60 to 93 per cent humidity. The failure to hatch any larvae from 1700
eggs incubated under the 32 per cent moisture condition emphasized the un-
favorable effects of a dry atmosphere at this temperature. The hatching
periods of the eggs in the medium to moist cabinets ranged from 5.5 to 6.0
days, showing a close similarity in all conditions. The number of larvae
hatching in the 80 and 85 per cent humidity environments was much below
those in the other conditions, but the 79 and 93 per cent surroundings pro-
duced the best hatches, thus indicating that a moisture environment of 60 per
cent humidity, or higher, at 27° is favorable to incubation of the eggs. The
unfavorable limit would fall somewhere between 32 and 60 per cent hvmiidity.

The effects of, moisture on incubation of two dift'erent series of eggs at 22°
gave rather irregular results (Table III, 22°). Probably the first series —
40, 60 and 90 per cent — shows a much lower percentage of hatching than is
normal for these conditions. When this series is compared with the results
in Table IV (22°), which are in agreement with the second series of this
table, the jsrobability of an abnormally low percentage of hatching is made
doubly certain. A much better hatch was obtained in the cabinets with high
humidity. The incubation period was about one day less in the high than in
the low humidity chambers, but was about one and one-half days longer than
was required at 27°. The percentage of eggs hatching under most conditions
at 22° was considerably above that at 27°, indicating that the former is a
more favorable temperature. The alternation of eggs between wet and dry
environments gave results similar to those obtained under constant conditions
(Table III, 22° Moisture Varied).

The influence of a temperature of 17° with 50 per cent humidity was
favorable to hatching of the eggs (Table III, 17°). Good hatching resulted
but the incubation period was nearly twice as long as at 22°.

Varied Environments. A discussion of these environments is given under
this heading for the adult stage. A high temperature of 37° was excluded
from the varied series, as none of the eggs had hatched at that temperature
in the constant environments (Table III).

The results of alternations of temperature with 32° are given in Table IV
(32°). Combinations of 32° with 17° and 27° failed to produce any larvae
regardless of the humidity used. When 22° was used, sixteen hours of ex-
posure at 32° killed the embryos in both high and low humidity, but when
the exposure was reduced to eight hours at 32°, one egg hatched in the low
and 21.5 per cent in the high humidity. The number of eggs hatching in both
cases was low, but is significant for the high moisture environment. Eggs
hatched in about half of the egg masses used in this moist condition. This
shows that a high moisture environment is preferable to dry conditions and
may indicate that 22° is near the optimum temperature for incubation of the
eggs. The incubation period of the single individual emerging in the drier
environment was more than twenty-four hours longer than the average for
those in the wetter condition. The longest incubation period in the high hu-
midity cabinet was eight days.

The eggs were incubated in the varied conditions about 27° with high hu-
midity only (Table IV, 27°). Good hatches were obtained from the eggs in
the temperature coml)ination of 27° and 22°, while either eight or sixteen
hours at 32° was sufficient to prevent hatching of the eggs. The percentage

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

of eggs hatching in the control cabinet was probably abnormally low as can
be seen by comparison with the results in Table III. The length of the in-
cubation period was approximately a day and a half below that at 32°. The
number of days required for development was slightly less than the calculated
figures.

When temperatures were alternated about 22°, good hatches were secured
with 27° and 17° (Table IV, 22°). The poorest hatches were obtained in
the 32° combinations where the unfavorable effects of the high temperature,
previously discussed, were not fully overcome by eight or sixteen hours' ex-
posure at 22°. The percentage of eggs hatching in low humidity conditions
was much less than in high humidity environments, especially when the mois-
ture content of the cabinet was below 4.5 per cent. The stimulatory effect
produced by varying the conditions is shown in the table. •

The data secured from varied conditions about 17° with low humidity are
not as extensive as with 22° (Table IV, 17°). All of the eggs failed to hatch
when exposed to 32° for eight or sixteen hours. When alternated with 22°,
the percentage of eggs hatching was low in the drier environment, while the
combination with humidity above 45 per cent gave much better results.

Constant and Varied Environments. The effects of temperature and mois-
ture on the eggs can he illustrated further by plotting the data in Tables III
and IV (figs. 2 and 3). The percentage of eggs hatching is given in Figure
2, and the length of the incubation jjeriod in Figure 3. The two figures are
discussed together.

Three general zones are rather sharply defined, although more data are
needed in the low humidity region between 22° and 17°. Under field condi-
tions the region that falls below 17° is automatically taken care of by the
negligible num)ber of eggs laid below this temperature (Tables I and II) ; but
from a scientific viewpoint it would be well to conduct experiments with tem-
peratures below 17°. A suitable, intermediate, and unfavorable zone is indi-
cated for the two conditions, — percentage of hatch and length of incubation
period. It is evident that Zones I of the two figures do not agree. Since
both factors are vital in the life cycle of the bean beetle, a position favorable
to both of the above factors must be selected. The temperature limits then
would fall on the upper line of Zone I of Figure 2 for high temperature, and
the lower line of Zone I of Figure 3 for low temperature. This gives a de-
cidedly small temperature range (about 6°) that is favorable for incubation
of the egg.s, although it nuist be remembered that lower temperatures merely
delay the time of hatching and do not kill the embryos. The moisture limits
are in much closer agreement in the two figures. The upper limit is not de-
terminable from the data at hand, although favorable results were obtained
in 93 per cent himiidity. The lower limit probably falls between 40 and 50
per cent humidity. Thus the incubation period is shown to be an extremely
vital one in the economic distribution of the bean beetle, as both high tem-
peratures and low humidity are very destructive. However, low temperature
is not necessarily detrimental unless continued for prolonged periods. The
physical conditions just described would need to occur among the growing
bean plants in the field to affect the eggs of the bean beetle.

Summary. A temperature of 37° destroyed the embryos in botli wet and
dr\' environments.

A temperature of 32° gave similar results in constant conditions, but with
varied temperatures a few larvae hatched in the moist environment at 22°.

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE

17

§2

n°
H

--a

CjC

0)

eg cq

'7 eg

OT Oi

t«

J o

>^ a;

H 'S

M 3 ^

Q§2

;j^^

H

Hi;

ai 3 .

^ o -
H ftJ3

<: Ss

S«?5

CO O!

: 05 eg
: in®

I Old

O t- r-H

id in CO

X ® 31 ;-J iO : t- rH ; ?]

t- ® 00 d 00 : in d ; c-

eg cod

1 o o o o -* o « o o

> CJ CJ O O O O '-H o o

OOOOOrHOMOO

tKOO-* OO
CO (M <N
eg 7r>

C-t-t-OOiHOOC^OCO

o cgoo m eg eg oo

rH eq N ei CO

rHcooo'^int-oincoco

iHinC-t-O5«OC-00COiH

■^cococgegcgcocococo

in ■* i-KO ®

CO tH T-t CO tH
00 -^ -^ CO CO

•>tinincot-inT)irHOin

O«0'HrH®(35'HiHt-00

mcocO'*(Neg'*'*coco

■* in coQO ■*

00 iH iH t- 1-

Tf CO ■<* CO eg

18

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

Figure 2. The Percentage of Eggs Hatching in Controlled Environments.
• — Constant Environments; O — Varied Environments.

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

37

32

?>27

5

^22

17-

30

• •
0 0

0 0

ZONE m

0

o o

n n

, ^^ZONE n .
24 22

<?5

•• • •
10 15 30

o o

55 o 22
79

3 43

62 37

ZONE I

37

■32

:27

22

17

50 60 70 80 90

RELATIVE HUMIDITV—PER CENT

Figure 3. The Length of the Incubation Periods in Controlled Environments.
• — Constant Environments; O — Varied Environments.

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

37-

32

I
'I

I

vt22

17

ZONE En

12

30

40

37

■32

17

50 60 70 80 90

RELATIVE HUMIDITy-PER CENT

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE 19

A temperature of 27° produced a fair number of larvae in moist surround-
ings but none in dry conditions with constant environments. Good hatches
were obtained in vari«d conditions with 22°, but not with 32°.

A temperature of 22° produced good hatches in moist environments and
with temperature combinations below 32°.

A temperature of 17° was favorable to good hatching of the eggs with
humidity above 45 per cent and with temperature combinations below 32°.

Experiments with Larvae and Pupae.

Constant En-eironments. A high temperature of 37° was as disastrous for
the larvae as for the egg and adult stages of the bean beetle, regardless of
the humidity used (Table V, 37°). It is evident that the temperature is the
limiting factor.

The effect of moisture on the larvae was brought out very clearly in the 32°
series (Table V, 32° Moisture Constant). The results of two lots of experi-
ments are listed in the table. The larvae in the first lot were fed at 8 a.m.,
4 p. m., and 10 p. m., but the leaf petioles were not placed in water to keep
the leaves fresh. A low humidity of 32 per cent was sufficiently favorable to
enable half of the larvae to complete development. When the humidity was
increased to 92 per cent, a few of the larvae reached the pupal stage but
faUed to transform into adults. In the earlier series where the food was not
kept fresh, the same tendencies can be seen, as a few larvae were able to
reach the pupal stage in 40 per cent humidity but none completed the feeding
stage in the higher humidities. Undoubtedly starvation was an important
factor in the earlier series. This is indicated by the lengthened feeding period
that was required. Alternation of the larvae between dry and wet condi-
tions gave slightly more favorable results than high humidity alone as a few
of the larvae developed to the pupal stage (Table V, 32° Moisture Varied).
The pupae in the high humidity were about one-half below normal in size.
The adults that emerged in these conditions were undersized, and all of them
were crippled. Some of the individuals had distorted wings or elytra, or
both, while about 50 per cent had disfigured abdomens. The shrunken condi-
tion of the abdomens was noticeable with some individuals while still in the
pupal stage. Much of the distortion was great enough to prevent mating and
reproduction. Probably the moisture problem for the larvae is to eliminate
moisture, since they take in large quantities of water with their food. This
elimination would occur through excretion, respiration, and evaporation
through the body wall. Excretion and respiration are probaMy the important
means of water elimination. Loss of water through respiration would be
greatly reduced in high humidity environments, and the process possibly
might be refversed. This may be the explanation for the deaths of the larvae
in high humidity conditions at 32°.

At 27° the larvae developed well, and the majority completed growth as
long as the food was kept fresh (Table V, 27°). The data from three differ-
ent series of experiments are shown in the table. The larvae in the first series
were fed at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. during the first part of the experiment, and
at 8 a.m., 4 p.m., and 10 p.m. during the latter part of the experiment, but
the food became rather dry at times. Fresh food was given to the second
series at 8 a. m., 4 p. m., and 10 p. m., but the frequent feedings were not
sufficient to keep the food fresh in the drier environments. Ninety-three per

20

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

c o

— Pi r-

3-0 C-

gT3 OJ

_ ^, CI

><

■-I

tl

Q

M

^

J3

t)

K

>

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H

-1

<

U)

.13

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odd

9 9 9

d d d

o o o

ooo
d dd

o o
d d

qo
<6<6

O OO OO 00 o

I

moo wo
•^cd ci d

moo in to
■*■ d d ci d

oo ooo ooo

COOOO ooo 00

to 00

d d

OO fC O

; t-^ d t-' i>

9"^ t~

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t~ in irjt- M t-

N CO « t-" 0? «

N N CI '-' tH r^

00 00 00

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to ai

■*00

O CO O IH t-

t> t~

■*(N N

to 1H [-

r-iin

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O (M (M OOO

■* CO

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE

21

-H tooo n m o •<*

CO ;0 rH Ci f>i CO CO

00 tooo o o3 00 w

rH«qoq

CC CO

O'*

(O to d

00«O5

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00 00

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■^0:0
Od 00 o

[- in

to CD

CD O]
CI CI

t- CD

0-*

d 10
ci ^

06 <S

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

cent of the larvae in 80 per cent luiniidity, which were supplied with fresh
food, completed development. The food was near normal field conditions in
this case, although the water content of the leaves possibly may have been
slightly increased. The second series of larvae showed as rapid development
as the first, but the number maturing under these conditions was about 20
per cent less than with the third, indicating that the drying out of the food
between feedings may have been detrimental. The first series had the great-
est range of moisture environments. The detrimental influence of the drying
out of the food was very noticeable, the length of the feeding periods being
about 30 per cent longer and the percentage maturing greatly reduced when
compared with the results where the food was suitable. Probably the results
obtained in 32 per cent humidity were due largely to starvation rather than to
the dry atmosphere. A part of the data froni the larvae reared in 32 per
cent humidity was lost, but the estimated figures given in the table are very
close to the actual results obtained. A great majority of the adults reared
at this temperature were normal in size and appearance.

Two different series of larvae were carried through the developmental cycle
at 22° (Table V, 22° Moisture Constant). The effects of moisture are shown
in the length of the growing periods, being several days less when the humid-
ity was high. A greater percentage of the larvae reached maturity in both
high and low moisture environn;ents. It is evident that a temperature of 22°
with humidity ranging from 40 to 90 per cent was favorable for larval de-
velopment. The adults reared in these environments were normal in appear-
ance, but those developing in the high humidity conditions averaged somewhat
larger in size than those which reached maturity in low moisture environ-
ments. This resvilt may have been produced by the better quality of the food
in the moist cabinets. Alternation of the larvae between the dry and wet
surroundings made very little change in the results (Table V, 22° Moisture
Varied).

A temperature of 17° also was suitable for a large percentage of the larvae
reaching maturity, but about 40 per cent more time was required for them to
complete development (Table V, 17°). Only a few larvae were reared at this
temperature, but a check lot of fifteen larvae had nearly completed the feed-
ing stage when the experiment was closed, indicating that the results in the
table are normal. The adults obtained were large in size and normal in
appearance.

The larvae reared in the 17° environments became quite dark in color.
During the feeding periods iiiost of the sjjines were gray or black in color,
but the body surface largely remained yellow. The pigmentation increased
with age and did not seem to be lost in molting. The cast skins appeared to
be clear and free from coloring matter. The pigment was retained by the
pupae, the greater part of the body surface appearing as gray or black in
color, but on transformation adults of the usual color pattern emerged.
Thomas (1924) observed the same effect when the larvae were reared during
the cooler part of the season. The black spots on the elytra of these beetles
apparently were not any larger than those on specimens reared at higher tem-
peratures. The accumulation of the pigment was probably caused by the low
metabolic rate of the larvae when reared at 17° which was not sufficient to
oxidize all of the melanin formed (Knight, 1924).

Varied Envi(ronments. Larvae were reared under varied conditions of tem-
perature ranging from 17° to 32° and a moisture spread from 32 to 92 per

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE 23

cent liiunidity. The food was kept fresh in all conditions Ijy jslacing the leaf
petioles in water.

The influence of alternating temperatures with 32° and approximately con-
stant moisture surroundings was more favorable for larval development than
constant high temperature (Table VI, 32°). When 27° was alternated with
32°, sixteen hours of exposure daily in the higher temperature proved to be
very severe on the pupae as well as on the larvae. Eight hours' exposure
daily was largely overcome by the cooler condition, as only a few larvae were
killed. The use of 22° as the alternating temperature with. 32° when the
moisture was high gave results indicating that the influence of the low tem-
perature overcame the adverse effects of the high in proportion to the hours
of exposure in each. When dry conditions were used, the data were similar
to those obtained in the check environments. The humidities in the 17°-32°
environments were 32 and 50 per cent, and while both are low, they cannot
be considered as constant. Good rearings were secured in these conditions.

The adults reared in the 17°-32° alternating environments showed a high
percentage of distortion, only about 30 per cent appearing to be normal, in-
dicating that most of the development took place in the higher temperature.
Abdominal disfigurement was evident in about half of these insects. A few
of the beetles were reduced in size. When 22° was alternated with 32°, six-
teen hours of exposure daily at 32° produced about 60 per cent of normal
individuals in both high and low humidity, and eight hours of exposure daily
developed 80 per cent of adults normal in size. The alternation of 32° and
27° produced 12 per cent of normal adults with sixteen hours of exposure
daily at the high temperature, and 80 per cent of normal beetles with eight
hours' treatment daily at this temperature. Many of the adults were reduced
in size in this latter environment.

The results of alternations about 27° with high humidity were quite uniform
and favorable to development of the larvae of the bean beetle with the excep-
tion of sixteen hours' exposure daily at 32°, which has been discussed pre-
viously (Table VI, 27°). The adults reared in 27°-22° temperature condi-
tions were normal with eight hours' exposure daily to 27°, but about 40 per
cent of them showed some distortion of the wings and elytra following sixteen
hours' exposure daily to 27°.

The influence of alternating temperatures about 22° with approximately
constant moisture environments is shown in Table VI, (22°). The unfavor-
able effects of both high temperature and low humidity are shown, fewer
larvae reaching maturity with an increase in the number of hours at 32° and
in the lower humidities. However, a sufficient number of larvae developed
in all of the environments for the beetle* to maintain itself in economic num-
bers. Most of the adults that developed were normal in size and contour in
all conditions below 32°.

The data in Table VI (17°) show the influence of alternations in tempera-
ture about 17°. The lengthened developmental period shows that these en-
vironments were inferior to the 22° and 27° conditions for rapid growth,
although the death rate was very low. The adults reared under the 17° con-
stant temperature environment were large and normal in appearance, while
many of the beetles reared in the 17°-32° temperature comliinations were
greatly distorted.

The melanism that occurred under constant exposure at 17° did not appear
when the larvae were alternated between 17° and higher temperature en-

24

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

o S-o

C O

s ■

3i^ ft

s 2 ^

OOcOO(MOiCt--*0>

in 00 t- lo ;o c- 00 CO 00

lo o lo o c^i o lo t- in 3)
c)Ot>inoiincotDrHO

CO 00 t- in <o t- 00 to 00

inoinocjooc-Ttoi

ooin ;ciooo'HT)<ai
«' o in ; ^ t-' i-I in •* o

?] (M ■ OJ C5 Ol (M N CJ

t-;OiH ; iH O •* N 05 CI

Tjioo iinointOTilin

t-Oi-io)oqiNxot~t-

00 O) CO

CO [-' I>

00 CO O: t
00 Tji CD I

coo)'*cot-oo)incoco
iHinNiHcqiMi-iiHiN-*

CJ iM

Q o"^

W"S^

M r^

H ctf

< o .

■J 2

w ^

« 00

00 o» o ^ ■*
ci tH 00 CO 00
o ooooo CO

00 35 o OS in

oi r-i 00 CO rH

05 O) WOO CO

00 Oi O C35 •*

KN-HOliHcqrtpH ci

r-l CO O N Ol

in in CO in 't

00 <N O t~ t-

f-J N CJ r-I i-i

00 iH CO ooo
^ ^ t^ tJ* t^

coeoooo50int-c-io

cocooooioinc-cio

CO CO 00 c o in c- ri o

OOfH iCOCOOOrHClO

t> in

coco'

CO O ■* C^ rt o

in CO in CO in CD

COCICJINOOOOOON

ci (N CO ci ci iH ci r-i' ci

•t O tJI O rH CO CD 02 CO 00

oinin-^t-TJco't^oo

cococ)t-ino)int-o

iH iH 1-1 CO Cl iH <H Cl Cl

O) d iH OS

CO CO ci ci

o Tt oco o

C- d t-

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE

25

Figure 4. The Length of the Developmental Periods of the Larvae and Pupae
Reared in Controlled Environments. • — Constant Envirorunents. O — Varied En-
vironments.

30

37

17

40

1

i

2^4

o

26

0

27

29

30

40

50

M-

70

_Q0_

_S(L

-37

ZONEm

45

ZONE I

29

ZONEU

ZONEHJ

30 3/ 22 20

22 85

2%

25

28

24 27

27

-22

17

50 60 70 80

RELATIVE HUMIDITV-PER CENT

90

Figure 5. The Percentages of Larvae and Pupae Reaching Maturity in Controlled
Environments. e — Constant Environments. O — Varied Environments.

50 60 70 80

RELATIVE HUMIDITV-PER CENT

26 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

vironnients. The increased n.etabolisin occurring at temperatures above 17°
was probably sufficient to oxidize the pigment.

Constant and Varied Environments. The effects of temperature and mois-
ture on the larvae are shown graphically in Figures 4 and 5, which were con-
structed from the data in Tables V and VI. The length of the developmental
periods was plotted in Figure 4 and the percentage of larvae reaching ma-
turity in Figure 5.

The length of the developmental periods shows rather wide variations in
environments that are very much alike. When development was completed
at high temperatures, th^ time needed to reach maturity was favorable to
the species. On the low temperature side the developmental period was great-
ly lengthened, indicating that a temperature below 20° would be rather un-
favorable to the bean beetle. The average period was somewhat shorter
when the humidity was high, but it is impossible to determine the limits of a
suitable moisture range for length of developmental period from the data at
hand. When the percentage of larvae reaching maturity is considered (fig.
5), the upper temperature limit of Zone I was one to two degrees below that
in Figure 4, while the lower limit was still lower in comparison. The mois-
ture limits are not indicated in Figure 4, but for the percentage of larvae
reaching maturity (fig. 5) the lower limit was near 3.5 per cent. The mois-
ture range, then, for favorable larval development lies between 3-5 and 9.5
per cent.

It is quite evident that neither the length of the developmental period nor
the percentage maturing can be used as a criterion for determining the de-
gree of favorableness for larval development necessary for the insect to main-
tain itself in economic nun.bers. Therefore a combination of Zones I of the
two figures must be used. A high percentage of the larvae must complete
development in a reasonably short time for the insect to maintain itself in
abundance. Thus if a line is drawn from A to B (the lower Hmit of Zone I
in Figure 4) in Figure 5, the resulting area of Zone I above this line would
probaibly represent the con binations of temperature and moisture in which
the bean beetle would beccn e injurious in so far as larval development is
concerned.

Summary. A temperature of 37° was very destructive to the larvae in all
humidities used.

Half of the larvae con.pleted development at a temperature of 32° when
the humidity was low, while all of them succumbed in high moisture environ-
ments. The adults from larvae reared in these conditions were badly dis-
torted. All of the larvae died in varied humidity at this temperature. The
death rates were much reduced when the temperature was alternated, but
most of the resulting adults were monstrosities.

A temperature of 27° was favorable for larval development with high hu-
midity, while the death rate was very high in dry environments. Alternated
environments with 32° were unfavorable.

