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Plate 1 Frontispiece

C. Kreischer photo.
Terra cotta vase, made at factory of B. Kreischer’s Sons, Kreischerville §. I.
Hight of vase, 5 feet.

University of the State of New York

Bits L ET IN

OF THE

New York State. Museum

FREDERICK J. H. MeERriILtui Director
INOS as eueee NOL. 7

June 1900

LAYS OF NEW YORK

THEIR PROPERTIES AND USES
is . BY

PE PUN RICH IREES Pr. D.

ALBANY
UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
1900

University of the State of New York

REGENTS

With years of electign

1874 Anson Jupp Upson L.H.D. D.D. LL.D. - Chancellor, Glens Falls
1892 Witit1Am CROoswELL Doane D.D. LL.D. — Vice-Chaneellor, Albany
1873 Martin I. Townsend M.A. LL.D. = == ~ — Troy
1877 CHauncrty M. Depew LL.D. - - - = = — New York
1877 CHartes BE. Firca LL.B. M.A L.H.D. = - - — Rochester
1877 Orris H. Warren D.D. = = = = — Syracuse
1878 WairEtaw Rem LL.D. = — - New York
1881 Wintiram H. Watson M.A. M.D. - = - - — Utica
1881 Henry E. TURNER - ~ = - = = — Lowville
18838 St CLarR McKeiway L.H.D. LL.D. D.C.L. —- - — Brooklyn
1885 Hamimron Harris Ph.D. LL.D. - — - = — Albany
1885 Danien Bracnw Ph.D. LL.D - - ~ - - — Watkins
1888 Carron EH. Swim LED. = > a a = Syanenise
1890 Puryy T. Sexton LL.D. - = = - - - — Palmyra
1890 T. GuinrorpD SmitH M.A. LL.D. C.E. = - - — Buffalo
1893 Lewis A. Stimson B.A. M.D. — New York
1895 ALBERT VANDER VEER Ph.D. M.D. - = o>) =o = Albany

1395 CHARLES-R. Skinner M.A. LL.D.

Superintendent of Public Instruction, ex officio
1897 CHesteR 8. Lorp M.A. LL.D ies Sat Use ast Ne Brooklyn
1897 Timoray L. Wooprurr M.A. Lieutenant-Governor, ex officio
1899 THEopORE RoosEvELT B.A. LL.D. Governor, ex officio
1899 Jonn T. McDonovew LL.B. LL.D. Secretary of State, ex officio
1900 THomas A. Henprick M.A. - - - — - — Rochester

SECRETARY
Elected by regents

1900 Jamms Russent Parsons gr M.A.

DIRECTORS OF DEPARTMENTS

1888 Mretvit Dewey M.A. State library and Home education

1390 James RussELL Parsons gr M.A. Administrative, College and High
school dep’ts :

1890 FrepERIcK J. H. Merritt Ph.D. State museum

CONTENTS

PAGE . PAGE
Preface’...... Spee é bicro Sclts 493 ee be) terra cotta lumber, a
Origin and nature of clay........ 496 nigGe ule WS COSC ERE ee Gopiugcn me: aa
ee Oe CYS <5 «racers 508 | Decorative tile.........sse.scc00e, 77
Beep enies OF CIA 2 oe ole Methods of tile decoration..... 777
Chemical properties .......... peralimonelaynnt occ... <5. ec los. Seed
Methods of analyzing......... 580 Refractury clay products..... 783
The rational analysis.......... 533 Manufacture of fire brick..... 784
Physical properties....... -22- 538 Glassipob lays eA... .s6s oats 786
Mechanical analysis........... 561 New York fire clays.......... 788
Classification of clays............. Gera BAO ELEY ciice lc chen cls site Se vies ows e 791
Wiseses cis delcverantnetneyers: onc sveeace 564 Description of different grades. 791
Coloring asemtismen.s cise sr 565 Methods of manufacture...... 798
Geologic distribution.............. 572 Methods of decoration . . - $14
Occurrence in New York state. 572 New York stoneware clays.... 817
Clays of Champlain valiey. 594 Pottery industry of New Yerk. eee
Long Island clays......... 595 | Shales of New York......... stores 825
Staten Island clays,....... 607 Distribution and properties..: 826
: zs Feldspar and quartz......... 841
Occurrence in the United States 611 Minor uses of clays 845
Clay-working...... ....... SEO oe 628 Portland cement ............., 845
Structure of clay deposits .... 628 Mineral paint ............... | 848
Prospecting and exploring ... 629 Clarifying oils and fulling
Methods of working .......... 631 Garth sce. of Mena eee cs 848
Purification of clay ....... ... 633 Hallinoa paper cccs scorns Levee: 852
ISEHOeClay Ss) ice are smite cs 636 Food adulterants............. 852
Characters of brick clays...... 636 Ultramarine manufacture.. 852
Burning of brick clays.......- 639 Polishing and abrasive mate-~
The brickmaking industry ........ 643 MM\ISahoS< ssodescssccesensss 852
Crushing strength of bricks... 647 Road materials............... 853
Building brick industry in New Puddle... ce vaew tec. ee on ani 853
Mori Slate! cnn aedne ssc =o 650 | Testing of clay wares............. 854
Methods of manufacturing. .... 653 _ Porosity or permeability...... 854
Cost of production’........... 685 Breaking strength..... ...... ae
WhedAcconnt oor. biel Hardness test.. ........ ».-- 895
Fede ca | 686 Determination of deleterious
BES OO a ; Wan NUON cose dooounonoanse 856
Paving brick................. 748 Determination of soluble salts. &56
Terra cotta Pe ecer ees VOID! OO} OC ONSOTCRCNCS 758 Resistance to weathering Se saptak 856
General properties............ 758 Resistance to acids. ......... S57
Terra cotta clays............. 759 Mibrasion: fess. sees ese 857
Terra cotta manufacture.. ... 761] Sections of clay deposits.......... &58
Roofing tile......,............... pao I ClavmarialySesy os. fce.ce soles cetone 860
SEWEE PIPC iii -c16 .'s -1e Spyies 3/5 < 767 | Bibliography of clay literature.... 908
Clays: used: ....:. .1: Gaerne 767 | Directory of clay workers in New
Manufacture of sewer pipe ... 768| York state...........-.....-005- 913
DYTAI HIG 6.6)0. 0.05: os.< oan FEF) | PIAL XG Sn fein °njeislale ee Ricletats erie 927

The manner in which the New York state museum bulletin no.
12, entitled Clay industries of New York, was received by
the public, indicated that the subject was of interest to a large
number of persons and it therefore seemed important, as soon as
the means were available, to thoroughly revise this bulletin and
bring it up to date so as to cover the great progress made in this
manufacturing industry. Dr Heinrich Ries has accordingly devoted
himself to this work of revision and after much careful labor has
produced the work now submitted to the public. The chapter on
the physical properties of clay should be of particular value, since
Dr Ries has made a special visit to Berlin for the purpose of in-
vestigating this subject in relation to the clays of Europe.

Freprrick J. H. Merrinu
New York state musewm Director.
Albany N.Y.
1899

CEA Ys On NEW YORK

THEIR PROPERTIES AND USES

PREFACE

The following report is an enlargement of one prepared by the
writer in 1895, which was published as Bulletin no. 12 of the New
York state museum, and is made necessary by the increased de-
velopment of the New York clay-working industries, as well as by
an increased knowledge of the properties and technology of the
different varieties of clay.

While portions of the original report have been allowed to stand
as first published, the greater part has been rewritten and many addi-
tional data have been incorporated.

New York is not the leading state in manufacture of clay
products, but its output is by no means small, as can be seen from
the following figures issued by the U. S. geological survey for the
year 1898.

Value of output

BO common lorick wa rornessee cs Gch yaks ws « SS te Ca $4 381 257
JPigeseraiel oe @lie 4. 3a ok ne 260 135
Jegnyuine? |oratele Se SR ee ee ee ee 302 680
‘Chanvaieneran fall loraielew= = 5 = Ae mae Oe, ee nace eee 8 665
Vivi. [SC\CIS 5 “05 Sone Ja ae OR Sane 386 624
TD rarnmtal eqn nent it ST al 74 O72
DOWEL) PIPE Mien MNS code ce Sie ds A n'a a 89 224
Bicera cotta): ose eMmemraarecck fe h e ee ais 367 854
Ee PUO OTIS"). 07.) MMMM sk akg Ade S Lanse eo oe 87 152
Mile(mot Hor drains) )Fweeete ie sie lees jeen cst wlaces 83 910
JE CSTR CPOR CREED sc: o> 5 SHEN eee 44 556
INCE eel OCaml 6... ne 262 860

494. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In order to show the development of the industry in this state
during the four years previous to 1898 the followimg table is given
from the 19th annual report of the U. S. geological survey,

pt 6, p. 867.
Clay products of New York 1894-97

1894 1895 1896 1897
Brick
Common
Quantity......... 821 286 000} 955 442 000) 981 565 000) 828 868 000
Vial 6 ats Secctcsoo es $3 945 022} $4 396 027) $4 141 973) $3 657 750
Average per M... 24.80 $4.60 $4.45 $4.41
Pressed
Quantity......... Oh aiee 18 437 000) 18 409 000; 18 046 000
AVE) eG Mera alerted leet ee tem $290 910 $298 515 $263 166
Average per M...|..........404 $15.78 $16.22 $14.58
Vitrified
Quantity...... ea 9 304 000; 10 896 000) 28 723 000} 28 145 000
EVANS ii yactete reste ees $136 697 $121 892 $259 550 $309 564
Average per M... $14.69 $11.19 $10.94 $11

Fancy brick, value... $52 500 $1 025 $17 854 $2 680

Fire brick FOr este $298 578 $302 407 $345 485 $339 740
Drain tile eet a $62 955 $56 740 $292 954 $25 485
Sewer pipe as : $10 000 $133 000 $85 289 $116 000
Ornamental terra cotta,

ViaIWO era cke sini teats $508 000 $336 000 $484 113 $420 601
Fireproofing, value........ PNoktellpaidn scuciod oc $72 410 $56 410
Tile (not drain) fee. $64 '704 $148 465 $99 060 $150 360
Pottery ©

Earthenware and stone-

SWIM Os AVE ULOW Panspeinral lense Wiese Stal ae $44 033 $100 733 $179 265

C. C. and white granite

WELT OMAVEL LUDO? ak eye lierara! sheze lors a aseis | ach arene eee ete Caley. Ola sosumcccsc

Sela WEEK VEU sl. anousoe aedilansososesacc $21 000 $1 000

Porcelain or china,

SVEUULLO 5) <a 1s Ryatseoraye tera yell Slava vaveve isi g avs [ie HORS ae aOR $120 000 $3 000

Porcelain electrical

Supplies, valitersrs eres esccs ose. «|| cheer seaenee ne $55)000). . 2). = see
Miscellaneous...... a ctyeaiete $84 738 $63 997) © $5 270 $90 588

Total value....... _ 8 164 022 $o 889 496 $6 414 206) $5 ae 504
pila of urms report-

AMER Fara tet shes srctans eee ace eae 302 280 262 231
Rank of state........ ... 4 4 3 4

Tt is highly gratifying to see the manner in which the shale de-
posits, specially those in the southern part of the state, are beg
developed, and yet itis not a matter for surprise, since they form an
inexhaustible supply of plastic material which in most cases burns
to a good red color at a very moderate temperature. The outcrops
are so abundant that the prospective manutacturer can, by a little

aCommon and pressed brick not separately “Ghasiaauls in 1894.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 495

search, find the material most suited to his needs. In several plants
already established the plastic clays have been given up for shale,
this being true not only of works where ornamental wares are made,
but also of those manufacturing common brick.

Next to the shale deposits it is probable that the clay beds of
Long Island have the most promising future. It is true that they
are at times pockety and the overburden is often considerable, but
nevertheless there is an abundance of material of good quality.

Another noteworthy feature of the industry is the adoption of
more modern methods of molding and burning. Dry press and stiff
mud machines are frequently met with where they were not seen
six years ago. There is also progress in the use of the most approved
kilns, and those of the continuous type are gaining specially in
favor. Six years ago there was not one in use in the state.

Many of the analyses given in the report are new, and a number
of physical tests have been made, particularly on the shales, in order
that they may be compared intelligently with some used in the
manufacture of standard products at other localities.

Thanks are due‘to the many manufacturers who have kindly
given aid and information in the preparation of this bulletin, and
through their liberality it has been possible to give many of the
illustrations which accompany the text.

Heryricu Riss
Ithaca N. Y.,10 June 1899

496 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM.

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF CLAY

The term “clay” is difficult to define, being often used in a
rather loose manner. Recent investigations on the part of the
writer and others lead to the conclusion that the term “clay ”
indicates a substance of peculiar physical characters, but hay-
ing absolutely no constancy of either chemical or mineralogic
composition. Two substances may appear to be entirely unlike from
a chemical standpoint, and yet their physical characters may be
such that both would be classed under the head of clay.

Probably the best mineralogic definition of clay is that given by
Dr G. P. Merrill in his book, Rocks, rock-weathering and soils, in
which he defines it ‘“‘ as an indefinite mixture of more or less hy-
drated aluminous silicates, free silica, iron oxid, carbonates of lime,
and various silicate minerals which, in a more or less decomposed
and fragmental condition, have survived the destructive agencies to
which they have been subjected”.

The only feature characteristic of all clays is that they are
plastic when wet and when burned harden to a rock-like mass.
This degree of plasticity has little probably to do with the chemical
or mineralogic composition, for clays of either high or low
plasticity may vary widely in their make-up. It seems to depend,
and this point will be discussed in more detail later, wholly on
texture and structure, that is on the shape and size of the particles.
As Dr Merrill points out, pure quartz, chalcedony, flint, feldspar or

other silicates, will when reduced to an impalpable powder possess
a pastiness and even an odor similar to that of clay. Most of
these simple mineral mixtures of extreme fineness do not seem to
hold together like clay mixed by nature, probably because they
lack the plastic particles which true clay contains. Clay may
show all degrees of plasticity, and by the increase of one or another
of its component minerals may pass into other rock types, as into
limestone on the one hand by the increase of carbonate of lime, or
into sandstone by the addition of sand.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 497

To define clay from the physical standpoint, we may say
that it is a fine-grained mixture of mineral fragments of variable
composition, possessing when wet plasticity which permits it to be
molded into any desired form and retaining that form when dry.
That furthermore, when heated above a certain temperature it loses
its chemically combined water and becomes converted into a rock-
like mass, which if reground and mixed with water no longer shows
plasticity.

All clays found in nature contain, so far as known, a variable
amount of kaolinite, the hydrated silicate of alumina, which is ©
commonly spoken of as the clay base or clay substance. (It should
be stated that it is sometimes the custom, specially abroad in the
case of many impure clays to call the finest particles of the clay
irrespective of their composition the “ clay-substance.’’)

A -mass of kaolinite would be termed kaolin. These two
terms are often used interchangeably, though the former is simply
the mineralogic name while the latter is a rock term. Pure
kaolin has not thus far been found in nature, though some very
nearly pure is known. Properly speaking the term kaolm should
be restricted to white burning residual clays, a usage which is
widespread but has not become universal. “ The name kaolin is a
corruption of the Chinese Kauling, which means high ridge, and is
the name of a hill near Jauchau Fu, where the mineral is obtained.”
(Dana, System of min., p. 687)

Kaolinite is a secondary mineral formed by the decomposition
of feldspar. This is commonly caused by percolating waters aided
by disintegrating causes, the result being that the alkalies and alka-
line earths of the feldspar are carried off in solution, while the:
alumina and silica, left behind, unite with water to form hydrated
silicate of alumina. The feldspars are essentially anhydrous sili-
cates of alumina, containing in addition varying amounts of lime,
potash or soda, and depending partly on their chemical composition
and partly on their physical characters. Nine varieties are usually
recognized, which fall into two groups known as the orthoclase
and plagioclase groups.

498 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The orthoclase or potash feldspar has a composition of silica
64.7, alumina 18.4, potash 16.9, while in the plagioclase group the

composition of the different members is given as follows.’

Silica Alumina Potash § Soda ‘{ Lime
A Fai e tie pen amen aa ane 8 68 20 es 12 12
Oheoclasay a seinen: 62 24 Moe 9 5
abradorites su. ieteer tees ea 53 30 Die. 4 13
PA ortlites ee eae ea 43 37 ated ees 20

In treating the decomposition or kaolinization of feldspar, most
writers are apt to give the impression that it is the orthoclase which
furnishes kaolinite by its decomposition, whereas both groups may
produce it, and indeed the plagioclase varieties decompose much
more readily than the orthoclase. This fact was noted by Leim-
berg. (Z%. d. d. G. G. 35, 1883) The same fact was observed by the
writer in the kaolin at Rénne, Denmark, which is produced by
the decomposition of a granite containing both plagioclase and
orthoclase. In partially weathered specimens the plagioclase was
the more extensively affected. As a rule the orthoclase feldspar is
much more common than the plagioclase.

Aside from the kaolinization of feldspar by the ordinary processes
of weathering it seems possible and even probable that its decom-
position may be brought about by the action of mineralizing vapors,
that is, vapors whose presence seems to be necessary to the forma-
tion of certain minerals, as at Cornwall, Eng., where it was found
that the feldspar of the granite’ on both sides of the tin veins had
been altered to kaolin. This change is attributed to the action of
fluoric vapors whose presence is pretty well proven. That such
a process is possible is shown by J. H. Collins (Min. mag. 1887.
7:213, in the “ Nature and origin of clays and the composition of
kaolinite ”) who exposed feldspar to the action of hydrofluoric acid.
The feldspar, according to Mr Collins, was converted into hydrated
silicate of alumina, mixed with soluble fluorid of potassium, while
pure silica was deposited on the sides of the tube.

1G. P. Merrill. Rocks, rock-weathering and soils, p. 15.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 499

With such treatment the orthoclase yielded more readily than
either albite or oligoclase. The following analyses show the effect
of 96 hours’ treatment of orthoclase with hydrofluoric acid at
60° F.

il 2 3
SiGe. on, Cp a re cavern 63.70 49.20 44.10
Ramla AW eee Gh. ss sc {x «gee aes 19.76 35.12 40.25
LED DSID aye ee rt ed 13) 61! at? 25
Soda, | As IRR ero 2.26 tr tr
BCR TOMOMOUCS 0. «oc 'a dear sige ha eee Sil tr tr
“TY DIP STE 1 el RR A Sr dai Tk tr 14.20 15.00

100.04 98.64 99.61

From the analysis it will be seen that the composition of the outer
layer simply approximates that of kaolinite.

No. 1 is the original feldspar.

No. 2 is inner layer of altered feldspar.

No. 3 is outer layer of altered feldspar.

The artificial clay thus produced, when examined under the
microscope, resembled washed kaolin. It showed no hexagonal
scales, but contained a number of minute colorless cubes which are
supposed to be fluor spar.

The theory advanced by Mr Collins was first suggested by Von
Buch and Daubrée, who believed that kaolinization is produced
by fluids containing fluosilicates or fluoborates acting from below,
generally, if not always, through fissures. (Annales des mines
20, 1841)

Von Buch early observed the constant occurrence of kaolin with
minerals containing fluorin, and suggested that the kaolin of Halle,
Germany, owed its origin to hydrofluoric acid. (Mi. Tasch,
1824)}

Daubrée considered that the kaolin near St Austell in Cornwall
must have had a similar origin. (Annales des mines 1841)

1 The writer can state from personal examination that the Halle kaolins
were formed by ordinary weathering.

500 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

If Mr Collins’s theory be correct, the kaolin deposits should
extend to great depths, but if the kaolinization be due to weathering,
then we should encounter undecomposed feldspar at the limit to
which weathering has reached. In Cornwall the kaolin mines,
which are probably the largest in the world, have reached a depth
of over 200 feet without the kaolin giving out, while at Zettlitz
in Bohemia a depth of over 400 feet has been reached with the
same result. The latter locality is one of thermal activity. In
these two instances the theory just mentioned seems to be very
reasonable. There are many localities however where the kaolin
decreases with the depth, passing into the undecomposed feldspar,
as is the case for example in North Carolina, where the fresh
feldspar is met at a depth of 60 to 120 feet. Still there are loeali-
ties in the United States where the mineralizing vapors seem clearly
to have aided in the formation of kaolinite. Thus in many of the
mines at Oripplecreek in Colorado, kaolinite has been produced.
by the decomposition of the feldspar, and is considered by Penrose
to have been formed by other agencies than those of weathering,
for the reason that it shows no sign of decrease in quantity with
the depth, occurring as abundantly in the bottom of the deepest
mines as on the surface. The frequent association with it of the
unaltered sulfid miierals suggests that superficial alteration had
no part in the formation of the kaolinite, otherwise the sulfids:
would have been oxidized to sulfate’. It is possible that fluorin
may have been the agent in the change, for it is abundant in many
of the Cripplecreek ore deposits.

Whatever the species of feldspar, or the process of decomposition,
the product is kaolinite, and, as previously observed, a mass of
kaolinite would be termed kaolin, or pure clay. Such a thing as
pure clay is however unknown, for one or more minerals are
always associated with the feldspar and remain in the kaolin as
impurities, but not necessarily injurious ones. Clay therefore is
formed primarily by the decomposition of a feldspathic rock mass,

1U. S. geol. sur. 16th ann. rep’t pt 2, p. 181.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 501

and, if the deposit is found in the locality where it was formed,
it is known as a residual clay.

Clay may also be derived from the decomposition of aluminous
limestones.

Deposits of kaolin are not very common, but residual clays are.
Indeed in many of the southern states the surface soil over many
square miles is nothing more than a residual clay. Such residual
deposits often bear a close resemblance in chemical composition,
to the rock from which they were formed.

Under the influence of weathering the residual surface materials
are washed down into the rivers and carried to seas or lakes
where they are spread out over the bottom as sediments. We
thus have another class of clay deposits known as sedimentary
clay, no longer resembling the parent rock, but composed of the
residuum of several different areas.

These two types of clay deposits, the residual and the sedv-
mentary, present certain distinguishable features, bearing on their
origin.

Residual clays are composed of a mixture of angular grains rep-

resenting in part undecomposed rock, and fine rock flour of clay,
that is, particles sufficiently fine to float in water. There is- generally
a gradual transition from the fully formed clay at the surface to
the unaltered parent rock below. The depth below the surface
at which unaltered rock is reached varies from three or four feet
to 150 or 200 feet. The structure of the parent rock is sometimes
retained for a certain distance upward in the residual clay.
: Sedimentary clays are stratified and occur in beds. ‘They are
as a rule more homogeneous than residual clays and contain a
greater proportion of fine particles. They are also more plastic,
and frequently have much disseminated organic matter, but they
bear little or no relation to the rocks on which they rest.

Sedimentary clays occur either at the surface, or may lie deep
below it, interbedded with other rocks.

When sedimentary clays suffer consolidation under pressure they

BY Ue) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

are known as shale. Shales simply represent the finest clay sedi-
ment, which has been deposited in those parts of the ocean which
are very quiet and has become consolidated by the pressure of other
sediments laid upon it. In some hard shales there is probably also
some cementing material between the grains.

In the later discussion of the chemical and physical properties of
clay whatever is said of clay will also apply to shale, unless it be
otherwise stated.

Shales when ground up and mixed with water generally produce
a plastic mass similar to common clays. If simply placed in water,
however, they do not usually fall to pieces as an ordinary clay does,
or, in other words, they do not slake. Shales may be either highly
refractory or extremely fusible, and both forms of this material
are of commercial value. Some of the most refractory material
mined in the United States, as for instance the fire clays found
at Denver Col., or those in Pennsylvania, are shales. The chief
use of shales in the United States is in the manufacture of paving
bricks. Those of New York state are treated in a separate
chapter.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 503

MINERALOGY OF CLAYS

The number of mineral species which may exist in clays is very
great, and depends partly on the mineralogic composition of the
parent rock, and the extent to which decomposition has proceeded
in the clay mass. .

The characters of the common minerals found in clays together
with their more important features, are here given, arranged ap-
proximately in the order of their abundance. Any one of these
may however at times become a predominating constituent.

Kaolinite. Formula: Al,O,, z SiO,, 2 H.O, or silica (SiO,)
46.3%, alumina (A],O;) 39.8% , water (HO) 13.97

This is a white, pearly mineral, crystallizing in the monoclinic
system, the crystals presenting the form of small hexagonal plates.
Its specific gravity is 2.2-2.6; its hardness 2-2.5. It is naturally
white in color and a mass of it is plastic when wet, but very slightly
so. The occurrence of kaolinite in crystals has been noted from
National belle mine, Red Mountain, Col. (H. Reusch, Jahrb. f.
mineralogic, 1887, 2:70) and from Anglesey, (A. Dick, Min.
mag. 1876, 8:15). A microscopic examination shows the plates of
kaolinite collected in little bunches. Their separation by grinding
increases the plasticity.

If kaolin be formed into briquets, of the same shape as those
used in testing cement, its tensile strength, as determined by pulling
these briquets apart in a testing machine, is usually 5-15 pounds
the square inch—a very low degree compared with the tensile
strength of more plastic clays. _

Kaolinite is nearly infusible, but a slight addition of fusible
impurities lowers its refractoriness.

Many kaolins contain very minute scales of white mica, which
it would be difficult to distinguish under the microscope from
kaolinite. Since white mica in a very finely divided condition is

1 Clays of New Jersey, N. J. geol. sur. 1878. G. H. Cook.

504 ; NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

not unlike kaolinite in its behavior, as shown by the experiments
of Vogt, its presence may be of no influence, unless there is an
appreciable amount of it. The following quotation’ exhibits those
experiments.

Mr Vogt considers that the plasticity which clays have is chiefly
due to the hydrated silicate of alumina or kaolinite. Experiments
which he made, show that the kaolinite is not the only substance
which remains in suspension for a long period. For his trials he
took quartz from Limousin, orthoclase from Norway, and a potash
mica. All three were ground very fine, and then washed in a
current of slightly ammoniacal water. The washed materials were
then allowed to stand. After 24 hours each of the liquids was
as opalescent as if it had washed clay in suspension. After nine
days the turbidity still remained, but was less marked. At the end
of this time the supernatant liquid was ladled off of each, and a
few drops of hydrochloric acid added to it. The suspended ma-
terials coagulated and settled, and the precipitate was collected,
dried, and weighed. ‘The mica which had remained in suspension
during the nine days was very fine; still the particles glittered in
the light. The addition of hydrochloric acid caused the instant
settling of the particles, which was also noted by the cessation of
the glittering. «The settlings of mica from 1 liter of water
amounted to .15 gram. ‘This fine-grained mica possessed a plas-
ticity almost equal to that of the kaolin.

From the decanted liquid of the feldspar the hydrochlorie acid
brought down .4 gram of this mineral per liter, while of the
quartz only .1 gram of sediment was obtained.

A very plastic clay from Dreux was treated in the same manner
and after nine days a precipitate of .56 gram was brought down.

From these experiments we see that in washing kaolin it is
impossible to free it entirely from quartz, feldspar, and mica.

Associated with kaolinite we may find one or more other species
of minerals, all hydrated silicates of alumina. Some of these have
been found in erystals and are very probably good species, but
others are known only in an amorphous condition. This may tend
to suggest some doubt as to their validity. These associated species
together with their characters are given by Dana as follows.

1 Thonindustrie zeitung, 1893. p. 140.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK * 505

Halloysite. A massive, clay-like or earthy mineral, with a
conchoidal fracture. It shows little or no plasticity. It has a
hardness of 1-2. ‘The specific gravity is 2.0-2.20. The luster is
somewhat pearly to waxy or dull. The color is white, grayish,
greenish, yellowish and reddish. It is translucent to opaque, some-
times becoming translucent or even transparent in water, with an
increase of one fifth in weight. It is a silicate of alumina like
kaolinite, but amorphous and containing more water; the amount
is somewhat uncertain, but according to Le Chatelier the composi-
tion is probably 21,0, Al,0, 2SiO,+ aq, or silica 43.5%, alumina
36.9%, water 19.6¢==100. It is not uncommon in the kaolin de
posits around Valleyhead, Dekalb co. Ala., where it occurs as
veins in the kaolin. ;

Rectorite. Monoclinic. In leaves or plates resembling moun-
tain leather. Very soft, hardness less than that of tale. Feels
soapy. Luster pearly. Color pure white, sometimes stained red
with iron oxid. Composition: H Al 8iO,or A1,03, 2 Si0O., H,O=
silica 50.0; alumina 42.5; water 7.5.

Newtonite. Rhombohedral. In soft, compact masses, resem-
bling kaolinite. Color white. Composition: H,A],Si,O,,+-water
or Al,O;, 2 SiO,, 5 H,O=silica 33.5, alumina 32.7, water 28.8,
Spser—2.37.

Allophane. Amorphous. As incrustations which are usually
thin, with mammillary surface. Occasionally almost pulverulent.
Fracture imperfectly conchoidal and shining, to earthy. Very
brittle. Color variable. Translucent. A hydrous aluminum sili-
cate, AJ,Si0;+5H,O=silica 23.8, alumina 40.5, water 35.7.
Hardness 2. Sp. gr. 1.85—1.89.

Other species listed by Dana in the kaolinite group are cimolite,
montmorillonite, pyrophyllite, collyrite and Schrotterite. Indian-
aite, a white residual clay found in Lawrence co. Ind., is placed
under halloysite by Dana.

Clays may vary mineralogically within very wide limits. Pure
clay, as before stated, would consist entirely of the mineral kaolin-
ite, but in addition to this quartz, feldspar and mica are minerals

506 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

most commonly present and we may also find calcite, gypsum, mica,
siderite or carbonate of iron, pyrite, dolomite, iron oxid, ete.

Quartz. This mineral is present in sedimentary clays mostly in
the form of fine grains, or sometimes in crystals, while in resid-
ual clays the particles are usually angular. It may be colorless, but
the grains may be often superficially colored either red or yellow
by iron oxid. It is a very hard mineral and scratches glass easily.
Feldspar might be mistaken for it, but feldspar will not scratch
glass.

Flint or amorphous silica is sometimes present in clays. It
usually has a muddy color, and a conchoidal fracture. It might
be found in either residual or sedimentary clays.

Quartz and flint are infusible except at very high temperatures;
but the presence of other minerals in the clay acting as fluxes often
@iuses them to soften at a much lower temperature. In addition
quartz serves to diminish the shrinkage of a clay, and, if not natur-
ally present in sufficient quantity, has to be added during the pro-
cess of manufacture. ‘The admixture of quartz also tends to de-
crease the plasticity, the more so, the coarser the grain. The size
of the quartz grains affects the ease with which they can be fluxed;
for, as fusion begins on the outside of a quartz grain, the larger
the grain the longer it will take to reach the center. Therefore if
the heat is not continued long enough, it may happen that the
outside of the grain has been softened and the center is unaffected.

Feldspar. Since kaolinite is formed by the decomposition of
feldspar, it seems but natural that we should find some undecom-
posed grains of the latter in almost every clay. The fragments
would be scaly or rhombohedral in form. Feldspar is slightly
softer than quartz, and while the latter scratches glass, the former
will not. It is commonly pink, red, yellow or even white. Few
fragments fail to show a white coating on the surface of the grains,
or lining the cracks and cleavage planes of the mineral, indicating
the presence of some kaolinite.

Calcite. This mineral may occur in clays in the form of little
thombohedral grains, soft enough to be scratched with a knife.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 507

As calcite effervesces when moistened with muriatic acid, its pres-
ence in the clay may often be detected by the addition of this
chemical to it. Calcite may be scattered through the clay in
the form of small grains or be present as concretions (commonly
ealled “clay dogs”). It not infrequently happens that some lay-
ers of the clay contain a much larger percentage of carbonate
of lime than others, and indeed, with a very great increase in the
amount of carbonate of lime, the clay might pass into a marl.
Where a deposit of clay rests on a bed of limestone, the lower
layers of the material may be more calcareous than the upper’
ones. The carbonate of lime found in clays is at times derived
from particles of limestone if the clay is a sedimentary one, or in
the case of either sedimentary or residual clays it may come from
the decomposition of lime soda feldspars, or again it may be in-
troduced by percolating waters.

Gypsum may be present in the clay as grains, needles, or well
formed crystals, or lamellar masses. It is much softer than calcite,
being scratched by the finger nail, often has a pearly luster, is
transparent, and does not effervesce with acid. In hard burned
bricks gypsum simply acts as a flux, but in lightly burned ones, it
gives rise to soluble sulfates, which cause efflorescence. In the
salina shales it often forms large transparent plates.

Mica. ‘This can frequently be easily detected by the naked eye,
even though it may be present in a very finely divided condition, for
the small scales of it have a high luster. Mica is seldom absent
in clays and is usually present to a greater or less extent in the
best known kaolins. Owing to its nature it floats very easily,
and is consequently very hard to eliminate by washing. As white
mica is very refractory, and when finely ground possesses a certain
amount of plasticity, its presence in small amounts is not very
injurious.

The mica found in clays is generally derived from igneous or
metamorphic rocks, such as granites, gneisses, or schists. ‘Two
kinds of mica are commonly found in clay, namely biotite and

muscovite. The biotite mica is a silicate of iron, magnesia and

508 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

alumina, occurring as six sided plates or irregular scales usually
of a dark color. As it decomposes easily with the formation of
ircn oxid, it is not as commonly found in clays as muscovite. The
latter is sometimes called potash mica, though it also contains a
small amount of iron and magnesia. It is of a silvery white or
light brown color. 7

As before mentioned, mica by itself is rather refractory, but in
the presence of other minerals may serve as a flux at high tem-
perature. Even in burned bricks the mica scales are often per-
ceptible. This is frequently the case when the brick has been
burned at a temperature of 2500° F.

Siderite. This is perhaps a more common constituent than is
usually imagined. It generally occurs in the form of opaque,
rounded masses, and effervesces on the addition of warm muriatic
acid. In the burning of the clay siderite or iron carbonate is
converted into iron oxid.

Pyrite. This is a combination of iron and sulfur. Tt has a
metallic luster and yellow color, and is a very common constituent
of many fire clays, occurring either in the form of small yellow
metallic grains or concretionary masses of yellow crystals. In the
burning of clay it may be changed to sulfate of iron and if the
clay is heated to vitrification, it will serve as a flux. The brick
makers’ common name for pyrite nodules is “ sulfur-balls”’.

Marl or limestone fragments. The action of these is the same
as that of calcite. Their presence may be detected by treatment
with muriatic acid. 3 :

Dolomite, the double carbonate of lime and magnesia, and mag-
nesite, the carbonate of magnesia, may both occur in ‘clay, either
as earthy grains or as rhombohedral crystals. Either alone is highly
refractory and in this condition is used as linings for furnaces, but
when present in clay may serve as a flux, their action being similar
to that of lime.

Iron oxid. This is perhaps the most common impurity of clay
next to quartz. It may occur in the form of earthy grains, or

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 509

metallic scales, or as a superficial coating on other mineral grains.
It dissolves quietly in muriatic acid. Iron may also occur in clay as
a constituent element of other minerals, and indeed the effect which
it produces is dependent not so much on the actual amount of iron
oxid present as on its condition, according as it is combined with
silica, carbonic acid or some other acid.

Hornblende. This is not an uncommon constituent of clays, and
when present is generally in the form of tiny scales or flakes of a
dark green color, showing transparency under the microscope only
when extremely thin. It is highly probable that the hornblende
does not remain very long as such, for it decomposes quite easily,
yielding hydrated ferric oxid or limonite.

Rutile is probably of widespread occurrence in clays, though
never in large quantity. It occurs mostly in the form of bristle
like crystals. No systematic study of their occurrence in clay has
ever been taken up. ‘The writer has observed them in some of
the Staten Island clays, and reference has been made to them from
time to time by other writers. (See J. J. H. Teall. Min. mag.
7: 201; G. E. Ladd. Amer. geol. Ap. 1899)

Vanadiates, though not as common in clays, may cause dis
coloration. In Germany they have been found in clays associated
with the lignites, and also in some fire clays, but in this country,
so far as the writer is aware, they have never been investigated.
Clays containing soluble vanadiates, if not burned at a sufficiently
high temperature, will show on the surface of the ware a green
discoloration, which, though it can be washed off with water, will
continue to return as long as any of the salt is left in the brick.
Vanadiates may be rendered insoluble by burning the clay to a
point of vitrification. (Seger’s Ges. Schrift. p. 301)

Other minerals may occur in clays, such as magnetite, titanite
ete., but the quantity is small.

Organic remains. These consist of bituminous matter, roots,
amber and other substances, which volatilize on ignition.

>»

510 , NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

PROPERTIES OF CLAY

Pure clay would be composed entirely of the mineral kaolinite,
the hydrated silicate of alumina. A mass of it would be called
kaolin. The latter is the name of the rock, the former the name
of the mineral composing it.

Pure kaolin has not been found thus far, though deposits con-
taining as much as 70% of kaolinite are known, and these when
washed yield in some instances a mass containing as much as 98.5%
of kaolinite. Kaolin therefore contains a variable amount of
foreign minerals, mixed with the kaolinite, or clay substance, as it
is sometimes called: These impurities affect the properties of
the kaolin materially, either as regards its shrinkage, fusibility,
or color in burning. ‘The last named effect is caused by the
presence of ferruginous impurities. Their presence in an effective
amount would necessitate classing the material with residual clay.

Kaolinite is supposed to form the base of all clays, or kaolinite
together with other hydrated silicates of alumina. ‘This clay sub-
stance forms a variable proportion of the clay mass, and stands in
no direct relation to the plasticity, except that plasticity is lost

with the expulsion of the combined water. The amount of clay

substance ranges in known clays from 5% or 10% to 98.5%. ihe
former might be a clay sand, the latter a nearly pure kaolin. In
kaolins the chief impurities are quartz, feldspar and mica, but
in other clays the number of mineral impurities may be very large.
(See chapter on “ Mineralogy of clays” p. 503)

The properties of clay fall generally under two heads, chemical
and physical. The latter includes plasticity, fusibility, shrink-
age, tensile strength, slaking, absorption, density. The former em-
braces the chemical composition, which exerts an influence on the
physical behavior of the clay and should therefore be discussed
first. ; ¢

CLAYS OF NEW YORK eee aaa

Chemical properties

The chemical composition, and indirectly therefore the minera-
logic composition, may influence the fusibility of a clay, its color
in burning, shrinkage, and perhaps plasticity.

The compounds which may be found in clay are silica, alumina,
iron oxid, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, titanic acid, sulfuric acid,
manganese oxid, phosphoric acid and organic matter. Compounds
of chromium’ and vanadium? may also be present in small amounts,
and even lithium (N. W. Lord. J. A. I. M. H. 12:505) and
cerium, yttrium and beryllium oxids (Jour. pr. chem. 33: 132)
have been recorded. Phosphoric acid is also known.* Not
all of these are present in every clay, but most of them are.
Pure clay would contain silica, alumina and combined water. The
purest clays known contain traces of iron oxid, lime and alkalies.

All of the constituents of clay except alumina, organic matter,
and water, may exert a fluxing action on the clay when burned,
the intensity of this action depending on the amount of fluxing
material and the temperature. Consequently the impurities of
clay are often divided into fluxing and non-fluxing.

: Fluxing vmpurities

Pure clay, theoretically composed altogether of the mineral
kaolinite, is very refractory. This mineral contains two molecules
of silica and one-molecule of alumina. A higher percentage of
silica tends, up to a certain point, to increase the fusibility provided
it is in a finely divided condition. If the silica percentage how-
ever gets above a certain point, the refractoriness of the clay in-
creases with the increase in silica up to the point at which the
mass contains nothing but silica. This has been demonstrated
by the experiments of Seger. (Thonindustrie zeitung, 1893.
no. 17)

Other substances act as far more powerful fluxes than the silica,

and these fluxes include not only elements but also definite chemi-al

1Some Brazilian clays.

2See p. 509.
3 Some pleistocene clays near Baltimore, Md., contain much vivianite.

512 , NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
!

compounds or mineral species, which either already exist in the
clay or may be added to it artificially. The influence of fluxes in-
creases not only with the amount present but also with the state
of division, they being the more active the more finely they are
divided. If the flux is present in the form of large grains,
these grains will only exert a fluxing action on their surface,
whereas the single grains alone will act more like quartz grains,
that is, as diluents of the shrinkage. The minerals which may
be present as fluxes or may sometimes be added are mica, feld-
spar, and similar silicates, slags, lime carbonate, magnesia car-
bonate, and various compounds of iron and manganese. In addi-
tion they may be present as soluble salts. It is usually the oxds
of iron, manganese, and complex silicates containing these as well
as lime, magnesium, potash, and soda that determine the degree of
fusibility of the clay. —

The amount of fluxes which a clay contains has an important
bearing on its applicability. For some purposes it is desirable as
well as necessary that the percentage of fluxes ‘should be low
(producing refractory wares), not only with a view to refractoriness,
but also, as in porcelain or white earthenware manufacture, to
prevent discoloration of the ware. Again, the combination of
fluxes in large amount may be desirable for the production of a
vitrified body, such as is required for paving brick or sewer pipe:

In kaolins the amount of fluxes may be as high as 7% provided
they do not exert a coloring action. Some of the best kaolins known
contain about 35% of feldspar, which means about 5.5% of potash.
In fire clay 4-5% is the permissible limit, depending on the physical
properties of the clay, while in a paving brick clay the total of
fluxes may run as high as 16%.

Alkalis
These are never present in a clay in the form in which they are
determined in the ordinary quantitative analysis, but generally as
a constituent element of one or more minerals. Clay may contain
two classes of alkalis, fixed and volatile. The former are soda,

potash and lithia, the latter ammonia.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 513

Ammonia. Clays possess a strong absorptive capacity for gases
and in consequence of this frequently contain an appreciable
‘amount of ammonia, to which is largely attributable the character-
istic odor of clay.t

While the presence of this compound may exert some action on
the plasticity and absorptive power of the clay, still it need not be
considered in burning, for it passes off as a vapor at a temperature
considerably below dull redness, or may even volatilize with the
moisture of the clay during the early stages of burning.

Fixed alkalis. These include potash, soda and lithia, but the
latter is such a rare constituent that it need not be ccnsidered.
Potash and soda are present in nearly every clay, in amounts vary-
ing from a mere trace to 10%, but the usual average is 1%-3%. The
chief sources of potash and soda are the different species of feld-
spar; white mica or muscovite may furnish potash. The variation
in amount might be accounted for by the presence of undecomposed
feldspar in the clay, the common feldspar orthoclase containing 17%
of potash alone.

When either feldspar or mica decomposes, the alkalis are con-
verted wholly or in part into soluble compounds, and thus we get
both soluble and insoluble alkaline compounds.

Soluble alkaline compounds. These may be present in any clay,
but they seldom occur in large quantities. They may influence the
plasticity of the clay, by causing a flocculation of the particles; but
their chief importance, or disadvantage, is in giving rise to the
formation of efflorescence on the surface of the ware, where they
become concentrated by the evaporation of the moisture in the clay,
unless previously rendered insoluble by the addition of proper
chemicals. This crust may interfere with the formation of salt
glaze, or the adhesion of a glaze applied to the ware before burning.

Soluble alkaline sulfates are powerful fluxes. They cause
blistering of the ware if the clay is heated sufficiently high to de-
compose the sulfate and permit the escape of sulfuric acid gas.

Ril F. Senft. Die Thonsubstanzen p. 29.

514 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In some clays containing sulfate of iron the latter may be de-

composed by chemical reactions taking place in the clay and sul--

furie acid being set free. This acid is apt to attack the alumina of
the clay substance, and if potash, soda or ammonia be present they
give rise to potash, soda or ammonia alum, which can frequently be
detected by tasting the clay.

Insoluble alkaline compounds. A1l the sources of these in clay
are minerals, silicates of complex composition. Feldspar and mica
are the most abundant sources, but some may be derived from
garnet, hornblende and pyroxene, fragments of which may be
present in nearly all impure, and specially ferruginous clays.

The feldspars are complex silicates of alumina and potash, or
alumina, lime and soda. Orthoclase, the most common of the feld-
spars, contains about 17% of potash, while the lime-soda feldspars
have from 4% to 12% of soda, according to the species. Feldspars are
the most important source of alkalis in clay, and, as the species
vary somewhat in their fusibility, they may exercise a varying in-
fluence on the fusing point of the clay. Thus the lme-soda feld-
spars are more fusible than the potash ones.’

The micas are complex silicates of alumina, with iron, magnesia
and potash. Muscovite, the commonest species of the group, con-
tains nearly 12% of potash and may contain a little soda. While
feldspars fuse completely at about 2300° F., mica alone is very
refractory, being unaffected by a temperature of 2550° F. While
it probably serves as a flux, it is not known positively at just what
temperature it begins to act as such.

Alkalis, specially in the form of silicates, are frequently a de
sirable constituent of clay, on account of their fluxing properties,
as in burning they serve to bind the particles together in a dense,
hard body and permit the ware being burned at a lower tempera-
ture.

In the manufacture of porcelain, white earthenware, encaustic

tiles and other wares made from kaolins, and having a body which

1Seger. Ges. Schrift. p. 413.

j
4

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 515

is Impervious or nearly so, the alkalis are added for fluxing to the
body in the form of feldspar. Much feldspar is mined both in the
United States and Europe for potters’ use, but in nearly every case
it is the potash feldspar.

Alkalis exert little or no coloring influence on the burned ware
in most instances, but if an excess of feldspar be added to a white
burning elay, it will produce a creamy tint when burned. Potash
seems to have a tendency to deepen the color of a ferruginous clay
in burning.

The amount of alkalis contained in clay varies. It may sink to
a mere trace or rise to 7% or 8%. The limits for a number of clays
are given below the figures being taken from tables at end of report. .

Range Aver.
BRE ULI S oor yeaa Md Aas Arter Metals de SLO Oma ba en Ou:
ED rrse ae eingrsea gts pease sik cee ee oh-ce erat ne) thee has «| 2k a) .048-5.27 1.46
Hero Lueiny, Cl envi emake Seeerorts theists eke lade ers Ho 2 eller 27100
TETAS R Me pRO et 0s SIC a Mga eS Si laogy 22 V0e

Tron oxid
Iron oxid is the great coloring agent of both burned and un-
burned clay, and in addition serves as a flux. Furthermore in the
form of hydrated oxid it may increase the absorptive power of
clay.* i
It is not only one of the most widespread and common of clay
ingredients, but is also derived from the greatest number of
minerals. The compounds which may serve as sources of iron oxid
in clays are
Oxids — limonite, hematite, magnetite, ilmenite
Silicates — mica, hornblende, garnet, ete.
Sulfids — pyrite, marcasite
Sulfates
Carbonates — siderite

melanterite

1H. A. Smith. Ala. geol. sur., rept on agricult. p. 45.

516 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The iron oxids, limonite and hematite, are present in nearly all
clays. They may be introduced by percolating waters, or result from
the decomposition of any of the iron-bearing silicates, such as horn-
blende, mica or garnet. They are not infrequently distributed
through the clay in a very finely divided condition, or may form a
thin film around the other mineral grains. Limonite tends to color
the unburned clay brown or yellow, while hematite imparts a red
color. Ferric carbonate may give gray tints. Mica is found in
most clays. Hornblende and garnet are probably wanting in a few.
Pyrite is present in many clays, specially stoneware and fire clays,
its yellow, glittermg metallic particles being easily recognizable.

These particles may be either fine grains, or large lumps, the former

of which have to be separated by washing, the latter by hand-

picking. Pyrite alters under the influence of weathering or burn-
ing to sulfate of iron, which is soluble in water and may indirectly
or directly act as a discoloring agent on clay wares, provided the
clay is not burned to vitrification. If burned to this point however
the pyrite acts as a flux (and according to Wipplinger’ a very strong
one) forming little specks, or larger ones, according to size of pyrite
grains, of fused ferrous alumina silicate. In all iron-bearing
minerals found in clays, the iron exists in one of two conditions,
v1z, as ferrous or ferric, and the fusibility of any given clay de-
pends somewhat on this fact, for the reason that ferrous compounds
lower the fusing point of a clay. In burning any clay the ferrous
salt will be changed to the ferric condition, provided the fire is
oxidizing in its action, but if the action is reducing, the iron
will remain in the ferrous form. The action of weathering
agents in nature is often sufficient to oxidize the iron in the clay,
so that in most clays more ferric than ferrous iron will be found.
Evidence of this change in the condition of the iron can often be
detected by the red or yellow color of the upper or more porous
layers of the clay, the lower layers being colored gray. A gray
color may at times be produced also by the presence of organic

1 Keramik, p. 26.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 517

matter, and this material, if present in a dense wet clay, to which
the air can not gain access, may keep the iron in a ferrous condition.

Whenever the iron exists in the clay in combination with silica,
it is present probably as a complex silicate, for pure ferric silicate is
very rare in nature.

The presence of ferric hydrate in clay increases its absorptive
power for both gases and water, but both it and the carbonate are
converted in burning to the oxid.

While it may be said that the burning of clay in an oxidizing
fire converts the iron to the condition of ferric oxid, still this state-
ment only holds true up to a certain temperature, depending on the
fusibility of the clay, for in every clay the iron seems to return to
the ferrous condition as the point of vitrification is approached.
The change would of course be accompanied by a liberation of
oxygen, which would increase with the amount of iron in the clay,
and may account for the greater blistering of ferruginous clays as
the point of vitrification is passed, and that of viscosity approached.

While this fact is not unknown, very little attention seems to
have been paid to it.

Remole* considers that the greenish color of hard burned clays
is due to this cause. Seger? also notes the ferrous condition of
iron at high temperatures, and states that in this form it is a
powerful flux.

The tendency of iron oxid is to unite with the silica and alumina
and also with the lime of the clay the moment that fusion begins,
thereby forming a complex silicate, whose fusibility is lower than
the simpler ones from whose union it was formed.

The experiments of Berthier (Perey’s Metallurgy, refractory
materials and fuel, p. 60-75) on mixtures of iron, alumina and
silica point out these facts very clearly. These consisted in making
up the mixtures given below and subjecting them to a high tem-
perature, that of molten steel, with the results also stated below.

1 Wagner. Manual of chemical technology. 1897. p. 634.
2 Seger. Ges. Schrift. p. 391.

518 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Action of heat on mixture of silicaZand bases

( 4A1,03,38Si0, Agglomerated
2A1,0;,8S10, Ageglomerated
A1,03,3S810, Strongly agglomerated,
compact; fracture stony,
dull
| 2A1,0;,9810, Compact, stony fracture,
slightly shining

Aluminum sili-
cate

L
( 2Fe,0,8810, The mixtures did not de-
| crease in volume; there
was no combination, the
| buttons were tenacious of
i a deep gray color and
magnetic. It is now
| known that silicate of
| protoxid of iron is formed
with the evolution of

Ferric silicate

| Fe,O;,3810, oxygen.

( 4FeO,S10, Bubbly, finely granular in
one part, crystalline in
another

Ferrous Sle 2FeO,Si0, Very easily melted. Deep
cates olive green
FeO,Si0, Melted into compact mass

| 2FeO,3810, Melted into compact, homo-

L geneous mass

[ Fe,O;,A1,0;,38i0, Apparently was only in

i pasty state

Double or mul- | Fe,0;,A1,0;,68i10, Completely melted into
tiple silicates : brilliant black glass

| 3FeO,A1,0,,8810, Melted into compact mass

i free from bubbles

From these results Berthier drew the following conclusions:

No silicate of alumina is completely fusible at the highest tem-
peratures attainable in the furnace (that is such as were in use when
Berthier wrote).

Protoxid of iron produces a remarkably fusible silicate.

The fusibility of multiple silicates is greater than that of the
mean of the component silicates.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 519

If the action of the fire is oxidizing, the presence of ferrous salts
need not be considered, provided the heat is raised high enough to
oxidize them.

The rapidity with which the temperature is raised is important,
for if the heat is raised too quickly the outer portion of the clay
may shrink and become dense before the air has had time to per-

-meate the clay and oxidize the iron in the center of the body. This
is the cause of the black cores sometimes seen in bricks whose sur-
face is red.

The same variety of colors seen in the raw clay may be similarly
produced in the burned clay, the result being conditioned on the
relative amounts of ferrous and ferric compounds. Ferrous oxid
alone produces a green color when burned, while ferric oxid alone
may give a purple or red, and mixtures of the two may produce
yellow, cherry red, violet, blue and black. The more intense the
heat, the deeper the color produced by the iron. At very high
temperatures it is difficult or impossible to obtain an oxidizing
action in the kiln or furnace.

Seger* found that combinations of ferric oxid with silica pro-
duced a yellow or red color in the burned clay, while similar com-
pounds of the ferrous salt showed blue and green.

The black coloration produced by iron oxid in hard firing is
often to be seen on breaking open the arch bricks of a kiln. The
surface of such bricks may frequently get black, this being duc in

part to the slagging action of the ashes from the fire which stick to
them. ; ae

The coloration of clays by iron in burning will be farther dis-
cussed under that head.

The amount of ferric oxid permissible or desirable in a clay de-
pends on the use to which it is to be put. JKaolins or plastic clays
to be used in the manufacture of white bodies should contain less

than 1% if possible. A greater amount might be present, provided

1 Keramik. p. 256.
2 Notizblatt. 1874, p. 16.

520 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

there were three times as much lime to destroy the red color, but
even then the resulting tint would be yellowish. Even a very small
amount, below 1%, may produce a grayish tint at high temperatures.

Brick clays should contain sufficient iron to give a good red color,
provided that is desired in the product.

For fire clays a small iron percentage is desirable, in fact the
total of fluxes should be low, and in every case the permissible
quantity of iron, so far as its fluxing effect is concerned, depends on
the relative amounts of the other fluxes contained in the clay.

The following is the range of ferric oxid contained in a number

of clays.
Kind of clay Max. Min, Aver.
JBTAUG RAGES VEN Bane do: by ocd A egeR e 32.12 S126 omoaet
Tires clays iste wor eanpeee mses. sc eckkee sOGeue (a2 1.506
IG rolbnaryeMe yey a5 ee A eeu | itn OMSK 1.29
Lime

Lime is a very common impurity of many clays, specially of low
grade ones.

A large number of minerals may serve as its source, but in all
of these it is present in one of three conditions.

1 Asa silicate in certain feldspars, hornblende, garnet

2 Asa carbonate, limestone or calcite, dolomite

3 As a sulfate in gypsum

The first two classes include primary mineral constituents of
clays, but the third, gypsum, is most commonly of secondary origin,
having resulted from chemical action within the clay.

In many clays, lime probably occurs as a constituent of some
silicate mineral, a lime soda feldspar, hornblende or garnet. This
would be the case if the clay was derived from an igneous or meta-
morphic rock. There are other silicates containing lime, but their
presence in clay is probably not very frequent. Lime when present
in a silicate acts as a flux, but is seldom liable to exert a decolorizing

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 591

action on the clay, by the formation of a double silicate of iron,
lime and alumina, except at higher temperatures.

Carbonate of lime is very abundant in clays, either sedimentary
or residual, which have been derived from areas underlain by cal-
careous rocks. It may result from the decomposition of lime-bear-
ing feldspars. Its presence as carbonate can be frequently deter-
mined by treating the clay with muriatic acid, which produces
effervescence if more than 4% or 5% of lime carbonate is present.

The effect of carbonate of lime in a clay depends on its physical
condition. If present in the form of lumps or pebbles, it is very
injurious, and is commonly removed by screening or washing, or
at times the clay is simply washed to break up the lumps. If
present in a finely divided condition, it may not only be harmless
but even desirable, provided there is not an excess of it. Clays with
90%-25% of carbonate of lime can be used for common or even
pressed bricks, also for earthenware. Calcareous clays find an ad-
ditional use in the manufacture of glazes.

The effects of carbonate of lime may be briefly stated as follows.
In burning the lime carbonate is broken up into carbon dioxid and
caustic lime. If the clay is not raised to the temperature of
vitrification in order to make the lime unite by fusion with other
ingredients, the lime will absorb moisture from the air and slake.
The swelling which accompanies this may, if the lime is in lumps,
cause a bursting or flaking of the brick.

Lime also tends to destroy the red color produced by iron in
burning, giving a buff, or greenish product, depending on the in-
tensity of the firmg. To destroy the iron coloration, it is necessary
for the clay to contain three times as much lime as iron. Buff
colors are not always due to this cause, for a small percentage of
iron in a clay may yield the same hue.

In high grade clays large amounts of lime do not need to be con-
sidered, for such materials can not be used; but in the manufacture
of building brick, pressed brick, or terra cotta, it is sometimes neces-

sary to use clays with a large amount of lime, either from necessity,

522 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

or to obtain a cream colored ware. For the latter purpose semi-fire ~

clays yield the best results, but are not always obtainable; hence
calcareous clays must be used. It is therefore desirable to know the
amount of lime carbonate which is allowable. A good, but not at
the same time vitrified, brick can be made from a clay containing
20%-25% of lime carbonate, provided it is evenly and finely dis
tributed through the clay.

The objection to highly caleareous clays is that the points of in-
cipient fusion and vitrification lie so close together that it is not
safe to burn them hard, because of the risk of fusing them. It has
been found possible to separate these points however by the addition
of quartz and feldspar to the clay, or by adding sand containing a
large proportion of them.*

Aside from lowering the fusibility of a clay, and affecting its
color when burned, lime also exerts a powerful effect on the
shrinkage.

Seger ? found that calcareous or marly clays required usually only
20%-24% of water to convert them from a dry condition into a work-
able paste, whereas other clays needed 28%-35% of water to ac-
complish the same change.

In burning, such clays lose not only their combined water but
also carbon dioxid, and consequently they are more porous than
other clays up to the point of sintering, and this porosity, attended
by diminution of shrinkage, increases with the amount of lime
carbonate contained in the clay. The shrinkage may indeed be-
come zero, or the brick even swell.

The small difference between the points of incipient fusion and
viscosity have already been mentioned.

Gypsum, the hydrated sulfate of lime, is not uncommon in some
clays, specially those which originally contained carbonate of lime
and pyrite. The oxidation and decomposition of the latter produce
sulfuric acid, which attacks the lime carbonate, producing lime

1 See “Glazed brick”, p. 652.
2 Seger. Ges. Schrift, p. 265.

eS ee. ey

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 52a

sulfate. This takes up water in chemical combination and forms
gypsum.

In many instances the presence of gypsum can be instantly de-
tected by the large transparent crystals scattered through the clay;
at other times it is found in the form of parallel fibres filling cracks
or cavities in the clay. So far as the writer is aware, only the
former type has been found in the New York clays. Gypsum may
serve as a flux, but at the same time it may do considerable damage
in the burning by the liberation of sulfuric acid, which in its efforts
to escape may cause blisters on the surface of the ware. Lime may
be introduced into a clay by absorption, where a clay deposit rests on
a limestone or marl formation, the clay absorbing waters from below
that contain lime in solution, which the clay tends to separate.

All clays do not contain lime, and indeed it sometimes happens
that the clays over very large areas are singularly free from it,
while in other regions the opposite may be true. The clays in many
parts of Alabama are remarkably low in lime. Those underlying
the region around Chicago, and again around Buffalo have an ap-
preciable amount of it. This material has been one of the chief
causes in restricting the utilization of the Hudson valley clays,
which for combining extent, location and accessibility are not sur-
passed by any other deposit.

The range of lime in different clays is given below.

Kind of clay Min. Max. Aver.
picky elayees eae ae bie ees = bike .024 23.20 2.017
Rottery clay Gwe Pe em: ke ie Mill O00. © aes
Mee Ley |S“ inne eae epee eearee ys hk .03 IS) 5 Bi .655
TCENOIING i eee a aa fT ppt Ve tr 2.58 AT

Magnesia

Magnesia rarely occurs in clays in the same quantity as lime, and
in fact seldom exceeds 2%. The same classes of compounds may fur-
nish it as furnish lime, viz, silicates, carbonates and sulfates. The

524 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

silicates are probably the most important form of its occurrence in
clay, and are represented by the minerals, mica, hornblende, chlorite
and pyroxene. ‘These are scaly minerals containing from 15%-25¢
of magnesia. Mica is a very common constituent of many clays,
and its shining scales easily render it recognizable. Chlorite scales
may be present in many clays, and if in abundance color the clay
green. Hornblende also is not an uncommon constituent, and
specially present in clays derived from rocks of very basic composi-
tion, that is, those with a low silica percentage. Indeed the de-
composition of hornblende may give rise to a hydrous aluminum
silicate, which is highly colored by iron, the product therefore being
a ferruginous clay. (G. P. Merrill’s Rocks, rock-weathering and
Souls, p. 211)

Dolomite, the double carbonate of lime and magnesia, may be
a source of magnesia as well as of lime in clay.

Magnesium sulfate, or Epsom salts, occurs sparingly in clays, but
when present may give rise to the formation of a white coating on
the surface of the ware. It is commonly found in those clays where
sulfuric acid, set free by the decomposition of pyrite, has attacked
magnesium carbonates. The presence of this salt can frequently be
detected by the bitter taste which it imparts to the clay.

The chemical effects of magnesia in clays are probably similar to
those produced by lime. This is not to be taken as absolutely cer
tain, for magnesia is present in most clays in such small amounts
as to make its exact action uncertain.

The range of the percentage of magnesia in the different clays,
deduced from the analyses given at the end of this report, is as

follows:

, Quality Min. Max. Aver.
prick yell avici). ie Van eeomenotteretio te <6 027 TA 08" 2a
Pottery sclays) jsp my eeu eee es) 05 4.80 700
ime Clays eet er eaeetete petite ie ee 3 a 02 6.25 513

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 525
Silica

Three types of silica may be recognized in clay: 1) quartz; 2)
that which is combined with alumina and water in kaolinite; 3) that
which is combined with one or more bases in silicate minerals. In
chemical analysis the first and third are sometimes grouped together
under the head of “sand,” or at times erroneously spoken of as
“free ” silica. The silica included under the term sand is prac-
tically insoluble in sulfuric acid and caustic soda. This fact is
utilized in the rational analysis of clay to extract the kaolinite or
clay substance, which is soluble in sulfuric acid and caustic soda.

Quartz is present in every clay so far as analysis shows, but in
variable amounts. Cook’ found a minimum of .2%, and gives
5% as the average in the Woodbridge fire clays. Wheeler? gives
the minimum as .5% in the flint clays, and the sand percentage
as 20%-43% in the St Louis fire clays and 20%-50% in the Loess clays.
27 samples of Alabama clays analyzed by the writer contained from ©
5% to 50% of insoluble residue mostly quartz.*

In 70 North Carolina‘ clays there were from 15.05% to 70.434 in-
soluble residue; while in three samples, of which a rational analysis
was made, the percentage of sand was from 24.55% to 56.58%. The
quartz varied from 16.58% to 49.06%, with the feldspathic residue
from 7.52% to 16.05%.

In European clays similar variations in the amount of sand and
quartz are observable. Thus a clay from Hainstadt, Germany
contains 67.03% of quartz (Ziegler Kalender. Berlin 1896), while
one from Ruppersdorf showed .26%. (Seger’s Ges. Schrift. p. 891)

The following table gives the variation in the total silica in four

types of clay:

Quality : Min. Max. Aver.
Brick clays) s' uc. tenes Meare ale 34.35 90.877 59.27
RonuenyiGlays, «2 cee ane Perak so. 5s 45.06 86.98 45.838
ine: claiyis ii =o 2! ae ee pene eee 34.40 96.79 54.304
italiana shy 2) o's eee 32.44 81.18 55.44

1N. J. geol. sur. 1878. one of New Jersey, p. 213.
2Mo. geol..sur. 1896. 11: 54.

3 Ala. geol. sur. 1900. Bulletin no. 6.

4N. C. geol. sur. 1898. Bulletin no. 13, p. 24.

526 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The effects of free silica proper, or quartz, and sand on the
behavior of the clay are to be considered separately.

Quartz serves as a flux only at high temperatures, viz, 2800° F.;
but at lower temperatures it tends to increase the refractoriness of
the clay, and this property is governed somewhat by the size of the
quartz grains and amount of fluxing material present, which will
fuse at lower temperatures.

In connection with the fluxing action of silica at high tem-
peratures, the following experiments of ‘Bischof’s' may be quoted.
Mixtures of alumina and silica were made in varying proportions,
and their fusibility determined. The fusion point of alumina alone
lies above cone 36, while the fusion point of silica alone is at cone
35. Bischof found that a mixture of one equivalent of alumina and
two of silica showed the greatest refractoriness. If the percentage
of silica increases, the fusibility is gradually lowered, till the mixture
of one alumina to 17 silica is reached, the fusibility of which is the
same as cone 380. With an increase of the silica, the refractoriness

of the mixture again increases up to the fusion point of silica alone.

Titanvum

Titanium is probably of more widespread occurrence in clay
than is commonly imagined. The apparent freedom of the
clay from this impurity has resulted from the fact that in
the usual quantitative analysis it is ordinarily overlooked. Its
source is either the mineral rutile (oxid of titanium) or iL
menite (the titanium-bearmg magnetic oxid of iron), or pos-
sibly titanite. Much more importance has at times been at-
tached to its presence than is really warranted, and some chem-
ists, on finding traces of it, delight in dwelling on the important
influence which it may exert on the properties of a clay. While it
is present in many clays, the percentage seldom exceeds 1.5% to 24%.
The analyses of 21 New Jersey clays showed it to range from
1.06% to 1.93%. (Report on clays of N. J. 1878. p. 277) In

1 Seger. Ges. Schrift. p. 434.

;
;
\
:
:
;

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 527

the Pennsylvania clays the variation was found to be from .87% to
4.62%. It probably reaches a far higher amount in bauxites than
it does in clays, for analyses show a range commonly from 3% to 5%.

In order to determine definitely what the effect of titanium was,

Seger and Cramer *

mixed two parts of sample of Zettlitz kaolin
(which has 98.5% of clay substance) with respectively 5% and 10%
of quartz, and two other samples of the kaolin with respectively
6.65% and 13% of titanium. These samples were molded into pyra-
mids which were heated to a temperature above the fusing point of
iron, with the following results.

1 Pure Zettlitz kaolin burned to a white, sharp-edged dense body.

2 100 pts kaolin and 10% silica burned white.

3 o bf io

4 i 6.5% titanium oxid softened on heating
and showed a blue fracture.

5 100 pts kaolin and 13.3% titanic oxid fused to a deep blue
enamel. :

It is therefore seen that titanium acts as a flux at lower tem-
peratures than silica, and it is suggested that the blue color given to
some stoneware clays by hard firing may not always be due to iron
oxid.

Orgame matter

Organic matter affects not only the color of clay, but also its
plasticity, absorptive power and tensile strength.

It generally consists of finely divided pieces of plant tissue, or
larger pieces of stems and leaves which settled in the clay during
its deposition. All surface clays contain plant roots in their upper
layers, but these do not directly influence the color of the clay.
Clays colored by organic matter and containing no iron burn
white, as the plant tissue passes off at bright redness; 1f such a clay
however be heated too quickly, before all the organic matter has had
an opportunity to escape from the interior, the surface becomes
dense, and it remains dark colored.

1 Seger. Ges. Schrift, p. 411.

528 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Organic matter may also mask the presence of iron, so that the
clay, instead of burning white, would burn red at a temperature
above that at which the organic matter passes off. Below that
temperature, though, the vegetable matter would tend to keep the
iron reduced, and the color would be gray instead of red.

In most chemical analyses the organic matter is seldom de
termined separately, but the amount of it can sometimes be judged
from the ratio between the loss on ignition and amount of alumina
in the clay.

Organic matter may increase the plasticity of a clay provided too
much sand is not present, in which case a highly carbonaceous clay
might be very lean. (see “ Plasticity of clays”, p. 539)

Water in clay
All clays contain two kinds of water:
1 Hygroscopic water, or moisture
2 Chemically combined water

Moisture. Clays contain two kinds of moisture:

1 That which is held in the pores of the clay by capillary at-
traction.

2 That which adheres to the surface of each clay grain as a thin
film.

The latter is of little importance practically.

The former is of importance in connection with the shrinkage
and plasticity of clays. The amount of total moisture contained in.
clays varies within wide limits. In some air-dried clays it may be
as low as .5%, while in those freshly taken from the bank it may
reach 30% or 40%. Capillary moisture is absorbed by clays only when
they are brought into actual contact. with water, but that which —
forms a film on the surface of the clay particles is readily absorbed
by the clay from the atmosphere, and to a certain extent given off
again as readily, so that some days a brick if left exposed to the
air would weigh more than on others. The amount of either kind

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 529

of moisture present in a clay depends on the number and size of the
spaces between the clay grains, the size of the clay particles, and
the amount of organic matter present. —

Air drying usually causes the evaporation of most of the water in
a clay, accompanied by a shrinkage of the mass, which ceases how-
ever before all the moisture has passed off. The reason for this is
that the shrinkage of the clay ceases when the particles come in
contact, which may happen and still leave interstices. These of
course still contain moisture, and consequently the brick will keep
on losing weight till not only this interstitial water, but also the
surface moisture of the particles, is driven off. In practice, it is
this that evaporates during the first period of the burning known as
“water-smoking.” The shrinkage of the clay attendant on drying
varies, with the nature of the material, from 2% or 3% to 10% or even
15%. Itis governed largely by the causes influencing the absorption
of the clay.

Sandy clays usually show the least shrinkage, and of this kind
the coarser grained diminish in size the least. Highly plastic clays
generally show the highest shrinkage.

The amount of water which a dry clay needs in order to develop
its maximum plasticity is a variable quantity. Plastic clays absorb
large quantities of water, but a lean clay if fine-grained may do
the same. As a very general rule it may be stated that lean clays
absorb from 12%-20%, while fat clays require anywhere from
25%-50%; and the more water a clay absorbs, the more it has to part
with in drying and the greater will be its shrinkage.

Highly aluminous clays do not always absorb the most water,
nor are they the most plastic. Some clays low in alumina and high
in organic matter are not only highly plastic but also absorb a high
amount of water.

Owing to the high shrinkage of most clays with high absorptive
power, there is frequently danger of their cracking, if rapidly dried,
on account of the active disengagement of water vapor.

530 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Moisture may play another important and injurious role in the
working of a clay, in that it tends to dissolve soluble salts in the
clay, and bring them to the surface in drying, giving rise to the
formation of efflorescence. It may also permit acids contained im
the fire gases of the kiln to act on the mineral ingredients of the
clay and thus form soluble compounds, specially sulfates and
chlorids.

By the addition of water to an air-dried clay, it gradually passes
from a powdery or lumpy condition to a pasty mass, the tenacious-
ness of which increases till the point of maximum plasticity for the
given clay is reached. If the addition of water be continued, the
clay gradually passes into a soft mud. In some clays this change
takes place slowly, in others (specially many residual clays) very
rapidly.

Combined water is present in every clay. In pure kaolin there is
nearly 14%, and amounts are found in different clays intermediate
between this and 3% or 42.

The sources of combined water in clays are either kaolinite,
limonite, or hydrated silicates; the quantity in different clays can
be seen from the table of analyses given at the end of the report.

It is driven off at a low red heat; and when this oceurs an addi-
tional shrinkage takes place, the extent depending on the quantity
of water present. The shrinkage varies commonly from 2%-10% or
even 14%,

While the amount of combined water does not seem to stand in
direct relation to the plasticity of the clay, nevertheless, when it is

once driven off, the clay can no longer be rendered plastic.

Methods of analyzing clay
By H. T. Vulté Ph.D.

One grain of the dried and finely pulverized clay is fused in a
platinum crucible with five to 10 times its weight of a mixture of
11 parts of dry sodium carbonate and 14 parts of dry potassium
carbonate, the amount of fusion mixture necessary depending on the

=

= SS a ee

CLAYS OF NEW YORK Ss byaue

more or less refractory character of the clay. The fusion is trans-
ferred to a porcelain casserole, dissolved in water, and the solution
acidified with hydrochloric acid; the solution is then evaporated to
dryness, and the casserole with its contents placed in a drying oven
at 105° to 110° C., and allowed to remain till all the hydrochloric
acid is expelled. The silica present is thus rendered insoluble.
Hydrochloric acid and water are now added; the casserole is warmed
for a few minutes on the water bath and the solution filtered, the
silica being washed with hot water till the washings are free from
ehlorm. The silica is then ignited and weighed, and, as it is likely
to retain small quantities of alumina, it is treated with hydrofluoric
and sulfuric acids and heated, the silica being thus volatilized as
silicon tetra-fluorid. The residue from this treatment is weighed,
~ and its weight added to that of the alumina subsequently found.
If the original fusion of the clay showed little or no green color,
the filtrate from the silica is treated with a slight excess of ammonia,
and the solution boiled for a short time to expel the excess. The
solution is then filtered, the precipitate dissolved in dilute hydro-
chloric acid, and reprecipitated in the same way; filtered out,
washed and then ignited and weighed, giving the amount of
alumina and iron (as Fe, O,) present. The combined filtrates from
the iron and alumina, whgch should be concentrated to about 200 ce,
are heated to boiling and about 25ce of sat sol. of ammonium
oxalate added, and the boiling continued for two or three minutes
longer, when the heat is removed and sufficient ammonia added to
render the solution strongly alkaline. The precipitate is allowed to
settle, and the supernatant liquid decanted off as closely as possible
through a filter; hydrochloric acid is then added to the precipitate
to dissolve it, and then sufficient ammonia to reprecipitate it. It is
then washed on to the filter; washed; ignited with sulfuric acid,
and weighed as calcium sulfate. The filtrate receives a farther
addition of ammonia and of hydrodisodic phosphate, is well stirred,
allowed to stand for some hours in the cold, when the magnesium
precipitate is filtered out, washed with ammonia, ignited and
weighed.

Do NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In case manganese is present, the filtrate from the silica is neu-
tralized as closely as possible, sodium acetate solution added, the
solution diluted largely, and boiled for about a minute and filtered
as rapidly as possible, the precipitate washed with boiling water,
redissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid and reprecipitated in the
same way, washed, ignited and weighed as Fe,O,; and A],O3.
The combined filtrates from the iron and alumina are evaporated
to about 300 ce, bromin water added and the solution boiled, when
the manganese is precipitated as MnO. This is filtered out, dis-
solved in a little dilute hydroehloric acid, a solution of microcosmic
salt added, the solution heated to boiling and then ammonia added
to exact neutrality, any excess of ammonia being removed by heat-
ing on the water bath. The precipitate of manganese ammonium
phosphate is filtered out, ignited and weighed as Mn,P,0;, The
filtrate from the manganese precipitation is acidified with hydro-
chloric acid, boiled for a short time, and then treated in the same
way as when manganese was absent, for the determination of lime
and magnesia.

For the determination of alkalis one grain of clay is mixed by
grinding in an agate mortar with one grain of granular ammonium
chlorid and eight grains of pure calcium carbonate, the mixture
transferred to a platinum crucible with a sell fitting ld and slowly
heated to decompose the ammonium chlorid, then heated to redness
and the bottom of the crucible kept at a bright red for about an
hour. The contents of the crucible are transferred to a porcelain
casserole with about 80cc of water and heated to boiling; this is
then filtered and to the filtrate, after evaporation to small bulk,
about one and one half grams of pure ammonium carbonate is added
and the solution heated nearly to boiling and filtered into a platmum
dish, evaporated nearly to dryness,a little more ammonium carbonate
added and the evaporation finished on the water bath. If the last
addition of ammonium carbonate produced a precipitate, the residue
in the dish is dissolved in a little water and filtered into another

platinum dish, where it is evaporated into dryness and ammonia

—

OO Ee

OLAYS OF NEW YORK Boys)

salts driven out by heat. The residue is dissolved in water, filtered
into a weighed platinum dish, evaporated, dried and weighed as Na
Cl+K Ol If the last addition of ammonium carbonate failed to
produce a precipitate, the transfer to another dish may be dispensed

with and the ammonia salts driven off at once.

Rational analysis

It is a common custom of the manufacturers of porcelain, white
earthenware, fire brick, and other refractory goods — in fact of all
products made from high grades of clay—to use the rational
analysis as. a guide in making up their mixtures and keeping them
constant. The advantage of this analytical method is that it re-
solves the clay into its mineral components, and enables us thereby
to get an insight into the physical character of the material used,
which is frequently a matter of far greater importance than its
chemical composition. |

The ordinary quantitative or ultimate chemical analysis regards
the clay as a mixture of oxids of the elements, though they may be
present in entirely different combinations, such as silicates, carbon-
ates or hydrates, sulfates, ete. This condition of combination is
of importance, for it may make a vast difference whether a material
is present as a silicate or a carbonate. Silica if present as quartz
will decrease the shrinkage and up to certain temperatures increase
the refractoriness, but if present in the clay as a component of feld-
spar it serves the purpose of a flux and somewhat increases the
plasticity.

It is not intended, though, that the rational analysis should en-
tirely supplant the ultimate, for this is not possible, as each serves
its own purpose. The ultimate analysis may be used to supply in-
formation on the following points:

1 The purity of the clay, showing the proportions of silica,
alumina, combined water, and fluxing impurities.

2 The refractoriness of the clay, for, other things being equal,
the greater the total sum of fluxing impurities the more fusible the

clay.

534 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

3 The color to which the clay burns. This may also be judged
approximately, for the greater the amount of iron present the deeper
red will the clay burn, provided the iron is evenly and finely dis-
tributed and an excess of lime is not contained in the clay. If the
proportion of iron to lime is as 1 to 3, then a buff product results,
provided the clay is heated to incipient fusion or vitrification. The
above conditions will be affected by a reducing atmosphere in burn-
ing or the presence of sulfur in the fire gases.

4 The quantity of combined water. Clays with a large amount
of combined water sometimes exhibit a tendency to crack in burn-
ing. This combined water would be shown in the chemical
analysis.

5 Excess of silica. A large excess of silica would indicate a sandy
clay.

These are practically all the points which the ultimate analysis
explains, and they are mostly of a chemical nature. As regards the
rational analysis, it may be carried out in a:simple way or an

elaborate one.

Most kaolins and other high grade clays consist only of kaolinite, |

quartz and feldspar, the kaolinite forming the finest particles of.
the mass, while the balance is quartz, feldspar, and perhaps some
mica. The finest particles are known as the clay substance, which
may be looked on as having the properties of kaolinite, for the
latter is present in it in such a large excess. Now as each of these
three components of the kaolin — clay substance, quartz and feld-
spar — have characteristic properties, the kaolin will vary in its
behavior according as one or the other of these constituents pre
dominates or tends to increase.

As to the characters of these three. Quartz is nearly infusible,
nonplastic, has very little shrinkage, and is of low tensile strength;
feldspar is easily fusible and of low plasticity by itself; kaolinite is
plastic and quite refractory, but shrinks considerably in burning.

In Europe, specially Germany, the custom has been to disregard
mica and figure it in as clay substance, partly because there was so

aw S

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 535

little of it, and partly because it was thought to be like kaolinite in
its behavior. Where the mica percentage is very low, say 1% or 2%
and is in a very finely divided condition, it can be neglected, but
where it reaches 5% or more it does not seem proper to class it as
clay substance, for the reason that mica tends to decrease the plas-
ticity, which effect is greater the coarser the mica. It does resem-
ble kaolinite in refractoriness. In many of our washed kaolins
now on the market there is very little mica, but some contain
8%-10%, which does not always yield to sulfuric acid treatment.

If now a kaolin containing clay substance, quartz and feldspar
be treated first with sulfuric acid, the kaolinite is decomposed into
sulfate of alumina and hydrous silica. The former is soluble in
water, the latter is removed by subsequent treatment with caustic
soda, and we have the insoluble residue consisting of quartz and
feldspar. In this residue the alumina is determined, and from this
the amount of feldspar is calculated, viz:

Oe OO OW ei ant 2X

molec. wt. molec. wt weight of
alumina orthoclase alumina

This is subtracted from the insoluble residue, and the differ-
ence is the quartz.

There is still another way of conducting a rational analysis,
which is chiefly applicable when the clay contains other minerals
beside the kaolinite, feldspar and quartz, such as carbonate of
lime and magnesia, and appreciable amounts of ferric oxid and
such mica as is attacked by sulfuric acid. This second method is
Seger’s method as elaborated by Langenbeck, and may be illus-
trated by the following example, a fire clay from Ohio.

-

536 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Analysis of fire clay from Ohio

1
Total Insoluble
analysis in H,SO

Per cent Per cent

Sree. WA bs ee ae epee Sos 73.21
ya ORME Ser PA in ty! cig glee pega mer 2 OG 14.56 2.35
ROO a, tala tea a eet Sd cn 4.79 39
Or O Fema eer OMe eT a SS, Sy ea non 5
ND Oe rors hs eta men me terh E Sia 5 os 3 (Gad Momein 1.07 .05
FO rN Na tes Mena RO dela ca a ete ae rem 1.75 Ml
NaS OU ie hci aeRO MERE hat ec leva a eee a BAUR 116 eee
Deer thomas ye ae enn S121 0, LSA Ge B10 | Se tte

Abo itiallNerremcaeerre nes) oS ion ako thn Ace veer gad NOOR 60.03

The insoluble residue consists of quartz, feldspar, and perhaps
traces of silicate minerals approaching feldspar in composition.
In orthoclase (the common feldspar) the amount of silica is about
3.51 times that of alumina. Therefore, the alumina of the insolu-
ble portion multiplied by 3.51 gives the silica of the feldspar,
which, subtracted from the total silica of residue, leaves the silica
present as quartz. Thus, in the column 2, above, we have:

Silica
Per cent
NN OKT OO ate hap een ie ee neimene covey Chien CIMA a es Rea 8.25
NoMa tale ee es See ene aie perience as Atae eo I. Nee a 2-35
d Gh Gudbsarer- WO eae Rem ct Maa RS AR A gl TO AUN ie eRe arnt a tile 2.20
rer, cent. feldspar ja. a2: SRE Mees & 12.80

——

Subtracting this from the total insoluble residue gives the
amount of quartz.

As the clay substance, mica and ferric oxid are the soluble
portion of the clay, their total composition is obtained by subtract-

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 537

ing the insoluble residue (7) from the total analysis, thus ob-

taining: i
er cen
SD ys 6 cig 7 eel, Aegean ds 3's op chs athe ae a 17.838
Jee 6c cieeenek MMR ERIE tea 22 0) OLN a rr 12.21
iP iBy( Op 5 ss Oe Ie... a rg 4.40
“CHD ole. 3 so SA ARMM Sr.” 3 00 3c? he 36
TEED) oo, Aa a RSS| a 1.02
TO) 5 5d Se SRE Re RPE SS oS ee rn
ee | feet
1UETDUEOSD Aaa an eal eae oles 5 csc Sls i a re 3.70

If we take the average composition of mica (including muscovite
and biotite) as: SiO,, 50%; Al,O;, 32%; alkalis, 10%; and other

fluxes, 8%, then we have:

Per cent
TD SRO OS eh Re Meet elena) 3.84 Al.O,
LG SCRE SANE CS PEA Re an one AMOR os Aen Sa 6.00 SiO,
BS lems yc heir, alaranD Mew tlets anita Manes 1.20 alkalis
AT Seat gay ame ep ORS ieee CEN GL ENS! Ih ira .50 magnesia
Te oe ken etee ea SS | .46 iron
Substracting column 4 from 8 gives us clay substance and ferric
oxid:
Per cent
TS av. etl ROR be REIN hep ek SOc J lan aa ate cea ae 11.83
(Os os RE SI Pad ND OR Ie ae RO er, Parr 8.37
JN BO ease Sin | any co Shea AUT eae alt dg aS 3.94
(Ei ORR. Setar ee ne Ea emis 2 \ Wn ules yd 36
CO) AN Mae Eee ME coh ea TS Big ie “ake ore oe
LETTS Mee Soba ao O'S a nner eae eee oe 3.70
RO GaSe ice eea Rene een oma isn Sy We 2a ee 28.72
By this operation the clay has been resolved into:
Per cent
AAG ABR cit c/s 8.3). OL) a AT Se PLUS AT .23
eC so ee eRe oR IR SERPREEORES = Sc c 20 CR ee a MTS O
INTIGEN., & eee POI 0s ee a dls Ss
EESTI ROSE CLONE Ree GM ciciss) 3°. a2 Pe eee a i fellas 3.94

Glayecubstanee ts . 2ygnstls |i, Siewapeeiees ey aso Stl 24.78

538 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Whether it will be of practical advantage to carry out a rational
analysis to this extent still remains to be seen. Jn its simpler form,
however, when applied to high grade clays, the rational analysis has
been found to possess great practical value, owing to the fact that if
two clays have the same rational composition they will, other things
being equal, behave much alike when burned. This fact is made
use of by the potter, for example, in the preparation of his porcelain
or white earthenware mixture, also by manufacturers of encaustic
tiles, fire brick, ete.

To illustrate this point we may take the manufacture of porce-
lain. Porcelain is made from a mixture of kaolin, quartz and
feldspar. Suppose that we are using for the manufacture of porce-
lain or fire brick a kaolin which has 67.82% of clay substance,
30.93 of quartz, and 1.25 of feldspar, and that to 100 parts of this
are added 50 parts of feldspar. This would give us a mixture of
45.21% of clay substance, 20.62 of quartz, and 34.17 of feldspar.

If now for the clay we had been using we substituted one with
66.33% of clay substance, 15.61 of quartz, and 18.91 of feldspar,
and made no other changes, the mixture would then contain 44.22%
of clay substance, 10.41 of quartz, and 45.98 of feldspar.

This last mixture shows such an increase in feldspar that it must
give much greater shrinkage and fusibility; but, knowing the
rational analysis of the new clay, it would be easy, by making a
simple calculation, to ascertain how much quartz or feldspar should
be added to bring the mixture back to its normal composition.

Physical properties
These properties are fully as important as the chemical, if not
more, plasticity for instance being one of the two characters in
clay which make it of such inestimable value to man. Similarity
in chemical composition counts for little in the comparison of two
clays, if they do not agree in physical characters. _
The physical properties of the most importance from a practical

standpoint are plasticity, fusibility, shrinkage, tensile strength,

slaking, absorption and density.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 539

Plasticity
This property permits the clay to be molded into any desired

form when wet, which shape it retains when dry.

Just what the cause of plasticity is, remains to be proven with
certainty. We find this property best developed in the pasty clay,
but even here it is exceedingly variable, and it is possible to col-
lect a series of samples showing all grades of transition from a
very plastic clay to a mass of sand, which would not ordinarily be
looked on as plastic, and yet does possess a slight amount of pasti-
ness resembling plasticity, if ground very fine. We can not say,
therefore, that plasticity is confined to clay, but simply that the
physical conditions existing within a mass of clay are such as tend
to produce the maximum degree of tenacity, the highest grade of
plasticity.

Many theories have been advanced to explain this remarkable
property. For a long time plasticity was supposed to be directly
connected with the hydrated silicate of alumina, or kaolinite; clays
high in kaolinite were said to be very plastic. This is plainly not
true, as any series of clays tested will demonstrate. Pure or nearly
pure kaolins are very lean, while clays low in kaolinite may be
highly plastic.

Prof. G. H. Cook" considered plasticity to be due to a plate
structure present in the clay, the plates sliding over each other
and thus permitting mobility in the mass without cracking. He
farther found that in the kaolins the plates of kaolinite were fre-
quently collected in little bunches, and that, after these clays were
rubbed in a mortar, in order to tear apart the plates, they showed
increased plasticity.

There seems to be much to commend this theory as far as it
goes. Compare for example the white washed kaolin from Dills-
boro, N. C., with the washed, white plastic clay from Edgar, Fla.,
the one a residual clay, found just where it was formed, the other

IN, J. Geol. sur. 1878. Clays of New Jersey.

540 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

a transported or sedimentary clay which has been washed down
to its present resting-place. In transit, the particles have been
ground apart naturally, either by rubbing against one another or
between the white quartz pebbles scattered so plentifully through
the clay.

These two clays are practically identical in their composition,
as can be seen from the two following analyses.

Edgar, Dillsboro,

Fla. NeiG:
Sis et ern ee os 0S ee 45 39 43.90
Our ee eee hc Os ee 39 13.| 20eaa
ae Ra Pd JN Sh) Bk a RR er ERE ST Ge .14

Ce eB ROS Ouceee take ecu. Sta) 6! BGR ORCRCyDREET MORO ee OCICS CIRCE SAC) iO: OF0

Hii oa ORG sea Sa MAr Sy. crc AS ae a aa pec i SIE 8 29 tr
JNIIKARS oe esate aaa NS 55.0! 60S gs coo eae san ee mene .83 46
ER ORs eRe isa ok, Sorat eee aa 14.01 14.84

100.61 1'0.00

Physically, there is a marked difference, the Edgar clay being
decidedly plastic, the Dillsboro clay being very lean. This plate
theory would suggest therefore that plasticity was due to capil-
larity, the force of surface tension tending to hold the plates
together, but not interfering with their gliding motion.

The one objection to explaining plasticity entirely by the fore-
going theory rests on the fact that not all minerals occurring in
clay are scaly, and that neither scaly kaolinite nor even scaly mica
predominates in all clays.

Clays may be said to have two classes of particles, viz, plastic
and nonplastic, the latter being the sandy grains.

Olchewsky* was probably the first to suggest that the plasticity —

and cohesion of a clay are dependent on the interlocking of the clay
particles and kaolinite plates, and in this connection used the

briquet method of testing the plasticity, or rather obtaining a

1T6pf. u. Zieg. Zeit. 1882. no. 29.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK HAL

numeric expression of it by testing the tensile strength of the air-
dried clay.

The same opinion was held by two Russian investigators, W.
Aleksiejew and P. A. Cremiatschenski,t who hold that plasticity
is not only due to the interlocking of the clay particles, but varies
also with the fineness of the grains, the extreme coarse and extreme
fine ones having inferior plasticity.

In this country Wheeler’s work on the Missouri clays has sub-
stantiated these views.2_ Experiments by the writer on the clays of
North Carolina, Alabama, New York and other states incline him
toward the idea that there may be much in this theory. It
seems very probable that the true explanation will be obtained by
combining Cook’s and Olchewsky’s theory.

Interlocking of the grains no doubt has much to do with the
tenacity exhibited by highly plastic clays, but the gliding of the
particles is probably explained by the circumstance that such.
movement offers the least resistance to surface tension.

Tensile strength, however, seems to be more affected by size of
grain than plasticity is. Finegrained clays seldom show high
tensile strength, whereas some fine-grained clays show high plas-
ticity. That a certain relation appears to exist between plasticity
and tensile strength, and that the former does not necessarily in-
crease with the amount of kaolinite (or indirectly alumina) pres-
ent are shown by the following tests of some North Carolina

clays.
Tensile strength in
Hts ee pounds per sq. in.
alumina Average Maximum
Roanoke Rapids plastic clay ........ 16.09 206 218
NWashed! kaolin, 2 issn aes ee . 40.61 20 22
Spoutsprings fine-grained clay ...... 32.51 eT)

While this relation between tensile strength and plasticity seems
to hold good in a large majority of clays, still it can not be said

=

1 Zap. imp. russk. techn. obs 1896. 80, pt 6-7.
2 Missouri geol. sur. 1897. 11: 10

542 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

that it is the rule, and that high tensile strength always denotes
high plasticity. There are clays running low in their tensile
strength that exhibit marked plasticity, as for example some of the
New Jersey clays, or some English ball-clays, but on the other
hand it can be said that probably no clay of low plasticity has
high tensile strength.

A means of measuring the plasticity of a clay and expressing it
numerically for purposes of comparison has been the one aim of
clay technologists. Several methods have been suggested, none
meeting with universal, and few with even partial adoption. One
of the more important is testing with Vicat’s needle.

The clay is reduced with water to a mass of the proper con-
sistency for ordinary working. It is then forced into a metal
ring, and the resistance which it offers to a steel wire of given
size under known pressure is noted. ‘This method is followed in’
cement testing, and the apparatus is known as Vicat’s needle. It
gives the most satisfaction for comparative testing, that is for de-
termining the relative plasticities of several clays examined at the
same time. ,

A second method is to mold the plastic clay in a briquet
mold similar to that used in testing cement, care being taken that
the clay briquet is homogeneous throughout and contains no
flaws. It is then allowed to dry thoroughly, and subsequently
pulled apart in a cement testing machine, the tensile strength being
expressed in pounds per square inch. As the clay shrinks in dry-
ing, it is necessary to measure the cross-section of the briquet be-
fore breaking it, and to calculate from this the strength of a
briquet whose cross-section is one square inch.

Another method is to form the plastic clay into a cylinder,
which is placed horizontally in a semicircular channel of the same
diameter, and so arranged that a wire can be laid across it at right
angles. A weight is attached to the wire, and the time which is

required for the wire to cut through the clay observed.*

1¢, F. Binns. Ceramic technology, p. 35.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK AS

A fourth plan is to press the mixed clay into a form of given
thickness, and then bring a metal cylinder to bear on the upper
surrace. This cylinder can be weighed, and the weight be noted
which has to be added in order to force the cylinder through the
clay in a given time; or the determination may be made by measur-
ing the amount of water mixed with the clay in order to produce
the proper consistency to permit the passage of the cylinder through
the clay in a certain time under given pressure.

Olchewsky* states that the amount required for lean clays is
as low as 17%, while for very plastic clays it is not uncommenly 50%.

Bischof has suggested forcing the wet clay from a circular open-
ing in the lower end of a vertical cylinder, and observing the length
of the clay which would issue before the mass broke. This is not,
however, an accurate method.

The difference in plasticity between residual and sedimentary
clays is dwelt on by Seger, who says:

In clays which show a mixture of plastic and nonplastic parti-
cles the degree of plasticity depends on the relations existing be
tween the two. We also know that the true clay substance [meaning
kaolinite], even when of constant composition, may show con-
siderable variation in plasticity. One clay substance may be lean
and permit of very little admixture of nonplastic particles, while
another may be very fat and permit considerable material being
mixed in, and still be not only plastic but dry to a hard mass. The
former case is generally to be found in residual clays, the latter
in sedimentary. |

Seger considered it unsettled whether this is due to a finer
state of division, or the introduction of plastic particles not derived
from the feldspar.

The degree of hardness which clays assume on drying also stands
in direct relation to the plasticity. Slightly plastic kaolins when
dry give only a loosely knit mass. This point as well was com-
mented on by Seger in comparing two clays of nearly the same com-

1 Post. Chem. tech. analyse. 1890. v. 2, pt 1, p. 43.

544 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

position but different plasticity; viz, washed Zettlitz kaolin and
plastic refractory clay from Miihlheim, near Coblenz. Both have
only a small admixture of quartz sand, viz, about 14%, the balance
being nearly pure clay substance, while in the percentage of ferric
oxid they differ by only 1.

Briquets (air-dried) of the Zettlitz kaolin were loose, and rubbed
easily, while their porosity was 42%. Those of the Miilheim
clay were hard, and showed only 28% porosity. If both are heated,
the latter gets thoroughly dense at 1100°—1150° ©., while the
kaolin retains its porosity up to a high temperature. The exhibi-
tion of density by kaolin is not to be regarded as even the be-
ginning of fusion, for the clay, after assuming it, retains it unaltered
up to a high temperature. Many plastic and hard drying clays act.
in this respect like the Mijhlheim material; they sinter however at
a much lower temperature.

For the manufacture of glass pots, this is of high importance;
for it is not the most refractory clays that are the best, but those
which burn dense at a low temperature, and are consequently less
attacked by the molten glass.

The same is true of brick used in coke ovens holding coal with
soluble salts.

Plasticity, whatever its cause, is an important property from a
commercial standpoint, and interesting from a scientific one.

The amount of water required to develop the maximum plasticity
varies. If too little is added, the clay cracks in molding and is
stiff and hard to work. If too much water is used, the paste be-
comes soft and retains its shape with difficulty. Lean clays usually
require less water to produce a workable mass than fat ones.

Tensile strength
The tensile strength or binding power of a clay often stands in
relation to its plasticity, but not always. It is, however, an im-
portant property, and exerts an important effect in connection with
the cracking in drying. One way of testing the tensile stiength .
is the briquet method mentioned under “ Plasticity,” p. 539.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 545

Another method requires that the clay be formed into a bar of
known cross-section. When dried, the bar is held in a horizontal
position by supports under the two ends, and the weight noted
which is needed to cross-break it when the pressure is applied to
the central portion of the bar.

An, objection to this method is that very plastic clays are apt
to develop structural peculiarities, which cause their tensile strength
to appear much lower than it really is. In such eases, it has been
suggested that the clay be pulverized and ‘mixed with an equal
quantity of fe sand. If when made into briquets this mixture
shows a higher tensile strength than the clay alone, it is an indi-
cation that the low tenacity of the original clay was due to flaws.

The tensile strength of air-dried clays is highly variable. The
following figures may be taken as representing the average for
different clays, in pounds per square inch.

Pounds
ARTIS, AAA She ay Oe UN es ts Sad eS ay 0 a 5- 15
Brielle yc sus aetey ieee UNS eee tee eso 4 60- 75 or even 100
Pottery clays...... ro Bika ee ee re ee 150-175
Bomevery plasticcclayspe.%s Gedee auc =< -i5-2 200-300

Shrinkage

All clays shrink in drying, and again in burning. The first is
known as air, the second as fire shrinkage. Some clays shrink
more in drying, others in burning, consequently the amount is
variable. |

Air shrinkage depends partly on the amount of water absorbed,
and partly on the grain or texture of the clay.

Air shrinkage. As soon as evaporation of water takes place
from a clay, it begins to shrink, and within certain limits, the
greater the amount of water absorbed, the greater the air shrink-
age. Plastic clays show this property in a marked degree. The
shrinkage continues till all the clay particles are in contact with

546 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

one another, but this does not mean that all the mechanically com-
bined water has passed off, for there may remain spaces which hold
some. Consequently a clay will continue to lose weight after the
air shrinkage has ceased. This fact is shown by the following
tests made on samples of clay of New York state.

A sample of soft, moderately plastic shale was mixed with water
and molded into briquets and then allowed to dry.

Weight
When molded Air in

shrinkage grams

Wilnembannoliied en eemp en ctehse cls suonei 4s ote 4 tone oon ta cdl YO)
UMiacboswed Eagan ashes, 1s aCe ep Ua aan, ey 56 ct 14% 38.030
JDDAG RR Ouey TAO 5 cay oh oes ne RNUPeIRR Care mre bacare ce) 2@ 387.616
ORIN GCG RE Toe oa ete oer ocr ol ne Ree aN ale ty cen 2% Bi DO)
AB atl nates Aerio ase ae see Uo Te UI gan Ag Naam Wp BR ANG

Coarse-grained clays commonly shrink less than the fine-grained;
they may at the same time absorb as much water. Having larger
pores, they will permit the water to escape more rapidly, and
hence ean often be dried more quickly than fine-grained clays,
from which the water, on account of the smallness of the pores,
can not escape so quickly. Again, if fine-grained clays are dried
rapidly, the surface shrinks more quickly than the interior, and
cracking may ensue, more specially if the clay has a low tensile
strength, or if it is highly plastie.

Air shrinkage begins as soon as the clay is molded and set out to
dry, at first taking place very rapidly, but with decreasing speed.
It is in nearly all cases completed before the brick or wares are
placed in the kiln. The final traces of moisture are not driven
off, however, till the first stages of burning.

Fire shrinkage. This generally commences when the combined
water begins to pass off, or at about 1200° F. It varies in differ-
ent clays and may reach any point between 2% and 15%.

The shrinkage in burning may be just as variable as that in dry-
ing; it does not depend on the same causes but is influenced by the
temperature to which the clay is exposed, percentage of combined

water and organic matter.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK ; BAT

It sometimes happens that the clay, instead of shrinking dur-
ing the burning, appears to expand, and this is specially the case
in very quartzose clays, for the quartz has the property of expanding
at high temperatures. If the clay contains a large amount of
quartz, the expansion of the latter will not only tend to decrease
the shrinkage but may even counteract it and cause the clay to
expand. This may sometimes account for the presence of cracks in
the burned ware.

As the addition of quartz to diminish shrinkage also tends to
decrease the tensile strength of the clay, there will be a certain
limit in each case beyond which the addition of quartz must not
proceed, otherwise the clay will not hold together in molding or
drying.

Organic matter and combined water tend to increase the shrink-
age in burning, but lime has the opposite tendency, some calcareous
clays even appearing to swell.

Clays containing a large amount of feldspar will, instead of
showing a steady shrinkage up to the temperature of complete
vitrification or sintering, often exhibit a temporary increase of
volume when the fusing point of the feldspar (about 2300° F. for
orthoclase) is reached.

The shrinkage of most clays in burning does not proceed regu-
larly and steadily to the temperature of vitrification, for some reach
their maximum density at a comparatively low temperature, far
below that at which they vitrify.

Between the points at which the moisture has ceasea coming
off and that at which the combined water begins to escape, the
clay shrinks little or none at all; consequently the heat can be
raised rapidly in this interval, but above and below these two
points it must proceed slowly to prevent cracking or warping of
the ware.

Method of counteracting shrinkage

As many clays shrink to such an extent in drying that they

erack, it is often found necessary to add materials that will prevent

548 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

this. Such substances go under the collective name of grogs,
and may include sand, ground bricks, coke, graphite, ete.

Grogs serve to prevent cracking in both burning and drying.
They also tend to prevent the blistering of easily fusible, ferrugin-
ous clays when fired hard. They furthermore add to the
porosity of the ware and thus facilitate the escape of the moisture
in drying and in the early stages of burning, and also enable the
product to withstand sudden changes of temperature. Grogs may
however act as fluxes at high temperatures; the finer the B78, the
more intense will be this action.

If the grog is to decrease the shrinkage in drying and burning,

it must not be added in the form of powder, but as grains, and.

even in this case, the grains must not exceed a certain size, other-
wise they will only serve to increase the tearing of the wares in
drying and burning. The cause of this lies in the fact that the
erog itself does not as a rule shrink, and if in any one place the
clay substance shrinks to such an extent that it can no longer sur-
round the particle of grog, the latter will act as a wedge, tearing
the grains apart, and a crack will be started. If this action shows
itself in the raw material, it can be eliminated by the addition
of powdered grog. When this is not possible, the coarse particles
must either be removed or reduced by crushing.

Sand. This is the form of grog commonly found in nature and
most frequently used artificially. Sand as it occurs in nature is
commonly composed of mineral grains, representing a variety of
species. Pure quartz is of course the most desirable, but quartz sands
generally contain impurities, which at times may be sufficient to pre-
vent their use for certain purposes. Clay impurities might be
washed out, but, as others like feldspar, calcite, etc., could not be
removed by washing, the best way to obtain clean quartz sand is
to crush up vein quartz, or quartzite. An advantage connected
with this type of sand is that the grains have an angular structure,
whereas grains of natural sand, being usually of sedimentary origin,

have a rounded form, and will not interlock as well. In addition

CLAYS OF NEW YORK ; 549

to quartz sand, both artificial and natural flint, which is the
amorphous form of quartz, often furnishes a grog of splendid
purity. Quartz when exposed to high temperature gradually passes
from a crystalline to an amorphous condition and in so doing ex-
pands.

The more nearly round the grains of sand, the greater will be
the interstitial space. In the case of quartz sand this amounts to
35% or 40%. In fine mica sand (glazing sand, for instance) it may
reach 50%; and the more mica that is mixed with quartz sand the
greater is the amount ‘of interstitial space, and the lighter the
weight.

Diimmler gives the following figures for one liter of sand, the
material in each case being compacted by shaking and. jarring.

One liter common moist sand, 1.61 kilograms.

One liter fine quartz sand, 1.57 kg.; porosity, 35% to 40%. -

One liter fine chamotte flour from hard burned material, 1.48 kg.;
porosity, 45%.

One liter mica sand (glazing sand), 1.30 kg.; porosity, about
50%.

One liter of the finest ground quartz or feldspar flour, 1.16 kg.;
porosity, about 56%.

Chamotte. This is the term applied to burned clay. It pos-
sesses all the advantages of quartz as a diluent of the shrinkage,
but has the advantage over it that it does not affect the fusibility of
the clay, or swell with an increase of temperature. Hence, it does
not tend to loosen the structure of the finished product. The clay
used for this purpose must be burned to such an extent that it will
not shrink on being farther subjected to heat. The degree to which
this burned clay is ground depends on the use to which it is put; for,
to produce a porous body, it is not ground as fine as it would be if a
dense one were to be made. The burned clay used for this purpose
can either be ground up bits of broken ware, or can be clay
specially burned for this use. Through the hard burning of clay,

or the repeated burning of some wares, as in the case of retorts, the

1 Deutscher ziegler-kalender, 1898, p. 81.

550 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

shrinkage of the clay is not only arrested, but the alkalis are also
volatilized, whereby the hard burned clay becomes more refractory.
This is the case in Belgium, where the clay used as chamotte is
burned twice. (Bischof. 2d ed. p. 265)

In the case that cast off wares are used, it is necessary to see
that the pieces have not become impure by any slagging action
that may have taken place in the kiln. Powdered fire bricks are
sometimes used as chamotte. 2

Graphite and coke. These are materials that are often added
to clay to increase the refractoriness, but they also serve the pur-
pose of imparting to the ware a greater heat conductivity and
making it more resistant to changes of temperature. It is this
last property that makes a mixture of clay and graphite specially
adapted to the manufacture of crucibles. The graphite should con-
tain 90% or more of carbon. It should also be intimately mixed
with the clay.

Coke is sometimes used instead of graphite, but is less refrac-
tory, and works best in materials which in use are not in contact
with the air.

Sawdust. This also acts as a diluent but, unlike the others, burns
when subjected to a high temperature, and leaves a cavity behind.
It is therefore necessary that the particles should not only be small,
but of even size. Sawdust and similar substances leave more or less
ash behind, whose mineral constituents may act as fluxes. As,
owing to the formation of these pores, the clay may be somewhat
weakened or loosened, it is necessary that only very plastic clays or
those of high tensile strength should be used.

Fusibility
Change on heating. In the heating of a clay, or subjecting it to
a gradually rising temperature, it not only shrinks but begins to
harden. If raised only to a temperature sufficient to drive off all
moisture, the clay will still be soft enough to permit its being
scratched with the finger nail. If the temperature is raised still

a a,

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 551

farther, the combined water begins to pass off at a dull red heat,
and the clay shrinks to an additional extent, becoming not only
harder but denser, till it reaches a condition approaching imper-
viousness, and a hardness of about 6. (See scale of hardness, p. .
855) This condition of hardness commonly indicates the beginning
of fusion, not of the whole clay mass, but of the more fusible con-
stituents, which soften slightly and bind the whole together. It
is called the stage of incipient fusion. In clays that have been
burned to this condition, the clay particles are commonly still
recognizable. .

With an increase of the temperature ranging from 50° to
200° F., or sometimes even more, an additional amount of shrinkage
occurs, and most or all of the particles have become sufficiently
soft to allow their adjustment to the most compact condition, leav-
ing no interspaces, or, in other words, making the burned clay 1m-
pervious. This is spoken of as vitrification, and brick or other clay
products burned to this stage are vitrified or completely sintered.
The particles are no longer recognizable, and the maximum shrink-
age has been reached. With a farther rise in temperature the clay
becomes viscous or flows.

We can therefore recognize three stages in the burning of a
clay:

- Incipient fusion *

Vitrification |

Viscosity
_ The three stages are not by any means sharply marked, they do
not show the same difference in temperature, nor does incipient
fusion begin at the same temperature in all clays.

In general we can say, that other things being equal, the greater
the percentage of total fluxes, the lower the temperature of in-
cipient fusion, vitrification and viscosity.

The difference in temperature between incipient fusion and

viscosity varies with the composition of the clay. In calcareous

1 These three terms have been suggested by H. A. Wheeler. Vitrified pav-
ing brick, p. 12. 1895.

552 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

clays they may not be over 50° F. apart, while in refractory clays
they are separated sometimes by an interval of ‘700° or
800° F. The glass pot clays approach the latter condition. The
majority of clays show a difference of 200°-400° between the
points of incipient fusion and viscosity.

. The practical bearing of this will be easily seen, when one re-
members that in the manufacture of many kinds of clay products,
the body has to be vitrified. Consequently the greater the differ
ence between the temperature of vitrification and that of viscosity,
the easier will it be to bring a kiln of ware up to the one without
overstepping it and reaching the other, for kilns can not be regu-
lated within a range of a few degrees of temperature.

In many clays the point of vitrification is midway between in-
cipient fusion and viscosity, but in others it. is not.

Temperature of fusion. The fusibility of a clay depends on:

1 The amount of fluxes ‘

2 The size of the grain of the refractory and nonrefractory con-
stituents

3 The condition of the fire, whether oxidizing or reducing

All the fluxing impurities do not act with the same. intensity.

Fine-grained clays fuse at lower temperatures than coarse-grained |

ones, other things being equal.

In order to express the relative fusibility of clays numerically,
Bischof", on. the assumption that the refractoriness of a clay is
directly as the square of the alumina and inversely as the silica and
fluxes, deduced the following formula, in which F. Q. stands for
the “refractory quotient’.

F. Q = (Al09)
Si0;xR9
This has been found incorrect when there is a variation in the

fineness and density of the clay, and in order to recognize the effect
of these two features, Wheeler? has suggested the formula: F. F.=

oreo »inwhich F. F. is called the fusibility factor.

1 Die feuerfesten thone, p. 71. 1876.
2 Eng. and min. jour. 10 Mar. 1894.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 5538

8N —sum of nondetrimentals, or silica, alumina, titanic acid,

water, moisture, and carbonic acid

D sum of detrimental impurities, or the iron, lime, magnesia,

alkalis, sulfuric acid, sulfur, etc.

D'= sum of alkalies which Wheeler supposes to have twice the

fluxing value

C = 1, when clay is coarse-grained and specific gravity exceeds

2.25
© — 2, when clay is coarse-grained and specific gravity from
2-2.25

C = 38, when specific gravity ranges from 1.75-2

C = 2, when clay is fine-grained and specific gravity above 2-25

C = 3, when clay is fine-grained and specific gravity from 2-2.25

C = 4, when clay is fine-grained and specific gravity from 1.75-2

This formula gives better, but still not regular results. The in-
sertion of a term to account for fineness of grain is perfectly
rational, but the specific gravity is dependent on the mineral com-
position of the clay and therefore indirectly connected with the
chemical constitution.

Determination of fusibility. The temperature at which a clay
fuses is determined either by means of test pieces of known com-
position, or by some form of apparatus or mechanical pyrometer
whose principle depends on the expansion of gases or solids, thermo-
electricity, spectro-photometry, etc.

When test pieces are used, there are two methods for determining
the fusibility of a clay, the direct and the indirect.

The direct method is that of Seger, who devised the test pieces
known as “ Seger cones ”’.

These consist of a series of mixtures of clay with fluxes, so
graded that they represent a-series of fusion points, each being but
a few degrees higher than the one next to it. The materials used
in making them are such as would have a constant composition, and
consist of washed Zettlitz kaolin, Rorstrand feldspar, Norwegian

quartz, Carrara marble, and pure ferric oxid.

554 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Cone no. 1 melts at the same temperature as an alloy composed
of one part of platinum and nine parts of gold, or at 1100° C.
Cone no. 20 melts at the highest temperature obtained in a porce-

lain furnace, or. at 1530° C. The difference between any two suc- .

cessive numbers is 20° C. The upper member of a series is cone 36,
which is composed of a very refractory clay slate, while cone 35 is
composed of Zettlitz kaolin. !

A lower series of numbers was produced by Cramer, who mixed
with boracic acid the materials already mentioned. Hecht obtained
still more fusible ones by adding both boracic acid and lead to the
cones. The result is that we have now a series of 58 numbers, the
fusion of the lowest being 710° ©., and that of the highest
1850° C. !

As the cone reaches its fusion point, it begins to bend over, and it
is considered that the kiln has reached the fusion temperature when
the tip bends over so as to touch the base.

For practical purposes these cones are very successful, though

their use has been perhaps somewhat unreasonably discouraged by .

some. The full series can be obtained from Messrs Seger and
Cramer, of Berlin, for 1 cent each (or about 23 cents each, includ-
ing duty and expressage), or nos. .010-10 can be obtained for 1
cent each from Prof. E. Orton jr, of Columbus university,
Columbus, O. Recently this series of cones has been restandard-
ized by Seger and Cramer. ‘The new table is given herewith.

i
:
;
‘

555

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

Composition and fusing points of Seger cones

Fusing point

Composition

No. of cone

i=) i=) oS S S) =) So S) =) S =) =) =) S S ©S fc) =) (2) =) oO S
for) N ote) ee) ri = | S ise) ie) (=P) ON to) kk fon) al oO wo bad lor) b inn)
Ww ie} Ne) eo) = bo kt co (e @) GO @ (op) [op] lor) os ra) =>) (=) oS fo) ri rei
re rr re rt me re re
Hu (oe) A co S&S H CO (eS) ie) S H op) rem | @ =H S ide) AN io 9) —H (S) co
(oP) —sH (= Yer) bal We} bo tt AN ge) ae) @ — ~ bl plo) ie 9) N pie) (oP) oO ie)
S re (ey) (ey) ae) ae) 0 H pie) pte) ie) ve) kt Fd co @ (ee) (er) lor) (or) Oo j=)
rm ba ol ri re I Teal rd ra re bon re i! ri ra ri re bol ra rod AN AN
a I a a
NM RAD ROM RNR HM XN DMD N DM MV XN mr mn Mm om NY DN MND NR DN DNA ND RN DM NM
SOSSSSS SSSSE DOCOOCIO SSIS SOOO SS OOOO TOME OOO
pac I es Td SN Te dF TDs Se Bs BS Sy Ss De) me | St Re NR Re Re
DAAKABAMAMaAMUMnAKMaANMnManaAMnMnNnnMnMnnnMmanaManne
SO 1029 OS O29 190 D> O2010 OC 19010 DO14 109

Came ee est ees ee pT Teena Yom SOC file Den Fac cg On cm Send Tes A Sm Cm On etl a ec ee eT Yoh ee ee Com eet) Geel sy i Sep. Goo

°. e Cio oS 3 =) S So melololofelolajololelalolololololelelone
43449 4 4 4 42 4 4 4 Bee eee edad de ce aed
ple OS Se S) Se em a Soe ee ON GOS MOR MN OMANI a8) OX-GD) H] Gel Ori GReA War) ular)
So 6 6 oC oO fo oC fF CFC SF oO SSS SSeSoOSSoOS Se Se SoS e SSS

2.22.2 9.32.% 299.29.299999.99999999999909959900999009
ep) POLS) We) Pa ene SQ SOP SPS PSP RSS Ta Fa OS

WD UD 1D] QD AD 1D 1 1D 1D 1D. 1D 1D._ 1. 1. 1). 19). 1. 1.9. 1. 1. 109. 1. 1 1) OD = OD Be OD De OD Be OD be OD be OO = OD OD OD

SSeseoesseosecoseosooososoosossoscesosessosoossosoosesess
a EN FN EN NS RN a

A So (=) lor) (o.0) kK co pYer) H ae) A S| (a)
aA A i) to So re — rm bon mr Sl Se Sal ep) oO kK We) 10 H ie) qQ al
(=) =) =) S S&S S (>) co) S 5) =) i=) j=) S =) j=) S) =) os) c=) i=) oO

556 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

===. Composition and fusing points of Seger cones (continued)

0. of cone Composition Fu i ng point
Hy 7C

1 vue ate He font sio, | 2102] 1 150
2 lor cao tos alot SiO, | 2188) 1 1470
5 te ee aE. so, | aan] 1a
4 \ eee ! 0.5 Al,O, sio, | 2210] 1 210
5 ie C20 | 0-5 ‘ALO, 8. V SiO, 4) 2 ete! leuiese
6 hate Be 10.6 AlO, 6 SiO, | 2282] 1 250
7 |40°7 G2ot0-7 ALO, 7 S10, | 2 B18] 1 270
8 1o ee 0.8 AlO, 8 SiO, | 2354| 1 290
9 ine re 10.9 ALO, 9 SiO, | 2390] 1 310
10 Aye oe 1 1.0 Al,0,10 §si0, | 2 426] 1 330
11 oe a 1.2 Al,O, 12° SiO. | 2 462 |9# 350
12 We ce 1.4 Al,O, 14° SiO, | 2498] 1 370
13), epee hae 1.6 A1,0, 16. SiO,..|->2)534.| deen
14 ce abe 1.8 ALO, 18 ° Sid, | 2 570 |) 70
15 hie ae 9.1 Al,O, 21 . SiO, | 2 606) 1 480
16 tae KO 2.4 ALO, 24 sid, | 2 642| 1 450
17 Lae a 2.7 AlO, 27 Sid, | 2678) 1 470
18 We ee 3.1 Al,O, 31. SiO, | 2714] 1 490
19 ea oo 3.5 A1,O, 35). <SiO, 0) 990750 | ele
20 40. BG 3.9 Al,O, 39 SiO, | 2 786| 1 530
91 nce ae 4:4 IA1,O, 44 ()p SiO. O2e822 |) gam
22 ee ae t 4.9 A1,0;.49.4 SIO, OeOatsss | 1 saa

CLAYS OF NEW yor 55ST

Composition and fusing points of Seger cones (continued)

No. of cone Composition Fusing point
He 0}
93 Ae he SAO st... SiOs4)|,.9°894 | 1-500
O4 hee hive soon) Si, |! 9830) |! 1 610
25 ee ae 16.6 Al,O; 66 SiO, | 2 966] 1 630
26 ties rie 7 OA ONTIe 4 SiO, | 3.002) 1650
0.3 K,O
wo got eeew0o. S10, || 3 088 | 1 670
2 uel gel irnsene APO Me SiO. | 3074 | 1 690
Bou will iret head iron tshsiOs (| *3hit0" | 710
Se belay pee oe POA yu SiOs. 913 .14en) 11,1780
25 ghd ROT SRI i Mie meio. | so ieo |) 1.750
2 as wall gee a tance ieee SiO.) 3°sis"| 1770
eat eee ORION, BAF BRO |) 3. 254 790
tliat itie We NO 25 SiO...) 43,.290,|,. 1 810
i aaah amet NT Gag MiOt 9) S10.) 8 326 | 1-830
Be ili isa poate VOM dT 5) Si0," |" 3°369' | 2 850

The theory of these pyramids is that the cone bends over as the
temperature approaches its fusing point. If the heat is raised too
rapidly the cones which contain much iron swell and blister and do
not bend over, so the best results are obtained by the slow softening
of the cone under a gradually rising temperature. For practical
purposes these cones are considered sufficiently accurate.

In actual use they are placed in the kiln at a point where they -
can be watched through a peep hole but at the same time will not
receive the direct touch of the flame from the fuel. It is always
well to put two or more cones in the kiln, so that warning can be
had not only of the approach of the desired temperature, but also of
the rapidity with which the temperature is rising.

In order to determine the temperature of a kiln several cones of
separated numbers are put in, as for example: .07, 1, and 5. Sup-
pose .07 and 1 are bent over in burning but 5 is not affected, the
temperature of the kiln is between 1 and 5. The next time nos. 2, 3

558 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

and 4 are put in, 2 and 3 may be fused but 4 remains unaffected,
indicating that the temperature reached the fusing point of 3.

These pyramids have been much used by foreign manufacturers
of clay products and are coming into use in the United States.

There are several indirect methods of determining temperatures,
but that of Bischof (Dingler’s Polyt. jour. 196: 488, 525; 198:
396) is perhaps the best known. This consists in increasing the
refractoriness of weighed samples by adding to them increasing
quantities of an intimate mixture of equal parts of chemically pure
silica and alumina, and heating them with a prism of Saarau fire
clay (whose fusing point 1s Seger cone 36) to above the melting
point of wrought iron. While involving more labor than the direct
method, it has the advantage of requiring only one standard.

This method was tried by Hofman and Demond (“ Further ex-
periments for determining the fusibility of fire clays”, Trans.
Amer. wnst. min. eng. Mar. 1895) who mixed various samples of
fire clays with varying proportions of calcium carbonate, and
calcium carbonate and silica, to render them fusible at temperatures
below the melting point of platinum, while common brick clays
were mixed with alumina and silica to decrease their fusibility, the
object of this being to arrive at a standard temperature at which
both refractory and fusible clays could be tested. ‘The results ob-
tained at first were very satisfactory, but subsequent ones did not
result as was desired and the method had to be abandoned. More
recently however this method has been tried by J. L. Newell and
G. A. Rockwell with much better results (Trans. Amer. inst. min.
eng. Oct. 1898, “ A modification of Bischof’s method for determin-
ing the fusibility of clays, as applied to nonrefractory ones, and
the resistance of fire clays to fluxes”, H. O. Hofman)

In the last experiments the Seger cone 26 was used as a standard,
as it forms the line between refractory and nonrefractory clays,
the nonrefractory ones being toned up till they show the same
behavior in the fire as cone 26. The amount of toner added then
gave an idea how far the clay stood below the lower limit of
refractoriness.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 559

The silica used in the experiments was quartz, ground to pass
_a100 mesh sieve and purified by boiling in nitro-hydrochlorie acid.
It had 99.88% silica. The alumina contained 98.48 Al O,. .

The method followed was to weigh out samples of 1 gram of the
clay to be tested and mix them severally with .1, .2, .3, ete.,
grams of the silica-alumina mixture. The samples were then tested
in the Deville furnace.

The following table gives the results of the experiments just de-
scribed, the clays being arranged in the order of their refractoriness,
and in each ease the amount of flux being given that was required
to raise the fusing point to that of cone 26 of Seger.

Analyses and results of tests.

Sample no. 264 | 254 Bi 220 24a 234 19820

Per Per Per Per Per Per Per

cent cent cent cent cent cent cent
SIO EAN se 2 64.10) 55.60) 57.10) 57.45] 57.15) 49.30] 48.94
PEO, tr 91.79] 24.34] 21.99] 21.06] 20.26) 24.00] 11.17
EEO comb...) 16205\9 Ge (al, 6.00% 5.90! (150). 9.40! 3290
otal. 28 91.94} 86.69) 84.39 a 82.91) 82.70] 59.01,
Ji Oe eae Zeolite f.04 (54! 840) SuSE
GAO Lip. OL LOIO FAB ROE I9| 80. 29) 510890), SOL 56h L164
INGO eee DBS OT TL BN SLRS 1 og Ae aL GX) RES a Br
HAO cA eae 2-62! 3-00) 3.44 3.2%) 8.05) 3.91) 2.90
Nas OU oa 0.03} 0.09} 0.61) 0.39] 0.58! 0. 7] 0.7
Ota. eye: Hest Oz Oke LS) LAG Liets 69) 14.63) 23223
Moisture... 2) RO eer Goalie Is0|) Sb 90N2.70lo. L20\o 1a 669

Stiffening in- |
gredient, p.c,| 20 40 60 80 80 100 180

@ Analyzed by N. W. Lord. b Analyzed by E. Orton jr.
¢ Includes COz-: @ Includes P205, 0.10%.

560 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Thermoelectric pyrometer. Le Chatelier’s thermoelectric pyrome-

ter depends on the measurement of a current generated by ~

the heating of a thermopile. The latter consists of two wires, one
of platinum and the other an alloy 90% platinum and 10% rhodium,
twisted together at their free ends for a distance of about an inch,
while the next foot or two of their length is inclosed in a fire clay
tube, so that when the couple is inserted in the furnace only the
end which is held near the body whose temperature is to be meas-
ured will receive the full force of the heat. The two wires con-
nect with a galvanometer, the deflection of whose needle measures
the temperature at the point where the free end of the wire couple
is applied. As at present put on the market, the thermoelectric
pyrometer costs about $180, and the price, together with the deli-
cacy of the galvanometer, has tended to restrict its use. ‘There is
no reason however why one should not be made and put on the
market for a much lower price. It is not necessary that the record-
ing instrument shall be in the immediate vicinity of the kiln; it
may be kept in another room where it is safe from dust and rough
handling, and the wires can extend from there to the kiln. This
pyrometer is considered to be accurate to within 10° F.

Seger cones are very useful for determining the completion of
firing, but the thermoelectric pyrometer serves as a guide during
the burning operation, indicating whether the temperature is rising
slowly or quickly, and whether steadily or unevenly.

If careful records are kept of these facts during the firing of a
kiln, and the results obtained compared, we are enabled to collect
valuable data concerning the conditions necessary.

A crude means of judging temperature is to observe the color
of the fire as shown by the following table, which gives the color
of a body when heated to different degrees, thus:

dust elowine in the darks... te oe eee SG
Darkired 2. “Oseleee s 1252°R
Cherry rediit% Ase heeee TGs laa sg UR Re alos teens 1666° F.

Brighticherry red. :00y SRR 2 she eee ee eer 1832° F.

—?)*

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 561

irae 5 baie neers Oasis febeta id ie elon). Party war's 2102° F.
DPR ceseoteye., sees ieiaes AME mere ec lad ea Mayol |. 2372° FB.
yz liner ay hiitie j=} oh) - Sepa perio’ 1.bh sve ate) » 2732° F.

Mechanical analysis of clays

The mechanical analysis of a clay determines the percentage of
particles of different sizes which it contains.

The method employed for this determination is partly a dry and
partly a wet one. Clays which are used for the finer grades of
ware have to be sufficiently fine to pass through a 150 mesh sieve.
The relative quantity of coarser particles which a clay contains
can be found out by sieving.

If the clay grains are smaller than ,4, of an inch, the com-
mon method of sorting them is by means of a rising current of

slumming” and consists in

water. This operation is known as
brief of placing a known weight of clay in a vertical tube through
which a current of water passes. The velocity of the current can be
regulated. Careful experiment has determined the size of par-
ticles that are carried off by a given velocity of the current. The
water as it passes off at the top of the tube is conducted into jars,
where the suspended particles are allowed to settle, and can after-
wards be collected and weighed.
The diameters of the grains commonly separated are:

Dien, cuctanceweeen ey ne ANS! a. hak a ns Upto .01 mm
SUE ae ee Ee ae ee .0O1 —.025 mm
1 2a RS SENSE nce EL eS: ROR ais a ana 025— 04.) mm
J TTEERESTEN aT gpa sca a pe A) 2 Oa ae a ae .04 —.2 mm

An excess of the finest particles tends to increase the shrinkage of
the clay, while the coarser particles have the reverse effect. For
thorough comparative work on the physical properties of clay, it is
well to make a mechanical analysis. This has been done with a
number of the New York samples.

Chemical effects of heating. On heating a clay to redness, it

undergoes certain changes, which exert an influence on the physical

562 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

character of the clay, though the primary changes are of a chemi-
cal nature. In kaolins this change simply amounts to the loss
by the kaolinite or clay substance of its combined water. In
impure clays many other changes may occur, viz:

The burning off of organic matter.

Limonite losing its water and becoming hematite.

Pyrite (FeS*) becoming oxidized to ferric sulfates, which in
turn are broken up by the expulsion of their sulfur, leaving hema-
tite or ferric oxid. Both lime and magnesium carbonates if pres-
ent will part with their carbon dioxid.

The general effect of these changes is first to make the clay more
porous, but subsequently to increase its shrinkage. ‘The color of
the clay is also changed. A chemical interaction between the com-
ponent minerals of the clay has not taken place up to this point.

It is held by Seger’ that the more plastic a clay is when wet, the
harder it will be after light burning. Such lightly burned wares
will not, however, withstand weathering or pressure, and are very
porous; resistance to weathering is attained only when certain por-
tions of the clay fuse, and unite the whole into a stony mass.

The shrinkage and decrease in porosity will be the greater, the
larger the number of particles taking part in the fusion of the
mass.

The process of fusion involves two separate processes, one physi-.
cal, causing change in volume, and one chemical, giving rise to the
formation of new compounds in the mass. These have a lower
fusing point than the substances through whose interaction they
were formed. In some cases however it is probable that solution
takes place.

From the foregoing it would appear that the fusion of a clay
is influenced not only by the melting point of the most easily fusible
component of the clay, but also by the relative amount of infusible
ingredients, and the relative size of the fluxing and nonfluxing
particles. In the earlier stages of fusion we must therefore look

1 Seger. Ges Schrift. p. 380.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 563

on the clay as a mixture of fused particles, with a skeleton of un-
fused ones. If the proportion of the former to the latter is very
small, there will be a strong hardening of the clay with little
shrinkage, and the burned clay will still be porous. With an in-
crease of temperature, and the fusion of more particles, the pores
fill up more and more, and the shrinkage goes on till at the point
of vitrification the spaces are completely filled. Above this point
there is no longer a sufficiently strong skeleton to hold the mass
together, and the clay begins to flow.

The eonditions which influence the difference in temperature
between vitrification and viscosity still remain to be satisfactorily
explained, but it probably depends on the relative amounts of
fluxes and nonfluxes, and the size of grain of the latter.

The preservation of form in burning is primarily dependent on
the refractoriness of the mineralogic components which are pres-
ent in the greatest quantity, because these build a framework or
skeleton. In kaolins and some refractory clays this component is
the clay substance.

A feldspar percentage aids the fusion above a certain tempera-
ture. At high temperatures the quartz tends to increase the fiuid-
ity of the fused clay, but at lower temperatures the quartz is to be
classed with those components which aid in preserving the form,
and in low grade clays the quartz has an important office in this
connection.

The recent experiments of Hofman lead him to believe that size
of grain does not influence the refractory qualities of a clay (Trans.
Amer. inst. min. eng. Oct. 1898), and in the case of fire clays
tested by him this seems to be true.

564 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

CLASSIFICATION

As clays show all gradations from the purest kaolins to the most
impure brick clays, it is hard to draw any sharp lines of division
between the different kinds. These great divisions can however
be made, residual and sedimentary, and to these might be added
a third, chemical precipitates.

Each of these three may include varieties having similar prop-
erties and similar uses.

Seger makes the following divisions:

1 Yellow burning, containing lime and iron

2 fed burning, nonaluminous, ferruginous clays which are free
from lime

3 White and yellow burning, clays low in both iron and lime

4 White burning, low in iron and high in alumina

To give a classification based on the uses of the clay is also unsat-
isfactory, for some clays may be used for as much as five or six
different purposes, either alone or mixed with other clays.

A rough classification based on their use would be perhaps some-
what as follows:

Brick clays

Potter’s clays

China clays

Fire clays

A good idea of the varied uses of clays may be obtained from the
following table compiled by R. T. Hill’ and added to by the writer.

Uses
1 Domestic. Utensils, porcelain ware; china ware; granite or
iron-stone ware; yellow ware; rockingham ware; earthenware; ma-
jolica; stoves; polishing brick.
2 Structural. Brick, common, front, pressed, ornamental, hol-
low, glazed; adobe; terra cotta; roofing tile; glazed and encaustic

1U. 8. Geol. surv., Min. res. of U. 8. 1891. p. 475.

OO

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 565

tile; drain tile; chimney flues; chimney pots; door knobs; puddling;
portland cement; fireproofing; terra cotta lumber; paving brick

copings
3 Agricultural. Drain tile, barn flooring
4 Hydraulic structures. | Water conduits; sewer pipe; sewer

brick; turbine wheels

5 Sanitary engineering. (Granite ware; urinals and closet bowls;
wash tubs; bath tubs; sewer pipe; ventilating flues; foundation
blocks; vitrified brick

6 Industrial uses. Crucibles and other assaying apparatus, acid
vats and jars; acid bricks, gas retorts; fire bricks; glass pots; sag-
gers; stove and furnace linings; wall and writing paper fillings;
porcelain chemical apparatus; grinding mills; insulators; pumps;
filters; mineral paint; packing horses hoofs; fulling cloth; ultra-
marine manufacture

7 Ornamental and esthetic uses. AJ] forms of ornamental pot-
tery; terra cotta and various forms of tiles either glazed or unglazed

8 Imitative uses. Food adulterants and paint adulterants

Coloring agents

This includes those substances which impart a definite color to
the clay in burning. Pure clay would burn to a snow white color,
but in nature it is frequently tinged with more or less impurity.
The most common coloring agent is oxid of iron or iron compounds
which, in burning, change to the oxid. The depth of color pro-
duced in burning depends on the amount of iron present. It may
vary from the lightest yellow to red and dark brown or bluish
black. The presence of other compounds may however have a
marked influence on the iron coloration. Some of the purest clays
known, though containing a mere fraction of a per cent of iron
oxid, will, nevertheless, when burned at a very high temperature,
develop a very slightly yellow tint. If such clays have a con-
siderable amount of feldspar added to them, they keep this yellow
eolor; on the other hand the addition of quartz tends to minimize

it. Magnesia and lime may exert a much stronger effect on the

566 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

color of clay and specially influence the coloring action of iron.

Calcareous clays in burning develop a yellow, instead of a red color,

and at the temperature of vitrification this passes into a yellowish:

green. Seger has shown that the color of a hard burned clay de-
pends on. the relation of iron oxid to alumina, and in calcareous
clays on the ratio of iron oxid to lime.

Diimmler in his table of analyses’ shows the ratio of iron and
manganese oxid to the sum of nonvolatile constituents, and the
ratio of lime and magnesia oxid to iron and manganese oxids. From
this it follows that in all clays in which the combined iron and

; of the amount of the total non-

manganese oxids are more than .
volatiles, a distinct red color is produced, if at the same time the
sum of the two is more than two and a half times greater than the
combined magnesia oxids.

Of course the grade of firing has an influence on the color, and
in addition the composition of the kiln gases might exert a marked
influence. ‘Thus, for instance, clays high in iron burned slate blue
in a reducing fire, while yellow burning noncaleareous clay takes
on a distinct red color, if subjected to alternating reducing and
oxidizing action. (Diimmler. Die ziegel fabrikation, p. 42)

The shades which ferric oxid takes in burning vary partly with
the nature of its formation. According to Seger that which is made
from ferric nitrate burns brown red, that from iron sulfate by
ignition is reddish orange.

Heating deepens the color of the ferric oxid with increase of the
temperature; and this holds true for all ferruginous clays, so that

in general the color of clay products containing iron will be darker —

the higher the temperature to which they are burned.
A small percentage of iron in a clay produces a buff color when
burned to, say 2000° F., but might give a red if burned to 2500° F.

If a clay contains enough iron to color it red when burned to

incipient fusion, it may become deep red or brownish at the tem-

perature of vitrification, and black at the temperature of viscosity.

1 Die ziegel fabrikation.

:
o
:

‘CLAYS OF NEW YORK 567

The physical condition of the iron in the clay may also exert a
marked influence. If the iron be distributed evenly through the
elay in a finely divided condition or as a film around the clay grains,
the coloration produced will be more even than if it were scattered
through the clay as isolated grains. The percentage of iron oxid
shown by analysis might in either case be the same, but the effect
produced in burning would be an even color in the former case, and
a speckled appearance in the latter.

Ferrous oxid may form in burning, under several conditions; it
may be due to the presence of organic matter, or to reducing action
of the fire, or it may have existed in the unburned clay. It is not
as strong a coloring agent as the ferric oxid. Alone it produces a
green color in burning, but variable mixtures of ferrous and ferric
oxids are capable of producing a variety of shades. (See ‘“ Division
on iron ’’)

Manganese oxid in general produces darker colors than iron.

Other coloring substances might be present in clays in small
amounts. Cobalt oxid might produce a blue color, and chromium
a green color.

Both cobalt and chromium are sometimes added to white or light
burning clays to color them artificially, 5% of the former producing a
bright blue, and 4%-1% of the latter giving a green. A black color
ean be produced by adding a mixture of 6% iron oxid, and 6% manga-
nese superoxid. ;

Seger * classifies clays according to the color assumed in burning
as follows:

1 Aluminous clays, poor in iron, which burn white or very
slightly yellowish

2 Aluminous, moderately ferruginous clays, whose color when
burned is pale yellow to light brown

3 Aluminous, ferruginous clays, such as brick clays, whose color
when burned is brick red

4 Nonaluminous clays, rich in iron and lime, whose color when
burned is yellow .

1 Seger. Ges. Schrift. p. 85.

568 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Without giving the composition of the clays which Seger ex-
perimented on, in this connection it may be interesting to give some
of his conclusions.

The first group includes the porcelain clays, and in these the
ferric oxid may at times exceed 1% without influencing the color.
In this connection it is considered that the presence of a large
amount of alumina has the same effect as lime, in destroying the
red color of the iron. Evidence of this fact is afforded by Seger’s
experiments on clays included in the second group.

In the second group are included clays which burn white at low
temperatures, with an occasional pink tint, but at higher tempera-
tures show more or less yellowish or brownish color, but never a red,
assuming a greenish color at the highest temperatures due to the
reduction of the iron to a ferrous condition. The alumina in clays
of this group is generally 207-80% and even more, while the per-
centage of ferric oxid may in some cases approach that of the brick
clays, but it generally ranges between 1% and 5%. It is an interesting
fact that a mixture of red burning clays of the third group and
kaolin does not give a pale red product on burning, but instead a
yellow one, which Seger believes is due to the excess of alumina.

This group includes many fire clays, semi-fire clays, stoneware
clays. Five examples are given by Seger to illustrate this effect of
the alumina in destroying the red color, of the ferric oxid. Their

color when burned, as well as the ratio of ferric oxid to alumina, is

given below.

White to Light Yellow to Yellow Yellow

Color when burned yel. white yellow light brown brown.

Ratio of “ ferric

oxid to alumina 1:13.2 eT, 1:5.4 Leg 1:6.3

The exact temperature at which these were burned is not stated
but it was the same in each case.

This group somewhat resembles the fourth group in respect to the
colors produced, but differs from it in fusibility, becoming porce-
lain-like at high temperatures, and not green, but brown or gray in
color. The percentage of alumina, it will be seen, far exceeds the

iron. The color seems to be lighter the greater this excess.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 569

In the third group, which includes the brick clays, the alumina
percentage is small as compared with the ferric oxid. They are
all easily fused, and the percentage of lime, magnesia and alkalis
is low in those which burn to a bright color. The usual color of
such clays when burned is red, which becomes deeper with an in-
crease in the temperature and greater density, changes to violet
red and finally becomes black.

The percentage of ferric oxid is generally one third to one half
the alumina percentage, as indicated by the following fens es from
five examples given by Seger.

Dark redto Dark
Color when burned Dark red Violet red ghey ved Dark red Dark red

Eeatio of AlO,: He,O, jle2esuii-t19)(1: 11.9. 1:1 .29\ 1:11.99

A: comparison of the second and third groups shows that those
in which the alumina is not more than three times as great as
the ferric oxid show a decided red color; those where it is five and
one half times as great show a brown to yellow color.

Probably other physical properties exert an influence, but these
are not clearly understood.

The fourth group includes calcareous clays, and in this the
succession of colors produced in burning is reversed. The ferric
oxid exerts its coloring action at low temperatures, but at higher
ones the influence of the lime is seen on the silicates of the clay,
and the red passes into yellow or yellowish white, which at higher
temperatures grades into green, and at viscosity becomes dark
green or black.

The relations between iron and alumina, and iron and lime,

and the color when burned are shown below.

@olor With light burning red to flesh red; hard burning yellow white to
sulphur yellow; at vitrification yellow green to green
Me On Al OO; 2-7. 2 tpl ae pon Oe et tates Qa) sD) b. de Od:

Be,O,: CaO’. .... 12 CElem, eo 0, Led. a. Le. 2

The iron in this group runs about as high 4s in group 3, the
lighter color being due to lime, the percentage ot which ranges
from 11%-194.

570 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The relation of Fe,O; to CaO it will be seen is as 1:2, or
1:3, but the lime could probably be lower still, and yet be
effective. To prove this Seger took the red burning clay from
Rathenow, whose composition is

Slice CC. Te RE EE ke OMG, @ 61.30
Adnan) 22 Seis, Nene aaa Jie 20 ELEN PO hy 18.87
Merrie (ord ih), ees aileron Ss ie 5 aE GG PRR ee tel Pane 6.66
ERE 11D, OF TETAS EERO LIER bs DEER ROSA Ras 85
Mision Sit yy TEM Es LOTR RE A RAEN 1.20
A Micaligy Sree hig sete Nee OS 25 00S rec: RRA ia RL MER te 3.20

Wraiberiu') pepe ede ek | 0b) ek A ogy “irre wl © aap 8.28

To this clay he added increased amounts of lime, which gave
the proportions of ferric oxid to lime carbonate in the different
mixtures, as follows:

15.13, 12.48) 1:-83,.1:1.18 al 53. 1-1 $e" 1-9).03 atoms
Zoo.

These nine samples were first burned at a red heat in a small
gas furnace, and on cooling the color of all of them was found to
be red.

They were next heated to bright redness and after this it was
found that the color of the first four was bright red, but. still
slightly off color, the more so the greater the proportion of lime
which they contained. The fourth had a yellowish brown shell,
one millimeter thick with a red interior. The fifth and sixth
showed the yellow color to a greater depth, while the seventh and
eighth were yellow throughout with a slight tinge of gray.

From this Seger infers that the yellow color first appears when
the proportion of ferric oxid to lime is as 1 to 1

As regards the action of ferrous oxid, Seger came to the con-
clusion that in potous bricks the percentage of this can run quite
high without producing much effect, but in dense bricks the re-
verse is true.

—_—

‘CLAYS OF NEW YORK 571

Brick clays often have more or less organic matter which may
sometimes reduce the iron. Thus the clay from Rathenow, when
ignited in a closed crucibie, showed 2.20% of ferrous oxid. In
the presence of air, however, it was converted to ferric oxid, for
after being ignited for one hour, exposed to the air, the same clay
showed only .76% of ferrous oxid.

The black color of bricks is due to the reduction of iron in the
last stages of burning.

One interesting result of Seger’s experiments is that oxidation
of the iron can take place within a clay which has been burned
to vitrification. This was explained by an experiment in which
he took a prism 2 em thick, and burned it to vitrification. After
burning, the surface of the prism was cherry red, but in passing
from the middle to the surface the colors encountered were cherry
red, gray red, gray green, black violet, gray green, gray red, and ©
cherry red. An analysis of these different colored portions showed
the following:

Cherry red Gray green Black violet
erric OXI 44 peace nS Chet Mo ieee) 3.438 2.14

NEEL OUS sOXIG: O50. d ee we Lae 12 1.85 BOe

The above is explained by supposing that the flame of the fire
caused a reducing action of the iron, which did not extend the
entire distance to the core; later, on cooling the outer portion of

the brick was reoxidized.

5t2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

GEOLOGIC DISTRIBUTION

Clays or shales occur in every geologic formation even in the
archean. It can be said in general that all those which are older
than the Cretaceous are shale, while those of Cretaceous and Ter-
tlary age are sometimes soft plastic clays, as those of New Jersey
and Long Island, or at times shales, as exampled by the fire clays of
Colorado.

The Quaternary “deposits of clay are all unconsolidated, so far
as known, no shales occurring in this formation.

The geologic age of a clay or shale is no indication of its com-
mercial value, except at most for the comparison cf two deposits
in closely adjoining areas, but even here it is not safe to rely on
. such a guide.

Those deposits which are of marine origin are commonly much

more extensive than those formed in inland waters.

Occurrence of clay in New York state

Deposits of clay or shale are to be found in nearly every county
of the state. They are divisible into the following classes.

1 Residual clays Soft plastic clays
2 Sedimentary clays Shales or consolidated clay:

1 Residual clays. Deposits of this type are rare in glaciated _
regions; still several small kaolin veins have been found to the
east and southeast of Sharon Station on the New York & Harlem
railroad, but it is doubtful if they will ever become of commercial
importance. They are also found in the adjoiming portion of Con-
necticut, one being worked 4 miles east of Sharon. Residual
clays also occur in association with the limonite deposits at
Amenia, and in the vicinity of New York city the dolomitic lme-
stones have by their decomposition sometimes given rise to clays

of a residual nature.

Plate 2 To face page 573

Old lake bottom, Spencer N. Y. Underlain by clay.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK AT3

The mellowed outcrops of many of the shale formations occur-
ring within the state should also, perhaps, be classed under the
head of residual clays. In the latter case however the clay is a
product of disintegration; in the former, of decomposition.

2 Sedimentary clays. The soft plastic clays belong to three
geologic formations, Quaternary, Tertiary and Cretaceous.

The first class is by far the most common. ‘The second class
is somewhat indefinite in extent, but a large number of the Long
Island deposits probably belong to it.t Of the third glass there
are undoubted representatives on Long Island and Staten Island,
as well as some additional ones on Long Island, which are
questionable. The clays of the mainland are all Quaternary so
far as known. This does not include the shales which are treated
in a separate chapter.

Many of the deposits are local and basin-shaped, lying in the
bottoms of valleys which are often broad and fertile. They vary
in depth from 4 to 20 or even 50 feet and as a rule they are
underlain by modified drift or by bed rock. The clay is gen-
erally of a blue color, the uppermost portion for a few feet being
weathered red or yellow. Stratification is sometimes present, and
streaks of marl are common. In some of the beds small pebbles,
usually of limestone, are found, and these have to be separated by
special machinery in the process of manufacture; at other localities
the clay is covered by a foot or more of peat.

The basin-shaped deposits are no doubt the sites of former ponds
or lakes, formed commonly by the damming up of the valleys, and
filled later with the sediment of the streams from the retreating ice
sheet. The valleys in which these deposits lie are usually broad
and shallow, that in which the Genesee river flows from Mt Morris
to Rochester being a good example. The waters of the river were
backed up by the ice for a time, during which the valley was con-
verted into a shallow lake in which a large amount of aluminous
mud was deposited. ‘This material has been employed for common

brick.

1¥.J.H. Merrill. “Geology of Long Island,” Ann. N.Y. acad. sci. Nov. 1884.

574 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

An idea of the depth of clay and alluvium in the Genesee valley
may be had from the following table. The figures have been taken
from the records of salt wells.

York? York salt co. Clay | 52 ft
Piffard? Genesee salt co. Clay and gravel 64 ft
e Livingston salt co. Prison 158 ft
Cuylerville ra ee emer esa ote ci “Soil” 184 ft
Mt Morris* Royal salt co. “Soil” 191 ft
For other localities the following depths are given.
NWT OVA 2 0 Wg eet sues prs aie Pe (oon Blue clay 15 ft
Wyoming! ioteer Welle... 4a... Soil and clay 40 ft
Warsaw! Standard salt co. Surface, soil and
clay 26 ft
rf Gouinlock and Humphrey clay 17 ft

There are a number of these deposits which are of sufficient in-
terest, geologically as well as commercially, to be mentioned in some
detail. :

At Dunkirk there is a bed of clay having a deptk of over 20 feet.
The upper 6 feet are yellow and of a sandy nature, while the
lower two thirds are blue and of much better quality. It is men-
tioned by Prof. Hall* in his report, and is an instructive example
of the manner in which the clay changes in color, downward as far
as the water can percolate and oxidize the iron.

Around Buffalo is an extensive series of flats underlain by a red
clay. <A thin layer of sand suitable for tempering overlies the clay
in spots, and limestone pebbles are scattered through it. Similar
deposits occur at several localities to the north of the ridge road
and around Niagara Falls, also at Tonawanda and La Salle, to the
north of Buffalo, as well as south of it along the shore of Lake Erie.
Much of this clay was deposited during the former extension of the
great lakes.

Prof. Hall mentions deposits of clay at the following localities:
at Linden one mile south of Yates Center;” along the shore of Lake

1T, P. Bishop. 5th ann. rep’t N. Y. state geologist. 1885.

* The term soil is probably meant to indicate sand and clay.
3 Ann. rep’t Onondaga salt springs. 1888. p. 19.

4 Geol. New York, 4th district. 1843. p. 362.

5 c p. 437.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 575

Ontario east of Lewiston; on Cashaqua creek’ deposits of tenacious
clay due to the crumbling of the argillaceous green shales. In
Niagara co.” beds of clay are said to occur in every town, but
they often contain a considerable amount of lime. _

A bed of blue and red clay is being worked at Brighton near
Rochester. This deposit lies near the head of Irondequoit bay
and was deposited by some stream, flowing into it. To the southeast
of Rochester is a large eskar which extends in a northeast direction
to near Brighton. Mr Upham, who has described this eskar, con-
siders that it was formed by a river which flowed between walls of
ice and deposited the bed of clay above mentioned.®

Clays are also found at several points in the valley of the Oswego
river from Syracuse to Oswego, an important one being at Three
River point.

An extensive bed of red and gray clay, 20 acres in extent and
horizontally stratified, occurs at Watertown. The deposit is 20 feet
thick and rests on Trenton limestone.

Another deposit of considerable size is being worked at Ogdens-
burg. The clay is blue and has a depth of 60 feet.

At Madrid, in St Lawrence co., is a small deposit, probably the
remnant of a formerly extensive one. The section is:

MWellowastratimed samdh® seiatod. Geeks 6 bia) 3 feet

isiietclayswinh sella VO A ee ddan

Bile melas ite AAEM TANS 5 CATE Ue ee TE Ce 20."
Total thickness’. J! 2. <. cclab dat yee ei re Age dae a tae ie hatha

The shells are probably Macoma fusca Adams

Turning our attention to the southern portion of the state we
find clays in abundance, in all the valleys and lowlands, the exten-

1 Geol. New York, 4th district. 1843. p. 227.
2 m p. 444.
3 Roch. acad. sect. proc., 2: 181.

576 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

sive marshes near Randolph and Conewango for example being
underlain by clay throughout their entire extent.’

At Levant, 4 miles east of Jamestown, Chautauqua co., is an
interesting bed of blue clay underlying an area of several acres.
It is probably of postglacial age, and the section as determined by
an artesian well-boring is:

SYVelllowasamellp ates sets. RU ee ic sntordae “4A feet
Qin kcal eae eke we 2 eee 4. inches
Well vclawemer sare io. i. cc aimee ere tenenins 5 feet
me ie laa tees ote ac sexy cae ee era WOE?
leTerclyp chia eee even Cp sik oe. Seite. 2 the ARN
dkovalleauiartelkamess: 62°... 22). Ue a. 2 Secs metas Sore

The owner of the clay bed informed me that leaves were often
found between the layers of the clay at a depth of 15 or 20 feet.

At Breesport near Elmira there was a bank of blue clay rising
from the valley to a hight of 50 feet, but it represents the lens-
shaped type of clay deposit included in the moraine at many points,
and has been worked out. A similar deposit is found at New-
field 6 miles south of Ithaca, where a moraine crosses the val-
ley, the clay forming a large portion of one of the morainal hills,
but surrounded by till. Deposits of clay suitable for brick and tile
occur extensively in the lowlands bordering the Mohawk river
from Rome to Schenectady. The beds vary in thickness from 6
to 15 feet and are mostly of a red, blue, or gray color.

Among the most extensive and important clay formations
occurring in New York are those of the Hudson valley.” Here
are deposits of two types: 1) estuary deposits of fine stratified
sand, yellow and blue clay, and 2) cross-bedded delta deposits,
the materials of which are much coarser. The estuary deposits

indicate a period of depression, and deposition in quiet water.

1 Geol. New York, 4th district. 1843.
2 H. Ries, Rep’t of N. Y. state geologist, 1890.

‘aonounr sseyojnd ‘Hueq Avo “sorg espUplv ‘oloygd selu “H

*AO[[VA WOSpH_, oY} JO ABO poyljesys oy} S}Uesoidet SIU.L

LLG o8ed vo¥J OL @ vid

CLAYS OF NEW YORK MOT

The clay is chiefly blue, but where the overlying sand is wanting
or is of slight thickness, it is weathered to yellow, this weather-
ing often extending to a depth of 15 feet below the surface, and
to a still greater depth along the line of fissures through which
the water can percolate. The depth of oxidation is of course influ-
enced by the nature of the clay, the upper portion weathering
easily on account of its more sandy nature and hence looser text-
ure. Horizontal stratification is marked and the layers of clay
are separated by extremely thin laminae of sand. At some locali-
ties the layers of the clay are very thin and alternate with equally
thin layers of sandy clay. This condition is found at Haverstraw,
Croton, Dutchess Junction, Stonypoint, Fishkill, Cornwall, New
Windsor, Catskill and Port Ewen. At all of the above mentioned
localities except the last two, the clay is overlain by the delta de-
posits of rivers tributary to the Hudson, and the alternation of
layers may be due to variations in the flow of the rivers emptying
at those points, the sandy layers being deposited during period of
floods. ‘The delta of Catskill creek has been found at Leeds, some
2 miles west of the Hudson river.t The delta of Rondout creek,
which flows into the Hudson at Port Ewen, will no doubt be
found by following the creek back to the ancient shore line of the
Hudson estuary. Isolated ice-scratched boulders are not uncom-
monly found in the clay.

There is often a sharp line of division between the yellow
weathered portion and the blue or unweathered part of the clay.
The line of separation between the clay and overlying sand is also
quite distinct in most cases. Of the blue and the yellow clay the
former is the more plastic, but both effervesce readily with acid due
to the presence of 3%-6% of carbonate of lime, and are therefore,
properly speaking, marly clays. The clay is underlain by a bed
of gravel, sand, hardpan, boulder, till or bed rock. From Albany
to Catskill the underlying material is a dark gray or black sand

1W. M. Davis. Proc. Bost. soc. nat. hist. Nov. 1892.

578 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

with pebbles of shale and quartz. The sand grains are chiefly
ground-up shale, the rest being silicious and calcareous, with a
few grains of feldspar and garnet. This sand can often be used for
tempering, but at Catskill contains too much lime for this purpose.

I have not observed this underlying sand and gravel reaching a
greater hight than 90 to 100 feet above sea level.

From Catskill northward the clay is in most cases covered by
but a foot or two of loam, but south of Catskill it is mostly a fine
sand. At Catskill a terrace extends back 2 miles and probably
more; it is deeply incised by Catskill and Kaaterskill creeks and
smaller streams and rocky islands project above its surface at vari-
ous points. The terrace can be traced up to Walkill valley to a
point several miles south of New Paltz. Along the West Shore
railroad, track, about 150 feet south of the station, the side of the
cutting consists of thin alternating layers of clay and sand 27 feet
thick. Above this, in places, is 9 feet of fine, stratified, yellowish
sand. ‘The clay extends along the track for about one fourth of a
mile till it meets an outcrop of Hudson river sandstone. On the
south side of the Catskill mountain railroad, 100 feet from the
bridge, is an exposure of sand and gravel, the pebbles being very
coarse. It is presumably drift material, but the exposure is an
isolated one and does not show its relation to other deposits of the
vicinity. At Smith’s dock, on the land of T. Brousseau near the
river, the upper portion of the terrace escarpment. consists of fine
stratified sand, which has been excavated to a depth of 12 feet with-
out finding clay, while farther back from the river the clay extends
to within 2 feet of the terrace level.

The Hudson river shale rises steeply along the water’s edge °
from here down to Malden, and crops out at numerous points in
she terrace escarpment. ‘The clay along here is probably not of
great depth. Clay is found in the railroad cutting to the north’
of Malden station, about 7 feet above the track level, and clay is
exposed in numerous cuttings of the West Shore railroad, from

Malden to Mt Marion.

‘TID1838D SB YINOs Ivy se Aod[[BA UOSpNyT 94} Ul AvjO
84} SULAJIopUN PUNOJ SI YOM [Vidoe}eUM 94} SI SI, “AjJunoo Aueqry “AUeqIy ION }e ‘spoq [oAvIs puv pues Aivute}enb Jo wor}00g

‘oyoyd SNIAeN ‘N ‘¢

SLG e8ud 0B OL PF WVId

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 579

From Glasco to Rondout the terrace, which is perhaps one eighth
of a mile broad at Glasco, narrows as it nears Rondout, and has
an average hight of 150 feet. The clays, so far as could be ascer-
tained, lie on the upturned edges of the Utica shale.

At the rear of A. S. Staples’s yard hardpan underlies the clay.
The overlying material at this locality consists of sand and gravel,
in many instances stratified and sometimes cross-bedded. The
sand in some spots is 10 to 15 feet thick and fine enough to be
blown by the wind.

At Port Ewen the clay is mostly blue, resting on a mass of
hardpan, and in a few places on the glaciated rock surface. Accord-
ing to Mr Kline, of Port Ewen, the clay around the village is
nowhere over 18 feet in actual thickness and is underlain by hard-
pan. <A point worthy of notice is the difference in level of 50 feet
between the terrace at Port Ewen and at Glasco.

Tt has been suggested by Dr Frederick J. H. Merrill that this
may be due to the fact that, when sediment is deposited in a
basin its edge would be higher than the center. The Quaternary
formation broadens on toward the west, and Port Ewen would be a
point on the basin’s edge, while Glasco is near the center.

In this connection the following well records are of interest.
A boring made on the property of Isaac Tamney, at Eddyville,

showed:
Sanaa Moen teaisy ict A Ne ial a nel ls hal eit 9 10 feet
PADD lec n ae dint cr ree Se el RE ee LOPS
Bludgyclayi< asthe ene TIAN els kee. Omir
Garavely yy iike ee eee ee hs ESL RANE 9)

Motal, thigkmieses sya een duller e 90. “

580 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In boring another well at the same locality the following strata
were passed through:

Vellowcclaiy sine ee eee it... 2 nee 10 feet

Blue iclay pie eee eis 2 bo sas Sener eae DONG

Gira viel: St Re emePeeae. it ee: ele dees ate Betly
otal sthickaless eyo... . SR ae 2

Still another at Rosendale, on the land of R. Lefever:

oan tandeyellow saclay. wian ons tom oe mes ee 20 feet
SIH a0 acess 5.5 ae a MR ete Rl crea itn cae SO) ge
Blue clay Mamrantn sc: c's csi seclae aeeenomierate fer OS
Crea Meet ye ooo c/s, «lessee. al cial 6 eaircune ea ene eee .

MD oOtaleuanekmess’; ..4 5 Sak eee ee eee KOO 4?

At Lefever Falls:

Coarse ssamolun: tee 22: Te, SAE ee Bae 40 feet
Qutelkesantd eer eee, BASE ae ied ae (NO)
Blue: Claygreeack Gee e cal. Wee ee eee 42 “
B Bx) Gl keaentes Mihi Su Os 8 ee ERR EL SM Nl am

‘Total thickmess:. i. seeee endo es oe 1

At Rosendale plains:

Sara dhy-7e0 lig sueun utes a. 6%, icc 5 Gneievy ate eee 10 feet
Be Celaiy ae ie pesca ate te les saad te eal eR 10."
Oninclesaamd) Semen eek wiciic: S. « Act aa ee ee LOS a
Blue clay and quicksand alternating......... Oo
Total -thickwess yy. 2 0c. ccc eeee eee ike

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 581

We now come to a narrow portion of the river from Staatsburg
to New Hamburg, where the terrace if present is of small extent,
and presumably underlain by drift material.

Where the river broadens out again at Roseton, at the head of
Newburgh bay, there is a thick bed of clay. It is nearly all blue
and underlies the remnant of a terrace 120 feet high, which has
escaped entire destruction owing to its position in a reentrant
angle of the upper Cambrian limestone ridge along the river at
this point. The overlying stratified sand and gravel is 10 to 15
feet thick. At Jova’s upper yard the clay rests on the glaciated
limestone, over whose surface are scattered several boulders of
the same rock. ‘The clay at Rose’s yard is 180 feet thick, while
that at Jova’s has a total thickness of 240 feet. A boring of 135
feet made at Rose’s yard at river level is of interest in connec-
tion with the depth of the preglacial channel of the Hudson.

Borings recently made indicate that most of the 135 feet is sandy
blue clay.*

About 800 feet south of Roseton station the material under the
terrace is a yellowish loamy clay, thinly stratified. This may be
a portion of the secondary cone of the delta of Wappinger’s creek
at New Hamburg. North of this a cutting has been made in the
terrace escarpment, the section exposed showing alternating layers
of yellow and black sand.

From Newburgh to New Windsor the clay is overlain by the ex-
tensive delta deposits of Quassaic creek and Moodna river. To the
east of Mrs T. Christie’s yard the clay, which is mostly blue and
thin layered, is overlaid by fine gravel and sand obscurely cross-
stratified in places. Over this is 3 to 4 feet of sandy soil. The
upper layers of the clay are wrinkled in places, probably owing
to the oblique downward pressure of the overlying delta deposits.
It seems likely that at this spot only a small portion of them re-
mains, much having probably been eroded. At Lang’s yard, south
of Christie’s, there is 4 to 6 feet of sand and gravel over the clay,

Dae MH L809; 29). 18,

582 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of the same nature as that previously mentioned. Scattered
all through the clay are cobbles of limestone. The upper strata
are loamy and contorted, while underneath in the yellow clay, which
is very tough, the stratification is almost entirely obliterated. At
the next bank, also belonging to Lang, there is 6 feet of overlying
sand and gravel. Scattered through the clay are several boulders of
Calciferous sandrock, sandstone, black crystalline limestone and
gneiss. The overlying material is mostly unstratified and many of
the pebbles are 8 inches in diameter. At the bank of J. T. Moore
the clay is very tough, and the stratification is obliterated in
spots. Several ice-scratched boulders of light blue limestone, sand-
stone and Calciferous sandrock were found in the clay. In Moore
& Lahey’s bank the clay is tough and compressed, similar to the
other yards. It likewise contains scratched boulders, specially of a
light blue crystalline limestone. Over the clay is 2 to 4 feet of
coarse sand and gravel. :

In the west side of the New York, Ontario & Western railroad,
where it branches off from the West Shore railroad, a cutting in the
hillside shows a cross-bedded, yellowish sand and loamy clay with
patches of gravel and cobblestones in it. Following along the track
. a few hundred feet we come to the clay bank of C. A. and A. P.
Hedges. This shows an interesting section of blue clay overlain by
50 to 60 feet of cross-bedded delta deposits of sand and gravel. |
The clay layers are obliterated in spots and in others much con-
torted. To the north of Hedges’s yard in the railroad cutting the
clay is overlain by 5 to 6 feet of sand and coarse stones, unstratified.
Following up the track on the left side just beyond the crossing
of the road from Canterbury to New Windsor the embankment of
sand and coarse gravel is cross-stratified, beg a portion of the
delta of Moodna river. The character of this embankment changes
after about 400 feet to unstratified drift, containing boulders. This
underlies the delta material. The upper terrace at Cornwall is un-
derlain by boulder drift.

Its structure is well shown along the track at Cornwall. Olay

e

Plate 5 To face page 582

Clay at New Windsor showing glaciated boulder in it.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 583

was observed in a meadow opposite the Roman catholic church;
it was exposed in digging drainage trenches. Near this locality,
but a little nearer the river, were found several mastodon bones.

At Jonespoint there was formerly a small deposit of clay, but it
has been entirely worked out.

Haverstraw has three terraces, viz, at 20, 60 ant 100 feet.
The clay so far as known is only found underlying the two lower
ones, the upper one being underlain by drift and delta deposits.

There is a deposit of clay at Stonypoint forming a portion of the
20 foot terrace. The upper layers of clay are in places loamy and
undulating. Over the clay is a mass of unstratified material from
2 to 8 feet thick, and the upper surface of the clay is uneven.
The overlying unstratified material is a coarse sand full of cobble-
stones, gneiss, schist and granite, all of them rounded but not
scratched. On the hillside to the west of this deposit is a large,
isolated boulder of granite. The upper terrace at Stonypoint is
about 75 feet higher than the station level; a portion of this terrace
remains about one eighth of a mile north of Stonypoint station on
the west side of the track. On the west side of the track where it
crosses Cedar Pond brook the delta structure is observable in the
embankment, the upper portion of which consists of coarse sand,
pebbles and cobblestones which are mostly of gneiss. The lower
layers exposed at this point are quite argillaceous. A short distance
below the West Haverstraw station and some 500 feet west of the
track, an excavation had been made for tempering material. It
exposes a fine yellowish cross-stratified sand overlain by several feet
of coarse sand and cobblestones.

In T. Malley’s clay bank along the shore on the north side of
Grassy point, the clay is not found above tide level and is
overlain by 3 to 4 feet of fine gravel. To the northeast of
P. Brophy’s yard is the remnant of a terrace. It is composed of
obscurely cross-stratified sand and gravel, overlain by a few feet
of loamy clay, very thinly stratified and the layers wavy. There
is a boulder of norite in this bank; there are also cobblestones of

yee NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

diorite, gneiss and red sandstone. About 600 feet to the west of
the yard of D. Fowler jr & Washburn the clay is being excavated
in the terrace escarpment, which is here 45 to 50 feet high. It is
mostly blue, thinly stratified and overlain by obscurely stratified
gravel and sand. In this excavation was a small ice-scratched
boulder which had been found in the clay. At J. Brennan’s yard
the clay is overlain by 2 to 3 feet of fine sand, and on this is a
layer of indistinctly stratified fine gravel 6 to 7 feet thick,
with a covering of’one foot of soil. The terrace at this point is
about 50 feet high. Cobbles 1 to 2 feet in diameter of granite,
gneiss and pegmatite were found in this bank. Farther south at
Peck’s yard, several boulders of granite, limestone and sandstone
were found in the clay. Those seen were in the lower portion of the
bed, but I was told that several had been found in the upper
portion.

Along the river behind the yards of the Excelsior and Diamond
brick co. most of the overlying material has been removed by
stripping, but, judging from what is left, it must have been 10 te
15 feet thick. South of Haverstraw the contact of the clay with
the underlying drift can be observed, the clay thinning out as it
approaches the hill. Some 2 miles south from Haverstraw, and
half way between the stations of Ivy Leaf and Thiells on the New
York & New Jersey railroad in the valley of Ivory creek, is a basin-
shaped deposit of clay belonging to EK. W. Christie. It is not over
15 feet thick as determined by boring, and has a slightly elliptic
outline. The valley in which it lies is full of glacial material, and
contains numerous kames, whose axes lie parallel to the direction
of the valley. The clay is underlain by drift material containing
boulders of quartzite, calciferous sandrock, granite, sandstone,
gneiss and schist. Over the clay is 1 to 2 feet of sand contain-
ing large ice-scratched stones of quartzite, ‘oneiss and schist. This
clay deposit was probably formed in a small lake. If it were a
portion of the Hudson river estuary deposits, it would indicate a
much greater submergence than 100 feet, supposed for this region,

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 585

for this locality is 250 feet above the level of the Hudson river.
On either side of the track at Thiells are probably remnants of a
terrace.

The clay bank of the Anchor brick co. at Croton landing is
elliptic in outline and lies on a bed of granite, gneiss, schist, and
white crystalline limestone pebbles, cemented together by clay,
covered with limonite. Large pebbles are scattered through the
elay, the layers of which are undulating, conforming to the shape
of the underlying surface. Over the clay is 4 to 6 feet of gravel
and sand. South of this yard an excavation has been made under
the terrace for obtaining gravel, exposing a section of Croton delta.
Projecting up into it is a mass of boulder-till.

About the middle of Croton point are the clay pits of the Under-
hill brick co. Their clay is overlain by the sandy beds of Croton
delta. The material composing it was evidently derived from the ~
erystalline rocks of the surrounding country. It is often micaceous
and of a yellow color. Scattered through this sand are great num-
bers of botryoidal sand concretions, some of them forming masses
6 feet long and 3 to 4 feet wide. They show the layers of deposi-
tion of the sand.

The clay at Crugers, Montrose and Verplanck lies in hollows
in the rock, bemg as much as 50 feet thick in some places. At
Crugers it is overlain by a few feet of loam; at Montrose by
stratified sand, varying in depth from 5 to 20 feet, according to
borings made. Along the Hudson River railroad track below
Montrose, at Morton’s yard, the clay is overlain by from 8 to
10 feet of fine gravel, and cross-stratified sand of a dark gray
or black color. The materials composing it are, to a great extent,
ground up crystalline rocks. The same material covers the clay
at McConnell & O’Brien’s bank. At the clay beds of the Hud-
son river brick co. at Verplanck, the clay is covered by yellowish
sand and fine dark colored gravel; usually they are unstratified,
but in a few spots show cross-bedding.

A short distance below Peekskill, at Bonner & Cole’s yard, is
a remnant of a 20 foot terrace. There is here a deposit of clay

586 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

not extending more than 4 feet above tide, and overlain by
an unstratified layer 5 feet thick, of coarse sand and cobblestones,
mostly gneiss.

From Stormking station to Dutchess Junction there is a stretch
of terrace, which extends back to the foot of Breakneck and Fish-
all mountains. The maximum’ hight of it is 210 feet. Various
firms are digging clay in the terrace escarpment the greater part
of its length. A well of 65 feet sunk at Aldridge’s yard from
tide level still showed clay, and adding to this 65 feet of clay above
the river level gives us a thickness of 130 feet at this pomt. The
character and thickness of the overlying material varies somewhat.
To the rear of Timoney’s yard some 700 feet, the terrace has been
excavated to a depth of 30 feet, exposing a mass of coarse sand,
gravel and cobblestones, mostly granites, gneisses and schists. One
portion of it is stratified, and at the base of the excavation at one
point yellow clay has been found. At Timoney’s yard there is 1
or 2 feet of loam overlying the clay and a growth of brush
covers the terrace. At Van Buren’s yard the upper layers of clay
alternate with layers of sand; the upper 6 feet of the terrace at
this point is gravel, the pebbles of it being mostly granite and
gneisses. At Aldridge’s yard the clay is covered by 6 to 8 feet
of unstratified gravel and sand, while at another spot on top of
this bank is 12 or 15 feet of fine yellow sand, which shows no
stratification. The upper layers of Barnacue & Dow’s clay are
like those at Van Buren’s, but covered by 4 feet of sand and over
this in places 6 to 8 feet of coarse gravel. Nothing is known of
the underlying material at these yards.

The whole of Denning’s point is covered with a fine stratified
yellowish sand. The clay, which hes at the base of the point,
has a thin covering of loam, and the upper layers are somewhat
wrinkled.

There is another stretch of terrace similar to that below
Dutchess Junction and of the same hight, extending from one
half mile above Fishkill to Low point. At most places the clay
is covered by a few feet of loamy soil. Several boulders have
been found in the clay at Brockway’s yard. Several feet of loam

‘INO peuUly, SUIAeY ABO 94} ‘10}}e] 04} SuIA[IOpUN }lIp poyie1}s 94} pue
Aero oy SUIATIOAO WO] OY} JO 10¥}U0D OY} SMOYS 3] ‘“SULPUL] [[THUSTA JO Yom ‘paeAyoIIq s, AeMyOoIg Jo 4svoyqj}I0U oli J[ey 9uo OT}0ag

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 587

overlie the clay at Lahey’s, Brockway’s and Dinan & Butler’s
yards. At J. V. Meade’s yard, a short distance below Low point,
the clay is covered by about 3 feet of sand, faintly stratified,
and above this 6 to 8 feet of unstratified material; coarse sand,
pebbles and cobblestones, some of them 18 inches in diameter.
Most of them are archean rocks, but there are also fragments of
shale, limestone, sandstone and a few of them contained Paleozoic
fossils.

About 1000 feet south of Meade’s yard is a gravel bank 8
to 15 feet thick of material similar to that overlying the clay in
Meade’s bank. At the base of this embankment in a few spots
yellowish clay overlain by stratified sand has been struck.

The following sections are those of wells bored at Rhinebeck.
On the land of Robert Duckley:

oils aids yvelllonve Clatye it ee nter wane my <tc sn vie 10 feet

lle lange tecstey ior keen ee rar es dere in sie ure SZ,

ARO leeaira rast reaper i ancterctes rato rep tagey at ost Sato on
Mortetlesthvclenessy ey: isicter sues sass ciciesatty es oO

On T. Reed’s property:

Sail amelpvelllowrelaiy ort. oki srleyeic cade a's as. 20 feet
Ginieksam prereset asi ks urs bea ee a OO va
ieland pam apaewses) 20.00% cetera mete ne ec

Total eTinOlantene wien tee eee 120 “

On J. O’Brien’s property:

(CIE IR SAGA Bares ES A aici oe ear ee 20 feet
Bink sani cess. ORM eRe ee Ey, DN Es
ardpan. 2). os .s./s BGR eo Se Re ro
GT] I SP ga are 4) 2 Al le

Rovall:t hiclewess; si ss ee eee eu ckeroake tre ag Avie wise

588 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The clay deposits of Hudson, Stockport and Stuyvesant are
like those at Coeymans Landing, being, overlain in most places
by a few feet of loam and underlain by dark sand and gravel.
At Stockport two ice-scratched boulders were found in the clay;
one of them 3 feet in diameter, the other three times as large.
To the north of Brousseau’s yard at Stuyvesant the surface ma-
terial is stratified sand, 15 feet of it being exposed thus far.

Recently a number of borings have been made in the Hudson
river clays in the interest of a syndicate, and these corroborate
most of the observations already published. One interesting fact
brought out by the sections is the abruptness of the face of the rock
underlying the clays. The borings in no case attempted to go to
the bottom of the deposit, but stopped when the sandy beds of clay,
that seem to constitute a lower member of the deposit, were en-
countered. (‘‘ Economic geology of the Hudson river clays,”
C. C. Jones, Trans. Amer. inst. min. eng., Feb. 1899)

The delta deposits of the streams tributary to the Hudson river
are extremely interesting. They give us an idea of the size of —
the rivers flowing into the Hudson valley when it formed an
estuary, and also indicate the amount of depression which took
place at those localities. All three portions of a delta may be
observed in the ancient deltas on the Hudson; they are the thin
layers of loamy clay which form the secondary alluvial cone of
the delta, the cross-stratified sand and ‘gravel and the overlying
unassorted material. This was observed at Haverstraw, New
Windsor, Low point and Dutchess Junction.

The following streams between New York and Poughkeepsie
have formed delta deposits; (as noted by Dr Frederick J. H. Mer-
rill.) Wappinger creek, New Hamburg; Fishkill creek; Indian
ereek, Coldspring; Peekskill; Croton river; Pocantico river, Tarry-
town; Sawmill river, Yonkers; Tibbitt’s brook, Van Cortland;
Minisceongo creek, Haverstraw; Cedar pond brook, Haverstraw;
Moodna river, Cornwall; and Quassaic creek, Newburgh. At the

1Amer. jour. sci. June 1891. 3: 41.

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‘ojoyd sary “H

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rn
1} ee ~ Ane

z

‘00 LoJSoMOISeMA ‘SUIPUS] W0OJOID JO INOS o[]M SMO ‘}Nd POI[IvI UI BOP OAT WOJOID Jo uoOTW0eg ‘o1ogd sely ‘TH

*@9 GHOIMVED HSFINTTIVH dOOMNAM

68E ssvd vdRJ OL 8 Id

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 589

present day but traces of these deposits remain, and the streams
which formed them have cut down through them below tide
level. Dr Merrill thinks it highly probable that these deltas once
filled a large portion of the valley in the Highlands. At Roseton,
as already mentioned, there is a deposit which may have come
from the delta of Wappinger creek. Also at Jonespoint oppo-
site Peekskill there is a terrace composed of transported material,
which Dr Merrill for a while regarded as a portion of Peekskill
delta; the size of the pebbles composing it caused him to give up
this view. There is however in the upper portion of the terrace,
a layer of unassorted material which is slightly separated from the
rest; also at the south end of the terrace, a portion of thinly and
obscurely stratified loamy clay, which may have formed a portion
of the secondary cone of this delta. At Croton, Haverstraw and
Cornwall, also at New Windsor, the clay is overlain by delta ma-
terial, and where this occurs, specially at Croton, the upper limit
of the clay is comparatively low, it having probably been eroded
to a certain extent by the river entering the estuary at that point,
and again it is not likely that very much clay would be deposited
around the mouth of the river on account of the current. This
may have been the case below Peekskill.

In general the upper limit of the clay increases northward as
does the terrace level. ‘To illustrate this point we have the follow-
ing altitudes.

East side
Crolons ) eer ne ene eae eso Lf 100
| 2srel esl cell pe hy Da a Rh ko eRe) ea A 120
ert aL ie acco cee eee EL eed eden Cee CSO Ot 205
West side
IS a Sends Mee AVG e ae Meat OPM oe Sd os" A oa ad CEA On a 100
NAGS UO OING ES SAMO Re SERRA ey Sone! ci Ake 185
AO Cohreranrycrallles, tek dea eee AO si AM ROP eS atk Oe — 200
Mes yA Uae est ay l'on a2, eee Rone SGsUncelS'sy «sicn a). +m ¢ 205
LEGS TENET CN aoe PRR NERIERORA cc <0. RS a 207

SSELAINGIG 210 hy eRe en IP ogee too, cate ao 360

590 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

These measurements apply, of course, to the upper terrace,
which can be traced along many portions of the river.*

An examination of the above figures and the distances between
the points mentioned indicates an interesting fact. Between New
York and Peekskill, a distance of 45 miles, the terrace rises 40
feet, or eight ninths of a foot a mile. From Peekskill to West-
point the rise is eight feet a mile. From Westpoint to New-
burgh the terraces ascend 24 feet, and from Newburgh to Albany
about five twelfths of a foot a mile. From the above it would
seem that the uplift from New York to Albany did not increase
uniformly, but was slightly greater along the axis of the Highlands.
To determine this point definitely requires a large number of accur-
ate terrace measurements. ‘The following are the number of ter-

races noticed at the different localities.

WA An eT Site es a tire eho. eae ee cts tan eae, ae ea 2
IPOret SI WOT yb asta a ctea Gta ce hte ace ea Re ee 2
Coren wala cin ee totem oe pee POE Si aie 9
TT a WeTStR awe Mes oie oe Miliets arate. A oe ete ane et a ieee 2
Siow YOU emo a: Snatage, rah oie cee ary 8 ey yee os 3
Peles ie er 2 As 5 ae ts een oe 12
islakalh eco SARS Seales eke ike ee hea Nene oyna On re aa 2
Storm kia? Skee ysvatea. ian: cote ce ore Cececua UE ee eee ara tae 2
Sclvodacky si: aaaeren no.) aes sy ae ae Gage ears Loe ara 2

The shore line of the upper terrace is generally some distance
back from the river. In fact, as we go up the river, specially
above Port Ewen, the shore line recedes. At Port Ewen the ter-
race is 207 feet above tide, but it is fully 225 feet at the base of
Hussey mountain, which was an island in the estuary. The terrace
extends up the Wallkill valley several miles.* It seems not im-
probable that a shore line of this Quaternary deposit will be found
along the base of the Catskill mountains, or not far from there.

1 For detailed statement of terrace altitudes, see H. Ries. Trans. N. Y. acad.
sci. Nov. 1891,

2 There is possibly a second lower terrace at Peekskill.

3 Mather. Geol. New York, 1st dist. 1843. p. 131.

‘on AUBgLy ‘WeyelTIed WIN0G pur VUEeAEY useseMjeq JUSEMIdIvOSS SIeqIOpleH JO 300}; ye ureld AreuseyeNg

‘ojoyd sory “H

WH AgCyN am
a gO ae

po
NEE
Se

T6G esed soy OF 6 3°RId

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 591

At Coeymans Landing the terrace is 140 feet, and it rises to 177
feet at the West Shore railroad station, about a mile from the river
then a hill hides the farther continuation of it from view. Between
South Bethlehem and Callanans Corners the shore line of the
terrace along the base of the Helderberg escarpment is well seen.

From Catskill up to Albany the terrace at most points is very
wide. At Coxsackie it extends behind the hill to the south of
the town and comes down along Murder creek to Athens. From
Albany an alluvial plain, belonging to this formation, spreads
westward, reaching a hight of 360 feet near Schenectady. The
surface of these terraces is usually a loamy soil of much agricul-
tural value.

Following up Croton river as far as Croton lake, remnants of
terraces are seen at various points, their hight above the river bed
decreasing as we recede from the Hudson. The majority of these
detached pieces seem to belong to a terrace formed at the same
time as the 100 feet one at Croton landing. There are at a few
places traces of a second and lower terrace, and beside this a
third one, which is being formed by the river during its floods at
the present day.

From the facts as observed, quoted above, the following may be
deduced. That during the retreat of the ice sheet from the Hud-
son valley the glacial streams deposited as kames a great amount
of ground up material, principally shale, the material found under-
lying the clays along the upper portions of the valley.

That subsequent to the retreat of the glacier there was a depres-
sion of the land, which, according to Dr Merrill,! amounted to 80
feet at New York city and near Schenectady to about 360 feet.

During this period a great amount of plastic clay was depos-
ited, produced by glacial attrition of the shales and limestones,
the latter no doubt giving to it the marly character and influencing
its color.

The upper portion of the clay is more silicious, and overlying it
is an extensive deposit of sand, indicating a change in the nature

1Amer. jowr. sci. June 1891.

592 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of the material washed into the estuary. During the period of
submergence much of the silicious matter washed into the estuary
was deposited at the mouths of the tributary streams to form deltas.

It has been suggested by Dr Merrill’ that the change in the
estuary deposits from clay to sand might be due to the exposure
by elevation of an area of land around the basin, which would
afford more silicious matter.

An elevation would be accompanied by an acceleration of the
streams, and much of the silicious matter transported by them
would be carried farther out into the estuary and spread over its
bottom, while the finer clayey sediment would be carried out to
sea. A readvance of the ice, it would seem, would likewise cause
an acceleration of the streams, and with the results stated above.

To account for the isolated boulders in the clay, it seems highly
probable that icebergs or icefloes having stones and dirt imprisoned
within their mass detached themselves from the retreating glacier,
and, floating down the estuary to the sea, dropped their burdens.

The unstratified material found with it and in some cases over-
lying the stratified delta deposits is a matter of interest as con-
cerns its origin. ‘Three things may be noticed regarding it.

1 The material is sand, pebbles and cobblestones lying mixed
together without any separation of the coarse from the fine.?

2 The pebbles and stone are rounded and do not show any
scratches. _

3 The materials are mostly of the same character as the rocks of
the vicinity.

Now as the land rose from its submergence the velocity and
with it the transporting power of the streams would increase,
washing down quantities of large stones and gravel. Dr Merrill
considers that a rapid flow of water took place down through the
Hudson valley in the late Quaternary. This water must have come

1Amer. jour. sci. June 1891.
*The only locality where stratification was observable was at Timoney’s
yard, near Dutchess Junction.

‘julod MOTT Jo qj10U ‘yURq S,‘0D 3 epvoy 7 AVIO SUIA[IOAO [VI1OJeU poeyiiesjsuyQ ‘ojoyd soly ‘H

peyne.nsun

Z6g osed v0By OT, OT °Id

AS este ey ow

oh Raspes ty

‘aI04§ 1S9M 2G} SI
PpUNoId10J 94} Ul You!] pvorpier aq} puv Avo Aq Wiv[AOpUN st oovI1E] OTL “[1h1s}eO JO sem OSTIUM oUO ‘a0vII02 UIe[dmILyO Sssoloe seo SulyOO, MOA

‘oyoyd sant “H

a6g ee8vd oR OF, IT Id

.
~*~

Plate 12 To face page 592

Terrace and sand pit, south of Dutchess Junction N. Y.

oN
i ‘ :
es ae | ‘
F .
. no of e ‘
. ¢ . “ -
‘
yy, * :
< 7
Bat
fee ‘
\ e ;
\ 3 ’ i
¢ a SS aa Serre ei cai) vat ‘
2
F he,
.
* ¥ : * ‘

¥

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 593

down through the valleys of the tributary streams, having a much
greater velocity in their valleys than it would have after it turned
into the Hudson valley, and the checking of its velocity as it
reached the Hudson would cause the deposition of the greater part
of its load. A large stream rushing down the valley of the Fish-
kill would drop its burden specially below it, where we find them
heaviest as the flow of the water was toward the south. Again,
Peekskill would behave in a similar manner.

A curious and interesting phenomenon is the crumpling of the
clay at many localities. This disturbance often extends through-
out the section, and has been caused by slips or pressure from
above, as when the clay is covered by a thick delta deposit.
Prof. R. P. Whitfield has told the writer of instances where the
clay layers had been disturbed to a depth of several feet from
the surface by the weight of boulders and large trees. In many
instances there occurs a crumpled strip of clay between layers
which are entirely undisturbed; this has been actually observed
by the writer to have been caused by slipping of the clay.

Clay concretions. ‘These are of common occurrence, specially
in the yellow clay. ‘They are of varying form and size. Many
of them have a cylindric hole in the center, which is lined with
carbonaceous material. The flat concretions are found parallel
to the layers of the clay, and in many instances at a depth from
the surface to which the roots penetrate.

Those found at a greater depth did not have the central cylin-
dric cavity. They are very abundant in the yellow clay at
Haverstraw. Roots penetrating the clay at this locality were
surrounded by lumps of clay in the form of concentric rings.
These might seem to indicate the method of formation described
by Prof. J. D. Dana (Manual of geol. p. 628). Again in the
yellow clay near the surface at Coxsackie were found some forms
which were similar in appearance to what Dr J. I. Northrup has

described as rhizomorphs.| They may be due to the roots which

1Trans. N. Y. acad. sci. 13 Oct. 1890,

594 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

penetrate the clay, absorbing water from it and rejecting the
contained lime, which deposits itself around the root forming the
hard rhizomorph. ‘Their interior structure is crystalline.

Another form of concretion is found in the delta sands at Croton
point. It consists of botryoidal masses of sand, cemented by oxid
of iron. Some of them show the layers of deposition of the sand.
The concretions are usually small, but one mass was noticed fully
6 feet long and 4 feet wide.

Concerning the crigin of these concretions various opinions are
expressed by different geologists.

Organic remains are extremely rare in these clays. The
writer has discovered sponge spicules, probably referable to
Hyalonema or an allied genus, and which are figured. The
following diatoms were also found: Navicula Gruendleri
A. 8.; Navicula permagna, Edw. (fragments); Melo-
sira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs; Nitzshia granulata
Grun., all fresh water species. At Croton landing a number of
impressions were found in the blue clay and on being submitted
to Prof. Hall were pronounced to be worm tracks. Mather in his
report’ mentions the finding of leaves in the clay beds back of the
medical college at Albany, and states that they resemble those of
an aquatic plant.

Clays of the Champlain valley?

The clays of the Champlain valley are estuary formations of
the same age as the Hudson river clays. They underlie terraces
along the lake which have been elevated to a hight of 393 feet
above sea level. These terraces may be traced almost continu-
ously from Whitehall, at the head of Lake Champlain, to the
nerthern end of the lake and beyond it, but on account of the
extensive erosion which has taken place they are usually narrow,
and it is only at sheltered points like Port Kent and Beauport
that they become specially prominent. The section involved is

1 Mather. Geol. New York, 1st dist. 1842. p. 123.
2 Compiled largely from Emmons’s Report geol. N. Y., 2d dist.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 595

yellowish brown sand, yellowish brown clay and stiff blue clay,
the latter being rather calcareous. ‘he upper clay is somewhat
silicious, and its coloring is due to the weathering of the lower
layer. This formation has a thickness of about 15 feet, but some-
times, as at Burlington, it reaches a thickness of 100 feet. Iso-
lated boulders are occasionally found in the clays, and are con-
sidered by Emmons to have been dropped there by icebergs. The
elays are usually horizontally stratified, and contortions of the
layers are extremely rare. Numerous fossils have been found in
the overlying sands, among them being Saxicava rugosa
Lamarck and Tellina groenlandica Beck, which are
very common; Tritonium anglicum, Tritonium
fornicatum, Mytilus edulis linn, Pecten islan-
dicus Chemnitz, Mya truncata Linn, M. arenaria
Linn., Nucula portlandica; the skeleton of a whale has
also been found in these deposits.’

Openings have been made in them for the purpose of obtaining
brick clays at Plattsburg and a few other localities, but, owing to
the lateness of the season when I visited them, information was
hard to obtain.

Long Island clays

Long Island is made up of a series of sands, gravels and clays,
which form two parallel ranges of hills in the northern half of
the island, while the southern half is a flat plain. The most
southern of the ranges represents the limit of the drift.”

The clay beds are exposed along the north shore of the island
and at several points along the main line of the Long Island rail-
road. In describing them I have gone east along the north shore
and come back through the center of the island.

In a paper on the geology of Long Island, (previously cited)

1 The writer has found one species of diatom belonging to the genus diatoma,
in the clay from Plattsburg.

2For a detailed account of the topography of Long Island see Mather,
Geol. New York, 1st dist. 1843; W. Upham, A. J. S., 111, 18; F. J. H. Mer-
rill, “Geology of Long Island,” Ann. N. Y. acad. sci. 1884.

596 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Dr F. J. H. Merrill deseribes in detail the formations exposed
on the island, and mentions the insufficiency of data necessary to
afford definite conclusions concerning the sequence of geologic
events. Examinations of the various clay outcrops on the island
since made show that eight years have made considerable changes ;
permitting the collection of additional data and obliterating many
localities described by him. With the exception of four similar
depssits on the north shore, all the,clay beds as exposed at the
brick yards are rather unique in appearance.

The most western clay outcrop on Long Island, of which the
writer has any knowledge, is on Elm point near Greatneck.*
There is here a bed of stoneware clay over 30 feet thick, overlain
by 15 to 20 feet of yellow gravel and drift. The clay is lark
gray and contains streaks of lignite in a good state of preservation.
In appearance the clay resembles the Cretaceous cnes of New
Jersey and will doubtless prove to be of the same age. The over-
lying yellow gravel contains sandstone concretions and also sand-
stone fragments containing Cretaceous leaves.”

There is an outcrop of clay at Glencove on the east shore of
Hempstead harbor, at the mouth of Mosquito inlet. This has
long been considered of Cretaceous age from the plant remains
found* in sandstone fragments embedded in the clay. The layers
of the latter are blue, red, black or yellow, and dip northeast
10°-15°. Near this locality and on the south shore of Mosquito
inlet is an outcrop of pink clay, belonging to Carpenter Bros.
and used for fire brick and stoneware. Dipping under it to the
north at an angle of 30° is a bed of alternating layers of quartz
pebbles and clay. ‘The pebbles crush easily to a white powder.
Associated with this clay is a bed of feldspathic clay called “ kaolin,”
but the exact relations of the two deposits are not known. And

similar clay also crops out from under the gravels of the west shore

1H. Ries, “ Notes on the clays of New York state,” Trans. N. Y. acad. sct.,
12.

2C. L. Pollard, “ Note on Cretaceous leaves from Elm point, L. I.,” Trans.
N.Y. acad. sct., 13.

3 A. Hollick, Trans. N. Y. acad. sci., 12.

Plate 138
To face page 596

Stratified sands and gravels, Port Washington L. I.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 597

of Hempstead harbor. Carpenter’s clay resembles that of Cretace-
ous age found on Staten Island, but its age has yet to be proven.
The sandstone fragments found in the clay across the inlet are found
along the shore of it to Carpenter’s clay bank, but none are found
in it. Dr. Merrill has found plant remains in this clay, but they
were not sufticiently well preserved for identification. (See paper
previously cited.) A microscopic examination of the clay revealed
the presence of the following diatoms; all freshwater forms:

Melosira granulata (thr.) Ralfs

Stephanodiseus Niagarae (Ehr.)

Diatoma hyemale (%) K. B.

A deposit of gray sandy clay 30 feet thick was uncovered on the
north of Mosquito inlet in the spring of 1898, on the property
of Mrs Helen McKenzie, but it is distinctly different in its char-
acter from that on the south side of the inlet.

On Center island in Oyster bay we find the most western of
a series of clay beds which bear a great similarity to each other.
The others are on West neck, at Freshpond and on Fisher’s island.
The clay on Center island consists of two kinds, a lower bluish
clay and an upper brown sandy clay. Overlying this latter is a,
stratified sand. The layers of clay undulate in several direc-
tions. Dr Merrill mentions the occurrence, 1 mile north of
this clay pit, of a bed of white fire clay at a depth of 25 feet
under the drift and sand. The only organism thus far met in
this clay is one species of diatom, viz, Stephanodiscus
Niagarae (Ehr.), and a curious spiny hair.

At Jones’s brick yard on the east shore of Coldspring harbor
is a thick deposit of clay. The lower portion is tough and con-
tains ttle sand. The upper portion is much more sandy and of
a brown color. The clay bank is over 100 feet in hight, the layers
having been folded under the pressure of the advancing ice sheet.
A layer of diatomaceous clay occurs in the upper portion of the clay
bank; its position is shown in the following section given by Dr.
Merrill.*

1lAnn. N. We acad. sci. 1884.

598 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ~

fe? dard stratinledmebricht 7a weiehe eters 10 feet
Quartztovavely sspears stoke oro eee ee 45 “
Red and blue “loam ” or sandy clay......... 20a
Dratomeaceous’ eagle... cee oreo Suen
Yellow and red stratified sand...... Pal cas eicean esis | 20 feet
Red plastic clayey... Vn ne cesteune ee 20°
Brown plasivenclay eof se c.. ih Nak ae gtaeege eps eust HB)
otal gees alana ee Tags

“The bed of diatomaceous earth is of undetermined extent,
and appears to be replaced a little to the east by a blue clay,
which, however, contains some diatoms. It is undoubtedly equiv-
alent to the bed of ochre which overlies the sand throughout the

remainder of the section.”

The following diatoms, all freshwater species, occur in it.
Melosira granulata (EKhr.) Ralfs
Stephanodiscus Niagarae (Ehr.)
LH pithemia turgida (Khr.) Kutz.
Hncyonema ventricosum Kutz.
Cymbella delicatula Kutz.

_Cymbella cuspidata Kutz.
Navicula viridis Kutz.

coconetformis Greg.

major Kutz.

varians Greg.

“lata Breb.

_Hunotia monodon Ehr.
Gomphonema capitatum Ehr.
Stauroneis Phoenecenteron Ehr.
Fragilaria construans Grun.
Synedra affinis K. B.
Campyloneis Grevillet var. regalis.
Triceratwum trifoliatum

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 599

The Melosira and Stephanodiseus are present in
countless numbers. Only two specimens were found of the
Triceratium, and Dr D. B. Ward, of Poughkeepsie, who
has also given me much aid in the identification of my material,
informs me that this species is very common in the diatomaceous
earth from Wellington, New Zealand, but he has never heard of
its occurrence before in America. Sponge spicules are not un-
common in Lloyd’s neck diatomaceous earth, and several forms
are figured. Samples of the red and brown clay from the sec-
tion given above were examined, but no organic remains were

found in them.

600

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

(Magnified 500 diameters, except Fig. 1, which is enlarged 250

iG
Fia.
ine.
One,
ie
ane
Jee
Fie.
ithe
ine

bo

gs)
14

pS)

\e

gk b&

bo to
HS

>)

Gp) (Ox

diameters )

Sponge spicules. Croton point

Melosira granulata (Khr.) Ralfs. Croton point
Navicula Gruendelerr A. 8. Croton point
Diatoma sp? Plattsburg

Diatom fragment from Croton point

Navicula permagna Edw. Croton point
Sponge spicules. Kreischerville, 8. I.

From clay at Verplank

Nitszchia granulata Grun. Croton point
From clay at Croton point

.
ee

To face page 600

Plate 14

26

C.T Ries, de).

Micro-organisms from the clays of New York.

4
i

To face page 601

Plate 15

~N

TTT NE
UNIS

Ke

C.T Ries, der.

Micro-organisms from the clays of New York.

nie.
TG.
Fie.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
TG.
ies
EG:

Fie.
ne:
HIG.
his
ire:
linge
Fie.
TG:
Pic.

Fia.
Fie.

Minces
Pre.

TG:

ine:

14

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 601

(Magnified 500 diameters)
Jointed hair. Wyandancee, L. I.

Ridged tube from stoneware clay. Glencove, L. I.

Spicules from ecretaceous clay at Glencoye, L. I.

Spicules from Lloyd’s neck, L. I.

Spicule fragment? Farmingdale, L. I.

Diatoma hyemale. Glencove, L. I.

Navicula viridis Kutz. Lloyd’s neck, L. I.

Cymbella cuspidata Kutz. bloyd’s neck, L. IL.

Campyloneis Greviller var. regalis. Lloyd’s neck, |

Dalia

Cocconema parvum W. Smith. Northport, L. I.

Triceratium trifoliatum. Lloyd’s neck, L. I.

Hunotia monodon Ehr. Lloyd’s neck, L. I.

Navicula lata Breb. Lloyd’s neck, L. I.

Encyonema ventricosum Kutz. Lloyd’s neck, L. I.

Synedra affinis K. B. Lloyd’s neck, L. I.

Fragilaria construans Grun. © Lloyd’s neck, L. L

Gomphonema capitatum Ehr. Lloyd’s neck, L. I.

Enithema turgida (Ehbr.) Kutz. Lloyd’s neck,
JE Ale

Navicula cocconeiformis Greg. Lloyd’s neck L. I.

Stauroneis phoenecenteron Ehr. Lloyd’s neck,
el:

From clay at Northport, L. I.

Melosira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs. Lloyd’s neck
and Glencove, L. I.

Stephanodiscus Niagarae Ehr. Lloyd’s neck and
Glencove, L. I.

From clay at Oyster bay.

602 ‘ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Conceretions are abundant in the clay on Center island and West
neck. ‘Those found at the latter locality are disc-shaped, while
those found on Center island are more or less botryoidal.

Silicified yellow gravel fcssils have been found by the writer
in the sands on West neck, and more were subsequently found
in other localities by Dr Hollick.?

On Little neck, in Northport bay, is an extensive deposit of
stoneware clay and fire sand, which has been worked for a num-
ber of years. The clay is stratified, the layers being separated
by laminae of sand. In color the material varies from black to
brown and yellow, and it becomes sandy in its upper portion.
There is a dip of 15° se due to a slipping of the clay bank.
Overlying the clay is cross-bedded fine sand and gravel, the latter
containing much coarse material near the surface. Very little
till covers the whole. Much fine, white fire sand occurs in por-
tions of the bank. A careful examination of the section showed
a brownish black seam of the clay, 2 feet thick, containing
numerous fragments of plant remains, of which a number were
sufficiently well preserved to determine the Cretaceous age of the
clay beyond doubt. ‘The species were identified for me by Dr
Hollick as follows:

Protaeoides daphnogenoides Heer
Paliwurus integrifolia Hollick
Laurus angusta Heer

Myrsine sp.