A temperature of 22° was very favorable for larval development in all mois-
ture conditions used. The number pupating was much reduced with 32° in
the alternating teniperature experiments.

A temperature of 17° was favorable for the larvae completing development,
but growth was very slow. High percentages of the larvae matured in alter-
nating conditions but the tin'.e necessary was greatly increased.

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE 27

Suitability of the Climate of New England for the Bean Beetle

The practical value of the experin.ental data just presented can be esti-
mated by a study of the cliniatological data for New England from, the rec-
ords of the United States Weather Bureau. Temperature and precipitation
records from numerous places in this region have been secured for a number
of years, and a few stations have been collecting relative humidity changes.
The latter is more valuable in this study but, because of lack of sufficient
material, precipitation records also will be used.

Faiin-al Zones of Nerv EnglancL

The faunal zones occurring in New England are the Canadian of the Boreal
Region and Transition and Upper Austral of the Austral Region. These
zones, as shown in the United States Biological Survey map of 1910 with
modifications for New England by Fernald (1915 and later), are followed
(Fig. 6). Meteorological data collected by the United States Weather Bu-
reau stations within the various zones arei used to determine the temperature
and moisture conditions. Cliniatological data secured at places where the
zones overlap are not used. Stations in the various zones selected as suitable
for this study are shown in Figure (i.

Upper Austral Zone. — A composite clin.ograph of temperature and mois-
ture for the Upper Austral Zone is shown in Figure 7. The mean relative
humidity is given in the climograph of Hartford, which is near the center of
the Upper Austral Zone (fig. 8, Mean). The lowest humidity ordinarily
occurs in the afternoon, and the 2 p. m. conditions plotted in Figure 8 (2
p.m.) approximate the driest part of the day. It is evident that the humid-
ity is plentiful throughout the year, thus assuring suitable conditions for de-
velopment of the eggs and larvae in summer and for hibernation of adults in
winter. If the temperature becomes excessive during the summer months,
the humid conditions would become unfavorable, but an examination of weath-
er records shows that extreme temperatures are imcommon and of short
duration. Maximum temperatures are ordinarily below 100° F. (37.8° C.)
and, unless continuing for several successive days, the temperature among
the plants fails to become injurious. Apparently conditions are favorable
for the bean beetle to becone a serious pest in the Austral Zone of Massa-
chusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Beans are a rather common garden
plant in this area. The insect is now found in this faunal division in south-
western Connecticut.

Transition Zone. — The mean temperature and precipitation are shown in
the conposite climograph for this Zone in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Ver-
mont, New Hampshire, and Maine (fig. 9). A composite graph of the mean
relative himiidity and the 2 p.m. conditions of Boston, Portland, and Burl-
ington are given in Figure 10 (Mean, 2 p.m.). The precipitation and rela-
tive hiunidity in Maine, Massachusetts, and Connecticut are very similar to
that of the Upper Austral Zone just discussed. Since the temperature is
slightly lower, less danger to the insect from the comlbination of high tem-
perature and high moisture would exist. New Hampshire and Vermont are
somewhat drier, but the heavier precipitation falls during the growing sea-
son and would be satisfactory for development of the imimature stages. The
winter months are sufficientlv humid for successful hibernation of the adults.

28

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

Figure 6. The Faunal Zones of New England and Weather Bureau Stations in Each.

1. Bridgeport

2. Hartford

3. New Haven

4. Norwalk

5. Southington

6. Bristol

7. Kingston

8. Narragansett Pier

9. Amherst

10. Fall River

11. Hyannis

12. Middleboro

13. New Bedford

14. Springfield

15. Turners Falls

16. Cream Hill

17. No. Grosvenordale

18. Storrs

19. Voluntown

20. Boston

21. Blue Hill

22. Chestnut Hill

23. Concord

24. Fitchburg

25. Framingham

26. Groton

27. Lawrence

28. Lowell

29. Westboro

30. Williamstown

31. Worcester

32. Burlington

33. Cornwall

34. Hartland

35. Wells

36. Woodstock

37. Alstead

38. Concord

39. Durham

40. Franklin

41. Grafton

42. Hanover

43. Keene

44. Nashua

45. Newton

46. Peterboro

47. Cornish

48. Gardiner

49. Lewiston

50. No. Bridgton

51. Orono

52. Portland

53. Jacksonville

54. Northfield

55. Bethlehem

56. Plymouth

57. Sanbornton

58. Eastport

59. Greenville

60. Houlton

61. Millinocket

62. Van Buren

J

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE

29

Figures 7, 8,

9, 10, 11. Composite Climographs of the Faunal Zones of New
England.

46 56 66 76 46

RELATIVE HUM/Diry-PER CENT

56

66

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

Since the average temperature is somewhat lower than that of the Upper
Austral, which ordinarily does not have excessive heat, it leaves the problem
of determining if the temperature is high enough to favor reproduction. The
mean monthly temperatures for July and August (fig. 9) for the Transition
Zone are 69.7° F. (21° C.) and 67.4° F. (19.7° C). These temperatures fall
near the lower limits of suitability given in Figures 1-5 for the various stages.
The beetle successfully overwinters in states that have as low temperatures
as this area and apparently the bean beetle can be expected to become a pest
over at least the southern part of the Transition Zone in so far as tempera-
ture and moisture are concerned, but may be restricted by lack of suitable
food plants. As the northern limits of the Zone are approached, the injury
will become less. The insect has recently been found in this faunal division
in the Housatonic Valley of Connecticut and Massachusetts.

Caiiadum Zone. The climographs of temperature and precipitation for the
portions of Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont in the Canadian Zone are
given in Figure 11. The moisture of the environment appears to be satis-
factory for the developn.ent of the immature stages. Very little danger to
the pest would result from a combination of high temperature and high
moisture conditions. However, the temperature alone woidd not encourage
rapid developn;ent. The n.ean temperature of the warmest month, July, is
6.5.2° F. (18.5° C). This means that the temperature would reach a favor-
able position for developn.ent for only a few hours daily and would not be
sufficient for the beetle to become a pest. The insect may migrate into this
area from the Transition Zone during the summer months and produce a lim-
ited amount of injury in local areas.

Discussion.

The conclusions that can be drawn from this study are based upon aver-
age conditions, and temporary variations from these will, of course, produce
an environment either more or less favorable to the pest, depending upon the
(direction and duration of the variation. Local areas within the three zones
may be found which do not have a temperature and moisture environment
comparable to the surrounding region but such will not be suflBcient to in-
validate the general conclusions.

Food AiHiilahiUty in Netc England.

The principal food plant, beans, is common in Connecticut, Rhode Island,
and eastern Massachusetts. This crop is localized in central and western
Massachusetts and southern Maine, and is grown to a much less extent irt
New Hampshire and Vermont. Part of the Connecticut acreage is used for
producing dry beans, but the growers in the remainder of New England
market their product as string beans. The non-cultivated plants on which
the bean beetle is known to develop belong to two genera, Desmodhim (beg-
garweed) and Crotolaria (rattle-box), both closely related to beans (Thomas,
1924). One species of the latter, and at least seventeeni of the former, are
found in New England. Howard and English (1924) report D. canescens, a
species found in New England, as being a suitable plant for larval develop-
ment. These weeds may become important factors in the dispersal of the"
pest.

THE MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE 31

Conclusions

Adults. A temperature of 37° kills the beetles in a few hours; 32° is very-
unfavorable with high humidity and favorable with low humidity; 27° is
suitable for heavy oviposition with humidity of 60 per cent or above and
unfavorable with low humidity, but favorable for length of life with all hu-
midities used; 22° is favorable with humidities of 40 per cent or above; and
17° with 50 per cent humidity is favorable for length of life but is very un-
favorable for egg production.

Eggs. — A temperature of 37° kills the embryos; 32° is very destructive if
reached for more than a few hours daily; 27° is suitable with humidities of
60 per cent or above and unfavorable with low humidity; 22° is very favor-
able with humidities of 60 per cent or above, but less favorable with low hu-
midity; 17° with 50 per cent humidity is very favorable for good hatches,
but development is very* slow.

Lc^rvo'e. — A temperature of 37° kills the larvae in a few hours; 32° is very
unfavorable, especially with high humidity; 27° is favorable with high hu-
midity and unfavorable with low hmnidity^; 22° is very favorable with all hu-
midities used; 17° with 50 per cent humidity is very favorable for a high per-
centage maturing, but development is exceedingly slow.

Climatic conditions in the Upper Austral Zone of Massachusetts, Connecti-
cut and Rhode Island are favorable for the development of the Mexican beare
beetle, and the insect may therefore be expected to become a serious pest.
Conditions in the Transition Zone are less favorable, but the insect will prob-
ably become a pest in the lower portion of the Zone, with the injury becom-
ing greatly reduced as the upper limits are approached. The Canadian Zone!
of New England does not have a physical environment suitable for the de-
velopment of the beetle.

Literature Cited

Cecil, R.

1928. The Mexican bean beetle.

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 96:1-12.
De Long, D. M.

1926. (Discussion) Jour. Econ. Ent. 19:247-248.

Douglass, J. R.

1928. Precipitation as a factor in the emergence of Epilachna oorrupta
from hibernation. Jour. Econ. Ent. 21:203-213.

Eddy, C. O.

1926. The Mexican bean beetle in South Carolina.
Jour. Econ. Ent. 19:239-247.

Eddy, C. O. and McAllister, L. C, Jr.

1927. The Mexican bean beetle. S. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 236:1-38.
Eddy, C. O. and Clarke, W. H.

1929. The Mexican bean beetle in 1927-8.
S. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 258:1-41.

Fernald, H. T.

1915. Some present needs in economic entomology.

Jour. Econ. Ent. 8:36-38.

32 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 261

Graf. J. E.

1926. Climate in relation to Mexican bean beetle distribution.
Jour. Econ. Ent. 18:116-121.

1928. Mexican bean beetle moves into new areas.

Official Record 7:1, 3.
Hinds, W. E.

1920 Mexican bean beetle situation. Jour. Econ. Ent. 13:486-488.

1922. (Mexican bean beetle.)

U. S. Bur. Ent. Insect Pest Survey Bui. 2:20.
Howard, N. F.

1922a. The Mexican bean beetle in its bearing on Florida citrus growing.

Fla. St. PI. Bd. Quart. Bui. 6:15-24.
1922b. The Mexican bean beetle in the southeastern U. S.

Jour. Econ. Ent. 15:265-274.
1924. The Mexican bean beetle in the East.

U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm. Bui. 1407:1-14.

1927. Correlation of Mexican bean beetle population with original for-
est type. Science 65:499-500.

Howard, N. F. and English, L. L.

1924. Studies of the Mexican bean beetle in the Southeast.

U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 1243:1-50.
Knight, H. H.

1924. On the nature of the color patterns in Heteroptera with data

on the effects produced by temperature and moisture.
Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 17:258-272.
Marcovitch, S.

1926. "Supplementary investigations of fluosilicates as insecticides. With

observations on the effects of heat and drouth on the Mexican
bean beetle. Tenn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 134:10-12.
Montgomery, J. H.

1920. (Mexican bean beetle in Alabama.)

Fla. St. PI. Bd. Quart. Bui. 5:2-3.
Pepper, J. O.

1926. (Mexican bean beetle.)

U. S. Bur. Ent. Insect Pest Survey Bui. 6:109.
Sweetman, H. L.

1929. Precipitation and irrigation as factors in the distribution of the

Mexican bean beetle, EpUachna corrupta Muls.
Ecology 10:228-244.
Thomas, F. L.

1924. Life history and control of the Mexican bean beetle.

Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 221:5-99.
Transeau, E. N.

1927. Vegetation types and insect devastations. Distribution of the Mex-
ican bean beetle and European corn borer in Ohio.

Ecology 8:286.

Publication of this document approved by the
Commission on Administration and Finance

3 m-3-'30. No. 81(

ly

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

BULLETIN No. 262 FEBRUARY, 1930

Intensive Grassland Management

By R. C. Foley, E. J. Montague, and C. H. Parsons

An adequate and economical feed supply is a matter of vital importance
in the success of livestock farming. The increased cost of farm labor
and the higher price of concentrated feeds are two of the many factors
which have upset economic relationships on many livestock farms, with the
result that farm practices need to be modified if returns are to be in-
creased or even maintained. The work reported in this bulletin was under-
taken in the hope that it might result in the more profitable use of pasture
land in Massachusetts.

Requests for Bulletins should be addressed to tlie

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

INTENSIVE GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT

By R. C. Folejr, E. J. Montague, Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry,

and C. H. Parsons'

Introduction

Any profitable system of agriculture, if it is to be of a permanent character,
must provide for the maintenance of soil fertility. The feeding of livestock
and the return of the resulting manure to the land is one method whereby this
may be accomplished- Profitable animal husbandry should provide for the
home production of the greater part of the roughage fed and for the minimimi
use of expensive concentrates. Good pasture is the most economical method
of producing feed for cattle during the summer months; yet pasture is fre-
quently the most neglected crop on the farm.

Experimental work in pasture fertilization has been carried on at the Mass-
achusetts Agricultural College for a number of years, but it was not until
1928 that the problem was attacked on a large scale. At that time an inten-
sive system of grassland management, originally developed in Germany during
the war, was inaugurated on the college farm. In 1916 while cut off from the
rest of the world by the blockade, Germany began the home production of
high protein feed for livestock through heavy fertilization of grassland with
nitrogenous fertilizers. The system was developed by Professor Warmbold at
the Hohenheim Experiment Station, using the following annual applications of
plant food per acre: 107 pounds of nitrogen, 36 pounds of phosphoric acid
and 80 pounds of potash. The phosphoric acid and potash and about half of
the nitrogen were put on in February, while the balance of the nitrogen was
applied in three summer top dressings of urea, a synthetic (air) nitrogen
carrier. As a result of this treatment the area required was reduced from 1.4
acres per cow in 1916 to 0.75 acres in 1917 and to 0.5 acres in 1918. These
results and the lower cost of synthetic nitrogen established the system in
Germany, and it has since been quite generally introduced into the Nether-
landis and the British Isles.

The system is designed to provide a luxuriant growth of high protein grass,
thereby making it possible for the dairy farmer, at least during the summer
months, to produce on his own farm and in such a form that the cattle may
harvest it directly most of the feed necessary for his herd. It was hoped that
the application of this system to Massachusetts would effect a reduction in
the amount of concentrates fed during the summer and yield greater re-
turns per acre from the land used in maintaining the herd.

The system is based on four distinct principles, namely:

1. Division of area into plots.

2. Use of concentrated fertilizers.

3. Rotational grazing.

4. Combination of grazing and hay land.

1 This demonstration was conducted with the cooperation of the Synthetic Nitrogen
Products Corporation. Helpful suggestions were received from the Agronomy, Animal
Husbandry and Farm Management Departments of the College.

2 Graduate students in Animal Husbandry.

36

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 262

The manner in which each of these principles has been applied at the Mass-
achusetts Agricultural College during 1928 and 1929 is as follows.

Division of Area Into Plots

Seventy-four and one quarter acres of land that had formerly been in a
crop and pasture rotation (two years cultivated crop, one year hay and three
years pasture) were divided and fenced off into nine fields of 8^4 acres each.
Square plots are most desirable since cattle will graze more uniformly over
such a field with less damage to the turf along the fence lines. However, the
area available did not lend itself to this sort of division and the fields had to
be somewhat rectangular. This division of the area into small plots offers a
twofold advantage over the old system of large pastures. First, the cattle
restricted to a small area will graze the entire area equally close thus pre-
venting a tall growth of grass in certain portions which becomes unpalatable
and will not be consumed until there is an actual shortage of good grass.
Secondly, this system of small plots permits rotational grazing, the advantages
of whidi will be discussed later.

Cbart A. — Grassland Management Demonstration.
Arrangement of Plots.

Use of Concentrated Fertilizers

The second principle is fertilization with concentrated fertilizers to provide
a luxuriant growth of grass of high nitrogen content At the beginning of the
experiment the land was in a better state of fertility than the average New
England pasture, since it had been limed and manured in the previous crop

INTENSIVE GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT

37

rotations. Early in 1928 all plots except IV received a complete fertilizer and
later three additional applications of nitrogen were made during the same sea-
son. The fertilizers used were Nitrophoska II and Calurea. Nitrophoska II,
a high analysis complete fertilizer containing 16.5 per cent nitrogen, 16.5 per
cent phosphoric acid and 20 per cent potash (16.5-16.5-20), was applied at the
rate of 334 pounds per acre as soon as it was possible to get on the land in
the spring. Calurea, a product containing 34 per cent nitrogen and 13 per
cent lime, was applied as a summer top dressing three times during the sea-
son at the rate of 30 pounds per acre for each application. The applications
of Calurea were made in early June, the middle of July and the latter part
of August.

Fig. 1. The Westfalia Tertilizer Distributor.

Note eudless chain which feeds the fertilizer from the hopper to the revolving beat-
ers for even distribution.

In 1929, Plot IV again served as a check, and Plot VI received only phos-
phoric acid and potash. These were applied in the spring in the form of su-
perphosphate at the rate of 258 pounds per acre and muriate of potash at the
rate of 100 pounds per acre, thus making the total phosphoric acid and potash
on this plot for the season the same as that received by the complete fertil-
izer plots. It was felt that the phosphoric acid and potash could be reduced
the second year. Therefore, in 1929 the remaining plots received a spring ap-
plication of only 250 pounds per acre of the same complete fertilizer, while
the summer top dressing of the nitrogen fertilizer was increased to 44 pounds,
of Calurea per acre for each of the three applications, which were made at ap-
proximately the same dates as in 1928.

Thus in 1928 a total of 85 pounds of nitrogen, 55 pounds of phosphoric acid
and 67 pounds of potash was applied during the season. In 1929 the total
application was 85 pounds of nitrogen, 41 pounds of phosphoric acid and 59
pounds of potash per acre. To summarize: Plot IV received no fertilizer
treatment, Plot VI received a complete fertilizer in 1928 and phosphoric acid
and potash only in 1929, and the remaining plots received a complete fertil-
izer in both seasons.

38

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 262

Rotational Grazing

The need for rotational grazing and its values are set forth clearly and con-
cisely in the following quotation from an article by J. S. Stewart, Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries, in the October 1929 issue of "Farm Notes", an Eng-
lish paper published by Nitram Ltd. of London. "Where rotational grazing
is practiced, the first grazing should be a light one. Plants must have an op-
portunity to develop leaf and root, otherwise degeneracy results. Adequate
supplies of nutrients and moisture tend to lessen this deterioration, but the
m:ore luxuriant leafy species are most seriously weakened and take some time
to recover, their place tending to be taken by the more lowly and comparative-
ly worthless grasses and weeds, the complete defoliation of which is more dif-
ficult" (because of their lack of palatability). Thus under the old system of

Fig. 2. Pasture Scene in August, 1927, before the Experiment Began.
Note the uneven appearance of the pasturage.

^fHHfM)l^

unrestricted grazing, the more palatable grasses are weakened by continuous
close cropping, while the unpalatable weeds are allowed to grow and repro-
duce unhindered. Under the new system, the regular rest periods permit the
more luxuriant grasses to make an adequate top growth during the recuperat-
ing period and to strengthen their root system before being eaten down agaift.

The college dairy herd consisting of Holsteins, Ayrshires, Guernseys, Jer-
seys and milking Shorthorns and a part of the college flock of sheep were
used for the experiment. In order to make the most efficient use of the pas-
tures, the cattle were divided into three groups: the higher producers (Group
1), the lower producers (Group 2), dry cows and young stock (Group 3). At

INTENSIVE GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT

39

the beginning of the season the milking herd, which averaged 44.4 head in
1928 and 43.5 head in 1929, was divided into two groups on the basis of milk
production. Whenever changes occurred during the season an attempt was
made to keep the two groups about tlie same in number and to keep the higher
producing animals in Group 1. The third group averaged 28.6 head for the
season of 1928, composed of 27 dry cows and young stock and 1.6 horses; while
in 1929 this group was somewhat larger, averaging 33 head of dry cows and
young stock and 26 sheep.

Fig. 3. The Same Pasture in May, 1929, the Second Year of the Experiment.

While these two pictures are not absolutely comparable because they were taken at
different times of the year, nevertheless anyone familiar with pasture conditions knows
that the same irregularities as shown in Figure 2 would have appeared early the next
season if the pasture had not been harrowed.

Throughout the season the groups were rotated from plot to plot according
to the third principle of the system. Group 1 should show the greatest re-
turns from the best feed; consequentlj^ it was placed first in the rotation and
at a time when the grass was about four inches high. After the choicest por-
tion of the pasture had been grazed, these cattle were moved on to the next
plot, and their place was taken by Group 2, which in turn was followed by
Group 3. The latter group, being on pasture continuously, could still secure
abundant feed by closer grazing. After the entire plot had been grazed suf-
ficiently close by the last group, it was given a rest period of about two weeks
before the high producers were brought on to it again.

40

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 262

Combination of Grazing and Hay Land

The fourth principle provides for additional pasture during July and Au-
gust. The first six plots furnished abundant feed for the herd during May
and June and were used in rotation, while VII, VIII and IX were allowed to
produce a crop of hay. After the hay harvest early in June, these plots fur-
nished additional pasturage needed during the latter part of the season.

Fig. 4. The Fella Harrow Distributing the Droppings.

The three handkerchiefs mark off the area over which a single dropping is distrib-
uted. Undisturbed droppings show on the extreme right.

Field Operations

Harrowing

In early spring the plots were gone over with a "Fella" harrow, a German
invention, of the chain type, one side of which is intended for use in aerating
the soil and breaking up the manure cliunps. The other side is used later in
the season for distributing the droppings. At the beginning of each rest peri-
od, the plot was harrowed with the "Fella" to distribute all droppings evenly
in order that they might be used to the best advantage as fertilizer and to
prevent the enormous waste otherwise resulting from the refusal of cattle to
eat the rank growth of grass around manure clumps.

A striking feature of the experiment has been the even appearance of the
grass on the plots throughout the season. It is estimated that the amount of
feed spoiled on heavily grazed pasture when droppings are allowed to accum-
iilate would, if conserved, more than cover the cost of harrowing. Assuming,
for example, that the droppings per cow per day cover a square yard of good

INTENSIVE GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT 41

pasture when allowed to remain, then in a pasture season of 150 days, this
will mean one hundred and fifty square yards per cow per season. The rank
growth around such spots will easily double this area, and in a herd of only
twenty cows this would mean a loss of one and a quarter acres of pasture for
the season.