Willtamsonia sp.

Celastrophyllum sp.

Palwurus sp.

1Trans. N. Y. acad. sei., 12.
2Trans. N. Y. acad. sci., 13.

_—

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 603

The latter resembles Paliurus Columbi (Heer); a
Tertiary species (F1. foss, arct. 1: 122, pl. 17, fig. 2), but is much
smaller and very probably a new species. The above species are
the same as those found in the middle Cretaceous clays of Staten
Island N. Y., and Perth Amboy, N. J.

Three species of diatoms, all fresh water forms, were also dis-
covered in this clay.

Melosvra granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs

Diatoma hyemale K. B.

Cocconema parvum W. Smith

The occurrence of these diatoms is a matter of great interest.

While diatoms are abundant in the Tertiary, their only known
occurrence in the Cretaceous is the chalk* which is upper Cre-
taceous. This being the case, their occurrence at Northport extends
the known geologic range of diatoms.

At Freshpond the clay crops out along the shore for a distance
of half a mile. It is brownish and red in color, the red being more
sandy. Sand and gravel overlie it, and at Sammis’s yard the sand,
which is stained by limonite, shows a fine anticlinal fold.

One of the most interesting clay banks is that on Fisher’s island.
The clay is of a reddish color similar to that on West neck and
Center island, and in its original condition was horizontally strati-
fied and overlain by 20 to 30 feet of laminated sand. But the
whole deposit has been disturbed by the ice sheet passing over it,
and the layers have been much crumpled to a depth of about 30
feet, while below this they are undisturbed. The till overlying it
is in places 30 feet thick and contains large boulders.

Dr Merrill mentions the presence on Gardiner’s island,” of ex-
tensive beds of brick clay together with their associated sand beds,
(they are not being worked) and notes the occurrence of a fossil-
iferous stratum. Olay is also said to outcrop near Sag Harbor and
around the shore of Hog neck in Peconic bay.

1 Nicholson. Manual of palaeontology. 2: 1490.
2 Previously cited.

604 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM .

‘ Between Southold and Greenport are several deposits of a red

glacial clay which is used for brick. The clay contains angular

stone fragments and runs from 50 to 60 feet in thickness. About
one mile and a half east of Southold is a bed of mottled blue pottery
clay which has been used for a number of years in making flower
pots. The depth of this deposit is not known.

At West Deerpark is a clay bank of unique appearance. In
July 1892 the section showed: |

Mellow gravel iiss are ees ee 6 feet
Containing iitesh' colored ‘clay 2s 5 fue os aes Ga

concretions | Red Clay. 2 aii en ie ieee “aid Oot

| idlaek-clay syatliipyite eerie eee 4 feet

Black sandy clay inane) mie ase 4% 5

Red; sandy-:claiy An ate ee ere 3 unm

i otaliatinclkenecseoneee tee ee Oi

Lenticular masses of gray sand are sometimes found in the
black clay. The black clay also contains frustules of
Melosira granulata, (Ehr.) Ralfs, and numbers of a
jointed yellowish brown hair, resembling those of a crustacean.
The black clay burns to a white brick. About 4 miles west of this
locality near Farmingdale the section in Myers’s clay pit is:

Dam antdmoraviel’ Nis. ccs tatereye se eareneliay see 6 feet
Reed" samdiviellayeci 2. sc. «ccf oy osuceon eae rege pone Gi
Yellow and red sand, wavy lamination....... Orne
Reddishivelilow clays. < Aoec: ane eee Cue
Reddish plitesclay. .t.\. "52°. :ctsecus eee eee eae 20 eiee
Micaceous sand, cross-bedded..............

Motaletlavekavess.- 15 area eee ee An

°
Se a, Se a

‘T ‘TT orepSulumiieg JO Y}1OU salit Jey ouo puyY ouO “Od YorIq AVM Uopivy ‘yurq ARTO ‘ojoyd sory “H

FO9 96vd VOL OF, 9T 981d

ae
m =
Goa ets,
fosd
%
Te
i a
\ : :

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 605

About one quarter mile south of Myers’s brick yard is that of

Stewart. The section at this locality (now obliterated) as given
by Dr Merrill’:

Surface stratum yellow micaceous clay............4.. 35 feet
emoisheanmosady Clay <aectaetetre mst: oe ees ose Deane
Blue black sandy clay with nodules of white pyrites.... 25 “
| IMS) Sy 0 lif a eee aR Acs eS ee ee ee a
dNopalstlaivekiaesa es cy cee ener este 5). G6 as cdi e 9» Gi S

A local deposit of grayish blue sandy clay occurs at East Willis-
ton. It varies in depth from 6 to 20 feet and is underlain by
sand. On my last visit to this locality I found a number of stems
and leaf fragments in the clay but none sufficiently well preserved
for identification.

There is still some doubt as to the exact conditions under which
the beds of clay and gravel which form the greater portion of
Long Island were deposited, but it is probable that the clays repre-
sent shallow water marine deposits of Cretaceous and Tertiary age.
The overlying sands and gravels have in most instances a cross-
bedded structure, with a south dip, and were probably deposited
by swift currents as stated by Dr Merrill.

The age of the clays is still largely a matter of speculation, and
will probably remain so in many eases unless paleontologic evidence
is fortheoming. ‘Those on Gardiner’s island are quite recent, as
shown by the contained fossils, and the clay on Littleneck near
Northport is Cretaceous as previously noted. The proof of the
age of the Glencove clay is not absolute.

Cretaceous leaves in fragments of ferruginous sandstone have
been found along the north shore of Long Island from Greatneck

1. J. H. Merrill. ‘“ Geology of Long Island,” Ann. N. Y. acad. sci. Nov.
1884.

606 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

to Montauk point,’ but they are usually much worn and scratched
and have evidently been transported from some distant source.
The clays at Center island, West neck, Fresh pond and Fisher’s
island are very similar in appearance and composition, and are very
probably of the same age, possibly Tertiary,” but we lack paleon-
tologic or stratigraphic evidence. At West neck the clay under-
lies the yellow gravel and the latter is covered by the drift, so that
is Prepleistocene.

The theory has been put forth that the Cretaceous formation
on Long Island would be found north of a line joining the southern
border of the Cretaceous formation of New Jersey and Marthas
Vineyard,* and that outcrops south of this might be Tertiary; in
view, however, of determining the clay at Littleneck near North-
port to be Cretaceous, we must abandon this theory.

An interesting phenomenon is the tilting and crumpling of the
strata on the north shore of Long Island. This disturbance is
specially well shown on West neck, and was considered by Dr
Merrill to be due to the pressure of the advancing ice sheet,* which
excavated the deep narrow bays and pushed the excavated material
into high hills at their head. Dr Merrill’s views have been recently
corroborated in a paper on “‘ The deformation of portions of the
Atlantic coast plain,’ by A. Hollick,* who, in disputing the possible
orogenic origin of these folds, calls attention to the fact that they
are found only along the line of the moraine, and that the beds are
disturbed only to a certain depth. The disturbance is well shown
at Glencove, West neck, Freshpond and on Fisher’s and Gard-
iner’s islands. It is important, however, not to confound tilting
of the layers, due to slipping, as is the case on Littleneck near
Northport, with that produced by the ice-thrust.

1A. Hollick. “ Notes on geology of north shore of Long Island,” Trans. N.
Y. acad. sci., 13.

2 This idea is also expressed by Dr Merrill.

3“ Geology of Long Island.” Ann. N. Y. acad. sci. 1884.

4Trans. N. Y.-acad. sci., 14.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 607

Both Dana and Merrill consider Long Island sound to be of
preglacial origin. The former calls attention to a channel in the
southern part of the sound, which probably was that of a river
draining Connecticut in preglacial times, and which emptied into
Peconic bay. The latter points to the absence of till along the
north shore of Long Island where the sound is wide, as evidence
of the fact that most of the drift was dropped into the sound by
the ice in its passage across it.

On the other hand Hollick considers that Long Island sound
was dry land till the glacial period, and that the continental glacier
upon its arrival on the Connecticut shore plowed up the material
from the space now occupied by the sound and pushed it ahead to
form the range of hills along the northern part of Long Island.
It seems to the writer however that the facts do not support this ,
theory. If we suppose the northern range of hills to be composed
of material pushed up out of the area now occupied by the sound,
it should everywhere show signs of disturbance. This it does not
do. The high hills of sand and gravel at Port Washington for
example show no signs of disturbance.

Mention should be made of a yellow gravel formation. This is
found almost everywhere on Long Island, and sections in the rail-
way cuttings frequently show a thickness of 30 or 40 feet.

Staten Island clays

The chief outcrops of clay on Staten Island are at Kreischerville,
Greenridge and Arrochar. Besides the clay there are several sand
beds known as “ kaolin.”

In many instances the clays and overlying yellow gravels have
been much disturbed by the passage of the ice over them, and in
some cases the sections show overthrown anticlines, as on the finger-
board road at Clifton.

W. Kvreischer informed me that the clay at Kreischerville occurs
in isolated masses or pockets in the yellow gravel and sands. If

such is the case, smd if these beds, as is usually supposed, are a

608 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

continuation of the New Jersey beds, they must be explained as
follows: either the original beds have been torn apart by the ice
which bore down on them, or else they have been deeply eroded
by the currents which deposited the overlying sands and gravels.
The writer favors the latter view.

A boring made on the site of Kreischer’s fire brick factory

showed: »
Sancamd ysonll peas 2.0.5. sweuet eae eer 30 feet
Bie, telaye cepa the eet 6 618 slecerey ered eek S0pe
Wilitepsaindisar nei ait: h)) dco aod steak nit dense aoe ern Oe nee
Sandvand iélaymaliermatimng saerey\o in eedaia (goes
Po tals tai@ketess oie veycue 6 eee a eesieeepely 200

Next to the church at Kreischerville is a bank of stratified sand
standing some 40 feet back from ithe road. It appears to have
been dug away considerably, but Mr Kreischer informed me that
there was once a large mass of clay at this spot which was sur-
rounded by the sand. To the north of this near the shore is a
bank of blue stoneware clay overlain by yellow laminated sand,
and southeast of the church is a similar bank, but the clay is of
a more sandy nature. <A third opening is opposite Kilmeyer’s
hotel at Kreischerville, and from this a yellow mottled fire clay is
obtained. This latter bed is overlain by about 20 feet of sand and
yellow gravel and underlain by a white sand.

A fourth opening on the shore is in a blue clay. It has always
been an interesting question as to what extent Staten Island was
underlain by the Cretaceous formation; the following record of a
well bored for Bachman’s brewery at Annandale, S. I., seems to
throw some light on the subject. At a depth of 200 feet a bed
of yellow gravel containing shells was struck. The gravel was
36 feet in thickness and beneath it was a bed of clay 10 feet thick.
The latter was of a white and blue color and was said to resemble
a fine pottery clay.

Plate 17 To face page 608

Cretaceous clay pit at Kreischerville. The yellow gravel overlies the clay.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 609

The above may very possibly be some of the Cretaceous clay
overlain by the yellow gravel. Borings made at various points
along the shore of Arthur’s kill, between Kreischer’s factory and
Wood & Keenan’s brick yard, penetrated a blue clay at a depth
of 3 or 4 feet. This latter is no doubt of very recent origin.

At the Anderson brick co.’s pit near Greenridge, the lower
elay, which is of a black color, shows signs of disturbance,
and slickensided surfaces are common. ‘The upper portions of
the bank are of blue and gray colors, and at one spot there is a
thick seam of lignite. The clay is not sufficiently refractory for
fire brick. Fragmentary plant remains were found by the writer
in this pit, but they. are not nearly so perfect as those found in
the fire clay pit at Kreischerville, and which have been figured
and described in minute detail by Dr Arthur Hollick of Columbia
university. .

Spicules have been observed in the fire clay at Kreischerville,
Staten Island. In the kaolin found near Kreischerville were dis-
covered a number of diatoms, which Dr Ward informs me are
either Cocconeis placentula Ehr., or Cocconeis
Pedieulis Ehr. Their occurrence is also of great interest,
as these kaolins are known to be middle Cretaceous beyond doubt.

Stony glacial clays occur also underlyiny the flats at Green
ridge, Staten Island.

One mile and a quarter northeast of Kreischer’s fire brick fac-
tory an excavation has been made for obtaining a micaceous kaolin.
About 15 feet of it is exposed. A quarter of a mile north of this
locality is the pit of the Staten Island kaolin co. The kaolin is evi-
dently a continuation of that exposed in Kreischer’s pit, but is ap-
parently not as thick.. The deposit has suffered disturbance by the
ice sheet and the layers are intermixed with the till. At the north-
east side of the excavation a bluish sandy clay containing frag-
ments of lignite is found to underlie the kaolin.

In the spring of 1898 Kreischer Bros. opened a new pit just

610 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

across the road from Kilmeyer’s hotel. The clay is pure white and
some of it contains 97% of clay substance. It is extremely refrac-
tory, as shown by the tests given in a later part of the report. At
the time of my visit the workings were not deep enough to show
the relations of the clay deposit.

As the Cretaceous clays, kaolins and yellow gravels are a con-
tinuation of the belt te ACLOSS. New Jersey, the history of
their deposition is the same.*

The following analysis of the so-called kaolin from Campbell’s
pit on Staten Island is given in the New Jersey clay report cited

above.

Silicic acid and sand Ti PMN Gene Ral e iran ors Sin tc er tae he 9)7)./71(0)
NTS © serine: SHS Osa Gi cake Saas ca Caan Ve eta tie te eee LN A Send
fe OMe tneain oN a, etet Mer enn wine Spats SiGe ere Meena Lise 5 70
1 5Gk OA ener od rh R PEA er RRR OL Ran LARK VE 35

A point that impresses itself on one’s notice is the abrupt change
in color which often takes place in the clays of the Staten Island
Cretaceous, the same bed at one place being brilliantly colored by
iron, while only a few feet from it the clay may be perhaps black,
or even nearly pure white.

The Cretaceous age of the Staten Island clays has been clearly
demonstrated by the many specimens of leaves described by Dr
Arthur Hollick from these beds. (See “ Paleontology of the Ore-
taceous formation on Staten Island,” Trans. N. Y. acad. sci. 1892.
11: 96-104, pl. 1-4. “ Additions to the paleobotany of the Cre-
taceous formation on Staten Island,” Ibid. 1892. 12: 28-89;
1-4. “ Additions to the paleobotany of the Cretaceous formation
on Staten Island,” no. 2, Annals N. Y. acad. sci. 11: 415-80)

In the last of these papers Dr Hollick states that it was previously
taken for granted that the clays on Staten Island were continuous

1N. J. geol. sur. 1878. G. H. Cook. Clays of New Jersey.

‘Plate 18 To face page 611

!

«+ A, Hollick, del.
; Cretaceous plant impressions from the Staten Island clays.

1 Rhamnus Rossmassleri, Ung. Tottenville.

2 Thinfeldia Lesquereuxiana, Heer. Princes Bay.
3 Pterospermites modestus, Lasq. Tottenville.

4 Laurus plutonia, Heer. Tottenville.

5 Myrsine elongata, Newb. Arrochar.

6 Protaeoides daphnogenoides, Heer. Tottenville.
7, 8 Tricalycites papyraceus, Newb. Tottenville.
9 Eucalyptus Geinitzii, Heer. Tottenville.

10 Myrica longa, Heer. Arrochar.

To face page 611

‘ Plate 19

del.

ck,

A. Holli

>
3
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it
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q n
9 . ma
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om Ab
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o g@ OF
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S Bee.
© 8 fr
gogo 6
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a fl ete a
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A 2.0
g O5Aw .
tt Ao tial
3 He ee
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= goSog -
a SPoan
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ricco

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 611

with those of the mainland of New Jersey and that the plants found
in them would prove to be identical with those found on the main-
land, but this has not turned out to be the case. Many of them
are identical, but still a number have been found on the island that
have not been found on the mainland, and he considers that the
Staten Island beds represent a higher member of the Amboy series.

In plates 18 and 19 are given the more characteristic species
taken from Dr Hollick’s papers.

Occurrence of clay in the United States
In the following pages a brief summary is given of the occurrence
of clay in other portions of the United States. For those desiring
to obtain more detailed information the references are given in
each case:

Alabama’

With the exception of the loams and clays used in making com-
mon and ornamental bricks, and to a limited extent paving and
fire brick, the clays of Alabama are practically undeveloped.

Brick clays and loams. Material for common building brick, and
that most extensively used, is the yellow loam of the second bottom
or terraces of the rivers and larger streams, which traverse the
coastal plain.

In the Paleozoic formation are deposits of clay and loam, partly
of a residual nature or sometimes of sedimentary origin, which
are frequently made into brick. Of these the ordinary red clays
make a brick which is generally hard and durable.

At Oxford a clay occurs which burns to a cream colored brick.
Similar clays are used in the same way near Anniston and other
points in the Coosa valley region.

Vitrified brick are made from the shale occurring with the coal
at Coaldale in Jefferson co. Materials of this kind also exist at
other points in the Coal Measures.

1H. A. Smith. “Clays of Ala.,” Ala. ind. & sci. soc. 27. 1892. Ala. geol.
surv. 1900. H. Ries. Preliminary report on clays of Ala.

612 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The red and purple clays of the Tuscaloosa formation wen
probably also make a good vitrified brick.

China clays and stoneware clays. ‘These occur in the counties dé
Randolph, Clay, Cleburne and others, and are sedimentary.

Among the residual deposits of the Cambrian and Silurian for-
mations are large beds of white clay, which are sometimes associated
with limonite beds, as at Rockrun.

The subcarboniferous formation contains some good deposits of
white burning clay, near Fort Payne, Valleyhead, etc.

In the Cretaceous formation are important beds of clays of vari-
ous qualities, which outcrop in a belt extending from Columbus,
Ga., into the northwest corner of the state.

Fire clays occur and are mined at Woodstock, Bibbville, Oxford,
etc.

Arkansas

In the Mesozoic regions of Arkansas are found a great variety
of clays. Those occurring within the Tertiary region have been
used for the manufacture of pottery, but the Cretaceous clays have
not yet been employed for this purpose. Kaolin is said to occur
in Pike, Pulaski, Saline, and Ouachita co. , but the beds are seldom
over 2 feet in thickness. (Ark. geol. sur. 1888. 5: 11)

The deposits of Pulaski co. are the only ones of those above men-
tioned that are true kaolins, the others being white burning sedi-
mentary clays. Good brick clays are found in all second bottom
streams, and bricks are made at Little Rock, Texarkana, Arkadel-
phia, ete. Paving bricks are made at Fort Smith.

Colorado}

The clay-bearing formation of Colorado may be roughly divided
into the following three groups:

1 Loess, and alluvial deposits
2 Jura-Trias, and Cretaceous
3 Tertiary clays

1H. Ries. 7. A. J. M. H. 1897, p. 336.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 613

The loess forms an extensive deposit over a large area, not of
great thickness, which extends from north to south across the
state and eastward from the foothills. It is generally a very sandy
clay with little plasticity. Clays of similar nature to the loess
are found underlying the river terraces in many of the broader
valleys such as those of the Arkansas, Grand river, ete.

The Mesozoic formations extend along the eastern edge of the
Rocky mountains, and also occur in some of the deeper valleys
tributary to the foothill belt.. They consist of a great series of
interbedded shales, sandstones, and limestone of Jura-Trias and
Cretaceous age, the beds being tilted at a high angle. The Jura-
Trias shales have not been utilized, but the Cretaceous which over-
he them have and the Tertiary or Denver beds, which carry great
deposits of clay, have been mined near Golden and Boulder.

Brick clays. All of the common brick manufactured in Colorado
are made either from the loess or the river clays in the valleys.

Pressed brick clays. The Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of
Colorado contain an abundance of clay suitable for the manufacture
of pressed brick. They are mined at Golden, Boulder, and La
Junta.

Fire clays and pottery clays. These two grades of clays occur in
close association interbedded with the Dakota sandstones, in the
llogbacks extending along the eastern edge of the Rocky mountains.
‘whe fire clay has been extensively mined at Golden, Parkdale, and
more recently at Delhi. The beds range in thickness from 4 to
i8 feet.

Clay products. Common bricks are manufactured at many loeali-
ties in the state. Pressed brick are only made at La Junta, Golden,
Boulder and Denver. Paving bricks have been produced in small
(uantities, and stoneware and sewer pipe have also been produced
to a limited extent. The most important clay products made in
Colorado are refractory wares, such as fire brick, locomotive
blocks, muffles, scorifiers and crucibles. This is naturally one of

614 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the important lines of the clay-working industry of the west, and
those well made bear an excellent reputation; indeed the Denver
fire clay crucibles are considered by many to be fully equal to the
English.
Connecticut
Sedimentary clays of Quaternary age are found in many of the
valleys in great abundance; they resemble in character those of the
Hudson valley, and northern New Jersey. They form the basis
of an important industry, specially in the Connecticut valley.
The clay products manufactured in Connecticut are with the
exception of building brick made chiefly from clays obtained from
other states.
Delaware
Kaolin of excellent quality is extensively mined at Hockessin,
Neweastle co.; fire clays of Cretaceous age have also been worked
in the state.
The Columbian formation affords an abundant supply of pee
clays. ;
Florida

The clay resources of Florida may be grouped under three heads,
i, e. kaolins, common brick clays, and fullers’ earth. The kaolins
are not such in the true sense but are really sedimentary clays, but
they have a high degree of purity. Two important deposits of this
material are at present known to exist in the state. The first of
these at Edgar, Fla., where the bed of ball clay mined is more
than 30 feet thick; the other deposit occurs near Lake City, and
extends along the Palatlakaha river for a distance of about 4
miles. This deposit has been but little mined. This plastic ball
clay consists of about 75% of quartz pebbles, and 25% of clay sub-
stance. ‘The quartz is easily washed out, leaving a very pure
product, which is shipped north and used by many of the manu-
facturers of white earthenware.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 615

The brick clays are of course found at many localities and are
most extensive at Jacksonville.

Fullers’ earth was first discovered at Quincy, Fla.; it has been
mined more at that point than at any other, but it is known to occur
at several localities between Quincy and River Junction, as well as
outcrop at several places around Tampa bay.

Georgia

Building brick are made at many localities, either from alluvial
clays found in the river valleys or from residual clays which occur
everywhere in the area underlain by the crystalline rocks.

Kaolin, sometimes of a pure white color, occurs in pockets in the
residual earths of the Knox dolomite, while clays resulting from the
decay of the Paleozoic rocks are also common, but many of them
are easily fused. (J. W. Spencer. Report on the Paleozoic forma-
tions of Georgia, 1893) According to Prof. Spencer, the most
extensive clay deposits occur along the northern belts of the Ter-
tiary strata in the southern part of the state.

The Potomac formation specially contains many clays of a white
or nearly white color, which are often of a very high refractory
quality. (G. E. Ladd. American geologist. Ap. 1899. p. 240)

Indiana

In reeent years two important contributions bearing on the clay
resources of Indiana have been published by the present state
geologist. (See 20th and 22d ann. rep’t Ind. geol. sur.)

In speaking of the Indiana clays in general, it can be said that
there are

1 Residual clays, viz, a) rock kaolins of Lawrence and adjoin-
ing counties, b) surface clays of the driftless area of southern
Indiana

2 Sedimentary clays including a) shales and fire clays of Paleo-

616 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

zoic age, b) alluvial clays along the streams, c) drift clays of north-
ern and central Indiana. ;

The clays of the coal-bearing counties support an active and rising
industry, and these are found in the following counties, Fountain,
Vermilion, Parke, Vigo, Clay, Owen, Sullivan, Greene, Knox,
Daviess, Martin, Dubois, Pike, Gibson, Vanderburg, Wai
Spencer and Perry.

The following represents a typical section from the Indiana Coal

Measures.
. . Ft In.
1 Soilvamdcumticerduatt, claya ie 3.) an 9
2) Bl neuconmpact shale toh.) -c Siete ences 27 ae
So JDes< lomo nowisy Sle, bss geasedoo an 3 2
Mh OO cial iss MERE neha? ). Yi. tia ae, PRaRenaRe th Gate Gee 2
Eytan ice ei cadre sate neater i ell acne + 4
6) Drab ‘siliceous shale ai 422 sent te 18 ae
i SAMOS COME NE. Ba Lie Adel. cate oe at eurenn nk moennoee 6 3
is) Une lonmopanuaronbis sare: Go 5 Seo ce koe if ee
ER Ofori wan ernaeeree MAT Cram Res borate 1%, 4 8
iQ: Simexeliany, Sakis oO RUE Crean een aecae Wiebe 3 10

~

The fire clays no. 5 and 10 are universally present. No. 2 and
6 are considered, taken as a whole, to be the most valuable clay
beds in the state.

Important clay deposits also occur in the counties of Benton,
Newton, Jasper, Starke, Lake, Porter, La Porte and St Joseph.

Those of Benton co. are of glacial origin, as are those of Newton
co.; most of the other counties mentioned contain glacial clays.
The Porter co. clays are both glacial and marly. The latter are
made into pressed brick by hydraulic brick machines. Around
South Bend and St Joseph co. are thick deposits of pearl gray,.
marly clay of a very fine grain and plastic nature, which burn to a
light yellow building brick or a greenish yellow paving brick.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 617

Kansas

Most of the clay deposits of this state are surface beds of Quat-
ernary age. ‘The loess is extensively used in the eastern counties;
at Pittsburg a 10 foot bed of Carboniferous shale occurs, which is
used for the manufacture of fire brick and paving brick. Fire
clays also occur at a number of other localities in association with

the coal beds, but they have not been used to any great extent.

Kentucky

The state of Kentucky contains numerous clay deposits, many
of them of excellent quality.

They are found in several geologic formations, beginning with
the Cretaceous, of western Kentucky, which shows an abundance
of brick clay, fire clay and pottery clays.

In the Cretaceous and the Coal Measures, clay suitable for
making vitrified brick as well as fire brick, occurs.

Fire clay is found in Carter co., where it is now being mined and
-earried to Louisville for manufacture. Similar clays are known
in the counties of Ballard, Muhlenberg, Grayson, Edmonson,
Graves, Hickman, Calloway, Fulton, Bell, Boyd. Most of these
clays are said to run high in silica and alumina and low in fluxes.

The clay from Graham station, in Carter co., is of high quality.

A flint clay from this locality shows on analysis:

SHIGA eed AS ad he Aleks Sone ey eee A9 75
7Uhmnmamen ae °S. GeSNe Wade Gok ea ee ee BH5 WG
(OSSORMORE STON: ones 'alaid- Gk bo nO ee eee 30
IDI ar Arad eas lta: Si eee 54
INE RVOOE SER a as NS es eb Sc 55
Be Otete ln wATIAG SOC dese vey ovet stems Weave sc oust sis, «sso ds 07
“INCGTICNE Air ee lh RAE Bee coma RL Soe 14.03

This clay is used for making locomotive fire box tiles, cupola
tile, glass furnaces, grates, boiler tiles and stove linings. Vitrified

618 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

brick clay has been developed at Cloverport, and in Grayson near
Millwood, about 80 miles from Louisville, it being worked at this
point by the Louisville sewer co.

Potters’ clay is found chiefly in the Tertiary beds which are
found in the Jackson purchase. This region includes the counties
of Calloway, Graves, Marshall, Hickman, Fulton, Butler, Edmor-
son, Grayson, Ohio and Madison. The best developed mine is
that at Pyorsburg, 6 miles from Mayfield in Graves co.; the: clay
at this point is over 40 feet thick, a most excellent grade of ball
clay. |

Glass pot clays are said to exist in Bell, Marshall, McCracken,
Carlisle, Hickman, Fulton and Calloway co., but their value has
not yet been commercially demonstrated.

Lowisiana’

The clays of Louisiana are all Post-tertiary and sedimentary in
their origin. There are no important residual clays in the state
except in one very small area. This is in the northeast corner,
near the Arkansas line. ‘Three distinct types of clay are worked
in Louisiana, each being characteristic of the section of the state
in which it is found. The oldest of these geologically is the mot-
tled gray clay of southeast and southwest Louisiana. These clays
are of early Columbian age, and constitute the pine flats of the
coast and the second bottoms of the coastal streams. They have
been worked for a long time locally for the manufacture of com-
mon building brick. But only in the last few years have they
been utilized on a large scale.

The next important group of clays is of a later Columbian age
and is found above the alluvial valley of the modern Mississippi
river. They form a continuous bluff overlooking the river from
the Mississippi state line to Baton Rouge. ‘Thence they bear south-
eastward to near Lake Maurepas. ‘These clays have been exten-

1 Engineering journal. 15 Oct. 1898. See also paper by H. Ries in Ist
Ann. rep’t La. state geologist.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 619

sively worked around Baton Rouge; they make a good quality of
building brick but at many places they are covered with a great
thickness of loess. Similar clays of the same age form a series of
bluffs on the western side of the present Mississippi valley from
the Arkansas state line to the Gulf of Mexico. These clays have
been worked at Marksville, Washington and New Iberia. At the
latter place a good dry pressed brick is made from them.

A third group of clays comprises a series of pocket-like deposits
in modern alluvium of the Red river. They probably represent
abandoned portions of the river bed. In addition to these three
main groups of clays, others of Lafayette age occur in northern
Louisiana. Lignitic shales are also found in certain portions of
northern Louisiana near Shreveport. These may perhaps be suit-
able for the manufacture of paving brick.

Maine

The clay industry of Maine is on the decline. There are a num-
ber of brick yards along the coast, which in former years sent
their product to Boston, but the establishment of local yards
around the latter city has had a bad effect on this trade. Two
stoneware potteries, one at Portland, the other at Bangor, are still
in operation, but they draw their material largely from other

states. The clays found in Maine are all of Quaternary age.

Maryland

This state supports an active clay-working industry, but little
is known concerning the raw material. Kaolin and pottery clays
are said to occur at a number of localities. In the western portion
of the state, at Mt Savage, occur important deposits of flint and
plastic fire clays) The Devonian shales are employed for paving
brick, and in the Potomac formation around Chesapeake bay,
there are large quantities of clays of different grades.

620 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Massachusetts*

The clays are mostly Quaternary, suitable for brick manufac-
ture, and are extensively dug around Boston for brickmaking.
Kaolin is mined at Blandford, and in the western part of the state
buff burning clays occur which are adapted to the manufacture of
buff brick and terra cotta:

Refractory wares and art pottery are made near Boston from
clays mined in other states.

Michigan?
The clay-working industry of Michigan has not been developed

to any extent except in the line of common brick manufacture.
Much of the state is covered with glacial drift; local beds of clay
are found in connection with this. In this glacial formation the
lowest is the blue gravely clay from 7 to 12 feet thick, which is
utilized at Springswell, near Detroit, also in Ottawa, Allegan and
Barry co. The products of this clay are red, sand-molded,
white, machine-pressed, red, machine-pressed, and sewer bricks.
The clays of the extreme northern part of the lower peninsula of
Michigan have too much lime to be of any great commercial value,
but are used locally to some extent.

At Coldwater all the clays are used for cement manufacture.
Ship clay is found at Rockland and Luther.

The shales associated with the coal seams are suitable in many
cases for making paving brick or stoneware, and some inay be semi-
refractory.

Mussissippr

The Eocene and Miocene are the most important clay-producing -
horizons in this state but beds of good quality also occur im the
Carboniferous and Cretaceous. The clays have been but little used
except for the manufacture of common brick and the lower grades
of pottery. (Geology of Mississippt. 1860)

1C. L. Whittle. ‘‘ Clay industry of Massachusetts.” Min. Ind. 7: 125.

* EF. and M. J. 29 Aug. 1848. Also paper on Michigan shales by H. Ries in
Michiyan miner for 1&9.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 621

Missouri’
The clays of Missouri belong to the following classes:
Chinaware clays
Flint clays
Plastic fire clays
Pottery or stoneware clays

hh mr

Shale, and brick clays

Chinaware clays. The Missouri kaolins south of the Missouri
river are of Paleozoic age. The belt is worked in Cape Girardeau
and. Bollinger co. and extensively in Howell co. The Mis-
souri kaolins are residual, and the interesting feature about them
is that they have been derived from the decay of aluminous lime-
stone, whereas the igneous rocks of the region furnish only impure
chinaware clay. The Missouri kaolin is generally highly silicious
in its composition, but this is not exceptional.

Flint clays. The flint clays of Missouri often approach closely in
composition to kaolinite. They occur in the central part of the
state, being abundant in the counties of Warren, Montgomery,
Calloway, Osage, Franklin, Crawford and Phelps. The geologic
age may be Carboniferous, Silurian or Ordovician. They form a
eradle-like deposit in the limestone which has a depth of 50 to 200
feet, and 15 to 50 feet. Most of them ame less than 2% of im-
purities. They have from 30% to 43% of alumina,and14¢%to 15% of
combined water, thus resembling kaolinite in their composition.
They are devoid of plasticity, and in use have to be mixed with
plastic clays. They generally begin to fuse at a temperature of
2300°, but do not become viscous under 2700°, and are therefore
fairly refractory.

Plastic fire clays. All of these occur in the Carboniferous, asso-
ciated with seams of coal. They are generally massive, dense, hard,
and plastic. Those around St Louis are specially important and
form the base of the enormous local development of the clay-work-
ing industry.

1 Mo. geol. surv., 11. H. A. Wheeler. Clays of Missouri.

622 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Stoneware clays. They occur in four different geologic forma-
tions: 1) as pockets in Paleozoic limestone in the southern half of
the state, similar to the flint clays; 2) as seams of some fire clays
_ in the Coal Measures of the northwestern half of the state; 3) as
beds in the Tertiary, in the southeastern corner of the state, which
are by far the most prominent; 4) as local beds in the northern part
of the state. These are unreliable. The stoneware industry of
Missouri is at present very small, being represented by a few small
scattered works. 7

Shales. These are the important portion of the Missouri clay
materials. Important deposits exist around Kansas City, and
St Louis; they are used for the manufacture of terra cotta, roofing
tile, sewer pipe, drain tile, and flower pots. The paving brick
industry which also depends on this material is represented by 13
plants located in the central and western region of the state.

Brick clays. These include loess clay, glacial, residual clays, and -
alluvial clays. The first are the most important in Missouri. They
make a good grade of brick and are easily worked; they are also
uniform in quality and hardness. Their chief development is
along the Missouri and the Mississippi rivers, the beds of the former
being sometimes as much as 200 feet in thickness. The glacial
clays are variable in character. The residual ones are usually very
tenacious, and crack in burning. The alluvial ones are likewise
variable. The Gumbo clays are chiefly used in making railroad
ballast. The northern part of the state is rich in them.

New Jersey

In 1878 the New Jersey geological survey issued an extremely
valuable report on the clay resources of that state. The clays of
New Jersey are Quaternary, Tertiary, and Cretaceous, the latter
including beds of fire clays, fire sands, and white burning clays,
which are commonly, but erroneously, called kaolins.

The clays extend across the state in a belt 5 to 8 miles wide, from
Perth Amboy to Trenton; the deposits on Staten Island are a con-
tinuation of this belt.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 623

There are three districts recognized.

The section exhibited by the clay deposits involves the following
members, beginning at the bottom.

1 Raritan potters’ clay bed

2 Raritan fire clay bed

3 Fire sand

4 Woodbridge fire clay, a most important bed

5 Pipe clay

6 A bed of feldspar, commonly called kaolin, being really a
mixture of kaolinite with white quartzose sand, and fragments of
quartz which are rounded on their edges

7 Another kaolin bed

8 South Amboy fire clay bed, 20 feet thick

9 Stoneware clay

These clays form the basis of an important fire brick and pottery
industry. ,

The Quaternary brick clays are abundant in the region around
Hackensack, near New York city.

Recently important beds of light or white burning plastic clays
have been developed in the Tertiary formation of southeastern New
Jersey.

Nebraska

The clay resources of this state are similar to those of Kansas.
Brick clays are used locally in the vicinity of the more important
towns. A fine kaolin-like clay is found on Pine creek in Cherry co.

North Carolina*
The clay deposits of North Carolina may be divided into
Residual: kaolins, fire clays, and impure clays
Sedimentary: coastal plain clays, of Cretaceous, or Tertiary age
Sedimentary surface clays (for brick and pottery) are found
mainly along the streams and low lands in the Piedmont plateau
and mountain counties.

7 aa TR
1N. C. geol. surv. H. Ries. Clays and clay industry of North Carolina,
bulletin no. 13..,

624 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Residual clays. These occur in the western half of the state
west of the line passing through Weldon, Raleigh and Rocking-
ham. ‘They form an almost universal mantle and vary in thick-
ness from 3 to 20 feet. These impure residual clays are gen-
erally sandy and very porous, but with proper machinery and
treatinent they yield a good grade of brick.

The residual fire clays found at Pomona and Grover are coarse-
grained clays with much intermixed quartz and mica.

The kaolins are of special importance and of excellent quality,
the most important being at Webster, and west of Sylva. |

Sedimentary clays. The coastal plain deposits of North Caro--
lina furnish the most extensive beds of clay to be found within
the state. They have been classed as belonging to Cretaceous,
Eocene and Pleistocene formations. The Potomac clays of the
Cretaceous are exposed at Prospect Hall on the Cape Fear river,
and the Eocene beds are well shown in railroad cuts at Spoutsprings
Fayetteville.

Many clays suitable for the manufacture of brick and of pot-
tery are found underlying the river terraces farther inland, as
along the Catawba, Yadkin, and the Clark rivers. Other sedi-
_mentary clays are well developed around Wilson, Goldsboro, and

Fayetteville.
North Dakota

The clays of North Dakota are of Cretaceous, Devine and Post-
tertiary age, and abound in many sections of the state. While they
are suitable for a variety of purposes, they have thus far been but
little worked. (Report of commissioner of labor and agriculture.
1891-92)

Ohio"

The principal centers of development of clays are in most in-
stances the same as those which furnish the coal. The Subear-
honiferous contains valuable deposits of flint clay, which is mined

_—

1 Ghio geol. sur. v.7, pt 1. HE. Orton jr. Clays and clay-working industries”
of Ohio.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 625

at several points in Hocking co., and the Carboniferous conglom-
erate also contains several beds of fire clay. Other beds occur
over the Sharon coal in the Massillon sandstone, and are used for
making sewer pipe and pottery. Another important bed under-
lies the lower Mercer limestone. Several important clay deposits
occur in the lower Coal Measures, the beds varying in thickness
fiom 6 to 380 feet. The Kittanning clay and shale is the most
yuportant in the state, and is the horizon which yields the well
known Mineral point fire clay. Other beds are found in the
middle Kittanning and the lower and upper Freeport members of
the Coal Measures.

In northern and western Ohio, the ‘drift clays form an abundant
supply of material for the making of common brick.

Pennsylvania

The most prominent clay deposits of Pennsylvania are the re-
fractory shales and clays which occur in the Coal Measures, spe-
cially in the western portion of the state. The beds are often
extensive, and occupy well marked stratigraphic positions. Among
the more important of these may be mentioned the Bolivar fire
clay, which occurs just under the Freeport upper Coal Measures.
Another important bed of clay lies immediately under the Kit-
tanning coal, throughout Beaver co. Another valuable bed is
found near the top of conglomerate 12, and is mined in Cambria,
Indiana and Beaver co.

Large quantities of true kaolin are mined in Chester and Dela-
ware co., and the mines at Brandywine summit have been in opera-
tion for a number of years.

The brick clays are abundant and important in and around
Philadelphia, where they belong to the Columbian formation;
while the river terraces in the valleys of the Ohio and Beaver
rivers are underlain by clay suitable for the inanufacture of brick,

terra cotta and stoneware.

626 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

South Dakota’

The clays of South Dakota are classed as brick, potters’, fire
clays, and fullers’ earth.

Brick clay. The material most commonly used for brickmak-
ing in South Dakota is some kind of loam such as that supplied
by the loess in Union, Minnehaha, and Moody co. It is also
thick in the high terraces along the Missouri, and Cheyenne
rivers, and in most of the country south of the White river, in
the Laramie formation, in the northwestern counties of the state.
Local beds are found underlying the flood plains of the large
streams.

Potters’ clay. Very plastic dark clays are said to abound in
the Benton and the Pierre groups of the Cretaceous.

Light colored clays abound in the White river beds, and in
several horizons of the Paleozoic of the South hills, which furnish
clays that are probably adapted to the potter’s purposes.

Fire clays. Extensive deposits of fire clay occur in the Dakota
formation, which forms a rim around the Black hills. This bed
has been worked for several years, specially at Rapid City.

Fullers’ earth. Beds of this material have been reported from
the vicinity of Fairburn, Custer co.

Tennessee

The clay resources of this state are very similar to those of
Kentucky. (R. T. Hill. Mineral resources, U. 8. geol..sur. 1891)
The Carboniferous fire clays and shales are abundant in the east-
ern half of the state, and pottery clays of the Eocene, and La
Fayette formations are extensively developed in the western part.

Around Chattanooga, there are important factories for the
manufacture of fire brick and sewer pipe.

Texas

Brick clays are abundant throughout the state. Many of the
Tertiary clays are suitable for drain tile and terra cotta, specially

1J. HE. Todd, W. and M. jowr. 24 Sep., 1898.

CLAYS OF NEW. YORK 627

those of the timber belt and the Fayette formations, while fire
clays occur in the timber belt beds in Fayette, Henderson, and
Limestone co., and in the Fayette in Fayette co., but the last run
rather high in impurities. |

The occurrence of clays is mentioned from various localities in
the report on Grimes, Brazos, and Robertson co. 4th ann. rep’t.
Tex. geol. sur.

Virgina

Brick clays are extensively worked in the vicinity of Wash-
ington, kaolin is said to occur in Augusta, Wythe, and Cumber-
land co., while there is the usual abundance of residual clays
in those portions of the state not covered by Cretaceous and
Tertiary deposits.

Wyoming*

All the clays of Wyoming that have any commercial importance
occur in the sedimentary beds of the Jurassic and Cretaceous for-
mations, but are also found to some extent in the Tertiary. The
formations containing these clays are found flanking nearly all the
mountain ranges in the state. But with the exception of their
being used for the manufacture of common brick in a few locali-
ties, very little development has occurred. All the fire clay prod-
ucts now used in Wyoming are manufactured in Colorado; pressed
brick are also shipped into the state from various points.

The loess is utilized at a number of places in Wyoming.

1W.C. Knight. E£. and M. jour. Nov. 1898.

628 © NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

CLAY-WORKING
Structure of clay deposits

Residual clays. The mode of origin of these has already been
mentioned. Such a clay may occur either in the form of a broad
mantle over bed rock,,.of variable depth and lateral extent, or it
may occupy the position of a vein cutting across the strike of the
other rocks or sometimes parallel with their bedding or lamination.
Residual clays of the first type are abundant in the upland regions
of the southern states and form the most abundant brickmaking
material of that part of the country.

Residual deposits of the second type result commonly from the
decomposition of veins of granite or feldspar. They vary in width
from a few inches to several hundred feet. Their vertical extent
depends in most cases on the depth to which the weathering has
reached, except in the case of those kaolin deposits which have re-
sulted from action of subterranean vapors. (See “ Origin of clay,”
p. 496) Vein formations of kaolin seldom show great length, and
usually pinch out in both directions. In some localities they are
however known to be as much as 1000 feet long. They are com-
monly separated from the country rock by more or less sharp
boundaries, which are preserved even though the wall rock also be
decomposed, as it usually is. They frequently branch, and at times
contain lenses of quartz, which resist the weathering agencies and
stand out in bold relief on the surface. It rarely pays to work a
vein under 6 feet in width.

Sedimentary clays. These occur in the form of beds either close
to the surface or interstratified with other deposits which have been
formed by water, such as sandstones. Deposits of sedimentary
clay do not pass gradually into the underlying rock as residual
clays do. In many parts of the United States sedimentary clays
form lens-shaped masses which are surrounded on all sides by sand.
The elay beds of Staten Island well illustrate this point, and the
conditions observed are caused by variations in the velocity of the

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 629

eurrents which laid down the materials, sand being deposited when
the velocity of the current was swift and clay when the water was
quiet.

All of the New York clays are of sedimentary origin except
those occurring along the New York-Connecticut border line near
Amenia and Sharon.

Prospecting and exploring

In prospecting for clay the topography is often of much help.
In the northern and western portions of the state the clay is gen-
erally found in the bottoms of broad valleys. An example of this
is the Genesee valley. Again at other localities the clay is found
underlying terraces along the sides of the valleys, as in the Hud-
son valley and along Lake Champlain. Deposits of a similar char-
acter will be found along the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers.
A terrace however does not necessarily indicate the presence of
clay, for some of the Hudson valley terraces are underlain by till.

On Long Island for example the clay is found almost entirely
along the north shore; it no doubt underlies most of the island,
but on the southern side there is in most instances such a cover-
ing of sand as to make it useless. The presence of clay can often
be detected in railroad cuttings, in the sides of gullies or ravines.
In many instances however the occurrence of clay is only sus-
pected; then borings must be made with an auger to determine its
presence. As a deposit of clay is seldom of uniform thickness
throughout its extent, a sufficient number of borings should he
made in order fully to determine this point; a bed of clay may be
40 feet deep at one point and thin out to 5 or 6 feet within a dis-
tance of 15 feet. The writer has seen several instances in which
expensive plants have been erected and come to a speedy end, sim-
ply because the clay gave out, whereas the disaster might have been
avoided by previous exploration. Another important point to de-
termine is the presence of sand for molding and tempering. Many
of the clays in this state can not be made into brick without the

630 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

addition of sand. Along the Hudson river and on Long Island
tempering sand is a much needed article, but fortunately it is near
at hand. With molding sand it is different, for wherever soft mud
machines are used it is necessary. Very often it can be obtained
from some neighboring hill, but sometimes it has to be brought
long distances.

Having determined by boring or otherwise, the extent and
thickness of the clay at. the locality where the brick yard is to be
established, the next step is to strip a portion of the surface to a
sufficient depth to expose the clay.

The amount of stripping to be done varies. On Long Island
it 1s sometimes as much as 20 or 380 feet. Along the Hudson
valley it varies from a foot or two of loam, or 3 or 4 feet of sand
up to 15 or 20 feet. In both these regions the sand can be used
for tempering, though the quantity stripped is far in excess of the
demand. At some points in the Hudson valley the surface is cov-
ered with scrubby trees troublesome to remove. In the northern
and western portions of the state, there is at most places only a foot
or two of soil covering the clay.

When a yard is first started, the stripping, whatever its charac-
ter, can be used for filling.

Natural drainage is always an extremely desirable thing, for
having to keep the clay pit clear of water only adds to the cost of
production. Neighboring streams and springs are often a constant
source of annoyance, specially if the clay deposit is situated in a
valley. They are chiefly troublesome when the sand bed, which
often underlies the clay, is struck and allows the water to run in
and flood the workings.

The presence of a sufficient quantity of clay or shale does not
insure quality, and before erecting a clay-working plant, it is
necessary to examine into the quality of the clay and its possible
applications.

The laboratory methods of investigation have reached a high
degree of development at the present day, and by such means much

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 631
information can be gained concerning the quality of the material.
If these results are promising, it is worth while sending several
barrels of the clay to different works, in order to test it on a
practical scale.

Analyses, with our present knowledge of clays, are of more value
in the case of high grade materials.

Methods of working

1 The clay is dug at any convenient spot in the bank, usually
at the base, working inward; thus in the case of a high bank
eventually leaving quite a steep face. The bank is apt to slide
sooner or later and the men begin again at the base of the slip and
work inward. There is one disadvantage in this method, that the
several qualities of clay, if it be in strata, become mixed, which is
not desirable in all cases. It has, however, the advantage of mak-
ing the haulage all on one level. Of course, in this method, haul-
age by cart is the most convenient. Cost, 25-80c a thousand
brick for about 500 feet of lead.

2 A second method, one rarely used, is to loosen the clay by
means of plows and bring it to the yard by scraper, provided of
course the clay bank adjoins the yard. Very few yards employ this
method. It costs about 20c a thousand brick to plow the clay and
bring it down with scrapers. To this must be added the price of
getting the clay from the heaps to the molding machines, a distance
of about 50 feet. In plowing clay, the bank is usually worked at an
angle of about 30 degrees. This method has no special advantage.
The clay is more broken up and is exposed to the weather for
several days; this adds materially to the quality of pressed brick,
but for common, brick it is of little importance. This method is
sometimes used where the deposit is extensive and shallow, wheel
scrapers being used in case the haul is not long enough to require a
locomotive.

3 Working in benches. This method is one commonly used
where the bank is over 25 feet high. The benches are 6 to 8 feet

Oe NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

wide and 7 to 9 feet high. Roads lead up to the separate benches,
and each bench is worked in advance of the lower one.

Where the clay has streaks of quicksand the roads have to.be
planked. Ii the bank is below water level there is the additional
expense of pumping. ‘This method is of importance along the
Hudson river, where many of the clay banks are of considerable
hight, and the use of benches often prevents a slide of the clay.

4 Steam shovel. Though this method of mining has been suc-
cessfully practised at many western localities, the only place in this
state where it has been tried is Croton landing in the Hudson valley.
These clays do not as a rule stand well with a vertical face, and as a
result the bank slid, burying the shovel. Where the clay bank
contains several different layers of clay, which are mixed together
for making brick, the steam shovel is a good thing, as it digs from
bottom to top of the bank at each stroke. Steam shovels are an
economical means of mining soft shale, where the capacity of the
yard warrants it, and may also be used for clay.

5 Dredging. ‘This method like the preceding is only practised at
Haverstraw and Croton point. The dredged clay is dropped into
hoppers, which, when full, are run up inclined planes on shore and
dumped. Cost 12-15¢ a thousand delivered on shore; then 12¢
for haulage to ring pits.

6 Undermining. Many brick manufacturers use this method of
mining their clay, specially when the latter is tough. Wedges are
driven in on the upper surface, a foot or two from the edge; at the
same time the face is undermined by picking, to a distance of 2
or 8 feet. It is not advisable to work a bank more than 20 feet
high by this means, and in almost any ease it is a rather dangerous
method to employ.

7 Blasting is very often resorted to in banks of tough clay and
always in the case of a shale bank. A small charge of dynamite
usually suffices to bring down a large quantity of the material.

8 Haulage. The brick manufacturer generally establishes his
plant near the supply of clay, so that the haulage distance is from

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 633

100 to 300 feet. Within these limits it is economical to use one
horse carts, but above 300 or 400 feet there are other means of haul-
age which will generally be found cheaper. ‘There are exceptions
where carts are used for hauling long distances; for instance, at
Port Ewen on the Hudson the clay is carted 900 feet in some
eases, and at Haverstraw some of the firms bring their clay a dis-
tance of a quarter of a mile in one horse carts. The character of
the Hudson valley clay banks is such that train haulage would not
be practicable, as the tracks would. have to be shifted so often.

Cars. As a rule where the haulage distance exceeds 500 feet
ears are used. They are run on tracks and drawn by horses; if
possible the track is laid. down grade from the bank to the yard.
Sometimes the loaded cars are run down to the yard by gravity,
the horses being only required to draw them back when empty.
Cost 10c a cubic yard for about 500 feet lead.

Locomotive haulage. This is a cheap method where the scale of
operations warrants it; that is to say, for a yard having an annual
eapacity of 15,000,000 or upward. The cost by this method is
about 5¢ or Te a thousand brick (about one and a, quarter to one
and a half cubic yards of clay being reckoned to a thousand brick)
for a distance of 600 or 800 feet. It is necessary, of course, to have
ears filled with clay ready for the engine as soon as the empty
ones are drawn back; otherwise the expense would become great if
the engine had to spend much time waiting. The cost given above
does not include wear and tear on plant.

Wire rope haulage. A few yards use this method where the
haulage distance is small; the winding drum is placed under the
machine shed near the pug mill or crushers; side or bottom dump-
ing cars are used.

Gravity planes may also be mentioned, but they are less used than
they might be.

Purification of clay

In the manufacture of common clay bricks it is seldom necessary

to give much time to the preparation of the clay, but in the case

634 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of better grades of ware, such as front brick and terra cotta, the
preparation of the clay is often a matter of the greatest importance,
in order to provide a mass of material which will be homogeneous
throughout, and whose physical properties shall not vary. It some-
times happens that this operation means simply the breaking up of
the clay thoroughly or the loosening of all the clay particles. The
greater the care with which these operations are carried on the
more homogeneous will be the material and the better the grade

of the wares produced.

Removal of foreign matter

This can be sometimes rendered harmless either by distributing
it in a finely divided condition through the clay, or by the addition
of chemicals, or sometimes it may be removed entirely, the method
employed depending on the character of the clay.

Cleansing clay. This includes the removal of roots, pyrite, lime
pebbles, and similar substances. The simplest method is by hand-
picking, which is slow and incomplete. The custom followed at
the present day is either to dry the clay and pass it through a sieve
of the proper mesh, or to treat it to a washing process or even to
an air separation.

Cleaning dried clay. Most clays are naturally moist, but when
occurring in the form of shale the percentage of water is usually
very low; very sandy clays are also apt to run low in moisture.
With dried clays, the purification can be accomplished by first pul-
verizing the material, and then allowing the product to fall through
a strong air current, the effect of this being to separate the particles
according to their specific gravity, those of clay being carried far-
thest, while heavier particles, such as pyrite, are dropped first, a
fairly complete separation taking place.

Wet process of purification. ‘This is done by subjecting the clay
to a washing process. (See “ Preparation,” p. 799)

Separation of iron particles. In the manufacture of certain

products, and also certain glazes, it is necessary that the material

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 635

used shall be thoroughly free from iron, as in burning, this element
makes itself very noticeable; slight specks of it might mar the ware
sufficiently to make it unsalable. The removal of iron grains is
accomplished by means of a strong magnet, which in case the clay
is used in the form of a slip, is suspended in it, or, if powdered
clay is used the powder is allowed to pass over the poles of the
magnet; in either case the iron particles are extracted, the magnet
being cleaned from time to time.

Purification of fluxes and grogs

Many of the materials belonging to either of these two classes
are often more or less dirty and can be cleaned by washing. If the
grogs used, however, contain appreciable particles of iron, itis best
to remove these by hand picking as far as possible, before the
material is powdered for use. Feldspar having a red or yellow
color frequently contains iron oxid, and such should not be used if
the feldspar is to be used in the manufacture of light colored or
colorless glazes, while if it is to be used for dark glazes the iron
oxid contents are of less importance.

Many red feldspars, however, when calcined became pure white,
showing that the coloration is not due to iron.

636 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

USES OF CLAY
Characters of brick clays

Under this head is included a very wide range of materials, de-
pending on the quality of the product to be made.

For common building brick almost any clay of good plasticity
will do, and this very fact has been most extensively abused by
brick manufacturers, encouraged by indifference on the part of con-
tractors who are very often inclined to regard common brick as
simply so many cubic feet of burned clay, little attention being
paid to the quality of the product.

As the different kinds of brick can not all be made from the
same kind of clay, it will be best to consider separately the requisites
of the clays used for these different types.

Clays for common bricks. For this purpose the more impure clays
are generally utilized, and in general those which burn to a red
color. Calcareous clays are often employed, specially around Chi-
cago. Such clays produce a buff product. Many morainic clays
of south central New York are of this nature.

Clays for making common brick should burn to a good red color
at a temperature not greater than 2000° F. or 2100° F. They
should also have sufficient fluxes to cement the clay particles to-
gether, forming a hard dense body, when subjected to the above
amount of heat. From 5% to 7% of iron is desirable, as this amount
has been found to exert the best coloring action. <A large amount
of lime is undesirable, for it brings the temperatures of fusion and
incipient vitrification too close together, though with care a good
brick can be made from a clay containing 20% to 25% of carbonate
of lime. _ (Seger’s Ges. Schrift. p. 265) The celebrated Muil-
waukee brick contain 22% of lime carbonate and the clays used for
making front brick at Canandaigua, N. Y., have 204-232.

The tendency of lime as previously stated is to lessen the shrink-

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 637

age of the clay in the burning, and it will be the more injurious the
less finely divided its condition; consequently if a brick clay con-
tains lime it should be seen to that the substance is finely and
evenly disseminated throughout the material, for if in lumps it is
very apt to split the burned brick. Many brick clays which con-
tain lime pebbles are often dried and screened before using.

Sand decreases both the plasticity and the tensile strength of the
clay as well as the shrinkage. This fact is frequently known and
utilized by the manufacturer to diminish the shrinkage of his clay
in both drying and burning, consequently reducing the danger of
obtaining a warped or cracked product. Some clays will stand as
much as 25% of sand. The coarser the sand, the more marked will
be its effect on the shrinkage. On the other hand, if the grains
of sand are angular and of too large size, they may of themselves
produce a cracking of the ware; and it should be borne in mind that
there is danger of adding too much sand to a clay, for the tendency
will be to produce a weak, porous brick, specially if the latter is
hand-molded.

Fine-grained clays and very plastic ones generally need to be
dried very slowly, the reason being that on account of the smallness
of the pores the moisture can not escape readily, and the outer por-
tion of the brick dries and shrinks more quickly than the interior,
with the resultant cracking. Rapid drying may be prevented
somewhat by adding salt water to the clay, and this is a common
practice in parts of Missouri. (Mo. geol. sur. 11: 481)

Fine-grained clays often have to be heated slowly in the early
stages of burning, though if such a clay contains an abundance of
fine sand particles, the contrary is possible.

638

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The range of constitutents in brick clays from various states can

be seen from the following table.

North Carolina

Range
Salata anes ae eaten cate ie eee) 52 —0
WAS TITTIATAR Ae Were vera eRe Nes 1s 13 —28
Merricioxid sen)... 45 oe ee ke Od
SIMA 5 ee pera teae rleeee! .L— 2.5
sMaomesia yy ces teer. ise a .1— 1.5
UA Hhee nig ents Regen eee eo ee re .2— 4.5
Water kaemenen ss Che hoe he 4 —12
otal tuxests apes 3.5 —17.5
Missourr
Range
Silica and fluxes combined.. 12 — 30
wiliea (sand) 22... Rieg eu. = 100)
ASL apaaaMaatel wamenat rs vote eteue erences 11 —25
Water (combined)....... 3 — 9
Weiiae (Conenetiera) 46 sac6 O == Oo
IMeraalorOralig Wa aseacab she 2.5— 8
fWincavewine SR ecpentormarenen a A 5— 7
(Mid omesiany wah cl ccu ice: == 8
Va ENTS SR OR an ne eee Ded
New York
Range

Silica; 2 oko. AD ID = OR S
Alumina.. ......... 11.383 — 24.45
deraao rl 3 oo soo as 1.90— 10.90
Lame hy. ca eee ee 23 —15.38
Mnemesia site u-ieciere .10— 8.24
Alkalis . .48 — 9.82
Watery Roe ee 90 — 12.67
Moisture Vere aetes ertene 4.50— 8.26

Average

60%
18%
60%
. 60%
40%
20%
Th
of

Average

15%
55%
14%
4
2%
4%
1.50%
Lj
3.50%

Average

54.28%
18.81%
92%
87%
95%
43%
. 906%
.41%

Se ep Ce [Sy TS) ei

OLAYS OF NEW YORK 639

The following gives the maximum, minimum and average per-
centage of the different constituents in the brick clay analyses
given in the tables at the end of the report.

Range Average
Silica) ioc. oe OAaoe—— 90.877 49.27%
Alumina.......... 22.14 —44.00 22.1744
erence OxAC( dacs S. .s .126 — 33.12 5.311%
| LING0IS! Gace ane OR .024 — 23.20 2.017%
Avetonesta: (Geo. os tay e Om Ll. O38 2.66%
PSM seem amas tae 17 —15.32 2.768%
WME TTSy grater teeter ne MAL a .05 —138.60 5.749%

2.502%

INEOISHUTONy oe or mie 9.64

Clay for pressed brick. In addition to the characters mentioned
under common brick clays, it is highly necessary that the materials
used should burn to a uniform color. They should be as free as
possible from soluble salts, specially if the product is not vitrified.

Many different grades of clay are utilized, but chief among them
may be mentioned white burning clays, buff burning clays (either
calcareous or semi-refractory), red burning clays, commonly high in
iron oxid.

Semi-refractory, or refractory clays, form an important source
of material for making front brick, not only on account of the buff
color to which they burn, but also because this color permits the
admixture of manganese for the production of mottled and speckled
effects and various shades producible by the addition of the same
material in powdered form.

The shrinkage of the clay in burning should be regular and
even, in order that the finished bricks may all be very nearly of the
game size.

Burning of brick clay

Brick clays when burned exhibit a variety of shades and colors
whose existence is influenced by several causes, such as the amount
of ferric oxid in a clay, the percentage of other constituents as-

640 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

sociated with it, the composition of the fire gases, the degree of
sintering and the temperature of the kiln.

The red coloration usually caused by iron is well known, and the
other effects of iron are mentioned on page 517. An excess of
lime, magnesia or alumina tends to exert a bleaching action on ‘the
iron, and produce a buff tint.

It is asserted by Seger (Gres. Schrift. p. 282) that it requires
5% of ferric oxid to give a pronounced red color, which increases
with the amount of iron, up to about 207.

Knowing the effect of the different ingredients on the color of
the burned clay, it is possible when certain results are desired to
add the ingredients to the clay in case they are lacking. Thus a red
burning clay might be changed to a buff burning one by adding
to it a white or whitish burning clay containing a high amount of
alumina, and, depending on the amount added, we should get shades
passing from red through brown, yellowish brown, to yellow. Marl
produces a similar result.

The fire gases may be either reducing or oxidizing, and during
the burning of a kiln these conditions are apt to alternate at times,
but while cooling down the action of the fire is with few excep-
tions oxidizing.

One efiect of the sintering is to cause the clay to shrink more
and become denser, and this of itself is sufficient to deepen the
color.

The color to which a clay naturally burns as a result of its con-
stituents, is best shown on the fractured surface of a brick, as the
fire gases have not been able to exert any effect on the interior of
the product.

The surface coloration of a burned brick may often be the same
as that of the interior portion, but at other times it may differ from
it. This is due to the accumulation of soluble salts, which have
been drawn from the interior of the brick to the surface, either 4 in
burning, water-smoking or drying.

Another cause of difference in color between the surface and in-

:
‘4
7
a
|

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 641

terior of the burned brick may be due to the deposition of foreign
substances brought there by the fire gases, which may exert a
colorizing action either by their presence alone or by their forming
a glaze on the surface of the brick as a result of their union with
the silica in it. This is often to be seen on the surface of arch
brick in an up-draft kiln, and on the surface of the brick which
line the bag walls of any down-draft kiln.

The coloration of most brick is due to iron; unless the brick is
heated beyond vitrification it is probable that much of the iron re-
mains in the ferric condition.

With ferric oxid in a clay it is possible to obtain all shades rang-
ing from pink to reddish black, and with an excess of lime all
shades of yellow, while manganese, which sometimes accompanies
the iron in small amounts, tends to give a brownish coloration.

Ferrous oxid produces colors ranging from green to black.

It should also be remembered that with any given amount of
iron in a clay, the higher the temperature to which the material is
exposed the deeper will be the color obtained. Iron in the ferric
condition tends to color the mass red as long as it is at all porous,
but with the beginning of fusion it generally passes over to black.

When the clay also contains carbonate of lime, the latter serves
as a flux, and causes fusion to set in at a lower temperature than it
otherwise would, the result being the formation of a complex
silicate, containing iron, alumina and lime, which with the proper
proportion of iron and lime shows a yellow color. Up to the time
that fusion sets in the ferric oxid still imparts its red color to the
clay, but as the heat rises, this gradually turns to flesh red, white,
yellow, and finally yellowish green, and at viscosity passes to green,
and sometimes black.

The coloration which is induced superficially is a matter of great
importance, and, as before stated, it may be due either to a coating
of soluble salts, or a deposit of impurities from the fire gases. The
former are described under “ Efflorescence on bricks,” p. 679.

The discoloration caused by the action of fire gases on the clay

6492 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

is far more pronounced in the case of buff ware. In red burning
clays the effect is often marked by a superficial reduction of the
iron which the clay contains, or a slagging of the surface due to the
deposition of fusible impurities, specially alkalis, from the fire
gases.

In calcareous clays many of the elements of the material show
a strong affinity for the sulfuric acid of the fire gas; the result of
this is that sulfate of lime is formed on the surface, and the ferric
oxid, not being able to unite with the lime, imparts a red color
to the brick. In the interior the color of the brick remains yellow,
for the sulfuric acid gas has not been able to penetrate to that point
and take the lime away from the iron. This point can be easily
proved by determining the amount of sulfur in the yellow and the
red portion of the brick, and, if the theory is correct, the latter
should show the greater amount of the acid. That this is so is
well shown by two clays analyses made by Seger (Ges. Schrift. p.
277). The outer or red portion of the brick which he analyzed
showed 14.43% of sulfuric acid, while the inner or yellow portion
showed only 1.044.

One fact that this emphasizes is that in burning calcareous clays
it is important that coal should be used which contains but a very
small percentage of sulfur.

The slower the burning proceeds, the more completely will the
iron in all portions of the clay be oxidized, and the greater the ac-
cess of air the brighter will be the red color.

The time required in drying and burning is affected not only by
the clay, but also by the process. The more water which has to be
driven off in the kiln, the slower must the burning proceed, unless
the clay is coarse-grained.

ai
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Pik ard),

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PLATEH 20 To face page 643

1 2 3

C. M. Doyle, photo.

Different varieties of brick
1 Roman tile.

2 Norman tile.

3 Dry pressed brick speckled with manganese.
+ Rock faced.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 643

THE BRICKMAKING INDUSTRY

Three kinds of brick are manufactured in New York, common,
front and paving brick.

Common brick. Many works dealing with clay products state,
in an interesting way, what are the requisites of a good common
brick, but as a rule few conform to the requirements laid down.

Most common brick are fairly regular in shape, but here the
similarity to one another ends. They show a wide variation in
size, and there is no law requiring a standard size, though there
should be one. The National brickmakers association and the
American institute of architects have adopted a standard size of
24x44x84 inches. If these dimensions be compared with those
given in the table below, considerable difference will be observed
in some.cases. It is to be remembered of course, that, with a given
clay and a given mold, the brick will be smaller the harder it is
burned and im some clays the difference will be appreciable.

Common brick should be of uniform texture, hard, and give a
clear ringing sound when struck. The compactness and uniformity
of texture are largely influenced by the method of molding. Soft
mud bricks when properly burned are very resistant to frost ac-
tion. The absorption of common brick should not exceed 157.

They should also have a crushing strength of not less than 3000
pounds a square inch.

The following table gives the dimensions of a number of bricks
made in New York state, also their absorption after 24 hours’ im-

mersion.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

644.

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fal realejis,jie) isvelia: se =a

C. M. Doyle, photo.

1 Flashed brick.
2 Repressed paving brick,
3 Soft mud brick.

PLATE 21

Different varieties of brick

To face page

644

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 645,

Most common brick are made by the soft mud process, but
many are molded by the stiff mud process. In the burning of a
kiln full of such brick, some receive more heat than others, a
certain proportion become discolored, while the remainder may
be slightly misshapen by the weight of the overlying mass of
bricks. It is thus possible to sort the contents of any one kiln
into a number of different grades, the more important of which
are as follows:

Salmon brick; soft brick. These are insufficiently burned brick,
which are not hard enough to be used in outside walls, but can
be used for backing or filling in.

Arch brick are those from the arches of the kiln, or portions
nearest to the fires. These are consequently burned the hardest.

Stock brick. These generally represent the best, from a kiln
ef common brick. They are carefully sorted both as to color
and shape and consequently command a higher price.

Sewer or cistern brick are the harder burned bricks of a common
kiln, which, owing to their impervious character as the result of
hard firing, are well adapted for damp situations.

Washed brick. At those yards where the drying is done by the
open air, the surface of the bricks sometimes becomes roughened
by the beating action of rain. Such bricks when burned are just
as strong as unwashed ones, but they have usually been discarded,
excepting during certain intervals when they happened to catch
the fancy of some architects.

Pressed brick. The name of these is due to the fact that the
green brick is sometimes subjected to pressure after molding, to
impart a smooth surface and sharp edges to it.

Under this term are also included products of a variety of shades
and colors and of variable form.

The plain colors include white, buff, yellow, gray, brown and

red, as well as numerous intermediate shades.

646 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Mixed colors are commonly produced by the addition of some
metallic oxid, such as manganese, or a ferruginous shale, to a
light burning clay. The addition of finely powdered manganese
oxid to a buff burning clay produces a gray color.

Speckled bricks are obtained by adding the manganese in a
finely granular condition. ;

Mottled bricks. In these the manganese is added in larger parti-
cles. Ferruginous shale is sometimes employed, and pyrite has also
produced the same appearance.

These manganese brick are used to an enormous extent at the
present day. On account of their mottled appearance and rough
surface they are considered by many to produce a much softer
appearance and richer color than the plain pressed brick.

Roman tile or Pompeian brick. So called on account of size and
shape, in which they are similar to those used in Roman times.
Their dimensions are 12x4x13 inches. They are made either plain
or speckled, and either dry pressed or of stiff muds.

Norman tile. These differ from the preceding simply in being 2
instead of 14 inches thick.

Ornamental brick include all those of irregular or fancy shape.
Their chief use is for cornices, sills, panels, etc., and they are made.
in the same shades and colors as the ordinary forms of pressed
brick. By reason of their elaborate form they often command
high prices, and $50-$60 a thousand is not uncommonly de
manded.

Flashed brick. On some pressed brick one edge shows a darkened
and slightly fused appearance, brought about by setting the brick
with this edge exposed, and then causing a reducing action in the
kiln near the end of the burning, by shutting off as much air from
the fires as possible.

The number of ornamental shapes produced runs up into the

hundreds, and many manufacturers carry a very large number in
stock.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 647

Rock face brick. These are produced by trimming the edge of
a pressed brick with chisel and hammer, in imitation of stone.
Their beauty is a matter of individual taste.

Pressed brick are usually molded either by the dry press, semi-
dry press, or stiff mud process. In the last case, they have to be
repressed. The prevalent custom is to burn them in down-draft
kilns.

Crushing strength of bricks

Many of the bricks manufactured in New York show a crushing
strength which is far greater than is necessary, but some, spe-
cially common brick, often approach the limit pretty closely. The
succeeding tests made by different persons give the strength of a
number from different localities.

The following are the results of some tests made by H. Wil-
liams M. E., at Cornell university, on bricks from New York
state, made by different methods from the same clay. Half bricks
were tested in each case, and plaster of paris put between surfaces
of bricks and plates of machine.

Ultimate strength
Gattoagso. fo ee —
Per square

Total ane

Pounds Pounds
PAV AC =CUNG: ORT Cates caucra seth meee et a es 59 800 3 885
2 Red brick, dry-clay process, Glens Falls... 34 660 3 580
3 Stiff mud, side cut, repressed, buff, Glens |
HUET RAR AAR A ILS col Akt as ON eras 104 360 6 510
4 Soft mud, repressed red brick, Glens Falls.. 117 100 5 365
5. Dry pressed buff brick, Glens Falls...... 83 680 5 800
6 Soft mud brick, W. W. Parry, Rome..... 115 300) 4470
7 Stiff mud, repressed, W. W. Parry, Rome.. 240 000 8 760

648 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Tests of Haverstraw brick made by M. Abbott. No packing
was put between brick and plate of testing machine.

geen

Maxim 22) emi ei Se: coun OOD

Whole brick tested on end... 4 Minimum............. 1 600
Average: dame nea sam 2 065

Macc ene eee Aas

Half brick tested on flat side. | Minimum..........-.. 2 669
| Average cis cise Bee ae Beri lt

Maxime 6 sine Seen 6 400

Half brick tested on edge... { Minimum............. 2 900
{ Average ile yaeers eer 4 612

Tests of Newfield brick made at Cornell university.

Lb. per

sq. in
DEVEI OTS EOL ONE C) ce alae Ree WEEN MNT costo sd Bas cb 14 990
Connon, Suir he ie ls alka de See este 9 300
CONCHA TOTNES OL Wiel ccc a ab ka alone ale ele Rees 10 900
Commnaontrromehop Clay: to. saeco. 5 << a auscenehetene eee nee 7 880

Some years ago E. S. Fickes made a number of crushing and ~
absorption tests of common brick (Hng. news. 1894. 32 :495), from
which the following tests of New York products are derived.

Pressure
Total E . :
~. per sq.in at Material Machine
Z/DSONTOUaE crushing

Rochester.... 12.2% 8460 Clayandsand Soft mud; hard;

Loeality

common
Fishkill. .... 14.8% 5840 Clay Soft mud
Troy....... 15.1% 4400 Clayandsand Soft mud; hard;

common

Tests of building and other brick

A large series of shearmg, crushing and absorption tests have
been made at the Watertown (Massachusetts) arsenal on material

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 649

obtained mostly from the World’s Columbian exposition, some of
these being made to show the strength of the same kind of bricks
when tested in different positions. (Tests of metals, 1894, United

States war department)

Tests made to show relative strength of bricks according to the
direction in which tested

BRICKS TESTED FLATWISE

Sipe Ultimate strength
Hight ee hg ho ae Per square Average
Inches Sq. inches Pounds Pounds Pounds
2.16 Dil AOS 308 400 G2,
2.10 27.26 367 S00 a 13 492 | 11173
rape Be) Gece 298 500 10 749 |
2.21 27.90 259 200 9 290 J
BRICKS TESTED EDGEWISE
aes Ultimate strength
Hight ae = aes = ie er square Average
Taches Sq. inches Pounds Pounds Pounds
3.58 16.37 124 800 7 623 |
3.60 VW. OTT |
figetleay too 00 9 277 | 8 978
Bi 16.98 114 000 6 714 |
3.48 16.54 203 400 12 297 J
BRICKS TESTED ENDWISE
Tes (Gal bg 200. 8 032 |
Ge 7.83 45 700 |
it 5 831 L 6997
ae 7.85 51 600 Govan,
er 7.54 54 800 7268 |

650 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Tests to determine relative strength of bricks tested singly, in pairs,
threes, fours and fives, set in plaster of paris joints and compressed
surfaces

Ultimate strength

i | ee cs

Sq. in. Sq. in. Pounds Pounds Pounds

1 2.20 28.95 458 500 15 837 Pr.

i 2 12 29.56 269 000 9 100

2 4.40 99.41 178 500 6 069

2 4.35 29.38 199 800 6 812 oo

3 6.48 29.14 127 200 | 4365 | eae

5 6.60 29.10 169 600 5 828 J

4. 8.75 29.29 122 100 4168 fo.

4. 8.88 29.29 139 900 4788

5 10.95 28.94 131 100 4 530 ee

5 10.85 29.60 110 500 3133

Building brick industry in New York state

Common brick are made at many localities, the most important
region being that of the Hudson river valley. )

Pressed brick in plain colors and mottled brick are made by B.
Kreischer’s Sons at Kreischerville, 8. I.; New York architectural
terra cotta co., New York city; Eastern hydraulic pressed brick co.,
Canandaigua; while plain brick are manufactured by the Glens
Falls brick and terra cotta co., Glens Falls; the Corning brick co.,
Corning; Brush and Schmidt, Jewettville; Campbell brick co.,.
Newfield.

Enameled brick. ‘These have a very extensive use at tne present
day, specially for the interior of buildings, where a smooth surface
is often desirable, but one which shows a variety of color. The body
of enameled brick usually consists of a hard burned fire clay, or
semi-fire clay, the surface of which is covered by a glaze of one
color. Two difficulties with which the manufacturer of enamel
brick has to contend are the production of a perfectly flat surface of

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 651

enamel, and a glaze which shall be free from cracks or crazes; the
latter are due to the body and the glaze having a different coefficient
of expansion.

Enamel brick are made of two different sizes, known as the
English and the American size, the former being 9x43x3, the
latter 82x44x23.

Many manufacturers are able to produce a wide range of colors;
the number is constantly being added to. Owing to the ex-
pense of manufacture, the cost of these bricks is usually high, and
varies from $60 to $90 a thousand.

The body of the brick is usually made of several different clays,
and much depends on the selection of the proper material. On
this mixture the method of burning sometimes also depends.

The clays used for the body of the brick are molded either by the
soft mud, dry press, or stiff mud process. The glaze is sometimes
applied to green bricks before being burned; or at other times the
brick is first fired, the glaze then applied, and the two subjected to
a second burning, which is at a lower temperature than the first.
The one is known as the single fire process, the other as the double
fire process.

Enamel bricks are usually made with an indentation on the upper
and lower faces. In laying a wall the mortar is put in this space, in
such quantity that when the bricks are pressed together a thin
layer of it is forced out toward the edges and furnishes sufficient
binding material. This does away with “pointing” at the joints,
and a wall properly laid should show almost no mortar between
the courses. In consequence of this mode of laying, every brick
should be true to the standard size in order to secure a regular and
perfect bond. It is, therefore, necessary to know the exact shrink-
age that occurs in burning, and to allow for it by giving to the
dies used in pressing the brick the proper amount of “ over size.”

In a good enamel brick the enamel should adhere so tenaciously
to the body that it will not separate or crack under pressure till the
body of the brick fails.

652 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The matter of glazing and enameling is the most difficult part of
the whole process of manufacture, and as such is kept secret by the
maker «s far as the details are concerned. In general it may be

said, however, that the enamel is simply a mixture of clays similar

to that used in making good porcelain, which is applied to the sur-.

face of the brick in the condition of a thick liquid or slip. This
enamel, when dry, is coated with a fusible glaze, such as is used
for ordinary porcelain.

Enamel brick are usually burned in saggers, placed in a down-
draft kiln, or sometimes even in a muffle kiln. The double fire
method mentioned above greatly increases the cost of manufacture.

Glazed brick. By this we understand a brick which is covered
by a transparent glaze, and not an opaque enamel.

The best results are probably obtained by glazing vitrified bricks,
as porous ones are seldom able to resist the weather, specially in
severe climates.

If the glaze is applied to green brick, which is by far the cheapest
method and the two burned together, the glaze will often show
crazing under certain conditions, and it is found that there should
be a certain amount of agreement between the composition of the
clays and that of the brick, so that they will not only have a simi-
lar expansion and contraction when burned, but will show the
proper relation between their fusing points, and the glaze will not
fuse much, or not at all, below the temperature at which the brick
vitrifies.

In the first place it is of course necessary that the brick shall
not contain an excess of lime, so that it can be vitrified without

fusing; and having found a clay of the right kind, it then remains

to find a glaze which it will carry without causing it to craze.

One way to arrive at this experimentally is to take a clay whose
rational composition is known, and by the addition to it of different
quantities of, say, quartz sand, feldspar and lime, make mixtures

which will show considerable range in a rational composition. Add-

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 653

ing quartz and feldspar to clay is rather expensive, and these two
could probably be replaced by the use of a feldspathic quartz sand.
Experiments of this nature carried out by Hecht (Thonindus-
trie zeitung. 1894. p. 8309) indicated that itis undesirable in most
cases to decrease the clay substance below 30%, and that if the clay
contain over 50% most of the glazes adhere with difficulty.
He found that colored glazes with a formula

.8.KO
eo Lov eees |
held on mixtures whose rational composition was:
Clay — sub-
stance... 50 50 50 50 40 30 30 30 30 30 30
Onartz ne OmoO 20) NOke D0 EGOR a0 240. 530. 20.110

Beldspar ss meomelo 25 So oom 25. 35 45 55
Lime car-
bongigeesmmom no, 5 ' (> somber > 8B. 5

Hecht in his experiments used iron, and pink glazes, because
they represented extremes of composition. He found that the glazes
held best when the clay substance was 30%. As the clay substance
increased, the adhesion of tee clay decreased, and it did the same
with an increase of the feldspar, while it adhered better as the
quartz increased in amount.

The tendency of the glaze to craze also becomes greater with
the size of the quartz grain, the reason being that the greater the
grain the more difficult it is for a thorough chemical action to take
place between the particles of the clay and those of the brick.

Methods of manufacturing brick
Bricks are usually made by one of the following four processes.
Soft mud
Stiff mud or wire-cut
Dry press
Semi-dry press

654 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The processes are not wholly distinct from each other, as there
are machines that may be used as well in connection with one as
the other. For instance, in preparing the clay for molding in a
stiff mud machine, we may use either a pug mill or a pan crusher,
though the latter belongs preferably to the dry clay process. What-
ever be the method, the manufacture of clay into brick involves the
following steps, preparation, molding, drying, burning. Below is
a classified arrangement of the stages in the process of brickmaking

and machines used.
Methods

p Digging by pick or shovel at any portion of
+ onsale
Bench working
Mining the clay Undermining
| Steam shovel
| Plows and scrapers

L Dredging

Machines used

( Carts

| Cars on tracks, drawn by horses
Haulage 4 gtoam

:

| Wire rope planes 1 Belt eae

lL Steam power
Rolls

[ Crushers Jaw crushers

t :
| Pug mills | Single Horizontal
Preparing and tem- 4 Double ¢ Vertical

pering | iehmn erushers i Wet pans
Dry pans
Disintegrators
Ball mills

Inclined
Screens { Rotary

|
lL Shaking

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 655
( Hand power
Soft mud machines Horse power
Steam power
Auger
Plunger

Molding + Stiff mud machines i

Dry press
Semi-dry press
| Represses

( Open yards, sun-dried
Covered yards, air-dried
Pallets
| ( Steam pipes circulating
Drying * within
Hot blast
ae Hented oy Hot air from coal fire

through flues under-

|
l | neath
One or more
( Down-draft 1 cane ae chimneys ac-
| Circular | cording to
Intermittent + eee
aaah l Scovekilns
| L Updratt aa
L Continuous | Straight
Circular

Preparation of clay

Few clays are found in nature in a condition such that they can
be fed directly to the molding machines; consequently they have
to be first loosened up. This breaking up of the clay mass can be
done by weathering, namely spreading the clay out in a thin
layer and exposing it to atmospheric action, the effect of this being
thoroughly to separate clay particles. This is a very thorough
method of preparation, but takes a long time and, if the clay con-
tains pyrite, the development of soluble sulfates is often brought
about. A quicker method of breaking up the clay is by means of
some form of machine such as the disintegrator, ball mill, or dry

656 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

pan. According to the type of machine used, it is possible to disin-
tegrate a clay in its dry, plastic, or even very wet condition. ‘There
are many devices for this kind of work, but only a few need be men-
tioned.

Dry methods of preparation

Crushers. The Blake type of crusher, which is frequently used
for breaking up hard shales or old brick, consists of two jaws, the
one fixed, the other fastened at its lower end, while the upper end
moves back and forth at a rapid rate. Such crushers are strong
and effective, but have a rather limited use at clay-working estab-
lishments. 4

Pan crushers. Of these there are two classes, dry pan crushers
and wet pan crushers. The former pulverizes the material as it
comes from the bank, the latter tempers it with water. In either
case the crushers consist of a circular pan in which two iron wheels
revolve on a horizontal axis. ‘They are made to revolve by friction
against the pan, which is rotated by steam power. In a dry pan
the bottom is perforated; the wheels weigh 2000 to 5000 pounds
each. The wet pan has a solid bottom, in which there is a door
through which the material can escape when sufficiently tempered.

A good dry pan will grind 100 tons in 10 hours through one |
eighth inch screens.*

Two scrapers are placed in front of the rollers to throw the ma-
terial in their path.

Disintegrators. These, of which the Stedman disintegrator is a
good type, consist of several series of concentric drums which re-
volve in different directions. The material to be pulverized is fed
into the disintegrator by means of a hopper, and as soon as it enters
is caught between the staves of the first drum, and thrown by this
against the next inner one, which revolves in the opposite direc-
tion, and from this one against a third inside of the second, revoly-
ing in the same direction as the first. The clay particles by being
violently thrown against the staves and against each other are

1Qhio geol. sur. 1893 p. 142. EH. Orton jr. Olays and clay-working in-
dustries of Ohio.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 657

rapidly reduced to a fine state of division, the whole operation
taking not over one or two seconds. The material is then dis-
charged on an endless belt, and carried to the screens. ‘The dis-
integrator is inclosed in a metal case. The series of drums, the
velocity with which they revolve, and the strength and the arrange-
ment of the staves depend on the hardness of the material to be
pulverized, and also on the degree of fineness to which it is to be
reduced. By varying the velocity of the disintegrator a coarser or
finer product is obtained.

The capacity of this type of machine is very great, but it also
requires considerable power to operate it. According to capacity
disintegrators can pulverize in one hour from 8000 to 28,000
pounds of material, such as shale, gypsum, ete. They require 24 to
4 horse power for every ton of material pulverized in an hour.

Ball mills. These consist of a large drum which revolves on a
horizontal axis. This drum contains balls of varying diameter
which roll over each other, and as the drum revolves .comminute
the particles of material. The material is introduced through a
door in the side of the drum, the door is then closed, and the drum,
being set in motion, is turned till the material is ground to suffi-

cient fineness. It is then discharged on the sieve, and particles
which will not pass through are returned to the drum together with
fresh material.

Ball mills were at first constructed with a comparatively small
capacity, but recently mills have been constructed that discharge
the pulverized material continuously. A still more recent modifi-
cation consists in introducing the charge at one end of the cylinder,
allowing it to pass the whole length of the mill and issue at the
opposite end. As the breaking up of the particles in the ball mill
is the result primarily of the action of the balls rolling over them,
it will easily be seen that the product of this machine will show a
considerable variation in the size of its grains, and that the thorough
pulverization will be obtained only by keeping the material a long
while in the mill. This objection therefore, adapts the ball mills

658 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

particularly to the production of such materials as exhibit coarse
article and fine grains, such as grogs for instance.

The material to be ground in ball mills must be air-dried and
only in those of the intermittent type can damp or wet material
be introduced. This is necessary, for instance, in the case of
glazes. If the material to be ground must be kept from contact
with iron, the interior of the cylinder is lined with porcelain, and
instead of iron balls porcelain or flint ones are used. The capacity
of ball mills is highly variable, depending on the fineness of the
product desired, the hardness of the material to be ground, and also
on the size of the mill, therefore the hourly production will vary
in the case of grog between 1500 and 8000 pounds. In this case,
for every 2000 pounds ground in an hour, three to 10 horse power
is required.

Wet methods of preparation

The clay can commonly be tempered directly as it comes from
the bank instead of being pulverized, which is always necessary
in the case of shales.

The wet methods employed are:

Soak pits. These are the most primitive contrivances at present
used for the preparation of clays. There is a rectangular pit about
5 feet deep and 6 feet square. The Long Island pits are usually
rectangular in shape. Into this the clay and sand are dumped,
water poured on and the mass allowed to soak over night, so as
thoroughly to soften it. The following morning the softened ma-
terial is shoveled into the machine. Two men — pit shovelers— _
do this, and it is highly important that they be men of intelligence
and attend to their work, seeing that the right proportions of clay
and sand are shoveled into the machine. From one third to one
quarter is the amount of sand added. The operation of mixing the
clay and sand is called tempering; the addition of sand is in most
cases not necessary, as the majority of clays have sufficient of it
naturally. The object of the addition of sand is to counteract the
effect of the alumina, by preventing a too great and uneven shrink-

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To face page 659

Plate 26

Ring-pit, for tempering clay, Ferrier and Golden, Catskill.

H. Ries photo.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 659

age of the brick. Coal dust is also added by some manufacturers;
the advantage derived by its use will be mentioned under the head
of burning. | .

When soak pits are used, two men dig the clay in the afternoon
at the bank, while a third man levels off the material as it is dumped
into the pit and also adds the requisite amount of water. He is
called the temperer. In the morning the two diggers of the previous
afternoon shovel the clay from the soak pit into the machine.

In many large brickyards separate gangs of men do the pit
shoveling and digging of the clay.

Ring pits. These temper the clay more thoroughly than soak
pits, but are not so extensively used, possibly because it costs a
trifle more to operate them. A ring pit, as its name implies, is cir-
cular, 25 to 30 feet in diameter, 3 feet deep and lined with boards
or brick. In this there revolves an iron wheel, 6 feet in diameter
and so geared that it travels from the center to the circumference
of the pit and then toward the center again. In this manner the
clay is thoroughly broken up and mixed with the sand and coal
dust, if the latter be added. The pitful is tempered in about six
hours; a pit holds sufficient for about 30,000 brick. The temper-
ing is usually done in the afternoon so as to have the material
ready for the next morning. When the tempering is finished, a
board is attached by ropes to the wheel and dragged round the pit
a few times to smooth the surface of the clay; a thin crust forms
on the surface and prevents the moisture in the underlying material
from evaporating.

The working of ring pits is similar to that of soak pits, the only
_ difference being that the temperer previously mentioned is gen-
erally employed in the morning to wheel the clay from the ring pit
to the molding machine.

As a rule there are two ring pits to a machine, so that while the
clay is being shoveled from one pit to the machine, the other pit is
tempering clay for the next day, or two pits and two machines are

660 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

used, but each pit in this case holds enough material for the catly
use of two machines.

Pug mil. This machine, like the ring pit just described, is used
for thoroughly mixing the clay, or clay and sand as the case may
be, before introducing it into the machine. It consists essentially
of a semi-cylindric trough, 6 to 10 feet long, in which revolves
a shaft, bearing knives set spirally around it, or a worm screw 6
or more inches wide. The material is put in at one end, and the
knives or thread mix it up. At the same time it is worked along
to the other end of the trough, from which it is discharged into the
machine. The pug mill may be closed or open; the former is better
as there is a more uniform pressure on the clay while it is being
tempered, and a more thorough mixing results. Water is also added
from a faucet at the upper end of the trough till the clay is in the
right condition. The angle of the knives with relation to the shaft
can be changed so that the clay can be moved along slower or
_ faster as desired. The trough of the pug mill is of iron or wood,

usually the former. A pug mill, according to its size, will in 10
hours temper clay enough for from 25,000: to 60,000 brick. Pug
mills take up less room than ring pits and do not require as much
power to operate them. They will also, if desired, discharge the
clay directly into the molding machine. They are used chiefly with
stiff mud machines.

In some works a double form of pug will is used. This has two
axles bearing knives, instead of one. They revolve in opposite di-
rections. (pl. 106°")
| Screens

When clay is molded in the dry condition, or when shale is used
instead of soft, plastic clay, it is important that the material be first
ground to the proper degree of fineness.

As the material comes from the dry pan or other apparatus used

“to pulverize it, it is carried to screens, which allow the sufficiently
fine material to pass through while those particles which are too
coarse go back to the crushing machine.

Three general types of machine are used, inclined, rotary, and

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 661

shaking. The inclined screens are usually 10 to 14 feet long, have
a bottom of either wire cloth or perforated metal, and are usually
provided with a tapping device to keep them from becoming
clogged. Such screens are simple and cheap, but have a small
capacity.

The rotary screens are commonly of wire cloth, and have a
cylindric or octagonal form. They are usually provided on the
inner side with brushes to keep them clean.

Shaking screens are fixed at one end, while to the other end is
attached a crank and piston or an eccentric, which operates them. |
Such sereens are cheap and simple in operation.

While all of these screens are designed to perform their work
automatically, nevertheless very few of them can be left without
attention for any length of time, for powdered clay, no matter how
dry it is apparently, shows the greatest tendency to clog the meshes
of almost any screen.

Molding
Soft mud process

'l'his is the most prevalent method in New York state.

_ The clay is mixed with water to the consistency of a soft mud,
and is'either forced into a wooden mold by hand, or molded in a
machine, operated by steam or horse power.

There are a number of different types of machines but the funda-
mental principle of all is the same. A soft mud machine consists
essentially of an upright box of wood or iron and generally of a
rectangular shape. In this is a vertical shaft bearing several knives
horizontally. Attached to the bottom of the shaft is,a device such
as a curved arm, which forces the clay into the press box. The
molds are put in at the rear of the machine and fed forward under-
neath the press box automatically. The empty mold sliding into
place shoves out the filled one. The molds before being placed in
the machine are sanded either by a boy, or else in an automatic
mold sanding machine in order to prevent the clay from sticking.
The clay is fed to the machine at the upper end of the box. Often

662 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

there is a pug mill attached to the machine. In all these ma-
chines the material gets an additional amount of mixing by the
knives on the vertical shaft. In fact many brick manufacturers
consider that the soft mud machine tempers the clay sufficiently
to enable them to dispense with a pug mill or ring pit and use the
old-fashioned soak pit. That they can make a very fair common
brick thus is not disputed, but it is certain that with a thorough
tempering of the clay, a better brick would be obtained in most
cases. There is one type of machine, the Adams, used by several
manufacturers on the Hudson river, which does not temper the
clay, but simply forces it into the press box. Some form of temper-
ing machine must, therefore, be used in connection with it. These
soft mud machines have a capacity of about 5000 brick an hour,
six being molded at a time.

Steam power is generally used to run the machines, but some
of the smaller yards use horse power; this, of course, is much
slower and not economical except for a yard of a small capacity.
Some soft mud machines are more powerful than others, and in-
deed this is necessary. Jor instance a brick dried on pallets needs
a much greater pressure applied to it, and has to be molded from
stiffer material than one dried in the sun in the yard.

Four men are required to tend the machine. A “ molder” who
scrapes off the top of the mold as it is delivered from the machine
and watches the consistency of the tempered clay, to see that it
keeps uniform; a “mold lander” who takes the mold from the
delivery table and places it on the truck; a “sander” who sands
the molds before putting them in the machine, and a boy to watch
the machine and stop it when necessary. Beside this there are
four “ truckmen ” who wheel the bricks from the machine to the
yard, where they are dumped on the drying floor by two “ mold
setters”. In the afternoon these men are employed in hacking
the bricks and wheeling the dry ones to the kiln.

Stiff mud or were-cut machines. Their name indicates the

nature of the process. The clay is tempered quite stiff, and

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 663

charged into the machine, from which it is forced in the form of
a rectangular bar whose cross-section has the same area as the
greatest plane surface, or the end of the brick. The bar of clay as it
issues from the machine is received on the cutting table, and either
is cut up into brick by means of a series of parallel wires set
in a frame which slides across the cutting table, in which case the
machine stops when the bar has issued a certain length, or the
bar of clay issues continuously, and is cut up by means of wires on a
revolving frame. |

The plunger machine consists of a large iron cylinder into which
the clay is charged. From this it is forced out through the die.

The auger machine consists of a cylinder with a conical end. In
this is a horizontal shaft bearing a screw or knife blades so set that
their action will force the clay forward. At the forward end of the
shaft is an iron screw which forces the clay out through the die.
The clay is fed at the large end of the cylinder. It will thus be
seen that the clay undergoes a large amount of compression and
that considerable power is required to force it through the die.

Auger machines are either end-cut or side-cut, depending on
whether the area of the cross-section of the bar of clay corresponds
to the end or side of a brick; and consequently the mouthpieces
vary in size and shape of cross-section, according to the kind of
brick or other product to be turned out.

Mouthpieces are generally made of steel, are steam-heated, and,
in order to prevent the formation of a serrated edge on the emerg-
ing bar of clay, much attention is given to the internal shape of the
die. When a bar of clay emerges from a rectangular opening, there
is more friction at the corners than in the center of the bar or on
the sides, and for this reason the internal form of the mouth-
piece should be such that a sufficient quantity of clay will be forced
toward the corner of the die to preserve an equal velocity in all
portions of the emerging clay stream. At times the mouthpieces
or dies are watered or oiled in order to facilitate the issuance of the
clay. The practice of steam-heating the die is rather an American
one.

664 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The effect of a difference in velocity between the central and
outer portions of the clay stream is to produce a laminated structure
in the brick. Plastic clays laminate more than lean ones, and even
the same clay may laminate more with one die than with another.
Irregularity of clay supply may be still another cause. In common
brick laminations are less harmful than in paving brick; repress-
ing may at times obliterate them to a large extent. The
auger machine is extensively used at the present day, spe
cially in the manufacture of paving brick. It has a large capacity,
60,000 brick being not an unusual output for 10- hours. The
capacity of the auger machine is often increased by causing two
streams of clay to issue from it, and certain machines are said to
have produced 150,000 brick a day. Plunger machines have a
capacity of 25,000 to 30,000 a day.

_ Building brick are mostly side-cut, while paving brick are com-
monly end-cut.

If the brick are to be facing, they are repressed, for the purpose
of straightening their edges and smoothing the surface.

Dry clay process

The use of this method in the United States dates back 15 or 20
years, to its introduction at Louisville, Ky. In New York it has
not been in use over nine years. There are five dry press in works
in the state. The clay after being dug is usually stored in sheds
to dry. When ready for use it is taken out and charged into the
disintegrator or dry pan, both of which have been described under
“Preparation of clay.”

After passing from the disintegrator the powdered clay is car-
ried by an elevator to the upper story, where it is discharged on a
long screen inclined at an angle of about 45°. ‘The material
which has been ground fine enough passes through the sieve and
down into the hopper over the molding machine. The tailings fall
into a hopper at the lower end of the sieve and are carried back to
the disintegrator.

Plate 32 To face page 664

So SE eee]

H. Ries photo.

Simpson dry press brick machine, Brush & Schmidt, Jewettville, Erie county. The
plungers are at the lowest point of the stroke, and molded bricks are on the wagon
ready to be taken to the drying tunnels.

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Plate 33 To face page 665

H. Ries photo.

Boyd dry press brick machine, Garden City brick co., Farmingdale Long Island. The
plungers are at the highest point of their stroke and the six bricks which have just
been molded are pushed forward automatically on two of the delivery tables.

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Plate 34 To face page 665

H. Ries photo.

Hand power dry press machine for molding ornamenta! shapes. A molded brick has
just been pushed out of the mold. Brush & Schmidt, Jewettvilte.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 665

The molding machine consists of a massive frame of forged steel
about 8 feet high. 3 feet up from the ground is the delivery
table, into which the press box is sunk. Connected with the hopper
above the machine by means of two canvas tubes is the charger.
This slides back and forth on the table. It is filled on the backward
stroke and on its forward stroke lets the clay fall into the mold
box. The charger then recedes to be refilled and at the same time a
plunger comes down pressing the clay into the mold. As the upper
plunger descends, a lower plunger which forms the bottom of the
mold moves upward, so tliatthe clay receives pressure from above
and below. The upper 1pl~ger then rises, and the lower plunger
ascends till the lower suiiace of the brick is even with the fable.
Again the charger comes forward, shoving the green brick for-
ward on the table, the lower slunger drops and the mold box is
once more filled with clay. Th faces of the mold are of hard steel
heated by steam to prevent adberence of the clay. Air holes are
also made in the dies, but are apt to become clogged up. The pres-
sure from above is applied by a toggle-joint arrangement, and it is
maintained by the manufacturer: .f the Boyd dry clay presses that
the pressure exerted on each brick is 150 tons. One to six bricks
can be molded at a time, according to capacity of machine. Ona
four brick machine about 20,000 are molded in a day.

The hydraulic dry press machine is in use at Canandaigua,
N. Y. In this, the pressure is produced by a pair of hydraulic rams,
acting from both above and below. The pressure delivered at first
is light, being only 240 pounds the square inch (Missouri clays,
Mo. geol. sur. 11: 502), and this is followed by a pressure of
3700 pounds, which completes the pressing.

A difficulty encountered in the dry press and semi-dry press
methods is the imprisonment of air in the brick under pressure,
with the result that the compressed air tends to split the brick when
the pressure is released. This can be obviated partly by allowing
the plunger to descend very slowly, giving the air time to escape,
and also by leaving small vent holes in the top and bottom of the
mold. |

666 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The molded brick are shoved forward on the table by the charger,
are placed on cars and either taken to drying chambers or set
directly in the kiln. The green brick require great care in handling
as they are very tender. Drying must be done very slowly to
prevent cracking... Burning is usually done in down-draft kilns.
The manner of burning does not differ essentially from that fol-
lowed for other makes of brick. By setting directly in the kiln
without previous drying it takes longer to water-smoke. ‘This in
any case should be done very slowly and the burning should not be
pushed till water-smoking is entirely finished. It is calculated by
some that one sixth to one quarter more fuel is required to burn
dry clay bricks than those made by other processes. Burning in a
down-draft kiln is more expensive than in an up-draft one, but
a much greater percentage of good bricks is obtained. It is conse-
quently better for burning pressed brick.

The type of kiln used varies.

It is essential for the production of good dry pressed bricks that
the moisture contents of the raw material shall be pretty constant
and the degree of fineness shall always remain the same. The first
condition is obtained by drying the clay in sheds, the second by
screening the material, after it is ground.

The manufacture of brick by the dry press process has certain
advantages over the stiff mud or soft mud process.

1 Drying racks and drying sheds are not needed, which means
a certain saving of capital and cost for repairs. Was

2 The production of brick by this method is cheaper, and the
bricks produced have a more constant and even form.

3 Labor is cheaper than in the case of the other methods, as
there is less handling to be done, the bricks being carried directly
from the molding machine to the kiln.

The forms of the bricks molded on dry press machines are not
restricted to rectangular shapes, but ornamental patterns can also
be produced, which in the case of plastic methods can be formed
only in plaster molds.

To face page C66

Plate 35

_” SECTIONAL SIDE VIEW

OF DRY PRESS BRICK PLANT

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 667

Semi-dry process
This differs but little from the dry process. The clay usually
has a slight amount of moisture added to it.

Clays adaptable to the different molding methods

Few clays give good results with all the methods of molding just
described, and the same clay will not necessarily make a good brick
with any machine of the same general type. This is specially true
of stiff mud machines. For the dry press process a wide range of
clays can be used, for it works with sandy ones, or with plastic
materials. Coarse sandy clays however do not lend themselves
readily to dry pressing, on account of their very slight cohesive
strength.

As an illustration of the wide range of clays used, we may com-
pare the two following clays, no. 1 being a clay used to a large
extent for making brick in western Illinois, no. 2 a black clay from
Wyandanee, L. I.

Both feel gritty, but neither contains particles large enough to
be retained by a 100 mesh sieve.

When subjected to a mechanical separation they yielded.

No. 1 No. 2

J ORTaTS SPH ONGL Wee, LY hae CR mCP 5% 84%
Clay substance and silt ......... 95% 16%
100% 100%

The other physical tests of no. 2 are given on page 740.

Those of no. 1 are: water reuqired for mixing 16%; air shrink-
age 6%. Incipient fusion began at .04 with 8% shrinkage; vitrifica-
tion at 4, with a total shrinkage of 12%; at cone 6 viscosity began.
The soluble salts amounted to .09%. The tensile strength ranged
from 150 to 175 pounds a square inch.

If the product from the dry press machine is properly burned, it
gives a good brick, but if not, it is apt to be easily disintegrated by

668 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the frost. Owing to their greater density, dry press brick have to
be burned more slowly than those made by other methods.

The stiff mud process is adaptable mainly, if the best results are
desired, to clays of moderate or good plasticity, which will dry in
areasonable time. As the clay in flowing through the die requires
much tenacity to escape tear, very siliceous clays are not desirable,
and on the other hand very plastic ones tend to develop laminations
in the brick. The capacity of the stiff mud machines is very great

and their use is increasing, though it is already extensive.

Repressing of bricks

Paving brick and front brick are sometimes repressed, the object
being to give sharper edges and angles in the case of the latter, and
in both cases to produce a brick of more regular size and greater
density.

The repressing is done in a machine known as the repress,
operated either by hand or steam power. (pl. 36.) In the hand
power machine only one brick is repressed at a time, and one man
and a boy can generally repress about 2000 a day. In a
steam power machine two bricks are repressed at a time, and the
capacity is about 25,000 a day of 10 hours. In each ease the
pressure is applied vertically, and the dies and other parts of the
machine have to be oiled frequently to keep the clay from sticking.

Repressing reduces the volume of the brick somewhat, thus in
one case a brick before being repressed in a steam power machine
measured 83 x 4§ x 35 Inches, and after it 811 x 42 x 24.

Drying

The methods employed have already been enumerated in the
table given on page 655.

With few exceptions artificial drying is used only in connection
with the stiff mud and dry press process. The drying of bricks
should never be hurried, as bricks dried too quickly are apt to
crack; but some clays can be dried much more rapidly than others,
and so the drying capacity of the plant does not need to be as great
as in the case of clays that dry slowly.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 669

Coarse-grained sandy clays permit rapid drying, while very plas-
tic ones must be dried with exceeding care. Fine-grained, sandy
clays may require slow drying, as the pores are so small that the
water can not escape rapidly, but it is not necessary to follow an in-
variable method in the burning.

Bricks made by the soft mud process are usually dried in one

of three ways viz:

1 Open yards
2 Pallet yards
3 Covered yards

The first method is the most used, the second next and the third
least. In the first method the bricks are spread out on a hard
floor, in the open air. This floor, which is about 200 feet long, is
of brick, with a thin covering of sand, and is the “ yard” proper.
At one end of it are the molding machines, at the other end the
kiln sheds. ‘The yard usually drains toward one end, or from
the center toward both. After a day’s production has been spread
out, the boy who tended the machine in the morning goes along
the rows and stamps them with a piece of board set on the end of
along handle. This is termed “spatting”. After this the bricks
are turned on edge by another boy who goes along the rows with
a special tool, turning six bricks at a time. The next morning, if
the weather has been pleasant, the bricks are “ hacked ”’, that is to
say they are piled on one another in a double row 11 to 15 courses
high along the sides of the yard and left till sufficiently dry to put
in the kiln and burn. In ease of rain the hacks are covered with
planking.

The disadvantage of open yards is that the bricks are exposed
to the rain, and if a shower comes while they are spread out on
the yard, they become “ washed”, getting a rough, uneven surface.
Washed brick are quite as strong as unwashed ones, but they bring
50 to 75c less a thousand. ‘The washed brick amount to about 15%

of the total production.

670 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Covered yards. These differ from the former simply in the
addition of aroof. This roof is in hinged sections, which on pleas-
ant days can be opened upward, allowing the sunlight to enter, and
closed to prevent washing of the brick in case of rain; but the bricks
do not dry so fast, and, therefore, more drying room is needed for
a yard of the same capacity. There is also the expense of erecting
the sectional covering.

Pallet driers. By this method the bricks are dumped directly
on ‘“ pallets” as they come from the machine. ‘These are pieces
of board long enough to hold six bricks. The pallets are set on
rack or cribs till the bricks are sufficiently dry to be set up in
the kiln. There are both advantages and disadvantages to this
method. As the bricks can not be spatted to keep them in proper
shape, they must be firm enough to retain this themselves, conse-
quently the clay must be molded stiffer, and to do this we must have
strong machinery. Furthermore, a molding sand must be used
which will allow the brick to slip readily from the mold, as it has
been forced in tighter than a brick which is to be dried on an open
yard. There is, of course, the expense of setting up the racks, but
on the other hand the capacity of the yard is increased, the brick,
though drying slower, are not subjected to a sudden drying, such
as the sun of a hot summer’s day is apt to give, and, therefore,
perhaps warp or crack the brick. The brick are only subjected to
one handling between machine and kiln. Some manufacturers
say that it is cheaper to make bricks on a pallet yard. A machine
called a “ pallet-squarer”’ has been invented by Mr Swain of the
Croton brick co. which is said to take the place of the spatting tool.

Tunnel driers. With this method, green bricks are usually piled
on cars and are run into heated tunnels to dry. The tunnels are
about 100 feet long and constructed of either brick, iron or wood.
If soft mud bricks are dried in tunnels, the cars must have racks
on which to set the pallets bearing the bricks. Stiff mud bricks
can, however, be set on each other, setting the bricks of two succes-
sive courses at right angles to each other. Each car carries about

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 671

360 brick. Tracks are laid from the machines through the tunnels
to the kilns. The tracks are laid in two directions only, at right
angles to each other, and turntables are placed at the points where
tracks intersect. The tunnels are about 5 feet high and 4 feet wide.
Several methods are used to heat the tunnels. There may be a fire-
place at one end and a system of parallel flues under the tunnel to
conduct the heat. A second method is to use steam heat, the pipes
being laid along underneath the floor of each tunnel or along the
sides. Exhaust steam is used in the day time and live steam during
the night. Another method is to heat the tunnel by a hot blast.
In a good drier the natural draft should be sufficient to draw the
air through the tunnels. Six or more of these drying tunnels are
usually set side by side. Artificial drying takes from 24 to 40
hours. ‘The longer the clay takes to dry, the greater will be the
number of tunnels needed for a given capacity. The green brick
are put in at the end nearest the machine and the cars with the
dry ones drawn out at the opposite end. It is of importance that
the capacity of the driers shall not exceed that of the kilns. Arti-
ficial driers have the advantage of permitting a plant to be run all
winter. The cost of flue driers is set at 25c a thousand brick with
coal at $2.50 a ton.

Floor driers. Bricks are sometimes dried on floors, which are
either of brick or wood. Brick floors are often heated by flues,
which pass under them their entire length, conducting the heat
from the fireplace at one end to a chimney at the other. Such
floors are cheap, but the heat is very unequal at the two ends, and
a large amount of labor is involved in handling the material. In
some cases the bricks are dried simply by reason of a current of
air passing over them, no hot air flues being used.

Wooden floors either solid or slatted, such as those used in drying
sewer pipe, may be used, but the cost of laying them is great, and
the bricks, as in the case of brick floors, require much handling.

A very common custom abroad, not used in this country, consists
in having a series of pallet racks built along the top of the kiln,

672 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

specially if a continuous one is used. This method works best
where the kiln is placed in the lower story of the factory, while the
molding machine is on the second floor, or in other words on the
same level as the top of the kiln. The bricks when molded are
set on the cars, and wheeled directly to the pallet racks. When
dry, they are loaded on barrows or cars, and sent down to the kiln
on an elevator. The one disadvantage in this method lies in the
extra handling of the bricks. ‘The cost of the drying tunnel is
however done away with.

Burning

In the burning of clay, the chemically combined water and also
any carbonic acid which may be present are driven off, while the
organic materials contained in the clay are aiso burned. As a re-
sult of this, the clay loses more or less weight, which in calcareous
clays may be as much as 20%, and the porosity increases as a rule
with the amount of loss on ignition; but, if the temperature is ele-
vated enough to soften any of the clay particles, the various erains
of the mass will draw together, more or less, and the porosity will
be diminished. ‘The hardness of the material will also be increased,
and this is specially true of calcareous clays. In the case of com-
mon brick it is always the finest particles of the clay that soften
when a temperature of about 1000° F. is reached, but the small
particles of quartz sand do not soften, and therefore form the skele-
ton of the mass, thus enabling the brick to hold its form. As at this
temperature the quartz sand expands as much as 16%, and conse-
quently decreases in specific gravity, there will be a certain amount
of decrease in the porosity from this cause. We therefore can
obtain thoroughly dense brick from sandy clays, without the burn-
ing process being accompanied by any material amount of shrink-
age, the quartz having aided in rendering the clays more dense.

In the burning the clay changes from a comparatively soft con-
dition to one of rock-like hardness. The amount of heat applied
in burning and the tempersture to which the kiln is raised depend

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 673

on the nature of the clay used and the grade of product desired.
Common bricks for instance may not require a temperature of more
than 1800° F., while other wares may have to be burned at a tem-
perature of 2300° F. or 2500° F.

In the burning process a number of different things exert more
or less influence and consequently must be taken into consideration.
Among these we may mention the character of the clay, the char-
acter of the fuel, the type of kiln to be used, the temperature em-
ployed, the composition of the fire gases, ete.

The detailed changes which the clay undergoes, when burned
have already been mentioned.

In burning, the wares are piled up in the kiln, as in the case of
common brick, and front brick, or they may have to be inclosed
in receptacles to protect them from the action of fire gases, and
they may sometimes need to be partially incloged by means of fire
brick slabs in order to prevent the exertion of any excessive pressure
on them, which would cause them to lose their form.

Some clays are burned only to a condition of incipient fusion,
while others are burned to a stage of vitrification. Common brick
are an example of the former, paving brick of the latter.

The type of kiln used varies with the product and also with the
locality, but in every case it is either up-draft or down-draft.
In the former case the fire passes from the bottom of the kiln up-
ward through the ware and out at the top, escaping either at many
points or through a chimney. In the latter case the fire is con-
ducted to the top of the kiln first by means of “ pockets ” or “‘ bags ”’
on the interior wall, passes downward through the ware and then
out through ‘flues in the floor of the kiln to the stack. All kilns
are also either continuous or intermittent in their action. In the
former the heat from the cooling chamber is conducted through
those which have not yet been burned, and is used to heat them
up. Both the up-draft and down-draft kilns are either rect-
angular or round in form, the former having a larger capacity.

The different types of kiln are mentioned in more detail farther on.

674 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The principle of burning is much the same in the different kilns,
but the burning can be better regulated in closed kilns. In down-
draft kilns the bricks in the upper portion of the kiln receive
the greatest amount of heat, whereas in a scove-kiln or clamp, the
arch bricks, which have to bear the weight of the overlying bricks,
are heated the most and often become crushed out of shape. The
rectangular can not be bound together as well as circular kilns,
this being of course necessary in order to prevent a bulging of the
walls during burning.

Most of the manufacturers who make common bricks by the soft
mud process, burn them in temporary, up-draft kilns, or scove-
kilns, as they are properly called, but the use of kilns of the Endaly
type as well as continuous ones is extending rapidly.

Scove-kilns. In these the bricks are set up and burnt in “ arches”,
several of which go to make up a kiln. The number of bricks in
an arch varies from 35,000 to 49,000. An arch is about 40 courses
high, and about 15 arches make up a kiln. The open portion of
the arch is about 14 courses high; the bricks above the arch are set
three one way and then three on top at right angles. They are
kept slightly separated by putting small pieces of clay between
them. The first row of brick on top of the arch is called the tie
course, and the first 14 courses, including the tie course, above the
arch are called the ‘“‘ lower bench ”’, and the rest of the courses above
are called the “upper bench”. When the arch and lower and
upper benches have been set, brick are laid flat over the top of the
kiln; this is the “raw platting’”’; and then on top of this is laid
burnt bricks at right angles to those of the raw platting, which is
the “burnt platting”. Hanging from the roof of the kiln shed
at the same level are a number of bricks which serve as a guide for
hight in building the kiln. A wall of two thicknesses of “ double-
coal” brick is put around the outside of the kiln, scoving the kiln
it is called, and this is “‘ daubed ” over with mud. The daub is to
prevent any air entering except through the doors. The latter con-
sist of an iron frame about 14 inches high, with an iron plate to

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 675

close the opening; the frames are set in the courses of double-coal
brick, at the bottom of the arch on both sides of the kiln. Double-
coal brick have six or seven times as much coal dust in them as
others and are used for placing around the outside of the kilns.
The combustion of the coal in them, the manufacturer claims, sup-
plies the necessary amount of heat to the outer portion of the kilns
which are not sufficiently heated by the arch fires. Double-coal
bricks sell for about $2.50 a thousand, and usually bear some dis-
tinguishing stamp, but they are not as strong as the other brick. It
takes two setters and four wheelers about one day to set an arch of
35,000 brick; two men will daub the outside of a 15 arch kiln in
one day.

Having “ walled-up ” the kiln with double-coal brick and daubed
it over, the next step is to start the fires and burn the bricks. The
principle of the process is essentially the same, whether wood, coal
or oil is used as fuel.

First, every alternate brick of the “burnt platting ” is stood on
end to allow the “ water-smoke”’ or steam to escape as quickly as
possible. A fire is then started in the mouth of each arch. When
coal is used the fire is started on the windward side of the kiln so
as to allow the smoke to blow through the arches.

The fire is also started from the other end of the arch, and the
two fires are then built up slowly till they meet in the middle.
The time of crossing the fires varies; with machine-made bricks
the fires should not be crossed as quickly as with handmade ones.
Along the Hudson the time of crossing is from 40 to 60 hours.
The steam should escape evenly all around the top, and the upper
limit of the fire should follow directly on it, the steam acting as
a blanket, and its lower limit should be even. It is the duty of
the foreman to watch the burning carefully, and increase or ease
up the steam in any one arch, according as it is coming off too
slowly or too rapidly. The fires are increased till the “ water-
smoke ” changes to a bluish black smoke, and at this point the
fire can be seen at night time coming from the top of the kiln.

676 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The kiln is now “hot” and the bricks commence to shrink or
“settle” and all the platting is turned down. . Up to this point
care must be used to increase the heat gradually. The bricks now
get their heaviest heat, and the oxids of iron are changed to the
anhydrous peroxid, giving the bricks their red color. If the heat
in the arches is too great the bricks run, stick together or become
distorted and cracked. After the firing has been done the doors
are all closed and plastered over to prevent any air from entering.

If the bricks are put into the kiln before they are sufficiently
dried, or if they are heated too quickly, they are liable to crack.

In the case of coal, grates have to be put in a few inches above
the level of the floor, and for oil, burners are needed. |

After a kiln of bricks has been burned, the ends of the arch
bricks are often black, caused by the particles of dust and carbon
which have been carried upward sticking to the brick when they
were in a soft condition, due to the high degree of heat.

As to the action of the coal dust in the brick. At first while
the brick contains water, there is no access for the air to the particles
of coal. However, as the firmg proceeds, the water is driven off,
leaving the brick porous, allowing the air to enter for the com-
bustion of the coal. Particles of lime and lumps of clay cause a
splitting of the brick. Insufficiently burnt bricks are called
“yale” and sell for $3.75 a thousand.

The kilns take several days to cool, and, when cool, the bricks
are put on wheelbarrows, and taken to the freight cars, or barges,
and then shipped to the market. If the kiln shed is not situated
along the dock, the barrows are put on a ear, which is run down
a track to the scow. ‘The time of burning is from five to seven
days with wood and four to five days with oil. The cost of burn-
ing with wood is 60 to 75c a thousand brick, and with coal the
cost of burning is 40 to 50c. Burning with wood is the cheapest
method as far as implements are concerned. With coal there is the
cost of grates and with oil there is a royalty of $1.60 to be paid on
every burner. The latter is, however, the cheapest method as

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 677

regards the price of fuel. The great majority of the yards along
the Hudson use wood, a few use coal and two or three use oil.
With coal and oil the heat can be better regulated than with wood.
Another important point is the amount of pale brick produced. In
scove-kilns there is sometimes a loss of as much as 50,000 to 75,000
in a clamp of 500,000 bricks, while in a permanent kiln such as the
Wingard or one similar, the amount of pale brick is said to be not
usually over 25,000. Again in the case of permanent kilns, it
takes no more, if not less, time to set the bricks and there is less
daubing to be done. Regarding the amount of labor required in
burning, one man is supposed to tend three arches.

Up-draft permanent kilns. These differ from scove-kilns only
in having permanent side walls. They are open at the tops and
ends, and the latter have to be walled up before the burning com-
mences. Kilns of this type are used to a large extent for burning
common brick, but they are little used for front, stock, or orna-
mental brick, as the percentage of salmon brick produced usually
amounts to from 20% to 35%. The brick are set in the same man-
ner as in scove-kilns, and the burning proceeds on the same
principle. .

In up-draft kilns the bricks forming the arches are exposed
to the direct action of the flames, and are usually overburned, so
that they are twisted or crushed out of shape, and often covered

by a layer of ashes which have stuck to their surface. They are

(4 ce

known as “arch” or “eye” brick. The salmon brick are gen-
erally to be found in the upper courses of the luln, and they together
with the arch brick may at times form an appreciable percentage
of the product.

Up-draft kilns are cheaper to construct, and easier to keep in
repair than the down-draft kilns, for the latter have the bag walls
on the interior and usually an arched roof, both of which require
constant attention, and at times may necessitate expensive repairs.

Down-draft kilns. In these the fire is conducted along the in-

terior to the top of the kiln by means of bags, or “ pockets ” as they

678 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

are called, before they are allowed to escape into the kiln. The
fire then passes downward through the product and out through
the openings in the floor of the kiln to the flues, and from these to
the stack, or chimneys. The hight of the bags on the inside wall
of the kiln varies, and depends partly on the type of kiln, and
largely on the individual opinion of the manufacturer.

There may be one main stack or, sometimes, there are several
small ones on each kiln. The down-draft kilns are either rect-
-angular or round in shape. ‘The average capacity of the former is
about 150,000 brick, while that of the latter varies with the diam-
eter, which is from 15 to 25 feet.

The percentage of salmon brick is much smaller in a down-
draft than in an up-draft kiln, and seldom exceeds 15%. Those
bricks which are on the top of the kiln receive the greatest
amount of heat, but as there is no pressure on them they do not
become misshapen, and consequently on account of their great
hardness and density are often sold under the name of “ rough
hard” and serve excellently for use in damp situations and for
sewer work.

Several types of down-draft kiln are illustrated in the report.

Down-draft kilns sometimes have two sets of fireplaces, the
one connecting with the bags on the inside of the kiln and the other
leading directly into the interior. The kiln may thus be worked
either as an up or a down-draft, the former being used during
the water-smoking and the latter during the burning.

Continuous kilns. These consist of a series of chambers separated -
by either temporary or permanent walls. The fire is started in the
first, and as the burning proceeds the heat from the burning cham-
ber is conducted through the succeeding ones either through flues in
the wall or pipes connecting the openings in the roof of the kiln. In
this way, by means of the exhaust heat, the temperature of the suc-
ceeding chambers is raised, so that less fuel is required. ‘The heat

from a burning chamber can not as a rule be carried safely through

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Plate 44 To face page 678

$ siacbewin pe

H. Ries photo.

Circular down draft kiln for burning brick and hollow bricks. Onondaga vitrified
brick co., Warners.

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To face page 679

Plate 47

Continuous kiln, Wilford type, Rochester brick and tile co., Rochester.

H. Ries photo.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 679

three or four chambers before conducting it off to the stack, for
the reason that the hot air collects moisture, from the bricks in
those chambers which are being heated up, and if not drawn off
when nearly saturated, and before it has cooled down too much, it
will begin to deposit moisture and soften the green bricks.

Each chamber has a capacity of 20,000 to 22,000 brick. When
the partitions between are permanent they are of brick, but the
temporary ones are built of heavy paper.

The manner of firing varies. In the original kiln not only did
it take place through doors at the bottom, but coal slack was also
fed into the kiln through openings in the top. Many manufac-
turers no longer pursue the method of top firing.

In New York state continuous kilns are used for burning com-

mon and paving brick.
Sorting

After the bricks are burned they have in every case to be care-
fully sorted, for no kiln produces 100% of bricks which are alike.
The product of a kiln of common building brick is usually sorted
into stock, hard, rough hard, salmon or pale.

In burning a kiln of pressed brick, while the percentage of
properly burned ones is very much larger than in the case of com-
mon brick, still there is often a considerable range in the intensity
of the color, and therefore pressed brick have always to be carefully
sorted according to the shade. ‘There are numerous shades and
colors which the manufacturer is able to produce with any clay or
mixture of clays that he is in the habit of using, but in addition,
always, a certain number of bricks are of off shades, or show other
blemishes due to improper firing; and these are generally sold at

much lower rates.

Efflorescence on bricks
It is a well known faet that many bricks develop a white coat
either during the drying and burning or after the brick have been
set in the wall. The popular term for this white coating or efflor-

680 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

“ saltpeter ”, and when it occurs in burning the manu-

escence is
facturer at times erroneously ascribes it to water-smoking.

The efflorescence is usually due to the presence of soluble salts,
specially sulfates, which are formed either in the clay or during
some stage of the manufacture. Any moisture present in the clay
or product dissolves these compounds and on evaporation carries
them to the surface of the ware.

The subject has been discussed in some detail in the Brigk-
builder, from which the following points are taken.t

1 Formation of efflorescence in the clay beds, etc. Most clays con-
tain mineral salts in greater or less quantities, which chemical
analysis has shown to be sulfates of lime and magnesia, less fre-
quently of iron and alkalis. The formation of these sulfates is
generally due to the decomposition of iron pyrite contained in the
clay, and it will be seen that the more thoroughly this material is ‘
distributed throughout the clay the more easily it will be subjected
to complete decomposition, and the greater amount of soluble sul-
fates will be formed. All clays do not contain iron pyrites. In any
one clay bank the pyrites may be more abundant in some layers than
in others. It may be present in equal quantities in all layers, but
its decomposition may have proceeded to a greater extent in. those
beds which are the most weathered. This fact has been brought out
by Dr Gerlach’s observations. One of these was that clay which
had been allowed to lie for months in the open air left behind on
the ground where it had been large quantities of beautiful gypsum
crystals; but the omission. of the intermediate operation of allowing
the clay to weather after it has been dug will not necessarily pre-
vent the formation of these soluble sulfates, for the same decompo-
sition of the pyrites may occur if the green bricks are allowed to
stand a long time in the drying-room, in the presence of moisture.
The prevention therefore would seem to be in the ordinary molding
of the clay and the drying and burning of-the bricks as quickly as
possible. This oxidation and decomposition of iron pyrites is there-

10. Gerlach. Brickbuilder. 1898. p. 59. et seq.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 681

fore according to Dr Gerlach the main cause of sulfates, which
give rise to “ white wash”. Sulfates may also come from the sulfur
contained in the water used in the tempering of the clay, such
waters often containing gypsum, and, as many clays often require
30% or perhaps more of water to render them plastic, it is easily
seen that the clay may receive a large addition of lime sulfate.
This sulfate might be present in the mineral coloring matter added
to the bricks. Rapid drying causes the water to evaporate more
quickly and a lesser amount of the dissolved sulfates is apt to be
brought to the surface of the ware.

2 Sulfates arising during water-smoking and burning. In the
water-smoking of a kiln those bricks nearest the fireplaces will lose
their moisture first, and before the bricks farthest from the fireplace
are heated to a temperature sufficient to convert their moisture into
steam; therefore much of the watery vapor driven off from the
bricks which were heated ‘first will be deposited on the surface of
those farthest from the fireplace, and be absorbed by them to a
certain extent. If it happens that these green bricks contain soluble
sulfates, the deposition of this condensed vapor on them will tend to
increase the sulfates in solution, and when their water is driven off
all the sulfates will be carried to the surface in solution and de-
posited there. This condensation of the water will be harmless, if
the clay contains no soluble sulfates or if the contained soluble
sulfates have been previously rendered insoluble by the addition of
the proper chemicals. Another source of difficulty may come from
the use of sulfurous fuel, for it is known that many coals contain
more or less iron pyrite. This sulfurous acid gas in passing through
the kiln will only too willingly attack carbonates present in the clay
and form sulfurous salts, which as the heat of the kiln increases,
come to the surface, and are there oxidized to sulfuric salts or sul-
fates, these causing efflorescence or discoloration.

Efflorescences formed on burned ware. It not infrequently hap-
pens that clay products come from the kiln apparently free from
any superficial discoloration and later develop one when subjected

682 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

to moisture. ‘This is generally due to the formation of salts during
burning, and they are specially annoying on account of their tardy
appearance. ‘The salts formed during drying do not necessarily
arise simply from the combination of sulfur in the fire gases with
bases in the clay, but may also be due to iron pyrite which, during
burning, aids in the formation of white washing sulfates im the in-
terior of the bricks. The formation of white washing sulfates dur-
ing burning is described by Gerlach as follows: “A part of the
sulfur in the iron pyrite is loosely combined with the iron, and
oxidation of this part begins at approximately 650° F., whereas
_ the other parts burn at ordinary heat. The products of disintegra-
tion are oxid of iron, and sulfurous acid gas. This chemical re
action is expressed as follows: 1) Fe&t,-+»O,= FeS +S80O,, and
2) 2FeS+70=Fe,0; 250,. The sulfurous acid gas SO, when
heated in contact with solid porous bodies is oxidized by the super-
fluous oxygen of the air of combustion to sulfuric acid, or converts
existing oxids into sulfuric salts. It was for a long time erroneously
believed that the presence of water or.watery vapor was necessary
for the formation of sulfates.” Gerlach’s conclusion is that it fol-
lows that white washing sulfates are formed in large quantities only
when sulfurous acids and carbonate of lime or other carbonates
occur together in chemical action. Sulfurous acid has no injurious
effect on clay containing no carbonates of lime, magnesia, or alka-
lis; such clays accordingly can be burned with sulfurous coal with-
out any fear of white washing sulfates, while clay containing
carbonate of lime requires a fuel free from sulfur.
Gerlach sums up the causes of efflorescences as follows.

White efflorescence

Source 1 The green clay
a Caused by the presence of sulfates in the clay
b Caused by the formation of sulfates during the storage of the
clay

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 683

Source 2 The manufacturing
a During molding
1) By presence of sulfates in the water or coloring matter
2) By formation of sulfates during the drying
b During burning
1) During water-smoking
2) During firing
Source 3 Environment of the bricks and buildings
a Caused by the absorption of saline solutions from the soil of
the place of storage
b Caused by the absorption of soluble salts from the soil on which
the building stands

Yellow and green efflorescence

1 Organic in character — caused by the action of vegetable
micro-organisms
2 Inorganic in character — caused by soluble vanadinate salts
White efflorescence. Sulfates are seldom present in large quan-
tities, but according to Gerlach .1 to .05% is sufficient to produce
an annoying white incrustation. ‘This is prevented by rendering
the sulfate insoluble. The most effective way is by the addition of
some barium compound, specially the carbonate or chlorid. When
barium salts come in contact with sulfates, barium sulfate is formed,
a combination which is absolutely insoluble in water. This is
expressed by the following chemical reaction.
CaSO,+ BaCO;=CaCO,;+ BaSO,,
CaSO,+ BaO,—CalC!,+ BaSO,
Thus it will be seen that in both cases we get insoluble compounds,
which are harmless. If the cost plays any part in the use of them,
it will be generally found that barium chlorid is the cheaper.
Method of use. As carbonate of barium is insoluble in water, in
order to make it thoroughly and uniformly effective, it must be
mixed in with the clay very thoroughly, and in as finely divided a

condition as possible, because it will only act where it comes in

684 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

immediate contact with the soluble sulfates. While only a small
quantity of barium salt is required, still to insure thorough mixing,
10 to 20 times the necessary amount should be employed, and it
can be used without any injurious results. The following example
is given by Gerlach. The clay must first be thoroughly analyzed
to determine the amount of sulfates. If, for example, the clay con-
tained .1% of sulfate of lime, this would mean that one pound con-
tained .4 of a gram, and theoretically every gram of sulfate of
lime needs 1.45 grams of barium carbonate to render it insoluble;
therefore theoretically a pound of clay would require .6 of a gram
of barium carbonate, or for safety six or seven grams should be
used for every pound of clay. This would be about one hundred
pounds for every thousand bricks, based on the supposition that a
green brick weighs seven pounds. As a pound of barium carbonate
costs 23c, the amount of it required for a thousand brick would cost
$2.50. It is cheaper to use barium chlorid for the reason that the
salt is soluble in water, and hence can be distributed more evenly,
with the use of a smaller quantity. The chemical reaction takes
place much more quickly when the barium chlorid is used. ‘There
is the objection to it that as near as possible the theoretic amount
must be used, for, if any of it remains in the clay, without reacting
with any sulfate, it will form an incrustation on the surface of the
brick. To give an example of the use of chlorid of barium, we may
take again a clay containing .1% of calcium sulfate. This would
require theoretically 1.8 grams of crystallized barium chlorid and,
passing over the intermediate stages of the calculation, a thousand
bricks would require 57.4 kilograms of barium chlorid. Jf barium
cost 24¢ a pound, a thousand brick would require an extra outlay
of only 82c, in using barium chlorid. Chlorid of lime is also
formed, but this has no injurious effect provided the clay is heated
to such a temperature as will cause the lime to unite with other
bases and silica, and form a complex silicate. If heated high
enough to decompose the chlorid of lime, it might be that its sub-
sequent slaking would be injurious.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 685

If the clay treated with the barium chlorid is used at once, no
efflorescence will result, either on the unburned or the burned brick,
but if the clay thus treated is allowed to lie for any length of time,
large quantities of iron pyrite may be decomposed with the forma-
tion of additonal sulfates. It frequently happens that the discolora-
tions on bricks appear near the edges and corners. ‘This is due to
the fact that the waters evaporate most readily from these points.
The more quickly the water is evaporated, the less will be the
quantity of soluble deposit on the surface. Incrustations which
appear during drying are found more commonly on bricks made
from very plastic clays, and which owing to their density do not
allow the water to evaporate quickly. Im sandy clays, the in-
crustation is ata minimum. This explanation is believed to account
for the appearance of efflorescence on the surface of pressed bricks
more than on rough surfaces.

Cost of production

This item varies considerably, depending on a variety of cireum-
stances, such as the method of manufacture employed, cost of labor,
locality, ete. Brick manufacturers are generally unwilling to give
information on this subject, and the figures given, therefore, can
only be considered approximate. The use of improved machinery
and methods will often lower the cost of production considerably,
but this generally requires a much greater outlay of capital than
seems to be in most instances available. By the hand power method
the cost of manufacture is $3.75 to $4 a thousand delivered at the
yard. On Long Island, where the soft mud process is almost ex-
clusively used, the cost is said to be $3 a thousand delivered at the
yard. Hudson river manufacturers quote the cost at $5 a thousand
delivered in New York city; this figure includes $1.25 for trans-
portation and 25c a thousand for commission.

The brick yard is usually owned by the manufacturer but the
clay bank is worked on one of two bases:

1 The manufacturer owns the bank. This is by far the best and
most profitable arrangement.

686 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

2 The brickmaker pays a certain rental, usually 9% or 104%.

3 The owner of the clay bank gets so much a thousand brick.
At Haverstraw this varies, for instance, from 25¢ to $1.25 a thou-
sand. With this arrangement the manufacturer is bound to a
certain amount of production. |

Of the three methods of manufacturing brick, the soft mud
process is the cheapest as far as first cost of plant is concerned, but
it is probably not the cheapest in operation, as more labor is required.
The other two methods used, the stiff mud and dry clay, require
considerable outlay of capital. Less labor is required for operating
either of the last-mentioned plants. The actual cost of production
by either of these methods I have not been able to obtain. It is
doubtful if the dry clay process is the cheapest, as the manufacturers
of this class of machinery assert, for the economy gained, due to the
shortness of the method, is probably counterbalanced by the in-
creased time of burning and consequently greater amount of fuel
used. With the soft mud process one man to 1000 brick is what
the manufacturer figures, that is, if the yard has a capacity of
50,000 a day, a force of 50 hands is required to operate the yard.

As regards fuel, for instance, a saving of 30c can easily be made
by using coal instead of wood; gas is considered about 25c cheaper
a thousand than coal. Farther economy may be effected by the use
" of the proper class of machinery for haulage. Carts can usually be
employed economically up to 400 feet; beyond this it will usually
pay to lay tracks and use cars hauled by horses. Above 600 feet
steam haulage has been found economical. Self-acting planes and
cable haulage have been used to advantage in a few instances.

Common brick are made from shale at many localities in the ~
southern part of the state, and sell just as cheaply as clay brick.

Detailed account of brick yards
As the brick yards are scattered all over the state, a division of
them into groups for convenience is more or less arbitrary. How-
ever, the following classification has: been made.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 687

Brick yards of eastern New York

central New York from Schenectady to Buffalo
Oswego, Jefferson and St Lawrence co.
southern New York

: Long Island

ee Staten Island

Most of the bricks manufactured in the state are sold in local
markets. In the case of the Hudson valley bricks, the market of
New York city receives the larger proportion, and the competition
has been so keen and the supply so great that prices have often
been depressed accordingly.

Brick yards of eastern New York

Hudson valley. Extending up the Hudson river valley from
Croton to Albany and even to Glens Falls, is a more or less con-
tinuous deposit of clay which can safely be said to be one of the
most extensive in the United States, and which furnishes the ma-
terial for the greatest. brickmaking region in either Europe or
America.

The geologic. relations have already been described in the
chapter on the “ Geology of the clay deposits”, and the de-
tailed description of the beds as seen at the different yards is given
later, so that all that need be mentioned here is the physical char-
acter of the clay used, and this can be treated in a general manner
for the reason that the constancy in character of the Hudson valley
clays, specially between Croton point and Albany is remarkable.
Throughout their extent they present the same type of marly clay,
of a blue gray color, except where the upper beds are weathered,
the color there being yellow, owing to the presence of limonite.
These clays contain a great quantity of fine grit, and a large amount
of clay substance, as shown by the mechanical analysis given below.
The fine grit is not uniformly distributed through the clay but is in
_ thin layers which cause the clay to split very evenly and readily.

688 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

These clays are sticky when mixed with water, but they are by
no means to be called highly plastic; indeed, when worked up with
water the mass shows a certain resistance to mobility that is hard
to describe, but is not unlike a mass of powdered feldspar in its
behavior.

When thrown into water the clay slakes quite readily to a
flocculent mass.

Two samples were tested physically, the one from Rose’s yard
at Roseton above Newburgh, and the other from the Brockway
brick co.’s yard above Fishkill.

The sample from the bank of the Brockway brick co. (109)
worked up to a sticky, but not highly plastic mass with 29% of water.
The bricklets showed an air shrinkage of 5%-6%.

The tensile strength of air-dried briquettes was 75 to 90 pounds
a square inch, but some reached 120 pounds a square inch.

The clay also gave .2% of soluble salts.

In burning, the clay burned red with increasing depth of color
as the temperature was raised and at viscosity passed to a brownish
glass. Incipient fusion occurred at cone .05 with a total shrinkage
of 8%. Vitrification at cone .04 with a shrinkage of 15%. Viscosity
took place at cone .01.

The clay from Roseton was very similar in its behavior to the
previous one.

The air shrinkage was 5%. Incipient fusion occurred at cone .05,
vitrification at cone .04 with a total shrinkage of 14%. At .01 the
clay became viscous. The tensile strength ranged from 75 to 93
pounds a square inch.

The soluble salts amounted to .3%.

A mechanical analysis of the clay from the bank of the Brock-
way brick co. yielded

Clan Asubstamcen. apoio. oe anita eee 49.83%

Siltvandtvery dine sand si he A 07) ee 28.30%
EPS ere MUN LOS ESE So 37 OL a ON 15%

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 689

Many attempts have been made to utilize the vast deposits of
clay found in the Hudson valley for other purposes than common
brick, but thus far only cases of failure are recorded. Two
other uses to which the clay is adapted, are as a natural glaze for
pottery (see “ Pottery manufacture”), and in the manufacture of
Portland cement.

It is also a curious fact that, though the Hudson valley is the seat
of such an enormous industry, nevertheless the methods employed,
and machinery used are anything but modern. This is partly due
to the fact that the clay does not stand treatment by other methods.
Stiff mud machines seem to be barred out completely by the nature
of the material, but why the old, out-of-date scove-kilns still hold

their own is a matter which is hard to explain.

Detailed account of Hudson river yards*

Croton Landing, Westchester co. ‘There are three yards, all
situated on Croton point and having a yearly capacity of 61,000,000
brick. The yards of the Anchor brick co. are located at the base of
the point, a short distance south of the station and along the rail-
road track. One yard is situated a few feet above river level, the
other 90 feet above it on a delta terrace. The clay deposit adjoins
this yard. It is basin-shaped, and varies in depth from 40 to 70
feet. The clay is mostly blue, and is underlain by hard pan, the
pebbles of which are cemented by clay stained with limonite. The
present excavation is about 40 feet deep and the bottom of it is 40
feet above mean tide. Borings show an additional depth of 35 feet
in the center. The stripping amounts to about 10 feet of loamy
clay and sand, and streaks of gravel are not uncommon in the clay.

The deposit is worked in benches having a long working face,
and these benches converge to one point at the eastern end of the

pit, from which a single track is laid up to the tempering machine.

1The detailed field work on these clays was done in 1891 and 1892, and,
while the yards have in some instances changed hands since then, still it was
thought better to leave the names in use at the earlier period mentioned.

690: NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
s

Tracks are also laid along the benches, and as the working face
recedes the tracks are shifted with crowbars. ‘The cars are brought
down to the working face by gravity, or a small engine which is
chiefly used to draw them to the tempering pits. A temporary track
is laid over the ring pits, on which the cars can be run to facilitate
dumping. Those cars containing clay for the lower yard are run on
to a self-acting inclined plane, and on this the empty cars and
tempering sand for the upper yard are also brought up. The
tempering sand is dug by a steam shovel, at the base of the terrace
escarpment. The bricks are dried on covered yards and burnt in a
special type of kiln. It consists of two walls of best quality brick,
about 15 feet high and 14 inches thick. The lower portion of the
walls containing the doors are 2 feet thick, and the two walls are
about 20 feet apart. The two ends have to be walled up with
double-coal bricks after the kiln is filled. Coal is the fuel used.
The bricks when burnt are loaded on cars and run down to the
dock, those from the upper yard going on the gravity plane. The
tempering sand is discharged by the shovel into small cars, which
are drawn up an incline to the top of a framework and dumped,
the sand falling through a series of screens into cars below.

The Croton brick co. has two yards, an open and a pallet yard;
and obtains all its clay from the river with a scoop dredge. It is
dumped into cars on a scow, which, when full, are run up an in-
clined plane on the shore and dumped. The clay is thus exposed to
the weather for several months before it is used. It costs about
15¢ a cubic yard to deliver the clay on shore and 10¢ a cubic yard
to haul it to the pits. Tempering sand is obtained from the escarp-
ment of the delta terrace just south of the yard. At the pallet
yard they use a hand machine to square the oreen bricks on the
racks, that consists of two plates of steel, attached to which, at right
angles and on the same side of the plates, are 12 smaller ones, 4
inches high. Attached to the large plates are two handles. The
two large plates slide back and forth on each other and so that the
small plates. can be brought together. This machine is set on six

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 691

bricks at a time and by moving the handles the plates press against
the brick, squaring the corners. It is said a boy can square a pitful
of brick (85,000) in a day. The molding machines have an endless
chain with buckets attached to them for feeding the sand. This
leaves only the clay to be shoveled into the machine, and the feed-
ing of the two uniformly and continuously gives a more evenly
tempered mixture. It will be seen in this case that no soak pit or
ring pit is used — the molding machine does all the mixing. The
molding sand is dried by spreading it out on the kiln floor, it being
thought that it dries quicker this way than if it were banked up
against the kiln, as is commonly done.

The W. A. Underhill brick yards are situated midway between
the base and end of Croton point. There are two yards, both
covered. ‘The brick made at this yard are sold mostly for fronts,
selling for $14 a thousand. The clay bank hes between the two
yards; it has a hight of 40 feet above mean tide and extends 15
feet below it. At the last-mentioned depth the blue clay stops and
is followed by 2 feet of yellow clay, several inches of quicksand,
through which spring water enters, and finally hardpan. There is
a stripping of fine sand, which varies from 10 to 20 feet in thick-
ness. Some portions of this sand are found to make a better brick
when mixed with the clay than others. The clay is mined in
benches, and narrow tracks are laid along the working face. Side
dump cars are used to haul the clay, being run in trains of three,
drawn by four mules. The tracks are laid around the ring pits, so
that the clay may be easily discharged into them.

Crugers, Montrose and Verplanck, Westchester co. These three
localities lie so connected and their clay banks are so similar that
they are best described together. The clay is extremely variable
in depth, which is due to the great irregularity of the face of the
underlying rocks; it is both blue and yellow. No special method
is used in mining the clay, it being dug at any convenient spot till
the underlying rock is reached and then the bank is attacked at
another point. At Montrose and Crugers the clay is overlain in

692 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

places by a moderately fine sand and gravel, cross-bedded in places.
The clay varies from 6 to 50 feet in thickness. It extends in places
to an altitude of 90 feet, as at McConnell & O’Brien’s bank,
while at others, as McGuire’s bank, it only reaches a hight of 6
feet above mean tide. At the latter place the clay is overlain by 10
feet of sand and coarse gravel and has been excavated to 10 feet
below mean tide.

A. partial analysis of the buff clay from McConnell & O’Brien’s
clay bank at Verplanck is given below.

SHUI tc A OO EET SR A lara 50.92
Aslnnanmmintemee ne ca he cous (Os Sa ee eae rae 26.871
eronaluatesicoms .\ns ss 22 eiale Ra ee ee pate ee 4.90
ES TOGES. 5: os ge RO aL ie elas eas IG 1. 2. 52
Mllnenve silane wera enle ie lets Be cies yee nee IG, BG

King & Lynch’s yard is situated on George point near Mon-
trose. The bank is about 700 feet distant, and the clay is hauled
in cars drawn by horses. At most of the yards the haulage is
down grade. Fisher’s clay bank at Crugers is overlain by 2 feet
of loam. This is used to supply part of the tempering material
and the rest is obtained from Jonespoint. At the yards on Ver-
planck point horse power is chiefly used to operate the machinery.
Most of the yards at this locality obtain their clay from the pits of
the Hudson river brick co. This clay bank is worked in benches.
The haulage distance is about one half a mile. It is done either
in carts or in cars run on tracks and drawn by horses.

Along the New York Central railroad a short distance south of
Montrose station are the yards of C. Hyatt and J. Morton. Mr
Morton also has a covered yard on Verplanck point where front
brick are made. Their banks are practically a continuation of
each other. The clay is both blue and yellow and is overlain by

several feet of coarse sand. Hyatt uses steam power and Morton

1 Alumina is probably too high— H. Ries

‘MBIJSIOABH 38 S}Id ABO YorIq Jo MolA [B1euay ‘oJOyd soy “HW

GQ MoaaNadaWH dOOWNAM

g69 oSed vovy OF, . SF eld

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 693

horse power to run his machinery. ‘The bricks are loaded on cars
and shipped to various points along the Central rfilroad.

Peekskill, Westchester -co. Bonner & Cole’s brick yard lies
between the river and the railroad about three quarters of a mile
south of Peekskill. The clay lies below tide level. It, is said
that borings have shown a thickness of 50 feet. There is on the
average a stripping of 5 feet of oravel and cobblestones.

South of this yard are two others, viz, Oldfield Bros. .and
the Bonner brick co. Their clay is similar to Bonner & Cole’s,
but rises to a greater hight above tide level.

Haverstraw, Rockland ¢o., is one of the great brick manufac-
turing centers of New York state, there being 42 brick yards, with
a yearly capacity of 238,000,000 bricks. The yards are situated
in a line along the river stretching from the lower end of Haver-
straw village northward around Grassy Point, to Stonypoint. A
few of them are situated along Minisceongo creek. Most of the
yards along the river are digging their clay below tide level. At
the south end of the village a dam was built at an expense of
$30,000, reclaiming thereby 12 acres of clay land from the river.
And more recently clay has been dredged from the river bottom.
The last-mentioned bed of clay is underlain by till and modified
drift, from which tempering sand is obtained. The clay within
this inclosure has been excavated to a depth of 20 feet below mean
tide. In the pits of the Excelsior brick co. they have reached a
depth of 35 feet below river level; in Donnelly & Son’s pit, 45
feet, and west of Washburn’s yard, 40 feet. A pipe well was sunk
from mean tide level 100 feet through blue clay, in the Excelsior
co.’s clay, and at this depth struck bed rock or a large boulder.

The clay in these pits is rather sandy on top, but is said to im-
prove with the depth. It is mostly blue. Streaks of quicksand
are always liable to be encountered. In those pits situated along
the river and to the rear of the yards, there is no expense of strip-

ping unless the excavation is widened, but there are two important

694 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

items of expense, viz, pumps to keep the water out of the pits,
and the maintenante of corduroy roads leading down into the pits.
The clay is dug at any convenient point within the excavation
and hauled in carts to the yard. About one quarter of a mile west
of the river, where the terrace is 40 to 50 feet high, clay is being
dug from the escarpment to supply the yards of J. D. Shankey,
Buckley & Carroll, Philip Goldrick, R. Malley, and J. Brennan.
Some of the yards situated on Minisceongo creek have to haul
their clay 400 to 500 yards. Where the clay is obtained from the
terrace escarpment there is in most cases a stripping of from 6
to 10 feet of sand and gravel. This is screened and used for tem-
pering. The Excelsior company has tried to use clay dredged from
the river, but gave-it up after one season’s trial for reasons un-
known. Most of the brickmakers at Haverstraw temper their clay
in soak pits and burn their bricks with wood. They all use open
yards for drying except the Diamond brick co. which has recently
put in a tunnel drier. The Excelsior company has a covered yard,
and Bennett, Rowan & Scott use pallet driers. At most of the
yards barges ean be brought to within a few feet of the kilns, and
those yards not situated directly on the water put the barrows,
loaded with brick, on flat cars and run them down to the dock.

Stonypoint, Rockland co. This is practically a part of Haver-
straw. There are four yards here. They obtain their clay from
one large shallow excavation on the west side of the West Shore
railroad track and 500 feet north of Stonypoint railroad station.
The clay has to be carted from 100 to 300 yards, and when the
excavation is widened there is a stripping of 8 to 6 feet of sand
and cobblestones. Corduroy roads have also to be used. The four
yards are situated along the water front. One of them, Riley &
Clark’s, uses stationary kilns. Riley & Rose have a covered yard,
the other three firms dry their bricks on open yards. The clay
bank is owned by T. Tompkins & Son.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 695

The following are some tests of Haverstraw brick made by
M. Abbott at the time the East river bridge was being completed,
No packing was put between the brick and plate of testing machine.

Crushing strength
to the square inch

Pounds
IWlzianenusan as ees 3 060

Whole brick tested on end..... 4 INbvanantatin 6 fue oe ae 1 600
ise 2) ee 2 065

al Mefexornnaronniaites ctyey oe, ; 4153

Half brick tested on flat side... Wicinanaraamnaa res, ote, wie) s ; 2 669
PARVCTETE ey eis. fo oes 3 371

IN ietoxarannntaecteete eden s) < 6 400

Half brick tested on edge..... iWknammani ona: 8 Gaal 2 900

PNCCUA Cee ta chaise! era's 4612

Had the surfaces been ground parallel and cardboard or blotting
paper been put between the face of the brick and plate of machine,
higher results would no doubt have been obtained.

Thiells, Rockland co. About two miles south from Haverstraw
and half way between the stations of Ivy Leaf and Thiells, on the
New York and New Jersey railroad, is the brick yard of Felter &
Mather. The clay deposit is basin-shaped, about 15 feet thick, as
determined by boring, and has a slightly elliptic outline. ‘The
clay is chiefly of a blue color, the upper portion being weathered
to yellow. It is overlain by a few feet of drift containing small
boulders and underlain by similar material. The tempering sand
is obtained from a bank on the opposite side of the railroad about
1000 feet from the yard. Tempering is done in ring pits; the
bricks are molded in soft mud machines and dried on an open yard.
Burning is done in scove-kilns. The product is shipped to various
towns along the line of the railroad in New Jersey.

Coldspring, Putnam co. A brick yard was in operation north
of this town for a number of ‘years, but has been shut down on

account of the clay giving out.

696 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Stormking, Dutchess co. About 1000 feet north of the station
is a clay deposit, chiefly yellow. It is worked by Mosher Bros.
The bank has slid considerably; it has a vertical hight of 50 to 60
feet.

Cornwall on the Hudson, Orange co. C. A. & A. P. Hedges are
the only brick manufacturers here. Their yard is situated on the
West Shore railroad about a mile north of Cornwall station. They
have 27 acres of clay land. Blue and yellow clay are found in the
bank, the main portion of which is covered by delta deposits of
Moodna river. The clay layers are much compressed in places,
making it difficult to excavate and necessitating the use of picks.
The bank is worked in benches and the clay has to be hauled about
300 feet to the machines. The stripped sand can be used for tem-
pering. Many bricks are shipped to points on the New York, On-—
tario and Western railroad.

New Windsor, Orange co. There are six yards here. They
obtain their clay from the escarpment of a terrace 110 feet high.
Their clay is both blue and yellow. Streaks of quicksand occur
in the blue. ‘The yellow is dry and tough, and has to be worked
by undermining. In thickness the clay varies from 20 to 60 feet;
the layers are In many places contorted, and in some eases the
stratification has been obliterated. Overlying the clay are gravel
and sand; the latter is used for tempering. Most of the New
Windsor clay permits the addition of very little water in tempering.
Ring pits and Adams machines are used at these yards. The yards
are all situated along the river, and ship their product on barges
or by the West Shore railroad.

Dutchess Junction, Dutchess co. There are several brick man-
ufacturing firms having yards along the river south of Dutchess
Junction. They obtain their clay from the escarpment of an
80 foot terrace which extends from a short distance north of
Stormking to Dutchess Junction. The clay has a fairly uni-
form thickness; the upper 4 to 8 feet are yellow, the rest blue.
The greatest thickness of clay known for this locality is at Aldridge

-
*
ne
.
ied
f

‘SUIPUL] [TIS JO WON ‘'00 Yoluq ABMYOOIG Jo yuRq AvIO ‘ojoyd ser “EH

169 esvd adv OT, 6F 281d

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 697

Bros.’ yard, where a well was sunk 65 feet through the clay, which,
added to the hight of the bank (65 feet), gives us a total thick-
ness of 130 feet at this poimt. The clay is usually covered by
gravel, and by sand in some cases sufficiently fine to be used for
tempering or even molding. It is worked in benches, and the haul-
age distance is 200 to 300 feet.. At Timoney’s clay bank there is
some extra labor-in stripping the scrub oaks and other bushes which
cover the surface of the terrace. |

Fishkill, Dutchess co. Harris & Ginley’s yard is situated about
one quarter of a mile below the town. ‘The clay bank is leased
from the New England railroad co. It was formerly quite thick,
but clay having been dug for 50 years but a small portion of the
bank remains. The clay has a maximum thickness of 45 feet.
Streaks of quicksand occur throughout the clay; it is underlain by
hardpan and shale.

The other yards at this locality are situated along the river from
a point about half a mile above Fishkill up to Low Point station.
One of the yards is just north of Low Point. The most southern
one is that of Aldridge & Sherman, with 600 feet water front.
The clay land of these two firms belongs to the W. E. Verplanck
estate. Next on the north are works of the Brockway brick co.,
with 1200 feet of water front. This firm owns its clay bank. The
bricks are dried on pallets. The next two yards belonging to
Lahey Bros., (650 feet water front) and Dinan & Butler (475 feet
water front), respectively, lease their clay bank from the W. E.
Verplanck estate. Dinan & Butler have a pallet yard. The five
abovenamed firms obtain their clay just east of the yards from
the escarpment of a 90 foot terrace; it is both blue and yellow and
overlain by 4 to 6 feet of loam, sand and gravel. A short distance
north of Dinan & Butler’s yard is that of J. V. Meade. About 20
feet of clay are exposed in the bank, which adjoins the yard. The
clay is overlain by 4 to 6 feet of sand and cobblestones. The sand
is screened and used for tempering.

698 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

C. G. Griggs & Co.’s brick yard is located along the river about
half a mile north of Low Point station. An opening has been
made for clay about 800 feet east of the yard; the clay as exposed
at present is 20 feet thick and overlain by 2 feet of loam. 100
feet farther east, and at a slightly higher level, sand for tempering
has been dug to a depth of 8 feet without finding clay. The clay
is hauled in carts to the yard.

FRoseton, Orange co. There is a remnant of a terrace at this
locality 120 feet high. From this J. J. Jova and Rose & Co.
obtain their clay. The former has 80 acres, the latter 40. The
clay is mostly blue and rises to a hight of 100: feet above the
river. At Jova’s upper yard it is underlain by limestone and
overlain by sand. On top of the clay at his lower yard are 10
to 15 feet of sand and gravel.

A well was sunk from river level at Jova’s, passing through
the following:

Bluenclatyexkage aud. Ges oS seen aes pete eae ieee 80 feet

Quntckksamdae ie cee ee Dynan

WOOSe ssamdgeamd wonavell A. scien a meta ae Me NCO neem
pS

Adding to the above section 100 feet of clay above river level
gives us a total thickness of 180 feet of clay. At Rose & Co.’s
yard, which adjoins Jova’s on the south, it is said, a well was
sunk 135 feet through blue clay. Adding to this 108 feet of
clay above mean tide gives us a bed of clay 243 feet thick. The
terrace which the clay underlies at Roseton extends back from
the river several hundred feet into a reentrant angle of the hill.
The clay contains little sand and is worked in benches. Carts
are used to haul the clay. South of Roseton station is a bank of
sand of alternating yellow and grayish black layers, which has been
used for tempering, but is said not to give as good results as that

on Jova’s premises.

‘uns 9} Ul Sursip
99S 91% SHOIq OY} WOM UO Spares vedo 9} O1v SpoYS UlIH SUO] 94} PUL TOIYM UdssMJoq “SoUIyOVU SUIP[OW JYsIO OY} 91% YOIYM JO
eseq on} 18 HUeq AvIO poovite} OY} SI PUNOISYOVG OY} UY “WOJOSOY “00 3 osoy ‘asouy ‘yueq AvloO pue spivA oq JO MOIA [BIETEy

‘ojoyd Sent “H

869 esed avy OF, 0G 281d

*D £2ee eis
SS

, bye ona
hd Lhe att

‘MOJeSOy ‘00 2 ssoy Jo yueq Avip ‘oyoyd salu “H

“purs

SS ae,

869 eed oovy OL TG 91%1d

= <

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 699

Port Hwen, Ulster co. §. D. Coykendall’s yard lies near the
junction of Rondout creek and Hudson river. The bank is just
west of the yard. There is a considerable stripping of fine sand
and the clay slides quite easily. It is dug at any convenient point
of ‘the bank. The overlying sand can be used for tempering and
molding. Oil is used for burning the bricks. <A short distance
farther south along the river is J. Kline’s yard. He obtains his
clay from various points in the terrace escarpment and in some
cases hauls it nearly a quarter of a mile. Mr Kline has made
borings at various points along the river and the terrace and in the
escarpment in the vicinity of his yard, and says that at none of them
has he found over 18 feet of clay. Beneath it was hardpan. This
would seem to indicate that the central mass of the embankment is
rock, overlain by hardpan, and that on this the clay is laid down.
In many places the clay is covered by 10 to 20 feet of fine, strati-
fied sand.

The following is an analysis of the blue clay near Rondout
which is used for the manufacture of cement.

SUUNIGE epee toe, ita Pag tene art oa Mh ot aie ie tarat suas 5" CGS
Heer oxadl (ole mommamncdercluMaNa sees ses ssc so hens ss 22.6
J DiC SPP eae eer DNL a ASR Be ioBls Ree eta ain Rae 4.85
IVI emNe Soe oreuerctoe mn mmem nar i POL gut ae 2.07
Wcaermomdpalliccilign ttt sereeiee Gi Lo. fn 12.68
100.00

East Kingston, Ulster co. There are eight brick manufactur-
ing firms at this locality, viz, Streeter & Hendricks, D. 8. Manches-
ter, Brigham Bros., C. A. Schultz, A. S. Staples, R. Maine & Co.,
Terry Bros. and W. Hutton. They all obtain their clay from the
terrace escarpment which extends from Glasco to Rondout. (For
thickness of clay see table.) At Streeter & Hendricks’s yard the
clay lies some 300 yards from the river. They obtain their tem-
pering sand from Wubur. Manchester’s bank is similares At

700 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Brigham Bros.’ yard the clay is yellow, being weathered through
to its base. It has a thickness of 10 feet and rests on an uneven
ridge of shale. On account of its toughness it is worked by under-
mining, as 3s the case with other yards along here where clay is
being dug. C. A. Schultz has an exposure of clay 80 feet thick,
overlain in spots by sand that can be used for tempering. Next
on the south is A. 8. Staples’s yard. The bank has been excavated

to a lower level than the preceding one. ‘The clay is underlain by

hardpan. KR. Maine & Co. have five acres of clay land. ‘The ter-
race here is quite narrow. At Terry Bros.’ yard the clay, which
is mostly blue, has been excavated sufficiently to expose the lime-
stone against which the terrace lies. At Hutton’s yard the blue
clay is exposed from 8 feet above mean tide, to 110 feet above
it; overlying this is 10 feet of yellow clay and then 15 feet of sand.
It will be seen from the limits quoted above and in the table, that
the thickness of the clay between Glasco and Rondout varies con-
siderably, amounting to 120 feet in places, while in others it is
not over 15 or 20 feet. This is due to the great irregularity of the
underlying rock surface.

Smiths Dock, Ulster co. The only yard here is that of Theo-
dore Brousseau. He has about 90 acres of clay land. The clay,
~ which is mined with plow and scrapers, is obtained from the terrace
east of the yard. It is mostly blue and covered by a few feet of
loam. ‘The yard lies some 700 feet from the river and the bricks

are carted down to the dock. Brousseau’s property extends west.
property

to the West Shore railroad, and the farms north and south of him
are underlain by clay.

Malden, Ulster co. The clay at Cooney &© Farreli’s yard to
the north of the village is mostly yellow, and lies 10 to 20 feet
thick on the upturned edges of the Hudson river shales. This
yard was started in 1891.

Glasco, Ulster co. Washburn Bros. This firm is one of the
largest producers along the river, having a yearly capacity of
50,000,000. They have about 150 acres of land, a large part of

“MOISSUIY Ye ‘pAvA Yoluqg “solg Arey, “S9WOJSOTUt] ZioqiepleH jo ‘eovjans poyeloe[s Jsurese Suljsal AvlO Uleldmeyp
‘oyomd sey “H

OOL o8Bd 90Bz OF, GG 9}¥[d

CLAYS OF NEW YORK WO:

it being situated along the river. Their clay is mostly blue and
rises in a bank to the hight of 130 feet. It has been excavaied
to 8 feet above mean tide. The upper 10 feet is yellow sand;
a thin strip of yellow clay separates it from the red. The lower
third of the bank is somewhat sandy; the best results are obtained
by a mixture of the upper and lower portions of the clay. Both
pallets and open yards are used for drying; the former at the yard
situated on the terrace. A short distance below Washburn Bros.
is F. M. Van Dusen’s yard. The clay is blue, 70 feet thick and
is underlain by shale whose surface is glaciated. Several feet of
loam overlie the clay. Tempering sand is brought from Wilbur
on Rondout creek. J. Porter’s yard adjoins Van Dusen’s on the
south. ‘The clay lies on a ridge of shale which rises steeply from
the shore to a hight of 60 feet. The brick yard is at the foot of
the cliff and was started in 1891. Plows and scrapers are used to
mine the clay, which is of a yellow color, and overlain by 3 feet of
loam. Carts are used for hauling the clay. About a mile below
this are the yards of C. H. Littlefield, A. Rose & Co. and D. C.
Overbaugh. The three are close together. A ridge of shale rises
steeply from the river and behind this the clay lies. ‘The terrace
here is 150 feet high, and borings which have been made show a
depth of 60 feet (see table). The clay is quite dry, and mostly
yellow. It is worked by picks and undermining. Carts haul it
to the edge of the cliff, where it is sent down, shoots to the tem-
pering pits. The drying is done on pallets at Rose’s yard.

Arlington, Dutchess co. Flagler & Allen. The clay deposit,
which is yellow, is situated half a mile east of Poughkeepsie and
has an extent of about 40 acres of clay, it averages from 6 to 8 feet
in depth. This is easily worked, there being only a stripping of
6 inches of sod. Underneath the yellow is considerable blue clay.
The yellow is of course the weathered portion. The clay is tem-
pered in soak pits and about 20,000 brick are made daily. The
machinery is run by horse power. Repressed brick are also made.
The clay burns a cherry red.

GO2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

H. R. Rose’s brick yard is also situated in this town and about
3 miles east of the Hudson river. ‘The clay deposit, which has
an extent of 60 acres, is yellow in color and 8 feet thick. A blue
clay is said to underhe the yellow. The bricks are molded in soft
mud machines operated by horse power.

Barrytown, Dutchess co. There are deposits of clay along the
river at this locality but they are not being worked. The following
is an analysis of them.

SUiCAG Mates Meer meres hie fuck Ne rena ct cane aati Bare.
Reromidvon monyaindyaliimmam ee even eee 22.00
A Diy cakeyike 5 vel vs eget uP eRe p reteset rs Pars hueh OG A 5 4.35
IMigoniesiiat aie 2 stots cet ka: ree eer ap aera ans 2.29
MioiS GUT Ree into ame ct eed eee eee eee Beit
Combined water and organic matter......... So
Allkalhe gnotadetermineds: Ls). ney sates ees eeoene

96.71

Catskill, Greene co. Alexander McLean’s yard is situated on
Water st., east of the wagon bridge. He has 12 acres of clay
land. The clay is mostly blue with yellow and red on top, and
is about 90 feet thick.

A partial analysis of the blue clay is as follows:

Silii@el ue. ces ieblies’ gate cseuesl ue kere came tet Nomepnte oe tees 50.60
PsWinpoaautcl tuck Maple 2 Mit apn erm ey er AN aero air ae nremeer )EONe( 0 21.00
Peroxdd on MOM ates 2) scourge eee (OD
B Bits) see at Re cla ly noel MNO aA Pe bh SD Bee

Miami silat ais i-coitial Saget evisisse ucen ages ee heptane 96

The upper portion of the clay bank is a tough material and has
to be worked with a pick. <A gray black sand of the same struc-
ture and appearance as that at Coeymans underlies the clay. At
this locality, however, it contains too much lime to use it for tem-

pering. Mr McLean has to bring his tempering sand from Jones-

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 703

point at the cost of 40c¢ a cubic yard. The manufacture of drain
tile, hollow brick and sewer pipe has been attempted with this clay,
but was given up, it is said, for financial reasons. Ferier & Golden’s
yard is situated on the opposite side of the street from McLean’s,
and their clay bank is practically a continuation of his. Their tem-
pering sand is carted from near the West Shore railroad station, a
distance of about three quarters of a mile. Drying is done in tun-
nels. The bricks are burnt with wood, though it is said that
petroleum was used for a while successfully. The bricks are run
down to the dock on ears. Lying along the creek north of the
bridge is the Derbyshire brick co.’s yard. Most of the drying is
done under sheds. The clay is both blue and yellow and is dug
in a rather steep face, often causing it to slide. The blue has been
excavated to 38 feet from tide level, and its upper limit is 82 feet
above tide; over this is 12 feet of yellow clay and 3 feet of loam.
The tempering sand is obtained about half a mile from the works.
As at the preceding yard, the bricks are loaded on cars at the kiln
and run downto the dock.

Hudson, Columbia co. There are three yards at this town.
J. Fitzgerald’s Sons’ yard is situated im a reentrant curve of the
shore, and about 300 yards east of it is the yard of Arkison Bros.
The former is no longer in operation. Both these firms obtain
their clay from different faces of the same hill. The clay, which
is fairly dry, is mined with plows and scrapers. It is blue and
yellow, from 70 to 80 feet thick, overlain by 2 feet of loam, and
underlain by grayish black sand.

W. E. Bartlett’s brick yard is also situated along the shore,
about one quarter of a mile north of Hudson. The clay is similar to
that farther down at Fitzgerald’s. Scrubby pines cover the sur-
face at this locality. The bank is worked in benches. Ring pits
are used for tempering. |

Stuyvesant, Columbia co. Walsh Bros. have two yards situ-
ated along the river midway between Stuyvesant and Coxsackie.
All the clay thus far mined is yellow in color, very tough and un-

704 NEW YORK STAIE MUSEUM

stratified. It is worked by picks and carted down to the yards.
The bank which is 80 feet in hight is located on the hillside some
500 feet east of the yard. It is probably underlain by the sand
and gravel which crops out in the terrace escarpment behind the
yard, and which is used for tempering.

Coxsackie, Greene co. ‘There is only one yard here, that of
F. W. Noble. It is situated at an elevation of 100 feet above the
river, and about a quarter of a mile north of the village. The
clay bank adjoins the yard and is 35 feet high. Both blue and
yellow clay are used. Shale underliesit. The clay is quite dry and
is broken up by undermining. Soak pits are used for tempering.
There is an exposure of blue clay in the terrace escarpment south of
Coxsackie.

Athens, Greene co. Of the three yards at this locality, situ-
ated about half a mile north of the village and adjoining each
other, only two are running. The most southern one is that of
William Ryder, situated 80 feet above tide level and about 500
feet from the river. Mr Ryder owns 12 acres of clay land. The
clay, which has not been excavated below the level of the yard, runs
up to 125 feet above mean tide, and is both blue and yellow with
about 6 feet of loam covering. A well was sunk 18 feet below
the level of the yard, without reaching the bottom of the clay.
The clay is mined by plows and scrapers. The upper 6 feet of loam
is mixed with the clay. The bricks when taken from the kilns are
sent on cars down to the shore, where they are loaded on barges
for shipment to New York city. Adjoining this yard on the north
is that of Mr. Porter, not worked. A few hundred feet north of
this, on the south side of Murder creek, is the yard of I. R. Porter.
Though the yard is situated near the shore, the water is not deep
enough for the brick barges, and the bricks have to be carted some
200 yards to the dock. The clay bank adjoins the yards and is
mined by plows and scrapers. Horse power machines are used.

Coeymans Landing, Albany co. There are two brick yards at
this town; they lie north of the town along the river shore and

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 705

adjoin each other. The one nearest town belongs to Sutton &
Suderly, and is worked by them and four other persons. ‘Their
clay is obtained from the bank west of the yard. It is both blue
and yellow, chiefly the former, with streaks of fine sand.

The following partial analysis has been made of Sutton & Sud-
erly’s clay.

STITCH) SRS ai aoa MRM caro! C.yet 3/8 Cadi he ae 51). 10
Pxeliaremieiay yesh) 2a ee enti St oli OA Seana ne a IT GE
Peroxciclh oust OM, salsa ay oem NE acct cho) oe 6.47
Pibad MAD per D WRrPERE Ey NER as Clave £5 oo) 50ers a a ee 7.45
TY [Fou ae ear abe BAY rk PU Shey ce UMN as a (sil

Being of a soft nature, the clay is dug with shovels at any con-
~ venient point at the base of the bank, which is 120 feet in hight.
A charge of dynamite is usually exploded in the bank in the spring,
thus bringing down a large mass of clay to a level with the yard.
The clay does not have to be hauled more than 150 feet to the
machines. A drivepipe well sunk near the owners’ barn on top
of the terrace (140 feet above mean tide) some 300 feet back from
the river, showed 70 feet of clay and 60 feet o1 sand. The sand
underlying the clay is of a grayish black color, consisting chiefly of
grains of quartz and shale, the latter predominating.’ Grains of
garnet and feldspar, and large pebbles of quartz are scattered
through it. The sand after being screened is used for tempering.
The upper limit of the underlying sand varies, at the north end of
the property rising to within a few feet of the terrace level, while
some 300 feet south of this the clay has been excavated to 15 feet
above mean tide without striking sand.

Adjoining Sutton & Suderly on the north are the brick works of
Corwin & Cullough, sublet by them to T. Finnegan and Delaney
& Lavender. The clay, which is obtained just west of the yard,
has been excavated to 7 feet above mean tide and bottom not yet

1 This underlying material is much faulted owing to the pressure of the
clay above it.

706 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

reached. It contains several veins of fine sand. Both yellow and
blue clay are present... At the south end of the yard the escarpment
of the terrace is drift containing small boulders. ‘The tempering
sand is obtained from this bank.

There are outcrops of clay on the land of Mr Bronk, to the
north of Corwin & Cullough’s yard; also on the Lawson property
to east of the white iron bridge crossing Coeymans creek. This
latter locality lies some 800 feet from the river, and would be
somewhat more expensive to work. Again, on Main street, just
south of the residence of Miss Wolf, there is an exposure of clay on
the hillside some 400 feet from the river.

Albany, Albany co. There are several yards situated on the
outskirts of the city. The clay banks, which are all of the same
nature, belong to the Hudson river estuary formation, being strati-
fied and blue or gray in color with the upper portions weathered
yellow or red. M. H. Bender’s' yard is on Delaware avenue, near
Dove street. He manufactures common and pressed brick, and drain
tile. The upper loamy clay can be used only for common brick;
the lower blue and some of the yellow are used for the other
products. Auger machines are used for better grade brick and
tile, and the latter are made of several sizes. Scove-kilns are used for
burning the brick and down-draft kilns for the tile. The latter
kilns hold 60,000 small size tiles or 85,000 assorted size. It takes
three wheelers and two setters two and a half days to fill the kiln,
and burning occupies four days. The tiles after molding are first
dried on shelves under a closed shed.

Adjoining Bender’s yard are those of J. Babcock, E. Smith, J.
C. Moore and D. H. Stanwix.' They,make common brick chiefly,
and their clay banks are the same as Bender’s. All are open yards.

T. MecCarthy’s’ yard is situated on First avenue. The clay bank
is about 15 feet thick and covers an area of about 10 acres. It is
chiefly blue. The stripping is a light soil and sand underlies the
clay.. The bricks are manufactured by the soft mud process.

\
\

1 Since this report was written the Bender, Stanwix and McCarthy yards
are closed.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 707

Alfred Hunter’s yard is situated on Van Woert street near
Pearl. The clay is blue with yellow on top. About 40 feet of
clay is at present exposed. There are only a few inches of soil te
be stripped. The bottom has not yet been reached. Ring pits and
soft mud machines are used and the bricks are dried in the sun.
Burning is done in scove-kilns. Albany and vicinity consume most
of the product.

The brick yard of A. Poutre is on Van Woert street between
Lark and Knox. The clay is blue in color and about 25 feet
thick. It is overlain by a loose soil; the bottom has not yet been
reached. Soft mud machines operated by steam power are used;
the bricks are dried on open yards and burned in scove-kilns.
Albany consumes most of the product.

fiensselaer, Rensselaer co. Mrs. T. Rigney’s yard is at East
Greenbush on the east side of the Boston and Albany railroad.
The clay, which is blue and yellow, has a thickness of about 90 feet.
Loam overlies the clay; the bottom has not yet been reached. The
machinery is run by horse power. Rensselaer and New York city
are the chief markets for the product.

Troy, Rensselaer co. Alexander Ferguson’s brick yard is situ-
ated on Hoosick above 1st street. The clay bank is about 40 feet
high and runs in an east and west direction; it is deeply incised at
either end by two streams. The clay, as is common to these Hudson
estuary deposits, is stratified, yellow in the upper portion and blue
clay in the lower. The blue contains some quicksand. A stronger
and better colored brick is made from the tough upper clay, but
it shrinks considerably in burning. On the other hand the blue
clay makes a smoother but not as strong brick, but one of more cven
shape. Underlying the clay is slate rock, which has been used for
building purposes.

J. B. Roberts’s bank is about 20 feet in thickness. The clay,
which is mostly yellow, is covered with a foot of loam and under-

lain by gravel. Capacity, 2,000,000.

%

708 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Cohoes, Albany co. J. E. Murray. Yard situated between
Crescent and Cohoes, on west side of Erie canal. The clay is chiefly
blue, the upper few feet being yellow. It rises in a bank to 50 feet
in hight. It is underlain by rock and there is a slight covering of
loam. The bricks are molded by steam power machines, and dried
in the sun. The product is sold in Cohoes and vicinity. J. E.
Murray also operates the brick yard formerly belonging to
N. Gardonas.

J. Baeby. The clay bank is about 40 feet high, 400 feet long
and about 250 feet from the yard. Mr Baeby has about 40 acres
of clay land. The clay is yellow on top and blue beneath. It is
covered by about 4 inches of soil and underlain by gravel. One
yard is operated by horse, the other by steam power.

Lansingburg, Rensselaer co. T. F. Morrisey has a horse power
yard situated along the old turnpike near the railroad. The clay
bank is 75 feet high, there being about six acres of clay land. The
upper third of the bank is red, the lower two thirds blue. About 30
feet of sand underlies the clay.

Crescent, Saratoga co. Newton Bros. have a bank of clay 30
feet thick, the upper 6 feet being gray, the rest blue. There is
a stripping of 2 to 4 feet of sand, which can be used for tempering.
The blue and yellow clay, together with a certain portion of sand,
are tempered in the pug mill. The bricks are molded on a Martin.
soft mud machine and dried on pallets for about five days. Burn-
ing is done in scove-kilns; the product is loaded on the Erie canal
boats at the yard.

Mechanicville brick co., Saratoga co. The brick yard is situ-
ated on the Champlain canal in the town of Half Moon, about a
mile south of Mechanicyille. The clay bank is 50 feet high.
The upper 10 feet is yellow and under this is blue clay; the latter
is underlain by sand. The bank adjoins the yard and is worked
in benches; the clay is hauled in carts to the ring pits. Soft mud
machines are used, the brick are dried on pallets and burned in
clamps.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 709

Saratoga, OC. L. Williams. ‘The yard is situated about one mile
from the town, 600 feet from the Delaware and Hudson railroad.
Mr Williams has about 50 acres of clay land, the clay running
6 feet thick. It is blue, with the upper portion of it weathered
to yellow. There is a stripping of about 1 foot of loam. The clay
is put through a crusher first; it is then pugged and molded. The
bricks are dried on pallets, the racks having a capacity of 260,000.
Wood is used for burning, being obtained from a lot of 200 acres
near the yard. The product is chiefly used locally.

The other brick yard at Saratoga is owned by D. Davidson. It
is situated at the outskirts of the town, just west of Judge Hilton’s
yard. The clay bank, which is about 28 feet thick, is about 150
feet from the yard; it is stratified, the layers being from 1 to 8
inches thick and separated by thin laminae of sand. The clay is of
a light brown color, being underlain by calciferous limestone and
overlain by a foot of soil. Mr Davidson has 22 acres of clay land.
Tempering is done in ring pits and the clay is molded in a soft mud
machine. Drying is done in an open yard, and burning in scove-

kilns. The fuel used is hard wood.

Other eastern yards

Hoosick Falls, Rensselaer co. John Dolan’s clay bank is about
40 feet high and has an extent of six acres. It is used for making
building brick. The product is consumed in the vicinity.

Middle Granville, Washington co. J. H. Pepper is the only
manufacturer at this locality. His clay bank is 45 feet high, and
2000 feet long. The clay is blue, and scattered through it are
some streaks of sand. A bed of gray sand 20 feet in thickness un-
derlies the clay and is in turn underlain by slate.

Plattsburg, Clinton co. There are several yards here. That
of J. Ouimet les at the north end of the town. It is an open yard
and the bricks are made by horse power. ‘The clay which is hard
and tough is of a yellowish brown and red color and is mined with
plows.

710 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Charles Vaughn’s yard is similar to the preceding, and is at the
south end of the town. The clay is 10 feet thick.

Gilliland & Day’s yard is situated on Indian bay, 6 miles south
of Plattsburg. The bricks are also molded by hand power.

All these yards sell most of their brick at Plattsburg.

The following is an analysis of the clay at J. Ouimet’s brick

yard.
Sil Caio RA eg ne ei tah 5 ee cela ate mel eee ent Rear 65.14
PAMMNDE SEND ates ik “A aeaae PMO LAE cae els A ie Ala} ils 13:38
1 LeNROD-<1G| OLE, THC) 0 Le NE RBM Neos isn Sie AE Pees Renta s choice of soe
d Orla EN tos ei ie a OAM anne SOE AIT A 2.18
Mia omiestame ews. seas LIMEUM ito. egsiae eae acess 2.36
PANGS) 9 012 Se AMER 25 Sh GRY anal At Mi, fa Soul

Oswego, Jefferson and St Lawrence co. yards

Gouverneur, St Lawrence co. The brick yard of G. R. Thomp-
son is situated east of the village and on the eastern bank of the
Oswegatchie river. The clay bank rises to a hight of 10 feet

above the river and the section exposed is:

RSCTOIG AUP SULA Oa bre fe arma oh a sitocoy uh LAN Ak 4. feet

Gara ylang, cakes) «sc! < s/s eae Rae eat ee ea Saini

BS) TDS NPe a A al arg PN ne RRR Ly He tie She to AEE 6s
18 (1G

A Martin soft mud brick machine is used and the bricks are
dried under sheds. ‘The product finds a ready sale in the local
market.

A pallet yard has recently been started at this locality.

Carthage, Jefferson co. Wrape & Peck. The brick yard and

clay pit are situated in the Black river valley near the town of

CLAYS OF NEW YORK alt!

Carthage. The clay deposit, which is several hundred acres in
extent and about 5 feet thick, is of a gray color with streaks of
brown. The bricks are molded in wet mud machines and put in
steam driers. Local market consumes most of the product.

Potsdam, St Lawrence co. D. W. Finnimore’s brick yard is
situated a few rods outside of the village limits. ‘The clay is of a
blue color and 6 to 8 feet deep. It is overlain by 1 to 2 feet of
dark sandy soil and underlain by gravel. The yard is equipped
with a Quaker soft mud machine, and a Kells & Son’s dry press
machine. The product is used locally.

Watertown, Jefferson co. At the north end of the town on
Main street are the works of the Watertown pressed brick co. They
have about 20 acres of clay, red in color, horizontally stratified and
averaging about 20 feet in thickness. It is underlain by Trenton
limestone. The tempering sand has to be carted nearly 3 miles.
Analysis of the clay shows:

SHUG ane a Meera Utena A tense SS aa a as 64.39
JIIUTITA YE eR hei, 2s yee ey 5b nen este aed Napa NR eet 14.40
J LEO GVO MN Os Emu CO TaL Oh ot ss BiG ira ae an ne 5.00
_ DIARY RRHaets rale Bly “cad: rats csc ene aan a eT 3.60
NOTES) A iret Ee ol Sera a ae a Jal
ANGIE Tete ae inci ope ona Gc oe 4.66
Wisterjand oreanie matters ct... c/a. 4). ee Ss 6.64
100.00

The clay is rather tough. It is loaded on cars which are drawn
by cable some 75 feet, up into the machine shed, where it is dumped
into a disintegrator. It next goes to the pug mill for tempering,
and is molded in a Martin machine. Drying is done on pallets and
burning in scove-kilns, the latter occupying about seven days. The
consumption is chiefly local.

Ogdensburg, St Lawrence co. Paige Bros.’ yard is on Cedar
cor. Canton street, at the southwest end of town. The clay is of a

HAD NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

deep blue color, the upper 10 feet being somewhat sandy. It has
been bored to a depth of 60 feet in places, but this depth is not con-
stant, and in spots the underlying limestone rises to within a few
feet of the surface. The sand for tempering has to be brought 2
miles. The following is an analysis of the clay.

STO BICGeeMRtEy 18o 0.705 5 aR re Saori NAC YN dR 49.20
Oaiipuseinaelia| ass, kon aaNet ntIN eae OES cE ra 17 47
J STOP -AUOWORL SURO ate Me RNID Bok al Ses oes (ONT 6.23
MITT Ge eee ee a2 ca. -aie Scatter ak can earner 7.86
AN Ee verotese) S42 5 RN eER Men os ORs (ede gh cha ilaUiee sane aee 5.81
Yelle bistts, 2)" site tah lag MUR SMR in dpees lag nO tata oct! 9.82

95.45

Only common brick are made. Soft mud machines are used.
Drying is done in the sun and burning in scove-kilns. The bricks
have been largely used in the asylum buildings at Ogdensburg.

Madiid, St Lawrence co.. Three miles north of the depot is
the brick yard of Robert Watson. The clay is of a blue color and
about 20 feet thick. The section is

WViellow sand, Same nee) s 4 2.0 A Sa ees 3 feet
Bietel aay bi ec ee ier vin. 's 2s. ce Seamer Pog ell)

The bottom has not yet been struck. Horse power is used for
operating the machinery. The clay has to be tempered with sand.
Drying is done on pallets or in the sun. Burning takes about one
week. The consumption is local.

Raymondville, St Lawrence co. William Coats’s works are at
Raymondville, about 7 miles n..rth of Norwood. The clay bank
lies: on the east side of the Racket river. It is about 25 feet
in thickness and there is a covering of 12 feet of fine sand. The
clay is rather tough and requires an admixture about one third sand

for making brick. An abundance of unworked clay is still in sight.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK mie

Central New York yards
St Johnsville, Montgomery co. J. 8. Smith is the only brick
manufacturer in this town. The clay bank is 60 feet high, and the
following is the section involved.

Theva epee Rata sie e cS 6 a 1 foot
EIEN Set, crake :).\ <i eennemee MeN cC eels W's oo che) woes 7 feet
Wark) building sand 27. scp = Ber io 5d: Brae
SG ey Clavie. 2: (5 4r0) 1s Sie eM a ouede <4, 5 3 x 5 ees 1 foot
(C)UOIGe BaYG es eee Ce a?) aco c OR Se Ais a 4 feet
iBlanl cuneate s ee oc nto ne See a 1 foot
J BUDE a MaRS Ciena AUN Crh AiO Cus eae ae eee 15 feet
Motale thie messy nae ernest sates c 5 o)!=56 92 feet

Only common brick are manufactured.

Fonda, Montgomery co. W. Davenport’s brick yard is about
one mile west of the village on the north side of the New York
central railroad. The clay bank lies to the north of the yard, is 12
feet high, and yellow in color. The brick are molded in soft mud
machines operated by horse power, dried on open yards and burnt
in scove-kilns. The product is sold in Montgomery co. Drain
tile are also manufactured.

Dolgeville, Herkimer co. A. C. Kyser has a bed of clay about
50 acres in extent, and 30 feet thick. He manufactures ordinary
building brick, which are consumed by the local market.

The clay is tempered in a pug mill with the addition of a certain
amount of sand, and passes thence to a Quaker soft mud machine.
Drying is done on an open yard, and the bricks are burned in a
scove-kiln. The latter operation takes five to eight days.

South Trenton, Oneida co. H. L. Garrett has manufactured
brick at this locality for 45 years. His clay bed is several acres in
extent and about 4 feet thick. The clay is blue below and yellow
and red in the upper portion of the bed, on account of weathering.

It is slightly stratified. Underlying the clay is slate.

Falak NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Amsterdam, Montgomery co. H. C. Grimes’s brick yard is
located on Florida avenue. The clay deposit underlies a tract of

about 20 acres, and the section is as follows:

You ie EE Pre, ic io g' ok RR REE REY C IER RDS 1-3 feet
Yellowuclan atametence 0 sie. oi a meee Cae
SEG Clay eee ei os = a. So. cua ene Ree emer

Common bricks are manufactured.

The clay is first passed through a Cotts disintegrator and is then
molded on a soft mud machine. Drying is done on pallets. This
yard has been in operation 16 years.

Gloversville, Fulton co. H. McDuffie’s brick yard is situated
on the outskirts of the town. The clay, which is of a dark brown
color, is in a bed 24 feet thick. It is underlain by hardpan and
overlain by a thin soil. The bricks are made by the soft mud
process, being molded in horse power machines.

W. A. Stoutner. His clay bank is about 3 feet thick, under-
lain by hardpan and overlain by a few inches of soil. The clay is
reddish brown and burns to a red color. The brick are made on a
Peekskill hand power machine. The brickmaking season at Glov-
ersville runs from about the middle of May to the end of Septem-
ber. The Eureka pressed brick co. also operates here.

Tlion, Herkimer co. S. E. Coe. Brick yard situated along
the frie canal, with the West Shore railroad crossing the property.
Mr Ove has about 10 acres of clay land, the clay running in depth |
from 8 to 15 feet. It is of three different colors, black, gray and
blue. The latter makes the stronger brick. No stripping to be done
except a few feet of black soil.

Rome, Oneida co. W. Armstrong’s yard is located on the edge
of the town and along the Rome and Clinton branch of the New
York, Ontario and Western railroad. The clay deposit is about
25 acres in extent; the clay is of a dark gray color and 7 to 10:
feet deep. The bricks are molded in soft mud machines.

‘SIOUIBAL ‘00 YOMG poyLyA Bsepuoug Jo syI0M JO MOIA [e1eex) ‘o}0Yd sely ‘Hy

[eee

CT) esed 9087 OF, 6G 938d

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 715

W. W. Parry. Yard located near the town; the clay is obtained
from the flats bordering the Mohawk river; the bed of it is from
6 to 9 feet deep. It is underlain by gravel, which rises to near the
surface in many places. A light loam covers the clay. For making
brick, the clay is mixed from top to bottom. Both soft and stiff
mud machines are used and burning is done in scove kilns.

Deerfield, Oneida co. G. F. Weaver’s Sons’ yard is situated on
the Mohawk river about a quarter of a mile from the New York
Central railroad depot. Their clay deposit is about 40 acres in ex-
tent, and has been worked to a depth of 10 feet.

South Bay. OC. Stephens has brick and tile works at this town.
The clay deposit is from 20 to 25 feet deep and underlies a tract
of 800 acres bordering on Oneida lake. Underlying the clay is a
fine and closely cemented blue gravel. The Elmira, Cortland and
Northern railroad passes through the property. Chiefly drain tile
are manufactured. ‘These works were established in the spring of
itsW ale :

Canastota, Madison co. M. Ballou has a brick yard at this
locality. :

Syracuse, Onondaga co. At the northeast end of the town is
an extensive deposit of clay, underlying the low lands at the end
of Onondaga lake. It is worked by several brick manufacturers.
The yards are mostly on N. 7th street. The first is that of
T. Nolan, a horse power yard; adjoining him is the yard of Preston
Bros., also a horse power yard. Next comes F. H. Kennedy, at
whose yard the bricks are molded by hand. ©. H. Merrick has a
steam power yard on S. Salina, and farther out on the Cicero plank-
road are the brick works of J. Brophy.

The clay is stratified, red above and blue below. In the center
of the flat land it runs 7 to 10 feet deep, while at the edges it
thins out to 2 feet. It is underlain by sand and gravel.

The New York paving brick co. (Seé under Paving brick.)

Warner, Onondaga co. The Onondaga vitrified pressed brick co.
This yard uses both shale and clay. The works are situated about
half a mile east of Warner along the West Shore track.

716 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Analyses of the shale have been made and are given below.

COMPOSITION “layer aati Red shale. (Blue diate ae Glee
shales
Suleaauvit ace 25.40 54.25 52.30 Dil a9 45.35
Adlanmmmay ica OF46 5 162 Soe alsa IG) 5 12.19
eroxid) (ot Ios seo oe HAIL 6.55 5.20 4.41
Time). Oe oe Oil 4.34 3.36 Dd, ole
Ma cmesia een = 39 5) 4 a 4.49 4.67 6.38
Carbonie acid. .. 20.96 4.30 3.04 BAY 7.24
Potasit,coe eee 45) D3 OS) 4.65 4.11 3.26
SOLO Es Mia ee Nera etic SNA a 80 eo) 1.22 1.14
Water and organic
TOAST! Sk A be ole 7.60 5 Ok 5.30 4.50 8.90
Oxid of mangan-
Perea Rae o> Re a ek Trace Trace: 22
Total 252. 199..81) 9959" 99589.) “OO Om enaie

Analyst, Dr H. Froehling, Richmond, Va.

The samples were all dried at 212° F.

It may be of interest in this connection to give the composition
of some other clays found at Warner, which are used in the manu-
facture of cement. The following are only partial analyses.

Silica’. ....... 45912) 43.99 46 (00) (Ales 3 4 (One
Oxidofironand

dalumina.... (13.79 14.62 25.02. 16209) e245,
Lime. .i.6... 12290 12.386. 7.138% 12.40 Oe Ole
Magnesia... W220 7205 | 33678 5 San GeO eomee

The last analyses would indicate a rather fusible clay. ‘The
clay used by the Onondaga co. is dug in a field adjoining the works.
It has a pinkish color, stratified and runs about 15 feet in depth.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK TORE

The shale used belongs to the Salina formation and is obtained from
the hillside about 1000 feet from the yard. It is of various shades
of red, green, and some gray, and disintegrates very rapidly. The
whole mass is traversed by numerous seams, so that a small blast
brings down a large portion of the bank in small fragments. Tracks
are laid from the brick yard up to the working face, the base of
which is 35 feet higher than the yard. The loaded cars run down
to the dry pans by gravity and are hauled back when emptied by a
horse. Carts are used to haul the clay. Dry pans grind the shale —
about one quarter clay and three quarters shale are mixed in a wet
pan. A man shovels the mixture on an endless belt which carries
it to the molding machine. The yard is fitted with both a plunger
and auger stiff mud machine, the former being side-cut, the latter
end-cut. The green bricks are placed on cars and run into the
drying tunnels. These are of brick, heated by coal fires, the heat
passing through flues under the tunnel. Round kilns are used for
the burning, which takes about five days. The kilns have a capacity
of about 60,000. Soft coal is used for burning.

The company manufactures paving brick, hollow brick and terra
cotta lumber for fireproofing.

Baldwinsville, Onondaga co. Seneca river brick co. The
works are four miles west of Baldwinsville on the south bank of
the Seneca river. Their clay bed is 6 acres in extent. It is blue
clay weathered to red in the upper portion and the blue is stratified.
Gravel underlies the clay. The red clay is chiefly used, as it burns
to a better colored brick than the blue. The dry press process is
used and the bricks are burnt in kilns of the Flood type. These
are of both up and down-draft. They are 18 by 54 feet and have
20 inch walls, which are lined with fire brick from the doors up.
There are four fireplaces on each of the long sides and between
these is a series of smaller ones connected with a set of flues open-
ing into the lower part of the kiln to give an up-draft. Wood
fires are started in these smaller fireplaces for water-smoking. The
larger openings, connecting with individual pockets on the inner

718 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

wall of the kiln, lead the fire into the upper portions first, whence
it passes downward through the kiln and off through a large flue
at the bottom. Water-smoking takes 10 days and burning 8 days,
the whole time for burning, water-smoking and cooling taking
about three weeks. The molded bricks are set directly in the kiln
on coming from the machine.

Oswego Falls. W. I). Edgarton. The brick yard is situated
on the Syracuse and Oswego railroad, 11 miles from Oswego. The
clay varies from 3 to 5 feet in thickness and is yellow. It is under-
lain by gravel. A few inches of soil has to be stripped. The
lower portions of the clay make the better brick. Soft mud ma-
chines are used and both common and repressed brick are made.

Weedsport, Cayuga co. There is a brick yard at this locality
- belonging to Mrs C. S. Gilette, but it is not in operation.

Auburn, Cayuga co. John Harvey’s brick yard is situated on
the outskirts of the town.

Owasco, Cayuga co. <A. Lester has a brick and tile yard near
the village. It is described under the head of drain tile.

Seneca Falls, Seneca co. There is only one brick yard at this
locality, that of F. Siegfried. His clay bed is about 12 feet thick,
the upper 7 feet being used for brick and the lower 5 feet for
tile. Gravel underlies the clay and there is a covering of a few
inches of soil. The machinery is run by horse power and the
product is sold locally.

Geneva, Cayuga co. Five firms manufacture brick in this lo-
eality. They are W. G. Dove, C. Bennett, Goodwin & Delamater,
Mrs Baldwin, and the Torrey park land co. The last-mentioned
company began operations in the spring of 1892; its brick yard is
some distance from the town.

Lyons, Wayne co. The clay bed of F. Borck is about 8 feet
deep. The upper portion of the deposit is yellow, the rest is blue.
Quicksand underlies the latter. Soft mud machines are used to
mold the brick.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 718

Western New York yards

Canandaigua, Ontario co. The New York hydraulic brick co.’s
works are about three quarters of a mile southwest of the station;
their property adjoims the New York Central railroad track. The
clay deposit, which covers several acres, is basin-shaped and has a
known depth of at least 20 feet. Itis of a blue color, weathered to
red above, and on top of it is about a foot of peat. The clay after
being dug in the fall is stored under a shed till spring, when it is
molded by a hydraulic dry press machine. ‘The brick are set di-
rectly in the kilns, which are of the Graves type. The blue clay
burns buff and the other clay a red, so that by mixing the two a
speckled brick is obtained. This firm has not been in operation
very long.

The upper clay is quite siliceous, as the following analysis shows,
and is similar in composition to the red terra cotta clay at Glens
Falls. The composition is as follows:

SHBG ee ee RL NPS BA a 62.23
HTT aaTTA ee Sars he, cc edhe hc be cee a 16.01
eran dots MOM nti reel hee cs Stolen. sx ec 6.96
RUMEN Le ere ue a eee Pe OS LOL. 1.24
WiciaMiGSiak Sar mai miae Seem ask cosets a's ies 3 hos 2.21
OUR TDI ease igh eek tec Ae a a 5.08
Nikatsern (CSta) ans he were eM ee LY Bes ans 5.30

99.03

A physical test of this clay showed that it required 22% of water
to work it up. The air shrinkage was 8%, and at incipient fusion it
was 15%, this point being at cone .05. The clay vitrified at cone .03,
with a total shrinkage of 16%, while viscosity began at cone 1. The
clay contains .15% of soluble salts. . The mechanical analysis gave:

Clhysubstancejand site weayeg esl sass 19.59
ENTS) "Sy 00 ER ee Gk Dias sth eg 20.68

720 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The buff burning or lower clay is distinctly marly in its char-
acter. As might be expected, it takes only 18.50% water to work
it up, but still is quite plastic. The air shrinkage is 6%, and at
cone .08, 5%. The clay vitrifies at cone 1 with 14% shrinkage, and
becomes viscous nearly at cone 2, It burns bufi, but with viscosity
this passes into greenish yellow. The tensile strength ranges from
95 to 110 pounds a square inch. The clay contains .7% soluble
salts.

Rochester, Monroe co. The Rochester brick and tile manufac-
turing co. is on Monroe street, at the eastern end of the city. Ad-
joining this is the German brick and tile co. The clay is reddish
in color, 4 to 5 feet thick and underlain by hardpan. Lime pebbles
occur in the lower portions. Molding sand is obtained from a neigh-
boring eskar.

The following is an analysis of this clay.