Fertilizing

The complete fertilizer in the form of Nitrophoska was applied the latter
part of April with a Westfalia fertilizer distributor imported from Germany.
This is an endless chain sower equipped with revolving beaters which is de-
signed to spread evenly amounts as low as thirty pounds per acre. The nitro-
gen fertilizer in the form of Calurea was applied with this machine as a sum-
mer top dressing three times during the season at the beginning of the rest
period.

Rolling

In the spring, as soon as the plots had dried out sufficiently, they were rolled
with a heavy concrete roller to compact the soil and encourage a stronger turf
less liable to injury from the tramping of the cattle. In addition to compact-
ing the soil, this operation helped to smooth out the turf on certain areas
which had been badly cut up by the cattle during the previous wet season.

Haying

Plots VII, VIII and IX were mowed early in June, yielding a hay of ex-
cellent quality, high in protein. By the middle of July these plots were ready
to be grazed and were incorporated into the rotation to supplement the first
six plots. In 1928 the season was extremely wet and some difficulty was ex-
perienced in curing the hay. Consequently the hay remained on the plots from
10 to 22 days and considerable portions of the grass under the windrows were
killed out, thus handicapping these plots for the rest of the season. In 1929
the weather was ideal for haying and the hay was put into the barn in fine
condition. Plot VIII was mowed rather early, and this fact explains the
marked reduction in yield as compared with the previous year. Hay taken
from the plots was weighed and representative samples were secured. The
moisture content was determined by the chemistry department, and the yield
on all plots was computed on a 12 per cent moisture basis. The dry matter
was analyzed for nitrogen, and the protein content calculated.

Results of Two Years' Work

Records were kept throughout both seasons of the weights of the cattle,
milk production, additional feed consumed, yields of hay, and costs of all field
operations. A daily record was kept for each plot of the nmnber of each class
of stock pastured, milk produced and additional feed consumed while on that
plot.

Rainfall During the Pasture Season

Chart B presents graphically the monthly rainfall at Amherst during the
two yc.TS of the experiment and the normal rainfall for the same period. The

42

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 262

usual pasture season is about 160 days and extends from early May to the
middle of October. The rainfall for the six months period, May 1 — October
31, as averaged over the last forty years at the college meteorological station
is 22.9 inches. In 1928 the total rainfall for that period amounted to 28.8
inches. It was reasonable to assume that the experiment had probably been
unduly favored by this liberal moisture supply. In 1929 the total precipitation
for the same period vv^as only 15.8 inches, with 0.7 of an inch in July and 1.-5
inches in August. In spite of this prolonged drouth, all plots showed a greater
carrying capacity than in 1928, and all plots except the check and plot VI
which received no nitrogen in 1929, showed an increased return per acre. This
fact is so contrary to the natural expectation under normal untreated pasture
conditions that it deserves special attention.

Chart B. — Monthly Rainfall in Inches During the Pasture Season.
1928 and 1929.

/

\

1929

/

\

\

/

/

/

\

'••.

/
/

\

-

-

/
/

\

Kormal

^

;•-..

"^

.-<

1

1928

y

y
/

..••■ \

\

\

April May June July August September October

Carrying Capacity of the Plots

The carrying capacity in animal units for each plot during 1928 and 1929 is
presented in Chart C. An animal unit was taken as the equivalent of one
mature cow, one and one-half heifers, eight ewes or ten lambs. The pasture
season was taken as 163 days, and the carrying capacity equals the total pas-
ture days for the plot divided by the days in the pasture season. For ex-
ample, on this basis Plot I with a carrying capacity of 15.2 would have fur-
nished pasturage for 15 cows during the entire season. It is evident that, with
the exception of Plot I which had been in pasture for a longer period and
thus had a better pasture turf at the beginning of the experiment, there was
but slight variation between the plots (I, II, III, V) which received the com-
plete fertilizer and were grazed the entire season. In order to put all plots on
a directly comparable basis, that portion of the grass which was harvested as
hay was converted to animal units by taking 25 pounds of hay per day as the
equivalent of one animal unit. On this basis Plots VII, VIII and IX ranked

INTENSIVE GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT

43

well up with the other plots though they were actually grazed only part of
the season. The variations shown by Plots VII, VIII and IX in 1928 were
apparently in proportion to the amounts of hay damaged by rain and to the
turf injury by the cattle. The lower carrying capacity of Plot VIII in 1929,
as has been pointed out, was due to the lower hay yield since it was mowed
early in June. With the exception of Plot VI which received no nitrogen in
1929, all the fertilized plots showed a greater carrying capacity the second
season, probably due to an improved pasture turf and the residual effect of
the fertilizer applied the previous season. Even the check plot apparently
benefiting from the rotation and field operations showed a slight increase in
spite of the dry season.

Chart C. — Carrying Capacity per Plot in Animal Units.
1928 and 1929.

0

Plot I
fert. NPK

II

1X1

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

NPK

KPK

CHECK

NPK

NPK-2S
PK-29

NPK

NPK

NPK

In Table 1 the plots receiving a complete fertilizer were divided into those
used primarily for grazing (I, II, III, V) and those which were cut for hay
and grazed later in the summer (VII, VIII, IX), and in the following dis-
cussion the former are called the "grazed" plots and the latter the "hay"
plots. Plot IV, the check, and Plot VI, the PK plot, are treated separately
for the two seasons. In 1928 the ratio of milch cow days for the four group-
ings Plots I, II, III, V; Plot IV; Plot VI and Plots VII, VIII, IX was
11 : 4 : 10 : 4. Thus the average of the grazed plots was approximately the same
as Plot VI since in 1928 Plot VI received the comp^lete fertilizer. The grazed
plots averaged two and one-half times as many milch cow days as Plot IV,
while the hay plots averaged as many milch cow days as the check and in ad-
dition produced an average of 1.4 tons of hay per acre- The corresponding
ratio for the young stock group is 5 : 3 : .5 : 1.6. The check plot made a better
showing here since quality of feed was less important in this group, and the
hay plots ranked lower since the feed was used primarily for the milking
groups. The second season the complete fertilizer plots, both grazed and hay
plots, showed greater capacity, the check plot remained approximately the
same, and the ratio on Plot VI was about one-half of the 1928 figure, as fol-
lows: 12 : 4 : 5 : 5. Thus Plots I, II, III, V carried the milch cows more than

44 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 262

Table 1 — Pasture Season 1928 Compared with 1929.

Grazed Plots
Average of
I, II, III, V

Che

ick Plot
IV

Plot VI

Hay Plots

Average of

VII, VIII, IX

1928

1929

1928

1929

1928

1929

1928

1929

NPK

NPK

0

0

NPK

PK

NPK

NPK

Pasture Days

in Animal Unlts-

—per

Acre

Milch Cows:
Group 1
Group 2
Total

70

67

137

79

69

148

26
24

50

22
24
46

66

56

122

34
30
64

28
23
51

31
31
62

Group 3 :
Young stock
Others
Total

56

4

60

67
12
79

36
38

41

9

50

59

2

61

65
10

75

19
1

20

25
3

28

Total G.l, 2 & 3

197

227

88

97

183

139

71

90

Yield of Hay per Acre — Pounds (12 per cent moisture basis)

0 293* 0 61* 0 520* 2789 3206

Milk Produced per Acre (Pounds)
3412 3875 1288 1127 3137 1694 1322 1480

Additional Feed per Acre (Pounds)

Concentrates

1203

984

417

286

1073

409

478

417

Silage

3153

2122

1028

481

2683

817

1597

1048

Beet Pulp

290

216

72

48

272

109

124

85

Hay

206

171

27

37

87

81

49

55

* Plots I to VI were mowed during July to remove grass which had passed the graz-
ing stage. This was weighed and credited to each plot.

three thnes as long as the check and almost two and one-half times as long as
Plot VI and the hay plots. Plot VI and Plots VII, VIII and IX carried the
milch cows for approximately the same length of time, but the latter produced
an average of one and one-half tons of hay per acre in addition. Both Plot
VI and the hay plots were superior to Plot IV. The ratio for Group 3 was
very similar to that of 1928, being 6:4:6:2, with the hay plots again lowest
since the more succulent feed on these plots during July and August was re-
served for the milch cows.

Unfortunately, some of the grasses, particularly on Plots I, II, and VI,
passed beyond the grazing stage and as a result, it was decided to mow all
six plots and credit the hay to each plot. This explains the hay yield on the
plots used primarily for grazing.

The milk production, of course, was almost directly proportional to the milch
cow days, being three and one-half times greater on the grazed plots than on
the check in 1929, and two and one half times greater on these plots than on
Plot VI and the hay plots.

In comparing additional feed, it should be kept in mind that the cows were
not on Plots IV and VI early in the season while still receiving additional
roughage in the barn or late in the season while being changed over to win-
ter feed, thus giving these two plots an advantage from the standpoint of cost
of additional feed. The fertilized plots were ready for grazing earlier in the
spring, showed a greater response to the fall rains by increased growth of the
grass, and furnished late pasture after Plots IV and VI had been grazed as
closely as was advisable.

INTENSIVE GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT

45

MUk PrO'ductiom w^d Returns per Acre

Chart D brings out the close correlation between milk produced and net re-
turns per acre over feed, fertilizer, field and land costs, thus emphasizing the
fact that the primary value of this system is for milk production. The graph
at the top represents milk produced per acre in pounds, while the lower graph
gives the returns per acre over the above costs for the two seasons. The first
six plots maintained the relationships shown in Chart C, but the hay plots
showed a decided difference. The actual milk production was much lower on
these plots than on the other fertilized plots since they were grazed only dur-
ing the latter part of the season, although converting the yield of hay to
pasture days had placed them well up in carrying capacity.

The returns per acre over feed, fertilizer, field and land costs as charted in
the lower graph varied directly with the milk production on the various plots,
being considerably lower on the hay plots than on the plots used primarily
for grazing, and thus demonstrating the advantage to the farmer of letting
the cows harvest their own feed as succulent pasture grass instead of hauling
it to them in the barn as hay. With the present high cost of labor, this sav-
ing may amount to a considerable sum, and in addition the cows utilize the
grass in its most palatable and nutritious form. Without question the third
group and the hay plots are necessary to the proper functioning of the system
as applied at the college, but the system may be so modified as to make them
unnecessary. For example on a less extensive scale, the milking herd might

Chart D. — Milk Produced and Returns per Acre.
1928 and 1929.

Plot I

46

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 262

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INTENSIVE GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT 47

be divided into two groups, fewer plots used in the rotation, and meadowland
from which the first crop had been harvested used to supply the necessary
late summer supplementary feed. Provision of course must be made to supply
the roughage necessary for winter feed.

All the plots which received the complete fertilizer showed a notable in-
crease in returns per acre as compared with 1928. Plots VII, VIII and IX
in particular showed greatly increased returns per acre in 1929 due to a
larger yield of hay as a result of more favorable haying weather and almost
complete recovery of the turf which had been badly damaged the previous
wet season. Plot IV, although showing a slightly increased carrying capacity,
gave lower returns per acre because of the lower milk production in 1929,
while Plot VI also showed decreased returns over feed, fertilizer, field and
land costs in 1929.

Table 2 presents a summary and comparison for the two years of all ex-
penditures, covering feed, fertilizer, field costs and land rental, and all credits
for pasturage of young stock and yields of hay, but does not include bam
labor. All feed was figured at the following prices per ton: Grain, $48; beet
pulp, $5.5; silage, $8; and hay, $18. The retail price delivered was used in
calculating fertilizer costs, both Nitrophoska and Calurea being figured at
$100 per ton, M-hile superphosphate was charged at $23 and muriate of potash
at $53 per ton. Pasturage of young stock was credited at the rate of 7^2
cents per animal per day, and hay at $18 per ton. From these data the cost
per hundred pounds of milk and the returns per acre over the above costs
were calculated and are presented in the table.

In 1928 the unfertilized plot naturally produced a unit of milk most cheaply,
with the grazed plots ranking second; but due to the greater quantity of milk
produced on the latter, the returns per acre were two apd. one-half times more O --
on these fertilizer plots, being $22.2i> for Plot IV and ^sl.W for the average ^
of Plots I, II, III, V. Similarly in 1929 the cost per unit of milk was slightly'fepl(
lower on Plot VI than on those receiving a complete fertilizer (grazed plots), ,*,p^
but the latter showed double the returns per acre, yielding .$84.09 as com- i '1
pared with .$38.29 on Plot VI. The return of $38.29 in 1929 on Plot VI C'^^'^
as compared with $45.80 in 1928 appears somewhat inconsistent. Based on the
experience of 1928, however, the expense of additional barn feeding was great-
ly reduced on all plots in 1929, thus favoring this plot as compared with the
previous year; and unquestionably it benefited by the application of a com-
plete fertilizer in 1928. The higher cost on Plot IV in 1929 is explained by
the low milk production on that plot in relation to the value of the land and
the cost of field operations.

The returns per acre above feed, fertilizer, field and land costs, then, are
the significant figures in the accompanying table, since naturally an unfertil-
ized plot will produce a unit of milk most cheaply and the addition of each
succeeding fertilizer element raises this figure slightly. It is a question not of
producing one unit most cheaply, but of producing milk during the pasture
season most economically, that is, of making the greatest net returns.

WieiffJits of the Anvmals

All the animals in the experiment were weighed in order to make sure that
the young stock made gains consistent with good live stock management, and
that the cows maintained their condition throughout the season. The average
figures are shown in Table 3.

48

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 262

Table 3 — Weights of Animals.

Numb

er of

Average

Average daily

Group

animals

initial weight

Total

gain

gain per

■ head

1928

1929

1928

1929

1928

1929

1928

1929

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Milch cows

61

63

1152

1133

3904

2040

Young stock

35

49

686

711

4102

4380

1.0

0.827

Sheep — ewes

42

94

598

.30

Sheep — lambs

31

39

1070

.30

The milch cows more than maintained their weight, the entire herd making
a net gain of 3904 in 1928 and 2040 in 1929. During the season of 1929 the
milking herd received in addition to pasture an average of 6.5 pounds of
grain, 14.5 pounds of silage, 1.4 pounds of beet pulp and l.OS pounds of hay
per cow per day. An average of 25.6 pounds of milk per cow per day was
produced. From May 23 to August 2 the cows received no roughage of any
kind in the barn and were fed a 14 per cent ration at the average rate of 1
pound of grain to 41/2 pounds of milk for all breeds. The young stock group,
which was on pasture continuously, received no supplementary feed and aver-
aged a daily gain of 0.827 pounds which was slightly less than in 1928. The
sheep did especially well in the experiment as the constant rotation lessened
the infection from parasites as well as providing abundant feed. Both ewes
and lambs averaged a daily gain of 0.3 pound per head while on pasture; the
lambs being on the experimental plots from May 14 to September 6 and mak-
ing an average gain of 34 pounds per animal.

Analysis of GraSiS^

Throughout the pasture season grass samples were taken from the various
plots and analyzed for nitrogen content by the chemistry department. The
samples were carefully collected by clipping the grass from six representative
areas on each plot the day before the high producing group was turned onto
the plot. The six areas, each 2 feet square, were located at certain "stag-
gered" intervals over the plot and the locations were marked on the divison
fences. The samples from all plots receiving the complete fertilizer averaged
17.5 per cent protein (calculated) in the dry matter for the two seasons. All
samples from the check plot averaged 12.3 per cent protein (calculated),
while in 1929 the samples from Plot VI which received only phosphoric acid
and potash averaged 15.6 per cent.

The Two Seasons Compared

Increased production and decreased supplementary feed characterized the
second year of the pasture experiment. While the average production per cow
per day was approximately the same for the two seasons, being 25.1 in 1928
and 25.6 in 1929, and the average number of animals in the milking groups was
44.4 in 1928 and 43.5 in 1929 or about one cow less for the season, the fact
that the pasture season was six days longer in 1929 resulted in a total of 114
more milch cow days the second season. If this figure is converted to milk
produced by multiplying it by the average production per cow per day (us-

' The authors gratefully acknowledge the services of Professor J. G. Archibald of
the Chemistry Department who made the nitrogen and moisture determinations.

INTENSIVE GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT

49

ing the 1928 figure since the slightly higher average production in 1929 can-
not be attributed directly to the experiment) the second season shows a gain
of 2,861 pounds of milk. Favored by almost ideal haying weather during June,
the hay crop for the second season was 24^,722 pounds greater. It was felt
that the cows were given more supplementary feed than was necessary during
the first season; therefore this factor was watched more carefully the second
year. With the increased carrying capacity of the pastures, the reduction in
barn feeding amounted to 34 tons of silage, 8 tons of grain and 2.5 tons of
beet pulp. It is expected that the saivings will be even greater as familiarity
with the management of the intensive system increases, and the cumulative
effect of the treatment becomes more apparent.

Table 4 — Season of 1929 Compared with the Season of 1928

Increased Production:

2,861 pounds more milk produCed @ $3.95 per cwt.
24,722 pounds more hay produced @ 18.00 per ton

$113.04
222.55

$335.59

Decreased Supplementary Feed:
Roughage :

67,488 pounds less silage fed @ $8.00 per ton

4,996 pounds less beet pulp @ 55.00 per ton

970 pounds less hay @ 18.00 per ton

$269.95

136.56

8.73

Concentrates:

15,877 pounds less grain fed

Total Value of Difference

48.00 per ton

378.91

$794.15
$1129.74

Effect of the System on Vlegetation

Some idea of the improvement in the vegetation on the fertilized plots as
compared with the check can be obtained from the accompanying picture
(Fig. 6) showing representative sod samples from Plot III, which received
the complete fertilizer, and Plot IV, the check plot. At the start of the ex-
periment in 1928 the two fields were approximately the same, while the sods
shown above were taken in May 1929. A representative area on each plot
was selected and the sod to be taken was blocked out by cutting around it
with a garden spade. No attempt was made to cut under the sod and when it
had been freed on all four sides, it was lifted out taking with it such roots
and soQ as might be attached. Not only is the white Dutch clover very
much in evidence on the fertilized sod, but the height and density of the
vegetation on the sod from the fertilized plot is also quite marked as com-
pared with the check. The greater development of the root system on the
fertilized sod is evidenced by the difference in the thickness of the soil on the
two samples. Thus improved quality and increased quantity of feed along
with a stronger turf and a better developed root system may be expected
from the application of this system.

60

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 262

Fig. 5. Sods Taken from Plots III and IV, Respectively, in May, the
Second Year of the Experiment

)ummary an

d ConcI

nclusions

This system of grassland management has been carried on for two years at
the Massachusetts Agricultural College and in spite of two extreme seasons,
the first wet, the second dry, has shown excellent results. The second year,
in the face of a serious drouth, it has shown greater returns and marked im-
provement in every respect as compared with 1928. The results to date, how-
ever, seem to warrant the following conclusions.

1. This system has been practicable even under extreme conditions of rain-
fall.

2. The carrying capacity of the pastures was greatly increased by the ap-
plication of the principles involved.

3. The use of concentrated fertilizers improved the quality and increased
the quantity of pasture grasses and produced a denser pasture turf.

4. It is evident that nitrogen had an immediate and pronounced effect on
the yield of pasturage.

5. It is evident, not only in the data obtained but also as a result of pasture
observations, that the beneficial cumulative effects of fertilizer are a factor
of outstanding importance.

6. This two year trial has proven that the grazing season may be lengthened
and the carrying capacity of a pasture increased by the application of the
four principles of this intensive system of grassland management, thus lessen-
ing the amount of barn feeding necessary.

7. Because of the difficulty of measuring the many variants involved, definite
conclusions regarding management are not possible until the study has been
in progress for a period of years. This demonstration is therefore being con-
tinued.

Publication of this document approved by the
Commission on Administration and Finance

5 m-3-'30. No. 8225

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 263 April, 1930

Food Service in Massachusetts

Rural Elementary Schools

«

By Esther Davies

Knowledge of the amount and kinds of food service available to the
pupils in the elementary schools is a necessary basis for further study of
the conditions affecting the health of children from six to sixteen years
of age. Since such health studies are contemplated for certain districts of
rural Massachusetts, and because information rega^rding the present prac-
tices of the schools in fok>d service was not available, the survey here re-
ported was made during the years 1927-1928 and 1928-1929.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

The Towns of Less than 5,000
Population Are Shown in Black

^ .^

FOOD SERVICE IN MASSACHUSETTS RURAL
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

By Esther Davies^
In Charge of Home Economics Research

The Scope of the Study

The 236 towns of less than 5,000 population which make up rural Massa-
chusetts have over 66,000 children enrolled in their elementary schools. With
10 per cent of the total state population, these towns have 11 per cent of the
elementary school enrollment. In every 1,000 inhabitants there are 164 grade
school pupils.

During the years 1927-1928 and 1928-1929 members of the staff of the De-
partment of Home Economics Research visited the schools of 155 of these
towns, to study the arrangements for food service and their relation to the
health of the pupils; for it was believed that conditions would differ radicaUy
from those which had previously been found to exist in city school systems,
and that the problems of food service in the rural schools might be more dif-
ficult than those of the larger communities. Through correspondence with the
school superintendents, enough information was obtained for 67 more towns
to warrant their inclusion in this study; giving a total of 222 towns, with an
elementary school enrollment of 57,600 pupils, as the basis of this report.
The geographic distribution of the towns is shown by the accompanying map.
(A New England town, it should be remembered, is comparable to what else-
where in the United States is called a township.)

The scattering of the rural school children in a large number of small and
frequently isolated buildings greatly increases the per capita cost of provid-
ing adequate equipment for lunch rooms or any other type of food service;
and the largest consolidated school in any of these towns is a comparatively
small unit. In a discussion of the defects in the practices of the rural schools
it should always be borne in mind that the burden of financing the school
system is proportionately heavier in the country than in the more populous
centers, and they must be criticized from the point of view of what improve-
ments might be made without appreciable added expense rather than by com-
parison with an ideal based on a large budget allowance.

The 57,600 pupils of the 222 rural Massachusetts towns are housed in 800
school buildings, of which 370 (46 per cent) are one-room, one-teacher build-
ings; 208 (26 per cent) have two or three rooms; and the remaining 222 (28
per cent), four or more rooms. It is evident that, in spite of Massachusetts'
history as the first state in the Union to establish a consolidated school, the
one-teacher building, with from four to eight grades, is still frequently found
in the Commonwealth. However, what may be termed partial consolidation
has taken place to a great extent. Instead of six or eight or ten one-room
buildings per town there are now likely to be one or two larger schoolhouses,
with only a few of the one-room type left. In 28 of the 222 towns complete
consolidation has taken place, so that all the elementary school pupils attend

^ The author wishes to acknowledge the help of Cornelia B. Church, Laboratory
Assistant in Home Economics Research, by whom part of the field work of the study
was done.

54 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BUI>LETIN 263

one building. On the other hand, 20 towns have no building larger than the
one-room, one-teacher schoolhouse. In the remaining 174 towns there is
partial consolidation.

Among all these rural towns, consolidation has progressed to the extent
that over 15,000 pupils, or 28 per cent of the total enrollment of the grades,
attend schools so far from their homes that the school authorities are by law
obliged to provide transportation. In addition to these 15,000 children for
whom transportation is furnished (and who, of course, cannot go home at
noon), approximately 1,000 cliildren who walk to school in the morning bring
their lunches because the distance is too great to permit returning home for
lunch. There are, therefore, 16,000 pupils who must remain at the school-
houses during the noon recess, and who constitute the problem of noon food
service.

The schools in 109 of the rural towns have no food service whatsoever; in
60 towns, some service exists in part of the buildings; while in only 53 towns
(including the 28 having one building each) is there service of any kind in
every schoolhouse. A fairer and more significant unit for the study of school
food services, however, is the building. As said above, in 60 towns the fact
that one building makes provision for a food service has not led to the es-
tablishment of the service in all the other buildings; and a service in a school
at one end of a town is of no benefit to children going to buildings in other
sections. The reason for this lack of imiformity in the practice in the various
buildings of any one town will be discussed later.

Taking the building as the unit, it is found that in 567 (71 per cent) of the
800 buildings there is no food service of any sort at any time during the
school year. Over 6,000 of the children who attend these schools without any
food service must remain through the noon hour during all the year, and more
stay when the weather is severe.

The amounts and the kinds of food service in the buildings of the 222 towns
are shown in the following tabulation:

Per cent

Number of of total

Type of food service buildings buildings

None 567 71

Hot drink or soup,

during winter only 185 23

Meal, entire school year 23 3

Milk only, entire school year - 25 3

800 100

In 13 of the 25 buildings having milk service only, it is a mid-morning service;
in 12, a noon service.

There is no uniform relation discoverable between the availability of a serv-
ice to the pupils and its popularity. As will be seen in the discussion of the
lunch rooms where food is served (page 61), the proportion of pupils tak-
ing advantage of the opportunity varies widely; with the attitude of the
teachers, the success of the management in serving palatable food at low cost,
and the willingness of the parents to provide money, as well as, at times, the
proximity of a hot dog stand. In general, in the isolated one-room school the

FOOD SERVICE IN RURAL SCHOOLS 55

service is better patronized than in the larger buildings situated in villages,
even though these latter may have a higher proportion of children staying for
the noon meal. This is primarily due to the teacher's efforts; for if the lone
teacher is willing to undertake the labor involved in any kind of service, she
is sufficiently interested to make the children enthusiastic supporters of the
project; while in bigger buildings, where a specially employed person runs the
service, there is frequently much indifference on the part of the teachers.

The Need for School Supervision of the Children's Food

The propriety of considering pupils' food a matter within the province of
school authorities and teachers is justified by a study of (1) the number of
absences due to digestive disorders; (2) the contents of the children's |boix
lunches; and (3) the inability of the individual pupil to provide, without co-
operation, certain highly desirable types of food and food service. Further-
more, a lunch period supervised both as to nutrition and as to conduct offers
unusual opportunities for education in health and training in essential good
manners.

Nutrition

That frequently there remains much to be desired in the nutrition of the
elementary school child is evident from a scrutiny of the real causes of ab-
sence from school. During the year 1928-1929, 16 teachers of schools in vari-
ous parts of the state kept for this study special records of the number, dura-
tion, and true cause (not necessarily the reason appearing on the child's ex-
cuse) of all absences. Of the 470 children included in the records, 213 walked
to and from school and 257 were furnished transportation. Second only to
colds among the illnesses were "stomach upsets", and many of the absences
tabulated under the heading of "colds" were recorded by the teachers as
"indigestion and cold". The absences due to digestive disturbances were pro-
portionately more frequent among the children who rode to school than among
those who walked. All the children who rode ate lunch at school, while almost
without exception those who walked lived near enough to go home for the
noon meal. A factor in the greater incidence of indigestion among the child-
dren who ate box lunches may be the "piecing" habit of these children. It is
rare to find a child bringing food to school if he is going home at noon, while
it is even more rare to find one who has a lunch box who does not eat from
it at recess — generally a large portion of cake. This practice is by no means
the same thing as the serving of a carefully chosen mid-morning lunch. It
might be stopped by the teachers, but they do not very often attempt to do so.

To ascertain with definiteness and detail just what the children really do
carry to school in their lunch boxes, the following procedure was used. A
school was visited in the morning and, with the consent of the teacher, each
pupil asked to bring his lunch box to his desk and then write down, item by
item, exactly what it contained. To insure accurate reporting, the teacher
supervised the work and if necessary helped the smaller pupils with the writ-
ing. Data on 1,560 lunch boxes were thus secured from the schools of 34
towns and the principal items have been tabulated, as shown on page 56
and in the chart on page .57. These include lunches carried by children from
all the eight grades of the elementary schools.

66 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 263

Another tabulation, made to see whether or not the lunches of the younger
pupils varied to any marked degree from those of the older ones, brought out
only one difference — a tendency on the part of the smaller children to take
milk or cocoa more frequently than do the pupils in the upper grades.,
This may be because the parents do not see as much necessity for urging
milk consumption by the children beyond the third grade as by the younger
ones; or it may be on account of the dislike of the children for carrying such
foods, which dislike is asserted more as they grow older.

Principal Items in Bob; Lunches

Number of

Food lunches Per cent

Milk - - - - 234 15

Cocoa or soup - 109 7

No milk, cocoa or soup 1,217 78

No hot food - - 1,448 93

Sandwiches only ~. 119 8

Sandwiches plus cake and (or) pie only 458 29

Sandwiches: bread and butter (') 248 16

cheese 92 6

egg ~ - 147 9

jelly or jam 374 24

meat (=) - 513 33

peanut butter 192 i?

Raw fruit ~ - 708 45

Cake or pie or both ~ - 1,077 69

Two sweets 349 22

Three or more sweets 351 22

Candy - -.... 88 6

Total number of lunches 1,560

^ Includes all Tautter substitutes.

^ Includes fish, as salmon, sardine, etc.

The item "cake and (or) pie" includes cake, doughnuts, and very sweet,
fancy crackers, as well as all sorts of pie. These are the foods which are
chiefly responsible for the presence of two sweets in 22 per cent of the lunch
boxes and three or more sweets in 22 per cent more; a total of 44 per cent of
the lunches, therefore, containing two or more sweets. Candy, it wUl be
noted, did not appear in many of the lunches. Like ice cream it is eaten fre-
quently, and in large amounts, by many children if there happens to be near
the school building any place where it can be bought.

The raw fruit reported as a constituent of 45 per cent of the lunches is
almost without exception apples. Most of the original data regarding these
lunches were collected during the months of December, January, February,
and the early part of March. It would seem true, from the contents of those
lunches seen in April and May, that had all the data been secured later in
the school year, when the home stores of fruit are depleted, probably a
much smaller proportion of the lunches would have contained raw fruit.

FOOD SERVICE IN RURAL SCHOOLS

37

Principal Itents in 1,5€0 Box Lunches

Milk

Cocoa or soup

No milk, cocoa
or soup

No hot food

Sandwiclhes only

Sandwiches plus cake
and (or) pie only

Bread and butter

Cheese sandwiches

Egg sandwiches

Jelly sandwiches

Meat sandwiches

Peanut butter
sandwiches

Raw fruit

Cake or pie or both

Two sweets

Three sweets

Candy

Per cent

T5

Samples of the menus of the lunch boxes, selected at random, are given be-
low. Quite aside from aU questions of nutrition, there was much of interest
in the 1,560 lunches as they were recorded by the children. They produced
an even one hundred different varieties of spelling the word "sandwich", and
several other words had approximately as many variations.

Age of Child Menu

Nine Three white bread and jam

sandwiches
Cake
Eleven White bread and jelly

sandwich
Soda crackers
Cake
Cocoa

Twelve Four egg salad sandwiches

Apple

Age of Child Menu

Thirteen Two jelly buns

(nothing else)
Thirteen Five ham sandwiches

Blackberry pie

Cake

Apple

Orange

Thirteen Two ham sandwiches
Jelly doughnut
Cake
Pickle
Maple sugar

68 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 263

It is evident from this study of what the children actually do carry to
school that it is very unusual to find anything hot included in the lunch. This
is one of the outstanding lacks of the box lunch, and constitutes a problem
which can be most successfully solved by a school food service. Moreover,
the co-operation needed to run the food service, particularly in the smaller
schools, is a step towards the educational goal of the supervised lunch hour.

Education

There are many factors which influence well-being and are involved in the
achievement of optimal health by any individual. Yet this does not lessen the
hnportance of any one; and sleep, rest, play, sunshine, fresh air, pure water,
as well as clean, suitable food are all essential to a child's present health and
future welfare.

Play, sunshine, and fresh air are available to most, if not all of the pupils
of the elementary schools of rural Massachusetts, although the supply of
fresh air in the schoolrooms could frequently be increased with advantage.
In many schools a considerable amount of out-door playtime is given to the
children at the rather long morning and afternoon recess periods. At the
smaller buildings schedules are somewhat flexible, and lengthened periods on
pleasant days may alternate with briefer recesses when the weather is stormy
or very cold. Sleep and rest many of the children imdoubtedly do not have
in adequate amounts; and the purity of the water supply is sometimes open
to question. The individual teacher, however, is seldom in a position to alter
the situation regarding these.

In almost every rural town in Massachusetts a teaclier is required to stay
at the school building during the entire noon hour, and whenever there are
pupils lunching at the schoolhouse she has an excellent opportunity for el-
ementary lessons in nutrition and the inculcation of those manners and
courtesies about eating which are of lasting help to every child. Wliether or
not sudi teaching ought to be done in the home rather than in the school
is not the question here; the fact remains that even the briefest survey of
the eating habits of the children gives conclusive evidence that many have
not acquired proper habits. Training in anything as essential as the estab-
lishment of a proper attitude towards food because of its important role in
securing health and happiness for the individual is certainly as legftimate a
part of the school's task as is education in the more traditional school sub-
jects.

One of the first things that may he taught in a hmch period is cleanliness,
of food, utensils, and hands. Simple procedures, such as the use of pieces of
oil cloth or paper napkins, implant the idea that food is something to be kept
clean. If, incidentally, the desks are also kept clean, that is an added ad-
vantage. Clean hands should not be a problem in a building with running
water or even merely a pump. Ingenuity is required to achieve them if the
schoolhouse has no water supply other than that in a pail. Here paper towels
will be the remedy, for each child may be taught to dip a towel into the pail
and wet it sufficiently to make it an efiicient tool for cleaning his hands without
directly touching the water supply. In this way an entire class may have
reasonably clean hands for the lunch periods. Such procedures may seem too
obvious and elementary to need mention, but there are unfortunately more
schools where they are not practiced than where they are the custom.

FOOD SERVICE IN RURAL SCHOOLS 59

Attention may be given to the choice of foods. If there is a food service
the teacher is often in a position of authority regarding what is served,
especially in the small buildings where the teachers directly supervise or actu-
ally do the work. If there is no food service, needed reforms in the contents
of the lunch boxes can be brought about gradually. Even the smallest child
can be taught a few of the principles of good nutrition; why food is import-
ant and why some kinds are particularly valuable for growing boys and girls.
It must be remembered that in a great many homes the choice of what goes
into the lunch box is left to the child. Even if the lunch is nutritionally very
poor, the teacher can control the speed with which it is consumed and also
the order in which the foods are eaten, so no youngster bolts cake or pie
first and then omits the sandwich. Neither should a pupil be allowed to throw
food at his fellows or scatter it promiscuously about the premises, as is now
all too often the case.

The supervision of the lunch hour will insure some deliberation in eating.
If all the pupils must remain at least 15 or 20 minutes before they are per-
mitted to go onto the playground, the habit of consuming lunch in three or
four minutes is broken. The best managed lunch hours seen were those where
the children were required to spend a fixed minimum amount of time at
lunch. This of itself is conducive to sociability and to learning that a meal
eaten with others should have some degree of formality. If the classroom
becomes a friendly dining room with the teacher or an older pupil as hos-
tess, talking and pleasantness without boisterousness can be encouraged.
Through supervision of the lunch hour the children may be taught much about
what to eat and how to eat it. There are in rural Massachusetts some schools
where it is most successfully done.

Methods of Food Service in Use

Man agemen t — p e r^o mne I

In 176 (80 per cent) of the 220 buildings which have a noon food service of
some sort, it is both sponsored and managed by the teachers, with no help
except that of their pupils, and many times without any appreciation on the
part of school authorities or parents. In 15 buildings, all of which have both
elementary and high school pupils, the management of the food service is one
of the duties of the high school teacher of home economics. The school com-
mittees of nine towns employ a* woman specially to manage the food service
and do the work involved. Sometimes her menus are supervised; sometimes
not; and the service is for only one building in each of the nine towns. In
two buildings (one in each of two towns) the lunch room has been let as a
concession, and there is no supervision of the food served. The school nurse
of one town sponsors the service in each of three buildings, while the teachers
attend to the work. The 4-H club girls in two buildings manage the serving
of hot drinks or soup, with the help of the teacher. In the remaining 13 of
the 220 buildings with noon food service the work is done by teachers and
pupils, while the following organizations help financially: Grange, two build-
ings, onei in each of two towns; American Legion, one building; Parent-
Teacher Association, seven buildings, two in one town and five in another;
Red Cross, one building; Woman's Club, two buildings, one in each of two
towns.

60 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 263

Management — finani cial

Financially, the most elementary method of managing a school lunch is to
have each <ihild provide his own food supplies. Such a plan may be worked
out so that it results in suitable hot food for each pupil (see page 62), but
it always has the disadvantage of imposing on the small children the burden
of carrying containers to and from school. This objection also holds true for
the thermos bottle, which when filled is an appreciable weight. The younger
pupils' hands are small, and it is often difficult for thein to carry containers
witlli food any great distance, especially in cold weather. It is better to de-
vise some way whereby the children do not need to transport daily much
food or any heavy containers.

In some schools — for example see page 61 — the jjupils take turns in furnish-
ing supplies, and then a hot drink or disb in which all share is prepared by
the teacher or the older pupils. Such a plan permits a variety of hot dishes
without asking a large contribution from any one child. The common hot
dish at noon also promotes a feeling of equality and sociability. Frequently
each pupil brings from home at the beginning of the school year a cup or a
bowl and a spoon, ,so no mioney is required for such equipment.

A variation of the above scheme is found in the schools wherd the children
pay small sums of money wee'kly, in lieu of supplies, and the teacher does the
buying for the group. Sometimes the two methods are combined, the children
furnishing certain supplies and jiaying smaller sums of money. All these
plans work better in small schools than in those wliere the enrollment is large
enough to make the labor of preparing food so great as to interfere with the
other school work. Nevertheless, any one of them could be made to work
well in any of the 370 one-room buildings in the rural towns, for the enroll-
ment in a one-teacher school is never large.

In 13 buildings the food service is subsidized by an outside organization.
While this may perhaps be a legitimate way to get a food service started,
the a'im should always be the assumption of responsibility by teacher or
school authorities. It is only when the food service is an integral part of the
school system that it functions regularly year after year, and the educational
opportunities to be found in a supervised food service justify tllie assumption
of responsibility by the schools. In making a survey such as the one here re-
ported, the comment is often heard that "such and such organization used to
furnish hot cocoa, but after a couple of years the women got tired of bother-
ing with if"; and that school now has no service. There is little place in
school food services for the more or less haphazard management of any Lady
Bountifid, be it individual or group. This shovdd not be taken to mean that
contributions of money, given to the teacher in order that she may buy food
or supplies for those children so very poor that they cannot share in the act-
ivities of tilie other pupils, are in any sense undesirable. Nor is the giving of
funds, through the school authorities, to be discouraged. It is the attempt at
regular, long-time management of a sdiool food service by an outside organ-
ization which too often proves to be spasmodic and of short duration.

The financing of a food service is relatively simple in those few schools
w'here' the lundi room is managed by the high school home economics teacher
as part of her regular routine. In the smaller of such places the food supplies
are usually purchased along with those for the cooking laboratory and no

FOOD SERVICE IN RURAL SCHOOLS 61

separate accounts kept. The money from sales of food is turned into the
general home economics fund and in some schools tihe teacher is una'ble to
tell whether the lunch service is run at profit or at loss. In the larger
sdhools, separate accounts are kept for the lunch room, but no distinction is
made between the service for high school pupils and that for tlie elementary
grades. Although the two sets of pupils usually eat at different hours, there
was only one lunch service seen (page 66) where any difference was made
in the type of food served.

When a woman is employed especially to manage tihe food service, she may
be ebcpected (1) to charge just enough to cover the cost of food, her salary
and other overhead being paid by the school conunittee; or (2) to make suf-
ficient profit to pay her own wages as well as meet the cost of food supplies.
No school was found in which the selling price of food was expected to be
high enough to make a profit out of which to buy permanent equipment or
to pay for fuel; not even when Hhe lunch room service was run as an un-
supervised concession. The school committee may legally spend funds for
permanent equipment such as stoves, dishes, tables, and for most of the larger
lunch services these supplies had originally been purchased from school funds.
The larger schools lliave been more fortunate in securing equipment than
have the isolated, stnall buUdings.

An idea of the foods served, the mefliods of financing, and the equipment
in different types of school can be given most \'ividly through description of
existing services. Many of the better features of these could advantageously
be adapted to the needs of the 567 buildings now without food service of
any kind.

Types of service

1. The one-room school. Schoolhouse A is a one-room, one-teacher build*-
ing, with 20 pupils in eight grades. It is located in the country and is with-
out conveniences of any sort. As there is no running water in the building,
paCs are used for the water supply, the ehildren filling them at the well of
a nearby house. The one stove is flat-topped and therefore can be used for
simple cooking. At the beginning of the school year each pupil brought from
home a large cup or mug and a spoon, and these are kept in a cupboard im-
provised from a packing box. The equipment for cooking — two large sauce
pans, a pail, a couple of big spoons, a paring knife, and some half-worn towels
— was contributed by the parents of the pupils from their household supplies.

The pupils, acting on the suggestion and with the supervision of the teach-
er, divided themselves into four committees of five, each group having both
older and younger children. These committees, in turn, plan one hot dish for
each day of one week. During the first of the year, the teacher furnis'hed
most of the ideas and recipes and gave the work considerable attention, but
after a few weeks the children were able to assume most of the responsibility.
The committees meet at the afternoon recess to do the planning. When it is
a committee's week for the food service, the members devote to the work of
food preparation ten minutes before school opens plus the first twenty
minutes of the morning session; and at the noon hour help the teacfher serVe
whatever has been prepared. Almost all food supplies are contributed by the
pupils. Every committee assigns, for each day of its week, the food to be

62 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 263

brought by the pupils. Such a spirit of co-operation has been fostered that it
is rare for a' chiJd to neglect his share. For the smallest dhildren, the com-
mittee generally writes out directions to be taken home. Nothing expensive
and nothing not ordinarily kept in every 'household is ever asked for.

On the day of one visit such assignments as these* were made*: four carrots;
three potatoes; one potato (to be brought by the yoxmgest child); one onion;
three slices of bacon; two turnips; one parsnip. All the vegetables, it was
specified, were to be brought clean. Out of ingredients like these a vegetable
stew was made the ne'xt day. Twenty minutes after school started it was
simmering in a pan on the heating stove and needed no further attention ex-
cept occasional stirring. Another day, the teacher had borrowed a large
double boiler— loaned for just the one day— and the children had hot rice
and milk.

About once a month a five-cent collection is taken, and the teac'her invests
the money in special supplies not easily brought from the homes.

Each child is responsible for cleaning his own eaiting utensils. The older
boys carry enough water for the dishwashing and an extra pan on tTie stove
provides some hot water. In a building like' tliis one, the hot food service is
necessarily restricted to the days on which the heating stove is used, for there
is no other way of having Iheat for cooking.

2. Buildings of more than one room, but without lunch room facilities.
In Schoolhouse B there are two rooms, with two teachers; one for the first
four grades and the other for grades 5 to 8. During the year tiliis building
was visited there was a difference of opinion between the teachers as to the
desirability of a supervised lunch period, with hot food when possible, and
in the upper room there was no attempt at any food service. This teacher
did not wish to make the' effort re*quired, and discouraged the children from
attempting anything. On the other hand, the teacher of the smaller pupils
felt that her experience had den.onstrated to her satisfaction that a well-
ordered lunch hour was worth all the work it mig'ht entail.

The building has cold running water; aside from this there is no equipment
for food service. Each room is heated by a stove so hig'h and round that it
has no surface available for cooking; onlj' a small ledge where a little water
could be warmed. The teacher told the investigator that the only food she
had been able to cook was baked potatoes; thaf the children liked these so
much that nearly every day the stove was used for heating each pupil brought
a potato to he cooked. The sole regulation was that the potatoes must be
washed before they were broug'ht to school.

The teacher had obtained a grating which had been put into the stove,
above the coals, and on this the potatoes were' placed long enough before the
noon hour to insure thorough baking. Except for tllie saucers or plates which
the chUdren had for individual use, there was no equipment other than a
long-handled fork belonging to the teacher. The regularity with whidli the
pupils broug'ht the potatoes bore testimony to the' popularity of this addi-
tion to otherwise cold lundhes.