STG ate eet beeps ec se 0i4 5 WS We See na eet oa Oo)
DAW c oUt: Wins A Diva Aen RM PRES Rae es Rl He 15.46
Perontd oi moms foyer 5 «2 6 eerie eee ee 4.38
TT tna) OP Ree Ne ih <a Ce i ea 10.95
Migiomesia Stic vl sera eaepeye wic ss...) Sne a eey ee atea 3.35
IA RBG ce Aree k Rtas, at ena ees Orsay amg 6330
: 90.99

The whole flat area to the west and northwest of the yards was
formerly underlain by clay, but so much of it has been dug over
that the pit is now nearly a quarter of a mile from the works. The

section in the present clay pit involves:

Weg aan: <.TS0t ee a's Grails 1 ee ee enerer aoe ee eee 18 inches
Saud yclauy ys 2 slave pup el sme aes teen ceeaene 2 feet
Baticlayy se sie ocw slo menane Uren ae 4 feet
Hardie on OS.8 tie ahaa eo eee ee ee

‘SYIOM S,°00 O[I}] PUB YOMIG JoySoyooYy JO MoIA [B1euey) ‘ojoyd say “HH

Oz sed 90Bz OF, GG 28d

CLAYS OF NEW YORK Moni

The clay (Pl. 22) is dug by means of a plow and loaded on ears,
which are drawn to the yard by horses, where it is discharged
either into the rolls for the soft mud machine or is carried
to a conveyer that discharges it into a series of rolls and pug mills
(Pl. 27), which temper it for the stiff mud machine. ‘The latter is
used only for drain tile and hollow bricks.

All the drying is done on pallet racks, some of which are pro-
vided with a movable roof to allow the sunlight to enter (Pl. 37).
The kilns are mostly of the Wingard type, but there are also four
round down-draft kilns for burning the hollow ware, and a con-
tinuous kiln (Pl. 47) which is used for burning common brick.

The product finds a ready market in Rochester.

The lower clay alone is used for making tile, while a mixture of
the top and bottom clays works best in making the bricks.

The lower or tile clay, as it is called, is very plastic, but requires
only 20% of water to temper it. The air shrinkage is 94%, and
the tensile strength of the air-dried briquettes ranges from 100 to
130 pounds a square inch with an average of 120 pounds.

Incipient fusion occurs at cone .05, vitrification at .01, and vis-
cosity at cone 2-8. At incipient fusion the total shrinkage was 12%
and the color red; at vitrification, 16%. The soluble salts were .52.
The brick mixture is more sandy, but is also very plastic, and yet
not so tenacious. It takes 18¢ of water to work it up, and the
bricklets have an air shrinkage of 74%. The tensile strength ranges
from 110 to 120 pounds a square inch. Incipient fusion occurs at
cone .05 with a shrinkage of 10%. The clay vitrifies at cone .01
with a total shrinkage of 16%, and a deep red color. It becomes
viscous at cone 2-3.

A mechanical analysis of the clay gave:

Clay and! silt see ee Spies phe ci cinaeg es ee ee 72.90
HE ite earn oe ey ME eye ROR eR ns ala 27.85
100.75

The soluble salts were .352.

(CP NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Maplewood, Monroe co. Robert Gay’s yard lies along the New
York Central railroad. His clay is very similar to that just de-
scribed, but somewhat lighter colored. It is underlain by quick-
sand. ‘This clay is used at Rochester to mix with Jersey fire clay
in the manufacture of sewer pipe.

Clarkson, Monroe co. M. Parker’s brick plant is on the north-
ern side of the ridge road, at Clarkson, one mile north of Brock-
port. The clay is a shallow, loamy deposit, and 1s owned by
J. Sigler. The yard is an open one and both brick and drain tile
are made. The molding sand is obtained from near the depot at
Brockport. Product consumed locally.

Albion, Orleans co. There is a small yard about a mile north
of the town but nothing is known concerning it.

Lockport. The Lockport brick co.’s yard is at the northeast
end of the town. The upper portion of the clay is being used. It
is red in color, due to weathering. The clay is molded as taken
from the bank, the bricks are dried on pallets and burnt in scove-
kilns. Product used locally.

La Salle, Niagara co. Tompkins & Smith run a small yard at
this locality. Clay is very similar to that at Tonawanda. It is
underlain by hardpan. Rolls are used to crush the lime pebbles in
the clay before molding it. The product is marketed in the vicinity.

Tonawanda, Niagara co. To the southeast of the town is the
brick plant of Martin Riesterer. The clay is of a red color passing
downward into blue and has a thickness of about 5 feet. Only
common brick are manufactured; the consumption is chiefly local.
The burning is done with coal.

Lancaster, Krie co. There are two yards here, the Buffalo star
brick co., near the Erie depot, and the Lancaster brick co., about
2 miles farther out. In the former’s bank the clay is of a blue
color below and weathered to red on top. Limestone pebbles are
common in the clay, and for the purpose of separating them, the
clay is stored in sheds to dry during the winter and passed through
a barrel sieve before being used the following spring and summer.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 123

Plows are used to mine the clay; coke and coal are used to burn the
brick in stationary kilns with one fire to each arch.
The bank of the Lancaster brick co. is similar to the one just

mentioned, showing:

8 feet red clay

4 foot blue clay

4 feet gray clay

Rock

Limestone pebbles are also present and the clay after drying is
screened. ‘The bricks are burned in stationary kilns, coke being
used for the water-smoking and coal for the subsequent firing.

Buffalo, Erie co. At East Buffalo is an extensive series of
flats underlain by red clay which varies in depth from 6 to 20 feet.
The following firms situated chiefly on Clinton street use the
clay for making brick: Charles Berrick & Sons, Brush Bros.,
H. Dietschler & Son, F. Haake, L. Kirkover, Schusler & Co.,
G. W. Schmidt. Their combined production in 1892 was 65,-
000,000 brick. The clay is said to rest on the underlying rock.

The following is an analysis of it.

SUIDCr RRR N AIS aS AS. aa cota NO A A 51.36
JN IUTUE SN TO Reet chen sak <> <9 hcg het RP ma 16.20
iPeroxdde oianani et res Cs oe A 55
TUT Tae ie pte ea toolictegc os tale Seah ana 5.34
TRIE ICA a atte ci ae bed GS co Oe 3.90
DAU all is te Wee auntie (oe SS OE 1k oh a a a 6.98

94.33

Pebbles of limestone are scattered through it in places, and at a
few spots several feet of yellow sand, suitable for molding or tem-
pering, covers the clay. Below the limit of weathering the clay is
blue, which does not give as nice a colored brick as the red. The

addition of tempering sand is not considered necessary. Soak pits

(24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

and soft mud machines are used. All the yards dry their brick on
pallets and burn them in stationary kilns, using coal fuel. One fire
is made to burn one, two or three arches, according to the construc-
tion of the kiln. The burning takes nine days. Buffalo and its
vicinity consume a large portion of the product.

Jewettville, Erie co. Brush & Schmidt started a brick yard at
this locality in 1892. It is situated along the Buffalo, Rochester |
-and Pennsylvania railroad, about a quarter of a mile northwest of
the station (pl. 56). The material used is Hamilton shale. It is
of a grayish color and is easily worked. An opening has been
made next to the yard and at the same level. A black, gritty shale
crops out farther up on the hill, but this has not yet been used.
The shale is loaded on cars and run into the machine shed, where
it is crushed in a dry pan and then molded. The yard is equipped
with a Boyd dry press, and stiff mud machine. The dry press
bricks are dried in tunnels, and the others on brick floors. Special
shapes are molded in a hand power press. The burning is done
in up-draft kilns.

Springbrook, Erie co. There are extensive deposits of clay
and shale at Springbrook, on the land of E. B. Northrup, but they
are not worked.

Evans, Erie co. William Bolton has a horse power yard here.
The clay is a local deposit, chiefly blue in color, and the lower por-
tions are stratified. Jt is underlain by sand and hardpan. The
yard is run in accordance with the local demand for brick.

Southern and eastern New York yards

Dunkirk, Chautauqua co. William Hilton’s yard is situated in
the valley, about a mile west of the town. The clay deposit is
about 20 feet thick, and is underlain by rock. The upper 6 feet
is yellow and below this is blue. Stones are found scattered
through the clay and have to be separated. The yellow clay gives
a better colored brick, while the blue clay shrinks more, but is said
to give a harder product. The blue clay obtained from the main clay
bank has to be tempered with sand; it has, however, not been much

‘O[TTIAWOMOL ‘SyIOM Yollq IPIUAYyOS 7 YsSNIg MoIsA [esEUey
‘oyoyd sel “H

sisi a ewe.
‘ ie

cL 96Rd dR O

94 Id

t/

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 725

used up to the present time. Rolls are used to crush the stones
and the clay is tempered in a pug mill. Mr Hilton uses a soft mud
machine of his own manufacture. The brick are dried on pallets —
the burning, which takes eight to 11 days, is done in scove-kilns.
Coke is used for water-smoking and coal for subsequent firing.
Most of the brick are used in the vicinity.

Jamestown, Chautauqua co. Two yards are in operation 4
miles east of this town, those of C. A. Morley and M. J. Mecusker
& Son. The two yards adjoin each other, and the deposit of clay
worked by them is of considerable size. In addition to brick,
Mecusker & Son make drain tile and hollow brick. The clay de-
posit is basin-shaped. A boring near the water works showed:

Bifelllonwe said yay ety cs hoe Bee eters 2. 2,5 4 feet
GUUUIG SEMAN ey MIG Ris him Gov a sane en eee 6 inches
Bigelllicwelavaresedaci terse ues vba m wages. = 2 5 feet

JE rlioe Melee eae 8 mos eS oo cae on Ee ge WO iy
IBIS be TORN <8 Vi cis cick, Breen eae ae tae

The Jamestown shale paving brick works are mentioned under
“Paving brick” and ‘ Shales ”.

Randolph, Cattaraugus eo. J. Turner owns a brick clay deposit
at this town, but has ceased working it.

Hornellsville, Steuben co. The Hornellsville brick and tile eo.
Las its works at the north end of the town, which have been run-
ning one season. It uses a Chemung shale for making brick, and
has turned its attention thus far to paving brick. The shale is
mined about a mile from the works. It contains several thin layers
of sandstone which can not be used. The process as followed here
consists of grinding the shale in a dry pan, molding in a stiff mud,
side-cut machine .nd then repressing. Drying takes about 24
hours, and is done in chambers heated by a hot blast. Burning is
cone in down-draft cupola kilns and takes seven to 10 days. The

peving brick are in extensive use in Elmira.

726 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

An analysis of this clay made by C. Richardson in the office of
the engineering commissioners, at Washington, showed:

Sule aio rameters ot. ae ea 64.45
A rnin ene ron Ue aT a oe pas aes TG
Pero xadmouemmonmed: cals ssi. es eae eee 7.04
ATLANTIC ipa eee less. Gs sk Se .58
ITA OMe Sey Me agth ee es chs) 2) sn. 0) ae Pama ne ane 1.85
H EOUIEIS| Cire 50:0) a MO Leh site CAR Gh sh 2.52
SICKO Vor ds te Sis a ad RP RR renin Re idee a a 1605
‘Tiaveyo such: 22y CTCL arena eel 6 ies OG ta Pemininctoie (25

W. H. Signor owns the other yard at Hornellsville. His clay
bank is owned by M. Adsit. It is a shallow deposit, not over 7 feet
thick and underlain by quicksand, the latter allowing the inflow
of water from the neighboring stream. The bricks are molded by
an auger machine, dried in the sun and burnt in scove-kilns, the
burning occupying about seven days. .

Alfred, Steuben co. Alfred clay co. ‘This is another yard
using a shale, which is in the same geologic horizon as that at
Hornellsville. The works are on the Erie railroad a few hundred
yards south of the station. They have but recently commenced
operations. A semi-dry clay brick is made. To dampen the ground
clay,it is discharged from the hopper into a long box of square cross-
section in which a worm screw revolves. The axis of the screw is
hollow and has nipples projecting into the tube three fourths of an
inch, so that, if any of the steam which is injected to dampen the
clay condenses, it will not escape into the clay. The shale used is
mined near the yard and hauled in carts to the dry pan. Burning
is done in a continuous kiln.

Bigflats, Chemung co. Near the village is an extensive bed of
clay owned by J. R. Lowe. It underlies an area of about 50 acres.
Excavations have been carried to a depth of 15 feet without reach-
ing the bottom of the deposit. The clay is of a bluish gray color.

‘0d YolIqd speeyesIox{ JO MoOIA [vi1eNes ‘o}oyd sely ‘H

1G) ased a0BI OF LG 3¥Id

ww Come

CLAYS OF NEW YORK (ONS

Mr Lowe manufactures drain tile only, most of which are for private
use.

Horseheads, Chemung co. The Horseheads brick co. has a clay
deposit several acres in extent, having an average thickness of about
20 feet. There is a covering of about 10 inches of soil, and under-
lying the clay are sand and gravel. At present the material used is
chiefly shale. (See also under “Shale,” p. 839.)

The shale bank is on the north side of the valley and the shale is
brought over to the works in cars. The softer portions are crushed
in a dry pan, but hard pieces are crushed in a Blake crusher. The
yard, which turns out common brick, has a capacity of 40,000 a day.
The soft mud process and tunnel driers are used, and burning is
done in a Haigh continuous kiln.

Elmira. P. J. Weyer is manufacturing common brick from
the same kind of shale as is used at Horseheads, but the quarry is
at a higher elevation. The bricks are burned in a Wilford contin-
vous kiln.

Breesport, Chemung co. About a mile and a half south of the
town are the yards of the Empire state brick co., Locy Bros., and
P. M. C. Townsend. The bank from which they obtain their clay
les along the eastern side of the valley. It is about half a mile long
and has a hight of 50 feet. It is chiefly of a bluish color and is
stratified in places.

We give herewith the analysis of the clay:

SHUN Se oe, ea ee Beto AO Re Oe 52.48
JANI yTaa Neue Sah yeaa Sate Or le ele na Ae 16.78
ETOICa Ov RROMS ate ees eR A hr ae 92 6.79
JUGaTS Pipe de dik tale tenement c Raliay Al Ghee 3 Ieee a Re aa a 6.63
ENitnomestamh inne wan ae eee ce MesampRinn WA Sys l 6! a5 3.59
ANREP rae senate ants 0 cil nie GIN an (Gone

93.43

1 Since this was written for the original report in 1895, the yards have
been dismantled.

728 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

At Loey’s yard, where borings show the clay to be 30 feet thick,
a red clay ulso occurs. Yellow sand overlies the clay at several
points, which can be used for molding. The yards of Locy Bros.
and Townsend are open ones. At the Empire state co.’s yard tunnel
driers are used, the clay being mixed in a wet pan and then dis-
charged through an opening in the floor of the latter on an endless
belt which carries it up to the molding machine. The brick are
burnt in scove-kilns.

Spencer, Tioga co. W. H. Bostwick’s yard is about a mile south
o” the village. The clay which is dug in a field adjoining the
works, is a tough reddish material 4 to 6 feet thick. It is under-
lain by sand and gravel. The bricks are dried on pallets and
burned in stationary up-draft kilns.

Newfield, Tompkins co. F.C. Campbell’s brick yard is about
one mile north of the station along the Lehigh valley railroad.
Adjoining the yard is the clay bank which rises to a hight of about
50 feet. The clay is of a bluish color, and forms an enormous,
stratified, lenticular mass, which is imbedded in the terminal
moraine crossing the valley at that poimt. ‘The upper portions
contain more sand.

An analysis of this clay showed:

Gea evar Chay Ra ZR etre Noll eso NBs oh UN eRe ak ena 51.30
VWDEGTD OTM Age. RA hy oi Re aan Leas san Nod Ne tN 12). 2a
Per oxad YOu AROMI aR 120 15, ob 1/5 Share See ee eae 3.32
Tae Pie ee VCS oul Jo's a a'l ec RES eee 11.63
IMR O TNC SIE Ruste ehh ea fen aoe ia) «eee 4.73
HAs 5 aGRe tacit Co elas d gilt ee 4.33
Oreamie amaiiter etc slec 222) diands See ae eee 10

89.02

Notwithstanding the high percentage of lime, which gives the
brick its cream color, a very strong brick is produced. Covering
th. clay is several feet of yellowish stratified sand. Lime pebbles

OLAYS OF NEW YORK 729

occur in the clay, and a special apparatus is used to extract them.
The clay and a certain percentage of shale are ground in a dry pan,
then carried up to an inclined screen. ‘Those particles which
pass through are mixed by means of wheels and scrapers at-
tached to a revolving arm. ‘The bricks are molded on stiti mud
machines and repressed on a hand-power machine. Chamber driers
are used and burning done in downdraft kilns, scove-kilns or a
continuous kiln. The clay burns to a buff brick; farther burning
at a higher heat gives a hard, greenish yellow brick, which is
smaller, but sold for paving purposes. The pavers made at this
yard are a mixture of clay and shale, while the building brick are
clay alone. ‘The following is a report of tests made on these brick
in the laboratory at Cornell university. All the bricks were tested
on edge, as used for the purpose of paving. The sides were dressed
to parallel planes on an emery wheel, so as to get a uniform bearing
over every part. Single layers of thick paper were placed between
the brick and the machine.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

730

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK Heal

This clay is one of the few very calcareous ones that are used in
New York state. It is very plastic and gritty, and dries to a hard
dense mass. When worked up from the air-dried condition it takes
22% of water. The bricklets shrink 5% in air drying — the air-dried
briquettes show a tensile strength of from 105 to 175 pounds the
square inch, with an average of 118 pounds, which is very fair.

Incipient fusion occurs at cone .05, with a shrinkage of 8%;
vitrification at once .02, with 10% shrinkage, while viscosity began
at cone .01. The clay burns buff, which turns to greenish yellow
on vitrifying. Soluble salts, .5%.

Homer, Cortland co. The brick yard at this locality belongs
to Horace Hall of Cortland. His clay bed underlies the flat lands
near the village of Homer; and is from 8 to 5 feet thick. Quick-
sand underlies the clay; overlying it is a dark soil 2 to 6 inches
thick. The elay is of a bluish color.

Binghamton, Broome co. There are two yards in this town,
viz, Wells & Brigham’s and the Ogden brick co.’s. Their clay beds
are similar, both being shallow deposits 6 to 8 feet thick, underlain
by sand and gravel. The former of the two is a pallet yard, the
other uses a tunnel drier. Their product is consumed locally.

Brookfield, Madison co. The Brookfield brick co. is the only
firm manufacturing brick at this locality.

Oneonta, Otsego co. Two firms are manufacturing brick at
this locality, J. Denton & Son, and Crandall & Marble. The
works of the latter firm are situated on the Albany and Susque-
hanna railroad near the village of Oneonta. Two kinds of clay
are used; one of them from a bank, 5 to 20 feet in thickness, the
other from a surface deposit 3 to 5 feet in depth. The latter bed
is underlain by sand. The product is consumed by the local
market.

Goshen, Orange co. P. Hayne has a clay deposit 55 feet deep,
underlain by black gravel. There is a slight stripping of sod. Both
drain tile and brick are made from the clay.

Woo NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Florida, Orange co. W. H. Vernon’s brick yard and clay de--
posit are situated in the valley near the town. The clay bed is 10
feet thick, blue in color and tough. The upper 3 feet is weathered to
a red clay, which makes a better brick. The blue is of sufficient
purity for making pottery. Underneath the clay is sand and hard-
pan.

Oakland valley, Sullivan co. A small deposit of clay at this
locality was used for some time for making earthenware.

About one eighth sand had to be added to the clay for brick or
tile ware. The sand, which is of a bright yellow color, is in banks
along the Navesink river, near the clay beds. ‘This clay is also
said to be available for paint. Oakland valley is about 12 miles
from Port Jervis.

New Paltz, Ulster co. New Paltz brick co. The brick yard is
located on the outskirts of the town and near the Wallkill Valley
railroad, with which it is connected by a switch. The clay deposit
is yellow, red and blue in color, and varies in depth from 15 to
50 feet. It underlies a tract of 6 acres. The natural separation
of the clay in 4 to 8 inch layers facilitates the digging of it. There
is a thin stratum of overlying sand which has to be first stripped.
Soft mud machines operated by horse power are used for molding.

Warwick, Orange co. Though there are no brick-yards in this
vicinity, extensive deposits of clay are undoubtedly present. A
sample of clay from the Drowned lands, lying along the Wallkill
river in Orange co., was analyzed in the laboratory of the New

Jersey geological survey with the following results:

Siliciemaicrd emmy comallyimabion).t. cee eee 28.9
Qarartz ie hic wise is > 5 aioe A eee 22.9
Siliecie acid sireein’ 2° B) so csvagha le saecehe Ghee eee 1.2
Ditanie Gide oy eie esis ce-< oR eee 135
Oxid otal umminia: Se<% 6). . 0). cau eee eee 23k
IPeroxids oi MOM Ae. Lleol aids, eee (2

Tan 25). F PS IR oe Ra ee eee HG

CLAYS OF NEW YORK G33

Wkevarnecne) Goal 2-8 Niet’ 4. > Als eee 2.6
EGU 2 pace aoc Acc bles AS ee 4.1
“WHI Sain, cadietea d elc'étn 24 6 0! oa ai er Det

100.9

The clay is said to exist in large quantity, forming a thick layer
at this point in the alluvial district of the Drowned lands, and un-
derlying much of the black muck surface of this district. The
specimen sent was thoroughly air-dried, was slate gray in color,
and showed a little fine gritty sand. It contains too much oxid of
iron and potash for a refractory or fine material. Washing out
the fine sand might enable it to be used in some styles of paper
facing. It is most interesting as the basis of a valuable, enduring
and fertile soil, and if properly drained it would be unsurpassed for
tillage or pasturage; as such, it furnishes another argument for the

drainage of this tract of Drowned lands.

Long Island and Staten Island yards
East Williston, Queens co. W. & J. Post have two yards at
this locality. Their clay pit is in a field some 500 feet west of the
yard on the land of H. M. Willis. The élay has been excavated to
a depth of about 15 feet. It is chiefly a bluish clay and can be
easily dug. The clay is extremely silicious, as the following analysis
shows, but the percentage of lime, magnesia and iron is low.

Dilicaiceaueeen sil ene ea oe Oe BSS 69.73
UU aT TINGE ME eS Ca ene Dencuctey HRs Sie eae ee 16.42
JEGoyoh ave meantgenona std Shp iy Hinks cides ints bea eee 2.58
Lina Te AER RAGA Mee Cai igcd Ss Coe = RSA iar ce oo . 66
EG Noac VRP ROR usin Ltt Wa ae tty Cocaa hee Lek a . 69
Benicar eck <p) Bis A Nag ee ee RON LASERS S550 occ, 6.27

TO4- NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Carts are used to haul it to the yard. Pumps have to be used
to keep out the water which comes up through the underlying
sand. The clay is tempered without the addition of sand in ring
pits run by horse power. The bricks are dried either on the open
yard or on pallets and burnt in scove-kilns with wood. They are
shipped on the Long Island railroad, which passes by the yard.

Oyster Bay, Queens co. An extensive deposit of clay is being
worked on Center island, in Oyster bay, by Dunn, Dolan & Co.
They manufacture common brick. The bank adjoins the yard,
and the clay, which is in thin layers, separated by fine laminae of
sand, is of a bluish color in the lower portions of the deposit, brown-
ish above. The brown clay is more sandy; there is 6 or 8 feet of
it. Over the brown is a less gritty and tougher clay, which runs
nearly to the surface. The total hight of the bank is about 25
feet, but the front is broken up into several wide benches. Springs
issue from several sandy spots in the blue clay. In making the
brick the different grades of clay are mixed together, a certain pro-
portion of sand, and some coal dust added. Jing pits are used
for tempering. The brick are dried on an open yard and burned
in scove-kilns. They settle 8 to 10 inches in burning.

West neck, Suffolk co. The clay at this locality rises in a bank
to a hight of over 100 feet. There are three yards but only two
are active. Both are along the east shore of Coldspring Harbor.
The most southern one belongs to Dr Jones. The clay in this bank
- js of a red and brown color, there being about 25 feet of the latter
at the bottom, while above it is the red, which is of a more sandy
nature. There is an upper covering of 15 or 20 feet of yellow
eravel and sand, which after screening is used for tempering. This
latter is done in ring pits. All the machinery is run by horse power.
The bricks are dried on an open yard and burnt in scove-kilns. The ~
product is loaded on schooners and sent to New England and New
York city. The lower brown clay has been used for coarser grades
of pottery. Its composition is given below.

‘loqiey, Suds plop ‘HooN 3SeM UO PIvA YOlq s,puomuUBy, jv Yueq Aelo ‘ojoUd sely *H

cg_ osed v0vjJ OL, 8G 2d

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 735

Sill Cai Beak Sah an oe LU ee ee (SLO
JA Tl reaalialess Bye Gow neeed. sate, 6:6 cc toh OR 19.238
JP SIRDSRIGL Ora HOMIE bee AVS, doe oa 5.43

«SLi nae" Seg aS ego oe .96
JW Day a0, GRSIE) ss reaeie Mae A chs ol ae 1.88
PAMIKGMITS ole os es 2's eee rer i PUI 4.60
93.11

Adjoining Jones’s yard is that of Crossman Bros. It is leased by
William Hammond. The clay in his bank is similar to that of
Jones. The yard is also an open one, steam power being used for
running the machines; the tempering is done in rectangular pits.

Freshpond, Suffolk co. This locality is about 4 miles east
of Northport on the north shore of the island. There are two «
yards, about a mile apart. The most eastern belongs to G. Long-
bottom. It is situated some 500 feet from the shore and about 50
feet above Long Island sound. The clay bank is about 200 feet
west of the yard and at the same level. A section in the summer
of 1892 showed

SHG tae ete Nene. 3 a oeiclecy ee eee mg ria ae 4 feet
tvedesamidsy Clay 072. sons oie) hs Epes ce an ec Siero
He CC lenvaripenen tary ae rece ecu. kN MS Gia.

The overlying sand and gravel is stratified and dips east. It is
screened for tempering. Carts are used for hauling the clay to the
machines. Molding sand is obtained from Hackensack. The clay
and sand are shoveled directly into a vertical pug-mill, from which
they pass to the molding machine. Coal dust is also added in tem-
pering. The product is loaded on cars, run down to schooners at
the dock and shipped to Connecticut. Adjoining Longbottom’s
yard is the inactive plant of Provost.

736 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

About a mile west of Longbottom’s, situated along the shore, is
the yard of R. Sammis. His land extends 2000 feet along the
shore and in the whole of that distance the clay crops out from un-
derneath the sands and gravels. The lower portion of the clay is a
bluish red, the upper, red in color and somewhat more gritty. The
clay is rather tough but not so dry as Longbottom’s. The carting
is done along the shore; the overlying sands which are highly stained
with iron are used for tempering. A cutting has been made in the
cliff just east of the yard for tempering sand. The bricks are burnt
with wood.

Greenport, Suffolk co. The works of the Long Island brick co.
are some 2 miles west of Greenport on the shore of Pike’s cove,
opposite Shelter island. Its clay is a glacial deposit of red color,
rather tough and contains numerous stones. Mr Sage, the owner,
claims a depth of 64 feet for the deposit in places. Several open-
ings have been made in it, one of them 24 feet deep. It is said to
thin out to the east of the yard, where it is found to be underlain
by hardpan. It is undermined, the working face being about 8 feet
high; and the clay is hauled to the machines in carts. It is tempered
in soak pits, with the addition of one third its volume of sand. Hema-
tite is also added in order to produce a good color in burning. The
bricks are dried on pallets or on open yards. They are burnt in
scove-kilns, loaded on schooners and shipped largely to Connecticut.
Many also go to points on Long Island.

Southold, Suffolk co. 2 miles east of the village is G. L.
Sandford’s yard. The clay is similar to Sage’s. Mr Sanford has
about 29 acres of clay. It is worked chiefly by undermining, the
working face being about 10 feet in hight. In places, gravel is
scattered through it, but in others it is very free from stones. Bor-
ings have shown a depth of 65 feet of clay. The clay and coal dust
are put into rectangular soak pits and from these are shoveled into
the machine, the tempering sand not being added till then. ‘The
drying is done on pallets, whose total capacity is 154,000. Most

of the product goes to Connecticut by schooner.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 726

Below is given an analysis of the clay.

SCBA ZORA Rec ck OU oo St Si a ae aR i 59.05
PAN UMTTITTRAMO et en eM REG cs, Wiha sic ie sa: 6 eens meatal
PEATE AG MONSON! eee airmen ene oe accirsat ols Se soak ei 6.54
TLIO ah oe PRR ERnee, Hiaa 5 69). do) A si eRe Dy AN)
Beta os etree 420 Sok 5x ee EES eas ci aclas wider 8 gn, 6 2.64
JSD ILTISS Tel grich ia eaten oh a 6.22

98.75

The plasticity of the clay is quite well shown by the amount of
water required to work it up, viz, 40%.. The air shrinkage was 84;
when burned at .08, which is about the temperature attained in the |
scove-kilns, the shrinkage was 9%. At this point, however, incipient
fusion had barely begun. When heated above this point the shrink-
age increased quite rapidly, so that at vitrification, which occurred
at cone 1, the total shrinkage was 16%. At incipient fusion the
clay burns red; at vitrification a very deep red. Viscosity occurs at
cone 4. The high shrinkage of this clay would probably interfere
with its use alone for vitrified wares. The tensile strength of the
air-dried briquettes ranged from 133 to 140 pounds a square inch,
but one gave a minimum of 108 pounds. ‘The clay contains .7% of
soluble salts.

Fishers Island, Suffolk co. The extensive deposit of clay at this
locality is worked by the Fishers Island brick manufacturing co.,
whose plant has a capacity of about 15,000,000. The yards are
situated on the north shore of the island between Clay point and
Hawks neck point. About 1500 feet from the shore is the bank
of clay of a reddish color and thinly stratified, the layers of clay
being separated by very thin ones of sand. In most places, how-
ever, the mass has been disturbed by glacial movements. There
is a stripping of 20 or 30 feet of a whitish sand, the finer portions
of which can be used for tempering. Their present working face
is 80 feet above tide at its base, and the clay, it is declared, has a

738 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

depth of 40 feet at least, below this, as shown by borings. A sam-
ple from the upper half of the bank showed the following composi-

tion:
SICA Joos We ate Re 22. nk a a a Boi
PAURCUCINGHIE SG 955 (ahd tm ME et Gu cl <i atu 20.49
iP eroxaciioumtrometinaeg 8) i004 AUR EN ee ieee ene 9.23
BUY EKO CUES 2-530 PR AE ry A ia ae ae 4.29
USiniaie leon eae eeee Pitta f- a.a oa aoe Stee ae oe een eRe eae 2.04
PAU CANTICN > (5k os pce ae RE TPE G4 Pesce reser y Ady 9.60

The clay, which is said to improve with the depth, is worked
by undermining. It is then loaded on carts and hauled about
200 feet to a platform, underneath which cars are run to receive
the clay and sand. These cars, in trains of three or four, are
drawn to the yard by four horses, the grade being slightly descend-
ing. ‘Tempering is done in large rectangular soak pits; open yards
are used for drying the brick, or it is done on pallets. A small
quantity of hematite is added to the molding sand. The bricks are
burnt in scove-kilns with wood. Most of the product goes to Con-
necticut and Rhode Island.

Farmingdale, Suffolk co. M. Meyers’s yard lies about 1 mile
north of the village, along the southern edge of the moraine, on
a branch track of the railroad. The clay pit ‘is some 300 feet from
the yard, and several feet lower. The clay is chiefly a reddish yellow
and very plastic, but tough in places. The lower portions are
quite free from sand. Mr. Meyers claims a thickness of at least 25
feet of clay in addition to the 10 feet exposed. At the entrance to
the pit the clay is seen to be underlain by a bluish white micaceous
sand, which is cross-bedded and dips under the clay at a very steep
angle. Hauling the clay is done in carts, the tempering in ring pits
with the addition of sand and coal dust. Soft mud machines are
used, and the drying is done on pallets. The pallet racks have

OO

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 739

sectional roofs which are hinged and can be lifted by a lever for the
purpose of admitting more sunlight. The bricks are burnt with
wood in clamps; the product is shipped to various points on Long
Island.

Below is given an analysis of the lower clay.

SHIGE) 2k ae RARER ced (oe | RRR ee eee 62.39
JS LTSCTEE TT ee aeRO OM ES th aS ak ea a 23.60
Der GIN GEEATTOTD) hu sche ie IES EUR UC Wes 3.39
ID da yak len ee RRR tke) SNE ole N Ger ce i)
PUNTO TE nate Bel nametns ue wehel cnt open teae poeta naie ape a8 <= UD)
PNM elias, Se tide ee REC ee RAS ane ee NAR Ss cs a 5.89

96.07

The physical properties of the two clays from Meyers’s bank are
as follows:

Upper clay. While this differs from the lower clay in color,
because of the higher oxidation of the iron oxid, at the same time it
is more sandy, containing a large amount of very fine sand and
mica scales. It is quite plastic and tough, but not very tenacious,
as shown by its low tensile strength, which ranges from 20 to 25
pounds a square inch. It took 34.70% of water to work it up; the
bricklets showed an air shrinkage of 6%. At cone .08 the clay burns
bright, but not dark red, with a total shrinkage of 7%. Incipient
fusion occurred at cone .05 with a total shrinkage of 10%. The clay
had a shrinkage of 14% when vitrification began at cone 1. It be
came viscous at cone 4. ‘The soluble salts amounted to .14%.

Bottom clay. This is more plastic and slightly more tenacious
than the top clay, but otherwise does not differ from it very much.
It absorbed 28% of water in tempering —the air-dried bri-
quettes had a tensile strength ranging from 30 to 40 pounds a square
inch. The air shrinkage was 8%. At cone .08 it amounted to 83%,
at cone .05 to 10%. Incipient fusion occurred at cone .04, vitrifica-

740 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

tion at 1, with 15% shrinkage. Viscosity at 5. Percentage of solu-
ble salts, .20¢.

About one mile north of the depot is the yard of the Garden
City brick company. ‘This is on the site of the old Stewart yard,
but the plant is a modern one. The clay however is obtained
from the opening that supplied Stewart’s yard. |

In the mining of the clay three kinds are recognized: 1) top
sandy clay; 2) middle clay and 3) black bottom clay. (For see-
tion of bank, see chapter on “ Geology of clay deposits in New
York”, p. 605)

No analyses of the,clay have been made, but no. 1 and a mix-
ture of 2 and 3 have been tested. No. 1 is a red burning, gritty
clay, with an abundance of fine mica scales. With 31% of water
it worked up to a very plastic mass, that had an air shrinkage of
5% The tensile strength was low and ranged from 50 to 60 pounds
a square inch. The mechanical analysis gave 15.44 sand, 83.75
clay substance and silt. In burning, incipient fusion occurred at
cone .03, with 11% shrinkage; vitrification at cone 2, with 14%
shrinkage, and viscosity at cone 5. Soluble salts, .54%.

The mixture of 2 and 3 showed similar properties, but hardened
at a somewhat lower temperature. The tensile strength was from
40 to 50 pounds a square inch; the clay was slightly more gritty
than the top part, but was equally plastic; 33% of water was re-
quired to temper it; the air shrinkage was 6% at cone .04; incipient
fusion occurred with a shrinkage of 12%; vitrification began at 1,
the shrinkage was 16%. The clay grew viscous at 5. The color of
the burned clay is hght red, but deepens on hard firing. The solu-
ble salts amounted to .2%.

The bricks made at these works are all dry pressed; the product
is used chiefly in Brooklyn.

By mixing the clays, with addition of manganese, and by hard
or soft burning, the colors buff, pink, gray, brown, red, and speck-
led, are produced.

i ee

‘O[BPSUIMIIVY “00 YOMUq AYO Wopivy ‘MoIA [BidUey ‘ojoyd sary “EH

OFL osvd ooVyJ OT, 6G VI d

TPL o8Bd a0By OF,

‘OOUBPUBAM (ESV % SnosdejoID) ‘AvloO Apues yoRvl_

‘oyoqd sory “H

09 9381d

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 741

The company has recently begun to use a white burning clay ob-
tained near West Deerpark, formerly used in the brickworks at that
locality.

In July 1899, a large opening had been made at the base of
the hill about half a mile northwest of West Deerpark station.
The section exposed at that time showed:

LL elllcuy Gaen7e) EI sens 5 Ae CC eae 4 feet
Black clay, with some yellow streaks .............. Aro
Black clay with white sand in streaks ............. A
STIDOL che ray Aas RA NS ce, 5-> Se ee Dineen
tesa? ak
14 cc

The clay is loaded on carts and hauled to a siding about 500
feet distant, whence it is taken by train to the works. About 600
feet east of the present bank, a second one is being opened up.
The same clay also crops out at the base of the embankment, where
the road from Farmingdale to the Garden City brick co.’s works
_ erosses the railroad siding leading up to the works.

There is probably an abundance of this clay between Farming-
dale and Wyandance, but at most places there is a heavy over-
burden of sand and yellow. gravel, usually not less than 15 feet,
except at the pit from which clay is now being dug.

The highly sandy nature of the clay is indicated by a mechanical
analysis of the material which yielded:

J BUTTE IASEAN AVG Ia edly oust ogo eae oR IR De abe 84%
Clay substance amdgsilt, ess. eas-kie cee cess 16%
100%

All of the sand passed through a 100 mesh sieve. In spite of its
highly silicious nature the clay is fairly plastic, and 23% of water
was required to work it up. Scattered through the clay are scales
of mica, and occasional grains of pyrite. The shrinkage in drying
is 8%; up to cone 3, 11%, and cone 6, 15%. At the former cone the

742 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

clay became incipiently fused; the color was yellowish white. At
the latter it had deepened in color, and began to assume a reddish
hue on the approach of vitrification. It fused at cone 10.

This clay is used for making front brick by the dry press process.
It is doubtful however if it would work in a stiff mud machine
without tearing as it issued from the die.

The clay contains .15% of soluble salts.

The following analysis was made by H. Ries from a sample col-
lected in 1899 )

SUG Ate a ianemeRe kf cA one PARES Nee Naar Ree 60.20
ACTIN AGS ae AG ES CNL Se Age ane ee aR 23200
Perrie romana: (2). 5c Nt ae ee he oy a ee 1.45
BB yradl Wet es) Osa ge Ma PER Cea HRI Pte e aah lu 1220
Malomesiia pea der 2 ii-)a ia tie adsaehen teog tatters BTN Pa tr
PEUTIC et 04 ON ERIM OMD PHONE SBalD a Niet he 3.05
WeOSs5 OTe Tosi Thi 0.5) Sins sta tect at ett yey teers nea 10.10
99.07

Staten Island has two yards where common brick are manu
factured. One belongs to McCabe Bros. at Greenridge. Their
deposit is a stony glacial clay of a red color, and lies to the north-
west of the yard. Small boulders are scattered sparingly through
it; the upper portion is somewhat loamy. Borings have penetrated
the clay to a depth of 25 feet and stratification appears with the
depth. No sand or coal is added to the clay in tempering. It is
first passed through rolls 2 feet in diameter, the one making 60, the
other 600 revolutions a minute, and having an opening of half an
inch. This partially breaks up the stones. The crushed material
falls on a belt and is carried up to a pug mill, where the water is
added before it passes to the machine. Drying the bricks is done
either in the sun or in tunnels. In the latter the bricks shrink
more. The tunnels are heated by coal fires. Wood is used for
burning. The kiln settles about 4 inches. The products go to
New York city and the vicinity.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 743

Wood & Keenan’s yard is situated on the shore of Arthurs kill,
opposite Carteret. It is an open yard of greater capacity than its
output. The clay is of the same character as McCabe’s. It is
tough and has to be worked with picks. The pit is about 10 feet
deep. Ring pits are used for tempering and the bricks are burnt
with wood. New York city and Newark are the chief markets.

The New York Anderson pressed brick co. has its works at
Kreischerville adjoining Kreischer’s fire brick factory. Various
styles of ornamental and pressed brick are made. The clay is ob-
tained from a pit near Greenridge. It is of a black and gray color.
The pit is worked im benches, the clay being hoisted in buckets and
loaded on cars which are run down to the works.

The works have not been in operation for several years.

Paving brick

The total number of paving brick produced in the United States
in 1897 was 435,851,000, valued at $3,582,037. Of this amount
New York produced 28,145,000, valued at $309,564, an average
price of $11 a thousand.

One reason that paving brick have not been made in greater
quantities is that New York les in a region abundantly supplied
with stone which can be used for the same purpose. Nevertheless
many cities of the state have adopted brick pavements, among them
Binghamton, Lockport, Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, Troy, Water-
town, Ithaca, Corning, Elmira, Dunkirk, Jamestown, Tonawanda,
Niagara Falls, and Brooklyn. Paving brick were formerly made
only of fire clay, and indeed this was considered the only material
fit to be used. At the present time however the material most used
is either shale or clay (preferably the former) which burns to a
vitrified body.

The clays used should have sufficient fluxing impurities to enable
them to burn to a dense impervious body at a moderate tempera-
ture. The following average composition is given by Wheeler for
a paving brick clay, being deduced from 50 sources.*

1 Vitrified paving brick. 1895. Indianapolis.

TAA NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Min. per Max. per

cent cent Average
Moisturetapiere teenie fit. Bi) 3.0 D bea
NSTUU Tor Nene oh oe, cape nea a AD OF (D0) SeaGa)
PAMIRDBaRIIEE NG = o06! 5 bcc oleReL eee 11-0 2550 22
Borie’ oath ae eerie se ic <-s o a 8 2.0 310 Gat
A Sib aa eye ie ai, Soca lee a oo) 6 aes),
AME ca Me.ST. char Ah sil 0 1.4
Nil ellie aimemapee ea ce ah! a acts 0) af) Be 7
Water (loss on ign.) ........ BD og padkevel 0) (is)
otal eine see hy 2k LOL ie 113) 2(0

In addition to having the proper chemical composition, it should
also possess the necessary physical properties.

Proper plasticity is of vital importance, but its excessive develop-
ment is equally injurious. The reason plasticity has such import-
ance is that clay when molded by the stiff mud process is very apt
to.tear when issuing from the die, unless of proper plasticity.
Excessive plasticity tends to produce a laminated brick when auger
machines are used. The effect of these laminations will be seen in
the tests given below.

As paving brick, unless made of fire clay, should be burned to the
point of vitrification, it is essential that in clays used for this pur-
pose the points of viscosity and incipient fusion should le well
apart, not less than 250° F. and preferably 400° E°.

The color of a paving brick is no indication of its quality.

‘The clay should not show any disposition to blister as the point
of vitrification is approached, but this is likely to occur if an excess
of iron is present.

In order to demonstrate somewhat definitely what are the char-
acters of a good paving brick shale, the tests of a sample utilized
in Illinois for the manufacture of paving blocks is given herewith. |

The shale is rather fine-grained, and breaks up quite easily in
grinding. It was ground to pass through a 30 mesh sieve. 28% of

1Olchewsky in Post. chem. tech. analyse. 1890; Wheeler in Vitrified
paving brick. 1895.

‘s1oUdeM {100 Youd poylijiA vsepuoug ‘Yolaq suravd 1of spouuny SulAIp 0} oouvIZUy -ojoyd Sait “EL

FFL osvd oJ OF, 19 281d

_

:
‘
“
an = i
ad
i
t

R
7 FY
be ba tes)
a) Ba est

‘9119 10 HolIq Suyavd Suyuinq 10J UljH IJVIp UAOp B Jo MOYA [eUOT}0Eg

| 101p2AQ JP? 14,

“PIVNANS HHAOMH] HOLLITE ,0— b2

GPL edd eovy OL Z9 81d

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 145

water was required to work it up. The air shrinkage was 4%. Up
to cone .03 it was 10%. It vitrified at 2 and became viscous at 5.

The tensile strength was from 60 to 70 pounds a square inch.

Manufacture of paving brick

Shale is used more than clay in the manufacture of paving brick.
It has to be prepared first by crushing in a dry pan, then screened.
This sereened clay is mixed with water and tempered either in a
pug mill or in a wet pan. (For description see “ Manufacture of
common brick ”’, p. 653)

Paving brick are commonly molded in an auger machine; they
-are either end-cut or side-cut. At a few factories the soft mud
method is used, but in this state it is only employed at Syracuse.
Repressing the green brick is commonly practised, but there is a
difference of opinion as to whether it improves the quality of the
brick, though the experiments given on the following pages tend to
indicate that the end-cut repressed brick are the strongest, while
still more recent tests somewhat disfavor this view.

The green brick are usually piled on cars and dried in tunnels.

Paving brick should be burned in down-draft kilns, as they give
better results than the up-draft kilns, and there is no loss from
crushed, overburned brick.

The type of kiln used in this state is either the rectangular down-
draft kiln or a continuous one. The latter is extending in favor,
ag it is the more economical and yields good results. Circular kilns
are but little used in this state for burning paving brick.

Tests of paving brick
For a long period there has been some difference of opinion as to
what constitutes the qualities requisite for a paving brick. Engi-
neers have frequently laid considerable stress on the crushing test
and the color. The latter is of no value as a guide; the former be
yond certain limits is to be looked on in the same way. With a view,

therefore, to determine what the requisite qualifications of a paving

746 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

brick should be, and if possible to adopt a set of standard specifica-
tions, a committee was appointed by the National brickmakers
association two years ago. After a series of exhaustive tests their
report has recently been submitted.

The subjects which the committee took up for consideration were:

1 Rattling, as a measure of toughness and wearing power

2 Absorption, as a measure of vitrification and resistance to
freezing

3 Cross-breaking, as a measure of structural perfection and
freedom from defects due to manufacture

4 Crushing, as a farther indication of the same factor

5 Hardness, as a confirmatory test of vitrification

6 Specific gravity, as a guide to the density and fineness of the
material

The rattler. A series of experiments made by varying the
charge, size of rattler, number of revolutions a minute, and time
of rattling showed that

1 Not less than 10% nor more than 15% of the volume of, the
rattler need be filled with the cubic contents of the charge.

2 It must be rattled for not less than 1000 and preferably not
less than 2000 revolutions.

3 The length of the chamber is immaterial.

4 The diameter of the chamber must be between 26 and 30
inches.

5 The speed of revolution, between 24 and 36 revolutions a
minute, is immaterial if the test is terminated when the requisite
number of revolutions have been made.

The use of cast iron and granite as abrasive and filling materials
was also tested and found to be unsatisfactory. Large bricks showed
less wear than small ones; normally burned, less than overburned
or underburned ones. .

Absorption test. A series of tests showed that even after dry-
ing 48 hours at above 110° C. a brick continued to lose water, and
that immersed brick showed redundant gain in weight even after

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 747

six months’ immersion, though the great bulk of the water was
taken in the first week.

Broken bricks absorb more water than whole ones, and small
pieces from the interior of the brick absorb more proportionately
than large ones.

The following conclusions were reached.

1 That to obtain accurate absorption figures, a hard brick will
require not less than four days’ drying and eight weeks’ soaking.

2 That only roughly approximate figures are obtained within time
limits which would be short enough to make the figures useful for
ordinary competitive tests of material for immediate use.

3 That only rattled bricks should be used for the absorption test.
as the absorptive power of brick in use is increased by its chipping
and grinding under trafiie.

4 No relation seems to exist between loss by rattling and per-
centage of absorption.

As a result of the committee’s experiments the following speci-

fications were adopted.

Specifications for abrasion test

1 Dimensions of the machine. The standard machine shall be
28 inches in diameter and 20 inches in length, measured inside
the rattling chamber. Other machines may be used, varying in
diameter between 26 and 30 inches, and in length from 18 to 24
inches, but if this is done, a record of it must be attached to the
official report. Long rattlers may be cut up into sections of suit-
able length by the insertion of iron diaphragms at proper points.

2 Construction of the machine. The barrel shall be supported
on trunnions at either end; in no case shall a shaft pass through
the rattling chamber. The cross section of the barrel shall be a
regular polygon, having 14 sides. The heads and staves shall be
composed of gray cast iron, not chilled or casehardened. There
shall be a space of one fourth of an inch between the staves for
the escape of dust and small pieces of waste. Other machines may

748 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

be used, having 12 to 16 staves, with openings from one eighth
to three eighths of an inch between the staves, but if this is done
a record of it must be attached to the official report of the test.

3 Composition of the charge. All tests must be made on
charges composed of one kind of material at a time. No test shall
be considered official where two or more different bricks or mate-
rials have been used to compose a charge.

4 Quantity of the charge. The quantity of the charge shall be
estimated by its bulk and not by its weight. The bulk of the
standard charge shall be equal to 15% of the cubic contents of the
rattling chamber, and the number of whole brick whose united
volume comes nearest to this amount shall constitute a charge.

5 evolutions of the charge. 'The number of revolutions of a
standard test shall be 1800, and the speed of rotation shall be
30 a minute. The belt power shall be sufficient to rotate the
rattler at the same speed whether charged or empty. Other speeds
of rotation between 24 and 36 revolutions a minute may be used,
but in this case a record of the speed must be attached to the official
report.

6 Conditions of the charge. The bricks composing a charge
shall be dry and clean, and, as nearly as may be possible, in the
condition in which they are drawn from the kiln.

7 Calculation of the results. The loss shall be calculated in
percentage of the weight of the dry brick composing the charge,
and no result shall be considered as official unless it is the average
of two distinct and complete tests, made on separate charges of
brick.

Specifications for absorption test

1 The number of bricks for a standard test shall be five.

2 The test must be conducted on rattled bricks. If none such
are available, the whole bricks must be broken in halves before
treatment.

3 The bricks should be dried for 48 hours at a temperature
ranging from 230° to 250° F. before weighing for the initial dry
weight.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 749,

4 The bricks should be soaked for 48 hours, completely im-
mersed, in pure water.

5 After soaking, and before weighing, the bricks must be wiped
dry from surplus water.

6 The difference in weight must be determined on scales sensi-
tive to 1 gram.

7 The increase in weight due to water absorbed shall be caleu-
lated in percentage of the initial dry weight.

The commission which drew up these specifications considers
that any brick which will satisfy the requirements of reasonable
mechanical tests will not absorb sufficient water to prove injurious
to it in service, and that for such brick the absorption test should

be abandoned as unnecessary, if not actually misleading.

Specifications for cross-breaking tests

1 Support the brick on edge, or as laid in pavement, on hard-
ened steel knife edges, rounded longitudinally to a radius of 12
inches and transversely to a radius of one eighth of an inch, and
bolted in position so as to secure a span of 6 inches.

2 Apply the load to the middle of the top face through a hard-
ened steel knife edge, straight longitudinally and rounded trans-
versely to a radius of + inch.

3 Apply the load at a uniform rate of increase till fracture
ensues.

4 Compute the modulus of rupture by the formula

3w |
"Flee
in which

f= modulus of rupture in pounds a square inch
w = total breaking load in pounds
1—length of span in inches = 6
b=breadth of brick in inches
d= depth of brick in inches

5 Samples for test must be free from all visible irregularities

750 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of surface or deformities of shape, and their upper and under
faces must be practically parallel.

6 Not fewer than 10 bricks shall be broken, and the average
of all be taken for a standard test.

Specifications for crushing test

1 The crushing test should be made on half bricks, loaded edge-
wise, or as they are laid in the street. If the machine used is
unable to crush a full half brick, the area may be reduced by
chipping off, keeping the form of the piece to be tested as nearly
prismatic as possible. A machine of at least 100,000 pounds’
capacity should be used, and the specimen should not be reduced
below 4 square, inches of area in cross-section at right angles to
the direction of load.

2 The upper and lower surfaces should preferably be ground

o true and parallel planes. If this is not done they should be
Jedded in plaster of paris while in the testing machine, which
should be allowed to harden 10 minutes under the weight of the
crushing planes only, before the load is applied.

3 The load should be applied at a uniform rate of increase to
the point of rupture.

4 Not less than an average obtained from five tests on five dif-
ferent bricks shall constitute a standard test.

It was resolved by the commission that “ from the experimental
work done so far by this commission, or by others so far as is
known to us, in the application of the cross-breaking and crushing
tests to paving brick, it is not possible to show any close relation-
ship between the qualities necessary for a good paving material
and high structural strength as indicated by either of these tests ”’.

Effect of structure on wearing power of paving brick}
Recent experiments by Prof. Edward Orton jr on bricks made
from the same shale, but molded on different machines and burned

1 Clayworker, February and March 1897.

together in the same kiln, show that end-cut bricks possess a de-
cided superiority over side-cut bricks, and also show the marked

advantage of repressing end-cut and the disadvantage of repress-

ing side-cut bricks.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

Rattling tests made by Prof. Edward Orton jr om paving bricks

Description

Repressed.....
Plame Ve es

END-CUT BRICKS

Loss in pelent at the end
fo)

(ape EE >)
1000 revolu- 2009 revolu-

tions
Per cent

ese Achen en Stars 18.23
ea ae ea 21.05
Mares te eit 19.54

SIDE-CUT BRICKS

INeprEssedu aay Ar eed s MY DOSS TL
JEileiwa, 5 5.5 BE (22.73
Average of both......... 24.48

COATSE DAS See

Medium .

As regards the crushing test, experiments given below show

that, even with the same material, a wide range of results is ob-

DRY PRESSED BRICKS

tions

Per cent

26

35

25

28.
isis
On.

29

Oe
28.
27.

48
00

30
ous
32.

42
90

20

26

12

Average

modulus
of

rupture

Pounds

2 525
2 425
2 463

2 347
2 346
2 347

2 507
2 740
2 687
2 644

tained, depending on the method of preparing the surface.

Prof. I. O. Baker prepared a number as follows:

1 Grinding as nearly flat as possible on convex side of emery
stone and crushing between self-adjusting, parallel cast iron plates.
2 Removing the irregularities of surface and crushing between

blotting paper.

OEE NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

3 Removing the irregularities of surface and crushing between
straw boards.

4 Removing irregularities, coating with plaster of paris and
placing under slight pressure till set (12-24 hrs), and then
crushing.

5 Coating with plaster of paris which was afterward ground
down, on a sand paper disk, to the surface of the brick so as to
leave a minimum thickness with a perfectly flat surface, and then
crushing.

After a number of experiments no great difference was found
between the first three, but difficulties connected with the last
two rendered them worthless. With a uniform grade of brick
the first three methods gave 7000 to 9000 pounds as the crushing
strength of cubes. Some samples of the same lot of brick were
prepared on a rubbing bed at marble works, and the strength of
these carefully prepared cubes ranged from 16,000 to 21,000
pounds a square inch, showing that a very small difference in flat-
ness of surface makes a great difference in the apparent strength.

At a recent meeting of the National brick manufacturers asso-
ciation, Gomer Jones, city engineer of Geneva, N. Y., advocated
the following method for testing the resistance of paving brick to
abrasion.

A rattler of the usual type has the staves fitted with two longi-
tudinal pockets each, in which the bricks are inserted and held end
to end. These pockets are 3 inches deep, leaving about one inch of
brick protruding. ‘ When all the staves are in place, the interior
of the rattler is virtually solid brick lined. During rotation the
attack of the abrading material is at right angles to the length of
the brick, and confined to the surfaces and edges which are ex-
posed in actual use; there is sufficient space between the brick for
the escape of any dust or waste, and incidentally allowing the
abrading material free access to the unsupported edges of the-
brick under test, thus establishing the conditions of position and

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 753
line of wear produced when brick are laid with sand filler in the
street ”’.

The charge adopted by Mr Jones consists of 150 pounds of cast-
iron cubes, each $ inch each way, and weighing .87 of a pound.
The rattler is revolved 3000 times. Bricks which are considered
standard lose 5% of weight; these would be condemned if found
on the street.

Mr Jones analyzes the action of his rattler as follows. First, the
ascending side of the rattler carries up part of the charge of cubes,
imparting to them its velocity. When carried beyond the center
they are thrown toward the opposite side of the rattler chamber,
and therefore strike on the unprotected surface of the brick, chip-
ping the edges, cutting into the surface, and doing all that the calks
of a horse’s shoe can do. Second, as only part of the charge of
cubes can be carried upward by the ascending side of the rattler
chamber, the rest slide and roll over the surface of the brick at
the lowest point, grinding and wearing them away.

Thus we have:

1 Brick in position as in the street

2 Continual raining of iron cubes on the surface — analogous to
the shock of horses’ feet

3 Attrition and rolling wear as of wagons

4 Wear confined to the narrow surface of the brick — as in the
street

5 Uniform and standard abrading material

6 Like conditions for testing any material from fire clay to
shale i

7 Influences of change of form minimized

8 Weight, cross-section, form and structure estimated at true
value, as they are all reduced to surface and resisting quality of
material.

As only one edge is subjected to abrasion, it is possible to
multiply the loss of weight suffered by one brick by the number
required to lay a yard and thus ascertain the number of pounds

754. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of material that would be lost from a square yard of pavement laid
in the street.

Mr Jones gives the following test made at Geneva. 16 different
samples were at his disposal; in order to eliminate the weakest, he
put two of each kind of brick into the staves of the machine, with
the usual charge and number of revolutions. The result was that,
while the strongest material lost less than 3%, the weakest lost
7.35%. The wire-cut brick failed to develop as much strength
as the same material repressed. In one instance, the difference of
abrasion was as between 3.59% in the case of repressed brick and
6.26% for common wire-cut brick. The large fire clay blocks also
failed in comparison with the smaller repressed fire clay bricks.

Some of the comparative results reached by Mr Jones’s test were

as follows:
Ge
Sialle Glbloek aos! M.A. 2 ei a a aii os as ie omer tae 2.46%
Medina sandstone block.) 22.2 seein ee 3.61%
Panerclay block no: 2ieewyee saan nee re ae 3.2%
Hire telay sblock no. B2, 20a, ee Pe ener — 4.6%

The method adopted by Mr Jones is undoubtedly from all ap-
pearances very reasonable, but, in order to determine whether it
or the old method of testing the resistance of brick to abrasion.
is the better, it will be necessary to carry on a long series of parallel
tests on the same material, using both methods. Steps have already
been taken to do this, by the National brickmakers association.

More recently Prof. Talbot of the University of Illinois has
brought forth a third method of testing paving brick which differs
from the standard test of the National brickmakers association in
placing a certain number of bricks in the standard N. B. M. A.
rattler, along with cast iron shot of two sizes, the larger weighing
about 74 pounds, the smaller about 1 pound.

A committee lately appointed by the association referred to
above found that, while the Jones device gives more accordant or

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 755

uniform results for any given make of brick, and while it is dis-
tinetly more sensitive in indicating the softer grades of brick, the
device as now manufactured embodies objectionable features which
the committee think can be remedied. As between the present
standard N. B. M. A. test described above, and the Talbot standard
test, the committee found that the latter is much more sensitive in
selecting the soft brick, and also gives more uniform results than
the present standard..

The committee therefore recommended the abandoning of the
present N. B. M. A. test, and the adopting of the Talbot standard
test, which is to be carried out as follows:

1 All brick shall be thoroughly dried before testing in the rattler.

2 The present standard rattler, 28 inches in diameter, and 20 —
inches long, shall be retained. It is preferably made of steel plates
in place of cast iron, which peels and ultimately breaks under the
wearing action on the inside. ‘The rattler shall be run not less than
28 nor more than 30 revolutions a minute for 1800 revolutions.

3 The charge to be placed in the rattler shall consist of nine
paving blocks or 12 paving bricks together with 300 pounds of
shot made of ordinary machinery cast iron. ‘This shot shall be of
two sizes; the larger size to weigh about 74 pounds, and to be 24
inches square and 44 inches long, with slightly rounded edges; the
smaller sizes to be cubes, 14 inches on a side, with rounded edges.
Farther, the individual pieces of cast iron shall be replaced by
new ones when they have lost ~,of their original weight. One
fourth (75 pounds) of the short charge shall be always composed of
the large cast iron blocks, and three fourths (225 pounds) of the
small cast iron blocks.

New York paving brick industry
Most of the paving brick manufactured in this state are made
from shale. ‘The localities are as follows.
Cornmg. The Corning brick and terra cotta company manu-
fectures a paving brick from the Chemung shales. ‘The brick are

756 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

molded in auger side-cut machines and repressed. The shale from
this locality is mentioned in chapter on “ Shale”, p. 839.

Catskill. The works of the Eastern paving brick company rank
next in size to those at Syracuse. The material used is a mixture
of Hamilton shale and Quaternary clay, both of which are obtained
at Cairo. They are brought to the works by railroad. After
crushing and mixing, the bricks are molded in auger machines, and
burned either in rectangular down-draft kilns or in a continuous
one built according to the design of Mr Haight, superintendent at
the factory.

A view of this kiln, which is in successful operation, is shown
in pl. 45.

Hornellsville. The Preston brick co. manufactures brick from
Chemung shale. The quarries are located on the Erie railroad
about one mile from Hornellsville. The bricks are molded in a
side-cut auger machine, but are not repressed. They are dried in
tunnels and burned in circular down-draft kilns. (pl. 44)

The material is described under “ Shale”, p. 839.

Newfield. The description of this plant is given on p. 728.
The paving brick are anger side-cut ones, and are repressed either
in hand or steam power represses.

Jamestown. The Jamestown shale paving brick company at
this place makes both end-cut and side-cut paving brick. The
product is usually repressed, dried in tunnels and burned in down-
draft kilns. One form used at this works is divided longitudinally
by a brick wall into two compartments. A view of the works is
shown in pl. 63.

Syracuse. The New York paving brick company at Geddes,
near Syracuse, is the only one in the state that uses clay alone.
The material is brought by canal from Threeriver Point on the
Oswego river, 10 miles northeast of Syracuse. The clay deposit
is said to be 85 feet thick. It is a soft gritty clay of moderate
plasticity and great stickiness.

a TT cee ee a

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» face page

7

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(

H. Ries photo.

Plate 65

View of works and yard N. Y. brick & paving co., Syracuse.

Do face page TAT.

ee

CLAYS OF NEW YORK (0x6

Experiments made with a sample of it showed that 28% of water
was needed to work up the air-dried material, but in actual practice
the clay is so moist when it reaches the factory that little water has
to be mixed with it. The air shrinkage is 5%. At incipient fusion,
which oceurs at cone .05, the total shrinkage is 7%. Vitrification
occurs at cone 1 with 11% shrinkage; this agreeing quite closely
with the amount that takes place in the manufacture of the brick.
At cone 3 the clay became viscous.

The tensile strength of the air-dried briquettes ranges from 60
to 70 pounds a square inch. The clay contains .55% of soluble
salts. As the bricks are burned to vitrification these do not produce
any harmful results.

The bricks are molded either in a Penfield soft mud machine
or in a stiff mud plunger machine, in which case they are re-
pressed. The works are equipped with a large number of drying
tunnels, and both rectangular and circular kilns of the down-draft

type.
Samples of the product tested from time to time show a high

crushing strength and very low absorption. .
Many of the streets in Syracuse are paved with brick from this

factory. They have also been used at other places.

758 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

TERRA COTTA

General properties

The increasing tendency of architects to place considerable adorn-
ment on the exterior of buildings has led to the extensive adoption
of terra cotta as a cheap substitute for stone.

The advantages ascribed to it are
Durability
Cheapness
Permanent color
Resistance to fire
Lightness and strength.

The term terra cotta is usually applied to those ornamental clay
products for structural work which are more than 8 inches square.
If the pieces are under this size they are called ornamental brick.

Terra cotta objects should be burned to an even color, the pieces
should be of regular outline and not show signs of warping, neither
should they discolor superficially. The hardness should be above
6 in the scale, that is, it should resist scratching with a knife.

Terra cotta is seldom vitrified, but the slip covering the surface
generally forms an impervious coating, and also serves to give the
desired color to the ware.

At first the forms produced in terra cotta were comparatively
simple, but improvements in methods and experience have greatly
extended the possibilities of the material. Among the more re-
cent uses is to be mentioned its employment in columns and balus-
trades.

In the manufacture of balustrades the solids and voids should be
made in the proper proportions to prevent warping and cracking
of the ware in burning.

The strength of terra cotta brackets has been well shown by the
following experiments:1

1 An important and instructive series of articles on ‘‘ Terra cotta in archi- ~
tecture’, by T. Cusack, has appeared in the Brickbuilder. 1898. p. 7, 55, 98,
142, 185, 230.

see

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To face page 759

Plate 66

MARBLE

LIMESTONE

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T. Cusack photo.

Cubes of building stone and their color equivalents in terra cotta, taken before they were subjected to a fire test and cooling test.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 759

A cornice modillion made by the Northwestern terra cotta co.
was braced on a firm support, in a horizontal position, the portion
which would project beyond the wall being free of course. At the
wall line this modillion was 114 inches high, 8 inches wide on its
face, and projected 2 feet. It carried a weight of more than 2
tons without breaking.

A smaller modillion made by the New York architectural terra
cotta company was similarly tested. It was 54 inches high, 6
inches wide at wall line and had a projection of 14 inches. Allow-
ing the same thickness of shell (for these modillions are hollow),
the second would have about half the sectional area, but more than
half the projection of the first. It was loaded in a similar manner,
and finally broke at the wall line under a weight of 2650 pounds.
Another bracket made in the same mold was loaded with 2400
pounds and sustained this weight without breaking. <A shghtly
larger bracket made from a different clay was loaded with 3200
pounds of pig iron without yielding.

The relative resistance of terra cotta and stone to fire was re-
cently tested in an interesting manner. Cubes of granite, sand-
stone, limestone and marble, and terra cotta cubes of corresponding
color were taken; all eight were placed in the hottest portion of
the kiln. When thoroughly heated they were withdrawn, and
the stone cubes allowed to cool slightly and then immersed in
water, while those of terra cotta were plunged directly into water."
_, The result is here given.

Granite Cracked, and melted superficially
Sandstone Crumbled. ;

Limestone and marble Calcined

Terra cotta Intact; two very slightly cracked

Terra cotta clays
Staten Island. The clays mined for this purpose in the pits of
B. Kreischer’s Sons have been mentioned under fire clays.
In addition to that clay, much is also quarried by T. Ryan near
Roseville. This is a sandy, somewhat ferruginous clay, and is

1T. Cusack, Brickbwilder, Jan. 1899. p. 14.

760 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

one of those used by the New York architectural terra cotta co.
It possesses the advantages of being very plastic, burning to a
deep red, with a very dense body at a comparatively low tempera-
ture. It took 33.70% of water to work it up. The air shrinkage
was 6%, and at .06, 9.5%. Incipient vitrification began at .03,
with 12% shrinkage; complete vitrification was reached at 4.
Viscosity at 6. The percentage of soluble salts contained in the
clay was .25%. The tensile strength showed a minimum of 75
pounds and a maximum of 90 to the square inch. The clay slakes
quite rapidly in water.

Its composition is

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Glens Falls. Two varieties of clay occur here in the pits of the
Glens Falls terra cotta co., the upper being red, and the lower
bluish gray. The composition is indicated by the following

analyses.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 761

The red owes its color to the higher state of oxidation of the
iron; the lower percentage of lime is due probably to its having
been leached out of the red clay by percolating surface waters.

Him Point, L. I. This clay was used for a time by the New
York architectural terra cotta co., and also for stoneware, under
which head it is described. :

Terra cotta manufacture

Tt rarely happens that terra cotta is made from one clay, it
being usually found necessary to mix several different ones to get
the best results. Im addition to this a certain amount of sand or
ground brick is added to prevent excessive shrinkage. :

The clay and fire brick are ground in a dry pan; and the mixing
is done in a pug mill. The clay is then stored in bins till used;
and before the clay is sent up to the molding room it is put through
another pugging.

A model is first made of every object to be constructed. For
simple forms of straight outline this can be done with the aid of
a templet. Thus, if a cornice is to be modeled, the ground form
of the piece is constructed by putting together several slabs of
plaster of paris; over these a mass of soft plaster is poured and
the templet is then run along the surface, the pattern of it being
the same as the profile of the cornice. Jn the case of complicated
or elaborate forms, the model has to be molded entirely or in part
by hand, requiring the services of a skilled modeler. When the
straight edge and elaborated center of a panel or similar piece
are desired, the latter is modeled, while the former is obtained by
means of a templet.

The model completed, a mold of plaster is next made from it.
This is made of several parts, which are held together by an iron
band, tightened with a wooden wedge. In filling the mold the
soft, plastic clay is forced into all the corners, till it forms a layer
about 2 inches thick all over the interior. The mold is allowed
to stand for a short time, while the clay dries sufficiently to per-
mit the parts of the mold to be lifted off, when the edges of the

762 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

object are trimmed off by means of a knife. Large objects such
as a statue or column have to be molded in several pieces, a sepa-
rate mold being required for each. Indeed extreme care has to
be exercised not to make single pieces which are too large or too
complicated, otherwise they would warp and crack in drying and
burning.

Drying of the wares needs to proceed with great slowness, and
in the case of larger pieces has even to be retarded by keeping
them covered with a damp cloth. The drying process is carried
on in warm rooms; where, in some terra cotta factories, coils of
steam pipe are laid under the floor. The shrinkage of terra cotta
in burning and drying is commonly about ~g-

Much terra cotta is covered either with a soft dull enamel, or
glaze. This is commonly applied by dipping the green ware into
the glazing liquid, or it is put on by spraying. (pl. 77.)

In the burning of the ware, simple forms can be piled on one
another in the kiln, but larger and more complicated pieces have
to be set in between slabs of firebrick, to shield them from any
pressure during the burning. Both coal and oil are used as fuel,
the latter having met with success at the works of the New York
architectural terra cotta co.

The color of terra cotta is either that of the body or is imparted
by a thin coating of slip. The slipping of terra cotta is extensively
practised, the advantages being that it makes the color of the clay
when burned immaterial, since the color of the object is given by
the slip coating.

According to the composition of the slip, the surface is dull,
enameled or glazed. ‘The composition of the coating must be such
of course that the coefficient of expansion of the body and of the
coating is the same, otherwise a crazing of the surface is sure to
ensue.

The temperature reached in the burning of terra cotta depends
on the refractoriness of the clay. For calcareous clays the tem-
perature seldom exceeds 2000° F., but when semi-fire clays are

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 763

employed, 2200° or 2300° F. are not infrequently attained. Even
in such cases, not all the clays of the mixture are able to resist
the latter temperature; in such cases those whose fusibility is
below this point serve as the bond for the body, while the more
refractory ingredients tend to preserve the form of the ware.

At the present day the manufacture of terra cotta has reached
so high a degree of perfection that the manufacturer who is thor-
oughly familiar with the behavior of his clays in burning is able
to produce pieces of exactly the desired size, and of regular shape,
which in their complete condition fit more or less perfectly to-
gether. At the same time however a little trimming of the edges
has to be done at times; therefore the burned ware is taken fron
the kiln to the fittmg room, where the different portions of thi
design are placed together in their proper relation, in order t
make sure that they fit as perfectly as possible.

Terra cotta manufacturers are constantly endeavoring to pro-
duce new designs and colors; while the handsome buildings of
many cities attest their success. It is a common custom now to
construct the first and perhaps the second story of a building of
stone, and the succeeding stories of brick with terra cotta decora-
tion; it therefore becomes necessary to see that the color of the
terra cotta harmonizes with that of the other materials used.
Terra cotta has thus come to be one of the most useful and durable
of modern building materials; yet its use has become so wide
spread that at times there seems to be danger of its being carried
to an excess by some of its more enthusiastic advocates. In its
place terra cotta has no equal, and if properly used will steadily
grow in public favor.

New York terra cotta mdustry
The firms at present engaged in the manufacture of terra cotta
in New York are
The New York architectural terra cotta co., Ravenswood, L. |
B. Kreischer’s Sons, Kreischerville
Glens Falls terra cotta co., Glens Falls
Corning brick and terra cotta co., Corning

764 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The clays used are obtained wholly or in part from this state.

The New York architectural terra cotta co. The factory is
located at Ravenswood, borough of Brooklyn, and is the largest
in the state. There are eight kilns. The product includes all
kinds of architectural terra cotta, made in many different colors,
either with plain or speckled surface.

The clays are obtained in part from Staten Island, the balance
from New Jersey.

Among the many specimens of the company’s work may be men-
tioned the new Delmonico building at 44 st. and 5 av., Colonial
club, Fifth Avenue theater, all in New York city.

B. Kreischer’s Sons’ factory is at Kreischerville, on Staten —
Island. The clays used by them come largely from Staten Island,
while the product includes various colors of terra cotta. Much
gray and white ware has been made. ‘The terra cotta decoration
on Barnard college, at 120 st. and the boulevard, is one of the
products of this factory. (pl. 78)

Glens Falls terra cotta co. at Glens Falls, N. Y. The factory of
this firm has already been mentioned under the head of pressed
brick. ‘The same clays are used. The ware is either red or buff.

Corning brick and terra cotta co. While the chief products of
this factory are paving and building brick, some terra cotta is

produced.

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C. Kreischer photo.

Terra cotta vase made at the factory of B. Kreischer’s Sons, Kreischerville. Side view.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 765

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ROOFING TILE

Comparatively few roofing tile are made in New York state,
nevertheless most of the product is of superior quality, and bears
a national reputation.

Alfred center, New York. The works of the Celadon terra
cotta co. are established at this point 2 miles from Alfred Station.
The material used is a Chemung shale which is quarried along the
highway, about 1 mile from the works. The quarry is located
in a spur of the hill, and a practically inexhaustible supply of
material is in sight.

The roofing tile manufactured at this factory are of the inter-
locking type, and are made in a number of different shapes. The
color of the product is usually a rich shade of red; the body is
vitrified. The works of this company began active operations
about 1890; and since that time they have been gradually enlarging.

The clay as it comes from the bank is first thoroughly crushed,
in the dry pan, and passes from there to the pug mill, where it is
perfectly mixed with water, producing a homogeneous, well tem-
pered mass. ‘This tempered clay is charged into an auger machine;
and the bar of clay as it issues from the die is cut up into a num-
ber of slabs. The slabs are put into the tile-pressing machine,
where they are repressed in the form of roofing tile. The green
tile are loaded on the cars and run to the drying tunnel, after leav-
ing which they are set up ina kiln and burned. In placing them
in the kiln, they are set on edge, and protected from pressure by
means of fire brick slabs. The company has six kilns.

These tile weigh from 750 to 1300 or 1500 pounds a square, the
amount of tile required to cover a space 30 feet square, including
overlaps.

The product of this factory is to be seen on a number of build-
ings in various states, but, as examples of their work in New York
state may be mentioned the episcopal church at Ithaca, the high
school at Tarrytown, the Erie railroad depot at Jamestown, and the
Dairy building, Cornell university.

766. NEW YORK STATE MUSHUM
The Alfred clay co. While the chief product of this comp:

7

~oofing tile, but the only style thus far produced by them 1 ey
hingle tile, one of the peculiarities of which is that it is made
she dry press process. The tile is also of the interlocking ty

out differs in many respects from that made at Alfred center. —

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 767

SEWER PIPE
Clays used

The qualities of clay required for this purpose are in general
the same as those demanded for any ware with a vitrified body.
They should therefore be sufficiently plastic to permit molding
without cracking; a high tensile strength, while desirable, is not
absolutely necessary. Many clays used in the manufacture of
sewer pipe have a tensile strength as high as 125 or even 150
pounds a square inch, while on the other hand shales are used
whose tensile strength when ground to 30 mesh is not over
90 pounds a square inch. The clay should burn to a hard,
dense, impervious body; the amount of iron in such clays or shales
is usually sufficient to color it a red, or deep red. The drying
should be rapid, and the ware should not warp or crack in drying.
Owing to the thinness of the body, sewer pipe may be burned more
rapidly than paving brick.

An excess of fluxing impurities may render a clay so fusible that
in burning it softens and loses shape. It is a very common prac-
tice to use a mixture of clays, the one being fusible to form a bond
in burning, the other more refractory to preserve the shape of the
‘ware.

Sewer pipe are usually glazed by means of salt, thrown into the
fireplaces when the temperature of the kiln is at its highest, the
vapors, passing through the kiln and uniting with the silica and
the alumina of the clay, forming a glaze over the surface of the
ware. The following is the reaction which occurs:

NaCl-+H,O—HCl+Na OH.

Na OH+nSiO—NaO-+nSi0,H,0.

Glazing requires one to two hours; some manufacturers add
manganese to the salt in order to produce a glaze of the proper
color. An excess of silica in the clay seems to be detrimental to
the formation of a good glaze.

768 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Manufacture of sewer pipe

If a shale or very hard clay is used the material is first ground
in a dry pan, after which, or directly, if soft clay is used, the
material is put into the wet pan, or chaser mill, either of which in
a few minutes tempers a charge of clay ina thorough manner. ‘This
method of tempering is far more thorough and quicker than the
work of a pug mill, though requiring more power.

The tempered clay is usually conveyed to the upper floor of the
factory by means of bucket elevators, where it is delivered to the
sewer pipe press. ‘This press consists of two cylinders, an upper
steam cylinder and a lower clay cylinder, the ratio of their diam-
eters being most often as 38 to 1. The steam cylinder has a diameter
of about 40 inches; the piston of the steam cylinder is moved both
upward and downward.

The clay cylinder is filled with clay; and the piston then forced —
downward by the piston of the steam cylinder above, the pis-
ton rod of the two being continuous. ‘This forces the clay out .
through a specially constructed die at the lower end of the clay
cylinder. Inside of the cylinder at its lower end is the bell, which
regulates the internal dimension of the pipe. ‘The clay pipe issues
from the press till of sufficient length, when the machine is stopped,
and the pipe cut off, and removed to the drying floor. The cutting
off of the clay pipe takes place close to the mouth of the die either
by means of a wire or an automatic knife edge set within the die.

The drying of the pipe is often done on slatted floors, or at other
times on solid ones, in steam-heated rooms. ‘The small diameter
pipe can be dried comparatively fast, but the large ones must be
dried very slowly.

Sewer pipe are usuaiy burned in down-draft kilns, from 16 te
25 feet in diameter. (pl. 97) ‘The pipes are set on one another,
and when they are of several sizes can be nested.

Sewer pipe should be free from blisters, cracks and other defects,
and should be straight.

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H. Ries photo.

Circular down draft kiln, J. Lyth & Sons, Angola.

A

Plate 98 To face page 768

Circular down draft kiln for burning sewer pipe and drain tiles. J. Lyth & Sons,
Angola.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 769

Elbows and Y’s are made by molding the clays in plaster molds;
or in the ease of Y’s and T’s, straight pieces of pipe are sometimes
trimmed to fit together in the desired shape and the parts cemented
by slip. Such complicated pieces need to be dried more slowly.

Sewer pipe are made from 2 to 23 feet in length; the diameter
ranges from 38 to 30 inches. .

New York sewer pipe industry
Angola. John Lyth & Sons. The works are situated along the
Lake Shore railroad some few hundred feet southwest of the sta-
tion. The material used is the Portage shale, of a gray color and
containing streaks of bituminous matter. It is mined about 200
feet east of the factory. A small blast serves to loosen a large
quantity of it. A part of the bank is roofed over to protect the
workmen in winter. Cars drawn by horses convey the shale to
the dry pans, where it is ground to a fine powder and then farther
ground with the addition of water in a wet pan. The tempered
material is carried in a bucket ladder to the upper floor of the
building, where it is fed into the sewer pipe press. ,
The composition of the shale used at Angola is

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At the present time hollow brick and terra cotta lumber form
the chief product of the factory.

Rochester. Otis & Gorsline use a mixture of New Jersey fire
clay and Quaternary clay obtained from Chili, near Rochester.
The method of manufacture followed by them is very similar to
that at Angola. Rectangular kilns are however used for burning,
which takes about one week.

770 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Sewer pipe are also manufactured at Albany and Troy but from

New Jersey clays. :
Drain tile

A clay that is capable of making good building brick will
usually make a good drain tile. That is to say, a plastic clay
and one that will burn to a tough product. Unlike bricks, tile
may be somewhat porous in its character. It is of importance
that the clay should be thoroughly tempered before molding.
The latter is, in most instances, done with some form of stiff mud
machine, the clay being forced out through a die of desired pat-
tern; the cylinder of clay as it issues from the machine is cut
up into desired lengths. Drying is sometimes done on pallets
such as are used for common brick, or it may be done under in-
closed sheds. The drain tile should be thoroughly dry before
being set in the kiln. Burning is done in ordinary scove-kilns,
clamps or down-draft kilns. The smaller tile are set in the lower
portions of the kiln and around the sides, while the larger ones
are set in the center. Very often when several sizes are burned
at the same time they are nested, the smaller ones being set within
the larger.

The dimensions of cylindric tile usually run:

Diameter Length Weight by piece
2 inches 13 inches 3% pounds
3 cc cc & 6 “

4 cc é< 1s 9 6c
5 GG 94. cc 18 c
6 (c i 66 94 6c
8 6c & 6 30 6c

The styles of drain tile made are as follows:

Horseshoe tile, having cross-section shape of a horseshoe

Sole tile, cylindrical with a flat base

Pipe tile, plain cylinder

Flange tile, like the preceding but with the flange at one end

CLAYS OF NEW YORK eal:

It is considered by many that the best form of tile is the sole
tile with an egg-shaped section having the smallest diameter across
the bottom, which keeps the water collected in the smallest possible
space and secures a good current to carry off the sediment. The
horseshoe tile is objected to, as it is liable to break from the
lateral pressure of the soil. In Westchester co. glazed sewer
pipe are generally used for draining the soil, but it is doubtful
if there is any special advantage to warrant the use of this more
expensive material. In size the tiles range from 2 to 12 inches
in diameter and 1 to 2 feet in length. They are laid at varying
distances below the surface, according to the depth the ground is to
be drained. A drain is said to draw water from the soil on either
side for a distance of from 30 to 100 feet, according to depth of
drain and character of soil.

The following firms in this state are making drain tile.

Albany, Albany co. The New York state drain tile works are
large producers. The drain tile are made in numerous sizes.
Hudson river clay is used. Front brick are manufactured.

Chittenango, Madison co. Central N. Y. drain tile and brick
co. Only tile manufactured at present. The plant is situated
about 1 mile from the New York Central railroad, and three
quarters of a mile from the West Shore railroad, a few rods south
of the Erie canal. The clay bed lies at the foot of the hill. There
is no stripping, and sand underlies the clay. The tiles are made
with horse power machinery, dried under sheds and burned in
down-draft kilns. .

Allenshill, Ontario co. B.G. Abbey’s are the only works here.
Few brick have been manufactured for several years, as drain tile
is the chief production. After stripping a few inches of soil
the clay is mixed from top to bottom of the bank for use. The
bank is 20 to 25 feet in hight, and the clay is blue in color, be-
coming reddish gray near the surface. A small amount of coal
dust is added to the clay. The tiles are made of various sizes.

East Bethany, Genesee co. 5B. F. Peck manufactures brick and

drain tile. The clay deposit worked is a portion of a strip 1 to

on

TED NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

2 miles in width, extending east and west across Genesee co.,
a few miles north of its southern boundary. ‘The clay is usually
covered with a thin layer of clayey loam. Mr Peck has about
50 acres of clay of sufficient quality for making bricks and tile.
It averages about 4 feet in thickness. The upper portion when
dry is nearly white, but becomes blue with the depth, and below
4 feet is very much so. It is also tough, coming up in hard
flakes of a stony nature. Below this it passes into the shale, hard
enough to resist the pick but crumbling on exposure. ‘The last-
mentioned rock is said to contain calcareous layers, varying in
thickness from 1 to 6 inches. About 250,000 feet of drain-tile-
is annually made for local use. - The clay burns to a nice red in
the drain tile, deepening to brown when burned harder. ‘The
machinery is run by steam power.

Owasco, Cayuga co. A. Lester’s clay bank and brick yard are
located in the north end of Owasco village on the bank of Owasco
creek. The clay deposit has an area of about 9 acres and is from
10 to 15 feet in thickness. Gravel overlies the clay in places.
Soak pits are used for tempering, and a Penfield plunger machine
for molding. The tiles are dried in an open shed and burnt in
scove-kilns. Drain tile is the chief production but a few bricks
are made. ‘The color of the product is white.

Other manufacturers of drain tile, whose works have been al-
ready mentioned in the detailed account of brick yards, are:

William Davenport, Fonda

C. Stephens, South Bay

Rochester brick and tile manufacturing co., Rochester
A. Mosell, Lockport

James Sigler, Clarkson

J. E. Mecusker.& Son, Jamestown

B. G. Abbey, Allenshill

J. B. Lowe, Bigflats

P. Hayne, Goshen

Clark & Sons, Union Springs

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK ies

HOLLOW BRICK, TERRA COTTA LUMBER, FIRE-

PROOFING.

The first term is generally applied to large hollow bricks of
more or less rectangular shape, having cross partitions. They are
made either of brick clay or semi-fire clay, the latter being the
better if protection against fire is desired. The term terra cotta
lumber is specially applied to bricks of this class made of a mix-
ture of clay and sawdust, so that in burning the sawdust burns
out, leaving the body of the ware porous.

The shape of these bricks is quite variable, and can best be
judged by reference to plate 103. They are used for the construc-
tion of floor arches, partitions, flue lnings, and for wrapping
around steel beams and girders. ‘They are also used at times as
foundation blocks in buildings, in which case, the brick are salt
glazed to prevent absorption, if the body of it is not vitrified.
One of the purposes of these bricks is to combine lightness and
strength, in addition the hollow spaces serve as nonconductors
of heat. |

When used for fireproofing purposes, the product should be
such that it will resist any heat to which it might be exposed in
case of fire, and when heated it should be able to withstand a
stream of cold water without splitting off or cracking. It is for
the latter reason that hollow bricks used for fireproofing should

be made from a semi-fire clay, and should not be vitrified.

_ Hollow brick are manufactured at a number of places in New
York state; the material used is in some cases shale, in other cases
clay. They are molded in the same kind of press as sewer pipe.
Reference to plate 102 will show the style of die employed.

“I
~T
HS

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

FLOOR TILE

Tiles made of burned clay are now used to a large extent for
flooring as a substitute for marble and slate, for the reason that they
are often more durable, wear more evenly, are harder, and can be
made in a greater variety of colors and shapes.

While floor tiles are made in this state, in the city of Brooklyn,
yet most of the materials used in their manufacture are obtained
from other states. ;

In floor tile of a solid color, the tint extends through the tile
from the face to the back. In “ encaustic tile” the pattern or face
color is only about 3’; of an inch thick, while the rest of the tile is
made of a different kind of clay.

Floor tile are made by the dry press process, and, like dry press
brick, are exposed at times to the danger which accompanies this
method of molding, viz cracking of the green tile with the ex-
pansion of the imprisoned air. When properly pressed, this does
not happen.

It is highly essential that the composition of the body should
be such that the ware will both dry and burn without cracking or
warping. The temperature attained in the burning of these tile
depends naturally on the nature of the clay, but it often reaches the
melting: point of feldspar, as this material is used to a large extent
to aid in the vitrification of the body.

Tiles are open to the same trouble from efflorescence, due to the
presence of soluble salts in the clay, as other clay products, and the
trouble has to be corrected in the customary manner with barium.

Another method of preventing the formation of these coatings.
on the surface, is to coat the face of the tile with petroleum or tar
so that the evaporation in drying can take place only from the back
of the tile. (Langenbeck’s Chemistry of pottery, p. 154) In the
firing, this coating of oil or other material burns off, without having

— a a.) ee

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nen

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 775

done any harm. The soluble salts may also get into the clay from
some of the materials used to color the tile artificially, umber, for
example, being seldom free from sulfate of lime.

Floor tile should be burned to a condition of great density, in
order that they may not absorb water, nor permit the entrance of
dirt into their pores, rendering their cleaning more difficult.

Langenbeck (Chemistry of pottery, p. 156) gives the following
percentages of water absorbed by floor tile of different colors.

Water absorption of floor tile

Color of the clay Extremes Averages
nS) ba) Gia eaamanentn ae ada ee nokta Ken Pa 1.5— 9.1 5.8
BDH ECs CPR ore RO pea DRE NER esti 1.9— 7.2 4.6
iio home ype et da ste sins aca ts Resale OT S50 yD oS
IDindic Fane are Nee ar e R eae (OG) Ale) eae
Whocwlahe mere ate Le 0.0— 7.4 4.8
TRS Mas rns ena.) IT Rasp ae eo 1.5— 8.4 6.0
Male pa Meare ber ig NC TN ANA = Odi f <D
Seiya. A Meal apertures) nt ets tala Os Tina bey) Sasi 2 8.3

In the manufacture of encaustic tile, the clay that is to form the
surface of the tile and give the pattern is charged into the mold
first, while the clay that makes up the body is then put in on top
and the whole subjected to pressure in the machine. The molds
can be filled by machinery when the color of the tile is solid.

With encaustic tile the molds have to be filled by hand. "Where
the pattern is made up of clays of several different colors, a frame-
work of brass strips, so arranged as to mark the boundaries of each
color is first set into the mold, thus dividing it up into cells. Into
each of these the color is charged by means of a small hand scoop,
till every cell is filled with the color whose boundaries it incloses.
The framework is then withdrawn from the mold, and the latter
filled up to the top with the clay that forms the body of the tile.

It is essential that the clay forming the face and that which
serves as the backing should have the same expansion, otherwise

776 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

they would separate in burning; furthermore the density in the
burned condition should be the same.

Both solid and encaustic tiles are made in many different shapes
and colors, and the former specially are capable of being laid in a

great variety of patterns.

CLAYS OF NEW YORE Hea

DECORATIVE TILE

While many of the tile mentioned under the previous head could
be classed under this one, at the same time it applies more directly
to those tile which are not only glazed, but also often ornamented
with raised designs. They are used to a large degree for wains-
cotting, mantels, soda water fountains, etc.

There is but one factory in this state engaged in the manu-
facture of glazed tile; that is the Tarrytown porcelain tile co.’s at
Tarrytown.

Glazed tile are made by the dry press process. The color of the
body is generally white. The relief of the surface is often very
prominent, and over this there is usually a heavy coating of colored
glaze, the variation of the glaze in depth being depended on to
bring out the decorative effect, as those portions over which the
glaze is thickest appear the darkest. Glazed tile should show the
same freedom from warping in drying and burning as those pre-
viously described; and in addition the glaze should be free from
cracks or crazes, pin holes and bubbles. ’

Sometimes colorless glazes are used, at others a tin glaze imparts
a white opaque covering to the tile. For other colors the oxids of
cobalt, nickel, copper, chromium, manganese, iron or uranium are
used according to the colors desired.

Methods of decoration.

These have already been referred to in part under the descrip-
tion of the methods of manufacture.

While the use of natural clays permits the production of a con-
siderable range of colors, nevertheless these fall far short of the
ambition of the ceramic chemist and the demands of the architect.

As the use of artificial coloring materials is often expensive, the
color decoration is applied to the surface of the ware only, instead
of allowing the design to extend through the body.

TKS NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Slip decoration. A slip of coloring material is sometimes applied
to the tile either in its burned or unburned condition. The latter
can be done in all cases but the former only in certain ones; its use
on dry pressed green tiles being among the impossibilities. Before
slipping the surface of the tile, it is cleaned with a brush or blower;
then it is dipped into the slip. The water of the latter is absorbed,
while the insoluble constituents remain as a thin coating on the
surface of the tile. If the glaze is to be extremely thin, it is some-
times sprayed on, as is done in the case of terra cotta. The slip is
best applied with a brush in the case of raised surfaces or where each
color occupies only a portion of the surface of the tile.

The usual method of decorating encaustic tile has already been
mentioned in connection with the molding process. A second
method is to pour the powdered clay for the different colors into
depressions stamped in the face of the tile; while a third consists
in painting the design by hand on the surface, or printing it on.
The painting can be done on either the glazed or unglazed tile,
while the printing can be impressed only on the burned material,
either under or over the glaze.

Painting can be done either on the green tile or on the burned
ware either before or after glazing.

Painting the green tile. The color is applied by means of a
brush, the portion to be colored being outlined by means of a lead
pencil if the tile is flat, but with a relief surface this is not neces-
sary. The design may also sometimes be painted by means of a
stencil.

If several colors are to be applied, great care should be taken that
the different ones shall not overlap. The color, instead of being
applied with a brush, is sometimes poured on. The painting on the
unburned glazed tile is done in a similar way.

If the design which is being painted on the tiles is very large,
it is essential that the tiles shall be placed together in order that
the lines of color on adjoining tiles may fit together.

Painting on the burned tile. This can be either over or under
glaze. In the latter case of course the elaze must be transparent;

ee ee

;

ee:

Pr

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 19

for this purpose, only hard fire or underglazed colors can be used
(D mmler Ziegel Fabrikation. p. 95). In producing definite and
distinct colors the composition of the glaze exerts as much effect as
the character of the coloring material. It is therefore highly
essential that the colors used shall always be of the same compo-
sition, be ground to the same degree of fineness, and burned at the ,
same temperature. If new glazes or colors are used, they should
first be tried experimentally. In the process of burning, the glaze
may or may not exert action on the underlying coloring material.
In some eases the color will dissolve in the glaze, in others it will
only become suspended in it, but in the latter cases the shades are
not often soft, and the change from one color to another will be
sudden. If on the other hand a color is easily soluble in the glaze,
there is the danger that it may run, causing the design to be
blurred. In order to prevent this, the coloring materials are gen-
erally combined with others, so that compounds of the spinel type
are obtained. fi

To prevent hard colors several devices are employed, such as
substituting for a portion of the coloring material a slight amount
of arsenic, or placing a little arsenic in the kiln. This method is
most advantageously employed when cobalt. colors are used.

In addition to underglazed painting, slip or engobe decoration is
used. This consists in applying white or colored clay paste to the
white or colored tile.

The body can also be colored by dipping it into hydrochloric or
acetic acid solution of the coloring metallic oxids. In this case the
product is to be once more subjected to a slight ignition.

In slip painting the slip is made of a mixture of the powdered
tile glaze and metallic oxid or underglaze colors. These decorated
pieces are dried and burned at the temperature of the melting of the
glaze. The whole is then covered with a thin coating of glaze and
burned once more. If the slip contains 50% or more of glazing ma-
terial, the second glazing operation is not necessary.

. Overglaze decoration requires strongly coloring oxids which are

mixed with some easily fused material, and rubbed together with

780 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

oil. Such colors are very susceptible and hence have to be burned
in mufiles. They are also strongly influenced by the degree of
temperature to which they are subjected, and hence the different
colors are often burned separately, those standing the highest tem-
perature being applied and burned first, and those most affected,
last. ‘This method of decoration requires repeated burning, but it
permits a variety and richness of color not attainable in under-
glazed work.

In preparing these colors, it is highly essential that they be
ground as finely as possible, and underglaze colors are generally
mixed with water before being applied, the porous body of the tile
absorbing the moisture and causing the color to cling to it. If this
does not happen, the color must be mixed with oil, in which case the
ware must be fired lightly at first, to burn it off.

At the present day, where a number of tile with the same
design are made, the design is applied mechanically. ‘This is
effected by a process of printing, the pattern being printed on paper
from a plate and this transferred to the tile. Usually but one
color at a time can be printed on the paper. But in more recent
~ years it has been found possible by a process of chromolithography
to print several colors on the ware at once.

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TSL a8ed sony OF, GOT 181d

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 781

FIRE CLAYS

Definition. Strictly speaking the term fire clay can be said to
include those clays which are able to withstand a high temperature.
Regarding the condition of the plasticity, the shrinkage in drying
and burning, the texture, and color, no fixed rules can be laid
down; for, except in refractoriness, fire clays show a wide variation
in physical characters.

Refractoriness. The degree of temperature which a fire clay
should be able to withstand without fusing has not been entirely
settled in this country, but in Europe, specially in Germany, a clay
is not considered refractory unless its fusing point les above
2700° F.

Nevertheless many of the clays denominated fire clays which
are marketed in this country are not up to this standard, while
others are far above it. ‘The color of fire clays varies, but they
are not infrequently colored bluish gray, gray or black by organic
matter. Some of those mined on Staten Island are pure white or
yellowish white, but at the same time they are highly refractory.

Fire clays are divisible into two groups, the plastic, and the non-
plastic or flint clays. The former sometimes occur in the form
of hard shales which become plastic on grinding and mixing with
water, whereas no amount of grinding renders the flint clays more
than very slightly plastic. The latter are not found in New York
state, but occur abundantly in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky,
Missouri and one or two other states.

In chemical composition the flint clays stand close to kaolinite,
and at times even exceed it in the percentage of alumina which
they contain. (See Kaolin, p. 503.) Flint clays vary in color,
being gray, black, brown or even yellowish. The iron contents
of the bed are generally collected in concretionary masses. In

789 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

many Pennsylvania mines there often occurs considerable iron
oxid, and iron carbonate, which are known as ore-balls.*’ The iron
oxid concretions are generally near the surface, while the iron car-
bonate is confined to the interior of the bank. In the miming of the
clay, these concretions have to be picked out. This collecting of the
iron by natural processes has therefore served to purify the clay
mass; where it has not taken place the material loses its value as
a refractory clay. Flint clays are hard, they lack plasticity, have
a conchoidal or shell-like fracture, and sometimes a very faint
luster. At times they occur in beds interstratified with other rocks,
or again they may occur as basin-shaped deposits, in which case
they seem to have been formed by chemical precipitation. —

The color of a fire clay is an indication of its refractoriness only
to a limited extent. Many fire clays are bluish in color, while
others are light gray or yellowish white. A given amount of iron
will color a sandy clay more strongly than a less silicious one; the
same is true of organic matter. The latter might even mask the
color of iron. The condition of oxidation of the iron would also
cause a difference in color, ferric compounds being red or yellow,
while ferrous ones may be blue or gray.

Whatever the color of the fire clay in its unburned condition, in
the fired state it is always buff, unless vitrified, when it may be-
come red.

The refractoriness of a fire clay is dependent almost entirely
on its chemical*composition. It can be said in general that the
more powerful fluxing impurities, such as ferric oxid, lime, alkalis,
and magnesia should not exceed 1% if possible. Many fire brick
manufacturers do not seem to recognize the fact that silica acts
as a flux at high temperatures.

The recent experiments of H. O. Hofman tend to indicate that
in the case of fire clays at least the size of grain has no effect on
the fusibility of the mass. The tests which he carried out are
described under “ Fusibility of clays” p. 563. |

1 Annual report Pa. state college. 1897. p. 52.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 783

The following figures indicate the fusibility of several well
known American fire clays, the fusion points being expressed in
terms of Seger’s cones. For comparative purposes the refractori-

ness of several standard European clays are given."

deitrerccherville N.Y. whitevelaye oo. fo fee ek 35+
Paetelouis, Mo, Christie raw clayees i020... ee 31-380
ecole. @Olv ie, 5. aes Moyes Ps oe. - eas) 82-31
ay Mineralpoint, O.. . ... 0. vaio i d. 20 06) ASI oe ee ane 33
pmeulinoavace, . Mid (hard) Wailers ee ila esc )e seh ls) 3 8 34-35
GeSayreville, Noid. jscd.ie CMe oS cc's bats Se See ae 35

Refractory clay products

Fire bricks. These are the commonest fire clay products, since
most of the refractory clay mined is used for this purpose. ‘They
are utilized in many different ways; consequently not only the
shape but also the quality varies. In certain cases the brick has
to withstand high temperature, in others corrosion by molten ma-
terials, while again in other situations resistance to abrasion is
required.

The bricks set in the upper part of a blast furnace must resist
abrasion, those in the boshes must resist corrosion, and the same
condition must be complied with in glass pots.

An idea of the number of shapes and sizes of fire brick manu-
factured can be gained from the statement that one large steel
company in this country uses 200 different ones.

Many fire bricks are used for lining coke ovens. For such ser-
vice it is highly essential that they be able to withstand sudden
changes of temperature and not crack when the coke oven is
watered down after burning. The degree of heat which such
brick are subjected to is not very high. None are made in New
York state.