Schoo'lhouse C has found its solution of the* problem of hot food in the
utilization of a wash boiler. There is only one school building in the town, with
four rooms, four teachers, and 120 pupils in the eight grades, 50 of them
living so far away that they must remain at the schoolhouse during the noon

FOOD SERVICE IN RURAL SCHOOLS 63

hoair. The building has running water, but no spa'ce or equipment for a lunch
room. On fhe advice of the school ^urse, the plan in use was worked out,
and word sent to all the parents that any food the children brought to school
in pint or half-pint covered glass jars would be heated for them; and a
suggestive list of suitable foods was added to the mimeographed sheet given
eadi pupil to take home.

Th^ three-burner oil stove, sligilitly battered yet still efficient, was donated
by a friend of the school When it was discarded to make room for a new one.
The wash boiler was acquired in the same way. To the question of the in-
vestigator about finances, the principal of tlie building said that the school
committee had voted ten dollars for the purchase of fuel. As is so often the
case, the school authorities did not believe there was any advantage in hav-
ing hot food except during the winter months, and the service was only from
the first of January to the first of April.

The equipment had been set up in a corridor of the schoolihouse, and the
procedure followed was simple. Upon entering the building in the morning,
each pupil placed his jar of food on the floor beside the stove. At recess
two of the older boys lifted the boiler onto the stove, put a little water into
it, adjusted the rack which kept the glass from breaking, and stacked the
jars carefully. Later, one of the teachers left her class long enough to light
the' stove, and just before noon another teacher or an older pupil turned oflF
the fire. At the lunch hour the children fiJed past, selected their own jars,
and carried them back to the school rooms, where each pupil ate at his own
desk. Spoons and jars were taken home daily, and no dishwashing was done
at the school building.

On one day, a list of "the foods found in the 50 jars heating in the boiler
included: lamb stew, clam diowder, tomato soup, beef stew, Indian pudding,
vegetable soup, peas, creamed potatoes, cocoa; and two jars of apple sauce
for children who liked it hot.

The plan has the advantages of almost no work for teacher or pupils at the
schoolhouse; little or no extra expense to the' families; and chance for con-
siderable variety in the hot dish which supplements the rest of the food which
the children bring for lunch. It has the disadvantage of requiring the children
to transport food and containers and possibly offers less educational op-
portunity than a hot dish shared by all alike. It is, nevertheless, tlie simplest
solution for the building without facilities for food service.

A third method of obtaining hot food in buildings with no space or equip-
ment is found in Schoolhouse D. This is a four-room, four-teacher building,
with 150 pupils in the first six grades. As the building is located at the center
of the village where most of the children live, all except a few go home at
noon. For the 15 or so who remain, several years ago the teachers began
serving one hot dish daily throughout the greater part of the school year. At
the beginning, the dishes and all other equipment were loaned by the teachers;
later the school committee purchased a supply of disihes and an electric hot
plate. The supplies are kept in the primary room, and the food is prepared
there each morning between half past eleven and twelve, after the pupils of
that room have been dismissed. Two fifth or sibcth gra,de girls are assigned,
weekly, to the task of helping the primary teacher get the food ready and
to wash the dishes. For this, they receive food free during their week of
work.

64 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 263

This school is one of the few having a mid-morning milii service, and milk
is also always available at noon. On the day of the visit, the hot disih was
spaghetti and tomatoes. The pupils pay for the food each day: 10 cents
without milk and 13 cents with milk. Charge accounts are discouraged, al-
though sometimes permitted. Generally each child has the money ready when
he comes for his hot food. The pupils also bring lunch boxes, for there is
neither time nor space to permit expansion into meal service. Nearly all the
pupils who stay at noon patronize the service regularly.

Here, except for the help the two older girls give, all responsibility is
shouldered by the primary teacher. She decides what shall be served, does
all the marketing, collects the money, and pays the bills. Without her will-
ingness thus to increase her work this smoothly-running service would not
exist. She told the investigator that she had her reward in the improved
dispositions and conduct of the children throughout the afternoon session of
school.

3. Buildmgs of more than one room, with some lunch room, facilities.
Schoolhouse E has been chosen as an example of supplementary food service
in larger buildings with some lunch room equipment and a special employee
to do the work. This building, located in the village, has 220 pupils in eight
grades, with seven rooms and seven teachers. From 75 to 80 pupils are
furnished transportation and always remain over the noon hour; in the win-
ter 10 to 15 more children often stay.

The food service is sponsored by the school committee, and the wages of
the M'oman managing it are paid out of school funds. She is expected to
charge enough for the food to cover the full cost of food supplies. Equip-
ment and fuel are bought by the school committee. The service is run from
November to April.

The cooking is done in a gloomy corner which has been partitioned off the
basement. There is no lunch room and the children eat in the class rooms.
The manager puts the individual dishes of food on trays, and two pupils
from each room are sent down to carry them up and distribute the food to
the pupils who have ordered it. Orders are taken by the teachers and the
number reported to the manager at the morning recess, when she comes to
the building to begin the work of food preparation. The serving is careless-
ly done, and the food is so often spilled that its appearance is very unpleas-
ing by the time it reaches the consumer. This, along with the monotonous
menu, is probably why only one-half of the children remaining at noon
patronize the service.

There are always three things available and for more than four winters
exactly the same three things: milk, sold for three cents a glass (not bottle);
cocoa, also three cents; and one brand of canned vegetable soup, at four
cents a bowl. In view of the numerous kinds of canned soup on the market,
is would seem quite unnecessary never to have any variation in the sort
served. A soup as highly flavored as the one selected for this constant use
will after a few weeks cease to appeal. The cocoa did not sell very well, and
the investigator believed that the diificulty lay to a great extent in the choice
of recipe; the product was too strong of cocoa and too sweet. This is a
criticism which applies equally well to the cocoa served in a number of other
schools in the state.

FOOD SERVICE IN RURAL SCHOOLS 65

This service in Sdioolihouse E is one which fails to be of any educational
value and which reaches only one-half of its possible patrons; because of
untidiness of service^ complete lack of imagination in planning the menu, and
no supervision and little co-operation on the part of the teachers; not be-
cause of the absence of financial support by the school committee.

4. Buildings with meal service. A few years ago the higili school teachers
of the town in which Schoolhouse F is located each contributed ten dollars
towards the establishment of a lunch room service for the high sohool pupils
and also those of an elementary school building across the the street from
the high school. The service is now self-supporting so far as food supplies
are concerned, and the school committee buys the permanent equipment and
also pays the wages of a woman and a helper who together do all the work.
The manager has entire charge of making the menus, setting prices, and
otherwise determining what the arrangements of the food service shall be.
She has had no training in food selection.

About two-thirds of the children in the elementary school who remain at
noon patronize the lunch room. They come over to the high school building
under the escort of their own teachers and behavior is generally excellent.
Elementary and high school pupils do not come to the lunch room at the same
time.

Strips of ticket coupons are on sale and the children buy them as they
wish, in amounts running from five to fifty cents. The day of the visit, about
half the pupils bought tickets as they started along the serving line; the
others were already provided. The room itself is a light and pleasant half-
basement, and it is kept clean. The food is all excellently prepared and is
good of its kind. "Whether or not it is the best to set before school' children
is another matter. There is no supervision of the choices the pupils make.
On entering the serving line, they see first of all an array of tempting des-
serts. These they may themselves place on their trays, while other foods
must be specifically requested from the woman who does the counter serving.
The day the menu given below was servd, only 36 half-pint bottles of milk
had been provided for the 200 pupils (high school and elementary) who
^would be served; and these few bottles were all out of sig'ht, behind the
counter, so that the idea of choosing milk was not suggested to the children.
This free choice of food, with desserts most prominently displayed, led on€
boy of eleven years to Buy for his lunch four dishes of coffee-nut-raisin tapi-
oca with whipped cream, and nothing else. No attempt was made to limit
purchases to one dessert per pupil or to make the buying of milk or soup or
a hot dish the necessary prerequisite to the buying of a sweet. Of the foods
available twice as many desserts were sold as were portions of the other
foods.

Menu Cost

Creamed salmon and peas 10 cents

Chicken soup - 5 cents

Vegetable soup — - 5 cents

Sandwiches 5 cents

Milk _ — 5 cents

Coffee-nut-raisin tapioca with whipped cream 5 cents

Chocolate blanc mange with whipped cream....„ _.... 5 cents

66 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 263

A little thought as to the order in which the foods were brought to the
pupils' notice, some way of making it easier for them to choose hot food or
milk, and less stress on the desirability of sweets, would have done much to
improve this lunch room. Here it might be wise to have the same rule as
that of the lunch room in Schoolhouse G — that no child may buy dessert only.
It would also be well to have the desserts themselves more simple and better
adapted to the digestive powers of the children.

All decisions regarding a food service should not be left to the judgment
of an employee chosen without reference to her knowledge of nutrition and
health, and it is the part of wisdom to make certain that some one directly
connected with the educational system — the school nurse or a teacher — gives
enough supervision to the lunch room to insure the serviiig of suitable as
well as palatable food.

The lunch room of Schoolhouse G has the best equipment seen in any of
the Massachusetts towns of less than 5,000 population. The town in which it
is located is conparatively wealthy and has been generous with funds for
school purposes. Even in this town, though, there were four buildings with-
out any food service. Few of the small towns could be expected to provide
equally expensive equipment or as large a space as the one lunch room has,
but the scheme which makes this food service worthy of special note is one
which could be applied anywhere.

The cafeteria is in the high school building and serves the pupils of both
senior and junior high schools in addition to those in one elementary school
situated some three-minutes' walk from the high school. All responsibility
for the management rests with the high school home economics teacher. Two
regular helpers are employed and some high school pupil labor used during the
serving period. Food is sold at prices sufficiently higii to meet all running
costs except the time of the teacher. Each pupil pays daily for whatever food
he selects, the money being collected as he leaves the serving line.

High school pupils are all served and out of the lunch room before any of
the smaller children come, tlie session schedules having been planned with
this in mind. The candy counter. Which the high school students may patron-
ize to any extent they can aflford, is closed and the contents locked up before
the elementary school pupils arrive. Certain dishes prepared for the older
ones are not offered at all to the younger pupils (e. g., salmon wiggle, pie, and
cake). All such rich foods are cleared away, completely out of sight, and
the elementary school pupils have no opportunity to purchase any of them.

Approximately 75 pupils come from the grammar school, marching over
with their teachers. Milk or soup is served to the small children at the tables,
to avoid spilling. The older ones get their food at the cafeteria line. No
elementary school child is permitted to buy any dessert whatsoever until he
has either milk, cocoa, soup, or hot vegetable, and a sandwich. The desserts
offered are almost entirely raw or cooked fruit and plain, hard cookies. On
the day of the visit, 50 of the 75 children bought milk, 25 took soup or hot
vegetable, and 50 fruit. A few children had sandwiches carried from home;
the others bought them, the choice that day being bet-wieen jam and peanut
butter.

The method of restricting the choices of the grade school children is most
admirable and is a plan which could both easily and advantageously be ap-

FOOD SERVICE IN RURAL SCHOOLS 67

plied in other lunch rooms, particularly those with services comparable to
that of Schoolhouse F, with its appalling preponderance of rich sweets.

The food service in Schoolhouse H, described below, is a striking example
of what may be accomplished by brains and ingenuity, without much money,
and its description is presented as that of a service almost ideal for the con-
ditions under which it must operate. The lunch room occupies the top story
of a six-room, six-teacher building, having 170 pupils in the first six grades,
90 of whom are furnished transportation and consequently always remain
over the noon hour. The lunch room also serves some pupils from a nearby
building which houses grades 7 and 8 and the Iiigh school. More than three-
fourths of the elementary school children who stay at noon patronize the
service, and from 100 to 115 pupils are served every school day from the first
of November until the end of school in June. The service is sponsored by the
school committee; stove, dishes, and other equipment bought out of school
funds. The woman who manages the service pays for her own time and that
of her assistant out of the proceeds of sales, in addition to meeting the entire
cost of food. In view of the fact that she serves the children with excellent
food at a flat rate of 15 cents per child per day, this is an achievement of
no little merit.

The lunch room is light and clean and good order is maintained during the
serving period. All the children come at one time and are served simultan-
eously. The tables are set with utensils and cold food shortly after the morn-
ing recess; hot food is served just as the children arrive. The manager and
her helper do all the work, including planning and marketing, except for the
"work of six high school girls who help with the serving of hot food and get
their own lunches free in return for this labor.

Sample menus are given below. Servings are ample and the food excel-
lently seasoned and served with much neatness. An attempt is made never
to repeat a menu in its entirety and not to repeat a highly flavored food
oftener than once in two weeks. In the cold weather cocoa (two-thirds milk)
is a staple; when the days are warmer, milk is served instead. Two slices of
'bread are always served; whole wheat bread with butter and white bread
witli peanut butter. The manager said the children had expressed a prefer-
ence for this arrangement and she did not, therefore, attempt to vary that
item in the menu.

Menu 1 Menu 3

Lamb stew with vegetables (potatoes. Beef stew with vegetables (potatoes,

onions, carrots) carrots, onions, rice)

Bread Bjead

Cocoa 'Milk
Orange (fresh fruit) cornstarch pudding Raisin bread pudding with top milk

with top milk

Menu 2 Menu 4

iCreamed eggs on toast Codfish chowder with crackers

'Bread Bread

-Cocoa 'Cocoa

Tapioca cream pudding Apple sauce and two plain cookies

During the school year 1927-1928 the manager of the lunch room, serving
such food for 15 cents a day, not only paid for all food, for her own services
and those of her assistant, but also at the end of the year had a profit of
ten dollars, which was spent for additional kitchen equipment.

68 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 263

Mid-Session Service

In but 22 of the 800 buildings of the 222 rural Massachusetts towns con-
sidered in this report has any mid-session food service been established; and
in each of these buildings it is a milk service, no attempt having been made
to provide any other type of food. For 13 of the 22 buildings, the mid-ses-
sion food is the only food served during the day; in 9 buildings there is in
addition some sort of noon food service. In every instance the mid-session
service is in the morning.

In most of these 22 schools with mid-morning milk service, no effort is
made to encourage all the children to take the milk. The idea still persists
that only the underweight child will profit from the extra food; and the pro-
portion of children utilizing the service varies from 5 to 25 per cent. It is fre-
quently very difficult to obtain good milk for serving in the isolated rural
school, as the local dealers do not wish to bother with small bottles, or make
deliveries at a time when the mMk can be received at the schoolhouse. Some-
'times there is no dealer who makes deliveries, the people depending for milk
'upon their own or their neighbor's cow. No school was found where this
'difficulty had been solved by the use of evaporated or dried milk, although
this is a feasible solution.

The complaint is heard many times that mid-morning food spoils the pu-
pils' appetites for lunch. In the towns visited, no school was seen which had
a milk service at mid-morning. The terms "mid-session" and "mid-morning"
are not synonymous. The most usual hour of breakfast of the children proved
on inquiry to be seven o'clock; the noon recess is almost invariably at twelve.
Mid-morning, therefore, as far as food is concerned, means half-past nine;
mid-session is half-past ten. The difference of this hour is significant for
appetite and digestion. In the few cases where such service exists, the usual
time for drinking the milk was found to be between half-past ten and quar-
ter of eleven. This should be expected to interfere with the noon meal. Ex-
perience elsewhere has shown that, on the contrary, a mid-morning milk
service, where the children drink the milk not later than half-past nine, in
no way interferes with the appetite for the noon meal. It may, rather, im-
prove appetite through the lessening of the morning's strain and fatigue.

The amount of mid-session food service now existing in the schools of
rural Massachusetts is small on any basis of computation; and the number
of pupils served is negligible when estimated as a percentage of total pupils.

Summary

1. The 57,600 elementary school pupils of 222 Massachusetts towns of less
than 5,000 population are housed in 800 school buildings: 370 one-room; 208
with two or three rooms; and 222 with four or more rooms.

2. Of the 16,000 children who must always remain at school over the noon
hour, 6,000 attend buildings where there is no food service whatsoever.

3. Of the 800 buildings, 71 per cent have no food service; 23 per cent,
supplementary service of hot food in cold weather; 3 per cent, milk service;
and 3 per cent, meal service.

FOOD SERVICE IX RURAL SCHOOLS 69

4. Indigestion is a leading cause of absence among school children, and a
study of the records of 470 children for eight consecutive months showed a
greater incidence of absence on account of stomach upsets among the pupils
remaining at the schoolhouse for lunch than among those going home.

5. Data on 1,560 box lunches show that 93 per cent of the children carry-
'ing them have no hot food at noon, and only 15 per cent of the pupils Ijring
•milk.

(3. The school lunch ser\ ice offers many opportunities for teacliing health
and also for training in good manners.

T. In four-fifths of the buildings having food service, it is both sponsored
and managed by the teachers.

8. When a service exists, tlie food is sup))lied (1) l)y the cliildren for in-
dividual use; (2) as a contribution of material for a common hot dish; (3)
by cash payment for food bought by teacher or lunch room manager; or (4)
'by an outside organization subsidizing the service.

9. The type of service which can be offered is limited by the physical
equipment of the building, yet the exannples of existing services prove that
no building is too poorly equipped to make some sort of hot food service
possible, at least during the M'inter months.

10. There is very little mid-session food service in rural Massachusetts.
In only 3 per cent of the buildings was any found, and in these but a small
proportion of the school population was served. In every instance, milk was
the food served.

11. Mid-session feeding should always be at mid-morning, not to interfere
with the noon meal, and most present practices must be re\ised to accomplish
this.

12. Much remains to be done in establishing and impro\ing school lunches;
and with the growing tendency toward consolidation of rural schools, each
year more small children Mill be obliged to eat their noon meal away from

ho!iie.

Publication of this document approved bv the
Commission on Administration and Finance

4 M — 4-'30. No. 8754.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 264 June, 1930

Duration of Annual Molt

in.
Relation to Egg Production

By F. A. Hays and Ruby Sanborn

It is generally recognized that there is a very direct relationship between
egg production and the annual molt of hens. The time and duration of
the molt period is therefore of economic significance to the poultry raiser.
This investigation was undertaken in an attempt to more definitely deter-
mine the factors entering in this relationship.

Requests for buHetins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AMHERST, MASS.

DURATION OF ANNUAL MOLT IN RELATION TO
EGG PRODUCTION

By F. A. Hays, Research Professor of Poultry Husbandry, and
Ruby Sanborn, Research Assistant in Poultry Husbandry

Introduction

The time of onset of complete molt at the end of the pullet laying year has
long been recognized as affecting pul'let year egg production in a very signi-
ficant manner. In flocks bred for egg production female breeders are selected
with nmch emphasis on time of molting. Since the onset of complete molt
generally marks the termination of egg production, it is evident that early
molting may greatly reduce the length of the laying year. Hays and San-
born (1927b) found the net correlation between length of the pullet laying
year and annual egg production to be +.7501 ±.0063. Hays (1927) showed
that late molting (high persistency) depends in inheritance upon a dominant
gene P.

The duration of complete molt has also received considerable attention.
The ideal has been a hen showing the ability to shed her feathers and to grow
a new coat in the shortest time interval. Moreover, in heavy laying flocks a
few individuals appear to exhibit no complete molt, and such birds generally
lay continuously for two or more years. The percentage of these non-molt-
ing hens is very small, however, and there is no evidence that they are a
superior group. Such individuals are separated from the normal birds in the
studies reported below.

In this report consideration is given to a number of conditions which may
influence duration of molt, as follows: environmental factors, such as hatch-
ing date; (2) hereditary characteristics, such as age at first egg, intensity,
winter pause, broodiness, and persistency; and (3) physiological activities,
such as previous egg production, 365-day production, and gain in body weight
during the laying year. Finally, the relation of duration of molt to vigor and
to second-year production is considered.

Character of Birds Us^ed
This study includes all Rhode Island Red females hatched from 1917 to
1928 and kept for two full laying years. In general, they were superior to
the average of the flock as judged by their pullet-year performance. The
greater portion of these birds were bred for high fecundity and the remain-
der came froin experiments designed to study broodiness, hatchability, in-
breeding, and color.

The Coefjiclent of Correlation
The simple coefficient of correlation is used to measure the degree in which
two characteristics tend to vary together. This information is valuable to
poultry breeders in the selection of breeding stock and furnishes clues to
possible flock improvement.

74 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 264

The simple correlation coefficient, calculated by the ordinary method, is a
satisfactory measure only when the two characteristics being considered show
true linear regression. Regression is said to be linear when the actual mean
values of the dependent variable in each array of the independent variable
lie in a straight line. For example, if the mean length of molt period for each
of the eight hatches consistently increases or decreases at a constant rate,
molt period shows linear regression on hatching date.

Each correlation table presented in this report was tested for linearity of
regression first by the X^ method of Pearson* (1924). This test may be ap-
plied to different types of distributions to determine whether departures from
expectation are within the limits of normal samples. In this report a large
value of X- indicates that deviations in length of molt period lie outside the
normal correlation surface and that the correlation ratio rather than the
correlation coefficient must be used to express the degree of correlation. The
correlation ratio has also been calculated and the difference between the cor-
relation coefficient and the correlation ratio tested for significance by Blake-
man's (1905) method.

In biological work the significance of a simple correlation coefficient can-
not safely be assumed to depend upon its absolute magnitude in all cases.
This is true particularly when correlating inherited characters where there
may or may not be crossing over. Interrelations between characters also
complicate the situation and require the use of partial correlation methods.
For purposes of selection, however, the absolute magnitude of the correlation
coefficient is probably the most significant.

Among the measures of significance of correlation the method of Ezekiel
(1929) is probably the most satisfactory. This method assimies that the
stjuare of the correlation coefficient measures the proportion of variance in
the dependent variable that is associated with the independent variable. In
other words, if r ^ .30 then r" = .09, and selection based on the independent
characteristic may be expected to modify the dependent characteristic to the
extent of 9 per cent in the desired direction. On this basis a simple correla-
tion coefficient of less than .30 is of little value as a guide in selection.

Environmental Factors

i. Hatching Date versus Levgth of Molt Period.

The hatching dates of the birds used in these studies extended over a
rather limited period of time, namely the 49-day period beginning March 25
and ending near the middle of May. Hatching dates were kept constant from
year to year. Since date of hatching has a significant effect upon rate of
growth (Hays and Sanborn, 1929) as well as upon several characteristics

*Pearson has suggested that the X- method, when applied to regression lines (Slut-
sky, 1913) gives the best fit when the theoretical standard deviation of arrays, which
is equal to the standard deviation of the population multiplied by the square root of
1 — r^ is used as a constant. Pearson also suggests that the theoretical frequency of
arrays on a Gaussian distribution might also improve the fit. Since the numbers used
in the studies reported in this paper are rather large, it is believed that the actual
frequency of arrays will closely approach the theoretical in most cases. The method of
Slutsky (1913) for calculating the value of X^ for each array is used, except that the
theoretical standard deviation is used in all cases.

ANNUAL MOLT AND EGG PRODUCTION 75

affecting fecundity and upon annual egg production, it is desirable to know
whether it affects the duration of molt.

Records are available on 936 birds giving date of hatching and length of
molt period at the close of the pullet laying year. Of this number, 7 birds
or 0.75 per cent exhibited no complete cessation of egg production at the end
of the year as is usually the case during complete molt. Unfortunately, com-
plete records of feather change were not kept on these individuals. This
group was made up only of hens showing no cessation of egg production for
a period longer than seven days at the end of their pullet laying year. There-
fore, all individuals ceasing to lay for eight or more days at the end of the
pullet year were classed as molting birds and used in the correlation studies.
In case of two periods of 30 days or more of non-production separated by a
period of laying, the longer period was considered as associated with complete
molt.

The calculation of the simple coefficient of correlation between duration of
molt period and hatching date for the 929 molting birds gave the following
constants:

Number of birds _. 929

Mean length of molt period — days 75.60

Molt period standard deviation — days ±30.38

Mean hatching date (Apr. 16) 4.17

Hatching date standard deviation ±2.21

Coefficient of correlation - —.0943 ± .0219

Correlation ratio __ .1 190

The class interval used for molt period was 10 days and for hatching date
7 days. An average period of 75 days duration without egg production char-
acterized the molt period. The magnitude of the standard deviation in molt
shows that there was wide variability in the population with respect to dur-
ation of molt. The actual range was from 8 to 197 days.

The coefficient of correlation between duration of molt and hatchin,g date
was — .0943 ± .0219. This constant has a very small absolute magnitude and,
judged by criteria already referred to in this report, has no significance.

Regression of molt duration upon hatching date by the X^ test gave a
probability of .6695 of being linear. It seems justifiable to assume, therefore,
that the simple coefiicient of correlation was a true measure of association
between length of molt and hatching date.

The correlation ratio of .1190 for molt duration to hatching date did not
differ significantly from the correlation coefficient of .0943 according to
Blakeman's test. The two constants squared differed by only .0053 ± .0032,
which is but 1.66 times its pro-bable error.

Inherited Characteristics

2. Age at First Egg versus Length of Molt Period.

Age at first egg offers a definite criterion for selecting heavy layers because
early laying or early sexual maturity is correlated with high intensity and
with high persistency (Hays and Sanborn, 1926 and 1927 a). Information on

76 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 264

the relationship between age at first egg and duration of molt period would
be of value to the poultry breeder, A total of 929 birds was used in these
studies. Class intervals of 10 were used for classifying the birds with respect
to age at first egg and duration of molt in the correlation table. The follow-
ing constants were obtained:

Numiber of birds 929

Mean length of molt period — days 75.60

Molt period standard deviation — days ±30.38

Mean age at first egg — days 191.50

Age standard deviation— days - ±21.66

Coefficient of correlation +.2039 ± .0212

Correlation ra tio 2829

Age at first egg ranged from 140 to 319 days in the above population. The
magnitude of its standard deviation also indicated marked variabilitj', which
was brought about both by inheritance and environment.

The coefficient of correlation was of such magnitude as to be insignificant
by the criteria used in this report. The regression of molt duration upon age
at first egg was not linear. The regression line by the X^ method showed a
probability of only .0020 of being linear. The correlation coefficient, therefore,
fails to measure the correlation desired, and the correlation ratio must be
emtployed.

The correlation ratio of molt duration to age at first egg amounted to
.2829 which is beJow the minimum set for significance. In other words, the
constant has an absolute value too small to be significant in selection. This
constant diifered from the correlation coefficient by 4.63 times its probable
error, and is therefore the true measure of association desired.

3. Intensity versus Length of Molt Perw<l.

A population of 935 with records of winter intensity and length of molt
period was available for study. There were seven individuals in this group
showing no molt period. Intensity was measured' by the mean size of winter
clutch as suggested by Hays and Sanborn (1927 a). The seven non-molting
birds had a mean clutch size of 5.02, while the 928 molting birds showed a
mean clutch size of 3.4. Here is a suggestion that non-molting birds tend to
be intense layers. The class interval for intensity was 1.0 and that for molt
10 days. The following constants were calculated:

Number of birds ™. 928

Mean length of molt period — days 75.53

MoJt period standard deviation— days ±30.31

Mean clutch size 3.40

Clutch size standard deviation ±1.61

Coefficient of correlation —.2399 -f .0209

Correlation ratio „ 3339

The mean intensity of these birds stood at a high level, but the variability
for intensity was extreme as shown by its standard deviation. The actual
range in clutch size extended from 1 to 15.9.

ANNUAL MOLT AND EGG PRODUCTION 77

A negative coefficient of correlation of .2399 ± .0209 is not significant, for
the amount of variability in length of molt period associated with intensity
was equal to the .square of .2399 or .0576.

The correlation ratio of length of molt to intensity was .3339 and differed
perceptibly from the simple correlation coefficient. (Correlation ratio) ^ —
r^ = .0539 ± .0097. This difference was 5.56 times its probable error and is
certainly significant. By this test the relationship between intensity and
length of molt period was non-linear, and the correlation ratio of .3339, there-
fore, expresses the true relationship and shows that intensity and length of
molt period were significantly correlated.

The regression line for length of molt period on intensity, by the X^ method,
showed no probability of being a straight line, which further confirms non-
linear relation.ship.

4. Duration of Winter Pause versus Length of Molt Period.

The duration of winter pause is probably governed very largely by en-
vironmental influences. The possibility exists also that length of molt period
may be influenced by simUar reactions to environment. Records are available
on 926 birds with respect to ■winter pause and length of molt. In this popu-
lation 393 individuals showed no cessation of production as great as four
days during the winter season and were, therefore, classed as non-pause
birds. These non-pause birds showed a mean molt period of 71.76 days.
In correlation studies 533 pause birds were classified with respect to length
of pause and duration of molt, using class intervals of 10 days in each case.
The constants obtained are as follo^'s:

Number of birds - 533

Mean length of molt period — days — 78.32

Molt period standard deviation — days.._ ±31.15

Mean winter pause — days 23.73

Winter pause standard deviation — days ±15.62

Coefficient of correlation ™ - -... +.2432 ± .0275

The mean length of the molt j>eriod for the winter pause birds was 78.32
days compared with 71.76 days for the non-pause birds. It seems probable,
therefore, that the winter pause group was made up of 'birds having greater
susceptibility to adverse environmental influences insofar as they affect egg
production both in winter and during the molting period.

The winter pause period of non-production had an average duration of
23.73 days, with an extremely high variability as shown by the standard devi-
ation. Its actual range extended from 4 to 113 days.

The coefficient of correlation between winter pause duration and length of
molt period was +.2432 ± .0275. This constant is below the minimimi of .30
adopted as significant. From the standpoint of egg production, pullets that
exhibited winter pause probably were undesirably susceptible to adverse en-
vironmental influences compared with non-pause birds.

The regression of duration of molt upon length of winter pause was strict-
ly linear. By the X- method the probability of linearity stood at .7468. The
simple correlation coefficient is therefore a true measure of association.

78 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 264

5. Total Days Broody versus Length of Molt Period.

Of the total of 924 birds used in this study, 242 or 26.19 per cent became
broody during their pullet year. The 682 individuals not manifesting broodi-
ness the first year had an average molt period of 78.45 days.

Broodiness appeared in varying degrees in the broody population. In the
broody population used in the correlation studies there was a range of from
2 or 3 days up to 170 days spent in broodiness during the first laying year.
Class intervals of 10 days were used and the broody birds classified with
respect to total days broody and duration of molt period. The following ar€
thet constants obtained:

Number of birds- 242

Mean length of molt period— days 67.-54

Molt period standard deviation — days ±29.98

Mean days broody _ _ 42.61

Days l)roody standard deviation _ ±35.-53

Coefficient of correlation —.0736 ± .0431

Correlation ratio _ .2136

The mean length of the molt period in the broody population was 67.54
days, while the mean length of molt period for the non^broody population was
78.45 days. This difference is of considerable importance from the standpoint
of egg production. Evidence has been discovered (Hays and Sanborn, 1927 a)
to indicate that genes for broodiness and genes for high intensity show a de-
gree of linkage, and Section 3 of this report suggests that intense layers
molt in a shorter period than ordinary layers^ The interrelationship of brood-
iness to intensity and of intensity to length of molt probably accounts for the
shorter period in broody birds.

The broody population showed a mean of 42.61 days lost to production
while broody during the pullet laying year. The magnitude of the standard
deviation in broodiness indicatesi the extreme variability of the population,
which was due to varying numbers of broody periods and not to variable
length of broody periods.

The coefficient of correlation between total days broody and length of molt
period was — .0736 ± .0431. This constant is of no significance and indicates
that the length of the molt period was independent of degree of broodiness.

The correlation ratio of molt period to total days broody was .2136 which
is almost three times the value of the coefficient of correlation. (Correlation
ratio) = — r=r:=.0402± .0167. The difference is only 2.41 times its probabk
error by Blakeman's test, which suggests that the difference between the
correlation ratio and the correlation coefficient is not significant.

A test for linearity of regression of duration of molt on total days broody
by the X- method gave a probability of linearity of .8766 which again suggests
that the relation between length of molt period and total days broody was
close enough to linearity to make the coefficient of correlation the best
measure of association.

6. Anvnual Persistency versus Length of Molt Period.

Since annual persistency has been shown by Hays and Sanborn (1927 b) to
be the most important single heritable characteristic affecting pullet year

ANNUAL MOLT AND EGG PRODUCTION 79

egg production, it is desirable to know whether persistency is related to
duration of molt. The population studied consisted of 929 birds with a defin-
ite molt period and a persistency record. In the majority of cases the onset
of molt marked the termination of the persistency record. There were, how-
ever, a considerable number of cases where the persistency record ended
with a cessation of egg production of 30 days or more and the period of non-
production associated with complete molt began after the bird had agaiji
l)een in production.

The correlation between annual persistency and length of molt period was
made up using 15-day class intervals for persistency and 10-day class inter-
vals for molt period. The following constants were arrived at:

Number ~of birds „ — 929

Mean length of molt period — days — 75.60

Molt period standard deviation — days ±30.38

Mean annual persistency — days 339.95

Persistency standard deviation — days ±36.57

Coefficient of correlation —.2872 ± .0203

Correlation ratio .3613

Annual persistency ranged from a mininmm of 67 days to the highest pos-
sible maximum of 365 days within a single laying year. The magnitude of its
standard deviation indicates that its range of variability was not greatly
different from that observed in molt period. There were 809 genetically per-
sistent birds in the popidation and 120 genetically non-persistent individuals
CHays, 1927). The persistent group had a mean molt period of 72.94 days,
and the non-persistent group 93.50 days. This fact indicates that high phys-
iological activity characteristic of persistent layers was associated with a re-
duced molt period.

The coefficient of correlation of ^.2872 ± .0203 is slightly below the min-
mum of .30 adopted for significance in these studies. The correlation con-
stant suggests that highly persistent or late molting hens in general seemed
to require a shorter period for molting than was required by less persistent
individuals.

The correlation ratio of length of molt period to persistency was .3613.
By Blakeman's tests, (.3613)=— (.2872)^ = .0480 ± .0093. The difference be-
tween the correlation ratio and correlation coefficient is 5.16 times its prob-
able error, which indicates that the relationship between molt and persistency
was non-linear. Therefore, the correlation ratio of .3613 expreses the true
relationship between these characteristics. The data here used seem to point
to a significant negative correlation between length of molt period and an-
nual persistency. The X* method showed a probability of only .0011 that the
regression line for duration of molt on persistency was a straight line, which
further confirms the value of the correlation ratio over the correlation co-
efficient.

Physiological Activities

7. Weight at First Egg versus Lmigth of Molt Period.

Records are available on weight at first pullet egg and length of molt for

80 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 264

920 birds. These were tabulated in a correlation table giving the following
constants:

Number of birds _. 920

Mean length of molt period — days 75.27

Molt period standard deviation — days ±29.99

Mean weight at first egg — lbs 5.36

Weight standard deviation— lbs _. ±.58

Coefficient of correlation +.1457 ± ,0218

Correla tion ratio _ „ .1741

The magnitude of the standard deviation in weight indicates that the birds
varied rather widely in weight when they laid their first egg. The extreme
range in weight was from 3.50 pounds to 7.50 pounds. Class intervals of
one^half pound were used for classification.

The positive coefficient of correlation of .1457 ± .0218 is of no statistical
significance according to tlie criteria adopted in these studies.

The correlation ratio of duration of molt to weight at first egg was also
of small absolute magnitude. By Blakenian's criterion, the difference be-
tween the correlation ratio and correlation coefficient was only 2.17 times its
probable error and cannot be considered as significant. This fact indicates
that the relationship between duration of molt period and body weight was
linear.

The regression of length of molt on body weight by the X^ test gave a
probability of linearity of .6678, when six birds weighing less than four
pounds at first egg were omitted. From these facts it seems reasonable to
assume that the correlation coefficient correctly measures the relationship de-
sired, but that the correlation between duration of molt and body weight at
first egg is insignificant.

8. Gain in Weight During the Laying Year versus Length of Molt Period.

Body weight records at the beginning and end of tlie pullet laying year are
available on 305 birds. It is possible, therefore, to calculate the gain or loss
of each individual. In the population of 305 there were 60 individuals show-
ing either no change or a loss in weight during the laying year. This group
of 60 birds had a mean molt period of 72.17 days and may be compared wit!h
the gaining group below.

A total of 245 molting birds showed a gain in weight during the pullet
laying yiear. These birds were classified with respect to weight increase using
quarter-pound class intervals, and with respect to molt using 10-day class
intervals. The following constants were derived:

Numiber of birds 245

Mean length of molt period — days 65.23

Molt period standard deviation — days :. 24.88

Miean weight increase — lbs .67

Weight increase standard deviation — lbs — ±.41

Coefficient of correlation —.1220 ± .0424

Correlation ratio .2315

ANNUAL MOLT AND EGG PRODUCTION 81

The mean length of the molt period was 65.23 days for the birds showing
a weight increase, as compared with 72.17 days for the birds having no
change in weight or loss of weight.

A mean weight increase of 0.67 pound was observed, but the standard devi-
ation for weight increase indicates wide variability. The actual range for
weight increase was from 0.01 pound to 2.00 pounds.

The coefficient of correlation between weight increase and lengtli of molt
period was — .1220 rt .0424-. This constant is of insufficient magnitude to be
of value.

The correlation ratio of length of molt period to gain in body weight was
almost twice as large as th?correlation coefficient. By Blakeman's test, how-
ever, the difference in the two constants was equal to only 2.37 times its
probable error. This fact suggests that the relationship of the two charact-
teristics being considered was not far from linear.

The regression of length of molt upon weight increase, when tested by the
X- method, gave a probability of .2125 of being a straight line. In view of
these facts, the correlation coefficient measures the relationship, which ap-
pears to be insignificant.

9. Previoiis Production versus Length of Molt Period.

Previous-production records include all eggs laid from the first pullet egg
up to the non-productive period associated with complete molt. The length
of time concerned varied from less than 12 months to as high as 14 or 15
months in some cases. Such production records represent a long period of
intensive physiological activity in heavy laying birds and the intensity of this
activity may affect the duration of molt.

A population of 929 birds was used in this study. Both production and
duration of molt were divided into class intervals of 10. The following cons-
tants were derived from the correlation table:

Number of birds _ - 929

Mean length of molt period — days 75.60

Molt period standard deviation — days. ±30.38

Mean previous production — eggs ._ 231.19

Previous production standard deviation — eggs ±41.30

Coefficient of correlation...... —.3105 ± .0200

Correlation ratio — .3695

The mean previous production of all birds before molting was 231.19
eggs. The variability in production as measured by the standard deviation
was rather wide, with a range extending from 71 to 350 eggs. This varia-
bility was no doubt enhanced by lengthening the production period beyond
a full year.

The correlation ratio of molt duration to previous production was of
molt period amounted to ^.3105 ± .0200 and is considered significant. This
constant squared (.0964) indicates, according to Ezekiel (1929), that 9,64
per cent of the variability in duration of molt may be attributed to previous
production.

The correlation ratio of molt duration to previous production was of
somewhat greater magnitude than the correlation coefficient. By Blakeman's
test the difference between the two constants was equal to 4.72 times its

82 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 264

probable error. The relation bet-ween the two characteristics being studied
was not linear, and therefore the correlation ratio expresses the correlation
desired. The X^ test for linearity of regression showed a probability of .0501
of linearity and confirmed the Blakeman test.

10. First-Year Effg Production versus Length of Molt Period.

First-j^ear egg production records cover a 365-day period beginning with
the first pulkt egg. These records were arbitrarily terminated on the 365th
day regardless of whether or not the bird was layinig at the time. Such egg
records were significantly lower than previous^production records in highly
persistent individuals. In general, first-year records are comparable with
previous-production records in studying the effects of intense physiological
activity of the reproductive system upon duration of molt period.

The same population of 929 birds considered in Section 9 was used to study
the correlation between 365-day production and duration of molt period.
Class intervals of 10 were used for both characteristics. The following cons-
tants appear in the correlation table:

Number of birds - - 929

Mean length of molt period — days. — - 75.60

Molt period standard deviation — days ±30.38

Mean first-year production — eggs - 223.99

Production standard deviation — eggs ±35.1+

Coefficient of correlation - —.3010 ± .0201

Correlation ratio _ .3592

The mean 366-day production was 224 eggs compared with a mean of
231.19 eggs produced previous to molt in the same population. The standard
deviation in production was smaller on the 365-day records than on the pre-
viousrproduction records, as might be anticipated.

The correlation between 365-day production and length of molt period was
tested for linearity, and the regression of duration of molt on egg production
gave a probability of .3031 of linearity by the X^ method.

The correlation ratio of duration of molt to 365-day production was .3592.
By Blakeman's test this constant showed a difference from the correlation
coefficient 4.67 times as great as the error of difference. It is probable that
the regression was rot linear and that the correlation ratio expresses the
true correlation. The correlation between 365-day production and duration
of molt was —.3592. It is a significant constant and differs but slightly
from the similar constant obtained in Section 9.

Duration of Molt as a Measure of Vigor and Second- Year Production

As a measure of vigor Hays and Sanborn (1928) have made use of mortal-
ity rates for pullets during the first year of laying. Such mortality rates
were calculated for each family and the families may be directly compared
in this respect. The following studies were made to discover whether degree
of vigor was associated with rapidity of molt.

Second-year egg production is of considerable economic importance. Birds
that fail to lay heavily the second year, even though their pullet record was

ANNUAL MOLT AND EGG PRODUCTION 83

high, are rot classed as satisfactory breeders. It is desirable, therefore, to
find out whether the duration of annual molt is associated with second-year
Qgg productiouj.

11. Duration of Molt versus Family Mortality.

Records are available on 929 individuals showing an annual molt record.
Of this numfber 157 came from families with no mortality in the laying
houses. These 157 birds had a mean molt period of 82.25 days. Records on
772 birds from families with some mortality were tabulated against their
duration of molt and the following constants derived from a correlation
table:

Number of birds _ 772

Mean length of molt period — days 74.25

Molt period standard deviation — days =!i30,.19

Mean family mortality — per cent 25.35

Mortality standard deviation- per cent ±14.50

Coefficient of correlation -f .0828 ± .0241

Correlation r a t i o . 1 898

The mean length of molt period for the group of birds from families with
some mortality in the laying houses was 74.25 days as compared with a mean
mriiolt period of 82.25 days for the 157 individuals from families with no
mortality^ This suggests that the more vigorous birds did not molt quite as
rapidly as the less vigorous.

Mean family mortality amounted to slightly over 25 per cent. The fact
should be noted in this connection that no culling is done after the pullets
are placed in the laying houses. Any decrease in nuniibers is, therefore,
brought about by the death of the birds. The range in mortality rate ex-
tended from 1 to 80 per cent. Evidently the flock was far from uniform in
vigor as measured by mortality rate.

The coefficient of correlation appears to be insignificant. When the re-
gression of duration of molt period on mortality rate was tested by the X^
method, the probability of linearity was .0915. The odds are, therefore,
greater than 10 to 1 against linearity, and the simple correlation coefficient
does not express the correlation desired.

The correlation ratio of duration of molt to family mortality was .1898.
This differs fromi the coefficient by an amount 3.64 times as great as its
probable error. This constant correctly expresses the relationship desired
but it is of insignificant magnitude. It seems apparent that vigor and dur-
ation of molt were independent in the flock studied.

12. Duration of Molt versus Second-Year Egg Production.

A population of 541 birds furnished the records on molt duration and
second-year production. The second-year egg records began the day follow-
ing Uie close of the 365-day pullet year records and covered a period of

84 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 264

365 days. These studies were undertaken to discover whether the length of
the molt period was a criterion of second-year production. The following
constants came from the correlation table:

Number of birds 541

Mean length of molt period — days 78.45

Molt period standard deviation — days ±31.81

Mean second-year egg production 140.21

Production standard deviation ±40.95

Coefficient of correlation —.2960 ± .0265

Correlation ratio .3572

Mean second-year egg production ranged from 11 to 250 egjgs. There ex-
isted a wide variability here such as was observed in Section 10 when pullet-
year records were considered.

The coefficient of correlation was tested for linearity of regression by the
X- method, which gave a probability of .4369 of linearity. The absolute mag-
nitude of this constant is sufficiently close to .30 to suggest a significant nega-
tive correlation between molt duration and second year production. This
correlation was in a sense false, however, because the time consumed in molt-
ing came out of the second-year production period more often than out of
the pullet-year production period. It seems inadvisable, therefore, to attach
very nmch weight to this constant.

The correlation ratio of molt duration to second-year production was high-
er than the coefficient of correlation. The difference between the two cons-
tants by Blakeman's test is 3.57 times the probable error of difference. It
may be assimied, therefore, that the regression of molt duration upon second-
year production was not linear, and that the correlation ratio expresses a
significant negative relation between duration of molt and second-year egg
production.