1 No. 1 tested by the writer. The others by H. O. Hofman, Trans. Amer.
inst. min. eng. 25: 14.

784. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Other refractory articles are locomotive and steamboat tile, steel
runners, sleeves, nozzles, crucibles, stove linings, glass pots, gas
retorts, tuyeres, rolling-mill tiles, hexagon stove shapes, grate backs
and stove linings.

In addition to fire bricks made from clay alone, several other
types of refractory bricks are recognized.

Dinas brick are made of about 97% silica and 3% of some material
such as lime to bind the grains together.

Silica brick is practically another name for the above mentioned.

Ganister is a refractory silicious rock which has about enough
clayey matter to hold it together when wet.

Magnesite bricks are made of magnesite, the carbonate of mag-

nesia.

Manufacture of fire brick

Fire brick are commonly made of a mixture of clays, to which is
added a certain percentage of eround fire brick or burned clay,
and sometimes sand. If the clay is in the form of shale, it is
commonly ground in a dry pan, and the old brick which serve as
grog are treated in the same machine.

The different ingredients are often charged into a large pit, one
layer over another, and the whole mass thoroughly soaked with
water. When sufficiently soaked the mixture goes to some form
of pug mill, in which it becomes more thoroughly mixed.

In some works the clay is tempered in a wet pan, which for flint
clays has to be of more powerful construction than for shales.

The molding of fire brick is ordinarily done by hand in wooden
molds, though a minority of fire-brick manufacturers use stiff mud
or soft mud machines.

The machine-made fire brick meet objectors who say that their
density reduces too much their resistance to alternations of tempera-
ture, and the lamination imparted by stiff mud machines is also
brought forward as an objection; but, as fire brick clays are often
less plastic than many used for common or front brick, the lam-
inations are less pronounced.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 785

Fire brick when molded are commonly set on the floor to dry
for a few hours, after which they are repressed.

They are then loaded on cars and sent to the drying tunnels.
(See description under Drying of bricks, p. 668) The rapidity with
which the drying can be carried on depends on the porosity of the
clay, its plasticity and the size of the molded object.

The burning of fire brick is done either in up or down-draft

kilns, of either circular or rectangular form.

Behavior of refractory brick when heated

In some experiments recently made by J. D. Pennock? to deter-
mine the heat conductivity, expansion, and fusibility of refractory
brick, bricks made of Grecian magnesite, American magnesite,
silica brick, and coke oven tiling made in Belgium, were used.

In the charts and detailed figures given by Mr Pennock it is
shown that the Grecian magnesite conducts heat the most readily,
the American next, then the silica brick, while the coke oven brick
is the poorest conductor. The poor conductivity of the coke oven
brick is thought to lie in its purity and density.

Hapansion fests of fire brick

Bepansion peri inch
~ Inch Inch
Grecian magnesite . 6. ee. 0.07 eal!
es PR aE tS i ar 0M ale
PAMEKICAN MAONESHLC) 9 s/s ve sso « | 067 . 10
CRP NLRC ce alta al SO at .088
Coke oven tiling. ........ AOR ae 05 .076
cs of erect SPN ctcael amatan atic .05 s06ln,

The expansion test was made by supporting a core of the brick in
a horizontal position. One end was against a support and the
other against a movable lever. ‘The core was heated by means of
burners placed underneath.

1Trans. Amer. inst. min. eng., September, 1896. p. 263.

> o)

786 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Analyses of fire brick used in above tests

Taeenesite mantediey | PHeew q aaa
SiO sind ceo 6 |B EMOne POAWOME aGoRaS
He,O; 2A Os eae 12 6.64" 3.66 ones
Cais 8 eee 90, Rens aie eal so 27
MoO 1. i452 \0Heee 93 03) er soes0 .19 ii

The specific gravities and weight to the cubic foot were:

Specific gravity of fire brick
Specific Weight a

gravity cubic foot

Pounds

Greciampaeen.. \.. 6 Sager eae 3. D4 170.2
Americana). 2 Heine eae 3.44 160.9
Coke*oventiiling 4 22a eee 2.56 10929
Silica bree..." 2) 2 eee 9.54 ibelattae

Glass pot clays

Glass pots are made of a special grade of refractory clay, whose
necessary qualities are given below. While no glass pot clays are
found in this state, still many of the glass factories in New York
obtain the raw clays elsewhere and*make the pots at their works.
Great care has to be exercised in their manufacture; not only must
the clay be thoroughly weathered, but the molded pot must be
free from the slightest cracks and exhibit a homogeneous structure
throughout. .

Requisite characters. A clay, in order to be suitable for the
manutacture of glass pots or blocks for tank furnaces should con-
form to the following requirements:

1 Sufficient refractoriness to withstand the highest heat used
without changing form

2 Great plasticity, such that the addition of 50%-60% of grog
will not affect it appreciably

3 In burning, density at as low a temperature as possible

A clay is generally considered sufficiently refractory for making
glass pots if its fusion point is the same as that of cone 30. It

Plate 111 To face page 786

H. Ries photo.

Entrance to fire brick kiln which has been opened up at the end of the burning.
B. Kreischer’s Sons, Kreischerville.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 787

should also burn dense at so low a temperature that when grog is
added the heat will not need to be raised too much in getting the
‘required density. The addition of grog will raise this point to an
extent depending on the amount added. ‘Thus the temperature
of densification of a mixture given below is the same as cone 5,
while that of the clay is cone 1. If now a clay is used as binding
material which sinters at high temperature, the temperature at
which the mixture becomes dense will be so high as to make its
burning difficult.

In judging the tensile strength, the size of the grain of grog must
_ be considered, as also the relation in which the different sized
grains are mixed, but no fixed rule can be laid down for the last
point. In the grinding of grog both a powdery product and angu-
lar grains are obtained, and practice has shown that it is desirable
to add both of these to the clay, since, if the grains alone were
added, the mixture would show a tendency to crack.

The following mixture is one given by E. Cramer (Thonindus-
trie zeitung. 1897. p. 47): 100 parts by weight of clay and 120
parts grog. On a sieve of 10 meshes to the square cm the grog
left no residue, but 20% remained on a 60 mesh sieve, and 12% on
one of 120 mesh, 247 on a 900 mesh, 30% on a 5000 mesh, and 14%
went through.

The investigation of glass-pot clay is confined to a determination
of plasticity, shrinkage, temperature at which the clay becomes
dense, fusion point, and chemical composition.

Clays fulfilling all these conditions satisfactorily are rare in
the United States. “They are thus far known in only a few regions,
being found in Missouri and in small quantities in Ohio and Penn-
sylvania. In Europe they occur at several localities, in Germany,
Belgium, Bohemia, Russia, England, France, and Scotland.

Large quantities of the German and Belgian glass pot clays are
annually exported to the United States’.

1 For information concerning the properties of some of these European‘
glass pot clays, see Report on kaolins and fire clays of Europe. 19th ann. rep’t
U.S. geol. sur. pt 6.

788 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

New York fire clays

Though there are several fire brick factories in the state, all with
one exception obtain their clay from New Jersey. The New Jer-
sey fire clays, which are of Cretaceous age, extend in a belt across
New Jersey and over on Staten Island, and it is at the latter locality
that the refractory clays of New York state occur. The fire brick
factory of B. Kreischer’s Sons is located on the southwestern shore
of Staten Island at Kreischerville. They manufacture fire brick,
eupola brick and gas retorts. Most of the clay used is obtained
from Staten Island, and the rest from New Jersey. Many open-
ings have been made in the vicinity of Kreischerville. The deep-
est one made was opposite Kilmeyer’s hotel. The clay from it was
used for fire brick. It is tough, of a whitish color and mottled with
yellow, but its thickness is not very great and there is 15 or 20 feet
of stripping. This pit has been abandoned. Southwest of it is
another pit, but in this the clay, as first exposed, is of a more sandy
nature and overlain by about 4 feet of sand. It was bluish in
color and was chiefly used for mortar. In recent years, however,
this bank has been strongly drawn on and is now of considerable
size (pl. 105). The clay consists of an upper 4 feet of bluish
clay, stained here and there with iron, while under it is a less sandy
variety. Another opening was made near the shore some years
ago, known as the “ Wier bank’. The material obtained from it
was a stoneware clay, and in this pit the clay as exposed in 1892 was
10 feet thick, and is overlain by horizontally stratified fine sand.
Since then the bed has been worked out.

In the spring of 1897 a small pit was opened just north of the
old one opposite Kilmeyer’s hotel. The clay found in this opening
is white and extremely refractory. It is also sandy in places, so
that two grades are obtained known as no. 1 white, and sandy white.

The white clay when mixed with water gave a moderately plastic
and somewhat tough mass. 88% of water was necessary to temper it.

The air shrinkage was 10%; the air-dried briquettes had an aver-

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 789

age tensile strength of only 11 pounds to the square inch, with a
maximum of 14 pounds. In burning the total shrinkage up to cone
12 amounted to 18.7%; the color was whitish. At cone 34 in the
Deville furnace the clay showed no sign of fusion whatever, and
is therefore highly refractory.

A mechanical analysis yielded:

Wier menlosranee au. 1. sateen wrens crs es cs es 97.66
Dult wery «ne, samd, time camden.) 2. 2s 2,.00
99.66

The composition is:

SHC CRAs GAN p Men Nt chats n ae ates neta Madey enna S, 215: 47.40
JUSERTEBENED, BEES a hc ae eRe as © ico Oe ama 39.01
JE GSETG ORIG! Silk: 5 os ca ie ee ais oer tata wb
TSTEAO ER Pe eee ats Al GO ee era ecient fe, On a tr
Se oad CT eles eee eae Seimei ah) 2 Sac ea retort ais ails a" tr
PAU caries ty am Seer ge SIPC sho TOR RRR ate te
ENV Feui CIs tse oe a ee aE Wa (Cane erecta OPEN 14.10

Oya RNG a Agee i 08 cage ae Se 100.66

The rational composition is:.

@laygcmlstaae eur Pussy past cts) SW. wre Sian ake) xi neehee eek s 97.50
IEGIIGISS Ose ws: A Os ence yar PR On An ae

E 1.50
OU RAL ZAR ORR DMR Maat a cat elie tile ty OA

The sandy clay was more plastic, and required only 31% of water
to mix it up. The air shrinkage was less, being only 6.5%, and the
tensile strength was 20 pounds a square inch. At cone 9 the total
shrinkage was 15% and the color whitish. In the Deville furnace at
cone 34 the clay remained unaffected. )

790 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The mechanical analysis is:

Clay isubstance s.8 pian te 6 2°, | ae ee 92mo0
Site oh ak eee Ueno) od Sine eRe ee Le 2.30
Very line samira 1: 05 eae alee 80
ime san dessa eee 219s ee oe eee 4.60
NOO e205

A sample of the better grade fire clay from the present large
opening was likewise tested, as it represents a common type of clay
found on Staten Island.

This was far more plastic than the other two; it had a tensile
strength of 45 pounds a square inch. 380% of water gave a workable
mass, whose air shrinkage was 8.25%. When burned to cone 12
the color was yellowish white and the total shrinkage 17%.

The clay did not fuse at cone 30 in the Deville furnace; so that
it can be properly classed as a fire clay.

The mechanical analysis gave:

Cllansscubstanice' nt icc sek Nene... 5 Peay en een 70
Reb iad beta aA ania ama ck i SOM MBM TES SME ALAS oe if
Very aime candi nea oc setae sce ee &
Hen aN eyySt2 sao RRM eRe AeA) A cA aM cs ii ah citi 14

.
PY
’
t.
;

A i

a

4
r a4
Py ‘

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{(@) siesun{q 92} Ut

T6L 9SBd 9dBT OF,

I0J@M YIM ITS & 0} POXIW o1v SJUSIPSISUI OL, ‘SeIN}XIUL o1eMUSTVIVe 9}IGM puUe Ulejeo1od Suliedeid Joy A1SUIqOrIN

‘oJOYd soy

B q p)

GLE 931d

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 791
é

POTTERY

The term pottery is properly applied to such articles for domestic
or ornamental use as can be turned on a potter’s wheel. While this
was the original method of forming such wares, in the progress of
the art many other methods have been devised, which, in some
eases, have superseded the potter’s wheel, though this useful ma-
chine is still employed to a large extent.

Description of different grades

The more important grades of pottery which are recognized are
quite numerous.

Earthenware. This is the lowest grade of pottery, and is usually
made from medium or poorer grades of clay. The body is either
red or buff, and more or less porous. Earthenware vessels will not
hold liquids unless glazed, owing to their porous nature. The
common forms of earthenware are flower pots, crocks and jugs.

In recent years glazed or slipped earthenware for ornamental
application has found an extensive use.

Stoneware differs from earthenware only in degree, the former
being burned to vitrification, with the result that the body is im-
pervious to moisture. The color of the body is either red, buff or
bluish black, but this is frequently masked by a coating of salt glaze
or slip.

The burning and glazing are done in one operation; and if the
ware is coated with slip the latter is applied to the unburned clay.

The uses of stoneware are chiefly domestic, though much
ornamental pottery has a stoneware body; the Flemish ware so ex-
tensively imported to this country belongs to this class.

Stoneware is commonly made from refractory or semi-refractory
clays; the best results are often obtained by using a mixture of
them. The clays used should have sufficient plasticity to permit
their being molded without cracking. The tensile strength should

799 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

not be less than 125 pounds a square inch, though 150 is pref-
erable. The clay should not shrink excessively in burning, and
should give a vitrified body at not over 2100° F. if possible, for the
lower the temperature of vitrification the greater economy in fuel.
The clay should however be sufficiently refractory to hold its form
at the temperature required to melt the glaze, and not do more
itself than vitrify at that temperature. The fusible impurities in a
stoneware clay should be sufficiently high to cause vitrification.
Ferric oxid forms a desirable coloring ingredient, the same being
true of lime if not in excess of 2%-3%. Sulfur in any combination
is undesirable, as its escape at high temperatures causes blistering
of the ware. |

In mixing two clays, the one is generally used for supplying stiff-
ness to the body in burning, and the other, fluxing qualities.

For common earthenware, almost any plastic clay, one which is
not too coarse, suftices.

If the ware is to be glazed, the clay should be sufficiently re-
fractory, so that at the temperature required to melt the glaze, it
will not burn to more than incipient fusion.

Analyses of stoneware clays are given in the table at the end of
this report. In addition, are given here the average of 10 stoneware
clays now in use. (H. Orton jr. Clays of Ohio, Ohio geol. sur.
Wee Ue owls voy, 95) .

Clay base [0 02).0 citeitaal: Sonera ease ae 56.65
OE 1A(6 SEMPRE InN Narn AIR CRRL Ly 8 bh Ree jada ie 37.45
Phixes: 302 0 a a Se eer 4.44
Moisture 206 ee ae eee Bsa 7

100nat

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jae

Union porcelain works, Brooklyn.

Buhrstone mill for grinding quartz and feldspar.

H. Ries photo.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 793

Yellow ware and Rockingham ware. These differ from stoneware
in that the body is burned first, then glazed and burned again. It
agrees with stoneware in being made from natural clays, and with
white earthenware, or porcelain, in being burned twice.

In yellow ware the body is covered with a transparent, easily
fusible glaze, while in Rockingham ware the glaze is colored brown
or black by the addition of manganese.

C. C. ware, white granite. These are made of high grade clays,
but not the best obtainable, with other materials. The mixture
usually consists of kaolin to form the body, ball clay for plasticity,
silica to prevent excessive shrinkage, and feldspar to serve as a flux.

CG. CO. ware differs from china, or porcelain in the quality of the
- materials used, the clays employed having enough iron to give a
slight off color to the ware. Attempts are made to counteract this
by introducing coloring material into the glaze.

In white granite or ironstone china the best materials obtainable
are used, but the body is not burned to vitrification, and differs in
that respect from porcelain. In fact white granite bears the same
relation to porcelain that earthenware does to stoneware. A very
slight amount of iron will tend to produce a yellowish tint, which is
neutralized by adding a small amount of cobalt oxid, that Pe
a greenish hue far less noticeable.

The kaolins and sometimes the ball clays have to be ee by
a washing process; for the percentage of iron oxid which a kaolin
contains should be less than 1%. Even though the clay alone may
not show any off tint when burned, the presence of a coating of
glaze is sure to bring it out, if the iron is present. The kaolins used
in this country are obtained mostly from England, North Carolina,
and Georgia, while the ball clays come from New Jersey, Florida,
Kentucky and Missouri.

Quartz and feldspar are obtained from a number of localities,

some of them in New York.

794. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Porcelain

The same materials are used as in the manufacture of white
granite, but the proportions are usually different; the ware is
burned to vitrification, so that the body is transparent, and the
fracture of it would show a vitreous luster.

Porcelain which is fluxed by feldspar is spoken of as spar china.
It shows a slightly yellowish color by transmitted light, while
porcelain fluxed by calcined bones in part replacing the feldspar is
spoken of as bone china. It shows a bluish white color by trans-
mitted light.

The proportion of fluxes is greater in porcelain than in white
earthenware; but still, taking porcelains as a whole, there is a wide
range in their composition, as will be seen from the following
figures representing the range of the ingredients used in the manu-
facture of hard. porcelains. (Hecht. Dammer, Chem. Tech.
1 :773 and following )

Per cent
Clay substances ice merger oleae ee eee 40-66
(a) esta ey SE a 0) Ske A ee ea en 12-40
Beli spar jc i:225. trate eeedotey Ss ores ae ere rare Cans 15-30
Carbonate’ of lime (at times). 95.02.2025 Bit 6

The variation outside of these limits should be very small, for if
the clay substance gets below 40%, the refractoriness decreases con-
siderably, as does also the ability of the ware to withstand sudden
‘changes of temperature.

As excessive shrinkage in burning tends to cause cracking and
warping, one aim of ceramic chemists has been to produce bodies of
low shrinkage; and experiments have indicated that the use of
porcelain sherds ground up gives a much more homogeneous mass
than can be obtained by the use of quartz. (Chemiker zeitung.
1895. p. 89)

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 195

One mixture of this type is as follows:

Composition of porcelain mixture for the production of bodies of low

shrinkage
Parts by
weight
(ONSEN RICAN Lunn MRIS ES) Se 2s 120
aldspanyCNorwegianiir ers. sae. 6s = 85
NG les 76) 6) PS eae eer e020 3
LSI agra Mea 6! ia fy a eam 6 0) Ss a 60 to 70
PxOReelamMiesMeT GG... <item or 20 to 60

It has also been found that porcelains rich in fluxes are soft,
while those poor in these ingredients are hard; neither do the most
plastic masses always show the greatest shrinkage. The shrink-
age of Seger’s porcelain, which is rich in fluxes, occurs mostly in
drying, and the total linear shrinkage is 10%; it expands in firing
when a certain temperature is reached, owing to the high percent-
age (45%) of quartz which it contains. Plastic clays give a very
smooth surface and are difficult to dry, and are not adapted to the
manufacture of large pieces. A mixture poor in fluxes, with a
high shrinkage, can be very lean when it contains no sedimentary
clay but kaolin as the plastic element. Bodies of good plasticity,
but low in fluxes, are of comparatively recent introduction, and
are specially adapted to large objects and chemical stoneware.*
Owing to its high percentage of clay substance and low fluxes,
the mass acquires little translucency when burned at high tem-
peratures, but stands temperature changes very well.

Hecht has recently published the results of some rather detailed
investigations on the composition of porcelains and white earthen-
ware bodies poor in lime. It has generally been considered that
these two classes of ware vary in composition only between fixed
limits, and that the predominance of feldspar in the mixture was
generally confined to porcelain. ‘This, however, has proved to be
an error, and Hecht finds porcelains which are low in feldspar,
and earthenware bodies rich in it. The following examples are

given.”

1Chemiker zeitung. 1894. p. 821.
* Thonindustrie zeitung. 1897. no. 21, p. 714.

796 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Comparative compositions of porcelain and white earthenware

Japanese Wegeli porce- Belgian
porcelain lain mix- white earth-
mixture ture enware mixture
Per cent Per cent Per cent

Clay substance ase. 4--. . 49.44 81.37 58.56
Quarta i ee ORR ee 45.36 Dube - coOnoe
Heldsjoar (ayeveenaew en fer 4?. 5.20 13.10 11.08

HIN Gyteeil Wee aetmeannet rs Nts, 100.00 100.00 100.00

The conclusions are that the difference between porcelain and
white earthenware depends on the temperature at which the mate-
rial is burned, viz, to vitrification or incipient sintering, and not
on the composition.

Some porcelains are vitrified at a temperature of only 2400° F.
(Seger’s cone 9). Examples of this are Seger’s porcelain and
Copenhagen biscuit ware, whose rational compositions are as
follows:

Compositions of Seger’s porcelain and of Copenhagen biscuit ware
vitrifying at 2400° F.

Seger Copenhagen
Per cent Per cent
Clay sulspameey «he aetna Per aueiacaee: 25 32
Qiang ee ea Ay eel arae Co Nata 45 am
Peldspar sav) 2.0m ien ae a 30 68

These bodies when burned show a glassy, conchoidal fracture.
As the feldspar is that part of the porcelain which brings about
the vitrification, we must assume from the Japanese and Wegeli
porcelain mixtures, given above, that a much higher temperature -
is required to sinter them than the Seger and Copenhagen mixtures.

It is possible to find mixtures showing all grades of transition
in composition between white earthenware and porcelain.

As to the behavior of easily fusible white earthenware glazes
and porcelain glazes on these transitional members, Hecht finds

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK T9T

,

that a great number hold, without crazing, on bodies having the
following composition, whether burned in a hard porcelain fire
or moderate white earthenware fire:

Composition of bodies on which many earthenware and porcelain glazes
do not craze

Per cent
Sees aC lay SUStaumGCmmn emai lars ates. -l «<0 30
eee en Uarkz atid tela spaieede, sain. 2) wis +s 70

The degree of tenacity with which the glazes hold depends on
the temperature at which the biscuit and glazed ware are burned,
and to a greater or less extent on: the relative amounts of kaolin
and plastic Stoneware clay in the body.

The practical value of the above observations is that it points
toward much greater possibilities in underglaze decoration, for
while in the past such work could only be done under hard fire
glazes, we can now paint the porcelain with underglaze colors
hitherto used only for white earthenware and cover them with
easily fusible mufile glazes.

The effect of excessive grinding on the ingredients of a porcelain
mixture has recently been shown to be serious. (Sprechsaal.
1896. no. 29. p. 812) It was found that, when a mixture of
kaolin, quartz and feldspar was ground in a ball mill for 120
hours, the ware in burning became blistered and showed a finely
vesicular structure throughout. If on the other hand only the
quartz and feldspar were ground for 96 hours, and the kaolin
then added, the result was a strong, translucent porcelain of normal
color, free from blisters. The experiments suggest how porce-
lains which are only slightly transparent can be made more so.

Delft ware. This name was originally applied to a white ware
made at Delft in Holland, which was ornamented with blue de
signs representing Dutch scenery. It is extensively manufactured
at many localities at the present day, the body of the ware being
porcelain or white earthenware. ‘The articles which are usually
decorated under the glaze include clocks, vases, jardinieres, toilet
articles, etc.

798 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Belleek, or eggshell ware, is a high grade of porcelain of un-
usual thinness and delicacy. It was originally manufactured at
Belleek, Ireland, but its production there has nearly died out. The
manufacture of it in this country has been attended with more
or less success. The dull cream enamel of the surface bears some
resemblance to the Royal Worcester porcelain. Sometimes the
ware is finished with a transparent glaze showing the white color
of the body, the decoration being over the glaze. Belleek wares
are often formed by casting.

Electric supplies. This branch of the clay-working industry
is rapidly growing, and gives every indication of being perma-
nently successful. The supplies which have a vitrified body in-
clude insulators, cut-outs, fuse-boxes, push-buttons, etc. They are
manufactured in this state at Brooklyn and Syracuse and Victor.

Majolica. This is an earthenware decorated- in many colors,
which are applied to the ware in the glaze either by slipping or
with a brush. The ware is fired at a low heat, thereby permitting
the use of softer tints. The clays used for the body are often of
a low grade; the glaze is used to cover up a multitude of im-
perfections, but the ware is cheap and the bright tints of the deco-
ration are usually catching. On account of its cheapness com-
bined with its rather bright and attractive appearance it is fre
quently used by merchants to give away with samples of their ware.

Majolica was formerly manufactured in New York state, but
the factory has turned its attention to other and more profitable
lines of ware.

Parian ware is a term applied to white, unglazed porcelain,
with a dense body, which is considered to resemble closely Parian
marble. ‘This class of ware is used somewhat for the manufacture
‘of ornaments and busts, but has comparatively little sale in this
country. It was for a time made in Brooklyn.

Methods of manufacture
Certain steps in the manufacture of pottery are common to the
production of all grades of ware, but the higher the quality of the
product the more complicated usually the process.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 799

The different stages in the manufacture of pottery may be
grouped as follows:

Preparation... . 0st eieas pens
Weathering
( In chaser mills
é i Wet pans
PRCT oP 3 oe Seen one sills
| Tables
( Turning
VEO isa ieee eet's ssc, thin aa | donne
Casting
| Pressing
Drying :
Burning
Glazing
Decorating
Burning
Preparation

In some regions the clay is prepared in a preliminary way by
weathering, but this is not a very widespread custom.

Clays for common earthenware are seldom washed, but those
used in the manufacture of stoneware, specially of the higher
grades, are frequently prepared in this manner; those clays which
' are used for white earthenware and porcelain are nearly always
washed.

Clays are washed by one of two methods. With the first method,
the clay is thrown into large circular tubs filled with water, in which
it is stirred up by revolving arms and the clay lumps thereby dis-
integrated. By this treatment the fine kaolinite particles, as well
as very fine grains of mica, feldspar and quartz remain suspended
in the liquid, while the coarser grains settle on the bottom of the
tank. The water with the suspended clay is then drawn off to the
settling tanks.

A modification of this consists in the use of a large cylinder,
closed at both ends, which is set in a horizontal position, and con-

800 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

tains an axis with iron arms, their revolution serving to break up
the clay, which is charged through a hopper at the top. A cur-
rent of water passes through the cylinder and carries the fine clay
particles with it, while the coarse ones are left behind in the
machine. The speed of the current has to be regulated by experi-
ment, for if too much water is used coarse material will be washed
out of the cylinder, and conversely if the current is too slow the
clay will not yield a sufficient percentage of washed product. One
objection to this apparatus is that it has to be stopped from time
to time to remove the coarse sand from the machine.

The method most commonly used at the present day for washing
kaolin is in its general detail as follows: ;

As the kaolin comes from the mine it is generally discharged
into a log washer, a semicylindric trough, in which revolves a
horizontal axis, bearing short arms. The action of the arms breaks
up the kaolin more or less thoroughly, according to its density,
and facilitates the subsequent washing. The stream of water
directed into the log washer, sweeps the kaolin and most of the
sand into the washing trough, which is about 15 inches wide and
12 inches deep, but should be wider and deeper if the kaolin is
very sandy. The troughing is about 700 feet long, and to utilize
the space thoroughly it is broken up into sections (50 feet each
is a good length) these being arranged parallel, and connecting at
the ends, so that the water, with suspended clay, follows a zigzag
course. .

The troughing has a slight pitch, commonly about one inch
in 20 feet, but the amount depends on the kaolin, and whether the
contained sand is fine or coarse. If the kaolin is very fine, and
settles slowly, the pitch need not be so great, and vice versa. <A
large quantity of very coarse sand in the kaolin is a nuisance, as.
it clogs up the log washer and the upper end of the trough more
quickly, causing much labor to keep them clean. As it is, con-
siderable sand settles there, and, to keep the trough clear, sand
wheels are used. ‘The wheels are wooden, bearing a number of |

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 801

iron scoops on their periphery. As the wheels revolve the scoops
eatch up a portion of the sand which has settled in the trough, and,
as each scoop reaches the upper limit of its turn on the wheel, it,
by its inverted position, drops the sand outside the trough. ‘These
sand wheels are a help, but it is often necessary in addition to keep
a man shoveling the sand from the trough.

If the sand is finer it is not dropped so quickly, and, distributed
more evenly along the trough, does not clog it up so fast.

The zigzag arrangement of the troughing has been objected to
by some, as it produces irregularities in the current, causing the
sand to bank up in the corners, at the bends and at certain points
along the sides of the troughing. (EH. Hotop. Thonimdustrie zeit- -
ung. 1893) The effect is to narrow the channel, and consequently
increase the velocity of the current, thereby causing the fine sand
to be carried still farther toward the settling tank. This difficulty,
which is not often serious, has been obviated either by having the
troughing straight or by allowing the water and suspended clay
as they come from the log washer to pass through a section of
straight trough, and from this into another, of the same depth but
5 or 6 times the width, and divided by several longitudinal par-
titions. ‘The water and the clay then pass into a third section,
twice as wide as the second, and divided by twice the number of
longitudinal divisions. By this means the water moves only in a
straight course, but as it is being continually spread out over a
wider space it flows with an ever decreasing velocity.

By the time the water has reached the end of the troughing
nearly all the coarse grains have been dropped and the water is
ready to be led into the settling vats, but as a farther and necessary
precaution it is discharged on a screen of 100 meshes to the linear
inch, with the object of removing any coarse particles that might
remain, and also eliminating sticks and other bits of floating dirt.

Two kinds of screens can be used, the first stationary, the second
revolving. ‘The stationary screen is simply a frame covered with
a copper cloth and set at a slight angle. The water and suspended

802 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

kaolin fall on the screen, and pass through, otherwise they run off
and are lost. A slight improvement is, to have two or three
screens overlapping one another, so that whatever does not get
through the first will fall on the second. If the vegetable matter
and sticks are allowed to accumulate, they clog the screen, and
prevent the kaolin from running through; consequently stationary
screens must be closely watched.

The revolving screens are far better; for they are self-cleansing.
Such screens are barrel-shaped, and the water, with the kaolin in
suspension, is discharged into the interior and passes outward
through the sereen cloth.. As the screen revolves the dirt caught
is carried upward and finally drops; but, instead of falling down
on the other side of the screen, it falls on a board, which diverts it
out to the ground.

The settling tanks, into which the kaolin and the water are dis-
charged, may be and often are about 8 feet wide by 4 feet deep
and 50 or more feet long. As soon as one is filled the water is
diverted into another. The larger a tank the longer it will take
to fill it, and allow the kaolin to settle. Clays obtained in this
manner are expensive, particularly when the market takes the out-
put of washed kaolin as soon as it is ready. Small tanks have the
advantage of permitting the slip to dry more quickly, specially
when the layer of clay is not very thick; furthermore a small pit
takes less time to fill and empty. But one disadvantage urged
against a number of small tanks is that a thoroughly average prod-
uct is not obtained, owing to the thinness of the layer of settlings
and the small amount in each. In addition a series of small tanks
require considerable room. ‘The advantages asserted in the case
of large tanks are that the clay can be discharged into any one for
a considerable period, and, if the clay deposit varies in character,
the different grades get into one tank and a better average is
thereby obtained.

If the kaolin settles too slowly, alum is sometimes added to the
water to hasten the deposition. When the kaolin has settled,

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 803

most of the clear water is drawn off; the cream-like mass of kaolin
and water in the bottom of the vat is drawn off by means of slip
pumps and forced by these into the presses.

The presses consist simply of flat, iron or wooden frames be-
tween which are flat canvas bags. ‘These bags are connected by
nipples with a supply tube from the slip pumps, and by means of
the pressure from the pumps nearly all of the water is forced out of
the kaolin and through the canvas. When as much water as pos-
sible is squeezed out, the press is opened and the sheets of semi-
dry kaolin are taken out. It is then dried either on racks in the
open air or in a steam-heated room.

As for every ton of crude kaolin usually only about 2 or 1 of
a ton of washed kaolin is obtained, it is desirable to have the wash-
ing plant at the mines, to avoid the hauling of 60% to 70% of useless
sand which has to be washed out before the kaolin can be used or
even placed on the market.

Tenvpering

Chaser mill. This consists of a circular iron pan in which
revolves a frame bearing two heavy iron wheels, about 30 to 36
inches in diameter. As this frame revolves, the wheels, by means of
a gearing, travel from the center to the circumference of the pan
and then back. The clay is dumped into the pan, water added,
and by the action of the wheels, grinding and cutting it up, it is
ground and mixed in from one to two hours. The action of such a
machine is quite thorough, but requires’ considerable power to
operate it. It is sometimes used for stoneware clays.

Wet pans. The action of these has already been described,
under bricks. This machine is occasionally used in the preparation
of pottery clays, and is fully as efficient in its action as the pre-
ceding one, while it has the advantage of operating continuously
and also of requiring less power. The clay is also ground and mixed
much more quickly in a wet pan than in a chasing mill; and the
greater width of the wheels, and the presence of scrapers to throw
the clay under them, insures the thorough grinding of any lumps

804 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

b

which may be present. A wet pan will grind a charge of clay in
about 10 minutes.

Pug mills. Those used in pottery manufacture consist of an
upright rectangular box, in which revolves a vertical shaft, bearing
iron blades. The clay is charged at the top, and is slowly forced
downward to the opening at the bottom of the box, at the same
time going through a thorough mixing action.

Molding

Pottery is molded in four different ways, turning, jollying,
casting, and pressing.

The clay after coming from the presses, is first wedged, that is
a lump of the desired size is cut in two by a wire, the two halves:
united by bringing them down on the table with much force, the
piece cut again, the two halves once more united, and so on, the
object being to subject the clay to a kneading action, whereby all
the air bubbles are eliminated.

This operation is accomplished in many European factories by
a kneading machine, which consists of a circular table about 6 feet
in diameter, whose upper surface slopes outward. On this are two
conical rolls, 20 to 80 inches in diameter and about 8 inches wide.
These rolls have corrugated rims, and are attached to opposite ends
on a horizontal axis, having a slight vertical play. The clay is laid
on the table and as the rolls travel around on it the clay is spread
out into a broad band. A. second axle carries two other pairs of
rolls of the same shape but smaller size, which travel around in a
horizontal plane. These rolls press the band of clay together again.
In this way the clay is subjected to alternating vertical and lateral
pressure and all air spaces are thus thoroughly closed. The rolls
make 10 to 12 revolutions a minute, and a machine kneads two to
three charges of 350 pounds each in an hour.

Turning. This is done on a rapidly revolving horizontal wheel.
The potter takes the lump of clay, places it on the revolving disk,
and, after wetting the surface with a slip of clay and water, gradu-

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 805

ally works the mass up into the desired form. After being shaped,
the object is then detached from the wheel by running a thin wire
underneath it, and it is set aside to dry. Crocks, jugs, and similar
articles are turned. This is the method almost invariably em-
ployed for molding earthenware and frequently employed in form-
ing stoneware articles. An expert potter is able to turn jars of very
large size. |

Jollying or jigging. This is a more rapid method than turning.
The clay to be used for this purpose is tempered to a much softer
consistency. The jolly is a wheel fitted with a hollow head to
receive the plaster mold, whose interior is of the same shape as the
exterior of the object to be molded. A lump of clay is placed in
the revolving mold and is gradually forced up around the sides of
the latter by means of the fingers. A metallic arm, or templet, as
it is called, is then brought down into the mold and severs to shape
the interior of the object. Cups, erocks, jugs, pitchers and even
wash basins can be molded in this manner. Articles with tapering
necks are generally jollied in two parts, which are subsequently
cemented together with slip. Handles are generally stamped out
separately and subsequently fastened on the article.

A modification of jollying, used for making plates and saucers,
consists in having a plaster mold whose surface has the same shape
as the interior of the object to be molded. The potter’s assistant
takes a piece of clay of the desired size, and pounds it into a flat
cake, called a “ bat”, which is laid on the mold, he then shapes the
other side or bottom of the plate by pressing a wooden templet. of
the proper profile against it as it revolves.

Ewers and vessels of oval or elliptic section are usually made
by means of sectional molds, consisting of two or three pieces whose
inner surface conforms to the outer‘ surface of the object to be
molded. A slab of clay is laid in each section and carefully
pressed in. The mold is then put together and the seams carefully
smoothed with a wet sponge. After drying for a few hours the
parts of the mold are lifted off. Clocks, lamps, picture frames,

806 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

water pitchers and many other articles of a hollow nature are
molded in this manner.

Casting. Casting consists in pouring a slip of clay into a porous
mold, which absorbs some of the water, and causes a thin layer of
the clay to adhere to the interior surface of the mold. When this
layer is sufficiently thick, the mold is inverted and the remaining
slip is poured out. After a few hours the mold can be removed.
This method is extensively used in making thin porcelain orna-
ments; many white earthenware objects can be formed by the same
process. Much of the success of molding depends on the proper
consistency and composition of the plaster mold.

Drying
The ware after it has been molded is usually set aside on shelves
in steam-heated rooms to dry.
From this point on, the method of manufacture varies somewhat,
depending on the kind of ware that is to be produced.

Glazing stoneware

Stoneware is most commonly glazed either with salt, or by means
of slip clays. Slip clays, which are really natural glazes, are very
impure, easily fusible clays. The clay is mixed with water to the
consistency of cream, and the ware before burning is either dipped
into this slip, or the slip is put on the ware by a brush.

The most desirable thing in a slip clay is that it shall fuse
at a low temperature, form a glaze of a uniform color, and this
glaze shall not crack or craze. Many fine-grained impure clays
fulfil the first requirement but are seldom able to comply with the
second and the third condition.

Slip clays have been supplied to a considerable extent by several
different states, but the most important and the best thus far used
ig obtained from the Champlain deposit at Albany, N. Y. This
Albany slip makes a splendid, even colored, natural glaze, and one
which does not crack. It not only works well by itself but gives

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 807

good results when mixed with other clays or with artificial fluxes.
Analyses . * this material are given beyond. |

The folloy, ing analyses made by the Missouri geological survey
gives the composition of the clay.

SLUG, on SRC aio: 8 5-015 (oo eee ear 56.75
JR GRCURDTINON2 WOR mee PURER sc, Si ool aCe eae 15.47
Coualimed water aon meme oieko coela ide le Ses 8.87
JNU OESNETUT RS ake eRe or. a ie ce See or
MOO Cle Ouse OTe Weer ee Neem ree ae) ca Siw’ 2 so) wie 5.18
ROLOKIC Ot MMAMOUMES SM Ne aches aes’. < «6 6 vs tr

TE aaa we gaett RO We sre, cect RN 20 Hen oN ae 5.78
NOLS ra aesSiTP We 2%, Ae US i ecco 3.32
JANN RAIIIS) CS 6 So eS RE a oe eso nae ee 3.25

aNoptreu mene aera ?/.55005, caer ate. cach ehapalotayirs = .a7t-« 99.54

Another analysis made by H. H. Griffen (Clay worker, 28:
178) gives:

RSIIIECG Abe Grit SN aaa Ce Tee 9h ig tebe gt ge ok pad) tear « 17.02
ANISH TEAE a Naresh Side Ric Re Chahce ae Eee ae eae 14.80
LOST LOODSICL Bate Bk oc Sea eee 5.85
JLen rE ROMOKOR CGE ces Br do cs ge ea 14
IDEAS CSS 3 eal im Bie fes Be eR ae ee Sea a0
Minnie eanied shia tctmt sacs a1 G0. bits Wd azenecel aha 2.48
JOU ZIS) Cb tn seater no aes ree ete hoa tante pe anita sods Bye
SOIC 245 BS ESA Reha eRe Re eas noe a ae 07
J EXIGIOSS OD avOEII KCTS ee oulers Beppe aa a5
BSCCRUOT ES ACRE gate Ss PRR ae ath ae SONG ni Peer SA So 5.18
Moisture; amdwearbonic acid ..iscise 4a esas «lo 4,94
Srl COA abe care ree ne aie Air acta Sud RG ne et ech: 2 38.58

AL Ola Menges ramen ras heating trees 9 oo ait cine. 3 99.14

Tests made by the Missouri geological survey showed that this
clay shrunk 6% when air dried and 8% when vitrified, giving a

808 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

total shrinkage of 14%. Incipient vitrification occurred at 1700°
F., complete at 1850° F., and viscosity above 2000° F. |

From the analysis made by H. H. Griffen itis een that the

clay approaches closely to the formula:

1RO, .7R,O;, 4810,
which is similar to that of an alkaline glaze, but with an excess of
R,O;. The addition of lead increases this excess of bases, and it
is necessary to add silica also.

For many years the slip has been used as a glaze without the
addition of any artificial fluxes, for attempts in this direction had
always been without success. A number of experiments were
' made by Mr Griffen, to determine in what manner it was possible
to lower the fusibility of the slip clay, and make it run more easily
without destroying its richness of color. ‘The addition of lead
alone gave a transparent and greenish colored glaze, which showed
a tendency to blister; alkalis added alone gave the same result.
It is, therefore, necessary to add other materials with the lead.
Good results were obtained by adding iron alone, but the combina-
tion of chromium, manganese and iron produced the best effect.
The chromium, Mr Griffen finds, takes from the iron its tendency
to run into greenish and yellowish tints. The best form in which
to introduce the chromium is as chromate of lead, this giving the
finest color effect; but, as an excess of this sort also has a tendency
to cause blistering, it is well to add some of the chromium in the
form of chromate of iron.

The following recipe is for a moderately low heat glaze, the
variation being for different conditions.

Alibamyaslip clay 5 seit. Seen eee 63.30 to 70

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MOxid (ob manganese: 0) eee 356 Ss tomee aon

Ghromaterotsleade 2 ewe mee Looe! aA”

@hnomlate sor inom vleiem eae eee iON MgbOne ote

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 809

Artificial glazes are used to some extent on the better grade of
stoneware made at the present day.
Stoneware is sometimes coated with a slip of white clay.

Burning stoneware

Stoneware is commonly burned in round kilns. The articles
are piled one on top of the other till the kiln is filled, but they
are set in such a way as not to interfere with an even draft through-
out the kiln, and the larger pieces are placed in the center. If
both salt glazed and slip glazed wares are burned in the kiln at the
same time, the latter have to be protected from thé salt vapor in
some way.

The time of burning depends partly on the size of the kiln, and
partly on the clay. It may be as short as 30 hours or as long as 90.

The temperature attained in burning stoneware also depends on
the clay. Experiments made in Ohic show that the temperature
ranges from about 1850° to 2000° F. Other experiments made
by the writer indicate that in the case of the New Jersey semi-fire
clays the temperature in stoneware kilns reached 2300° F. at
times.

The kilns used in burning stoneware are either up-draft or

down-draft, both round and rectangular.

Glazing white earthenware and porcelain

In this grade of ware, the glazing and burning are not done mm
one operation, as in the case of the stoneware, but, on the con-
trary, the ware after molding is first burned to a comparatively low
temperature, after which it is dipped in the glaze and burned a
second time. In the case of white earthenware the temperature
of the second burning is lower than that of the first, while in the
case of the porcelain it is higher.

The production of a glaze on the surface of cher porcelain or
earthenware, free from the numerous defects to which such mate-
rials are very liable, is often attended by considerable difficulty.

The glaze on pottery consists of a fusible mixture which is
applied to the surface of the ware, either when it is still in a green

810 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

state or after burning. In the burning the ingredients of this
mixture unite during fusion and cover the surface with an im-
pervious glassy coat.

Pottery glazes are generally of two kinds, raw or fritted. The
former consists usually of some mixture of metallic oxids, which ~
is sprayed on the surface of the raw clay. In the case of the
latter, the ingredients of the glaze are first fused together, forming’
what is known as a frit, the frit is then ground very fine, and
mixed with water, this mixture being applied to the surface of the
green ware. It is specially necessary to prepare such a frit when
the glaze contains any soluble salts, the object of the fritting being
to render these salts insoluble. The fritting is usually done in a
special furnace, which has the bottom sloping toward one point, so
that the melted material can be run out into a tank of water, at the
proper time. Certain frits, either on account of the difficulty
with which they flow on melting or owing to the corrosive action
they exert when fused, can not be melted in the furnace, but are
fused in a special crucible or sagger.

The proper preparation of the glaze often requires much skill
and experience; for the production of a uniform coating of glaze
on the surface of the ware is influenced by many different things,
such as the degree of porosity of the ware when glazed, the cleant-
ness of the surface to be coated, the consistency of the glaze, ete.

Tf the density of the body is too great, or there happens to be a
film of dust or fat on the surface, the glaze is apt to contract into.
drops during the burning. If the glaze is too refractory, or the
kiln fire is not hot enough, the glaze will not be homogeneous, but
show little dots and pin holes. <A frequent fault is the tearing or
springing off of glaze, which is due to the glaze and the body
having a different coefficient of expansion. If that of the glaze
is greater, the body is apt to tear, whereas, if the reverse is true,
the glaze spalls off. It may be said in general that with an
increase in the amount of fluxes the coefficient of expansion of a

glaze increases, while it decreases with the amount of acids. The

, CLAYS OF NEW YORK Sil

coefficient of expansion may also be diminished if the percentage
of boracic acid in the clay is increased at the expense of the silica.
The amount of alumina exerts but little influence on the expansion
_or contraction of the glaze, but a small percentage of alumina pre-
vents glazes which are poor in alkalis from becoming opaque.

The tenacity of adherence of the glaze to the body depends on
the composition of both and also on the temperature of the kiln.

We can say that the power of the body to carry a glaze without
causing it to crack is influenced by its rational composition, its
degree of plasticity, the fineness of the quartz grains which it con-
tains, and the temperature at which it is burned.

Burming white earthenware and china

This is done in saggers, which are oval or cylindric receptacles
about 20 inches in diameter, 8 inches in hight, with a flat bottom.
The saggers are filled with the pieces of the unburned ware and _
are set one on top of the other, so that the bottom of one forms a
cover for the one below it, the joint between them being closed by
means of a strip of soft clay. The use of these saggers is to protect
the ware from the smoke and gases of the kiln fire, which would
tend to discolor it.

The requisite of a sagger clay is that it stand shghtly more heat
than the ware placed in it. Saggers are generally made from a
plastic, refractory clay, with as great an admixture of grog (ground
up fire brick or old pottery) as possible, but an excess of the latter
is deleterious. ‘The color burning properties of a sagger clay are
of little importance. Saggers are made in various ways, sometimes
being turned on a wheel, or again being formed in plaster molds, or
around wooden forms. In Germany metal forms are now mostly
used, because they permit the working of a stiffer mass, and, the
clay containing less water, the saggers after molding shrink and
tear less, while in addition they dry more quickly. The interior of
the sagger is frequently coated with a slip of kaolin and quartz, in
order that the ware may not receive any discoloration from this

S12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

source. When complicated forms are placed in the sagger the over-
hanging or greatly projecting portions are supported by pieces
which have the same composition as the ware itself, so that in
burning the shrinkage of both will be the same.

The proper placing of the ware in the kiln as well as in the
saggers is a matter of great importance.

The condition of the fires in the burning of porcelain or earthen-
ware has to be taken into consideration. In the burning of spar
chma from redness up to the point of vitrification, it is desirable to
have the fire reducing in its action, while above that point it should
be neutral or weakly oxidizing. In using coal which contains
pyrite, if the fire is oxidizing, sulfuric acid is set free; and this
tends to unite with any lime carbonate or alkalis which the glaze
may contain, the lower the temperature of the kiln the more rapid
this union, for the lime and alkalis will unite with the sulfuric
acid, as long as they have not entered in combination with the silica
of the glaze. When the glaze has once melted, the danger that this
will take place is far less. If the gases are reducing, any sulfate
salts‘formed are broken up and sulfurous acid gas escapes. If the
glaze particles have not yet been thoroughly fused -the gas just
mentioned escapes without causing any trouble; but, if the fusion
has already occurred, blistering or scaling of the glazed surface re-
sults.

Both the body and the glaze may sometimes have a small amount

‘of gypsum, which may come from an Alsing cylinder, if such a
machine is used for grinding the clay. The reducing action of the
fire must, however, not be too strong, otherwise any organie matter
which the clay contains will not burn off at the proper time, and
will subsequently be liable to cause bursting in the ware during
burning: A reducing fire tends to insure a whiter color in the ware
by reducing any ferric combination of iron, thus carrying the color
from reddish over into whitish gray, or the pale green of complex
ferrous silicates. The latter are hardly noticeable so that the whole
body appears white. It sometimes happens that during the slow

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 813

cooling of porcelain in a mufile kiln the iron is changed back to
the ferric condition with its accompanying yellow.

When a kiln full of ware is finished, the material at times has
to be sorted, as it seldom happens that all the ware drawn from the
kiln is perfect. The sources of flaws in the burned ware may be
either faults in the body or bad firing.

In connection with body faults: the more plastic and finer
grained the clay mixture used, the quicker it shrinks in drying;
masses which are fat shrink more than those which are rich in
fluxes, such as feldspar, or are very lean. ‘The size of the quartz
and feldspar grains is of importance, for, if they are in the form of
fine powder, they are not very plastic, but if ground extremely fine
they develop a certain amount of pastiness, and this is accompanied
by an increased shrinkage. If the clay mixture was not properly
worked, or was too soft, or the thickness of the molded object is not
the same throughout, or the mechanically combined water is not
evenly distributed through the material, the ware is very likely to
warp in burning. The shrinkage may also be uneven if the
pressure exerted by the molder is not uniform, and cracks occur
when the molded piece is stronger on one side than on the other.
Flaws, such as air bubbles, appear only when the ware is burned.

Firmg errors are usually due to too quick heating or cooling.
If cracks are caused in the early part of the burning, they increase
as the firing proceeds. Oracks formed in the body as a result of
too rapid cooling are not generally seen with the naked eye, but the
ware produces no ring when struck. Another cause of cracking is
an uneven temperature on the two sides of the object. Over burn-
ing as well as under burning of porcelain tends to produce fine
cracks in the body.

The glaze is also a source of much worriment to the manufac-
turer. It should of course have the same coefficient of expansion as
the body to which it is applied. If under burned the glaze will not
‘ appear thoroughly glassy and develops fine cracks, but, if over
burned, a chemical action is apt to take place between the glaze

814 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

and the body and the former absorbs elements of the latter, alter-
ing its composition and consequently its properties. ‘This over burn-
ing of the glaze is the principle used by the Chinese to produce
their celebrated crackle ware.

Kilns. The type of kiln used depends on the ware, the tem-
perature to be obtained, and the fuel.

In this country a round vertical kiln is generally used for both
the first and the second burning. The first burning, which is known
as the biscuit burn, is done at a lower temperature. The second
firing is done in a similar kiln, known as the Glost kiln. After the
ware has been burned with a glaze on it, it is sometimes decorated
and then fired a third time in what is known as a muffle kiln.

The two points necessary in a kiln are first equal distribution of
heat, and secondly economy of fuel, with a development of the
maximum heat.

Most of the kilns used are down-draft, and in these we get a
more complete combustion, for the reason that the air and gases
must follow a longer path, and consequently, get a better chance to
mix. The continuous type of kiln is little used in this country,
though it has been used with marked success abroad for the burn-
ing of both white earthenware and porcelain.

Methods of decoration

These seem to deserve special mention, as in many cases they,
form an important and distinct branch of the pottery industry.

Decoration may be imparted to a ware in three ways: 1) by the
production of a raised design; 2) by covering the ware with a solid
color; 3) by the decoration of the surface with various designs, ap-
plied to the ware in one way or another. Common red earthen-
ware seldom receives any decoration, though this has been decorated
more within the last year or two. Stoneware, yellow ware and
Rockingham ware often have the surface ornamented with a raised
design, which is imparted to the article in molding it. Stoneware
is often decorated under the glaze with crude designs made by

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 815

tracing the figure with a dull point and some coloring matter, which
remains in the depressions of the design. Yellow ware is frequently
ornamented with bands of various colors.

In majolica the coloring materials are mixed directly with the
glaze.

It is the decoration of white earthenware and china, however,
that calls forth the ingenuity and skill of the potter. White wares
may be decorated either over the glaze or under it. In the former
the decoration is applied after the glaze has been put on and fired;
in the latter the decoration is put on the biscuit ware, then fired,
then the glaze applied and the ware fired again.

The advantage of underglaze decoration is that it is more durable,
the decoration being protected by the glaze, and oftentimes the
effect produced is prettier than when the colors are applied on the
glaze. The number of colors which can be used in underglaze
decoration is limited, as they have to withstand the effect of the
heat required to fuse the glaze. The colors which can thus be used
are blue, brown, green, yellow. It is on this account that hard
fired porcelains have their delicately tinted decorations applied over
the glaze. Pink, for instance, has to be applied in this way, and so
does gold.

An imitation of underglaze work is sometimes made by applying
the decoration on the glaze and then firing until the glaze softens
and the colors sink into it.

Underglaze work was the prevalent method of decoration in this
country from 1845 to 1850. It was then abandoned for a time, and
in the last 10 years the method has been steadily regaining favor.

All designs and colors were formerly applied by a brush, but
the prevalent method now is by printing. The design is engraved
or etched on a copper plate; the reversed print is then made on
specially prepared fine paper. This is applied to the piece of pottery
to be decorated, either on the glaze or on the biscuit ware. The
paper is carefully rubbed so that every portion of it shall come in
contact with the surface of the ware, and it is then allowed to stand

816 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

for a while, when the paper is removed, leaving the design on the
ware. This is then gone over with colors and the design filled in.
The decoration is then called a “ filled print”. The: amount of
“ printed ” ware turned out annually is very great.

Raised gold work, often seen on wares, is made by painting the
design with a yellow paste overglaze, firing in the decorating kiln,
and then covering with gold and firing again.

Underglaze colors are fired at a sufficient temperature to drive off
the oil. The overglaze colors are usually fixed in a muffle kiln in
which the temperature reaches between 900° and 1000° F.

A rather ingenious method of making border decorations on
plates and cups consists in having a design, such as a flower or
cluster of leaves, stamped on a flat surface of fine-grained sponge.
The plate, for instance, is then placed on a wheel, and while slowly
revolving it receives a number of successive touches with the inked
surface of the sponge. In this way a continuous design is stamped
on the ware. The method is quick, cheap and well adapted to the

cheaper grades of white ware, for which it is used.

Chromolithographic decoration*

The adaptation of chromolithographic printing to ceramics has”
been quite recently successfully attempted, and may very possibly
supersede line engraving. The great advantage of the chromo-
lithographic decoration lies in the high excellence of the ornament
that may be used and the purity of the color that may be obtained.
By this means the design of a first-class artist may be reproduced
with all its original delicacy and softness. This new method does
away with the filling in of prints, which is often of unequal quality.
Up to the present time chromolithographic work has been used only
for overglaze decoration, but experiments are being made with it in
underglaze ornamentation. ‘The difficulties in the latter case are
porosity of the rough surface of the “ biscuit” ware. The greatest
difficulty is said to be this. In printing from engravings, the

1 Jour. soc. arts, 18 Sep. 1896. p. 322.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK Snuy

“print ” is really a relatively thick line of color ; just in proportion
as the engraver cuts deeply into the plate, so is the quantity of color
“taken up”. Now “ underglaze plates” are cut much more deeply
than “enamels”, and if the “transfer” or printed paper is ex-
amined under a microscope the underglaze prints are seen to con-
sist of raised (as we have previously said), relatively thick ridges of
color, laid with the point of the ridge uppermost. It is this depth
or strength of cutting that enables the underglaze prints to produce
their strong patterns, for, owing to the action of the glaze, if only
a thin film of color, as in chromolithography, were apphed to the
ware, the decoration would be so faint as scarcely to be visible.
The number of colors which have a strong staining power when
applied only in a thin coat is small. This is the chief difficulty.
At present the best chromolithographic work is done by the French,
and by’some Staffordshire potters.

New York stoneware clays

Deposits of clay suitable for the manufacture of stoneware are
found on Staten Island and Long Island. Those of Staten Island
are at Kreischerville. The Long Island clays are found at Elm
point, on Greatneck, at Glencove, and Littleneck, near North-
port. They have been shipped to a number of points, including
Poughkeepsie, Rochester, Utica, in New York; also to New Haven,
Stamford, Norwalk and Hartford, Ct., Newark, N. J., and
Pittston, Pa.

Most of the Long Island clays are rather sandy in their nature;
consequently they have been found well adapted to mix with the
New Jersey clays in order to prevent the latter from cracking in
burning. The sandy nature of the Long Island clays makes it
difficult to turn many of them alone on the potter’s wheel.

Elin point. A deposit has been worked for many years at a
point about one and a half miles north west of Great neck, but the
pit is no longer in operation, though the supply of clay does not
appear to have given out, as a considerable amount of it is still to
be seen outcropping along the shore at several points to both north

Plate 133 To face page 517

Porcelati ~
n electrical supplies made at works of Pass & Seymour, Syracuse.

818 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

and south of the pit. The one objection to the deposit is that the
clay is overlain by about 20 feet of yellow gravel and drift, which
has caused much trouble at times by caving. It would seem that
underground workings could be established, which would be more
permanent. A number of pits have been sunk in the clay, many
30 feet in depth, the usuai diameter being 10 feet. This clay has
been used for a variety of products, such as architectural terra
cotta, common stoneware, chemical stoneware and clay pipes.

The clay, which was of a dark gray color, was very plastic and
often quite smooth. At the time the samples for physical work
were collected the bank had caved in and no specimens were ob-
tainable, but the following is an analysis of it made by Dr H. C.
Bowen on a sample collected some years ago.

Silas Wieielines «sos Ae nage Ny aa nL Ulbene lead ae aa eae 76.50
DAU IATA eee dee sce" ON gates Teta etait SSL yl gee spe L7/
TK erro uso '.0 1 icraky ae ieteaeoma i: Vise te abe 1.34
d Dinayey ee A ke Un ra eta ae Rg 8. oT Ce AAI LS)
Migr cine! isa Gb sates conv agepns Soaks, Cel ieee ieee ae Aa
Sad eid CAN pei oak TN 1 appin tet, ata ean a 81
ROTA Ea ya GANG aS fi Ny i ara Ne tc IR ee ate ho
Phosphorieiacid yi) sci ce arae ee ei ane ora 07
Moisture be ah SiG aleve nae ee fc enn pena ae Niaae .12
Water (combined)....... si-avas ote Maem meee opel 4.27

Glencove. Carpenter Bros. have a bed of stoneware clay, fire
sand and kaolin on the east side of Hempstead harbor. The
clay is of a white and pink color, the layers being 4 inches to 1
foot thick, interstratified with layers of quartz pebbles. Nearer the
shore this dips under a bed of the clay free from pebbles. Asso-
ciated with the clay is a deposit of kaolin and fire sand. ‘The clay
burns a cream color. The quartz pebbles, which contain small
cracks, crumble easily and seem to have been subjected to the action
of some alkaline solution. When ground they can be used for the
finest grades of pottery and stoneware. The fire sand and kaolin
are screened and sold according to grade. |

IF, J. H. Merrill. ‘Geology of Long Island,’’ Ann. N. Y. acad. sci. 1884.

pe =

Ls

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GIR vseRd ooVy OF, FEL Mid

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 819

This clay is used chiefly for the manufacture of stoneware, being
shipped to various cities in Connecticut and New York states. It
is also used by Perkins & Pit of Stamford, Ct., for the manu-
facture of stove linings. In the latter case about 15% of it is mixed
with New Jersey clay. Under an ordinary fire this clay burns to a
light color, but with a hard fire it is said to blacken. The fire sand
found associated with this clay bears a most excellent reputation as
regards its refractory qualities.

Owing to litigation the clay deposit of Carpenter Bros. has been
inactive for several years, but work on it will be resumed again this
summer. An analysis of the material is given in the table of
analyses below.

In the spring of 1898 a new deposit was opened on the north
shore of Mosquito inlet almost directly opposite Carpenter’s pit.
It is said that this deposit is fully 30 feet deep. It is on the property
of Mrs Helen McKenzie. <A sample of this clay was collected for
physical examination. It is sandy and grayish, quite different in
appearance from that found in Carpenter’s pit. When mixed with
32.40% of water it gave a very plastic mass, but owing to the large
amount of organic matter which it contained it was impossible to
form briquettes not free from flaws, so that the tensile strength was
only 42 pounds a square inch as a minimum, with 50 pounds maxi-
mum, which is undoubtedly low.

The air shrinkage of the bricklets was 8%. At 2200 degrees
F. the total shrinkage was 13%, and the clay had become thoroughly
dense. Viscosity occurred at cone 27 in the Deville furnace.
The color when burned to vitrification is buff, but at viscosity the
clay burns reddish. ‘The mechanical analysis of the clay showed:

Clayercunbstance mye exw ssc hei festa sete a clo assess nk es 85
esa Hesse Mite st ore nea fogeeyrena yukave) ved ane ae tL 3
Weisy: ims samid yest ueas ies, os unneieenienate is Soca tt Ie a 3
ithe cerca erty en mare Cer eer aa een Rowe fer easy 6

<2
=I

Balance mostly organic matter

820 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

An analysis made by the writer gave:

RSIUb Te MMIC NER ASAT 7, 3. 5a cia ROME CANS IA, a DOmneo
PsWhvbsshel Been AA ee Ga nee neRMMeO Ne Alnor ious 99.90
Ferric 0X10. Yel saeeeeenen te of oss ced sR aR IDRIS)
i Dinaat WARN hss 08) Go: a's a yee UE ss oh cu.0l os Be
Malomiesia! oo ieee vee 0. Pe ahd oho eee 65
JA Vea Nig SoCo aed esas. 56) Sr 2.50
Water csi cameeencnorein a) co. "ana ae crit St at a 33

"Tebatl ea tee ees a oon Ee ee eae eet OS) 2S)

Northport. The Northport clay and fire sand co. has an exten-
sive series of pits on Littleneck near Northport. Both fire sand and
clay are obtained. The clay bank has a hight of about 40 feet, the
clay is of a bluish black and yellowish white color. The darker
clay is the lower, and contains much carbonaceous matter. The
deposit is stratified, the layers of clay being separated by thin sheets
' of a rather coarse sand. It is shipped chiefly to New England.

At the eastern side of the bank a bed of white clay underlies
the fire sand, but little of this has been mined.

The following are analyses of New York stoneware clays and

kaolin.
Kaolin

Elm point Glencove Littleneck Kreischervil'e Kreise ee:
ulica ae 62.06 70.45 62.66 64.26 89 25d)
Alumina... 18.09 AO A iSO) EEG a 3 Siz
Oxid of iron. 5.40 eke (2 0.97 0.83 0.63
Tame tae 1.05 0.24 0.79 0.73 0.29
Magnesia... (ies O SO rian ey dake tis +s (Om

WAcaligne 22. Gd ae ON 2.23 2.35 2.66

OZ 99.45 84.74 92.93 98.44

es —— —_>--— - ————— ————————— — --———

(8) [oAST oy} 38 punog
al@ SAAT SNOdDBIOIO “] “T WOMYIION 1IveU YOON O]}}ITT ‘09 AvlO o1y JIOdYIION JO sjid WI ase snosdvJeID Jo Av[O BIeMOTIOIS

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 821

The following are analyses of Long Island stoneware clays made
by OC. H. Joiiet. (School of mines quart. Jan. 1895)

White clay Black clay White clay
fro

Nes vagorel - Narehpore Seacitt
SSI LCA | SN hn cSt 68.34 58.84 62.35
AS JUS ETONTS 01 NR a ee NO eS9 23.40 23.14
PRISEROUS OXI, 5.0 2! oe ead boa RS ots .90 a Lal ie) 1.12
LULISTIGY i Ae a ee ariel OTR 5 Say, Oe ee ree ae eae
1: LTS ag en ka ‘Tie, Nae ar eee alae
CAIRO VCITC ee mame roe eretron 2 ee tee i! En ie
SUNT AAICTO 26 (us wos d «eta: seo een oo (ates 103 1.09
MAGNA a ke bce s cose hie renee ee anepe Sno 5.04 Bull Ht
S\CGLE Sak datsik Mina ohn Eis Pa ee . 84 34 1.76
@owmbinedswater Fe eS tees 6.03 9.20 On 1

A physical test of the yellow clay from the pits of the Northport
clay and fire sand co. gave the following results. It took 25% of
water to mix the clay up to a workable mass, that was very gritty,
but possessed good plasticity. The tensile strength of the clay does
not stand in direct relation to the plasticity, as the average is only
25 pounds a square inch with a maximum of 30 pounds. The
air shrinkage of the bricklet was 547, and at 2300° F. the total
shrinkage was 12%. At this temperature the clay had burned buff,
and was nearly vitrified. Viscosity occurred in the Deville fur-
nace at cone 27.

The mechanical analysis of the clay shows the high percentage of

sand contained, which is evidently responsible for its low refractory

quality.
Eo erleisnis ae Rh Se AES ON RM etOOe EC A Stag! te 30
SUE senctmgeres
ery.” [inet Sarad ma eee ee ey katte Pees Nets A ak Ts 60
Eines Sa dns shite wetness armen Rede en. 9

829, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

It is probable that the washing of this clay and the consequent
elimination of the grit would greatly increase its refractory power.
The black clay which underlies the lower is somewhat less sandy,

running thus:

Clay <substantcewames silt... 0 05. te aera eee 81.00
A Eki at stsiitsys aves i805 ae 3.30
dtu navede Cen aK Clae ko Ni cp MRO. 6 0 oR aC A 16.20

100.50

Like the preceding, it is not a highly refractory clay, fusing com-
pletely at cone 27 in the Deville furnace. It does, however, burn
to a dense body of cream white color and its chief use is for stone-
ware. ‘There is apparently no reason why it should not work for
the manufacture of white or very light buff brick. The shrinkage
at cone 8 is 8%, and at cone 6, 12%, at which temperature it is nearly
non-absorbent, and begins to deepen in color.

The following is an analysis of the Eaton’s neck clay, made by
Dr H. C. Bowen.

Net Miter: MAR a aneM CR NU UT ic Ue aboaR Te oats 4. GOL A6
OM Kvbedbbore Manure eRe cay Sax coe AER Ri ed oe e 22.33
Berros: OMe isn NIG Sen cesar Ree eear a Never 1.38
1 Dhak RRM ROE Coat ck Sh ORTH Ne HB ANOLe 8 . Hor
Ma onesia i00) dy cui iN eee Seton enn ener et ee 07
Tota 5). IG see) setts eating one as 1.52
S10)6 ARERR ANTE Os mh Iba Sco .58
ihosphorie acta <i> ch ho ame ae pene er SLO
AMOS EUTEE Aes ie ans gone asthe Se NS ee ee col

AV Veer Orth: Mage yo. Gute NY 8 ae es ca 6S

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 823:

Pottery industry of New York

The products of this class made in New York include common
earthenware, stoneware, both common and chemical, white earthen-
ware, porcelain.

Greater New York. 'The works situated within its boundaries
are:

D. Robitzels’s Sons, Morrisania. White earthenware and hard
porcelain

Capital pottery, Brooklyn. Stoneware

A. Benkert, Brooklyn. Stoneware

Joseph Newbrand pottery, Long Island City. Earthenware
Chemical pottery works, C. Graham, Brooklyn. Chemical stone-
ware |

The clays used are mostly from New Jersey, but at times some
Long Island clays are used. The product includes acid receivers,
vats, Jars, stop-cocks, sinks, pumps and other articles for chemical
works.

W. T. Dufek, Brooklyn. Stoneware

Empire china works, Brooklyn. White earthenware

Green point porcelain works, Brooklyn. White earthenware

Union porcelain works, Brooklyn. White earthenware

The last factory makes a true hard porcelain, but it was origi-
nally established in 1854 as a bone china factory. The chief
product of the works is both plain and decorated table ware, though
the factory under the guidance of C. H. L. Smith has turned out a
number of high grade ornamental objects, specially vases.

Syracuse. The Onondaga pottery, situated here, was organized
in 1871, the product at first being white granite. Subsequently
(1886) the manufacture of porcelain was begun; this forms the
output at present. The ware bears a high reputation for its strength
and toughness, with which is combined lightness.

Many of the plates illustrating the manufacture of pottery were
taken at these works through the courtesy of Mr Pass, the presi-
dent of the company. So successful have been the operations of
this company, that the capacity of the plant has been doubled.

894 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The factory of Pass & Seymour is located at the western edge
of the town. The product consists entirely of porcelain electric sup-
plies, many being quite complicated and their manufacture (which
is by the dry press method) requiring considerable ingenuity.

The Syracuse pottery company on N. Salina street, produces
stoneware.

Victor. Close to the New York Central railroad station is the
factory of F. Locke, manufacturer of porcelain electric supplies.
Mr Locke’s products are made from a mixture of clays, obtained
in part from New York state and in part from other states. The
body is vitrified, and well fitted for the insulation of high currents.
It is either white or colored. In some cases the ware is glazed with
a Quaternary clay that is obtained in the vicinity of Victor. Among
the large pieces of work turned out by this factory is a series of
600,000 insulators for a 40 mile line in California.

Lochester. The Flower city pottery. Stoneware

Utica. Central New York pottery

Lyons. Lyons pottery co. Stoneware

Fort Edward. Wilfinger Bros. Earthenware and stoneware

Chittenango. Chittenango pottery co. Ornamental and com-
mon stoneware.

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK

SHALES OF NEW YORK ©

These form an enormous series of deposits in the southern region
of the state, as well as some of the central portions.

The origin of shale has already been mentioned (p. 502). From
the fact that they were deposited in the sea they are usually much
more extensive than the Quaternary clays immediately underlying

the surface.

_ The shales found in New York state are in every.case quite
impure, and often silicious, indeed are at times interbedded with
thin layers of sandstone. Owing to their consolidated nature the
shales have to be first ground in order to develop their plasticity;
the finer the grinding the more plastic the mass. It has also been
found that in some cases the finer grinding of the shale produces a
vitrified brick at a temperature that formerly did not allow this,
the brick made from the coarser shale showing 6%—-7% absorption.

Shales exhibit a great variation in hardness; this fact shows itself
specially during the grinding process. As has been stated in an-
other place, shale is only a consolidated clay. Sometimes this hard-
ening or consolidation has occurred by the weight of the overlying
beds alone, while at other times the clay particles have become more
or less cemented together. It is obvious, therefore, that those
shales hardened by the former circumstance will fall apart more
readily in the grinding pan, and tend to yield a more plastic mass.

So far as the shales have been used and tested, the Devonian
shales seem to work best for a vitrified product, as the points of in-
cipient fusion: he from 250 to 300° F. apart.

The Salina shales make a good strong brick if thorough vitrifica-
tion is not desired, for they are often calcareous.

The Medina shales, particularly the weathered portions, are util-
ized in Ontario for making pressed brick and give good results. The
deposit continued across west central New York awaits develop-
ment.

826 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The physical and chemical characters of the shales can be judged
from some of the tests given beyond under the locality descrip-
tions.

The shale-bearing formations occurring in New York state, be-
ginning with that geologically oldest, are as follows:

ower (Silumtaniemees co.) . 3 0e in cienemene Hudson river

( Medina

| Clinton

\ Niagara

| | Salina

( Hamilton
Devomangemee st... eee 4 Portage
_Chemung

va
5
—*

Upper Silumameeeys,...... canes

A geological map will show the outline of the area underlain
by the outcropping edges of each shale formation, and it will be
noticed that they form bands of variable width extending across
the state from east to west. .

As the formations have a slight dip (40-60 feet a mile) to the
south, the belts of shale encountered in crossing the state from
south to north will be successively older.

Furthermore any one bed will of couse be higher above sea
level to the north than to the south. The Chemung shales underlie
the whole surface in the southern part of the state, but as we
proceed northward they are found only on the ridges of the higher
hills, the sides and bottom of the valleys being underlain by the
Portage shale, which in turn succeeds the Chemung as the surface
formation.

Distribution and properties

Hudson river. This formation is abundantly displayed iw the
counties of Lewis, Oneida, Montgomery, Schenectady and Colum-
bia. Its tendency is to exhibit silicious or slaty phases, but in
eastern Columbia co. it becomes at times argillaceous and at the
same time contains considerable iron. .

‘Medina. The Medina formation at times is shale-bearing, as
along the Genesee river, where it is also marly, but the extent of

i

CLAYS CF NEW YORK 827

the shaly layers is unimportant. (Hall. Geology of the 4th dis-
trict of New York. p. 38)

The shale beds are, however, well developed at Lewiston, where
they are exposed in the sides of the gorge on both the American
and Canadian shore. From this point they extend eastward and are
to be seen at a number of points in the terrace escarpment.

The shale is rather soft and crumbly, and in places contains
abundant mica flakes. It is highly ferruginous and weathers to a
red clay, which is more plastic than the mass produced by grind-
ing the partially weathered shale and mixing it with water.

This material has not thus far been utilized in New York state,
yet it is extensively employed at several localities in Ontario, nota-
bly Beamsville, for the manufacture of pressed brick.

A sample collected from the exposures at Lewiston was tested
with the following results.

The partially weathered shale gave a lean mass when mixed
with 16% of water. The air shrinkage of the bricks was 3%, and
the tensile strength of the air-dried clay was 15 pounds a square
inch.

The clay contains .6% of soluble salts. In burning it shrinks
very slowly, and at 1 the shrinkage was only 6%. At this point
the shale had vitrified and showed a deep red color. Incipient fusion
occurred at .04, the clay burning bright red. It became viscous
at above 4. .

Its composition 1s:

SUT Cheese ta ee eae al ar HEAR ee gem a e ORe Peeaae ma 59.50
PAU aman tr aear ee eel te: 3). caatew wr tnareaete tet s,/a) c 20.60
ETHIC OXTC aes Eyes Cran ots eet a aca W-« 8.00
LD InGaVo tice starch aher ume cer, MERI cri ee tarry cigs eh .80
Mitomiectey rae pam we atele to cave Ac talensh oiatart iene Sits .35
PETA segue et sr-4% lore eran te ee Fabs Monte veal ics 6 3.60
Nae sca eee ea ae siiaees mm Uinta OE Sgr =o 5.50

828 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Owing to its highly ferruginous nature, it tends to blister when
burned to vitrification unless heated very slowly.

Clinton. The Clinton group is shale-bearing in its lower mem-
bers in eastern Wayne co. It is a bright green shale and is about 30
feet thick. At Sodus Point the shale is purplish. It occurs at other
localities, but is very thin, not more than 2 to 4 feet. (Hall.
Geology of the 4th district of New York, p. 59) The second
green shale of the Clinton group is less brilliant in color and every-
where full of fossils. It is well exposed at Rochester and at Wol-
cott furnace, in the banks of the creek, where it is more than 24
feet thick. The shale is probably frequently calcareous.

Niagara. Though a prolific shale formation in New York state,
the writer has not seen any exposures of it which were not either
very silicious or calcareous, so that it would probably not work well ~
for the manufacture of clay products. When ground and mixed
with water it possesses no plasticity.

According to Prof. Hall (Geology of the 4th district of New
York. p. 80), the Niagara shale forms a member of great develop-
ment in the lower part of the Niagara group. It is a dark bluish
shale which, on exposure, forms a bluish gray, marly clay. It is
well shown at Lockport, in the sides of the gorge at Rochester, just
below the railroad bridge, and at many localities in Wayne and
Monroe co. The lower layers of the shale are less calcareous
than the upper ones.

The following is a partial analysis of this shale, the sample
taken from the gorge at Rochester (16th ann. rept U.S. geol. surv.
pt 4, p. 569).

‘SILIOEN AGP eMart MeO ES BL. booty b ou, 0 28.35
EUIEUCTTTD ay. MME aM Rr Neyare Sn Ao Sic hse od wae HORZAG
DermievOxtdl! 22 i.e shale ate evan ae eee eee 1290
BI Srana See gh! shes EGY Sahni oo ja valie Seca oke aE RN ee ae 21.47
UM ome ST Aid 4 sawn cl « LoS Adie eee 8.24
sD ote aon lin eee 5.73

76.16

H. T. Vulté, analyst

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 829
ys

The shale is also to be found in many of the ravines and gorges,
from Rochester to the Niagara river.

Salina. The shales of this formation are contained in a belt
extending from Syracuse westward along the line of the New York
central railroad to Buffalo. As a rule they are extremely impure
and at times even marly. They are soft shales, which weather very
easily, and are generally red or green in color and contain the beds
of gypsum and salt.

The Salina shales are well exposed at Warner, near Syracuse,
where they are utilized for making brick.

Prof. Hall says of the Salina or salt group (Geology of the
4th district of New York. p. 117), that it forms an immense
development of shaly marls and limestones, with interbedded de-
posits of gypsum. The formation extends from Syracuse westward
through southern Wayne co., and northern Ontario and Seneca
co., northern Genesee and Erie co. and a small part of the southern
portion of Niagara. This group contains important shale beds,
though they are unfortunately very calcareous at times and conse-
quently require careful manipulation.

The red shale forming the lower divisions of the group was not
observed west of the Genesee river. It appears in eastern Wayne
co., as indicated by the deep red color of the soil overlying it.
At Lockville the greenish blue marl with bands of red has been
quarried from the bed of the canal. West of the Genesee this is
the lowest visible mass; the red shale has either thinned out or
lost its color, becoming gradually a bluish green; while otherwise
the lithologic character remains the same. On first exposure it is

compact and brittle, presenting an earthy fracture, but a few days
are sufficient to commence the work of destruction, which goes on
till the whole is resolved into a clayey mass.

The green marl of the lower division appears near the canal at
Fairport and again at Cartersville. The bed of the stream at
Churchville shows the greenish blue marl.

“The prevailing features of the second division of this group,”

830 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

says Prof. Hall, “are a green and ashen marl, with seams of fibrous
gypsum and red or transparent selenite. It occurs in the vicinity
of Lyons and numerous points farther west ”’.

The third division contains large gypsum beds and is probably not
suitable for use.

The Salina shale, as stated above, is worked at Warner, Onon-
daga co., by the Onondaga vitrified brick co. The shale as exposed
in their bank consists of a green or red, soft, argillaceous shale,
of considerable impurity, as the following analyses furnished by

the company show.

Caleareous Red Blue

layer in bank shale shale
sities. 0 656° re 95:40 7 52)/30 25 ene
YAU tment 8 9.46 18.85 Grates
Iersreeyoan ye sks 4s awe 2.24 O55) 5.20
Jina) soy See meee 22.81 3.36 es te)
IWEGINeSICY ae 10.39 4.49 4.67
C@anonme acid |... ..5 . 20.96 3.04 3.42
MO GAS ec ik ste eee 5a 4.65 4.11
SHOE “eae ee LBS 1.292
Water and organic matter 7.60 5.30 4.50

99.31 99.89 OD.78

Total fluxing impurities... 36.39 20.40 17.98

These shales must be quite fusible owing to their high per-
centage of fluxing impurities.

At the works of the Onondaga vitrified brick co., the shale crops
out in considerable thickness near the yard, and is of various shades
of red, green, and gray; it disintegrates very rapidly, and the whole -
bank is traversed by numerous cracks, so that a small blast brings
down a large amount. ‘The material is mixed with a surface clay
in the proportion of 1 of clay to 3 of shale; it is ground in a dry
pan, and molded in an auger machine; the green bricks are dried
in tunnels and burned in circular kilns; the product is of a red color,
and very hard.

Marcellus shale. ‘This formation presents numerous undesira-
ble features, so that its occurrence is of little importance to clay

‘A N SdoumwAA ‘°09 YoLIq poylijIA VSepuoUCO ‘eTeys vullES Jo yur ‘o}Oyd sent “EH

0G8 osed e0Ry OF, LET 9481d

—— ="

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 831

workers. It is generally slaty, gritty, and contains not infre-
quently much iron pyrite and bituminous matter. The rock is
well exposed in the bed of the river at Leroy.

As the Hamilton, Portage and Chemung are the most promising
and most extensive of the shale formations occurring in this state,
a series of physical tests was made on samples from several locali-
ties, to determine their characters as related to each other, also as
compared with other deposits.

The samples were ground to pass through a 30 mesh sieve’. The
determinations made on these samples were: 1) amount of water
required to make a workable mass, 2) shrinkage in drying, 3) shrink-
age in burning, 4) plasticity, 5) tensile strength of air-dried bri-
quettes, 6) temperature of incipient fusion, 7) vitrification, 8) vis-
cosity, 9) per cent of soluble salts.

The localities from which samples that were tested came are
Jamestown, Angola, Hornellsville, Alfred center, Cairo and
Corning. : .

Hamilton. The Hamilton is one of the great shale-bearing
formations of New York state. It is also widely distributed, ex-
tending from the Hudson river to Lake Erie, and at these two
points shows wide extremes in its lithologic character. In the east
it is a true sandstone, in the west a clay shale. “The valleys of
Seneca and Cayuga lakes are both excavated, for more than half
their length, in the shales of this group”. (Hall. Geology of the
Ath district of New York, p. 187)

The Hamilton shales extend from Port Jervis northeastward
along the edge of the Chemung area in a belt about 5 miles wide,
and then swing westward from a point a few miles west of Albany to
Buffalo. In the central part of the state the Hamilton belt is about
20 miles wide, and thins to about 12 miles in the western half. The
Finger lakes are largely bounded on the north by the Hamilton
shale area.

1 Of most of the shales ground up by disintegrators, about 60% of any

sample will pass through a 30 mesh sieve, and the balance through a ae

or 4 inch mesh.

832 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Along the banks of Seneca and Cayuga lakes the full section of.

the Hamilton group may be seen. ‘The lower members are the
most northern, and dip to the south under the higher ones. Prof.
Hall makes the following divisions:

1 Dark, slaty fossiliferous shale, resting on the Marcellus shale

2 A compact, calcareous blue shale, of little thickness

3 An olive or blue shale, which in its upper layers is stained by
oxid of manganese. This is one of the best adapted for clay
products

4 Ludlowville shales, often sandy in their nature

5 A limestone

6 Moscow shales, of grayish blue color, and slightly calcareous in
places

These subdivisions can all be seen along the eastern shore of
Cayuga lake from Springport to Ludlowville.

Cairo, Green co. This is one of two localities at which the Ham-
ilton shale is mined. The material, which is shipped to the works of
the Catskill shale paving brick co., at Catskill, is a reddish gritty
shale possessing little plasticity. This material was at first used
alone, but found difficult to work on account of its excessive lean-
ness, and consequently is now mixed with 50% of common red clay
also obtained from Cairo. Samples of this mixture were tested with
the following results. The moderately plastic paste shrunk 4%
in drying, and 9% in burning. Air-dried briquettes had an average
tensile strength of 97 pounds a square inch, and a maximum of 100
pounds a square inch.

Incipient fusion occurred at cone .05, vitrification at cone .01,
and viscosity at cone 2.

The mixture of clay and shale is ground in dry pans, then passes
to the pug mill on the floor above, whence, after tempering, it is
discharged to the auger side-cut machine. ‘The bricks are re-
pressed, dried in tunnels, and burned in down-draft kilns. The
company has recently erected a large continuous kiln; in this kiln,
most of the firing is done in temporary fireplaces built in the door-

ee aaa eS a = —_

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 833

ways of the kiln, no grate bars being used; it is said that prac-
tically no fuel is charged through the small openings in the roof
of the kiln.

The Hamilton shale is also utilized in the western part of the state
at Jewettville, where dry pressed and also stiff mud brick are made
from it. (See detailed account of brickyards, p. 724)

Several samples have been collected by Prof. I. P. Bishop in
Erie co., and tested with the following results. The numbers pre-
ceding each locality refer to Prof. Bishop’s notes.

No. 2. Hamilton shale from near Windom. Forms a bed
10-12 feet thick. When ground to 30 mesh, it took 22% of water
to work it up. The mass was fairly plastic. The tensile strength
was 40 pounds a square inch, and the air shrinkage 44%.

At .03 the total shrmkage was 9%. The brick was deep red, hard
and semi-vitrified. Vitrification occurs at cone 1, with a total
shrinkage of 14% and viscosity at 4. The shale is shghtly calca-
reous, and the soluble salts were noticeable on the surface of the
dried bricklet. A determination of these showed 94.

No. 3 of Bishop is a 5 foot bed above the preceding one, and
took only 20% of water to work it up. The air shrinkage was 2%.
At .06 the total shrinkage was 4%; the color of the bricklet deep red
when incipient fusion had been reached. It vitrified at 1 with 8%
shrinkage. Viscosity began at 4. The percentage of soluble salts
was 6%. The analysis yielded:

ISTIECOG) > “RAR ere tnan Nee eet aed Sear Neen esha acne WA aL eo SS 57.30
ANTRORGRNE DE ter eS Neg Na Ree Ee orc. SCL tate ese ee Dale om
JE SRAEICCN OS:01C I SAN al eee nad a MPR aaa st 6.50
dBi Ss OR ge SIS ee ee ERT I echt Ree Re ASE 2.52
AN oMMCS IAs esate aa Mies crete eth aati unin ces tes peal wi k 0
NUNS Tey se Bee CUR ORS ge Pi SC ek le AE oie
IWWHEVGCTA sok fray ae aie eae, oltre ae ae Megs aS 8 7.80

No. 4 of Bishop is from the top of the Hamilton shale at bridge
west of Websters Corners. The bed is 5 to 6 feet thick. This

834 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

sample gave quite a plastic mass, with 21% of water. The air shrink-
age was 3%. When heated to .06 the total was 4%, with incipient
fusion, and the color deep red. The clay vitrifies at 1, with a total
shrinkage of 7%. The shale has .2% soluble salts.

No. 5 of Bishop is also from near Windom. It is a fine-grained
shale, which worked up to a lean mass with 19% water. Tensile
strength, 35 pounds a square inch. The air shrinkage was 3%. At
.03 the total shrinkage was 7%, and the bricklet was nearly vitrified.
It was completely vitrified at 1 with 9% shrinkage. It became vis-

cous at 5. The soluble salts were .35%. Its composition is:

Noi DG) Rete aA od, 105 er aUe EMDR NG Rit a HNC aan Siar Ae 61.15
NUT ager Tae Pea Aphis han aap any ate ee rie a 5)
UICOTIUG ORG Rape ged Wil (oN eas cee eee gee er ets HON)
Tein eee ae Sree Geet rT ak OR aaa anaes eee, te eet 3.06
Miaoresiiayes iis ice Cone ais ea eee Ss ale pao ces tae 20
PAT Read Geb iaage put She HEN Sh cetera gee Be ae iy” a 1.90
AY UE To) alan Mae Crp Oem ys MPN Ooch wee not Menon lores eh 5.95

94.03

Portage. (See Hall. Geology of the 4th district of New York. p.
224.) Another important shale occurs in this member of the Devon-
ian formation. The group consists of a lower shaly member, the
Cashaqua shale, a middle member of shales and sandstones, and
an upper one of sandstones.

The Cashaqua shale is exposed along Cashaqua creek, where it is
a soft green shale that weathers to a tough clay. It also occurs along
Seneca lake and at Penn Yan, but east of this becomes very sandy.
Good exposures are seen along Allen’s creek and Tonawanda creek,
and the branches of Seneca and Cayuga creeks. On Lake Erie at
Eighteen Mile creek it is 33 feet thick, while along ithe Genesee
river it is 150 feet thick.

Concerning the Gardeau shales, Prof. Hall states that they
are exposed along the Genesee river, where the section involves al-
ternating layers of shales and sandstones. Toward the east the

Se ee ee a ee

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 835

‘sandstones become more prominent, but to the west the shales in-
crease and predominate, so that along Lake Erie, “ the Cashaqua
shale is sueceeded by a thick mass of black shale, and this again by
alternations of green and black shales”, which aggregate several
hundred feet in thickness.

Angola, Erie co. The Portage shale is used by J. Lyth & Sons
at this locality for the manufacture of sewer pipe, fireproofing,
drain tile and terra cotta. The clay is somewhat less gritty than
that at Jamestown. It is a grayish, moderately coarse-grained
shale and contains scattered streaks of bituminous matter.

When ground to 30 mesh it required 21.4% of water to work it
up, giving a moderately plastic mass. The air shrinkage was 4%
and the fire shrinkage 10%. The air-dried briquets had an
average tensile strength of 92 pounds a square inch, and a maxi-
mum of 95 pounds a square inch. Incipient fusion occurs at
cone .06, vitrification at cone .01 and viscosity at cone 4.

The analysis of the clay is as follows :*

UU CCE ARPA RS Rahs tt 2 17a eae gr aa A oe 65115
be IEDB Oran a: Mee at er te che) Sct Wk Me Nei ea a aM ans RS SA a Abr 15.29
TB2Y tia OMYOD~O1C [tay ea abe yacikek Ve om me ora ea a Sp aca 6.16
ID ance lsat wane (ee hs taaeetcaie ile ome BP a MRS SNe em tna 3.50
Miaigt estat ter cgoks cu ange ack shes Sc asel oy a AR ea ake nou
Pe aN a ta ir ae ERE Eee oe Mr 5 RS eR ORR STR es SRE ye tal
97.38

NO talll tl isernies am TUP ALC Gwe eara ew) ae are eke 16.94

In general composition it resembles a Carboniferous shale used
for paving brick at Kansas City, Mo.” This shows the following

-analysis :
Sh ter akan Aen,” Oh We eS EA a ta a ee 64.37

NG hisrea Tereyee alee l apes ae rag ed Pee RR Eee, Gay oma Os TOM Te

1 Bulletin New York state museum. no. 12, v. 8, p. 228.
2 Clay worker, December 1893.

836 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Perri oscil G20, 20). aac eek ime mayen oye torre etn nea oO
tine rg sl ASR he SRS he Ne a 82
Mia omnes ia: Linley elena ees ae <8 ora na ae as eae 2.32 ‘
HN Rees: 2 het SGU ae WR Rie sein ZEST Ae a en 3.78
Leta ampurithes Ween wise. oo he ae eee 16.97

The principal output of these works is fireproofing. On ac
count of its softness the shale is easily mined and transported in
cars to the dry pans, where it is first ground and then tempered in
a wetpan. ‘The tempered material is then conveyed to the upper
floors and discharged into the usual form of sewer pipe press.
The glazing of the sewer pipe is done by means of salt.

Chemung. The most southern shale formations of New York
state are included under this head. As a whole, the group con-
sists of interbedded shales and sandstones, the former prominent
toward the west, the latter becoming predominant to the east.
The shales vary in color, and are black, olive or green. The shales
sometimes pass into shaly sandstones; these are often highly mica-
ceous. The members of the group recognized by Prof. Hall, be-
ginning at the top, are:

6 Sandstone and conglomerate

Old red sandstone

Black, slaty shale

Green shale with gray sandstones

Gray and olive shales and shaly sandstone

be PB o> BW Or

Olive, shaly sandstone
Portage sandstone

Of these members 2, 8 and 4 are the most important to clay

workers; the beds of shale exposed are often 20 or 30 feet in thick

ness and free from sandstone.
‘““On the Genesee river the shale is often in thick beds of a
bright green color and scarcely interrupted by sandy layers ”.
‘Westward from the Genesee river there appears to be a con-
stant augmentation in the quantity of the green shale, which is

‘UMOSOMIVE ‘00 HoJAq Suyaed o[eys uMosoulve ‘Asienb o[vys ‘ojoyd sey ‘H

1E8 eased edBJ OT, SET 9PId

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 837

often the predominating rock, though from weathering to an olive
color it does not always appear as distinctly ”.

“Tn the ravines in Chautauqua co., extending toward Lake
Erie, the shale still retains its green color ”’.

Jamestown, Chautauqua co. This sample of shale came from
the bank of the Jamestown shale paving brick co.

This was a rather gritty shale, which required 18.5% of water to
make a workable paste; plasticity, lean. The paste shrunk 4.5% in
drying, and an additional 7.5% in burning, making a total shrink-
age of 12%. Air-dried briquettes made of this mud had an average
tensile strength of 16 pounds a square inch, and a maximum of 20
pounds a square inch. ‘This low tensile strength was due to the
silicious character of the shale which, however, permitted rapid
drying.

Incipient fusion occurred at cone .04, vitrification at cone .01
and viscosity at cone 3. The clay burns to a deep red and dense
body.

A sample collected by the writer a year later, representing an
average of the material used, gave: water required to mix up, 17%;
tensile strength, 45-69 pounds; plasticity, lean; incipient fusion
cone .06, with 5% shrinkage; vitrification .01, with 10% shrinkage;
viscosity at cone 2. When vitrified the clay burns deep red. Sol-
uble salts .552.

Alfred center, Allegany co. Chemung shale is used at this
locality for the manufacture of roofing tile. The shale is some-
what argillaceous, and moderately fine-grained.

It requires 20% of water to make a-workable mass, which is
slightly plastic. The shrinkage of this paste in drying is 4% and
in burning 9%. The tensile strength of air-dried briquettes was,
on the average, 61 pounds a square inch, with a maximum of 62
pounds a square inch. |

Incipient fusion occurs at cone .06, vitrification at cone .01, and
viscosity at cone 3.

838 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The composition of the shale according to an analysis furnished
by the Celadon terra cotta co., of Alfred center, is:

Noy U8 cl: Mn uem ERIM hte o5 a mare nne ni ob Ta 2) 53.20
PiU bpeoavhe’ umm meme, A CANOE MmNaR a sie LIN ashe Shek 23.25
Pex rie: Oxide fei ey ye ae, el eee ae 10.90
ATG ist ie Ee AO, eee ae aa 1.01
Mi aermesia (childs a Me sethesates ai wee ha cation ee 62
PUD eM TIcWepanwence w bs rb Sur Nl a Lele Bee 2.69
Sn atte eal: eee Aor os Sl ane eet aac AL
Aidan aC) £2UkC. Gece aided ewe etn he Cat Nae, ee -9t
Wear itt BN dN ON eA tec eo eee 6.39
Mangamese-oxrelia i iia (ajc8 26 ta ee tae Kaci es Oat ae eae og
99.90
Dotal tuaine np uTGlEs ae ee ee eee 15.74 -

This shale corresponds very closely in composition to that used
at’ Kansas City, Mo.,* for the manufacture of paving brick, but
there is a considerable difference in the fusibility, the Missouri shale
being very fine and consequently more fusible.

When this factory was first started, both terra cotta and roofing
tile were produced, but now the Celadon terra cotta co. confines
itself entirely to the manufacture of vitrified roofing tile, which is
of a superior quality, and bears an excellent and widespread reputa-
tion. At first a mixture of clay and shale was used, but now the
latter material alone is found sufficient; the shale after grinding and
careful tempering is molded either by hand or steam power ma-
chines, and set aside to dry slowly. The tile are no longer burned
in saggers as was formerly done, but are placed in pockets in the
kiln. The shale burns to a tough, cherry red body.

Alfred Station. A bed of shale is worked in a spur of the hill
on the opposite side of the valley from the station. It is similar to

' Mo. geol. sur. 11, 565.

oe ee ee

‘k ‘N 3UlU10D ‘00 B}}00 B119} put YolIq Sulu10D ‘yurq ojeys ‘o104d soly ‘'H

6g8 esd oovy 6EI Rd

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 839

that from the quarry one mile north, and is used by the Alfred clay
co. for the manufacture of roofing tile and dry press brick.

Hornellsville, Steuben co. The shale at this locality frequently
contains interbedded layers of sandstone, which are separated in
mining without much trouble. The shale is rather gritty, and on the
addition of 20% of water gave a lean, workable paste, which shrunk
2.7% in drying and 5.8% in burning. The tensile strength of the
air-dried mud to the square inch was on the average 34 pounds, with
a maximum of 39.

Incipient fusion occurs at cone .06, vitrification at cone .01, vis-
cosity at cone 4.

The shale burns to a dark red. It is used in the manufacture of
paving brick.

The composition of the clay, from an analysis furnished by the
Preston brick co., is as follows:

Stillen: ye een pina Ln enh aoa a Ws abe 64.45
JANIS OR es BRIO RSS oc ane a aa eG
JS EIEN C HSI ORE IS oath MEDS Har ie eee i gear aang 7.04
[CESS a ater ab iy EE ae eat RE Ona 58
DME ONE SIA seem ase erm NO cet erie a kucke tak dk 1.85
TELUS Ae ee fe cree Srna mek ls, UCR Sen Nae aR On 2.52
SOU Ag. pasar ME MORES ect hs crohns Oe Ons e195

JORG

TEIROBSCeSt at, pace weuiiios ey ERIS Sui UY ASE A ee vt a a Po 13.94

The method of manufacture followed at these works consists of
the usual dry pan for grinding the shale and wet pan for tempering
it. The molding is done by a stiff mud, side-cut machine, and the
green brick are repressed. The burning is in down-draft kilns.

Corning. <A gray, gritty shale is quarried at this point for the
manufacture of paving and building brick. The quarries are
located along the Erie railroad, about half a mile west of town. The —

840 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

shale is argillaceous and contains occasional layers of sandstone,
which are discarded in the quarrying. <A siding runs into the
quarry, so that the material can be easily loaded and then shifted
over to the works. ;

A sample of this shale gave the following results: water required
for mixing, 184%; plasticity somewhat lean; air shrinkage, 2@; shrink-
age at cone .05, 8%, with clay incipiently fused; vitrification at
cone 1; viscosity at 8-4. The soluble salts amounted to .32.

An analysis of the shale made by H. Ries gave:

SUCH ged yw alive aS be ahaa ethene cee 58.10
WW livanaub ay: ReMrENCer err eMnen Eset eo Waralys seas MUR At Aco 17250
Perrig* oid ait: 8 aor et a Ceara oan nae 6.00
A Oia: Rare en Gr E Rea rere es ON RR ie 8 pee 5) 0)
Miaoiestar. isis Git ets anc ANG Sings eakee etc eee 2.88
AM MIS E58 ne ce a etaahie nea eee Sean genet 4.15
Wiateet ates ale aca ere eed ln 5.90

SPROUL ce 2 aN Ue ie ree lanea se 99.08

Horseheads. An opening has been made on the north side of
the valley along the Elmira, Cortland and Northern railroad, to
supply shale for the manufacture of common brick. The quarry
face is about 20 feet high and shows the shale to be mostly gray,
with occasional yellow layers due to weathering.

The shale deposits of New York are destined to play an im-

portant role in the future. They form an inexhaustible source of

supply, easily located, adapted as present work shows, to a wide
range of uses. The products now made from them are common and
pressed brick, paving brick, roofing tile, terra cotta, sewer pipe and
fireproofing.

From the tests cited above it will be seen that the shales used
compare very favorably with the requirements of a paving brick

material. Most of them are slightly more silicious than the average

“A (N Spvotessoy] “SyIOM yYyoq oatdug ‘(poted SunwoeyD) yueq oleys ‘ojoyd sony “Ty

Aes

wines
vee
Uae?

OFS esud oovy og, OFT OVI

b

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 841

run of paving brick clays, but this is no serious objection. The lean
character of many can be overcome by the addition of plastic clay,
as in the case of the Cairo shale, in which instance the mixture, as
already stated, had a tensile strength of 100 pounds a square inch.
The amount of fluxes present permits their vitrifying at com-
paratively low temperature. But if necessary their refractoriness,
could be easily increased by the addition of a certain amount of
fire clay.