Summary

1. This report includes studies of some of the factors possibly affecting
the duration of annual molt, also the relation of length of molt period to
vigor and to second-year egg production. In this study 936 pedigreed Rhode
Island Red hens that were trapnested for two complete laying years were
used.

2. The simple correlation coefficient is used when regression is linear by
the X- test. When regression is non-linear, the correlation ratio is employed
and Blakeman's test for linearity applied.

3. Hatching date did not affect duration of complete molt.

4. Age at first egg was not significantly correlated with length of molt
period.

5. Intensity showed a significant negative correlation with molt duration
of .3339.

6. Length of winter pause was independent of duration of molt period.

ANNUAL MOLT AND EGG PRODUCTION 85

7. Total days broody in the pullet year was independent of length of
molt period.

8. Persistency showed a significant correlation of — .3613 with duration
of molt.

9. Weight at first egg exhibited no relationship to duration of molt.

10. Gain in body weight during the pullet laying year was independent
of molt duration.

11. Egg production previous to the molt showed a negative correlation of
.3695 with length of molt, which is statistically valuable.

12. The number of eggs laid in 365 days by the pullet gave a negative
correlation to molt duration of .3592, which may be considered significant.

13. Vigor did not affect duration of molt.

14. Second-year egg production was negatively correlated with length of
molt to the extent of — .2960, which is probably significant.

15. All significant correlations occurred where the regression was non-
linear.

16. In general, highly intense layers and persistent layers exhibited the
shortest molt period. This fact indicates that the physiological process of
molting and feather growth took place at a more rapid rate in heavy layers.

References

Blakeman, J. 1905. On tests of linearity of regression in frequency distri-
bution. Biometrika 4:332-350.

EzEKiEL, M. 1929. Meaning and significance of correlation coefficients.
Amer. Econ. Rev. 19:246-250.

Hays, F. A. and Ruby Sanborn. 1926. Annual persistency in relation to
winter and annual egg production. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 9.

Hays, F. A. and Ruby Sanborn. 1927 a. Intensity or rate of laying in re-
lation to fecundity. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 11.

Hays, F. A. and Ruby Sanborn, 1927 b. Net correlation of characters con-
cerned in fecundity. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 12.

Hays, F. A. 1927. The inheritance of persistency and its relation to fecund-
ity. Proc. World's Poultry Congress, pp. 92-95.

Hays, F.A. and Ruby Sanborn. 1928. Vigor in production-bred flocks.
Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 242.

Hays, F. A. and Ruby Sanborn. 1929. Rate of growth in Rhode Island
Reds. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 2.59.

Pearson, K. 1905. Mathematical contributions to the theory of evolution
XIV. Cambridge University Press.

Pearson, K. 1924. Tables for statisticians and biometricians. Second edition,
p. XXXII. Camibridge University Press.

Slutsky, E. 1913. 'On the criterion of goodness of fit of the regression lines
and on the best method of fitting theni to data. Jour. Roy. Statis.
Soc. 77:78-84.

Publication of this document approved by the Commission on Administration

AND FiNANCS

3M-6-'30. No. 9485.

Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 265 October, 1930

A Chemical Study of Cranberries

By F. W. Morse

Cape Codi cranberries have long had an enviable reputation. In order
that their popularity with the consuming public may continue, it is essential
that their nutritional value be known and that a high standard of quality
be maintained. This investigation was undertaken in an attempt to define
chemically standards of quality and nutrition in this product.

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERLMENT STATION •
AMHERST, MASS.

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A CHEMICAL STUDY OF CRANBERRIES

By F. W. Morse,' Research Professor of Chemistry

Introduction

The value of the crop of cranberries produced in Massachusetts is around
four million dollars annually. Their production, moreover, increases the value
of land for the conununity in a striking degree. A peat swamp that is nearlj'
worthless for farming or forestry becomes valued at one thousand dollars
per acre when transformed into a cranberry bog.

Cranberries have occupied very little space in the literature of foods and
nutrition. Wiley (13)- mentions them in a paragraph and gives a partial
analysis. They are included in tables by Sherman (12) and Rose (11). Not
many references to the American cranberry, Vaccmium macrocarpum, are to
be found in the literature of chemistry, and several of them originated at this
Experiment Station. European references usually mean either Vaccinium
vitis idaea or ^''acci7lium oxi/coccus, the Preisselbeere and Moosbeere respec-
tively.

Griebel (6) gives two analyses of T^. mdcrucarpum stated to have been
grown in Germany. Bigelow and Dunbar (1) and Nelson (10) have deter-
mined the proportions of citric and malic acids occurring in cranberries. Ma-
son (8) and several others have measured the amount of benzoic acid which
they contain. Culpepper and Caldwell (5) included cranberries in their study
of discoloration of canned fruit.

The chemical studies included in tliis article deal with the changes in
composition of the fruit as the berries develop on the vines before harvesting
and while held in storage for the market, and show the composition of many
of the numerous varieties grown in this State, New Jersey and Wisconsin.

It is necessary to present first the studies of the ripening cranberry and
of the stored fruit, since the range in composition of the varieties may be in
part dependent on the maturity of the sample when picked from the vines or
the length of time it was in storage.

Changes in the Composition of Cranberries during Ripening on the Vines

The two most widely grown varieties of Cape Cod cranberries. Early
Black and Howes, were under observation during the ripening periods of
1926 and 1927. The berries that served for our studies were grown at the
cranberry experiment station in East Wareham.

1 The aid of the cranberry growers who supplied samples of their pi'oduct, and the
financial contribution of the American Cranberry Exchange are gratefully acknowledged,
and their spirit of cooperation is highly appreciated. The author also acknowledges the
assistance of C. P. Jones of the Research Laboratories, who made the determinations of
total sugar and starch in the samples of 1926 and 1927, and of Philip H. Smith of the
Feed Control Laboratory, who supervised the fiber and protein determinations. The co-
operation of the Department of Pomology by putting its cold-storage facilities at our
service was an important factor in the studies.

- Fig-ures in parentheses refer to literature cited on page 100.

90 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 265

Harvesting the Berries

The cranberries were picked at weekly intervals unless rain interfered,
in which case the vines were allowed to become dry before the fruit was
touched. Uniform conditions at the time of picking the berries were deemed
to be more desirable than equal intervals of time between samples. The
samples were sent to the laboratory at Amherst by parcel post, and about
forty-eight hours elapsed between the picking and the arrival of the sample.
The details of securing and forwarding samples were executed by Dr. H. J.
Franklin and Mr. J. L. Kelley.

Preparation for Analysis

On arrival the cranberries were at once placed in an electric refrigerator
at 40° F. The next day the samples were sorted by hand and perfect, sound
berries were selected for analysis, from which charges of 500 grams were
weighed and prepared for the drying-oven.

The skin of cranberries is so nearly waterproof that to promote quick dry-
ing it was necessary to cut every berry into halves before spreading them on
trays in the steam-heated oven. The cut berries were dried until they were
brittle enough to be easily ground to powder, which required about three days.
When dry, the berries were allowed to cool in the air of the room, then
weighed as air-dry material and preserved in glass-stoppered bottles for fur-
ther preparation for analysis.

The air-dry material was pulverized in an iron mortar to a fine powder
and returned to the bottle to be used subsequently for determinations of total
sugar, starch, fiber, wax, dry matter and protein. In 1926 the air-dry mater-
ial was used for determination of total acid, but it was found that in the
drying some of the malic acid of the fruit must have been changed or de-
stroyed by the heat (9). During the second season, 1927, air-dry material
was prepared as usual for all determinations except total acid, which was
measured in the fresh fruit as each sample arrived at the laboratory.

Description of Berries

The earliest samples of Early Black cranberries were beginning to show
a little red on some of the fruit, while Howes were wholly green. Both kinds
were hard and crisp when cut and their seeds were white.

As the season advanced and the berries became more and more colored
they became slightly softer to touch and were more easily cut. The seeds
changed from white to yellow. By the last of September the Early Black
variety had the dark red tint which gives it its name. The berries cut easily
and the seeds were brown and fell from the cut halves. The Howes variety at
this time appeared immature, hard and crisp under the knife, with light
yellow seeds. The sample of October 7, 1926 was deeply colored, cut easily
and behaved much like the mature Early Black.

The chemical compositition for both seasons is shoM-n in Tables 1 and 2.

The principal change in conijiosition during the ripening is the progres-
sive increase in the percentage of total sugar which is accompanied by a

A CHEMICAL STUDY OF CRANBERRIES

91

Tahle 1. — Composition of Cranbehries while ripening on vines — 1926

EARLY BLACK

Date

Aug. 31

Sept. 2

Sept. 9

Sept. 15

Sept. 23

Sept. 29
Oct. 7

Dry

Total

matter

sugar

10.6

1.98

10.5

1.85

10.7

2.75

11.0

2.83

11.2

3.74

Starch

.14
.15
.14
.15
.12

HOWES

Dry

Total

Stare

matter

sugar

10.6

1.63

.10

10.9

2.26

.11

11.2

3.05

.11

11.3

2.70

.15

12.0

3.95

.15

12.0

3.75

.14

12.3

4.51

.15

nearly eqiual jrain in dry matter. The acidity of the cranberry does not vary
niucli during the de\elopnient on tiie vines. There are reported to be at least
three acids in the cranberry, of which citric is estimated as constituting four-
fifths of the total, with malic about one-fifth, while benzoic acid has never
been found to reach 0.1 per cent of the fruit. So for convenience the acid
is measured as though it were all citric.

The waxy substance was extracted by carbon tetrachloride and exists
principally in the skin of the fruit, rendering it nearly waterproof. The
figures make it appear that wax increases slightly while the fruit develops
and fiber and protein decrease a trifle. When measured in percentages of
air-dry matter these changes are much more pronounced and significant.

Starch constituted such an insignificant percentage of the fresh berries
that it may have existed only in the seeds. The important fact is that no
significant amount of sugar could be formed from starch during storage of
the cranberries, and therefore the sugar in them must be formed while the
berry is attached to the vine.

Recent studies by Hawkins (7) of the ripening of grapefruit have shown
a decrease in acid as the fruit matures on the tree, but a marked gain in
total sugar.

Table 2. — Co.'mposition of cranberries while ripening on vines — 1927

Variety

Dry

matter

Total
acid

Total

sugar

Wax Protein

Early Black.

Howes.

September 1

10.3

2.81

2.2

September 7

10.6

2.78

2.4

September 15

10.9

2.81

2.9

September 22

11.2

2.89

3.1

September 28

11.5

2.86

3.5

September 1

10.5

1.8

September 7

11.0

2.71

2.4

September 15

11.4

2.73

2.9

September 22

11.7

2.86

3.3

September 28

11.9

2.61

3.7

1.34
LSO

1.22
1.50

1.43

1^47

.40

.45

.4l'

'.42'

.47'

.40'

.28

.34

.34'

'.33

.35

■.31'

Changes in Composition of Cranberries after Removal from the Vines

Eight varieties of cranberries were received from Dr. H. J. Franklin on
October 20, 1927. There were about four quarts of each variety and the
packages were placed in an electric refrigerator maintained at temperatures
around 40° F. Samples of each variety were analyzed early in November for
dry matter, total acids and total sugar. Four of the varieties were analyzed

92

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 265

in January and two again in February. The varieties showed some marked
variations in composition, especially in sugar percentages and also in the
amount of rotten fruit, while retained in the refrigerator.

The samples were considered to be too small to represent the varieties
accurately, and the study was repeated in the succeeding year. The data
secured are included in Table 3.

Ten varieties Mere included in the study for 1928. Each variety was
shipped in a standard box holding one-fourth of a barrel and the lot was re-
ceived on October 20. While the first set of samples was being prepared for
analysis the boxes remained in the basement of the laboratory. On October
29 they were placed in cold storage along with apples.

Table 3. — Composition of craxberries while ix cold storage — 1927-28

and 1928-29.

Month

1927-28

1928-29

Variety

Dry

matter

Total
acid

Total
sugar

Dry
matter

Total
acid

Total
sugar

Bugle

November

January

February

March

April

May

13.0

2.5
2.6'

3.5
3.4

12.4
12.2
12.2
11.9
12.0
12.0

2.8
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.6

3.8
3.6
3.4
3.3
3.4
3.7

Centennial

November
January
February
March

12.8
12.6

2.1
2.1

5.2
4.9

12.2
12.2
12.0
12.1

2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2

5.2
6.1
5.0

4.8

November

January

February

12.5

2.2

5.2

11.9
11.9
12.0

2.2
2.3
2.2

4.6
4.4

4.8

Chipman

November

January

February

March

April

May

13.0
12.6
12.8

2.5
2.3
2.5

3.9
3.4
3.4

13.1
12.9
12.9
13.0
12.6
13.3

2.6
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4

4.0
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
4.1

Holliston

November
January
February
March

12.0
12.0
12.1
11.6

2.1
2.3
2.2
2.2

4.4
3.5
3.6
3.4

November
January
February
March

11.9
11.7
11.7
11.6

2.3
2.4
2.4
2.2

4.1
3.7

3.8
3.8

Pride

November

January

February

11.8
11.6

2.5
2.4

3.2

2.7

11.5
11.4
11.6

2.7
2.6
2.5

3.5
3.4
2.9

Randall

November

January

February

March

April

11.8
11.8

2.4
2.3

4.1
4.2

11.3
11.4
11.3
11.2

11.7

2.3
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.2

3.7
3.6
3.4
3.5
3.7

Shaw's Success

' November
January
February
March

12.8

2.5

4.1

12.5
12.4
12.5
12.6

2.7
2.5
2.4
2.4

3.7
3.6
3.6
3.9

Stanley

November
January

12.2

2.1

4.4

11.5
12.1

2.2
2.3

3.9
3.8

A CHEMICAL STUDY OF CRANBERRIES 93

Samples were taken from the boxes at monthly intervals until there had
developed a proportion of rotten berries that rendered a variety useless for
further storage. Total acids were always determined in the fresh , sample,
but dried material was used for total sugar and dry matter.

About three quarts Mere removed for each sample and sorted by hand.
The proportions of sound and unsound berries were recorded for comparison
of keeping quality of the varieties. Sorting by hand is more thorougii than
machine sorting as used for shipment. Berries just beginning to decay were
removed by hand but such fruit would as a rule go through the machine witli
the sound berries.

The varieties differed considerably in their resistance to rot. To some
extent this may be a varietal quality but resistance may be overcome by the
presence of much disease on the bog from which the berries came. Stanley
was the least resistant and was two-thirds rotten by January 10, 1929. On
February 7 Holliston, McFarlin and Pride were more than half decayed. Cen-
tennial was about half spoiled, and Shaw's Success was 40 per cent bad. 13y
March 11 Bugle and Randall were more than 40 per cent decayed, while
Chipman was not over 2-5 per cent spoiled.

The analytical data for both series of varieties are combined in Table 3.

Centennial had distinctly the highest percentages of sugar and Center-
ville was next. The other eight varieties were much alike in composition.

Changes in composition during storage were most noticeable in the per-
centages of sugar. Every variety showed a decrease in sugar in the second
sample. Centennial, Holliston and Pride continued to show a decrease until
they were no longer sampled. Stanley was sampled but twice. Bugle, Chip-
man and Randall had a final percentage of sugar nearly as high or higher
than the first percentage. This was probably due to the last samples having
been stored for a month in the electric refrigerator, which has a dry at-
mosphere and tends to dry any material stored within it.

Centerville and Shaw's Success appeared to show selective decay of the
berries making up their respective lots. Both lots showed a wide range in
size of berries and to some extent variations in shape, as though the varieties
were not pure strains. As decay progressed the largest berries appeared the
least resistant. So it seems that there may have been a somewhat diff'erent
type of fruit at the last sampling.

Holliston showed the most loss in sugar during storage, and this loss was
undoubtedly due to respiration. The variety also showed a noticeable peculi-
arity in its decay. A large proportion of its rejected berries while soft were
not rotten but had the character of smothered berries in unventilated pack-
ages. The HolJistons, however, were in a standard box with ventilated sides
like the other varieties. It appears that Holliston is a variety that perhaps
imdergoes respiration more actively than the other varieties.

The losses of sugar are due to respiration within the berries, as shown by
this Experiment Station in some earlier work. The shrinkage in acids is also
due to the same cause. Furthermore, the fruit may lose water by drying if
stored where there is free movement of air about them. The actual rate of
shrinkage in lots of cranberries due to chemical change is difficult to measure
because any given quantity of the fruit will almost surely develoj) some decay
in a few days and render the losses of sound fruit uncertain. Losses in weight
for short periods are not large enough to overcome the errors which may oc-
cur in successive weighings.

94 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 265

Earlier storage experiments with Early Blacks and Howes reported in
Bulletin 198 of this Station showed results closely similar to those of this
series.

Grapefruit in cold storage show relatively more loss of acid than of sugar
(7). Apples show a shrinkage in both acid and total sugar as the storage
season lengthens (2), which accounts doubtless for the gradual loss of flavor
or "dead ripe" character.

Cranberries preserve their tart flavor practically unchanged during stor-
age and the cooking quality in sound berries is maintained.

Comparison of Varieties of Cranberries in 1929

The results of the analysis of varieties of cranberries in 1928 led to the
comparison of a larger number in the following jear. The study was under-
taken at the suggestion of Dr. Franklin, who for several years has been sys-
tematically comparing the characteristics of the named varieties of cran-
berries. Through his efiforts, aided by Dr. N. E. Stevens of the United States
Department of Agriculture, samples of 61 varieties of cranberries were re-
ceived at the laboratory between October 1 and November 30, 1929, the larger
part of them arriving before the close of October. The varieties were rep-
resented by 116 different saifiples, of which 87 were from Massachusetts, 13
from New Jersey and 16 from Wisconsin. Nearly all were shipped by ex-
press and upon arrival at the Experiment Station were placed at once in cold
storage along with apples.

The samples from Massachusetts were all shipped in standard boxes hold-
ing one-fourth barrel each, and having ventilated sides. Those from a distance
were generally shipped in boxes which contained several samples of 3 to 4
quarts each.

Beginning the first week in November a group of small samples was
taken from the boxes in cold storage, at approximately weekly intervals, and
brought to the laboratory. The sampling and analyzing were finished before
the end of March, 1930. A small sample consisted of about 3 quarts and was
taken from the top to the center of the box containing the variety. Each
sample was sorted by hand, and the proportions of sound and unsound ber-
ries recorded for comparison of keeping qualities of the varieties.

From the sound fruit, charges were weighed for determination of total
acid, total sugar and dry matter. Acid and sugar were both determined in the
same charge of fresh berries by using different portions of the solution pre-
pared from them. The charge for dry matter was cut and dried as previous-
ly described in the study of ripening.

It will be noted in scanning the data that not only are there some strik-
ing variations in composition between varieties but that when a variety is
represented by several samples the composition of the different samples is far
from uniform. Of the constituents determined, sugar varied most widely, and
the previous studies of ripening and storage serve in some measure to explain
the differences. Sugar was shown to increase from week to week until the
cranberries were harvested but after removal from the vines the berries lost
sugar more or less steadily during storage.

There was no control of the harvesting period for any of these variety
samples. They were picked at the convenience of the grower and held until

A CHEMICAL STUDY OF CRANBERRIES

95

shipped to the laboratory. It was not possible to analyze the varieties simul-
taneously nor rapidly with regard to time. Hence both maturity and respir-
ation were variables in the life of the cranberry and must have exerted more
or less influence on the composition.

Variation due to stages of maturity is most apparent in the range of
composition within a variety. This is because the diflFerences between samples
are commonly larger than those which actually have been found to be due to
storage. For example, Champion v\as represented by three samples: one was
analyzed November 27 and contained 4 per cent of sugar, two were analyzed
in February and shoMed over 5 per cent of sugar. The low percentage of
sugar must have been due to immaturity at the time of harvesting that
sample.

Table 4. — Composition of cranberries — Crop of 1929.
Massachusetts Varieties

Variety

Source of sample

Date of
analysis

Dry

matter

Total Total
acid sugar

Atkin's Seedling. . . . Atkin's Bog, Pleasant Lake

Aviator Atwood Bog Co., S. Carver

Berlin Bell E. C. Ellis, Bournedale

f Fuller-Hammond Co., Wareham

Berry j F. Howe, Middleboro

( Federal Bog, S. Carver

Big Red R. Gibbs. S. Carver

f E. Atwood, S. Carver

Black Veil i B. Shaw, S. Carver

[ W. W. Benjamin Co., S. Carver

Brook Farm F. Tindale, S. Hanson

f Fuller-Hammond Co., Wareham
Buccilieu \ Harlow Brook Bog, Wareham

f Atwood Bog, S. Carver

Bugle < Roos Bog, Sandwich

[ Ware Bros., White Island

(Lowell Cranberry Co.
Federal Bog, S. Carver
C. Maxim, N. Rochester
C. Weston, Middleboro

f H. Gibbs, S. Carver

Centerville ^ T. Tindale, S. Hanover

I Vaughn Bog, S. Carver

[ B. C. Shaw, E. Middleboro

Champion J Swift Bros., Falmouth

[ Vaughn Bog, S. Carver

f Atwood Bog Co., S. Carver

Chipman \ LeB. Barker, Plymouth

i S. Childs, Orleans

f Lowell Cranberry Co.

State Bog, E. Wareham
Early Black j C. Vose, Marion

L. Crowell, E. Dennis
[ E. Atwood, S. Carver

Giflford Weston Bog, Duxbury

Horse Neck C. Vose, Marion

I State Bog, E. Wareham
E. Eldridge, Orleans
Lowell Cranberry Co.
Nantucket Cranberry Co.

Jan.

7.

1930

11.5

2.50

4.16

Dec.

12,

1929

13.5

2.24

4.76

Dec.

31,

1929

11.4

2.27

4.22

Nov.
Nov.
Feb.

4,
15,
13,

1929
1929
1930

11.9
11.3

2.10
2.19
2.24

4.08
4.75
3.91

Jan.

16.

1930

11.8

2.24

4.38

Dec.
Jan.
Jan.

31,
16,
23,

1929
1930
1930

12.5
11.7
12.3

1.87
2.11
1.90

5.66
4.00
4.14

Dec.