Feldspar and quartz :

Mineralogic characters. Feldspar, or “spar” as it is com-
mercially called, is one of the commonest of rock-forming min-
erals, and yet, owing to its usual intimate association with other
mineral species, commercially valuable deposits of it are compara-
tively rare. The deposit must be large and of sufficient purity.
Its most common associate is quartz, but the two possess properties
which render them easily distinguishable.

Feldspar is usually of a cream or red color, but at times may be
white. It cleaves readily in two directions nearly at right angles
to each other, so that fragments often show two smooth cleavage
surfaces, the result of this property of splitting. Chemically, feld-
spar is a complex silicate of alumina and potash, soda or lime.

Quartz differs from feldspar in lacking cleavage, and being
harder. Its hardness is 7 in the scale, and it easily scratches glass.
It has also a bright glassy luster, and breaks with a conchoidal or
shell-like fracture.

There are two well marked groups of feldspar minerals, the
potash feldspars, of which orthoclase is the type, and the lime soda
feldspars, or plagioclases. |

It is the orthoclase feldspar that is usually mined, though there
is undoubtedly some plagioclase in some of our commercial feld-
spars, but a systematic chemical investigation of the American
materials has, however, never been carried out.

_ While there is but slight variation in the hardness of these feld-

spars, there is a variation in the chemical composition and fusibility.

849 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The following table gives the composition and fusibility of the
different feldspar species according to Dana.

Name Hust, 8102) (AHO aS) ips N80 CaO mmmEees
Ortheclase,: 520) 6457 138.4) 1629 :
6 [ Anorthite.... DO ABU O13 6 Mme ete tone ees EER
3 , Albite . . SEER ARO OS: sy 00 ty ramen male
0), Oligoelase..) 3.5 964.0 | 24709 250 Oh0m one
E | Labradorite..° 3.0 54.0 29.0 ||) 5 0)asi Ogi

Occurrence. Deposits of feldspar are found in the southeastern
portion of the state, near the town of Bedford, about 40 miles north
of New York city. In this region the feldspar together with quartz
forms large pegmatite veins, in the augengneiss of that region.
The width of some of these veins is over 50 feet. The spar
at times forms large masses, at other times it is more or
less intimately associated with the quartz, necessitating some sort-
ing after it is quarried, and, when streaks of mica or black tourma-
line are encountered in the veins, they are usually thrown out.
The color of the feldspar varies from dark red to a creamy white,
though most of it is a deep cream. The largest quarry is that
operated by P. H. Kinkel & Son, where a large amount of quartz
and feldspar has been taken out during the last 10 years. The
feldspar in Mr Kinkel’s quarry is orthoclase, as can be seen by the

following analysis:

No. 1 No. 2

SOR Me Aloe eves Pee era eam eo 64.97 65.85
ANG Ousuh Uae neonate Nee 20.85 19.32
BResOs) spe 6 ie Ce See se ie. 24
KOM (by lessee) soe cians 13.72 14.10
Nag ea See ae sls eee Oe ae
HOO (Oy loss) ca a. nee cere 460" ae
CaO alice) YA ye RCSB IE See 56
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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 843

No. 1 furnished by P. H. Kinkel.

No. 2 Chemistry of pottery, p. 88. C. Langenbeck analyst.

Other quarries occur in the vicinity of Bedford, on the farm of
A. Hobby, and L. McDonald, but their output is not constant.

Though in New York the quartz and feldspar are found in the
same veins, still at many localities they occur alone, but in every
case the vein is found in metamorphic rocks.

Preparation. The quartz and feldspar are quarried in the usual
way by blasting, and after sorting when this is necessary, they are
ground in a buhr stone mill, similar to that shown in plate. This
reduces the material to a condition of fine sand, after which it is
put in a ball mill, with rolled flint pebbles, and ground for about
six hours, the resulting product being a very fine powder, which is
shipped. .

Uses of feldspar. Feldspar is used to a large extent as a fluxing
material in the manufacture of white earthenware, and porcelain
bodies, and is also one of the ingredients of the glaze for hard porce-
lain. In addition it has also found some use as a constituent of
glass, the feldspar furnishing the necessary amount of alumina for
the purpose of hardening the product and as a wood-filler.

Uses of quartz. Quartz is also used as an ingredient of pottery
for the purpose of counteracting fire shrinkage, and, in addition
to its uses in this direction, powdered quartz finds application in a
number of other branches of the industrial arts. Much of the
quartz produced in this country is mixed with oil, and is used as
a wood-filler in painting. That utilized for this purpose is ground
as finely as the quartz consumed by the potters. It is also em-
ployed in the manufacture of sand paper, powders and scouring soaps
and glass manufacture.

The entire output of the quarries at Bedford is hauled to Bed-
ford Station, and shipped from there to the potteries at Trenton.

The prices obtained for both quartz and feldspar vary naturally
with the grade of the material, and also the supply and demand.
Ground spar at Trenton brings about $7 a ton, while ground

844 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

quartz is sold for about $3 a ton. The percentage of ferric oxid

in the material influences its commercial value to a large degree,

as, in the manufacture of white earthenware or porcelain, it is
highly essential that the iron percentage in the mixture shall be

extremely low. For this reason many deposits of feldspar, which

would otherwise be of commercial value, are left untouched.

I

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 845

MINOR USES OF CLAY

In the foregoing pages of this report attention has been given
entirely to those uses of clay which depend on the presence of plas-
ticity when wet and hardness when burned. There are, however,
several other directions in which clay or shale can be used, in either
the raw or the burned condition. At times the plasticity is of value
in promoting the usefulness of the clay in some of the directions
about to be discussed, at others it has no bearing on the matter,
being entirely a question of proper chemical composition. The
minor uses of clay may be classed under the following heads:

Portland cement

Mineral paint

Clarifying oils and fulling cloth

Filling paper

Food adulterants

Ultramarine manufacture

Polishing and abrasive uses

Road material

In engineering work for making puddle

Portland cement

As there is a state museum bulletin in preparation, discussing
the lime and cement materials of the state, this question need not
be gone into in any great detail in the present report.

Portland cement is made of a mixture of clay or shale, with lime-
stone, marl or chalk. The essential ingredients of this cement are
silica, alumina and lime, the first two being supplied by the argilla-
ceous constituent, and the third by the caleareous one, the lime
stone. As a rock containing these three ingredients mixed in
exactly the right proportions is seldom found in nature, it is conse-
quently necessary to mix them artificially. Both the materials are
ground very fine in order that they be intimately mixed, and this

846 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

mixture then burned in suitable kilns at a higher temperature than
that arrived at in the manufacture of any except the most refractory
grades of clay products proper, the object of the burning being to
cause the component elements of the mass to unite — for which
reason the material in burning has to be brought to a condition
of sintering — the new compounds being calcic silicates and calcic
aluminates. The burned mass is then finely ground, after which
most of it will pass through a 100 mesh sieve, and a large percentage
of it through 200 mesh as well. This ground material when mixed
with water has excellent hydraulic properties, the mass setting into
a stonelike condition. It has been found by Newberry that in the
best cements the percentage of lime is equal to 2.8 times the silica
plus 1.1 times the alumina.

New York, with her great series of Paleozoic limestone forma-
tions, her Quaternary marls, and her clays and shales ranging in
age from the Silurian to the Quaternary, is liberally supplied with
raw materials to support a flourishing portland cement industry,
and indeed there are already seven factories in operation in the
state, while an eighth one is nearly completed, and several more
are in contemplation.

The characters of the different limestone formations are discussed
in the bulletin already referred to, and an idea of the nature of the ©
clays and shales can be gained from the analyses given in different
portions of this bulletin. For farther reference there are given
herewith some additional analyses of clays and shales used at differ-
ent localities in the United States for the manufacture of portland
cement.

Up to a few years ago most of the portland cement used in the
United States was imported from foreign countries, but at the
present time it is being found that it is possible to make just as good
hydraulic cement in this country, and the local production, already
large, is increasing annually, and prejudice against it, which has
unfortunately existed, is slowly disappearing.

. 847

NEW YORK

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848 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Mineral paint
By this term is meant a paint obtained by taking some earthy
mineral or rock, which has the desired color, grinding it to a fine
powder if it is not already in that condition, and then mixing it
with oil.

One of the commonest forms of mineral paint is the well-known

ocher which is simply a fine-grained ferruginous clay, of the proper
color. Common ocher is not quarried in this state, but a variety of
ocher known as sienna is found, forming a thin bed in the glacial
drift south of Whitehall, and has been worked for a number of
years.

In the southern part of the state near Randolph there occurs a
series of shale beds which exhibit green, brown, bluish and olive
colors, depending on the amount of iron oxid which they contain
and its condition of oxidation. These are worked by the Elko
mining and milling co., and ground for mineral paint.

Mineral paints made from clays and shales form a cheap and
satisfactory form of color application for wooden surfaces. The
value of the material depends to a large extent on the shade of the
color, the amount of fineness which it naturally possesses and the
percentage of oil which has to be mixed with it in order to give a
mixture of the proper consistency.

Clarifying oils and fulling earth
Under this head is included the material known as fullers’ earth.
Properly speaking, fullers’ earth is not a clay, because it lacks plas-
ticity, but some of the material which is put on the market under
this name and does the work required of it as well as true fullers’
earth is ordinary plastic clay.

FULLERS’ EARTH
Properties and uses. Fullers’ earth is one of the most interest-
ing materials with which the economic geologist has to deal. In
appearance it resembles clay, in properties it differs from it very
considerably, in that it usually lacks plasticity, and also has the

eS Se wat

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CLAYS OF NEW YORK 849

power of absorbing large quantities of greasy substances. The
ordinary quantitative analysis does not show it to differ much from
ordinary clay, except that it usually has a relatively higher percen-
tage of combined water. Fullers’ earth when dried adheres strongly
to the tongue, on account of its absorbent properties, but on the
other hand some of the ordinary clays do the same. Fullers’ earth
was at first used for fulling cloth, that is cleansing it of grease, but
at the present day its most important use is for bleaching cotton-
seed oil, and also for clarifying petroleum. Up to within the last
two or three years, nearly all of the fullers’ earth used in the United
States was imported from England, where large deposits of this
material exist. Since that time, however, the importance of these
materials has become more or less widely known, and it is mined
in this country also, deposits having been found in different states,
and in time the importation of the English material may perhaps
cease altogether.

The only reliable means of determining the quality of fullers’
earth is to subject it to an actual test, which can be done in the
laboratory.

This of course necessitates some careful manipulation and prac-
tice in order to insure the best and thoroughly reliable results.

Occurrence in New York. In New York, deposits of fullers’
earth occur at a locality known as McConnellsville, 12 miles north
of Rome on the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg railroad.
The deposit has been worked for several years by the New
York fullers’ earth co., and is a finegrained, dense, Quater-
nary clay in layers 2 to 8 inches thick, interbedded with
layers of sand of similar thickness. The total thickness ex-
posed is about 15 feet, and there is a capping of about 4 feet
of sand. To mine the earth, the overlying sand has to be stripped
off and the layers of fullers’ earth taken off one by one, and spread
in the sun to dry, the racks being movable, so that they can be
shoved under cover in stormy weather. Thus far this fullers’ earth
has been used only for cleansing woolen goods, and it has been

850 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

shipped to several factories in New York and neighboring states.
A second mine of the same material has been opened on an adjoin-
ing farm by M. A. Penfield. The New York material has thus far
not been used for clarifying purposes, and it is doubtful if the
deposit from McConnellsville will prove to be suitable for this
purpose. f

Owing to its absorptive properties fullers’ earth has also found
an application in the manufacture of certain soaps, which are
adapted for removing grease and printers ink stains.

The composition of both English and American fullers’ earth
can be seen from the following table.

851

OF NEW YORK

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852 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Filling paper
Clay is one of the several substances used for this purpose.
It is mixed in with the paper pulp during the process of manufac-
ture, the object of this being that the fibers of the pulp shall enmesh

a certain amount of the clay particles which are in suspension in

the water in which the pulp is. The plasticity and sandiness of the

clay no doubt exert some influence on the degree of success+of the
operation, for itis found that a given paper will often retain a much
greater proportion of some clays than others, those of which the
greatest quantity is retained being the most plastic, of the several
tried. Sand is an undesirable constituent of paper clay for the rea-
son that the sand grains tend to wear out the wires of the screens
through which the materials have to pass. In certain lines at least
clay is not used as much for filling as it formerly was. ‘The color
of the clay in its raw condition is all important for the higher
grades of paper. For the best quality a very fine white kaolin or
sedimentary clay is used, it being first carefully washed, but for
the commoner grades, specially the colored ones, the manufacturer
does not as a rule have to search very far in order to find the right
material, as the requirements are not so strict.

Food adulterants
This use of clay is self-evident. It is used as an adulterant of
those food products which it resembles in color, and which are used
either in a powdered condition or caked form, either of which
would tend to hide the presence of the adulterant.

Ultramarine manufacture
Kaolin in its washed condition or even very fine-grained, white
sedimentary clays are used in the manufacture of ultramarine to
serve as a nucleus for the coloring material to gather round. For
this work the clay should be as low in iron and lime as possible,
and an excess of silica is undesirable, but if too little is present it
may be added in the form of finely powdered quartz.
Polishing and abrasive materials
Many clays exert a combined polishing and abrasive action on
account of the very finely divided grains of sand which they con-
tain. The well-known Bath brick which has such an extensive

ee

— -

a ere Bn

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 853

domestic use for scouring steel utensils is simply a fine-grained sili-
cious clay, which is deposited during high tide along the banks of
the Parrot river in England.

Road materials

Clay or shale is used in the construction of wagon roads and
railroads.

Wagon roads. Soft plastic clay when used by itself is a very poor
road material, for the reason that in wet weather it makes the road
almost impassable at times, and in dry weather it is exceedingly
dusty.

Shales if soft and very argillaceous are almost as bad, but, if the
shale is silicious and well cemented by iron, it often makes a
splendid road, specially if the traffic is not very heavy. In many
portions of New York state, shale is used to a large extent with good
results. In some regions the shale has been partly changed to
slate, owing to the folding which the rocks have been subjected to
subsequent to their formation, and the value of the shale for road
metal is then increased. j

Railroads. Jn many portions of the west where rock is hard to
obtain for railroad ballast, clay is used in a very Ingenious way.
The material is dug up along some railroad siding where a bed of it
has been found, and piled in long heaps interbedded with old rail-
road ties. This mass of ties is then set on fire at the bottom of the
heap, and the mass of clay is gradually baked from bottom to top,
the result being a mass of burned clay lumps of the right size for
putting on the road bed and as hard as almost any ordinary stone

that could be used for the same purpose. While this is an import-
ant use of clay, it. would find no application in the east alters

stone for railroad ballasting is so plentiful.
For a detailed description of this application of clay, see Min.

und. vol. 6. Puddle

Puddle is a mixture of clay and gravel often used in engineering
construction. The clay employed must be such that it will bind
the pebbles firmly but not crack in drying. The best results would
therefor be yielded by a plastic clay containing an abundance of

fine sand.

854 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

TESTING OF CLAY WARES

The tests applied to determine the qualities of a clay product
depend on the use to which it is to be put. Some wares such as
paving bricks are subjected to sudden shocks and abrasion, others,
which are placed in exposed positions, must withstand the influ-
ence of weather, still others must resist sudden changes of tem-
perature, ete.

Porosity or permeability

The denser a building brick the better it will be able to with-
stand weathering influences. Soft mud bricks are perhaps an ex-
ception to this rule, for they may often exhibit 15% or 20% porosity
and still resist frost action. The porosity of course depends on
the density, and is determined by the increase of weight which a
brick shows when immersed in water. It may also be of interest.
or importance at times to determine the porosity of the different
parts of a brick, in which case the brick is broken up and frag-
ments taken from the center.

The absorption of common building brick may be as much as
20% of their weight, while in the case of hard brick it should not
exceed 5%; in paving bricks and bricks for sewers not over 2%, and
in sewer pipe and canal brick it should never get above 12.

According to Diimmler (Zzegel Fabrikation, p. 71) it is import-
ant in the case of vitrified roofing tile and sewer pipe to determine
not only the porosity but also the permeability. With roofing tile,
which simply serve to drain off water, this is done by heating the
tile first to 100° C., then placing on it a tube whose cross-section is
10 square centimeters, and whose hight is 20 em. This is
fastened to the tile by means of wax, and then filled with 10ce
of water. The time is then noted which this water takes to soak
in, and additional quantities of 10 to 15 cc are added at a time
till drops begin to appear on the under side of the tile. Roofing

Pees St

lh |

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 855

tile which allow the water to percolate through them in less than
six hours should be rejected.

For sewer pipes the water must be put under pressure, which is
done by closing the two ends of the pipe with plates of iron, the
joints being tightened by means of rubber bands around the edges.
The pressure is then applied by means of a piston till the manom-
eter shows the desired pressure, at which point it is allowed to
stand. If the pipe is impermeable, the manometer will remain
at that point, but if the pipe contains a flaw the liquid in the mano-
meter will fall and moisture will appear on the outside of the
pipe at the point where the flaw is.

Breaking strength
This test is made by allowing the stone to lie flat on two parallel
supports with sharp edges, while a third edge is caused to press on
the upper surface halfway between the two supports. The
pressure required to break the stone is then measured. If the
upper surface of the stone is not perfectly flat, it can be made so
by laying on the upper surface two parallel cleats of portland

_ cement one em wide. See “ Paving brick.”’, p. 745.

Hardness test

The hardness of building material can be determined by means
of Moh’s scale of hardness. This scale is made up of 10 different
minerals, of which each is harder than the preceding one in the
series, and softer than the succeeding one. The order, beginning
with the softest, is:

ie fale

2 Gypsum

3 Calcite

4 Fluorite

5 Apatite

6 Orthoclase

7 Quartz

8 Topaz

856 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

9 Corundum
10 Diamond

If the hardness of the brick is such that it can be scratched by
quartz but not by orthoclase, its hardness is no. 7 of the scale.
Vitrified products should show a hardness of 6-7.

Determination of deleterious impurities

The stone or brick is to be subjected to a damp atmosphere for
a period of time. If it contains any lumps of carbonate of lime
or pieces of pyrite, these will soon show themselves by causing
the brick to flake off. The moist atmosphere can be produced by
placing the brick under a bell glass containing a bowl of water.
The method suggested by an international committee appointed

to decide on a standard test, was that a portion of the brick should

be put in a Papin digester containing vapor under one fourth
atmospheric pressure for three hours.
It is advisable in all cases to subject the raw material to an

examination to see if any harmful impurities are present.

Determination of soluble salts

These are’ determined by breaking off chips of the brick and
grinding these to 100 mesh fineness. 25 grams of this powder
are boiled for one hour in 250 ce of water. The water is then
filtered, and from this filtrate by evaporation the amount of dis-
solved salts is determined. Salts of vanadium show themselves
by the presence of a green tint on the surface of the wet brick
after it has been set aside in a place protected from dust.

Resistance to weathering
One method of testing this is to subject the bricks, which have

been immersed in water, to a freezing temperature, which can

be easily done by covering them with a mixture of ice and ~

salt. The frozen bricks are then subjected to water having a
temperature of 20° C. This process of freezing and thawing is
repeated 20 or 25 times. The particles which break off in the

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 857

operation are weighed, thus the percentage of loss is determined.
The bricks themselves are also to be examined for cracks after
this treatment.
Resistance to acids

Certain structural clay products, such as bricks for sewer works,
pavements and walls, as well as those used in acid works, which
are more or less subjected to the action of acids, are to be tested
for their resistance to the latter. The best way to do this is to
pulverize the product to be tested, separating the fine powder,
then subjecting the coarser material to the action of acids of dif-
ferent degrees of concentration for 24 hours. The acid is then
filtered off, and the powder is washed, dried and weighed to
determine the loss.

Abrasion test

This is described under “ Paving brick”, p. 745.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

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SLISOdHd AVIO AO SNOILOGS

859

NEW YORK

OF

CLAYS

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| No.

11

12

860

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

CLAY

The following table of clay analyses is probably the most com-

number of different sources.

The analyses are arranged under

clays, slip clays, adobe soils, brick clays, shales, paving brick clays,

the clay whose analysis is given is available for only one purpose,

used for several different products.

The constituents given, in nearly every instance, are silica,

water.

The following abbreviations are used.

a ferrous oxid

b lime carbonate

State and county

Alabama:
Callao mmveaetateiiel ae

INEKAINSEIS, SopgoDabOOdbOOD

Georgia:
Bartow...... sono oo0aad

Kentucky:
GurehyEtocoopoosccond0ne

Massachusetts:
Hampden... .secosees

Missouri:
Tron ...

InNNCOlMy yaar

Wake

Pennsylvania:
ILM NS 5 oo GGHodb00eNDE

Wisconsin:
Wood...

In many cases titanic oxid, organic matter, phosphoric

Town

Morrisville ..........,

eee ece Bacovcesssecccsees

Cartersville .....sse0-
Rockmart

Blandford ...cccsoens-

R. R. cut at Tiptop..
Morris shaft..........
Colbert.....

Fogelsville

Grand Rapids........

Material

From Knox-
ville limestone
From St Clair

limestone ..
Caen stone...
From chert ..

veertececnsecee

eeeceeeeseszeees

From slate...

SILICA

Com-

pinea| Free

55.42
33.55
58.63
61.66
76.78

52.03

90.05 |

72.35
65.35

54.54

2.164

70.83

Residual
: Ferric |
Alumina eat
aa. ll 8.3
30.18 1.98
20.47 8.58
19.64 7.54
14 74 1.64
31.76 tr.
4.63 2.381
15.86 2.25
21.2 2.05
26.43 9 04
21.764 .99
18.98 1.24

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 861

ANALYSES

plete that has ever been published; it has been compiled from a
the following heads: residual clays, kaolins, fire clays, pottery
terra cotta clays and pipe clays. This is not intended to mean that
for, on the contrary, it frequently happens that one clay can be

alumina, ferric oxid, lime, magnesia, alkalis, combined and free
acid and sulfuric acid have been determined.

e titanic acid
d magnesium carbonate

é organic matter

clays
WATER
s . A ear Te ee Miscel- Firm name, authority,
Lime /Magnesi2) Alkalis ans laneous or analyst
6 bined Pree
A
1 15 1.45 2 49 OR SG Hane tae |larereteretelcteteke stare
2 3.69 26 1.57 10.72 Py Ox 2.53| From Ark. geol. sur. rep’t on
manganese

3 tr. 1.42 4. Coe 2 2) aeSonoopaaD Georgia geol. sur. 1893
4 tr. tr 2 32 AaDUDoCOGCd son |! scoonoacedd &
5 tr 389 1.557 dete ll Wassosaaoacue Ky. geol. sur., chem. rep’t A, pt3
6 Lee Abi icoadGoue 15 55 Tech quart. 1890°
q tr. tr. und. 2.72 sVolaicdewistelovetets Mo. geol. 564

Loss Tbid., 2: 1872, 11: 288
8 1.09 A Ciel |eteletetstotets 3.05 1.46 2.46

Loss
9 52 Ur Wl paceaoon 4.83 2.14 2.64
HO |) poops dda) lnbacono0n ietelstctelate BS villdnccogadecs “
11 | 224 .698 5.139 4.758 sescesseeess | PENN. Geol. sur. D, p.18

12 | 24 02 2.59 5.45 CO, 1.02 | Wis. ae. sci. 1870-76

862

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

(vt)

foro, TY

State and county

Alabama :
Calhoun....rcscccsseses
Talladega.....sesesseee
Arizona:
Graham..... dqandGs0000
Arkansas:
1B) S660 Go0cdonD00000K0D
PMR saocaqdt00a0009

Ouachita.....

ee reorocen

Colorado:

JeHLELSON. .scccscrecceee
Connecticut:

Florida:

Lake .....ceseeee oecoad
Indiana:

CIAY .sccccreveressvccens
Lawrence pa000 sooaaod
ce

Massachusetts:

Hampden,....s+eseseee

Missouri :
Bollinger. .

ee
Cape Girardeau........
Carter ..... sonanonsoose

Stirling (Macy place),
Howel

West Plains
bank), Howell

ecvecce

(Yates

Lawrence....

Lawrence..

Oregon
Ghanton .scceesseseaces

North Carolina:

wen eereoeceee eceeses sence

Troy .

eeoce

Kao
SILICA
Town Remarks Alumina pe
Com- F
bined | ~ 7°°
12 miles southwest of
WACKSOMVANTON. crevelolereisl|ltaleleleieferersie sini einre 45.77 39.45 sodden
Talladega ....s...s.- ooougudGDGGnCRS 42,21 37.27 tr.
CURE Gosoo5do0000000|| Sns0090c0G00000 42.4 82.5 16.17
e(atuieyo/elevsisieie/a\e/aca‘aisle (els 48.87 36.54 .98
ohasesouoadosdooouoCodr 46.27 38.57 1.36
Siratelaieie SaddomouODNGs00G 48 .62 36.52 1.74
(GOVME MM acleretaraiels orsicveleresell UetelsvatelelaTolclelereterele 56.41 26.37 Bleterelatets
Sharon......0.s...5e+--| Washed kao-
Witooaocnos0o 46.5 37.4 8
AT at alae erereratolefelatal| leetatelatetateteteleteleletsts 46.11 39.55 .35
Seats SretariteferereteroreialaveLoteres| aisvetelststetcistetatatereters 68.5 17.2 1.3
eraevaleteveieveteleteToreveletetevatel iarevaeleieveletatatateteterets 44,54 41.18 pouowone
FTC OTL Meee eee 41.125 39.26
adoo0009 eossvecerassees:| NONPlastic
white kaolin 44.75 38.69 .95
I TUG ROG epepeteretetetelafaralsd| iereteleferaletavereneleteteler 52.03 31.76 tr.
Glen Allen............| Used for white
WAre........ 72.3 18 94 4
ta gouadoooooda oe 63.5 24.55 Adlon) Avo
Brook’s Land ........ ee 91.05 5.04 .69
M. E. L. and M. Co..|Kaolin washed:
near Chilton......... not worked. 73.82 18.16 1.32
o00d0s000 AOD DOU 40 .»-.| Washed, not
worked ..... 57.75 27.6 2.09
arate aesceerocsecssesss| NOt worked .. 60.55 24.77 84
AULOT&. ceeeeeees Halloysite.... 44.12 37.02 .38
Porter and Coates
shaft, Aurora...... Halloysite not
fworked ..... 34.53 6.41 2.59
Louisvilleshaft,
INU sss n0ns 550006 Halloysite not
worked 82.44 5.53 2.17
Arnoldland, Thayer..| Ka’lin(w’ sh’ d)
not worked.. 81.18 12.14 1.88
Trusty land, Winons.| Not worked . 56.74 27.29 6.87
SwalElossogo0 .ceconoous Wash’d kaolin 44.08 36.26 1.86
Webster......- So bade Wash’d kaolin 45.7 40.61 1.39
Webster...........0. Crude kaolin. 62.4 26.51 1.14
Sie Uiicnerers Rtofaresetclelets Cl’y sub’st"nce ;
of above..... 50.5 34.2414 74
FeOa
CU Trakersierstctaracetstore ..| Wash’d kaolin 45.78 86.46 ass
West Malls ....| Crude kaolin. 53.1 33 06 1.18
Are eas Clay s’b’st’nce 45.41 | 39.56 86
AhuoSdasooodadabonbacos! Ombiolen aokyar
kaolin ...... | 90.18 | 4.99 1.86

lins

Lime |Magnesia|] Alkalis

S

a

1 SP a Geadoadoec
2 stil

3 2.17 tr

4 19 .25
5 34 25
Gi Picrers siete |) ood00003
q 29 2

8 wes |) Sonoe coo
CO) Soaooes : 13
10 2] Gooonn

De Wee's a betets Pal varatsrnteie cere
12 ROOD NEEM met tereters 3
13 37 3

14 tr. 54
15 68 89
16 1.6 -48
17 «24 22
18 tr. 21
19 24 31
20 +25 41
21 -19 SOCG0008
23 2.58 38.9

24 -16 14
25 -26 18
26 43 .20
27 .45 09
28 57 01
29 -86 OL
30 -50 04
31 38 08
82 45 .09
33 313) | 01

Beeoeere

eeeeroas

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

WATER
Com
bined Free

18.29
13.61
13.4
14.66
AB) |] gobos
13.78
3
A ste oe
ABATE alec nee
15.55
7.04 BAS
Riot elle eee
GulGrulGesace.
11.33 ae
GR Ho. Ane
7.19 9 97
6.94 11.65
mice) Vibe een 4
6.20 1.20
13.56 3.07
8.98 .B5
8.8 25
ASKBSI Ieee exes
13.4 2.05
TS “ley Gaaho
18.58 -
1.93 .48

peuee

wees

Miscellaneous

eae

seeeoer

ereoce

eerere

sa aeae
eeeree

sree

seceoee

eeveve

eecoee

se eeee

waeeee

wanes

863

Firm names, authority,
or analyst

G. H Bivan, anal.
Ue ne geol. sur. bull.

Min. res., 1891

oe

H Regi, anal.

Min. industry, 1393

Ind. geol. sur. 1878
p. 158

Penn. mineral co.

Ind. geol.
105.

SUD ex,

Tech. quart., 1890

Mo. geol. sur. 11: 536

From Glen Allen Kao-
lin washing co.

Mo. geol sur. 11: 536.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 564
oe

Mo, geol. sur. 11: 666

Ibid., p. 566.

ee

ce

Ibid., p 570.

Mining & manufac. co.
Harris clay co.
G. Springer

ee

Ge

G. Brindels

864

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

| No.

24

State and county Town
Norih Carolina (cont’d)
oe
GG eeeeeeeee eoveeesn .
66
OG @oeoveeeeasoee eon e .
Bosticks Mills ..,.. podadonocnoooan0R0 be
ee
JY) emaa i OP Ne Socata [leon acs nee em eetae
“ Lee ak a
Ob seeseoroeroes
ee SALON i ae ae
Cleveland......... ann || CHROWEIP aGooogpso00de=
Jackson ...... Soo000 Harris mine, near
- Webster..... ayevereiows:
Pennsylvania:
Chester..... seeeeesee-| Glen Loch, White land
kaolineo.. ac0
ae AU AGHA SG cs5- Gosconbe
ee wt
ae National kaolin and
fire brick works
CS National kaolin and
fire brick works....

Delaware ...

pecosvece
co

IBGGESsteeriyecteesrericreitir

Laneaster.............
Chester ....... At) BBO
Berks lofofeiotedeiatetstatave

South Carolina:

JME o560.%s0050 eriele
Texas:

Edwards....... cocud
Virginia :

Nelson. ...... odoosdoud

Wisconsin :
\W@OC! <oapocdcnocead
be

Brandywine Summit

Hunter Mine.....

Chestnut Hill.......
East Nottingham ...

Mertztown.

elelaieieklelersiepnotietevere torts
ac doookodaudd asdoc
Grand Rapids........
G6
Hersey......... perry!
eet

Rea arks

SILICA

Coin- a
bined | Free

Clay s’b’st’nee
and Fey Oz. x

Washed dark
kaolin

Clay s’b’st’nee
and Fe,0 9

Washed white
kaolin

.| Crude kaolin,
9

Clay s’b’st’nee

Crude kaolin,
22

No. 20 washed.

Clay s’b’st’nce

ee ecene

ae oertceesecers

spa eeoo tons ose

Washed......

Crude kaolin.
Washed kao-
Iti sad ododos

73.7

71.2
49.33
55.24

41 62 | 2.28

50 96
43.88
70.88
71.02
67.71
46.273

47 ,22
66 173

7.1
46.34

54.62

44.94

48.61
69.5

78.83
49.94
58.82

49.7

Kaolins.
. Ferric
Alumina Pci
33 66 10.46 j
6.46 2.14
80.04 9.37 :
23.33 2 97
19.99 1.86.
21.91 1.49:
39.04 19
16.03 1.57
19.61 2.18
35.9 3.15)
30.84 .84
40.66 14
23 30
40.96
20.99 ayetele ree =
19.72 1.58.
20.53 3.12
36.25 1.644
34.1 se)
19.89 a.783.
20.1 39
35.32 64
28.18 2.24
39.18 © 52
43.17 noannone
19.1 laveiaiajainies
13.43 74
6.8 02
31 18 tr.
38.25 .05

(concluded)
Lime
°
Zz
1 91
2 silty
3 .84
4 Pp)
5 eG}
6 .20
Fe .42
8 .38
9 silty
10 ol
11 .08
124"l: oe paceue
183 |ioaooasane
14 ities
15 .65
16 82
17 29
18 .192
i") Goede
20 23
21 aa
22 04
23 il
24 Ete
Zou Meretsistelstale
40 I) ea nopoad
Pe W oonDsod
28 38
29 - 6
80 .64
31 tr.
32 07
33 tr.

Mag-
nesia

sere eeee

Alkalis

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

WATER
Com 4
bined Free
aR eG HG adoaac
BO WP oceoses
14.35 Sonoda
7.65 Bopciic
4.7 aulyé
4.04 -03
(eG lobadl leonora 6
4.33
4.33 :

8. ye

12.89
14 .84
iets |) onoac ne
13.99 vonoe
10.28 coode
7.04 20
7.78 joondoe
13.535 efetatatelere
13.68 Rade

4.784

5.9

13.75

7.16
13.38
6.05

11.12
5.45 COx-0;
11.62 eiaieeteiete
10.04 Anand
12 sate

865.

Miscellaneous

Firm names, authority,
or analyst

W. M. Bowran, anal.
J. A. Holmes, T. A. I.
M. E., 20

A. E. Barnes, anal.
ee census, 2, p. 1078

| Rep. Penn. geol. sur..
| 1885; p. 589
cise goose | obhonn Pa. geol. sur. D.3
Peeadous Sgnne AO 1885 Rep’t. Pa. geol.
; doce anys sur.
AN OSnSO0 anf -.+-+. | Booth, Garret & Blair,
anal.
retaliate ell nveieiere TiO0g | U. S. G. S. bull. no.
148, p. 290
Reece SSO 5
Saas Baa | pesig |
Snoacdae || caodas seoee | Tex. geol. sur., 1890
10% ale
vee sais | sain | Wis, ac. sci. 1870-76
Teodnl baie LEE Nya Be
Superior China clay
Jogue sinciele aincsieieln co.

866

Fire
SILICA
State and county. Town Remarks Alumina | Ferric
Com a oxid
ig bined | *T®
A | |]
~~ | Alabama:
1 | Randolph..........| Louina. poscone|| CIERVoSoasconadgond000 37.29 31.92 tr.
9 | Calhoun ...........| Jacksonville... White clay......... 44.6 38.92 78
3 (CIAGCIEN? aooo000d00|| 665». cpd00900 ....| Hard clay...-. c0000 36.3 5.12 1.6
4 | Marion ,.........-..| Pikeville........ ...| White clay...... 500 47.2 37.76 91
Arkansas:
5 | Poinsett ........ tote atersvevarete saneoaddaanDoNel| GooDDD500 pondoonccns 61.76 22.91 3.82
(§ ||» Cake) S55 0n04000K00]] aooooouea06 snoocg00e nodD osa0s00n000000 70.43 19.15 1.7
4” | Lawrence...... coool IRENE IR@ES Gouoocacll Booanacounsco0d08050e 84.24 11.5 .08
California:
g | Amador .......... : Washed clay... 59.98 830.29 a Pae
9| Nevada me . 57.05 30.6 .48
10 | Placer...... ... oe 49.08 37.09 1.91
11 | San Bernardino. Pe 12.54 42.97 .63
12 | Lake....... .| Alum clay 66.75 37.35 +20
18 | Drinity............. Wash’d white clay.. 88.3 85 15
Colorado:
14 | Jefferson ..........| Edgemont .........| ..... so00doagaa0se 46.61 37.2 cals}
15 | Pueblo ..... eeseeee| Pueblo..... rfavorevateveial in ©: cLivaateletexstereleteteieterererels 28.76 | 34.46 24.72 .43
16 | Jefferson ......... | Golden Palsicrautersratal|ihecaratees maisteiavereletsistersieeraie 46.88 35.42 ai1.74
17 ss do0uae000 iS: Sooo Looonnl| (Caw@Io GE? qoooc0 71.81 15.09 a1.%5
18 of nondood ebdbe atcvate lave 56000] SLOAN 5000000000000 49.54 34.04 a .88
19 ae Era ea ery Ce itis Vina a ..| For crucibles ......| 39.184 33.64 05
Delaware:
20 | Newcastle .........| Wilmington..... see] ceeee secvevereceeres 72.4 14.8 tr.
21 Re cso00c000|| NEMCAST@s5500000c8|| conccond0dd000n000000 72.33 16.75 @1.29
Georgia:
92 | Baldwin............| Stephens pottery ..| ...... pdonandnodo0d 41.2 38.6 1.45
23 SO ait aacotaraieietete Ben BR Mun rctalll Have aichavetonires: Sere aooouvd 54.32 80.24 .06
Illinois:
Q4| Henry.............- COMES*Osbnsooesscnol| oosoadauces nooogen005 62.55 29.1 1.67
OFM A SCOLL AM Mn sells sie iarel ate AWAIT So odoadal| a do oco0dos ielalenie oad 69.85 17.08 3.47
GHB || MIGROS ooenaecocs New Windsor ..... | .ssseeceseeee eeeeee 76.1 15.04 a1.08
Indiana: :
97 | Lawrence.......... Huron ..... So00 Indianaite...... onc 40.5 36.35 miley
ag | Clay. .............| Knightsville........ aadoe = ooo000n0 67.87 12.7 7.24
99 | Parke...........- ..| Bloomingdale......] ....... oo0ddA0000 69.82 14.27 2.18
80 eae rlcsisre seooeses.| Leather wood creek
4% mile from
Blooming dale....) s.sssecrerercersvenes 73.32 16.06 1.1
31 be wecceeceseves:| Mecca (S. L. Me-
(Cina Pew Under clay no. 16..| 68. 23.57 | 4 ce
32 | Vermilion.......... West Montezuma a 28
(J. Burns) .......| Under clay no. 10..| 83.44 10.88 || 7-5 ;
Iowa:
38 | Woodbury.........| sergeant bluff...... ocagdadndpddsddoN 76.8 12.09 3.03
34 | Dallas) !.%..........| Wan Meter... 0.2... abapaoce 86.63 10. 92 ji
85 OG obocoudo bp ppoc0d00 deoedoddd 55.11 26.71 4.29
36 Oa GsopedaooabdaD Crills mills....... Cretaceous clay.... 67.14 19.93 2.89
Kentucky: ;
BY? | mistileél | Ssoon coocual| JalenaohAl,ogqcanqnal| aosocounsoonoouaoodKc 74.84 16.58 1.4
38 gs arkeyetaTelielaceiotati lia WV AViG LULEO seraye) aval araieaalimuelsvelotavetetetererslayeieteretetersiete 73.24 15.76 1.92
39 | Muhlenburg........) Ross mine.......... boadooaoden pecereonne 63.18 26.281
40 Thomas bank ......| eecsrssseeee pooDecadn 47.56 46.61 tr.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

clays
Lime
}
A
Ain lereteyetctcter=
3 46
4 tr.
5 05
6 -b2
iT 52
8 28
9 12
10 53
UE itreviarseree
12 2
13 1.03
14 44
15 ab)
16 44
We 14
18 61
UI) |saoa0ea00
20 .85
21 2.
23 .09
24 tr.
p5) 28
26 62
28 nue
29 9
30 5th
31 .44
32 36
33 4
BAIL orocuntere te
35 aloceterecvee
35 55
37 269
38 825
39 203
40 28

Magnesia| Alkalis

weev ieee

wees eene

oe reee

eeeveccee

es ecee

WATER
Com-
bined | Free

47

11.75 | 2.18
5

7.98

eee eee

867

Miscellaneous
Loss
slaravctesoleralllacasatessrare 8.75
Loss
Goo00000. || Sodoc 24.27
Org. 5
: TiO. | Loss
4 -68 | 10.39
RAPPER atta diag Wr,
Clay subs Qtz.
84.524. TiO, .80 11.216
Loss
TiOg
pooubono 1.95 oood
ie cath) banca |} cododc
ot TiO,
op ODHe OM [Miche te

MnO 1.95 SO, .29 Loss.
6.8

aeanddad Pace c1.1
nbo ealsielere c1.29

Ree eeaa| atone SOn. 4s
seseseee [PQ On | SOg
179 | 3.282

eeoes aah eneGieall. wane

49

Firm names, authority
or analyst

Trans. inst. min.eng.,10
ce

Ala. ind. and sei soc., 2

Ark. geol. sur. 1889, 189

Jour. chem. soc. Octo-
ber 1896

Cal. state min.,9th rep’t

«sb
66
cs
oe

M. Moss, anal.

Steiger, anal.

Crossley, Analyses of
clays

Denver fire brick co.

Furnished by Golden
pressed and fire brick
co.

Mon. 27, U. S. G.S.,
p. 390

Ind. geol. sur. 1878,

. 158

Crossley, Analyses of
clays

Ga. geol. sur. 1898, p.
280

H. C. White, anal.

E. A. Terpening, anal.

Crossley, Analyses of
clays

Ind. geol. sur. 1878

Helwig & Hobbs

Ind_ geol.
20, p. 49

Ibid., p. 133

es

sur. vol.

J. H. Hurtz, anal.
W.s. Robinson, anal.

G. C. Patrick, anal.

furnished by Iowa
geol. sur.

Ay, geol. sur. Chem.
ep’t A, part 3.

Ibid., analysis no. 1618
Ibid., no. 1488

868

| No.

State and county

Kentucky (cont'd)

Carter .

settee ese nee

Hickman.

Carter..

eeoeesceece

ereecesaccece

Canterrerijasieteiaerven

ce ee e@oesoe
Boyd........ soon0
TMEIKOM qananoonesds
GLaves....scssovees

WHO, w4¢60000600006
Graves..... oooanooe

(QB WHIES% soooaadccnos
Carlisle ........00.

Calioway (N. W.)..
GYAVeS. ..eeeaeee
Marshall. ........
Ballard ...... So0000

Maryland:
Allegany .....

Michigan:
Genesee ....05.0--.

Minnesota:
Blue Earth..

eosccces

Missouri:
Crawtord ........-.

St Louis............

ewes wee eee
es

eee ecr cece
seer een ceccs

e cee revevove

sence cr esce

Callaway ..... ;

Crawford ..........

eee vee ss eonsee eer ecce

Franklin

° °
e
.
°
.
.
e
e
.
.
°

NEW YORK

STATE MUSEUM -

Town

Boone furnace.....

Powdermill hollow.

Columbus....

Olivehill .

eobose
aueecrooonr

Gorman., ..
Summit...... n6bo0d

Louisville ..

Grahm’s Station...

Ashland otatoreteteraroletere

ecoaeey

14% miles east of
Pryorsburg......
Olivehill .

Cn eC ay

Boaz Station ......
Scale.....

arreee

Mount Savage......

“cb
6b

Mount Savage
union mining ¢o..

Flushing ..........
Mankato.........05+

Oak hill........ fel

Cheltenham .’.
Hvens mine ........
St Louis......

Vandalia.......

| COLD pays
bank).

-| Fulton.. ..

New Bloomfield .

| Leasburg .. 6

; sankey mine......

Dry branch

SILICA
Remarks
Com- 4
pinea | Free
BOOOIDOOIOIOO IC IOUOOO Ora 48.56
o0odRDN000n0000 sues 62.92
Kpondesuoboddous 300 85.18
noobededcoDnTodod 50.95
a davapbatepevets area wether 49 75
Crucible clay ..... 67 99
Flint clay .....cse. 47.2
Plastic clay ........ 45.4
IFES — oo d00%000006 40.14
Nonplastic........ 43.58
Tertiary clay....... 81.06
ef 60 45.555
arefatelevatete eleltohelstetetorel 56.4
a eras ddd00sGb0Dn: o6e 43.76
dousmaoansD 90 poo 76.54
White clay..... dione 46.02
GER? cogas ‘Coogunods 61.92
Star Bip adoD00000 52.58
ssa itarsveyersvelelavsfaterclsts) 66.32
Flint clay ....-...- 50.46
aleeateteres anverelelarcrerdens 44.4
nooDDD D0 O0NHODORODON 56.8
Retulaterersieels Steriseteret 56.15
Used for fire brick. 70.55
Cretaceous clay.... 93.65
2n0 : 64.32
GopouooDOOAD.COUO: 388.1 | 12 %
Badarecneemcusrerebelats 43.93 6
Mashed pot clay.. Gi NS) Segoe
son 55.62
Used for buff fire
brick . 53.77
Used for buff fire
lovee aoc - 51.4
Used for buff fire
brick:. 55.12
Washed fir e clay. 53.77
Used for stoneware. 61.22
Used for fire brick. 47 3
Not worked 48.6
Flint clay for fire
IDGICK Nee ieecsieeet 43.82
Flint clay not
worked . 50.18
Flint clay for fire
ToVeEN cobsqn0o00098 42.6

Fire clays

. Ferric:
Alumina oa
37.471 bre
20.735 3.82)
10.26 1.12:
39.49 Anopacoe
35.16 3
39.9

400404 eee
1.98

43.72
40.86 06
13.609
16.751 1.198
17.6 3
30 oeeeenee
40.21 Do
14.82 -96
38.98
30.06 3
31.07 1.51
22.93 1.19
35.9 ai.5
38.56 1.08
30.08 1.12
33 295 59
21.2 3.2
2 15 25
22 82 1.%5
31.53 1.92
40 09 .88
24.55 2 37
30.71 1.51
30.9 1.74
33.64 1.26
30.71 1.51
32.52 1.42
25.17 1.47
37 54 1.48
35.65 1.95
38.24 23
23.03 2.31

—

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 869

(continued)
WATER
Lime |Magnesia| Alkalies Miscellaneous Firm names, authority,
Com- F or analyst
6 bined ree
ra |
1 112 LELE 2DI2 13.03 Sospoagoe Po Ox Buaach Ky. geol sur. Chem.
| 550 Rep't A, part 3,analy-
- sis no. 1337
2 | 213 2.281 3.26 6.4 Hudanead Po Ox | sees. | Ibid., no. 1478
Byal
3 tr. 064 ilsal PADS ALi. obs adanel moar eal| bnacico oD Ky. geol. sur. analy-
sis no 2715 .
4 3 28 on 9.18 syaretalocatennitsncGisveass thats oon [fl
|
5 54 15 07 14.03 podanood vexeratenta ilatsie teers |
\ Crossley, Analyses of
6 1.99 uncleter. 2.15 gad0do00 gd000N IioGoood clays
7| tr. tr. at scar Ne (eh ee RA exec
i i}
8 tr. tr: .21 14.35 hooredes! Itaonnee ...--. | Louisville fire brick
A works
9 1.60 BeelG ill ieteretererels soagaoode lero, 784) cooass. I) oo .... | R. Peter, anal.
10 229 14 SQA" ITER clave ajaralere cctisiersiaw ia, eB a cocoo |) cconan ue
11 314 -139 202 .36 P,O 5.051 ddonce ao60 o Hey peel: sur.,n. s 1,
12 tr. 144 iil BY OATAL AD nite are evan ck peal | bearararerctans | Ante ecevers Ibid., p. 433
13 .880 | undeter. all 5.7 boddo00G+ |) nosano p0a000 ee geol. sur. 0. Ss.
36
14 4 tr. 5.27 7.93 Aitaeynajeniel||netacree a‘ osocoo R. Peters, anal.
15 .88 08 |) onc 12613) || dace || anoood Sé. lspoouce Whodsone
16 cir 331 1.155 6.194 malegaateeadiNiseaeateadl bewirean Ky. geol. sur. Chem.
Rep’t A, pt 38, no.
2570
ile V3 136 481 13.61 noah ores tt cdooed:|ucticon Thid., no. 2639
18 tr. 064 1.841 5.815 SP astareeel | es eteiwtarern | estveratoie Ibid., no. 2665
19 137 245 2.093 12 365 brave aeraleray'|| Me lsierereia=' | letetitoete Ibid., no. 2760
20 437 209 1.577 TeeBie. etl oapdodanl| oo Saco] copa0. |) Lonel, 1G Barts}
21 13 02 adedanod 12.74 poocd0OONl| caodaDl| wooods Pa. geol sur., M. M.
: p. 266
22 tr. slit 25 14.57 epaiecateieieysul| tratcrelers blasters
PS Mrverete a 8 sub |M atereicicievere 8 10.5 MAO BOOwONLOoCene II soRaes N. J. clay rep’t, 1877.
24 ile calls || Geeonnac 9.68 Gascoosa. || ooaane seeee. | Otto Wuth, anal.
25 1.9 1.5 Gs) || aeosoacpoabdadco |) cocvoabe dnon0®, || dooase Saginaw clay mfg co.
26 2 12 tr. pcoooddon||: Aen) paoddone.,|| aanoou || ceadao Minnesota geol. sur.
1872, 1
27 45 12 Bete I paddaqoonoa:n6 se | SOg 212} osa00 | TiO, Chauvenet & Blair,
= 2 anal.
PB laietcnten tales tr: 4 ihlB} Pray || subbodoos 1.50 | Evans & Howard
Ola eas Roe er eteio dete 2 13.8 DEim | Mi gracorenrelateyr | etatajoieteee llwrevetsterare “
30 tr. AH3} |) HeGaooS 11.25 aisles secees | seaces | Christy fire clay co-
31 5A tr: WB Mh Igceondoonsce nooo EINE TOO Gaaood ltonacce St Louis samp. and
test. works, anal.
32 .39 .32 .49 WPS) || odaoae || Socccao- |} scooas |} ooooda: || WHOS Revol shores TGS Gta}
33 eriilumad |ietsiaye ctarhere 1.28 sLRAS D | ernrets nodaanoce||obtiooaal! acqcos es
34 54 tr. ese LORSGM | Farce rere | tetasterctareretm litres te tea] Rerewane oe
35 28 22 52 TWRB2 | aonooon ||| acooponc: ||} qoeappell "aa sete s
36 Boil tr. 1.88 8.14 DRGOY| iE stersiacersie tlh eteserarare Seocac es
37 EDC il haces sted ED IRSA Booked siecdone Iyooceror||, cocdne ss
38 sail 26 .49 AAR alla were enmateras Aonano If Cogooo “s
39 POS i iseerve tees avi) | Teta el als Bode Is GUNDORE te Docdne | lA oDodpe Mo. geol. sur. 11: 564

40 24 68 2.06 | 10.43 eG Waco gcos. |b coaged Wl! sodoot Bk
Heh 8 Winadesd IM panaddoe I Gobedo "ll andbos st

870

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Fire clays
SILICA
State and county Town Remarks Alumina| Ferric
Gome = oxid
fe) bined| “7°?
a
Missouri (continued)
1] Gasconade........-| Drake .......se..e+-| Flint clay not
worked .........-- 40.5 43 22 81
2 a +..+:..| Owensville ..... .oo»| Flint clay not
worked .........-. 44.7 35.92 3.35
3 Lincoln............ Baker’s shaft ......]. Sacer aheleieretstotente 34.4 18.62 tr.
4/ Monroe............. Clapper (William-
3 SOM) Fee .| Used for stoneware 70.3 20.35 oils}
5 Boia saya hears io fe 67.76 21.9 .69
6 Montgomery. Sodcoda High hill.........0 Flint clay for fire
bricks yarns 45.12 40.4 47
Wal) Morgan sess seein cee Versailles ....... ...| Not worked ,....... 68.94 21.18 78
SaMStouiseeereeeree: Stiouistesncose: ...| Washed clay for
glass pOts.. vce». 60.31 23.52 2.57
9] Osage...........-.-| Lion (Gostang) Flint clay not w’k’d 47.87 37.14 .88
10 | Phelps.......... ...-| St James (Buskett
. bank ). Boedannaée sa0d00000 51.05 34.28 389
il OP ire ae aOa rae ..| St James (Buskett
bank) ... Ae ia Sa ae 46.38 40.07 5
12 Sie aereintantent .......| St James (Buskett e
bankyos Wee: aHonoosobooouoonds 47.306 38.173 823
18 OIG AY ela varet fas ges Rolla (Buskett
[oBIU)) Soosoonn coool) Wibine GER, Soogog000 61.408 25.551 281
14 MO agngnboocdee se Os nooDaGn000 6.339 22.05 82
15 | StLouis.... ......| Bartold (Jamie-
SOMIS) anes cect: Flint clay for fire
IOGHOR oou6scco 550 53.9 28.85 4.19
16 ae dodooeudd Bartold (Jamie-
SON’S) ........ +»..| Washed fire clay
for clay pots..... 55.61 27.36 2.73
17 fis sonoad soqcl| Sie LO@UMNSsoschocn0000 Silica clay......se.. 42.10 18.72 1.2
18 eit seesseeees| Ob Louis Christy
GER? ©® so52nb5 0006 Washed fire clay... 64.35 21.16 2.63
19 Ss seseeceees| Ot Louis Christy
GE COnoo.. a2=5 se S00 60.66 24.51 2.28
80 cs seseeveees| OF Louis Christy
GEN? @Ocoannssaacc Used for fire brick 61.73 23.56 516
O71 ue sseceseee | St Louis, Laclede
MING We ees oe 57.34 24.68 2.6
a2 ue 000 St Louis, Evans &
Howard...,..... sie 59.36 23.26 - 3
23 ot ecccoeses| St LOUIS, Parker &
Russell.,.........| Fire brick and gas
retorts ...... malelsls 67.47 19.83 2.5
24 a seoersees| OL Louis, Columbia
B. road (Sattler).| Washed clay for
glass potS........ 52.98 28.87 2.48
25 ns seeersee--| St Louis, Jamieson
pees fire clay
WS dade Washed pot clay... 52.52 31.4 2.34
26 uf pacdaeoooN (olin B. road,
St Louis..... .... Not worked........ 51.66 30.78 2.9
20 oe seoeeeeeee| Columbia B. road,
Sinlbyobncieonavee anal soooonoonet sanoodoodo 53.54 28.21 4
28 te coresseeee| Coffin & Co., Gratiot), ees for glass
Pais HAE ORO 55 29.62 2.18
29 se Sadooco00D oe Weehed for. ‘glass
pots..... Bielelelelejeiere 56.01 31.68 1.13
30 os . bogond oe Wire brick.......00: 48.27 81.35 4.97
31 Sei ARCA Teartantote Ao wt oe gRodDOOGD 56.47 28.24 2.26
32 | Shelby..... sseeveees| Higgins pit, Lake-
man .. -.eee.| USed for stoneware 58.5 30.5 2.34
33 a SaagogdddosS ..| Hizgins pit, ‘Lake-
je Aeows wie dosoa||seedgaodboooonn 6 Rreietetars 67.6 18.97 1.25
384 | Warren .......... Chiles pank .......| Fli t clay oooacd 46.18 38.12 .32

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 871

(continued)

Firm names, authority,

Lime |Magnesia| Alkalies ‘ Miscellaneous or analyst

1 Usual tr. 51 WEI} || Godaeos |) ooa50000 |} bopcco |} a6scce || IO, Seell sine, ahis by!
2 15.27 21 29 12.20 PA open: oo pooaso |) cocgac! || Woda, ile Boe!

3 3 @o2= |) ‘Cnoco0ae |! codoonda || coodd0s IGOSS || oanc0o || cooce . | Lbid. 1872, 2:288

4 67 .383 49 7.12 ROM ltoronatetstere? oll nstevavelete ssece» | LOid. 11:566

5 . ie 66

6 29 tr 3 113.8%! || Gonecas |] cooo0ace || soosa0 || oxcoce ce

fF 61 43 66 WS |-oacoad || oo000000, || Go0000 || ‘caoanc os

8 tr. 9 .59 10.11 USB || cosogcod |! ononeo |) doacce Christy fire clay eo.
9 42 58 af 13.18 ait |] coogcces || coocop || ocoonn |} Miley Fretotl. Gibbe, IUlS EGS}
10 tr. tr. 11 LSB) Gonocce |) aconccee |} ongoo0 || oodons BG

11 1.26 Roam UllMatelelereretere U3!) goodoos |} sooocac0 || coscos ncooR6 ee

12 .058 -09 1.41 1B} oada000: |} “Goaoon0a |’ Ghococ! |} Goc0a0 oc

13 1.32 16433 “1! Gaodoo0c etfs} || Gooscog || Gooscooo |) cveosc seeeee of
14 +22 05 89 8 Bod || oocoagaa ||, anndo0 dnoodd CH

iia] slat! 1 SB, |) HE es MW ncousen || aocose SO gece! be

16 87 07 71 11.13 2.26 || weeecvee | seeeee | SOQ

-51 e

17 2 11 ereleteleverat 6.56 HS} |] boogo000 || coccan ||, ccooes Furnished by H. Bur-
den, 2d.

18 61 3 ail 8.94 2.63 | ...ereee | eveeee | CL.07 | Mo. geol. sur. 11: 568
AQ Rsrareisetsses 46 iy 11.89 | ..cceee | ceeceoee | saves | seeeee | Hrom Christy clay co.

20 55 15 il 9.25 Bee! danoanbo! Ihooosds. || So) 3 | Mo. geol. sur. 11: 568
56 |

21 9 49 eo || ERS Bde || Goesuons jd SOE | ea era

22 65 42 63 10.2 Batts |) saconpae | dooa00 | SO 3 | Ibid. 11:570

24 51 87 1.01 11.42 3.68 | cocccess

evesee eevoes

seeoes 16 12.42 | From the company
anoone c1.85 | Mo. geol. sur. 11: 568

27 1.01 i 16 1B RAo.|Wosonood | Goceobon |] dooce! hanooce te
28 91 29 127 11.61 veeee Sagan iI|kadocao sie
29 ilaalre 21 09 8.77 74 vecees e.2 a
380 2.13 21 1.28 8.42 WPT | oseao0do Il accada 2.1 os
31 1 32 45 11.44] ....... cuveee veces es

eiisiesioll lenis | PO. SOL SUTe Lis

oe

c1.01
23 41 07 1.07 G8 Bioies | Soaaboos |) succeed SO 9 te

34 "b4 tr. 1.2 POT een nae

A Raiscieien lieve esis] ILO. SEOk SUL. tls bre
b Ignition

872

Yooumowree | No.

(e)

State and county

Missouri (contd).

WeETKEM 25... ccve oe
oe

eo -
66
ee
Ge

Ge

Montana:
Deerlodge...... poor

New Jersey:
Midd esex

eee e sores

eee ee oene
sees seces
seer scene

were sees
eee et eee

Mercer ......
«iloucester .......
Cumberland....

Middlesex...,...0

severe seue
6s

e . .
oe

eassecns
ce

New York:
Richmond ......

North Carolina:
MOOre sin ieiieniiecieee

Harnett........ G0
Cleveland.........
Guilford B

Mercer

Jefferson
Trumbull
Jackson ....,.....

Tuscarawas......-.
Scioto...

Perry

NEW YORK

STATE MUSEUM

Town

Kelly’s pit .........
National nit. Praliesaacs
oe

ee

eoenseee

National pits mlateistoretars

BIOSSDULZ .eeoeseee:

Woodbridge.......-

Bonhantown.......

Rarit’n river. .
Sandhills
Eaglewood.
S. Amboy
Burnt creek,.......
Sayreville .........

Martios dock......

eaeeee

Oldbridge ........-

Trenton ......... O50
Canragdenirt. avacenasers
Miliville ...-........

South Amboy......
Woodbridze........

Sq al ion cotta
lumber co.

Valentine & Co.
Woodbridge......

GHROWEP Gdcanoqs50000

IPOMO MA elatelsis ste atotels

One mile north of

Pomona..........
Plenty coal mine...
Dickinson
AIL Oe iereeysye.cherekererstelene

Akron

Freeman sialele misvorate

Oakhill j
Mineralpoint ....
Scioto Bet ot
Salineville ....... 00
Mocahala...........

Remarks

Cen ee rd

Sandy clay. Spon eee
Fire clay pAOOCOR CORA
Fire Cogs
Clay .......- o6o00dc0
Oboes clay; .....--
li IBY soosocee coon bone
Bente e ee tere ees
Gree te
Paper clay ........
Washed clay.......
Clays rey este sear ernie
Crossley’s clay.....

H. C. Perrine & Co.

Crossley’s clay.....

eececees pe wer coeesecs
eeccee eoecesese reson
eee oe evo
ers enerterccee eeevoe
eee eneoce eeeenvoves
eeceresecee e
Ob eo reeres cores eee
eee eeee eeee ease orce

Flint clay - ita
Clay Sho ubeod
maculey Betonticod

Fire clays

SILICA
Com
pined | Free

=
~
We)
Or
3
OL

we)
x
o2)
gers
a

o DIRNVMOH TAR ow

as
wo
Ne)
oi
(=>)
SOO
THRO COR CLK OOD

51.21 | 8.13?
45

66.77

44.45

58.25
35.39, 17 13
44.34 7x6

Alumina

CLAYS OF NEW YORK
(continued)
a
|
WATER
Lime |Magnesia| Alkalis Miscellaneous
Com- Free

eS bined
a —_-
1 BA Dy al brtele s erate 2 1405s oasacs mii lRiate erciateseies cl taece oie sssullcseleisis
2 tr. si) .2 WAST BH elre ce ate agoac004;|| sascha: || oongon
3 tr. 37 -18 5 62 haere Acnuasooo |) lsonsoaedl| oojonr
4 1.08 1.6 2.74 9.638 ate onnaceos scant 3050s
5 81 1.22 2.62 10.64 mieteletoim |latersraleceletate Soodn |} cosooa
6 Xi 1.01 .97 14.56 so000 coadeaa |f doosog |} ecaosa
ve 1.22 2.24 2.14 13.68 agcq0 || -anodueon Ih odode Il) concad
9 .46 .36 Socn0cus. |) -asadone Spor lita, beer |) Bia gacood
10 ananou |) oonsosne ally 4.9 EB angoonee | ale 4o0
Til |) Seooeeas 6 Ml Soobheso 44 12.8 i155) c1 3 agood
UA secoace alli .44 12.2 fs) Giles al a eamets
133 "]) seccoaq 2 tr. sot 12.3 4 CLG latencies
TZ sabes A 04 ol ls) 12.9 1.2 Soodac. |}"oendano
15 22 .20 -59 12.5 1 EA cae areforers
16 22 sdoaonadd .89 13 32 ih c1.6 adone
17? | Sheeesne Soovonde 44 13.5 ileal GUA Mega ano
18 soo paoROOKO -46 13.55 1 5 GLE erecta
19 erstenteal maine cersio/e 2.49 10.9 1 Sepoiellweiines Sp00
20 adonoa || doqssqn0 2.22 Bie Ba [a noses all h nC LS WI a wacarter
Ooi "ll veseee er Senate 1.6 a Ai Bren ikomacor sell meorctatsters s0q00
DIG a resictin (ae cecnans 1.93 ve 1.6 sfantarsvoraterlWoateinre cts Safeters
93 afi) 1) Sosoban 50 '5).815)- | SoG06 set || master stevela ou | aeaie coenso rep tees 5
Ma neeerctercraloin|(aterersve eres 9,6 GHOASCU Mea oo pe bbs'|h ace o Cb. eieiererels so000
25 BOG allweterel stare: ere CNET Goancue iat atereval| (Mesreresetevor| atareneterers
26 tr. miialetoraie QE AN Le sara ecateal eave tey etetevad [dbcete ele Care rafol|(liheraiatetarorl| ua’ steletets
Bi || Ssoane Botan 10.04 sacos So0ode |} oooseane |) coosec |! dodo b6
28 Reel litesciats cre ote GAGS Oily, ogee avapall eretensrateie soo0eac : sedodn
29 AY (3) tr. 2.35 Goosdbcoddonndad || aadodose |] occose | onpacs
30 2.56 eenceee 3.1 vevcvens | acces eveces
31 1's onoo72ee 5.27 sisivininieivls: IIE e\s\eimieies\!]| Narencrers
32 7 13 2.29 -76 6.47 nocaasos |vosdncc ¢.27

Ferr.

oxid
23 25 22 ate -98 GB aGcedodo || capes .33
B4 17 21 2.12 1.43 5.4 Risiavasoveraval lInisiptateterata|| eacteters
35 -65 1.02 47 NO ct ers il leretateretetetere coe || ooooae
36 4il33 Riaistcietere 74 9.35 anondsac sia sjeleveleta
37 81 5 2 21.82 paddaons aes sg008
SOM uelarsieleisiie .029 Z30 Tae wwsaraers peteteleiis Sans melee lat fot | eavaratevere
39 .2 nietelersvorate Roane 14 Escala Urstersistenta laters
40 .65 1 SS agandD 5.4 Wits) 206) Sopco0 il Apesioc
41 tr. tr Foose 13.77 fiance a ietsiotaiata|f etn aes
42 ~) a ae oe eatoda oo 10.98 Gabo nakcesae| Gonrao
43 =D .19 .59 11.68 .69 qnésacdas ClLGSEl eats
44 27 tr tr 14,23 Bere eielclateh slhacarerarelereun rete atere’s
45 tr. tr. .67 9.7 1.12 ea eteteseral, || estmavsiave® li hucetevetaners
63.1) 2) bantu Poogome ac) aoa 11.68 savant ocdculll. Soonee

Firm names, authority,
or analyst

Mo. geol. sur. 11: 572

ee
oe
ee
ee
es

Mullan fire b. & t. co.

J. Pohle, anal., W. B.
Dixon, Est.
N. J. clay rep’t, 1878,

p. 165
Ibid. p. 82
Ibid. p. 94-96
Ibid. p. 144
Ibid. p. 153
Ibid. p. 135
Ibid. p. 200
Ibid. p. 197
Ibid. p. 188
Ibid. p. 170
Ibid. p. 180
Ibid. p. 237

5 10)

\ Furnished by H. Bur-
| den, 2d

|
J
H. T. Vulté, anal.

Crossley, Analyses of
clays

Bull.
C. geol. sur.

Es'ridge’s pit,
1S eNe
p 81

First pit. Pomona ter-
ae cotta co. Ibid. p.

Wondroff’s clay bank
Ibid. p. 85

Webster fire brick co.
E. Orton, anal

M. Shiras, anal.

| Ohio geol. sur. 7, 1893

is

A. Tharp

| No.

oOo ~— Horwmoe

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Fire clays:

SILICA
State and county Town Remarks B Alumina
om-
bined Free
Ohio (continued) ali
Shelby ....... stereos Ballou ......0. 31.07 | 20.71 26.47
Hocking ........ aol) IeATOSS pons: -o000 60.774 2... 25.74
Tuscarawas........| Canal Dover....... 47.6 35.02
Jefferson ... Steubenville .. 29.22 | 31.34 24.97
oe Pe owisivemlee | INCWCASELO Mr aeleis el. 55 49 28.33
ef seoseeeees| Hreeman (Freeman
THis) EN COp)odoao|| asonondn atsteieietetsretehelete 66.75 19.95
Lawrence..... »--..| Hanging Rock
(Means. Kyle & Co.)| No. 2 fire clay...... 58.72 25.34
Jefferson »....... .-| Irondale (Martha L.
IDEYGEN)) ooca0oa0005 eiaieterolerelaronlateleterenaiererstels £2. 24.
Stark ...... so5dG000|| MSSM. jso6c06060 miatelatelahefatsieiafeletelenefeisistels 61.58 24.14
OO leg ar au Adosal}) (CENAIOM. Do00 Spel peetaieve For fire brick ..... 69.85 19.43
Tuscarawas...... Strasburg ( Dover
HANS |HIAKE!e BOs Vo coo|) ooondAvacnodaboKonoac 50.09 36.06
Pennsylvania:
Fayette.......s000. Connellsville (Sois-
SOM MINE) ......0.| soeeee po00004 bonoodo 55.38 30.42
Clearfield .......... Woodland ,.... D6a|| eo9caase notions 45.29 40.067
0 .see-ee--| Curwensville. ...._| Bilger clay .. Lateran 43.92 38.195
Cambria............ South Fork........| Flintclay.... ... 43.46 41.61
Westmoreland.....} King mine..... Flint clay .......... 63.81 26.39
3 +». | Reese, Hammond &
Coma eee Hinewonickeenreeseer 53.08 43.41
Clearfield ... ......| Clearfield (5 miles
southwest) Sara ate Alle acl rouse cdovesetedensiotevenetalevers 44.05 37.51
Clintboneeeee cea Qe ene smmbiateerce ey. Raw hard clay.. 5 46.65 36.36
CO. padoouondgns 80 ohaa0000 Calcined hard clay 52.73 40.63
Somerset .....s00e- Savage mountain..| Raw flint clay...... 53.6 €5.484
EO Tueh ays aaa oe Calcined flint clay . 59.16 38.7
Westmoreland . Hunker Station ...| Flint clay.......... 52.58 33.12
° soo} IIRKohySS ena) GoGGood|| on500a05e avatarotataterelavele 62.029 23.656
Blair........ acn000d0)| IASMEVAH ocasarocoooe Raw clay. HeraiOaers a eleth 47 .233 38.409
Oily caccsononoo|| TSN cooK6 Baie aieietore Hard fire clay...... 48.878 382 002
Somerset .....eeee. Keystone Junction.| .......-...ese008 Sood 54.65 30.74
(CUIMION sooscosbcocc eens ir Sane aejeruiaiaiisrcnate/teperem tons 45. 38 Be
Seine eM ats fareiotone err CLONE Malye dees Ms Gill) aeceusen ererarerats booD0000 42.3; 7.01
Fayette.......... ...| Brillskin township.| Flint clay Scado6 hoOD 55.28 34.17
He Hodapoduoonsl| \Wayealoyls oes a soacc Glass pot clay...... 54.23 32.8
Clinton ........ se iaVai | MEVCTLO WON spaie slave, tyateloie| usta taretecore eles tencieierere a tore 53.84 32.6
Armstrong ........ Kittanning ....., 50 97.03
Baste eS, Jay township... 67.57 | 21-042)!
reco rad Glen Mayo colliery. 51.72 21.788
Clarion eee Bethlehem.... ore Be a
6 bGe We0) bk anod Hooo0dand 536.63 .85
Indiana ......... Sere SOMITE rcrereisiale eieielere 59.83 24.58
Westmoreland..... SEUliMEh AG Goonsedoodns pododacdoesoanD6 ae 51.92 31.64
gs sjoalf Wehbe MON ia, Sadnol) Goosnodadnoonoonn ve 55.68 29.18
oe eel IAC OMSTCLECK.)s sjectellt ucteieicluecver ieee ee eats 56.78 26.89
Hayette......-..... Meadow run ......, odefetelsyetaeteteletefetetatelelaiat= 52.23 31.31
Beaver ,..»..| Vanporte ..... a oysIsvooad coateealehere booonwy srusietes 60.19 24.23
et ta caoo ort Rochester.......0. di Gonasnsdododoo 61-98 23 88
Indiana ....... »ee..| Bolivar.......-..-. tenes . 50.84 30.745
(QHENMIGIN sa55onnndcda @linmasatenn eee Seceiel hieletece sates aetre Rerreste 42.82 40.2
GPa Day ondaoncoooull AMUKGOIN, sooosssoosooll Goouss Rielaes soo ae Baas
Indiana......... ..| Black lick....,.....| Flint clay..... odood 68.49 18.46

Ferric
oxid

—

CLAYS OF NEW YORK reek 875

(continued)

WATER
.. | —=——-——_ : i , auth
Lime |Magnesia| Alkalis e Miscellaneous Boe “Or aRALE ority
bined |) zee
ined

-59 382 -99 9.96 | P04 | iessie ove oe! || Gocco Ohio geol. sur. 7, 1893)
Bd Rode Bae eee p Setees ease aaasee at lect | acavee ;

. 6: : : ; yalsitevelals e1.3 «sees. | Ohio geol. sur. 1884
26 08 1.37 11.38 naceoses. || opacas || guooab

6 1 ASH oie 5.4 odoooone || sabpoAa- |! soodoq nua by com-
b.6 d.43 2.28 8.95 SaaS MARY Se sairen Proetee pany.

arate toterstoreii | ieatctevateYave\sias ||a sjateiciatelele 10. sevenees | secees | cossee | HUrnished by M. lL.
Lacey
45 ais a atalornste 11.98 ececcees | seeeve | evesee | HOM Massillon stone
and fire brick co.
-12 all 2.59 7.35 sseccees | seeoee | ooeees | HrOm Royal brick co.

pat

S 0 © 3 mm TAhWOH | No.
for}
Os
_
an
(es)
for)
tie}
—
for}
Oo

11 .38 12 tr. 12.4 evvccees | seeeee | oeeees | J. H. Cremer, anal. for
company

nen 52 22 seeacsalomean Nioleveonl|ueesteielelerats tl | ieeterere ssoee. | J. SOiSSon & Sons

257 .08 .048 13.184 SopdoOOO I waanod Witescis's Woodland fire brick co.

14 2 . 054 - 25D 14.2 einielsiseietont| ChanOlen |nrerieatars

15 24 OOMA erctateielcetee Nera G8) |! Gocoodde || ceased || acco. || tere Taejon, Tesi, Siupice:
college

16 tr’ tr. osodooda Ign. 9.12 SODOTODE | amosen Scand) || llaxee

17 .33 sl |) aoonaase Mesa, CHB || o6ccoana |) osoo0c |) Goonoa. |) dleaee

18 -49 181 065 15.21 cocsoese 1€ 1.84 | wacec.
19 BO Bia lara crctate 2 1.3 13.01 vecssess 162.64 | ...00e

20 21 04 1.83 | svccevescevevcce | seesseee (C 2.94 | sasvee
21 .302 2144 | ceeceeee 8.75 taereces | veveee | evens
22 301 1536) | vecescne | covers so0aoob00 | OD0R000" || dnoods || Gonooo

Queen’srun fire brick
co.

Welch, Gloninger &
Maxwell

CBS |code ane .29 .08 13.68 olarelcva/evereinal eynetcnts vesees | Westmoreland fire
brick co.

24 2.335 .819 1.661 8.049 Prolainxefels)cul| Met peveyels soe. | G. G. Pond, anal.

PNM ono cctmee LOZ Al Reecyacicie 13.775 esc aeee | eseeee | veeees | Harbison & Walker

26 374 .079 MRAZ ing Aten s cretcteieieisyers Loss sevess | sseees | GG Pond, anal.
15.609

27 .19 13 ollil Seale a raiereleverou-ealeeval sit lmisteletstarelerie’ | iioxeiapete 330000

28 .08 .02 1.26 13.3 veevees> |LOSS 20] .....- J.B. Britton, anal.

29 yg 16 1.29 17.74 Socinoooe 3.83 |Loss.23] E. E. Melick

30 1.31 2 relidopil atate ei sic) svatit | asistaaymentcl terol vtated cael [ie otete le] sfenetane || Mslotelersioua |heciatetere Soisson & Kilpatrick.

33 ll os hoasee Maret cctcve Gounbane Toms 24 i crereiete rane eon seeeee | 1897 Rep’t, Pa. state

: college.

32 iS Bilis: .59 5.89 sunnodab 4.62 «sees. | Renovo fire brick and

clay co.
833 jl ooosien 1 Hide. 0GdG 15 “Hancdow, || Goa, willcagac
34 ul 147 tr. 9.59 acdountiC OB <I} obonbe
35 .06 2.378 4.581 10.78 vecccece .87 veeews

}
| r,
39 | 08 .443 .402 13.49 STIR Tea in| reweees a appl eur: MM,
p. 2
; f ; SAS
42 118 165 72 13.19 Salasaterctee MNTGORY I vader: Ibid. p 2F0
43 85 036 1.669 9.015 gh hs 2.345 | ...... | Ibid. p. 263
44 104 “281 1.217 9.28 Seeeione Mele Gar lean eteelebsal ene O62

46| tr. 35 AOA Tee BIS. ciel cent achnomae iter ree lia esol lings brick works:
57 ac + | «ee-e- | Otto Wuth, anal.

: . : A 2% Re Pa. geol. sur. H4, p.
"23 551 2.755 6.31 Pepa ltossou. cra of P

876

| No.

Som OS G Ow FP ow

ie

NEW YORK

State and county

Pennsylv’nia (cont'd)
Iudiana

G0 ee ene
_ Westmoreland.....
Chester hyoricssy..
nA aS er tee ana ates
Allegheny go000000
Clarion erect.
Allegheny .........
South Dakota :
Pennington........
ue voee
Ree aD ae tee ae e
Texas:
Montague....cr.re

Henderson.........

Washington:
King

Skagit

West Virginia:
Fayette. ........5.
Kanawha ..........
MIBWAON. Sogg06060545

Monongalia........

PrestOa ...sesseses

te

Wyoming:
AlDADY..ccecscveoes

Crooks 7. Wejsis csi ces

Virginia:
Chesterfield

Town

Layton Station ....
Lockhaven,........

Lockhaven ......%.

Salina.........

Valley Forge......

Brady’s run (B. R.

fire brick ¢o.)....
Manown ........ Be
Hunker Station....

AROMAS S Shogdoou0o:
Pittsburg ..........

Rapid City.........

oe
ee
Bowie ......se0e p00

ATHENS ..scccccnenee

Black diamond field

Green river fields..

Great Kanawha....

Charleston..... Ross
Spragueville ee

Rock creek. ...-.00:

e ocr ee osrececeso+eees

Robins .....

STATE MUSEUM

Fire clays

SILICA
; Ferri
Remarks Can A unanan) bea
binea| Free
Glass pot clay...... 64.89 24.08 @ .21
Soft clay ..sssssvee- 50.8 32.28 IUstilh
Hfar cl (@laiyinaate steretelers 45.65 36.36 1.19
ratototteteleterctevelaierencistetere 43.75 40.966 769
M. J. Bean’s clay .. 71.88 19.26
etclofopefovesoisietefeterouars dane 68.92 22.38 -98
sieferoleiteteyeeroneitietetals A006 64.17 29.75 2.6
s900000 done obo0 mobo 41.75 40.09 -65
Gonenveacrarecs Soonuaos 42.56 43.16 tr.
Silica brick ........ 96.79 93 14
Hard clay........-. 84.42 9.41 1.07
C. A. Marshall’s... 87.05 6.56 64
Dark clay,base of hill 83.3 ~ 12.3 8
ekeleforeteleleleis! Nerelavalelsisieters 60.48 24.6 2.43
pdododoeanoDbDDOGeS 68.55 26. tr.
axaiekelasearsiatereles veceeeee| O1.02] 30.06 20.71 1.01
paoavoonndog0baDba00 57.5 34.37 1.24
motefeleiatebeleteleieietelatststeisye 69.71 18.39 1.44
gooodoa SooDodN -S0000 49.73 32.57 1.52
eee atedstae ayevrst ieerterstars 5 67 30.39 61
SRD ARIE Eoin ena s 39.9 | 16.9 30.08 1.33
pn000000- donde0n0 5.86 Aged) \)|\antentane
oad ejatclelnfe 54.27 33.83 -01
Bd00 pop dodbe peaooode 68.16 24.11 -01
Hard clay........ Oa 47.88 33.985 1.368 .
Soft clay........... 68.315 19.62 1.575
onascooe 59.7 | 15.1 2.4
500n00 odonngbcoc00E 61.08 17.12 3.17
Sydogbonccbadus 80.76 1.004 | 1.396

CLAYS OF NEW YORK S77

(concluded)
s WATER
— , i , authori
Lime /Magnesia| Alkal Miscellaneous Bes See pe ;
Com- | Free
é bined
a - ——
1 .41 .19 1.08 9,29 doe (aoe necoecal ooeees 1897 Rep’t, Pa. state
college
a 8.94 Queen’s run fire brick
2 .05 47 ABBE | Wiscraietersieeirerir soaceons. || papone ed ote W. Shimer,
‘ Queen’s run fire brick
3 08 sletafeteretsie 1.3 slaretpiaiatetetatetereieieta soeedond . 1 ee tn P. W. Shimer,
anal.
4 tr. sovoesae WH odasoona 14.41 serceces | soceee | eevees | Kier brothers, Pitts-
burg, Pa.
5 Uo 1.04 oeccveee 5.4 eeveceue eeeee ee eees Furnished by H. Bur-
‘den, 2d
6 19 G21! poosodon 6.14 ; cag oA. inion F. G. Frick, anal.
y 12 nooonocs dudsabapbasd ano . + | From Manown mfg co.
8 03 OZ eallmereterate 13.2 5 siels From Westmoreland
: fire brick co.
9 44 215 ouosnadd 13.99 vad Koorbaot.4|- ddsoodullhoooddo From Erskine & Co
10 1.86 psdo0adad || -adbooogs Soodede 14 Caveeeese | veceee | cooeee | Krom Stuart fire brick
co.
11 ti .39 Orececcs 3.42 eeeccces ovecee earece Rapid City steam
brick works
12 BoD 1.248 BANS || coceocoscderoon |) Goenpano || coodoo || odaaue Furnished by F. C.
fay londics tr. BR STN TBs absewcteitsievnt | tate ell Mateen tease Smith
14 89 75 | seveenee | soeccesevecreuee | seeeseee | eevee | seeees | Montague coal mining
co. Y
15 (fhe 11 tr. 6 eecsccee | cvvcee | evens Teas geol. sur. 1899,
p. 197
16 22 39 1.08 7.17 | 1.82 | woos... | seeee. [[gn.8.99) G. EB. Ladd, anal.
TN sb 1 68 4.71 cesses | enenee | seeeee []
1891 Rep’t, Wyoming
18 .B5 15 UY” || Bosaces7dc seneee | wee eeee : Loss. |{ state geol.
19 42 1.28 ileal 12.38 6 .43 |\CaSO4 8.94 |)
-10
20 37 tr 12 2.87 sell sttéce W. <A. Bradford
21 tr tr 2.2 7.6 | 9 : 1.15 }
22 24 36 tr. 9.05 ences meee! | Ball. on min. res. of
23 tr 02 1 11.01 aiactorob sr leerisescinis Blt Caalsiel at [ West Virginia, 1093
24 tr tr tr. 7.51 a/v ajaeieje) || a= es s | tenes
25 36 346 481 12.388 seqnases || Boils sees | I. C. White, anal.
26 | oll 692 2.704 5.58 isi lofelsiatse |e Linh (Mull etelerslars
27 | 73 ATA | ratetetotata rot | 16.26 peered easel Bulle 120% Wa grade
28 2.69 | 1.82 2 1224 | aechiernn||eaaeas | SO: S0il fe ca heE sta
29 504. | 108 832 5.025 | Sap 04000 esisis | .e+. | J. R. Jackson

878 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Pottery
SILICA
State and county Town Remarks Alumina Hore
Com-| 5 oz
5 bined | “7°°
G
Alabama:
1] Tuscaloosa........ secveccsecsscossssees| Luscaloosa Creta-
CEOUS....e.eeeeers 66,122 24.781 r
2 aS Prattville ..........| Stoneware clays... 62.6 26.98 72
8 | Fayette............| W. Doty .......... ae 65.58 19.23 4.48
4 0 veeceseeeess-| 13 miles from Fay-
ette C: H. ......8. ou stats 67.1 19.37 2.88
5 ia ar arsnatete ....| Shirley’s mills ..... as me 72.20 17.42 2.4
6 Colbert ............| J. W. Williams, Pe-
; EARNED. sn aaooec ce 66.45 18.53 2.4
71 Pickens..... «eeeee-| ROberts Hill, coal
re CO..... mane G6 68.23 20.35 3.2
8| Lamar............ I. B. Green, Fern- :
ake cite secre eias a6 69.5 13. 6.4
9| Fayette............| H. Wiggins, east of
Fayette E. C. H.. oie 63.27 19.68 3.52
10 | Tuscaloosa ........| H. H. Cribbs, Tus-
: CalOOSA....s00.00e a 65.35 21.3 2.72
Georgia:
11 | Baldwin....... ....| Stephens pottery ..| ....esercevceceneeees 46.07 21.72 15.75
Illinois:
1) || TES) acooudobonodaool! ooops dobodnoqdonaqodal|, coondn5000600008 mersie 46.9 31.34 16
Indiana:
18" MPUtMAMe ence cc | MER COIS WAIL OS as ejercccistere a ti cicinrete clerelewsleloivetelelercievers 60.56 Oe 3.48
Ie OIE NA eoonpsiddneon coo | lili Hdoonoosoocdusl) coaddoauéoou5 suoasde 65.66 17.2 4.05
15 | Porter .............| sUManNvVille........-| Blue Clay....ess000s 68.5 17.55 1.88
IG }) “INK UMATIN Sooggoodgs|| aooudacesscoosonap000 Yellow clay ......:. 50.43 22.18 4.37
17 | Vanderburg........] Evansville..........| Clay .......seeee- 56 59.5 26.22 8
18 ve codpodods Sy do000G0000 rwilinmretetalsreielefetarcieieiciels 79.41 10.8 2.07
Kentucky:
19 | Madison........e00.) WASCO.... sssseoee.| POttOry ClAY.....00 59.976 27.64 poonnnone
20 | Franklin...........| Frankfort........0. eS ooo00000 69.3 21.78
Pil |) Ten HaMME TN. CooonoSnod|| GondooN0KDD000 s0A00006 Os poond000 76.86 14.95 2 11
Br} |), INE Sooc0qpo0ab0e]| cosadadooos0uGOHo00N00 bY Aidaades 51.66 15.56 7.68
23 ANG sococduacdesaue ofefutelejels\elets)elevers(atelatays Se ae A ecarorers 70.06 17.94 .38
24 | Madison.....csee.ss| sevecccccssseserceess| Black Shale ........ 62.56 24.78 1.8
25 | Fulton...... dobuaodl|, coadedounooogdddudcalh cadasncoonccaabenndee 71.021 17.977 3.417
26 | Graves....... S00000
27 | McCracken .......,; Pryorsburg ...... wiailinsleineee KoOdneS dagoouos 56.4 30. paddo f00
Paducab (8m.3s.)..| Black shale ........ 59.5 24.96
28 | Calloway ...se.eee
29] Graves.............| Murray (6 m.e.)...| Black shale........ 54.84 30.34 1.18
Bell City ...........| Black shale ........ 56.98 32.16 2.16
Minnesota:
30 | Blue EHarth........°| Mankato ...........| Red clay .......s0.- 73.34 14.75 5.45
Missouri:
$1 Barton ...cceceoee ..| Wear mine,Minden.| Not worked ........ 50.94 2424 7.18
32 SHA Tigweeatoveiecets shadeao Waltman’s....... ..| Stoneware clay .... 65 32 22.63 1.81
33 | Guthrie, Callaway.! Moore place........| Used for stoneware 48.92 32.9 Sad
84 oe cs ievetetetolers ee 47.13 84.98 2.92
S30) CASS) sielereiciolololeletetntalels Harrisonville ....0.| sseesseeseervoes ereeiere 63.93 19.73 3.69
86 KOH COTA SHARE nAbE ; me seoee.| Washed clay, not
worked ........... 64.62 19.98 2.91
Sti Hramklimesac se erciele)| MOLULOM se lclnetelejarcieloleieie | ecient Serereraisteretotcte 44.14 39.86 .46
38 | Henry .............| Calhoun............ Used for stoneware 71.94 17 6 2.35
39 Bo seeeceeeoees.| Dunlap pit, Clinion fs 67.49 21.11 2.45
40 se teecevecevese| Hrawe'n pit, Clint’n as 64.97 22.64 8.28

clays

b)

| No

Oo GO FD AP _

me ot
=a OS

12

Magnesia! Alkalis

Miscellaneous

eeescees

“pecseere

Loss 6.3

Loss 8.1

ervcvces

eeevscoes

. eee
oe aoee
Oeeeesee

eeveceeer

@eveeoes

eeeeeens
eeereeee
seeenece
seer eees

eeeneees

soreeeee
veereees
sepeeeee
seneeene

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

poeces

eeaeee

ae weee

eeeee

879

Firm names, authority,
or analyst

seers | Rep’t on valley re-

gions, Ala. geol.
surv. 20: 180

seeeee | R. Peter, anal.

tnd Ber sur. 1878

MnO.8 p. 159

s*"" | ( Crossley, Analyses of
clays

sseoes | U les pottery
seoee | B. F. Harris

veooes | Ky. geol. sur. chem.
rep’t A, pt1,no. 1876a

sees Ibid. no. 2007

)
| Crossley, Analyses of
rte | clays

Marais Balke eeol, oun neem.

seseee | R. Peter, anal.

veeeee | KY. Geol. sur. chem.
rep’t A, pt. 3, no. 2777

veces. | LOid. no. 2645

Rein ee {eyo eae oXoyrmreh10)

Minn. geol. sur. 1872-
1882

Miafaiste vi eLO'- geol. sur. 11:563

as
weeeee

ee
eeeeee

ae
eesees

oe

eis Ibid. 11:64

46
‘

ee)
(ee)
=)

36

37

NEW

JASPCL ce ceesacess
Jefferson ...... NOOO

Lafayette..........
Morgan ............
Rando ph....... Bo

St Lonis........... .

Salimeeesreelstenrstele
Schuyler

SYM co0 5000800000:

Stoddard ...

New Jersey:
Sussex ....

ease ceeovece

Suffolk .....

Ohio:

Columbiana
Stark ..... poda00000
Muskingum.....
Summit 50

Columbiana Br ataretere

Pennsylvania:
IBCAVET on claleleralele
ot

Texas:
Henderson ...
Marion.....

weeseoee

“

Michigan........

New York |
Albany..... seneeece
Ohio:

SUMMit.....e sees

Town

Grant farm,Clinton
Missouri clay co...
Deepwater. ....
Fields creek . .....

Gilkerson ford. .

Chancy sh’ft, Joplin
Mammoth mine,
IDESOUS) Gccoonc
Mandel’s pit, Regina
Strasburg mine,
Mayview ..

Pricel’nd, Versailles
Lanigan shaft, Mo-
berkly er eke
Rennebergs, Allen-
OWE PAS doaaasunc
Oer pit, Slater
Chariton river,
Glenwood... ....
Anderson

Dexter ....... og000n

Woodbridge.......

GlencOVe ...s.seee
Elmpoint ...
Littleneck..

pecceens

Roseville. .
Uniontown. 5
North Springfield. .
East Liverpool.....
Greentowa.....
Zanesville..
Akron.. coodo6
Hast Palestine .
Salineville.......

ecco

aeevrecs

New Brighton ......
Oak Hill....

econer

Athens....... dabaas
Licden road.......

ROW1]eYy...ccseeeeees

AIDADY..cccecccvens

Brimfield....ecs..>.

YORK STATE MUSEUM

SILICA
Remarks 5
om-
bined Free
Not worked ........ 59.33
Used also for sewer
TDN NS) coocG000 sae 72.86
Rie oR aacincs 74.02
Used for stoneware 55.39
Not worked : 86.98
SLi a setae ete 60.98
Ball clay for white
Wware......- 49.04
Ball clay. fOr “white
WAL iialeis ereieisssierefele 45.97
el atiolare cedoean 48.12
Not worked . >oouse 54.1
Used also for payv-
ing brick........- 66.24
Not worked ........ 60.07
capnobopbn00B0 GOOG00 53.54
Used for stoneware 71.78
ot 68.5
Stoneware clay ....| 19.44 | 48.4
ay 4 70.45
HY sc 62.06
se 20 62 66
Se vees| 25.6 | 438.73
oe .-..| 29.35 | 85.85
sor Sean teed :
Yellow ware clay..| 42.28 | 18.02
Stoneware clay a2 OM |e
Cooking ware clay.| 25.4 | 40.81
Stoneware clay. ...| 2”.68 | 36.58
Yellow ware clay ..| 29.93 | 29.61
et ..| 82.33 | 24.11
Drift clay ......0.. 57.67
Yellow clay........ 46.16
CHER nan0onoc0¢ eieteyers 45.06
Picdiaaray atatofetstefatatereretatelats 68.57
OH goandanossoncod 58.2
Clay ces seeceeeeeee| 12.85 | 31.09
CSW areleiehavisrelersisiateleefell Le ccom |heonco)
OO Sondnosonddnoono}| date |} elresishs)

Pottery clays

Alumina

20.32

22.81
32.34

15.39

17.01
20.81

21.83

21.74
18.09
18 09

19 08
23.05
19.38
24.12
19.23
21.13
22 95
29.12
26.6

27.52
26.976
30.03

28.24
23.97

11.17

12.46

13.57

a1.494
7.214
a4.5

tr.
4.43

Slip
3.81

5.79

TT

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 88l

(concluded)

| |" | |

WATER
Lime |Magnesia] Alkalis Miscellaneous Firm HeMes, EUtROr ity
ne len analyst
} bined nee
a
1 84 ilo alee 2.74 Cael a onae scagecoa Wl eaoooo {\..coG006 Mo. geol. sur. 11: 554
2 “ae 47 1.18 4.76 AV cosaoos6!|| asnoon dodges ie
3 48 51 2.30 3.69 -49 os000 || aoeges do8q00 se
4 53 31 3.39 8.6 WPS |) oooah6a5. |] ooaads son00d Se
5 65 58 2.32 .86 HAO ocsenoaa | Bosco || caso os
6 42 1.95 4.69 SLI) soaagee s0pe0a0 5 {|| dodone || donsoe | Laas Able Bs
z 1.33 1.04 .85 12.338 soonae || cboséans eretaisieys eee ae
8 1.14 1.69 1.84 Lee SOllleeetetere so0a0000 200C Paieters Gh
9| 9.9 2.65 2. Oita | Ah 14508) ce een ee eee rare “
10 1.31 1.25 4.01 LS G25 irerereretete peccevee Sodactell papa 400 oe
11 63 48 2.04 7.8 nod0o0 || coaoncde || oncode || concoa’ |) wine alle Bas
12 1.65 1.55 4.42 6.48 ASAD sooedosc. || caasan enemies | LOZ. 11s 570
13 1.04 of 2.01 8.25 AUG! asosiosae Mruetetced [mcrersteret- oe
14 8.54 2.17 3.2 TES Ne acapool| dooccoaD na600.4|| “anaon Ce
15 34 43 78 8 13 maicicic noncoauc: || oo sieisiais os
16 otele tr. 53 Tee || dacos sono! eoteaa [es oood oe
17 28 24 2.24 5.9 ds} 4) odadoaca |} aoncsa|| conooo || INio dis Oleny aasiie, IE
p. 99
18 24 3 5: BOS Sano RCoeNnon moceontbollMocceces al toossor H. T. Vulté, anal.
19 1.05 tr. 6.11 soadses || oscoses gooannoe Iiocasool|) odoaes oY
20 .79 Telvseees 2.33 godcecd |onccddda’|| Honoddo5 mistererany|uarersterate ns
21 6 63 2.16 5.57 94 : : on Ohio geol. sur. 5, 1884
22 .58 58 1.45 7.59 alcabl as c ocoddS oS
23 1.38 23 BSbien te 5.13 Sli aml veretste te = S
24 59 68 2.42 7.07 oi Peadasoane 3 ia Oe
25 GOCLnaG siafefieusie, ili ole 10.08 .83 3 ee v5
26 51 18 1.8 6.29 1.65 Sah Ibid. 7, 1893
27 .45 37 1.96 6.74 2.05 a4 dAg0Ns on
28 -De 51 1.95 ko 2.63 : ae
29 47 63 3 46 4.59 2.48 sade aae oS
30 38 .122 619 9.68 Rao konae Gres | Boon aosocdos booe onosontneson
31 2 21 1.52 3.246 11.22 @ ots |) oeodac seee.. | 1897 rep’t Pa. state
college
32 4.7% 4.8 Sooncads 10.1 ‘siunboout |eedadge Wy ood Crossley, Analyses of
clays
33 tr. 1.25 POO OUO aeooe, laulasas | bOSeRap ltl Grqogee|h mosden Miller Brothers
Bie Seanras ete diaisisicle eal 5.36 Sioaieielete's) iitaisisesist Il) wetiecen | LOXas) SOOlm SUI. 1O00.
\ p. 112.
. clays
4
q 35 11.64 4.7 3.61 3.9 | 15.66 & | ...0e00- | eveeee | oeoe-. | Ohio geol. sur. 7, 1893,
{ ) CO.
=
36 6.84 3.28 4.39 BER AAA ore So Anooe|| Goddess || sodeod se
CO,
387 2.5. 1.47 2.63 ena | Pa@)ie |W arooduoe || coadda |) opo0se oh

Og

882

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

S
z
1

24

State and county

Ohio (continued)
Hamilton .......00.

Texas:
GTIMES. .cevercveoes

Nevada.........

evcocce

New Mexico:
Bernalillo..........

Utah:
Summit.......... at

Alabama:
Tuscaloosa.........

Elmore........ a0o0d

ae
weouseseccons

Montgomery ......
Morgan...

Arkansas:

Little River........

Sebastian..

eoonceces

ee
peccsove

Poinsett.........0..
Craighead. ........

GYeEeCNG....ceccceees

oe
es eneeeevsoe

(Oh@Sasa0Ga 00000 Dood
Hempstead ........
(SNAE.caosnooaooden

California:
IDOE S50dg0605n000

Town

Sharonville..,... B00

Piedmont Springs

Humboldt City ....

Fort Wingate......

Salt Lake City.....

Pecersceenevoeesecvosn

NE. 4 of NW. 4 of
9.24, T. 1,R.14 Ww.

Elmore Station ....

co
eeove

Montgomery. ......

MA COM erreearellelsvoraiate

Johnsonsridge......

Williamslake ......|

Nigger hill, Fort
Smith! Wie)... AN
Fort Smith.........

Harrisburg .... ss.
JONESHOTO.......+.:
Gainesville. ........
Paragould...... 9000
SHEP Soca bose
HOPG. cecevevcrvess:
Brownstown. ......