12,

1929

2.66

3.75

Jan.
Jan.

7,
30,

1930
1930

13.2
12.3

2.29
2.37

5.40
4.00

Feb.
Mar.
Mar.

24,
3,
3,

1930
1930
1930

i2.7
11.6

2.29
2.50
2.37

3.33
3.33
3.00

Nov.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.

4,
30,
30,
30,

1929
1930
1930
1930

12.9

2.29
1.98
2.11
2.03

4.69
5.50
5.27
5.19

Dec.
Jan.
Jan.

3,
30,
30.

1929
1930
1930

12.6

2.32
2.24
2.27

5.45
4.66
4.94

Nov.
Feb.
Feb.

27,

6,

13.

1929
1930
1930

11.8
13.1

2.15
2.11
2.11

4.00
5.45
5.18

Feb.
Mar.
Mar.

24,
3,
3.

1930
1930
1930

12.2
12.5
12.8

2.21
2.34
1.93

2.61
3.33
3.87

Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Feb.

16.
23.
23,
30.
24.

1930
1930
1930
1930
1930

12.2
11.5
11.8

2.34
2.21
2.54

2.48
2.18

4.08
3.71
3.09
3.29
3.53

Dec.

12.

1929

2.63

4.28

Dec.

31.

1929

11.9

2.53

3.63

Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Jan.

4,
4.

13.

16.

1929
1929
1929
1930

12.4
13.1
13.5
12.5

2.15
2.20
2.14
2.31

3.87
4.71
4.91
4.44

96 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 265

Table 4. — Co^fposiTiox of cranberries — Crop of 1929. — Continued.

Massachusetts Varieties — Concluded

Date of Dry Total Total

Variety Source of sample analysis matter acid sugar

Indian Head Emerson Bog, S. Hanson

Kelley Totman Bog, N. Easton

Klondike C. Weston, E. Middleboro

[ C. Vose, Marion

Late Red ] Swift's Bog, E. Falmouth

[ G. Allen, N. Rochester

[ Fuller-Hammond Co., Wareham

McFarlin ] LeB. Barker, Plymouth

( T. Tindale, S. Hanover

f N. F. Washburn, Lakeville

Mammoth ] Beaton & LeBaron, E. Middleboro

[ Florence Bog, E. Wareham

[ Urann's No. 1 Bog, S. Hanson

Matthews ] Florence Bog, E. Wareham

[ Ware Bros., Plymouth

{F. Howe, Middleboro
Fuller-Hammond Co., Wareham
Starr Bog, E. Wareham

Murdock Russell Bog, S. Carver

Newtown J. Carlton, E. Sandwich

Nova Scotia Eldridge Bog, Rochester

Paradise Meadow. . . R. Turner, Sharon

f C. Vose, Marion

Perry Red \ Mary's Pond Bog, Marion

( Perry's No. 1 Bog, Marion

[ Federal Bog, Carver

Pride ] C. Vose, Marion

[ State Bog, E. Wareham

Rhode Island T. Tindale, S. Hanson

Round Red Fuller-Hammond Co., Carver

Russell's Bell Russell Bog, S. Carver

Settler J. Mackie, Center Carver

f H. Gibbs, S. Carver

Shaw's Success ] A. H. Griffiths, S. Carver

[ L. B. Hardy, S. Wareham

I Tweedy & Barnes, Wareham
Shurtleff \ Fuller-Hammond Co., Wareham

f L. Crowell, E. Dennis
Smalley Howes 1 Harlow Brook Bog, Wareham

Smith's No. 1 W. H. Nickerson, Chatham

Stanley W. W. Benjamin Co., S. Carver

[ Lowell Cranberry Co.

Tom Howes ■ Hammond's Onset Bog

[ L. Crowell, E. Dennis

[ W. A. Andrews, N. Carver

Wales Henry ] N. F. Washburn, Lakeville

1 Wales Andrews Bog, E. Middleboro

Dec.

12,

1929

2.53

4.14

Dec.

12,

1929

12.2

2.42

3.08

Dec.

31.

1929

11.7

2.37

4.61

Dec.
Feb.
Feb.

31,

6,

13,

1929
19.30
1930

12.7
12.6
11.7

2.34
2.16
2.18

4.80
3.85
3.82

Dec.
Feb.
Feb.

12,
13,
13,

1929
1930
1930

12.6

2.41
2.29
2.37

4.88
4.00
3.65

Dec.
Feb.
Feb.

3,
6,
6.

1929
1930
1930

11.6

2.35
2.11
2.18

4.88
3.57
4.05

Jan.
Feb.
Feb.

7,
13,
24,

19.30
1930
1930

11.6
11.9

2.37
2.21
2.27

3.88
3.32
3.16

Nov.
Jan.
Feb.

13,
30,
13,

1929
19.30
1930

11.7
13.0

2.52
2.34
2.24

4.72
4.24
4.75

Jan.

7,

1930

13.1

2.27

4.28

Feb.

6.

1930

2.50

3.47

Nov.

4,

1929

12.7

2.07

4.68

Jan.

7,

19.30

12.9

2.53

5.00

Dec.

Feb.
Feb.

31,

6,
6,

1929
1930
1930

13.1
i2.4

2.35
2.16
2.40

4.65
3.81
3.21

Nov.
Nov.
Feb.

2,
2,
13.

1929
1929
1930

12.3
11.2

2.23
2.55
2.14

4.54
2.93
3.14

Jan.

16,

1930

10.6

2.40

3.00

Dec.

12,

1929

13.6

2.45

3.63

Dec.

12,

1929

2.21

4.14

Dec.

12,

1929

2.18

4.00

Feb.
Feb.
Feb.

24.
24,
24,

1930
1930
1930

13.6
12.7

2.08
2.34
2.34

4.61
3.43
3.33

Nov.
Feb.

4,
6.

1929
1930

12.1

2.20
2.11

3.53
5.00

Dec.

Feb.

3,

6,

1929
1930

12.5
11.8

2.38
2.34

4.69
3.63

Jan.

16,

1930

12.9

2.21

3.82

Nov.

27,

1929

13.6

2.22

5.35

Jan.
Jan.
Feb.

7,

23,

6,

1930
1930
1930

12.7
12.6

2.40
2.16

2.48

4.36
3.63
3.33

Dec.
Feb.
Feb.

3,

6,
6,

1929
1930
1930

12.1
11.6

2.31
2.18
2.15

5.00
3.59
4.00

A CHEMICAL STUDY OF CRANBERRIES

97

Table 4. — Coihi'osition of cranberries — Crop of 1929. Concluded.
New Jersey Varieties

Variety

Source of sample

Date of Dry Total Total
analysis matter acid sugar

Braddock Bell E. White, Chatswortii

Centennial R. B. Wilcox, Toms River

Champion R. B. Wilcox, Toms River

Early Black R. B. Wilcox, Toms River

Garwood Bell H. S. Bowker, Medford

Godfrey E. White, Chatsworth

Harold E. White, Chatsworth

Harper-Applegate.. . E. White, Chatsworth

Howes R. B. Wilcox, Toms River

McFarlin R. B. Wilcox, Toms River

Paul E. White, Chatsworth

Woolman H. S. Bowker, Medford

Unnamed Durrell & Co., Belleplain

Wisconsin Varieties

Bennett's Jumbo. .. . A. E. Bennett, Cranmoor

Berlin V. Johnson, Tomah

Gebhardt Beauty. . . H.J. Gebhardt, Black River Falls

Juneau C. Treat, Tomah

[Western Cran. Co., Perron Park

McFarlin < Gaynor Cran. Co., Cranmoor

[ V. Johnson, Tomah

Metallic Bell A. E. Bennett, Cranmoor

Natives R. Searls & Son, Hertel

Natives Central Cran. Co., Cranmoor

Natives CO. Potter, Warrens

Palmeter Wetherby Cran. Co., Warrens

Prolific A. E. Bennett, Cranmoor

[ C. L. D. Co., Phillips

Searls Jumbo ■! J. Searls, Wisconsin Rapids

[ Wetherby Cran. Co., Warrens

Nov. 20, 1929 11.04

Nov. 27, 1929 11.90

Nov. 27, 1929 12.15

Jan. 23, 1930 11.36

Dec. 3, 1929 11.74

Nov. 20, 1929 12.51

Nov. 2g, 1929 11.50

Nov. 20, 1929 11.79

Jan. 23, 1930 13.06

Nov. 27, 1929 11.87

Nov. 20, 1929 12.21

Dec. 3, 1929 12.91

Nov. 6, 1929 12.39

2.45

2.90

2.07

5.00

2.10

4.16

2.31

3.33

2.41

2.86

2.71

3.77

2.52

2.50

2.52

4.14

2.18

3.82

2.18

4.61

2.58

3.24

2.07

4.80

2.41

3.48

Nov.

27,

1929

12.84

2.35

3.75

Nov.

20,

1929

11.22

2.61

3.21

Dec.

12,

1929

11.16

2.61

2.45

Dec.

12,

1929

11.30

2.70

2.79

Nov.
Dec.
Dec.

13,

3,

12.

1929
1929
1929

12.23
11.74
11.76

2.35
2.32
2.43

4.60

4.17
4.11

Nov.

27,

1929

10.76

2.55

3.00

Nov.

13,

1929

12.30

2.32

3.45

Nov.

27,

1929

11.65

2.42

3.87

Nov.

20,

1929

11.91

2.55

3.16

Nov.

20,

1929

11.42

2.35

3.41

Nov.

. 27,

1929

10.58

2.07

2.69

Dec.
Nov.
Nov.

3,
13,
20,

1929
1929
1929

12.05
11.58
11.61

2.30
2.23
2.43

4.63
4.00
3.37

Mainiiioth and Matthews varied in composition more in the direction of
storage losses by respiration, because their earliest analyses were the highest.

Chipman and Pride were the only varieties from Massachusetts represent-
ed by samples containing less than 3 per cent of sugar, and in each case the
sample appeared immature in color as well as in chemical compcsition since
the berries were only partially colored.

A possible cause of variation between samples of a given variety is an
impure strain or mixture of varieties in a sample. When sorting the berries

98 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 265

by hand it was sometimes noted that a sample had berries of more than one
type distinguished by the shapes of berries.

Chipman from Orleans had an exceptionally low acid for the variety
which should not be caused by immaturity nor by respiration. But such
breaks are not unknown in a series of chemical analyses of natural products.

There were 13 varieties of cranberries received from New Jersey, each
represented by one sample. As a rule these cranberries were harvested be-
fore they were nmch colored, or as one letter expressed it "when the berries
were white." But this necessarily is while the fruit is immature, and the
analytical results confirm the immaturity. Two varieties, McFarlin and Wool-
man, appeared well ripened both in color and in composition. Centennial,
Champion, Howes and Early Black were respectively near the lower range
of our Massachusetts samples in sugar content, this showing their relative
immaturity. McFarlin on the other hand was near the highest figure for the
variety in Massachusetts.

The Wisconsin samples represented three distinct cranberry districts,
northern, central and southern. Two varieties were represented by a sample
from each section, viz., McFarlin and Searl's Jumbo. It was noticeable that
the percentages of sugar in these samples were highest from the northern and
lowest from the southern districts. Further, the average of 6 varieties from
Central Wisconsin was 3.58 and from Southern Wisconsin 3.21. Three samples
were all that came from Northern Wisconsin and averaged 4.23 per cent.

Of the 42 varieties of Massachusetts cranberries 28, represented by 39
samples, contained between 3.50 and 4.50 per cent of sugar; 22 varieties, in-
cluding 30 samples, contained more than 4.5 per cent sugar; 11 varieties, witTi
18 samples, had less than 3.5 per cent sugar, two of them containing less than
3 per cent.

For the three ditferent states, the average composition was:

State

Massachusetts
New Jersey
Wisconsin

One variety, McFarlin, was grown in all three states, and five varieties
were common to Massachusetts and New Jersey. The composition character-
istic of each variety was common to the different states, modified by the
variable maturity of the samples when removed from the vines.

It is of interest to compare McFarlin data from the three states:
State Samples Acid Sugar

Varieties

Samples

Dry Matter

Acid

Sugar

Nuynber

Number

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

43

87

12.36

2.30

4.13

13

13

12.03

2.35

3.74

12

16

11.63

2.41

3.54

Massachusetts

Number
3

Per cent
2.29-"..41

Per cent
3.65-4.88

New Jersey
W'isconsin

1
3

2.18
2.32-2.43

4.61
4.11-4.60

Quality and Chemical Composition

Quality in cranberries has never been discussed in any publication that
has come to the author's attention. To what extent it may be related to
chemical composition is perhaps not to be defined. In apples (3), oranges

A CHEMICAL STUDY OF CRANBERRIES 99

(4), and grapefruit (l), high quality is generally accompanied by a high
sugar and high acid content occnrring together. These two constituents do
not account for the characteristic flavors but do cause the distinction between
an insipid, a too tart, and a well balanced, sprightly taste.

It has not been observed that cranberries tend to increase in sugar after
removal from the vines, but that this constituent develops with marked rapid-
ity before picking as maturity, indicated by high color, is reached. On the
other hand, total acid is as high in the inunature fruit as at any later stage.
Hence it appears that a better balance between acid and sugar is attained
when the cranberry is allowed to remain on the vines until highly colored.

Howes, for example, have as a rule been harvested from the State Bog
before October 1 ; and analyses have shown total sugar a little under 4 per
cent, while the fruit has been only partially colored. Yet, whenever the vari-
ety has been left on the vines until fully colored dark red, the sugar content
has advanced well above 4 per cent, with no increase in acidity. It would
appear that the dark colored Howes would be superior in quality to the light
colored berries usually harvested.

Assuming that quality in cranberries is indicated by content of total
sugar, since acidity varies within comparatively narrow limits for all varieties,
there were nine varieties of Massachusetts berries with 5 per cent or more
total sugar; namely. Black A'eil, Buccilieu, Centennial, Centerville, Champion,
Paradise Meadow, Shurtleff, Stanley and Wales Henry. Some samples of
these varieties, however, were too immature to reach this percentage. Thir-
teen other, varieties yielded over 4.5 per cent total sugar and should be given
consideration for quality. These were Aviator, Berry, Howes, Klondike, Late
Red, McFarlin, Mammoth, Middleboro, Nova Scotia, Perry Red, Pride, Shaw's
Success, Smalley Howes. Numerous samples of this group were below the
given percentage.

Of the New Jersey varieties, Centennial came within the highest group,
and McFarlin and Woolman were in the second group. From Wisconsin, the
samples of McFarlin and Searl's Jumbo from the northern district were in
the second group.

Resistance of Cranberries to Decay or Keeping Qualities of Varieties

The cold storage conditions for the cranberries in these studies were
those for apples, since the boxes of berries were kept in one of the storage
rooms used for apples by the Department of Pomology. In nearly all cases
the Massachusetts and W^isconsin cranberrFes were sent to the laboratory
without being screened; therefore, the berries had not been bruised by pass-
ing through the grading machinery as may be the case with cranberries
shipped to market.

Samples of a given variety of cranberries coming from different bogs
showed widely different proportions of sound fruit when the sub-samples
were sorted. For sample. Centennial from one bog had not more than 15 per
cent of sound frviit on January 30, while from another bog 60 per cent of the
sample were good at that time. Perry Red cranberries from two different
bogs had 70 per cent of sound fruit in February, but a lot from a third bog
rotted rapidly and was discarded early in the winter.

Of the varieties with but one representative sample, it may be unfair to

100 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 265

assume that early rotting signified tliat the variety was a poor keeper in
storage. Some varieties represented by two or more samples, of which 50
per cent decayed by January 1.5, may be regarded as poor keepers, among
which were Berry, Champion, Mammoth and Middleboro. At the other ex-
treme, however, any sample that contained 60 per cent or more sound berries
en Ajiril 1 showed the variety to be capable of resistance to rot under good
conditions. The varieties coming in this group were Berlin Bell, Horse Neck,
Howes, Paradise Meadow, Russell's Bell and Smalley Howes. Howes and
Smalley Howes were also represented by samples that had much less than
60 per cent sound fruit by April 1.

From Wisconsin, Bennett's Jumbo equalled these varieties in maintaining
sound fruit.

New Jersey samples had either been screened or hand picked. However,
Godfrey, Harold, and Paul retained about 70 per cent of soimd fruit on
April 1.

The relatively small number of samples retaining more than half the
fruit in a sound condition at the end of winter shows the cold storage of
cranberries to be a precarious undertaking as a means of extending the
market for tiie fruit.

Summary

A study of the chemical changes occurring in cranberries while ripening
on the vines was made during two seasons. Total sugar was found to increase
rapidly as the berries ripen, while total acid remained nearly unchanged.
Cranberries do not acquire their maximum proportion of sugar until fully
ripe on the vines.

Studies of cranberries in cold storage covered two seasons and showed
that they steadily lose sugar by respiration. Total acid decreases also, but
at a smaller rate. While cranberries remain sound they contain enough acid
to maintain their tart flavor.

In the fall of 1929 there were received from growers in Massachusetts,'
New Jersey and Wisconsin 116 different lots of cranberries representing 61
distinct varieties. They were analyzed for total acid, total sugar and dry
matter. The range in percentages of total acid was from 1.87 to 2.71 and in
percentages of total sugar from 2.45 to 5.66. Thirty-five samples contained
?uore than 4.5 per cent of sugar, 49 were between 3.5 and 4.5 per cent, while
32 lots Mere under 3.5 per cent sugar. The samples lowest in sugar were, as
a rule, only partly ripe when harvested.

Ten varieties resisted decay in cold storage to the extent of 60 per cent
of sound berries on April 1, 1930; four varieties had all their samples fully
half rotten by Janunry 15; and the remaining varieties were in that condition
by the end of February.

References

1. Bigelow, W. D. and Dunbar, P. B. The acid content of fruits. Jour.

Indus, and Engin. Chem. 9:762-767. 1917.

2. Bigelow, W. D., Gore, H. C. and Howard, B. J. Studies on apples. V.

S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Chem. Bui. 94:1-100. 1905.

A CHEMICAL STUDY OF CRANBERRIES 101

3. Caldwell, J. S. Mean summer or optimum temperatures in relation to

chemical composition in the apple. Jour. Agr. Research 36:367-389.
1928.

4. Collison, S. E. Sugar and acid in oranges and grapefruit. Fla. Agr.

Expt. Sta. Bui. 11.5:1-24. 1913.

5. Culpepper, C. W. and Caldwell, J. S. The behavior of anthocyan pig-

ments in canning. Jour. Agr. Research 35:107-132. 1927.

6. Griebel, C. Beitraege zur Kenntnis der chemischen Zusammensetzung der

Preisselbeeren, Moosbeeren und Kranbeeren. Ztschr. Untersuch.
Nahr. u. Genussmtl. 19:241-252. 1910.

7. Hawkins, L. A. A physiological study of graj^efruit rij^ening and stor-

age. Jour. Agr. Research 22:263-279. 1921.

8. Mason, G. C. The occurrence of benzoic acid naturally in cranberries.

Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 27:613-614. 1905.

9. Nelson, E. K. The non-volatile acids of the pear, . . . cranberry , . .

Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 49:1300-1302.1927.

10. Rose, M. S. The Foundations of Nutrition. New York. 1927.

11. Sherman, H. C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. New York. 1927.

12. Wiley, H. W. Foods and Their Adulteration. Philadelphia. 1907.

Publications by

Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station

Reporting Cranberry Investigations

1907. Bulletin 115. Preliminary Report on Cranberry Insects, by H. J.

Franklin.

1908. Bulletin 126. How to Fight Cranberry Insects, by H. J. Franklin.

1912. Annual Report (24th). Cranberry Investigations, 1910; Investigations

during 1911, by H. J. Franklin. The Natural Fertility of Cran-
berry Bogs, by F. W. Morse.

1913. Annual Report (25th). Report of Cranberry Substation for 1912, by

H. J. Franklin.

1914. Bulletin 150. Report of Cranberry Substation for 1913, by H. J. Frank-

lin; Notes on the Water of Cranberry Bogs, by F. W. Morse.

1915. Bulletin 160. Report of Cranberry Substation for 1914, by H. J.

Franklin.

1916. Bulletin 168. Report of Cranberry Substation for 1915, by H. J.

Franklin.

1917. Bulletin 180. Report of the Cranberry Substation for 1916, by H. J.

Franklin; Observations in Spoilage of Cranberries Due to Lack
of Ventilation, by C. L. Shear, N. E. Stevens and B. A. Rudolph.

1919. Bulletin 192. Seventh Report of the Cranberry Substation, by H. J.

Franklin.

1920. Bulletin 198. Studies of Cranberries During Storage: Chemical Studies,

by F. W. Morse and C. P. Jones; Fungi Studies, by B. A. Rudolph
and H. J. Franklin.

1921. Bulletin 206. Eighth Report of the Cranberry Substation, by H. J.

Franklin.

102 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 265

1923. Extension Leaflet 72. Cranberry Growing in Massachusetts, by H. J.

Franklin.
1928. Bulletin 239. Cape Cod Cranberry Insects, by H. J. Franklin.

Scientific Contributions

1926: No. 47. The Life History and Control of the Cranberry Weevil, An-
thonomus musculus Say (Coleoptera; Curculionidae), by D. S.
Lacroix. Jour. Econ. Ent. 19:819-829. ^

1926. No. 50. Cranberry Flower-Bud Investigations, by D. S. Lacroix. Jour.

Agr. Research 33:355-363.

1927. No. 54. The Discoloration of Canned Cranberries, by F. W. Morse.

Jour. Agr. Research 34:889-892.

1928. No. 80. The Iodine Content of Cape Cod Cranberries, by F. W. Morse.

Jour. Biol. Chem. 79:409-411.

1929. No. 83. The Mineral Constituents of Cranberries, by F. W. Morse.

Jour. Biol. Chem. 81:77-79.

In Cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture

1924. Farmers Bulletin 1400. Establishing Cranberry Fields, by G. M. Dar-

row, H. J. Franklin and O. G. Malde.
1924. Farmers Bulletin 1401. Managing Cranberry Fields, by G. M. Dar-
, . row, H. J. Franklin and O. G. Malde.

1924. Farmers Bulletin 1402. Cranberry Harvesting and Handling, by H. J.

Franklin, G. M. Darrow and O. G. Malde.

3M-10-'30. No. 394.