LEGO, 55.60 sonnodd0
/

Slip clays

SILICA
: Fr i
Remarks Alumina oz
Com-| Free
bined
Clay ieceuetiye sovrees| 12.04 | 30.2 11.08 5.07
4
Kaolinite slip......:| 12. 48.4 10.42 5.36
(HER Sonsbpbods0n8D06 58.5 18.39 3.29
Adobe
5.12
PigOle oOf thks urssly 26.67, 18.10 |} Beat
PoOg .W5.sscerereee 26.67 91 64
PaO 5 28 ...cce sees 19.24 3.26 1.09
Brick
Pinkish clay. Tus- 68.108 10.858 14.471
caloosa Cretace-
OUus.
Lele dials poosonooagacases 59.65 27.04 4.75
River terrace clay 60.81 21.69 3.48
* 61.15 24.81 2.48
oe 62.76 21.15 4.
Mercrerielerielersielaleleielerercicte 75.52 12.945 | a@2.605
asia mietelereretetetetsteiate 56.91 19.8 6.68
pogoognacoa, relstetevetetars 58.24 13.22 9.25
oogopeouRadooodaNsa00 58.48 22.5 8.36
Retest teleteteteiaieteistererers 74.79 12.86 4.9
felateteteieistetstetetelsteletstatetate 81.37 8.52 2.88
Rietetetelehetsiefefetsicietstetsistetal= 79.49 8.71 8.48
poddsauconoapoonbde 71.17 18.44 2.77
eicletstetetenateleteteteteteleleteisiehs 79.07 8.79 2.54
sintorelalevel tetelalsteteletetaistevere 69.55 15.2 8.1
sreloyeieietetelatetel sIetaleieretelatele 92.42 14.94 5.54
ei elefateleferolalerstelateieferstatere 79.07 10.58 5.27
44 82 84,54 1.86

4

Se

Magnesia} Alkalis

(concluded)
Lime
)
a
1| 15.99
2 9.88
8 2.34
soils
4 18.91
5 36.4
6| ‘38.94
clays
7 sisisie
3! cannode
9 nalts
10 3
11 72
12 867
18 4.76
14 4.55
15 +32
16 -38
17 44
18
19 .25
20 225
21 .58
22 ayer
RO | Mstate sis'> =
24 1.55

6.36 2.68
4.28 87
1.61 7.68
2.96 2.3
51 tr.
2.75 Hes,
aye 2.15
89 2.8
a4 2.28
88 |) Socodnco
-96 3.17
4.19 8.22
1.14 3.21
9 8.22
a5 2.4
2.1
44 9
28 1.89
As 1.02
YAH || onsosonc
At Snoosooc
-96 4.74

CLAYS OF

WATER

Com-
bined

4.58

Free

Way es
CO,

8.64 | 4.41 &

7.085

CO,

8.7

2.26

2.26

1.67

NEW YORK 883
. Firm names, authority
Miscellaneous or analyst
afolatetetainicha tee eve ie loka aeioiate Ohio geol. sur. 7, 1893
Matciislewist|(Ustsisecie: |Seeriveie il Lex. oseOl. Sur, 4th
ann. rep’t
Cl .14 |Mn0.13 COo Bull. U.S. G.S., 64
8.55
e5.1 SOx 82 COz ve
Cl .07 25.84
Cl .11 SO. 53 co,
29 57
eeccccen | cocees B00 Ala. geol. sur. rep’t
on valley region,
p. 180
Scocoéée || eoduds Asood || Meeks Ue hil, TRIOkell
anal.
HOOS0000 S000 SO. Ala. ind. & sei. soc.
it f ¥. 1895
@eceeese eee SO 9
sill J
So500000 || hosoc0 |) seacae Standard brick and
tile works
seecnces | veces Loss | )
9.57
oonapode 3806 Loss
8.96 | Ark. geol. sur. 1888,
Loss | [{ p. 296
eeeeveses poeene 6.07
sounocas || cosdcd || Leos |
2.91 J
AbASOOOG MnO, Loss
1.01 2.88 | Ibid. 1889, 2; 85
sooodo0s MnO, Loss
2.44 3.83 | Ibid. p. 87
onaoaoos | noaond. |) LbGRE
6.03 | Ibid. p. 107
avcelecise MnO, Loss
8.68 8.55 | Ibid. p. 112
sesseeee | BQ Or Loss
2 5.72 | Ibid. p. 138
soandone |) cosane Loss
4.54 Ark. geol. sur. 1888, p.
ate elefelerslainl|eateletoieisl || OSS 296
4 43
«sees | Loss | Cal. state min., 11th
44 rep’t

884.
»
State and county
°
a
Colorado:
1 IPE DLO ase
21 District of Columbia
Florida:
3 | Escambia ......0c0e.
Georgia:
4 Bartow oes vsesvoee
5 es g0odcacnn004
6
q ‘ so0000000
8| Floyd....... cocoon
9} Richmond .........
Illinois:
10 | Lasalle........ Sc0d6
11
12 | Livingston.........
13 AMO Meera tarele sop0
14 PeOLIA Si ctedenneiion
15 | Lasalle........-.
16 ss googsonAbdS
UG) Mercere is cccccis cicies
18 Cy) A eraataos no0a0
AON ie asallei sce seit
20 sje Msieteeveieristels
21 SN ieintorets Saocd
Indiana:
22 Marion. ....csse0e
23 | Floyd .....c..scoves
24 | Crawford..... 30008
25 Monroe.. spogoooode
96 ee
27 i
28
29 WAITED ..sesesecees
30 the aonoboodnnod
Gil |i IRaAY on soobnooodode
32 JACKSON ..cseesnves
Dole WTALOM sale stateioreleictelete
Behl) Olbwelte -oonoandcaeon 6
ai) || AMER) sooo 0acoss000
36 Wabash.......ese0-
37 | Fountain.........0-
38 | Daviess ...cseesceee
39 | Greene..... ierelersieiete
40 | Jasper ...ccsercone
41 Parke tiohelefalevelatelats
42 | Dubois....cccsscees
43
44 Martin. i baccieieesc
45 | Washington ..... oe
46 Madison ....cessees
47 Hamilton .... sec
43 Lawrence .eccssees

NEW YORK

Town

IPWebl OR eae daisies
Washiagton.. ... 4

Bluffsprings.

Cartersville.. ......

ae

McCamores cave...
Cartersville.........

AUZUSEA.. ..06 sees

La Salle....sseseees

Utica.
Ottawa. .

see ereeasvoee

IBE IEMs Res headoddns

oe
eeeecceeeveer

Streator ..earevees-
Indianapolis........
New Albany..... 500

Wyandotte cave...

Bloomington .......

Dover Hill..........

Vernon.......... Soo

Covington..........
Lay

Cannelton..........
Rrownstown .......
Liberty. odAoaote
Jeffersonville ....0.

Wabash ...... niele else
Veedersburg..... ce
Washington....ie..
Worthington .......
ASD EIoue me ereiiaeraicieyelers
Montezuma ........
Haysville........00-

Gh ssooaddadoonend
Calle Parsieisiecielerveraiicteys
Salem sono daoDOS
AMNGELSON ..ceveeees

Noblesville ....,.00.
Mitchell..... jo0a00d

STATE MUSEUM

Remarks

Plastic clay ........
Alluvial clay.......
Surface clay.......

NOs 4 ClEAZosqqq00000

No. 1 clay......00s.
Red clay....... po00

isjibit (EW Y5 sono odooos
Bick, wesssecececees
Terra-cotta.........
COlEhy eoxbcoosueodHOoS
Red clay ....ee++e--
Clay vrerereseeereee

Claiyss sone
Cee ah aaveasen Uepatelysrasions
Batort padcsovaangcn
ete wisialerer tine etmeierale a02
ape ataseitiatertberete ereietele
rein aie ne dmisinte nia cioueiale San
econ Neh atte Blaitals
eee cine posdo0ns0G00GD
Walenta nivieiegst atom men
Saino sabonoaveDoce
5 Apucoosdude ane
aratetayeietereeeT eve cists nee
se latbiaveteidteiehete pooDoded
a slaveeieeriiete Roars
afer setae sreiniajsisleterens
Clay 3 Aa000
be

Sodobodacds soeac

SILICA

Com-
binea| Free

Brick clays

. Ferrie
Alumina esata
35 25
25.50 tr.
18.87 2 49
20.47 8.58
11.5 5.59
19.01 2.02
15.43 5.83
13.82 5.74
18.04 a 3.87
18.1 9.11
12.8 9.68
19.48
13.64 1.788
16.1 3.3
26.45 2.1
22.44 atr
15.04 1.08
23.52 1.92
18.1 9.1
18.3 bodocods
18.32 7.04
31.3 aah
19.27 3.18
19.5 12.3
15.34 6.32
29.66 4.63
13.74 4.4
18.22 2.43
15.5 33.12
22.09 2.16
22.94 2.64
20.84 3.17
13.87 2.66:
18.95 2.1
12.64 4.4
15.9 3.77
13.08 2.98
9.81 3.8
24.81 5.04
20.18 2.5
24.66 7.46
18.2 2.9
20.16 2.12
29.68 4,60
13.94 5.21
PByilil 3.8
12.94 5.2
19.05 4.08

eS ea

“

(continued)

Lime /|Magnesia
3
ay
2 .49 Brolacrcreyere
3 CaCO 3 MgCoO 3

6.2 4,28

éh ll oaanoane iil
ea aretotaerste ists 1.3
6 tr 87
va tr 1.42
4]. ondeouos 81
9 ROAGE i otnctasterss
OM laxetsrsteletecictal iactsieve sets
12 1.16 1.67
13 23.2 9.433
14 .61 ofitt
ia) |) odoad-26 3
16 6.35 9
17 62 36
18 07 2
OA Mircariercci soo000
Pal lh Geodoeas 1.45
£2 ZOhe 6
23 09 7.29
24 1.79 52
25 1.227 921
26 ES). «96
27 agen lic 1.29
2% 1.65 1.03
29 1.83 2.41
30 2.04 1.18
31 3.08 .858
32 2.2 .64
33 2.96 1.14
34 2,313 9.828
35 ile slre 1.29
36 2.18 1.18
37 il at’
34 48 26
39 .485 1.009
40) ag 5
41 OF 1.28
42 see 7
43 05 6
44 1.01 1 76
45 533 984
46 a) 282
47 . 666 861
43 8 2.26

Alkalis

Chlorid
15.32

1.98
4.55
2.28
4

2.55
4.01

eesreccs

Pewee ne

tener eee

rae eeeee

CLAYS

evecces | eeeeves

92
5.2
7.5

eons

5.66

44

OF NEW YORK

Miscellaneous
eee ior al BOs
79
SAGa || Outlot MnO»,
6
Sab dev euea RE eee Rea
Mega} Wee teal cages
2.07

€2.22

Firm names, authority,
or analyst

Stand. fire brick co.
Wellington brick and
tile co.

J. W. Crary jr & Co.

Ga. _ geol. sur. 1898,
p. 286

Ibid. p. 284

Ibid. p. 286

Ibid. p. 286

Ibid. p. 287

J. F. Elson, anal.

La Salle pressed brick

co.

Asst. state chemist,
anal,

J. F. Snyder.

E. W. Cook, anal.

Peoria brick co.

Crossley, Analyse of

clays
. A. Weber. anal,
Griffin brick, tile,

and coal works
Lasalle pressed brick

co.
ee

Barr clay co.

Indianapolis terra-
cotta co.

W. Finnegan brick
mfg. co.

met geol. sur, rep’t,
187

St T ouis works
G. Powell’s yard

J. Owens’s works
M. Carvite

P. White

F. Snyder
J.C. Summers
S. Gray

T. Graves

S. White

iP Akey as

S. Davis

P. West

S. Schumake
J. Weber

A. Parks

W. A. McRride
G. Walters

J Klein

H. Teller

J. W. Jones

886

7 et pt
~ BOOnmIoOoAOWIH | No.

—
(S*)

14

15
16

1%
18

19°

20
21
22
28

28

State and county

Indiana (continued)
Wells
Owen ... So
Madison. ..........
Oranee erences
Washington .......

IWATE Me citereccericieres
Fountain....... mietels
Martin
IPUhADEWTN | C6hn 6 g00n0
Kosciusko.......+..

WHRO cagnondcadanad:

Gibson ..

Ceccrsvoce

weeeer occ sons

Vanderburg........
Vermilion .'........

ee ocee o

Iowa:
Cerro Gordo .......
INGEN Gqasqoou0p0oN5

Guthrie ...eeceseeee

Fayette ...ccerscee»

WaArred ..cces.eeees

ce
evecerescces

Montgomery..eeeee

eenecees

CER sorosodd

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Town

Bluff€ton.....eeceoe,
Gosport
HWrankton.....
Paoli....
Salem

Edwardsport..
Williamsport...
Stone bluff.....

eevee eccores

Terre Haute........

SE. 4%, sec. 4, T. 20
N., B.8 W..

evcece

Princeton ...c..e0e.

Vincennes .........
Under-clay 8, S. L.
McCune, Mecea..

Evansville...
Cayuga....

Mason City.........

Bridgewater .......
Gillett brickyard...
Guthrie center.....

West Union........

Indianola

Lime creek ...

sever

Redoak....

Spencer .....-

Remarks

eeeecouseees

Used for brick, but
good for vitrified
Wi lO Ne sicisialecie «ste

Was used for roof-
ing tile. Cracked
in burning........

Yellow surface clay.
Used for pressed
brick

W. Schnute’s yard.
Dry press brick—
mixture of shales
Sand 4...........

Bastard shale no. 5.
Makes buff dry
press brick.......

Blue shale......,..-
Alluvium...... Soons

+ tee twee

yard...... he@oten

Loess clay, plastic.

Gray or yellow loess
@EI?; ooongbonac5000

Mason City shale...

Cretaceous clay....

Altered loess.......

SILICA

55.09

Brick clays

. Ferric
Alumina ead
30.36 2.88
11.94 3.2
16.21 2.18
17.84 4.088
11.22 5.04
24.23 9.2
25.98 18.6
12.64 3.16
25.18 7.36
15.34 6.382
20.78 4.77
13.78 5.35
13.38 2.19
18.56 a.15
1.34
28.473 3.12
25.71 a.91
5.51
12.16 4,48
14.79 8.038
20.76 64.01
3
2 47
14.91 eee t
10.95 2.36
14.98 4.16
14.08
16.57 4.06
12.58 4.02
14.62 5.69
18.68 1.94
13.04 6.24

(continued)

Lime |Magnesia| Alkalis

1 1.31. WER) |) wooooood
2 -633 cise || Gooouae
3 1.16 6 coboouod
4 1.633 SEN Soonoaoe
5 |° 476 cet) |) Boanc Ane
6 47 TEND) fh onocnos
z 336 elie | eareelereiele
8 9 ao) wannuce
9 57 oils) oeaacood
10 1.22 se! |} Sooonnoc
11} 620.51 10.8 seieeieiaiee
12 1.67 1.78 3.26
13 1.01 teeeeres

97

14 14 52

15 179 PMA | pees ak
16 24 83 3.01
17 B47 Oia eee

18 54 1.42 3.79
19 1.51 1.18 | 2.7

Pa 5.2 3.76 6.32
21 2.08 .83 1.38
rao || See ie eee Sache s)
23 1.48 1.09 3.36
24] 15.25 11.03 3.94
25 1.11 iI 3.16
26 1.4 .99 4.14
27 5.16 2.9 5.89
28 1.07 .95 2.96
29 7.98 2.24 8.08

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

6.3

8.5
4.501

4.98

7.01

887

eveceae

2eeesee

1.33
2.67

Miscellaneous

eovecveve

feenesoe

vearocee

ecvcevce

eeorscen

eoovoccn

eecccoer

18.25
MnoO. 49
MnO .76

CO, 4.8

eee eees

eeeoas

4 eee

COxy 7.57) wevees

ny

eeeces

se eens

esesee

seeaee

soouds [Is

Firm names, authority,
or analyst

J. N. Goodyear

J. Smith

H. Pierce

J. Peterson

A. Shrunn

S. Field

J. W. Shuster

H. A. Barton

O. M. Johnson

Dr Hurty, anal. Ind.
geol. sur. 1885-80,
p. 43

Ind.‘ geol. sur. 20:76

Ibid. p. 59

Ibid. p. 1:4
Ibid. p. 95

Ibid. p. 183
Ibid. p. 119

Ind. geol. sur. 20: 129

ee

Iowa geol. sur.

G. C. Patrick, anal.
Furnished by Ia. geol.
sur.

G. C. Patrick, anal.

Furnished by la.
geol. sur.

L. A. Youtz, anal.

7}

|

Be C. Patrick, anal.
From Ia. geol. sur.

888

NEW YORK

STATE MUSEUM

Brick clays

26

30

35

36

State and county

Kansas:
Greenwood ......-

Kentucky:
Balilan dyeereertccce

Graves. ..... ree
Marshall......... He
Campbell.....

ove

Boone.....
Grayson ....... Acioe

Ohio

creeecorrevcecs

ee
@occoverarone

Louisiana:
Ouachita .......0.
Catahoula .....
Claiborne: .-c.0. 6+
New Orleans,

eoos
seooes

Massachusetts:
Middlesex..... od000
Dukes lentes Racist
Berkshire..

Maryland:

were econ

Marquette ..

aavecees

Jackson....,.

Minnesota:
McLeod ....e.se0e-
Hennepin..
Lesucur
ot

eecoreas

Blue Harth ........
Mississippi:
Missouri:

Marion ..... obogans

Cass .
Carroll. . erelalevsisis

Oole .

SILICA
Town Remarks Alumina vo
Com-! Free
bined
Flintridge.......... 90690000 nptinagade 58.2 29.8 ad.4
Wae@kiliticre sete. ses Yellow clay ........ 44.84 22.83 20.35
Lynnville..........- Clay JOBOCOGUEOS 62.68 25.88 2.9
Highland..........- PO Gogo noononQCDs 60.98 18.48 V5
INGUWADOME noodoba0002|) 2) adennondasod 72.66 20.50
RO TATA AVE TTA OTe efaletol| iisiatelsietetereletelelsietsisleveratetars 82.56 12.223
Burlington ......... Claiyersicccchevercnts sade 48.36 33.06
Canolaway creek..| Ferrug, clay ..... 68.38 12.282 7.588
aly: reais esphiecione 61.58 23.946 5.814
Ilan WCE ancoosbocon|| 2°) ‘sooeooan0o ndooac 70 86 19 24 3.12
Baldeianoblchyre keri |aamtserelerestelstere 09 62.76 26.42 1.58
Forksville (5 m.e.). Gray GER? sosecooccs 58 43 22.45 3.23
IOV Glas (oeancndl eels) Je.) aoadoodaos 61.91 18.38 2.14
IsIOWMNEIe po oganuooddac (Ol annnecerannsoned 82.83 6.48 1.42
Be nec odDUaOdO 20 Sarita clay.. 16.36 | 48.27 14.07 4.06
Quinnipiac......... ye nelle eines 63.69 17.02 10.18
West Cambridge...| Glacial clay ...... 48.99 28.9 3.89
Gayhead, so. end ..| Red clay ........0.. 57.5 31.21
Clayton ...... iets Brick and _ terra-
cotta clay........ 50 44 al.0?
East of Baltimore..| Red sandy, 8 feet
from top ......... 77.62 12.46 4.1
ot Gray, less sandy, 22
feet from top.... 72.02 16.66 1.38
36 Blue, no sand, 38
feet frum top.... 71.66 16.92 1.82
Grand Rapids ... (CIE ssacsc 000000008 58.7 25.95
Marquette ......... Hoc doomadedG ponoo0ns 54.62 12.82 2
S) ringer t town-
y SIMD) Goaonnucodnenad G. H. Wolcott’s
Weurgl asooso8ena0se 52.26 22.95 8.15
LENOIR loVENSOYM Grogodon|} suvo co socogaangg 48.25 36.60
Minneapolis...... ou||-andsdoonodopahodsocoe 60.31 23.77 7.96
Orne WEle coe Gooovone|| voosoug 50 dadhvasesr 59.72 secee
CoontOreek Scanlator 60.31 23.77 7.96
Mankato ..... Clay shale.......... 70.1 16.99 tr.

Op veeeeseeee.| Washed brick clay 87.7 7.24 tr.
(CNMI OHNES Coco sooal! nopdonsugbaseddoncon: 90.877 2.214 126
islenanloeyl cosnosnoos|| 6 ondoonbacodoorsnds val) 15.94 14
Creigiton ..... poonsdooonaaK oodpodne 59.65 87.27 1.13
Norborne, Davy

clay ballastco....| Gumbo clay, for
; ballast ..... 54.9 18.03 6 03
Jefferson City .....1 Makes red brick . 74.39 12.03 4.05

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

(continued)
WATER
Lime |Magnesia| Alkalis Miscellaneous Hse Sean Saree eae
om- F ys
o bined Fee
a 2 Sohail Dc ea ae a ete lh eatin Haat
1 6 sebono. |oo0d000e 6 sisoun. |lasood maou Crossley. Analyses of
clays
2 101 olléts} || casconoe 11.741 apa0o0®, |) sosespe |) sances Ky. geol. sur. chem.
rep’t A, pt 3, no. 2568
3 tr. 319 2.075 6.146 aonnoode | ‘ooes axel l Mhevetters . | Zbid. analysis no. 2663
4 78 1.128 2.891 G/aE Ubi) SMEs SoSnioo | Sana etaEl leanne Ibid. no 2762
5 btr. MgCO, 1.248 4.2 Loss .373, Pp O- ... | Ibid. pt1,no. 1319
932 192
6 6.16 |dMgCO,
tr. 957 4.1 nocaddun | maoaen ..-. | Lhbid. analysis no. 1320
t 3.057 -367 6.37 8.786 SonaB00e Joo |i ooacde Ibid no. 1697
8 bL.38 1.643 6.109 BE25, 8 [ives eters 5 sloeteik Peter Ibid. no. \78)
9 201 850 904 5.705 SuGbeHO, | NeeeO bE} pessHe Ibid. no. 1873
10 tr. 5 2.604 3.751 coudona Py Os :
| tr. | ...... | Ibad. no. 2075

11 825 tr 1.184 Vevey pisfetets na00o0 soooe. | LOtd. no. 2076

12 84 83 2 25 11.01 Sacooac So0n¢ So0os

13 68 49 1.8 14.18 state send a

14 15 08 (]) socene on 1.84 b6 oc

16) |) scopenacc 1.67 6.97 HeoOG iad] enca tere wioa| Meteor teitee ll america luensene J. A. Blaffer & Son

16 ah? il GonabouD 4.02 4.15 neocon’ 80 Peoaoat A.J.S. (8), p. 407

1” {oll 3.66 4.73 Soll AAACN tee IO veeee | J. Card, anal.

18 19 2 ce Nagdooopop08 vecne 0 Loss | ...... | 7th Rep’'t U. 8. G. S.,

9.83 p. 359

19 02 | conned 1.24 ocigouadoed sana NH pebos noc coado |) Soncce White brick and terra

cotta co.

20 By] .46 cocreene Zbs6'3} | socadoe | cooacd caodda |) s90ac0 ]

21 .12 85 ataterorareves GSM leeca s/ sterol tuatersrctatetotedul mvevere sitet | Reciae ea | rurnished by Crom-
f well brothers of
| B.ltimore

22). || poscoase 8 |} ofacaedo GETS oer erescredal| tutcrsrarevees pagaat, || caocda
J

23 1 4 5.54 8.07 j -se+ | seeeee | S. P. Sharpless, anal.

24 13.68 AO || Godapaoo ||| bééandon aoodn = CO, & ...... | Min. res. Mich., 1889,

loss p.61
12.01

25 4.48 1.32 saconbos 10.56 sooon aelsieieleieistl|(sisiiststalsiell ieisieeaiey | VLALINeG TEE sr ELOSkInS.

anal.

26 di.49 Neg Nehaogaote 8.5 nooo: || ndonoose 4.46 M. C. Madsden

27 2.5 1.75 creed | Uptorerieust tess setae Sh oocodans |) anaode .eee. | A. Humphreys

23 .82 51 HOeIO One IKUEBEE I oaanes) |Pooonrdoo | coopda | oooode *l| Ohitinenlerate}is eto},

29 2.5 1.75 2.42 1.79 eleleiatarels sega teense J. Dunn

On baainlcnes eS cae as WS) wee BEER EY S03 i | Minnesota geol. sur.,

31 67 07 3.66 tr. Shree Peer se al cee itn naan e was

32 14 tr. seveeeee 6.98 tersieleietes Raiete ...». | Hilgard, Geol. Miss.

1890

33 AH} |l gon a50% 7.04 c a0 PCOCRDORE| I oOnOrOr| lmeocoe . | G. Ross, anal.

ah Wedoeoeesn tr. alte 18 1 Fe cuecrats oda ,.e-. | Creighton, brick and

tile co.

35 2.88 iB! 3.4 6.9 6.75 Deo |e ae ae Poe ae Mo. geol. sur. 11: 563

36 1.5 1.52 3.01 Selicullettns Lee Mseten stares afareveiecal Al uietaraare Ibid, p. 03

890

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

=
S OMBR oBwmH | No.

ee a

State and county

Missouri (contin’d)

eh eee eee veces

J ackson

3

Marion RW ca higenG hi
Randolph..........

St Charles.........
St Louis..........

eo

eocorsenses
be

avpocecnesce

Montana:
Deerlodge ....1...0.-

Nebraska:

Douglass county De

New Jersey:
Middlesex. cocoujo0

Burlington ........
Cumberland ;

MICE 5 pogo bobonaad

New York:
Suffolk.......ss00.

eecereeosvecs

eeeecreersaee

Columbia..
Clinton ........ ws
Cortland..... dodoc

Tompkins...... aieinre
Monroe .....
OntaAGION oemeceeiee
Onondaga..........

St Lawrence.......
Saratoga..... S050

cb
eeece

Chemung..........
AEGIS eer nee odnbOb.

PANIC RAMI aarcieleisiarstee
ONGALIONelelelsle eel viele

Town Remarks
Boonville. ......... Makes red brick....
Gilkerson Ford ....| Not worked..... Gas
Hartwell. ..... ae Rraterae

Sbaleclay'....

Average of 7

Kansas City. Dia-
mond brick and

tile co jooeos analyses..... ane
Kansas City. Soocoon|| Loi red brick Acer
Hannibal........... Not worked ........
Clifton, Davy clay
ballast Go.... .... For railroad ballast
Moberly; Moberly
B. T. & E. co..... For paving brick
IE) Gosoosando 5
St Peters ........--- Not worked........
St. Louis hyd.
pressed brick co..] Red brick..........
Prospect hill.......| Also for roofing tile
St Louis....... ...--| Alluvial Mo. riv.
settlings ......0..
IBIO SS OWES go 5occ0000|| aooanodacd0DonOdnoCKS
Unknown ......... | ...-- eteeistalelevetereleiavetetert
Omaha..... pnoesobes Redtclaivaaescce deste
Oe uae tsicy ae abasod Buff clay ..........
Sayreville ....:.... Front brick clay...
Cheesequake creek] ..........0ese.s.00e-
Kinkora...... dee ciclliek breleieix arafWe resstalesseegsvenetets
Millville,...........| Phil

fire-proofing
and brick.........

WHippany..seccoess| seeeee adndaandood0nde
Southold ..... gacooe|| ClERVocc68ac0c05000

Farmingdale...... Boner aren DuoddoOs
Wyandance........| Blackclay .........
Fishers Island......| Brown clay ........
West neck .. ....0. oe soupooes
East Williston ....

Gray clay..........

eooe

Roseton ......

Rondout .. se p40
Barrytown os a0 a0
Plattsburg.. devel EN Yoodee cddo
Talo sooonooaadaonl| ClEA~sooc00 acos000000
Newfield ....... pievorsl| tinpembtetalatakefeverfoterefeverolate
IRGOMISGO sbgauqncoo|| 8 adaone dodowdes
Canandaigua....... leer posoneDoos
WIALTNOR i viclcittelsieeins Blue shale .........
Ogdensburg........ Blue clay .......-%
Glens Falls......... oe soonoddas
oe Sodanbdual aol En sesacao noc
Breesport......... Claivaciermocen So08
IBA Osrboodocovdcel) > onagcandooasso00
Warwick.......ee.. heme etayaiciayonta le(ere BDC
Rochester.......... Niagara shale......

Richfield Springs ..
Alfred Center.....
Canandaigua......

eee e tere eee twee

Chemung shale....
For hydraulic dry
press brick, Qua-

ternary clay......

SILICA

28.3 | 27.8
28.3 | 28.7

25.5 | 31.8
75.3
64.62

51.8

50.55
62.24
57.79

Brick clays

- | Ferric
Alumina nae
11.62 3.9
15.72 4.32
21.51 6.72
23.73 8.67
25.27 6.06
11.97 3.51
12.26 - 3.37
13.19 3.43
17.22 5.21
19.3 491 ¢
15.48 5.49
11.65 Ad |
18.22 7 58 ,
93.65 6.63 |
17 2,
13.9 5.01 ;
12.05 4.28
11.61 2.57
27.42 2.68
21.5 | 4.31
L7 6.4
17.82 4.78
13.74 9.86
92.11 6.54
23 6 3.39
24.45 tr.
20.49 9.23
19.23 5 43
16.42 2.58
34.54
22.6
92
13.38 7.65
51.18 a2.122
12.21 3.82
15.46 4.38
16.01 6.96
16 15 5.2
17.47 6 23
11.33 4.02
21.15 5.52
16.78 6.79
16.2 4.55
23 7.2
10.47 1.9
23.82
23.25 10.9
12.76 5.44

(continued)

Lime

1 2.37
2 3)
3 .o2
4 -64
5 1.02
6 1.8
tf 1.69
8 .86
9 .98
10 1.4
11 1.95
12 1.45
13 2.68
14 1.4
15 2
16 69.11
17 1.03
AGHlieereircte eo
Ns aaessaee
BAD SsGanse
21 16
23 85
24 2.19
25 th
26 .23
27 2.04
28 .96
29 1.66
30 5.33
31 4.85
32 4.35
33 2.18
34 62.063
35 11.63
36 10.9&
37 1.24
38 2.73
39 7 86
40 15.38
41 3.65
42 6.63
43 5.34
44 at
45 21.47
46 6.48
47 1,01
48 | a 23.32

Magnesia] Alkalis

ptt

2.36
d .088

Row
me w-s
Fe O1co

eoercces

3.65

He 0D Oz Od =F COD
2 FORBW

@O-2

TUR AWA DO
WHOK-IF OO
DWAw nw

ies)

~
~z

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

WATER

Com-

pinea | Free
@agAl | seoese
4.74| 1.61
5.3 1.85
6. eae
7G eAal Pee
Pete |b oeciod
P| sgoce
7.82 2 06
5.51 1.08
9.02 Sill
3.08 2.18
TTA | abies
8.75 5.14

3.7

3.36 2.45
3.5 .85
6.6 29
8.04 aye
11.8 Bi

ese eeee

seeeees

eeeesee

891

Miscellaneous
IOS 00 || casond || ooccac
Usiieststers 1 jweles
SO3 i CO, SeSlases
SO, 548) Gre Opa oilcrasetae
sooo Conn latselll| Baoan

"04.28,

“eb. 277

e1.50 Sfeicievenl| Aaieerels

eesreees | COp |
3.42 | so05

Sc Beene MOREY | (hn
L218) | csicece

Phew | Din en

TET 1G AS ace dassie pinsiens

Firm names, authority,
or analyst

Mo. geol. sur. p. 563
Ibid. ii: 564

oft

66
ce
oe

Ibid. 11:566
Ibid. 11:568

66
Ge

Ibid. i 2570

Mullan Brk, and T. co.

Phys. geog. and geol.
of Nebr., 1880, p. 255

From Omaha hydraul.
dressed brick co.

Sayre & Fisher........
Rep’t of clays, N. J.

geol. sur. 1878, p. 317
Ibid. p. 3:7

Furnished by H. Bur-
den, 2d.

From Whippany clay
mfg. co.

lal, MMs Vulté, anal,

ee
oe
ce
se

Jova brick works
isiguie Vulté, anal.

te

eb
es
te

R. Froehling, ana!.
H.T. Vulté, anal.

ee

ese
N. J. geol. surv. anal,
H. T. Vulté, snal.
U.S. G.S., bull. no. 2
From C. T. Harris

R. Chauyenet &
brother, anal.

892

Os 9

eo Om NH

11
12

18

19

NEW

State and county

Town

New York (contd)
Ontario........

Westchester.... .«.

bse

@oeacerecs

Ulster. sae

North Carolina:
Wilkes

Harnett....... g9005
RObESOD.......ee00
IDEINONES GeogconndG0s
Bladen.......... noo:

@ececseccccses

Buncombe.......-.

Cleveland.

ee
oes eeeorce

ce
e@veerteoes

Cumberland..

ce

Forsyth....... sratete
BT an ita. evecoe
Gastonbretrepietetetetelers
Guitonds toate spices
JaleMhueb-<Aonooddo oud

eeccce

Remarks

Canandaigua. .

wesoe

Croton point.......

Ge

E. Kingston........
be

Wilkesboro.........
Spoutsprings.......

Shoe heel depot....

Prospect hall..

be
eoosee

Fletcher... ........
Morganton....
Grover...

woeroesoneas

Fayetteville........

ce
eveve:

Bethania............

ce
esecocccens

Mount Holly.....
Greensboro.

Ge

For hydraulic dry
press brick, Qua-
ternary clay

eccee

Blue clay.....-sses.
Yellow clay...... a0
Champlain clay....

Upper brick clay...
Middle brick clay...
Lower brick clay...

Upper clay, Penni-
man’s yard.......

Lower clay, Penni-
man’s yard.......
Brick clay..
MeDowell’s yard..
Pow. clay mfg co., 3
elay for white
face brick.......

Same company, pit
% mile east of
Grover..

Under clay for red
brick, Cleveland
brick co....

Upper clay, same
company ........-
E. A. Poe’s brick
clay....

So-called ‘“‘tough
clay,” same yard.
Carter & Shepard,
lower brick and
tile clay
Upper clay, Carter
& Shepard
Not worked
Dean’s brick clay..
Greensboro brick

and tile co... .
ira wise brick
ay

eee er eee

ween wees ae te-

Middle brick clay..

YORK STATE MUSEUM

Brick clays

SILICA

Com-

bined Free

Alumina

12.66

19.2
20.15
18.91
15.24
30.924
20.22
26.53
11.28
17.8
15.87
20.86

19.95

17.21
13.73
16.88

29.54

22.35

23.3

20.02
17.08

20.1

19.11
20.06
20.83
22.31
20.62
12.87

13.16
17.14

.
.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

(continued)
8
WATER
Lime |Magnesia| Alkalis Miscellaneous
om- 7
6 bined Free
A
1 14,02 4.67 2.05 9 Seis: sesseees | veaee. | COS
14.62
2 7.6 1.25 5.32 7.25 and CO, ocanadod | Goc0se || nacase
3 3.14 1.2 iy || hee ehaG) COs || naqdooon fl sae SO,
4 5.40 3.39 odocodn 78 5.58 MOKOS maleteters 04
5 5.67 2.8 S000 6.85 AWA || cononone |f-cedoor 61.18
6 872 1.011 .678 7.148 sodoood soonn OBenie
f .30 eetateictafetothlinisiolstererevers 10.92 oooaoon Sood podoss
8 99 .3) sanoono 9.44 Jonea00 onan || taccas
9 pancad 1.75 SoREOoE ioal Reperayetsye Rr neicte so0000
10 ail 79 2.45 11.6 Ca le seep ots sods00 |] aden
11 27 21 2.4 8.25 2.8 Moen weer |SUlfur
1 78
12 3 64 2.18 9.94 4540 || goaoonse || oopose || Swihiine
1.18
13 soe 32 1.85 6.17 1616 Whscgsaneo |! aoooos | laneie=
rous
t oxid,
.67
14 ol 07 2.45 05 8 oosnonce || oocone |] oodcor
15 aS) oilt 1.48 4.65 inal HONDUGOUEooed’ It oacood
16 1 1.16 9 4.78 1.8 eaaiste none 600
17 oll) 14 2.15 9.93 a2) a enaoadta mae Fer-
rous
oxid,
18 al 22 2.8 5.98 5), I} nondooue |) cuca. || suanes
19 aye 25 Weyl Petts Unies |) Goonacos |} caccon || TNe:
| rous
oxid,
‘6 | 0.5
20 -20 .29 1.51 6.58 .63 Oodsncos |) cdscon |} cocons
21 43 59 3.85 6.58 DRAG Netto aiaels 300 jondee
22 6 7 | 2.6 OLS oy QuOBa | ECCS Brea. Cou e ais ne
23 8 .22 1.72 U5 aff) boooooon fl) cosanc agnoo
24 .33 16 1.42 8.8 1.85 ROodond tl AGaGen meats
25 .49 .14 84 8.79 LAS a lererpinreretereye Scat |e poonod
26 .25 13 29 9. ee oadan ono I saanao || cannes
27 .65 .58 4.47 8.6 1.64 Sodedcas |) Gage AgndaG
28 2.55 BY / 2.79 4.08 1.5 aieeleleiaie Sone! |! 84600
29 silty 28 2.65 5,08 1.63 eiieletrisiete saison main
30 02 .28 2.3 5.58 2.45 slelalajateraren|iieistulelsieil | wwe niet

893

Firm names, authority,
or analyst

H.'A. Wheeler, anal.

From Terry brothers

Mound city brick co.

‘ Geol. North Carolina
1, p. 357

|

Bull 18, N.C. geol-
sur. p. 102

Ibid. p. 103

oe

Ibid. pal04

Ibid. p. 105
Ibid. p. 107

Ibid. p. 82

Ibid. p. 83

Ibid. p. 108

Ibid. p. 109
Ibid. p. 110

Ibid. p. 111

Ibid. p. 112

ee

Ibid. p. 113.
Ibid. p. 115:

Ibid. p 114

Ibid. p. 116

Ibid. p. \1%
66

894

NEW YORK

| No.

1
2

HO 6&6 O ND OP

pote

State and county

N. Carolina (con?’d)
Halifax ............

Harnett........00..

veer eeccoece
C6
eeoereccoons

JACKSON. ...eeeseees

Mecklenburg......
ee
2G eees
ce
Rowan........ 55007

Richmond.........

Robeson ........
Union .....

MWe ail@)5 nGoddoooGdDd

ce
ay

Cocseseanace,

Wilkes... ..cesccseee

66
weet erene

North Dakota:
Grand Forks......

Burleigh ...........
Williams .... ws:

Ward neues

aecoe

WAS Ho 5oun00q00000

Ohio:
Stark ..... saoanosan

Franklin ..... 5c
Lawrence .........
pact
IDEN) Koo nagadcondd00
oe

Lorain...

eeeeeervece

SET

Trumbull ..........

66
ee

@vcver voce

Town

Roanoke rapids....

Spout springs......

6
ce

Shdbyelooododoadsosans

Charlotte wale b0002

Salisbury..... ....
4 miles north of
Rockingham.....

Red Springs........
MOnroe....scseenee-

Raleigh......cseoe.-
Goldsboro..........

oe

ee
Wilkesboro.......+-

6G
eeosrccee

Grand Forks.......
Bismarck ......... .
Williston ......... oe

Minot (Cottons
mine) ....... oueue

Dickinson..........

{Lehigh mine.......

Cambor eepenier seers
Waynesburg.,.....
Coluinbus...... sooo
Coal grove.........

Doughton .......:.

ce
ue

eeesesees

STATE MUSEUM

Remarks

Under brick clay..
Not worked........

e- ccceene
ee

34 mile south of sta-

tion. Not worked.
D. K. Cecil’s yard..
F. W. Shuman’s

WEN pgooago000

Sassamon’s brick
GENT egoseg7> cobeLs
Upper clay, As-
bury’s yard......

D. K. Cecil’s yard.
R. L. Steele’s brick
CLAY iisiietschissreleriste

Sandy brick clay...
J T. Shute’s brick
@Enecnb0500
Penitentiary
pits.
H. L. Grant’s brick
cla
Weil’s clay pit.....
Grant’s brickyard..
D. Smoak’s upper

Claas twianeee,
D. Smoak’s bottom
GIER? bows ooooanboue

ecces ees erecscesesons

Clay with coal.....

.

Blue clay....... os0%
Buff clay

sees cecae

White clay

ee eee

Shale ......

ence eeee

gray...... saeotioae

Brick clays

SILICA

Com-

binea| Free

63.69
62.86

66.28

Alumina

ae eet et le ale

i
j

CLAYS

(continued)
WATER
Lime |Magnesia} Alkalis
; om- | Free
} bined

1 1.35 14 3.24 6.33 2.05
2 23 15 77 8.3 1.42
3 3 02 58 11.08 1.35
4 1 1.35 29 10.79 1.05
5 45 16 2.12 6.65 45
6 2.1 32 2.82 5.3 1.35,
7 2 34 1.72 7.47 Coal
8 2.57 25 2.55 5.52 1.27
9 2 14 55 7.83 63
10 59 16 St 6.37 Bil
11 65 49 2.7 7.53 1.98
12 4 22 2.91 4.14 1.09
13 3 27 2.25 4.3 1.65
14 8 57 1.47 6.37 1.6
15 3 25 1.04 6.32 1.58
16 4 45 1.85 6.03 1.85
17 35 36 2.82 11.58 1.12
18 a 1.12 2.94 7.6 1.03
19 6 1.08 4.62 7.45 2.1
20 11.15 2.31 Mobis |) Ldoede o |} ose

21 2.1 74 1.148 16.672

22 teen Bite! || osose 500 |) 6a0bo00 || saods
23 71 76 66 10.014

Peis | Sandee 31 808 9.39

25 5.92 19 1.248 18.742

26 29 1.53 4.05 6 1.3
27 -56 1.6 4 9.4 1:2
28 1.05 erarecelerels Danecese fos} |} Goes
28) |). capegace Belajeresivie seeenes UGG, i Gocecos
30 72 1.246 1.14 F 6.704
31 6 1.714 2.13 5.16 we
32 94 1 9.12 66 | secs
33 2 81 BBO! ||\Eeieceume! || senenne
34 44 tr. pangecon Vewee 8.36
35 34 acl} Reoeoboon |! udcoone 6.26
36 tr. BT TN cvccseee | ceenerie 5.85

. Firm names, authority,
Miscellaneous or analyst
rrelevatevetale aooos Jesep Sully te, IN. ©. Seol,
sur. p. 118
Rieleisainise! |[Ussisisie | HCI a) Lozada pe dag
rous
oxid
1.08
S504} dooao0 |) dodcad |) Lear ja5 Ve
5 505 Ipocoone || ideas Tel
Beare edd Eee Reece mad LN rea tea |
donoco aves seisjereis ts | LOCO Da Lee:
. seen . ee eeeene Or
saeesaien | Caceres veces | [bid. p. 195
andpooda | Acc seoee | Lbid. p. 127
Sneoddos, | cooond see. | Lbid. p. 126
ee ee eesee | seeeee Ok
sabe wenedl tenis | uacegee | REDS peate0
AOOD resis ||| sissies | LOCH. Deplad
Watsen [Pctwaten |oueseleeslelbed ep selae
ra vee | seseee | Ibid. p. 184
eee . eeeor | sereee Rie
ROEGHDOS squao | ooaaee: || wlie/s ids BK
Meets atoptltiajervere ed Hl Proretelere |
Lnep labor bureau
Adcavade o | ceveee | 1891-92.
i J
deoseoc || tidaddo cece Ohio geol. sur. 1884
J SaIeAEC yaa it Memtuls “
euieretere ae +++ | From Forestdale brick
and tile works
i eo ane misierele From Buckeye brick co,
ats ites «+eee. | From Lorain brick co.
(| Co,’ f)
; 4 1.49 re
SO,
Uj}. 1.18

OF NEW YORK

£96

IS OF

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

State and coun‘y Town
Kittaning..........
a sraterteteret
te eee
Rfelelalcietohebsetersistilt ..-.-| Charleroi..........
Allegheny ........ | Pittsburg..........
Montgomerv.......| Norristown ........
Cumberland....... Pinegrove ........
Clinton ...... ....- | Loeckhaven... .....
Hrie soo soos Corry ...... doceno0d
5
Venango ..........- Franklin ........ do0
Indiana ........ Bells Mills...,......
Somerset .......— Hooversville..,
Huntingdon ..... Lewiston .......+--
Warren ...... «-:- Little brokenstraw
WHEN? Goa sbeoooode

Monroe ............

Beaver

ween

Crawford..... naooe

‘e nessee:

SP ThiGE si shee eiaiescieteare oe
Toweos:
Harrison.........--
IBIAS 4356 Gone tetas
Grimes wean ceies

McCulloch........

(CARAS ReNS Saonanor
oe
ee

Marion

Washington:
Pierce BEARD:

‘|°A. Dunean H’d't...

Schneiders mine...
Chapman station ..

Stroudsburg. .
New Brighton.....

Titusville ...... Hobe

Robbins

eevcecr eee

Marsball . - Siatakensvalete

Harrisburg ..... nes
Courtney .........

Milburn............
Waldrip Bed, Cisco}

division .......
Queen City.......

Gideon Story H’d’t.

\. Richardso» H’d°t
Garden Valley......
Henderson .....

Tyler

Carthage
Tatum tation
Millville
West of Henderson

Tacoma ...........

Remarks

Soft brown shale...
Blue gray shale....
Vissile shale .
Fire clay used for
Toniekeeereeinimiet

reese

Red clay. Aa

G ay shale. ....

Shale for terra cotta
lumber

ce

Plastic clay eel

Gray Glayicesanest &
Loamy clay.......-
Dark clay

White clay.........

SILICA

Com-

bined Free

Brick clays:

Alumina

24.54
19.92
19.72

26.23
21.44
24.6
20.127
18.54
13.86
21.46
33.119
21.76
18.46

29.693
13.07

15.939

23.431
17 4

28.39
16.29

20.93

15.19

20.2
6.3

12.68

19.34

22.04
10.25

11.43

Ferric
oxid

8.75
12 01
5.92
1.34
0.23

9.92
10.49

1.23
4.57

6.83h.

7.9%

om 20
cd oo GO aad okt) ro)
Rm 2 Oo

oP

Sows wo

WOUND

~
cw)

te ie

na

=e eee

(continued)

BO ©0 SF Oop

deed Ht
09 29

et
oe

16

Lime |Magnesia| Alkalis

14 54 2.94
grees abel nai ss
by diff. 9.022

41 .46 nopsoaca
-12 Oh Saaoarer
ce .474 | d1.68 RABiy
CaCO, MgCO, 3.692
eGo 2.581
.58 328) 4.55
23 1.551 2.7715
44 1.005 3.415
-06 .526 -909
HSS 1 848 3.58
13 3.376 8.383
08 1.92 H.27
32 2 23
6 020 2.001
3.01 2.511 4.372
18 .32 2.3
tr cod 7.41
18.12 .92 1.14
1.22 miaiatetaver 4.775
-BD REO ACHC 4.5
tr. footodc 4.46
1.8 .08 4
tr. tr. 6.42
4 ike, 8.89
tr. tr. 8.02
tie tr. 3.5
al ae see tr
tir. tr 5.46
wes tr 6.67
souls rs meee ar liaabe san
2.12 1))583 arahisisitets

a eeeerereeeseeee

CLAYS OF NEW YORK

Ign.10.93] .....

WATER
& Miscellaneous
om-
pinea | Free
8.55 sHocot: |} coodoode || Sodone |) ogacs
6.81 mite pocscade | ogdon Seite
8.59 atte eet bul lleevertioe noonds
8.71 nanos aietateieteye seeee Sonos
6.73 ob0on sodsooaa || pooda aefaterers
lank abood: |) babaod cieisielale ages
stalarete aa Tpeaa SMe aeope lll aan
2.05 mirteiatsistalel 4] /r teinie'e)n S40
Claw i bil sodanacoo cence. ate
amente al hasiaenes SO, Gnoved |lnoacse
2.847
sistatelorsiay | faralortate Ign 4.8] .... ieee
6.31 peesece ¢ 2.15 Riaetare
12.86 pononoon || eodog aieteieis
5.435 Socadooo. || ooacne soce
(ore)
3.16 Secs a ae
2.81
4.86 hoondonn || @iloee Si
5.51 done oooe |) Godoooll-sause
meter cis npenoobead) waist eeey| Anac s500
6.34 TO. h|| ‘Goopse” |) paGeae
[ c1.09 |)
8.84 | ve. seenceed Og Locos
L 5.418 | J
SOE TOS Ign.2 ace Spo0
H,0. and CO, a ecyerias Boaas aeDCAD
22.00
ay BORE I) SoacGo ae
larg Loss 7.07] ..see D000
bsadaead sor ThOSSHU SH latateteta || mathete
Sda0cI00 Josenooe | LOSSIEHS SGedn0 Beier
ge ae Cetera
7.25 SOx tr poodne Iwooaoe
1.95 | Ghocnoas sodsc
BET Wy, RR CUaeee

897

Firm names, authority..
or analyst

9% Rep’t Pa.
college, p. 123

)
resi clay mfg
tt state
)
|
t

Ibid. p. 131

J

Pitt+burg ter. cott.
Jumber co.

Perkiomen brick co.

Fuller brick and slate-

co.
Mill hall brick works
J. F. Elson, anal.
H. Froehling, anal.
Pa. geol. sur. MM, p..
294
Ibid. HHH, p. 123

Ibid. HHH

Ibid. 3

oe

Pa. geol. sur. D. p. 53
Monroe brick and tile

co.
1897 Rep’t Pa.
college

state
Pa. geol. sur. no. 3, p.
103

Clay worker, Dec. 1893

2d Rep’t on ircn ore
dist., E. Texas. 1890:

Texas geo]. sur.

4th Rep’t Texas geol.
sur.

Rep’t' on Col. coal
field, Tex. geol. sur.

}
| 1890 Rep’t Tex. geol.
f sur. p. 91

J

Ibid. p.
Ibia. p. 219

Ibid. p. 229

Ibid. p. 257

898

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

State and county

©
a
West Virginia:
1 | Marshall...........
z Monongalia........
4| Marshall........s0.
Wisconsin:
5 | Milwaukee.........
Gi aDanes sa ees
v4
8 | Milwaukee.........
9 PY slit aie rete
Indiana:
10 | Fountain .........
11 ‘t sererevereie iste
12) (GilbSONE. .c0 05 cccs
18} | 1GMOb< Gnogonooannon6
ia) |) (EngeverXey Gaoonc onndoe
ily || JeRWEE\n65 s50500s00000
a CoA eyavetaisrs ajorevaisfe(ers
17 MG Sabo oHoCUDOD
SS} J IBA Sodconbadonood
19 | Spencer.........0.-
20 | Vermilion..... meek
21 ue sboa000000
OU MVALS Ove ctatalalelelaleleisisielelete
BBY I acaoeoc nooogo00s00000
Missouri:
PAS ATCSE ce sleleal<isieisrelsiels
25 | Christian ..........
26 | Cooper..........:+.
Pate || Islay Scoonnondaoor
28 Coe aaa ayora ene
29 . Ms saandbutodes
30 oe staleVateislopacsiers
31 “ Sodooddgueoace
82 | JackSOn.....seeoee.
BEY || REISS Sqoadaasdoso
384 | Johnson. .......00.

Town

Moundsville ......,
Morgantown
Morgant’n brick co.
Moundsville........

Milwaukee.........

Madison <.....

Whitneys rapids...
Granville station...

Stone bluff.........

“ce
ecoceeece

Princeton .-....0.+
ViNGeNNeS. ....6..

Linton .

eovecceescoss
eve

a9

Railroad cut near
Lincoln

West Montezuma...

Terre Haute. ......

Rocky run ......0

Foster....
Billings ...esseeeees

Boonville........0..
Clinton..... Uloreversvarsts
Town Creek, Cl’t’n.
Gilkerson Ford ....
Fields Creek.
Vickey Lands .....
North bluff, Kansas
@ityaenrrccite ly
Briggs Shaft,
Joplin... ....s0e.
Clear Fork. ......-.

pecer

Brick clays

Remarks

Clay near river ....
be

ooeeeerevorsceee noone

OleWVoodcaneusps0nO80

poveeeceseeecesseconre

Clay eGsaneetneeee
From the Chase
brick co....

J. W. Shuster .....
F. Landers .... eee.
Near Air line shops

Island coal _ co.,
shale no. 8, shaft1

oye Aas
shale no.

alas
shale no.

eee als
shale no.

iS) McCune,

5.

NS) McCune,

9

iS) McCune,

2..

American cannel
coalco., sh’le no. 7

Mixture of shales..

J. Burns, shale no.

J. Burns, shale no.

se eceouscece

H.T. Thorp.......

peeee

poeteeercseseuressers

Not worked..
Used for

Used for press brick

Not worked........

SILICA

Com-

binea| Free

71.78
73.88
75.12
74.62

38.22

75.8

70.25
52.18

38.07

Alumina

Ferric
oxid

(concluded)

Lime |Magnesia

fe)

%;

1 32 43
2) aa 4
3 sae “18
4 32 "43

13.24

5) 3252, | di5.83
6| 02.45 1%
” "33 | 1.49
8 09] 7.29
Quine 15/84 | 8.5
les
10 .99 05
11 57 44
12 16 91
18 42 2

14 66 93
15 49 1.56
16 bt 1.66
17 64 1.98
18 32 1.9
19 57 2.09
20 19 1.31
at 31 5A
22 25 7
23| 6.12 9
mn Denies 1.96
25 42 ”
26 | 1.17 1.41
a7 BY 68
28 "18 15
29 58 iG
30 38 69
31 46 86
32} 3.25 2.84
33 73 1.26
34 46 45

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 899

Alkalis

3.14

2.08
2.87

2.76

ASI | eesetetelersts

4.53 Leeeens

(a5 S| sooodnoe

8.6

Miscellaneous

Firm names, authority,

or analyst
sen008 inacosa .eeee- | Mound City brick co.
Loong0ge al monace |} spose 5 || No dita Whitehall, anal.
a a ea ata Bede) From Mound City
brick co.
might g ST ear er | Geol. Wisconsin, 2:
| 236
sonnone puinooe | oacoon th evithe 1. 24a)
2.22 | seecee | 5.52. | B. Schmidt & Co.
20.46

sarees

eeeesonn

seseee | €1.49 | Ind. geol. sur. 20:130

Satatevoncn ecu aL Cs
Rat: eens ‘
3006 o |) @ils ve
oo |) @ilpilss xe
athioretste Cal Ind. geol. sur. 20:129
Soscus| | Olsil Ce
Riatotstate c.8 =

seseee | €1.05 | Ind. geol. sur. 20:180

misjeleieis e.9 ue

Sc c1.19 “

agne8 a | wil Wy e

ailavatere c1.2 | Ind. geol. sur. 20:129
S00OC ; _ Ind. geol. sur. 20:57
veces | oseces | MO. geol sur. 11:568
Eee acn | saecedply Abt 1564

Saisie ae ilierscantoe he

Paetcteialiceteieisienn | LOZ. kd SOG

OO Foor wrr

a
HS

aia and
He 09 09

15

26

27

28
29

30

| No.

State and county

Missouri (cont'd)

Lafayette..........
Marion........
Pike

eee soni eoveese

etere oeevescces
OO

Randolph

Ste. Genevieve ....
St Louis..........-

ee
WEG Soon onnd0S
be

Arkansas: _
Sebastian .

California:
tan Mateo. oo...
Colorado:
Jefferson .........-
«6

Florida .......
Illinois:

Sangamon....
S@OiElio poco oneOoNN

McLean....sesecees

Indiana:
Vermilion.

eovocoer

le nVea 260000060 5000
(mes 5 Bogdddo
Vanderburg. ....,

Vermilion.........

Clinton .

eee ceae en

Kansas:
Leavenworth ......

Maryland:
allegheny.....

Missouri:

NEW YORK

Town

Lexington . wees...
Hannibal...........
Minor’s Land, Bowl-
ing Green ........
Louisiana .........
JNIGIEVOD as oeonboe
Humansville.
Hammet’s
Huntsville. ......
Stuarts mine ......
1% mil+es northwest
of Huntsville....
Sexaner farm ,.....
Laclede mine

eoneour

Barretts ...sceecoees
Deerfield ........0..

Fort Smith.........

San Francisco. ....

Golden.......ce.ece.
Morrison............
Bartow.........

Springfield.........
Winchester ........

Bloomington. ......

Clinton. .corsessvere

Brazil. .

teoccsee

Evansville.........-
Clinton......0e..6--
Burlington ........
Clinton ......... oe

Leavenworth ......

‘Mount Savage . .e..

Cheltenham 6080008

Montgomery .......

STATE MUSEUM

SILICA
Remarks A
om-
bined Free
Not worked........ (Os
sr noodoo0s 66.57
oe O6Dod0nE 57.01
ee nein a 46 .26
ae pecevoer 56.82
on ddododos 66.03
Sr Abaddon. 56.86
ts pooaooce 58.44
th | EN Noae ae 59.97
Used for sewer pipe 54.57
Not worked ........ 49 69
ve poatooas 58.9
etolsteatetetatelefetetstersteaterts 54.54
SISEVES oGannH60G00000 57.1
(Clfocoanocg0000000 56.51
yorevetattakete so0boC0000 52.41
booosgoocade Wateyeiertiors 71.8
SodcoeDe Hades ooned06 69.03
soobadebpagnodsdedsus 62.78
donpocdnoodnooDNDNE co 23.15
Sdpedooocondducosd 67.8
Shaleaeeiicciirsieater 43.128
eicitns as s00000000000 68.83
Mixture of shales
and surface clay
for paving blocks 59.55
Mixture of shales
and surface clay 65.87
Mixture of shales
and surface clay 61.46
meerestatats ainralonoteincrsisietee 77.4
iceman anisteschejssee 73 82
Carb shale......... 58.45
61.22
38.1
43.93

Alumina

22.5
9.61

15.382
24.43
10.76
24.48

21.74
17.97

25.36
21.15
23.61

17.4
21.38
23.26

Shales

Ferric
oxid

ie)
o

(i Sieh YN 22)
oreo won

NUR FAHD OV
WSS MWD
oOo

Oe

Paving brick

23.74

21.33

14.66

16.54

11.74
15.88

21.96

30.08

25.64
31.53
40.09

8.18

29

ee)
0

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 901

(concluded)

WATER
Lime (Magnesia! Alkalis p Miscellaneous Firm PeuAniney ity
om-
binea | Free

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

or

me
~
J
rs
_
~
ws
Or
ee
°
.

Sereistare Mo. geol. sur. 11: 566

1.03 2.94 6.42 1g) |) condone | nsoaac seeeee | Ibid. 11: 568
oa | Shae ieee ee Boece ;
16 5

66

—s
Metco 2

DORDW

G2 GO
eS)
OO
Ce)
(TS)
+ 00
ae

ISLS etetel ste oa6 |} codons poooas ie
6 2.45 pooceddn || opccon |! osooc0 || MMOs mea brie, thle ae}

1.41 sobbc00b) |) Sonoed 206 yo
153) |) ooonsb00" || opdcac D5D06 of
Aoanaod soDegaue4|| doaade SOg .44) Ibid. 11: 570

4

1

7

7 Ha |] on005-06 || canoau |} cnasse on
9 :

1

© OF Sow wH | No.

oam Da
Orn OR

“se
“a

wreey comm Wet como
NRO Roo DMO an-3

4 Or =F
09 0 09

ie

15 53 1.04 2.4 5090090 |) soq000 Gel) Bocoesae || soocds, | eureail
1G |) coododen 3.53 ie, 6.3 cocceces | sasees | seeees | Byrnes On Roadways

2 6 61 14.05 hooodocn |l-osacus || codons ge
18 BS. i Gboaces Rieil caatstete dia cis 8.3 doda0ddo || osasde. |} oodee 5 Se
ies) || Goooeo ca || cooosp00 || -aonocos 4.2 secvcees | seeees | «eeees | Min. resources, 1898

1.72 2.12 (ses | ebesesees (alee pA Bert16.69) | pest ol een J. 98. Cary, anal.

Byrnes on Roadways
8.9 5.32 2.42 2 poooodes |i Wes Sandon

97 -99 9.482 iTolatulelesetoaul mretereteters soe.e | J. F. Elson, anal.
.382 .551 ddasecse. ||oosoen | 2lreaul soodoo, || copoas: || So 18, 1a:

25 15 1.58 3.09 5.62 mavenene Pe slacigee | COp

Gale Ind. geol. sur. 20: 129

26 39 1.54 3.97 4.59 covcecee | eceoee | Cl.t OG

-66 1.81 4.37 5.09 ceceseee CO,
1.45 | c1.2 os

16 1.91 4.23 atinnoosesc S600bo1|| ocaposns Il ASotond Haoceda
tr. Wibs 4.5

5 eajefels/ate\sial|intsietertis! | |lrofatatee\=

1.05 1.57 4 6.51 sn50000d || saocns || doooas || EN xoyaiy a TOTS TERE

Sal || scoocacd, |) aasecooo 2.3 13.9 TSLOWE | atetsiele ott] isiatsis|e

32 .seee. | Byrnes on Roadways

ri)
ie)

ae

902

10

11

40
41

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Paving brick

4

Missouri (contd)

State and county

Jackson ....... ppono

JACKSON .....e0e0e
POMNSOM sw ieicivlelsiniciels

Michigan:
Saginaw ..

ce

Nebraska:
Otoe .....

secescee

New Jersey:
Middlesex.... ....,
Warren .........e0s

New York:
Onondaga..

weocoes

Steuben..........--

Columbiana.. .....
Jefferson.
be

Columbiana........
Jefferson,...
oe

Hocking... pone
Montgomery... Deon ae

Pennsylvania :
Beaver....... pugodo
ce

Mercer.

ce
sececeeecncoer

BCAVEKei« selsiinee ve
st

Tennessee:
Hamilton .....,....
Scott...... afetanteyereyoye

Texas:
Henderson...., none

West Virginia :

EATON elelcvereielerelereiels

Town

Kansas City........

Deepwater,
souri clay co.....
Kansas City........
Boyd’s pit Knob-
NOSHEL 2. .cceeesees

Nebraska City ....

Woodbridge .......
Phillipsburg.......

Warner ..... potions

Hornellsville .......
Cairo...... aiavats eterniets

Glouster.......c.0e-
Darl ngton.........
Columbus.......00.
Cantonteeeen eters

Island siding. n0000D
East Palestine......
Blliottsvi goccno0R000

Cen run.. :
Haydensville. . Bursterevete
Brookville

ooo rreee

WIDER to 55qn005008
Rochester ..........
Sharon.

ae
eveereee

Woodlawn.. 50
New Brighton.. soooe
Corry..

ee epecesecesees

Powdes station.....
Chattanooga.......

Robbins..

evooersonce

Morrisons,....-.0...

Cumberland........
Nuzums mills......

Remarks

Carb. shale ..

eoveone

eon ee . eeene
90 seevee aoeee
oe @ecossecerecsecn

Gray shale.........
Black shale......

OlEwreenoononco0KdG0e

alle veyrelesialafelsiersie/elalk

6G
6G
tc6
66

Fireclay.

Shale clay......

euve

eevee ere eee eeoonooesr

Red shale .........

Blue shale.......00.

seco seeecesrerece

SILICA

Com-

bined | Free

64.37
68.54
56.8

69.65

63.

Alumina

19.73

‘Ferric

oxid

9.07

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 903
clays (concluded)
WATER
Lime |Magnesia| Alkalis tee ea te Miscellaneous Boe eee y
eS bined Free
ZA
1 -82 2.32 3.78 Bee oe a Stee mavelea duiiees|icatatciestel iteeereeien | Clave» worker, Dec.
1893
2 1.03 -88 2.30 4.62 LER W ssheoson|| eds sereee | Ind. geol. sur. 20: 564
3 1 155 GOdo0000 Nl Sopoded || aemacce || osaqadc « | seesee | weeeee | From Diamond brick
and tile co.
4 1.21 tr. 8.52 Fee bil uGae {aonocodallioogoaa -i|ococc - | Ind. geol. sur. 20: 566
5 TE 2 2.65 sao seoe seenes nrooDdn|| coobac From Saginaw clay
manufacturing co.
1.05 1.69 3 5.51 fs aohacdasall asacaos deoqde =
a 2.13 94 .98 4.96) assis Adéaddoeul|ooansOelbsdaaooo se
8 Sint s Hier eee -49) «| 18.59 | 4-21) seeesee | .c1-4 | 2c.cc | Node clay rep7t, 1978
9| 4.14 3.15 3.42 7 .6 | SO, .89| Py O; *
13 eeeree
10 11.25 1.29 1.2 9.25 SOx 2.78| CO,
(280) Gascon
11 3.36 4,49 6 Seatersis 5.8 | wesseeee | CO5
3.04 |MnOtr.| R. Froehling, anal.
12 95 19 SRGLT | arsy eaatenilicestartss Gooo000 Raia lead eeteen
118} Weoappeea osagnaces leacr : 5 Ui eiac |lisemenieee lleeeseenlleeneniiee | Hrom | (@atsklle shale
and paving brick co.
14 9 1.62 3.63 5.5 Patel Gancooda: |) caste. I! saseno. (hl
|
15 29 1.22 3.66 5.9 8) ol) cosooodd sdoend |) Sénoss ‘ Ohio geol. sur. 1893,
16 44 aay e 5.02 Yeap) || sacconc doavlosco || cob Sone 7: 184
17 1.48 ie Gi alterna eee po0e oieye Beal Mecccee |
18 Halah 1.41 3.99 060 j} ogeosad ApG00: |IJI
19 -42 .68 3.43 8.87 76 cogada || Janene jo. sy
20 .62 Bis] 2.74 9.95 1.05 aieistels S
21 Stitt 1.41 2.82 9.67 1.72 acai sf
“2 12D 61 2.69 8.35 2.25 sas oe
23 15 34 2.9 5.39 Sonne soe oS
24 t3}3) 45 1.3 4.1 socare Apoda ue
25 1.05 WD 1.53 SBop erste Aci ces Be
26 4 54 1.75 Sethe wet sieints SunoodS ASo0ce: |) cacd es
27 .48 4 1.48 BSA lisemies sebaoooS. | eaasad Preece | LOzds vest e pe 189
28 wD 2 2.4 6.67 BOnuOG Gopaoo || sacde es
29 06 -33 8.24 %.5 Beeloona || pelos Secame Monong. fireclay co.
30 41 1.18 2.19 5.38 FeS1.09 | ...... | ...... | Park fireclay co.
31 .48 s6%2!<l/ odabeons.||| cousdonodadcanba TATA | ooades || Agndos Eclipse paving brick
32 44 te eee aaah lt eau icastal anal Fern Bese lintstee) hak 2. and clay mfg. co.
33 .o2 oO Ni Rodand 6 10.6 aieetetsterata cl band
35 | b12.84 d5.85 Ssh |lelslslalaisisieisieieleieee melissa itera een wee ron H. Stantonds
Corry, Pa.
36 23 1 Qld NWieinasatreseewess | LS. vo MMOL socces | di. Wi. Slocum, anal.
37 16 .3o 2.18 G.5 | wsceee | ovureeee |MnOtr.| ,..... | Tennessee paving brick
co. bygoernnoy
38 -%8 32 2.3 aialeretefalelefeletere’siefefeha| iMate iefelelrats voees | coeeee | Clay worker, Dec. 1893
39 tr. 5 AAG We eateteraicia sieleisvaisie(h | Calsieiseots/<tliiisisenisl|iNcigeeseeliueOx- eeOl, .Sur., 1890)
p. 199
40 aleleg .38 HGS all Maseeteticiteicehictcisia ti lcauuisieienimacdeacenl|Miacca Clay worker: DeCwWisos
41 7.16 Winvele/=\c\oious |i iaiele’ofets 6.3 creeacisc | vanes || secaes | BYZNES On Roadways

VO04

| No.

22

23

S a eand county

California:
Monterey .......00-

Colorado:
Jefferson

New York:
Allegany.
Saratoga....

seco seoees

eecerecen

Pennsylvania:
BeCAVELr.....5006 9900

Virginia:
AUGUStA .rssevecees

South Dikota:
Pennington ..ccre.,

Georgia:
Baldwn..... oon0000

Indiana:
Perry
Greemaeyeeeieleteisisiet<tels

Kentucky:
Calloway ...

eootnee

Marshall ...-......
Missouri:

Jel@iai\” so6ago0000000
Minnesota;

Gocdhue....... SAG

New Jersey:

Middles -x ......05.
New York:
Erie........ poonadde

North Dakota:
Cavalier. ......0.0-

Ohio:
Jefferson

Columbiana .......

Pennsylvania:
Wayne...... ocopood

NEW YORK

STATE MUSEUM

Town

Alfred Center .....
Glens Falls (see
Brick clays)......

New Brighton......
Staumtonerey sec.

Rapid City.........

‘Stephens Pottery..

Cannelton, William
Clarke .
Worthington. ......

New Providence...

Pughs place

Dickey sewer pipe
c»r., Deepw ter...
Laclede mine, St
WOUNSscooncedo doa

Red Wing.......0.-

Woodbridge

oe

ANGOlA sececcvesess
Langdon ...........

Freeman. (see also
analyses of Ohio
paving-brick
ClaYS) .s...0 naouo

Walker’s Station..

Texas township....

Remarks

laiygrereetieeiettesteristers

ce

Chemung shale....

ee veeceseeoevessesees

Shale clay.....sse..

Under-clay.....+..
S. Davis’S ...00.+++.

White clay......+..

(Olen snogndaoddo0000e

Used for sewer pipe

SINAWOooocpdooogsoo00

(OlERnogoodooodouo0dG

Under-clay.........

Catskill red shale..

SILICA

52.78

65.83
63.25

61.68

62.92

60.12

59.96
69.84

67.7
33

29.1
65.15

50.45

39.03 | 15.5
54.53

Terra cotta
- | Ferric
Alumina Ona
7.85 1.16
4.5 5
18.88 1.56
23.25 10.9
22.94 a1.818
18.4 2.66
16.73 2.78
Pipe
32.3 -05
22.94 2.64
24.81 3.04
28.5 1.68
29.88
21.35 7.06
15.76 02
23.07 48
19.91 1.69
23.8 1.6
15.29 6 16
17.57 2.8
27.88 2.41
27.88 2.41
19.877 10.071

59.26

N
CLAYS OF NEW YORK ons 905
clays
WATER
5 A . Firm names, authority,
Lime |Magnesia} Alkalis Ane Miscellaneous on analyst
6 bined ace
a
o
1 0.25 22 38 Ge Tt ie nae aR “"*" | (9th rep’t Cal. state
2 .93 .86 68 4.46 Ree al ihia sre cane min. p. 302
3 _ 5B 45 isa 82 O00 0008. | MAdCeaenl eeacso
4 1.01 62 Pate (HB |] cadocan MGaO) 2 eal SO. 41] Celadon terra-cotta co.
B) || coaoedne |} cosc0505 | codne feels cengcd || odoaadeat|! conse |hoooons
44 522 Leo 8.85 seseeeee (€1.975 | 1.008. | Pa, geol. sur. MM,
p. 262.
@ 28 «822 1.737 S408 || saocon SOx tr. | eveoes | sevees | Terra cotta tile works
8 21 18 dooaQoce 6.71 sfelsfeletalsieiil|fe(elwleisie\s\! ||) lalsteleieie Rapid C ty steam brick
I works
clays
® l) ssane00d 42 55 13.54 338 || opoooc 20 H. C. White, anal.
10 808 +858 | sevceeee 7.434 Ris saccaun || nonaes sees. | Ind. geol. sur. 20: 125
11 48 UO |) eonsocos (ce8). |) Gascon papoo00d podod veees | Ind. geol. sur. 2: 90
12 101 .136 1.98 5.923 AOOAO LOSE MABOAOO eeeee | Ky. geol. sur. chem.
rep’t A. pt 3,no. 2640
13 tr. 209 1.736 5.255 abda.ccc |} gocoad |) ooodne |) Zlarh say CGB
14 52 1.08 3.43 6.32 (O54 Wooanooe eiefess sees. | Mo. geol. sur. 11: 564
15 6 93 3.66 (ot || Goonand SOx 08} || Snooos »e+ | Mo. geol. sur. 11:570
16 ll 14 tr. 5849)" ougacde 00 on ae From J. H. Rich, sewer
pipe works
i leaies se 72 2.56 5.5 i Psat ecn enum Mgpeuticel sp J, clay rep't, 187,
. p. o«
18| tr. BT 277 | 6.7 iofiescananma ences
flcigi [ete eae Ibid. p. 113
19 8.5 iL By? 5.71 osseae || eeacods boo |hsosenee |piaomods H. T. Vulté, anal.
20 Ay43) 1.79 -93 22.55 Loss3.66] ,,.... noe Rep’t labor bureau,,
1891-92
TiO,
21 42 .68 3.48 8 87 76 no08 1.26 | «+»... | Ohio geol. sur, 5 1884
22 .42 .68 3.48 RESTA Sa necats ahaa EEO OU tig Ind. geol. sur. 20p. 138
1.26
23 Ay43) 1.917 4.855 Bs |} casceac apeteinctolste lhiccnrets 012 | Pa. Erol. sur. no, 3,
p.

906

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Pipe clays

State and county

| No.

Pennsylvania (con.)
IG Beaver sf. )elcro

2 Butlers. eisccin'e aaa

South Dakota:
3 Pennington ........

4 66

Tennessee:
5 IGT Osa tetevetereictaleteleieletets

eoseoerece

Town Remarks

Cannelton....... as

IBUTLET facrsiervecveticiereca | crstovreietersiars

Rapid City.........

ae eoeseee-| HOrt Benton shale.

Powell Station.....

Soft shale..........

WM oucosoncdado0s0s

ip efafeyel | INSET EULG retnreretaterarsiareloletets

SILICA
. Ferric

aptile Alumina onal
bined | Free:

67.67 18.28 1.03

59.01 21.77 10.73

74.22 16.38 1.95

63.59 20.809 | a2.952

68.35 12.96 6.44

62.3 19.17 6.88

(concluded)
Lime
S)
a
tl Sdoace
2 et
3 4
4 52
5 23

Magnesia| Alkalis

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 907

Slejeleisiaielel| ent
3.8 sascene

7.8 Boddood
Tot!) 1 cacbooc

Firm names, authority,

Miscellaneous or an alyst

podounoo |} coonon. || @PsPts} |} ikiwoyen Aly Wie fo adevoyeny!

& co.
oqqn0090) || addoog) |i cooaed Butler brick and tile
co.
Vesesves | aveces Rapid City steam brick
works
seoeee | oe-e-- | C6 63 | Furnished by F. C.
Smith

coonpo0o || auanoo. |}. wba)
9

eeececes | seesce a vecee

908 NEW -YORK STATE MUSEUM

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CLAY LITERATURE

No attempt has been made to give a complete list of works
relating to clays and the ceramic arts. While such a list is of
value in its proper place, if is considered that the purpose of this
report will be far better served, if only titles of value to the prac-
tical clay worker, or the general student of clays are given. For
an exhaustive list of works on this subject the reader is referred
to the bulletin by Branner mentioned below. Not a few of the
many valuable works in the German or French language, while
reasonable in price, are at times hard to obtain; therefore only
the titles of the more important ones are given here. :

Articles which are mainly locality reports are marked a; those
that are largely technologic in their nature, 6; while a third class,
which includes both of the others, are indicated by c.

Barber, H. A. Pottery and porcelain of the United States. -
INS S83:

Historic.

Bischof, C. Die Feuerfesten Thone. Leipzig 1895 (0).

Blue, A. Vitrified bricks for pavements. 3d ann. rep’t On-
tario bureau of mines. p. 108. Toronto 1893 (bd).

Blatchley, W. S. Clays of coal-bearing counties of Indiana.
20th ann. rep’t Ind. geol. sur., p. 24. 1896 (c).
The clays of northwestern Indiana. 22d ann. rep’t

Ind. geol. sur.

Bock, O. Die Ziegel Industrie. Leipzig.

Bain, H. F. Report on geology of Polk co. ‘th ann. rep’t
Ja. geol. sur. p. 267. ;

Report on geology of Plymouth co. 8th rep’t Ia.
seol. sur. p. 318:
Manufacture of clay-ballasts. Mineral industry. 6

REO

The manufacture of paving brick 1 in the middle west
Mineral industry. v. 7.
Binns, C. F. Ceramic technology. a 1897 (bd).

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 909

Branner, J. C. Bibliography of clays and the ceramic arts,
Bull. U.S. geol. sur. no. 143. 1896.

Chamberlin, T. C. Geol. of Wisconsin. 1877. 2: 285; 1883.
1: 668 (a).

Describes Milwaukee brick and clay.

Cook, G. H. Clays of New Jersey, N. J. geol. sur. 1878 (4).

Cook, R, A. Manufacture of firebrick at Mt Savage, Md.
Trans. Amer. inst. min. eng. 1886. 14: 698 (0).

Cox, H. T. Porcelain, tile and potter’s clays. Ind. geol. sur.
1878. p. 154 (a).
Crary, J. W., sr. Brickmaking and brickburning. Indian-
apolis.

Crawford, J. Notes on California clays. 13th ann. rep’t Cal.
state mineralogist. |

Davis, C. T. Bricks, tiles and terra cotta. Phil. 1889 (0).

Diimmler, K. Die Ziegel und Thonwaaren Industrie der Ver-
einigten Staaten. Halle 1894.
— Handbuch der Ziegel Fabrikation. Halle 1897 (6).

Griffen, H. H. Clay glazes and enamels. Indianapolis
USS5 (UD)

Hecht, H.

Articles on clay in Dammer’s chemical technology.

Hill, R. T. Clays of the United States.‘ Mineral resources.
U. S. geol. sur. 1891. p. 474 (a).

Hofman & Demond. ‘Tests on the refractoriness of fireclays,
Trans. Amer. inst. min. eng. 1895. 24:42 (0).
Further experiments to determine the fusibility of
fireclays. Ibid. 25: 3.

Hofman, H. O. A modification of Bischof’s method for deter-
mining the refractory character of fireclays. Ibid. 26.

Does the size of grain affect the refractory character
of fireclays? Ibid. 26.

Holmes, J. A. The kaolin and clay deposits of North Carolina,
Trans. Amer. inst. min. eng. 1896. 25: 929 (a).

Hopkins, T. C. The clays of western Pennsylvania. Ann.
rept Pa. state college. 1897 (a).

910 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Irelan, L. Pottery. 9th ann. rep’t Cal. state mineralogist.
1890. p. 287 (0).

Jervis, W. P. An encyclopedia of ceramics. Crockery and
glassware journal. 1898-1899.

Jones, C. C. The economic geology of the Hudson river valley
clay deposits, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. Feb. 1899.
Kerr, W. C. Geology of North Carolina. 1875. 1: 296-97.
Ladd, G. Clays of St Louis co, Mo. Bull. Mo. geol. sur.,
NOW Crys oOs
Notes on the cretaceous and associated clays of middle
Georgia. Amer. geol. Ap. 1899.
Preliminary report on the clays of Georgia, Bull.

6A, Ga. geol. sur.
Langenbeck, K. Chemistry of pottery. Easton 1896 (0).
Lesley, J. P. Kaolin deposits of Delaware and Chester coun-
ties, Pa. Ann. rept Pa. geol. sur. 1885. p. 571 (@).
Loughridge, R. H. Clays of Jackson purchase region, Ky.
Ky. geol. sur. 1888. p. 77 (a).
McCalley, H. Report on the valley region, Ala. geol. sur. 1896.
jou Jk 905 Gis,
Meade, D. W. Manufacture of paving brick, Trans. Amer.
soc. civ. eng. 1898. 24: 552 (b).
Montgomery, H. G. Manufacture of glazed brick. London.
Orton, H., jr. Clays and clay working industries of Ohio. v. 15,
pt 1, p. 69 (b)
Pennock, J. D. On the expansion and conducivity of fire
bricks. Trans. Amer. inst. min. eng. 1896.
Periodicals
Brick (monthly). Chicago, Il.
Brickbuilder (monthly). Boston, Mass.
Brickmaker (bi-weekly). Chicago, Il.
Clay (quarterly). Willougby, O.
Crockery and glassware journal (weekly). N. Y. city
Clayworker (monthly). Indianapolis, Ind.

q
5
iN 4
3
4
4
S
a
3
:
4
ti

taendins

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 911

Periodicails (continued)

Paving and municipal engineering (monthly). Indianapo-
lis, Ind.

Thonindustrie Zeitung. Berlin, Ger.

Topfer und Ziegler Zeitung. Berlin, Ger.

Philips, W. B. Eng. & min. jour. 42: 826; and Journal iron
and steel inst. 1887. no. 1, p. 389 (c).

Platt, F. Test of firebrick. 2d. Pa. geol. sur. rep’t M. M.
meno. pe 210) (0).

Ries, H. Clays of United States. Mineral industry. 2 (c)
Clays of Hudson river valley. 10th ann. rep’t N. Y.
state geol. 1890.

Clay industries of New York. Bull. N. Y. state mu-
Seumine 1895: v.03... wo. 12°(e).

Technology of the clay working industry, 16th ann.
rep’'t U. S. geol. sur. pt 4, p. 5238 (0).

Pottery industry of the United States. 17th ann. rep’t.
Ibid. pt 3, p. 842 (0).

Clays of Florida. Ibid. p. 871.

Clays of Alabama. Bull. Ala. geol. sur. (a).

The clay working industry in 1896. 18th ann. rep’t
WSs cell cur 897. pt. 5, p. 1105. (@):

The ultimate and rational analysis of clay and their

relative advantages. Trans. Amer. inst. min. eng. 28.

The kaolins and fireclays of Europe. 19th ann. rep’t
U.S. Geol. sur. pt. 5.

The clays and clay industries of North Carolina.

N. C. geol. sur. Bull. 13.

Origin and nature of shale. Michigan miner. v. 1,
Nok ve Zeno. 2-5.
Societies. Transactions of the American ceramic society.

Columbus.
Smith, H. A. Clays of Alabama. Ala. indus. and sci. soc., 2,
1892 (a).

912 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Smock, J. C. Mining clays in New Jersey. Trans. Amer.
inst. min. eng. 1874. 8: 9211 (0).
Clays of New Jersey. Ibid. 1879. 6: 1776 (a).

Spencer, J. W. Clays of Georgia. Ga. geol. sur. 1893.
O ANG (@s

Struthers, J. Le OChatelier thermoelectric pyrometer. School
of mines quarterly. 12: 148 and 13: 221 (6). —

Vogt, G. La porcelaine. 1898.

Wheeler, H. A. Fusibility of clays, Eng. and min. jour. 1894.
17: 224 (bd).

Vitrified paving brick. Indianapolis 1895.
Clays of Missouri. Mo. geol. sur. 11: 1896.
Young, J. J. The ceramic arts. New York 1878 (b).
Zwick, O. Die Ziegel Industrie. Leipzig 1894.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 913

DIRECTORY OF CLAY WORKERS IN NEW

YORK STATE
B.: Common brick H. B.: Hollow brick
P. B.: Pressed brick R. T.: Roofing tile
De ws: Dram tile T.: Floor tile or glazed tile
ieee. 2H lower pots. F. B.: Fire-brick
Pa. B.: Paving brick O. B.: Ornamental brick
T. G.: Terra cotta S. P.: Sewer pipe
HK. W.: Earthenware C.: China
LOCATION OF WORKS NAME
Town County
Albany Albany George Dunn. B.

A. Hunter & Son. B.
J vkl eeonandeny bs
Moore & Babcock. B.
Newton & Co. F. B.
Jackson Bros. B., P. B,,
| OB. DHT:
. A. Poutre. B.
Bad .omithe. B.
D. H. Stanwix. B.
Stanwix & McCarty. B.

Alfred Steuben Celadon terra cotta co. R. T.,
| Te
Adtred:(*elay.. co. 2. 5),
1 Ft be
Amenia Dutchess Wilson & Eaton. B.
Amsterdam Montgomery H.C. Grieme. B.
Hart Bros. B.
Angola Erie ds texte &Sonsi'rS2.P.,

EBs

914 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

LOCATION OF WORKS NAME
Town County
Arlington Dutchess Flagler & Allen. B., P. B. :
Athens Greene W. W. Rider. B.
Attica Nhe Erie Attica brick & tile works.
B.
Auburn Py Cayuga F. W. Harvey. B.
N. Saunders. B.
Baldwinsville Onondaga Riverside brick co. P. B.
Pag Mrs F. A. Mawhiney. B.
Berkshire Fulton A. Stoutner. B.
Binghamton Broome Ogden brick co. B.
Blackrock Erie Buffalo sewer pipe co. S. P.
Border City Seneca Geneva brick works. B.
Brighton it Monroe Rochester brick & tile co.
Ba EeuB:
German brick & tile co.
. IBY dela le)
Brooklyn Queens A. Benkert. EK. W. :
Brooklyn fire brick works.
F. B.
Brooklyn stove lining co.
ih :
H. Bieg. E. W.

Graham chemical stone-
ware works. 8S. W.
Green Point fire brick
a works. F. B.
ise J. Cooper. E. W.
Bea W.T. Dufek. Hees
Empire china works. C.
Charles Kurth.
Green point porcelain

works. OC.

ee

Town
Brooklyn

Buffalo

Canandaigua

Canton
Carthage

Catskill

Chittenango

Coeymans

Cohoes

CLAYS OF NEW

LOCATION OF WORKS

County
Queens

Erie

Ontario

St Lawrence
Jefferson

Greene

Madison

Albany

Albany

YORK 915

NAME

New York vitrified tile co.
alts

Union porcelain works. C.

Henry Bender. B.

Charles Berrick’s Sons. B.

HW. Betz & Bro. F. P.

Brush Bros. B.

H. Dietschler & Son. B.

F. W. Haake & Son. B.

Hall & Sons. B.

G. W. Schmidt. B.

E. A. Schusler. B.

A. M. Hollis & Co. B.,
1D Yad

N. Y. hydraulic pressed
brick co. P. B.

EO’ Brien: B.

©. Houghton. B., Dp.

Wrape & Peck. B.

Eastern paving brick co.
PBs

Ferrier & Golden. B.

J: Walsh. 3B:

G. W. Washburn & Co. B.

Central N. Y. drain tile &
brick,con W2.'T:

Chittenango pottery co. S.
W.

Corwin & Cullough. B.

Fhe Footit..) Bb.

Sutton & Suderly. B.

J. Murray. B.

916

LOCATION OF WORKS

Town
Coldspring
Corning

County
Suffolk
Steuben

Cornwall on the Hudson

Corona

Coxsackie
Coxsackie Station
Crescent
Croghan

Croton on Hudson

Crugers

DeKalb

Dewitt

Dolgeville

~ Dunkirk

Dutchess Junction

East Bethany
East Kingston

Queens

Greene

Greene
Saratoga
Lewis

Westchester

_ Jefferson

Onondaga
Herkimer
Chautauqua
Dutchess

Genesee
Ulster

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

NAME

Dr O. Jones. B.

Brick, terra cotta & supply
co. P. B:, Pa Bowie
O. B.

C. A. & A. P. Hedges. B.

Corona pottery co. E. W.

J. Fitzgerald & Sons. B.

Walsh Bros. & Co. B.

J. Borden. B.

Aa J. Vacklers 3B:

Croton brick co. B.

W. A. Underhill brick co.

Bs eas.
Kitchawan brick co. B.
John Morton. B.
Mis AS itishenss:
B. J. Maguire. B.
J. H. Manning. B.
Nathan T. Frank. B.
E. A. Tillspaugh. B.
C..& Ly Merrick ie
Gow & Guile. B.
Ape laliliver, 17 28%.
Aldridge Bros. & Co. B.
G. H. Bontecou. B.
W..D* Budd. ~B:
i Dimeney. 1B:
Re Peck) Sims
Brigham Bros. B.
Herrick & Miller. B.
D. S. Manchester. B.
D. C. Overbaugh. B.

|
7
fi
{
q
;
:
”

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 914

LOCATION OF WORKS

Town County
East Kingston Ulster

East Williston Queens
Edwards St Lawrence
Elmira Chemung
Falconer Chautauqua
Farmingdale Queens
Fishers Island Suffolk

Fishkill on the Hudson Dutchess

Flatbush Ulster
Fort Edward Saratoga
Florida Orange

NAME

A. 8. Staples. B.

Streeter & Hendricks. B.

U. F. & J. T. Washburn.
B.

Sate he merci ley

W. Payne. B.

Elmira sewer pipe & fire
brick co; SPJ. bs. W.

HK. W. Farrington. B.

J. P. Weyer & Co. B.

M. J. Mecusker & Son. B.

Garden City brick co. P.
1B), |

Queens county brick mfg.
eo: 1B:

Fishers Island brick mfg.
€o. B:

C. C. Bourne. B.

Brockway brick co. B.

Dennings point brick co.
18)

William Lahey. B.

J. Paye. B.

Aldridge & Page. B.

Thomas Dinan. B.

O’Brien, McConnell &
Vaughey. B.

A. Rose & Co. B.

Hilfinger Bros. E. W.

AS Suuth. “B.

M. H. Vernon. B.

Fly Mountain. B.

918

Town

Fly Mountain

Fort Salonga
Geneva

Glasco

Glens Falls

Glenville
Goshen
Gouverneur
Grassy Point

Greenfield
Greenport
Greenridge

Haverstraw

NEW YORK

LOCATION OF WORKS

County
Ulster
Suffolk
Seneca

Ulster

Saratoga

Schenectady
Orange

St Lawrence
Rockland

Saratoga
Suffolk
Richmond
Rockland

STATE

MUSEUM

NAME

q duimaave, 15
. Longbotham. B.
. Delamater. B.
W. G. Dove. B.

Zee
ies

Catherine Lent. B.

W. Maginnis & Son. B.

W. Porter. B.

T. Porter. B.

F. M. Vandusen & Co. B.

Washburn Bros. & Co. B.

Glens Falls brick co. B.,
Jew By

Glens Falls brick & terra
cotta co;; ie. hs lee

S. A. Case. B.

I. Van Lenven. B.

Smith & Anthony. B.

PBrophiv. >:

HS Carrols is:

Kelly & Byrnes. B.

David Davidson. B.

Long Island brick co. B.

Kieran & Monahan. B.

B. J. Allison & Co. B.

Allison & Wood. B.

Estate of M. A. Archer.
1B}

S. W. Babcock. B.

Barnes & Farley. B.

William Bennett. B.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 919

LOCATION OF WORKS

Town

Haverstraw

Homer
Hoosick Falls

County
Rockland

Cortland

Rensselaer

NAME

Byrnes & Palmer. B.

A. Donnelly & Son. B.

Excelsior brick co. B.

Denton, Fowler & Son. B.

D. Fowler jr &.Co._ B.

PaiGoldrick Be

M. Gormley & Co. B.

BS Grumess) 5.

Haverstraw clay & brick
Comurb:

Heitlinger & Co. B.

Lynch Bros. B.

McGowan & McGovern. B.

Maguire & Lynch. B.

Terance Maguire. B.

T. O’Malley. B.

C. A. Marks & Bro. B.

Morrissey & Co. B.

Nicholson & Reilly. B.

iG. Peck: Cer 1B.

Gad Gans Peck...

HK. N. Renn & Co. B.

Riley & Farley. B.

Rowan & Scott. B.

T. Shankey & Son. B.

Snedeker Bros. B.

U. F. Washburn & Co. B.

Washburn & Fowler. B.

G. S. Wood & Allison. B.

Worrall & Byrnes. B.

Horace Hall. B.

John Delin. B.

LOCATION OF WORKS

Town

Hornellsville

Horseheads
Hudson

Tlion
Ithaca
Jamestown

Jewettville
Johnstown

Kingston

Kreischerville

Lancaster

Lansingburg
LaSalle
Lestershire

Little Valley
Lockport

Long Island City

County
Steuben

Chemung
Columbia

Herkimer
Tompkins
Chautauqua

Erie
Fulton

Ulster

Richmond

Erie

Rensselaer
Niagara
Broome
Suffolk
Niagara
Queens

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

NAME

Hornellsville brick, tile &
terra cotta co. B.

Preston brick co. Pa. B.,
IB.

Horseheads brick co. B.

Arkison Bros. B.

Bartlett brick works. B.

S. H. Coe. B.
C. D. Johnson. B.
Jamestown shale paving

brick co. Pa. B.
Mahoney & Son. -B.
Brush & Schmidt. P. B.
Cayadutta brick co. B.
Re KGllimers ss
The Hutton Co. B.

Re Mame érm@ onan
Charles A. Schultz. 3B.
Schultz Bros. B.

B. Kreischer & Sons Co.

B.

Buffalo star brick co. B.

Laneaster brick co. B., D.
ale

T. F. Morrissey. B.

H. A. Tompkins. B.

Wells & Brigham. B.

J. R. Heber. B.

A. Mossell. B.

Joseph Newbrand pottery.

E. W.

N. Y. architectural terra
cotta co. T.-C. PB.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 921

LOCATION OF WORKS

Town
Low Point

Lyons
Madrid
Malden
Maplewood

Mechanicville

Middlefalls
Middle Granville
Middletown

Montrose

Newburgh
Newfield ©

New Paltz
New York

New Windsor

County
Dutchess

Wayne
St Lawrence
Ulster

Monroe

Saratoga

Washington
Washington
Orange

Westchester

Orange
Tompkins

Ulster
New York

Orange

NAME

G. A. Dow. B.

Meade Bros. B.

EP.) Borck, Bt

Lyons pottery. S. W.

R. B. Watson. B.

Cooney & Farrell. B.

Estate of Hiram Sibley.
1B

Mechaniesville brick co. B.

Best brick co. B.

Champlain brick co. B.

M. W. Hart & Co. B.

Pullman & Co. B.

J. H. Pepper.. B.

Smith & Co. B.

Smith & Wood. B.

Orrin Frost. . B.

Montrose point brick co.
ABs

HoBea&. Wied Peck! SB:

Henry Young. B.

Meg) 7. Pe Chrystie. B:

William Lahey. B.

Newfield brick works. Pa.
loam oe

A. M. Lowe. B.

Charles A. Bloomfield. F.
B.

Anton Boss. B.

D. Robizek & Sots. C.

David Carson. B.

TI. Davidson’s Sons. B.

Estate of E. Lang. B.

922

LOCATION OF WORKS

Town
Niskayuna
Northport
Oakfield
Ogdensburg

Olean
Oneida
Oneonta

Oswego Falls.

Owasco
Oyster Bay
Oneida Valley

Pamelia

Peekskill
Plattsburg

Port Ewen
Port Jefferson
Raymondville
Rensselaer
Riceville
Rochester

County
Schenectady
Suffolk
Genesee
St Lawrence

Cattaraugus
Madison
Otsego

Oswego

Cayuga
Queens
Madison

Jefferson

Westchester
Clinton

Uileter

Suffolk
St Lawrence

Rensselaer

St Lawrence
Monroe

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

NAME

Mohawk bic oad B.

Rinaldo Sammis. B.

G. Ls Drake. Dia

R. Montgomery. B.

A. A. Paige, iB:

McMurray Bros. B.

2b telah, Je. 7

Clapsaddle, Moore & Get-
cman! Bs

Oneonta brick co. B.

W. D. Edgarton. B.

ACB. Piletehery as:

i Lester!) Aes ah

Dunn, Dolan & Co. B.

Clinton Stephens. B.

Watertown pressed brick co.
Bevel:

S. D. Horton. E) EB:

J. Ouimet. B.

Gilliland & Day. B.

Cy We) Vaught aabe

dle 1iGhuaes |) 16%,

Johanna Lillis. B.

William Coats. B.

Jie icmeveuielas

B. Thompson & Son. B.

Rochester sewer pipe works.

Soles

~ Flower city pottery. E. W.

Standard sewer pipe co.
K. W.

LOCATION OF WORKS

Town
Rome
Romulus
Rondout

Roundlake
Roseton

Sag Harbor

Salina

Sangerfield
Saratoga Springs
Saugerties
Seneca Castle
Seneca Falls
Smiths Dock
Southampton

South Bay
South hill
Southold

South Trenton
Spencer

South Plattsburg
Stanley
Stonypoint

Stormking
Stuyvesant

County
Oneida
Seneca
Ulster

Saratoga

Orange

Suffolk
Onondaga

Oneida
Saratoga
Ulster
Ontario
Seneca
Ulster
Suffolk

Madison
Tompkins
Suffolk
Oneida
Tioga
Clinton
Ontario
Rockland

Dutchess
Columbia

OLAYS OF NEW YORK 923

NAME

W. W. Parry. B.

J. M. Yerkes jr. B.

T. Frederick. B.
Manchester & Streeter. B.
Terry Bros. B.

G. Washburn. B.

J. Davey. B.

Jova brick works. B.
Rose & Co. B.

Sag Harbor brick co. B.
G. W. Pack & Son. B.
Preston Bros. B.

P. B. Haven & Son. B.
B. F. Bloomfield. B.

AGES: Childss 28:

F. Siegfried. B.

T. Brousseau. B.

Southampton brick & tile
co. 3B.

Clinton Stephens. B.

S. Wilcox. B.

C. L. Sanford. B.

H. L. Garrett. B.

Spencer brick co. B.

J. McCarty. B.

William Preston. B.

Ths Clarke, iB;

Reilly & Clarke. B.

Reilly & Rose. B.

Mosher Bros. B.

Edouard Brousseau. B.

924

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

LOCATION OF WORKS

Town

Syracuse

Tarrytown
Thiells
Throopsville

Tonawanda

Troy

Troy

Union Springs
Utica

Verplanck

County
Onondaga

Westchester
Rockland
Cayuga

Erie
Rensselaer

Rensselaer

Cayuga
Oneida

Westchester

NAME

J. Brophy. B.

F. H. Kennedy. B.
N. Y. brick & paving co.

Passi:

Onondaga pottery co. C.

Pass & Seymour. Insula-
tors

Syracuse pottery co. E. W.

Syracuse pressed brick co.
ieee

Tarrytown porcelain tile
works. T.

J. M. Felter. B.

Fred Webber. B.

J. M. Riesterer. B.

A. Ferguson. B.

Kelley & Morey. B.

McLeod & Henry Co. B.

Ostrander fire brick co. F.
IB:

Ck. Parmtons ae

Roberts brick works. B.

Clark & Sons. D. P.

Callahan & Doyle. B.

Central N. Y. | pottemge
EK. W.

Utica brick mfg co. B.

George F. Weaver’s Sons.
B.

Bonner brick co. B.

King & Lynch. B.

CLAYS OF NEW YORK 925

LOCATION OF WORKS NAME
Town County
Verplanck Westchester W.H. Macky. B.
O’Brien & McConnell. B.
Victor | Ontario W.E. Peck. B.
F. Lock.— Insulators F. Lock.
_ Warner Onondaga Onondaga vitrified brick co.
ParcB.. B:
Waterloo Seneca EK. W. Foster. ‘B.
M. Whiteside. B.
Watertown Jefferson Jee Gotham.) 3:
Watervliet Albany Tupper & Retallick. B.
West Bloomfield Ontario G2 Ne Webbs “B-
West Fayette Seneca Willower & Pontius. B.

Whitehall Washington Jeremiah Adams. B.

Se oe!” ee

ERRATA

Page 530, line 30, “ grain” should be “ gram ”’.
“~ 582,.lines 19, 20 and 21, “ grain ” should be “ gram”.
“842, line 3, put “O” after Ko.
“878, line 39, 3d column, “Clinion” should read
“ Clinton ”.
Page 891, line 18, last column, ‘‘ dressed” should be “ pressed ”’.
poe 90>, lmmen( “iQ.” should be“ Ti0,”.

Ne x

The superior figures tell the exact place on the page in ninths: e. g. 543%
means page 543, beginning in the third ninth of the page, i. e. about one third

of the way down.

Abbey, B. G., drain tile works, 771°.

Abbott, M., tests of Haverstraw brick,
6487.

Abrasion tests of paving brick, 747°
48", 752°-55*.

Abrasive materials, 852°-531.

Absorption, of building brick, 854°; of
clays, 515°, 528°-29°, 546°; of com-
mon brick, 643°, 644; of floor tile,
775°; of shales, 825+.

Absorption test of paving brick, 746°-
47°, 748°—49*.

Acids, resistance to, 8577.

Adobe soils, analysis, 882*-83°.

Adsit, M., clay bank, 726*.

Adulterants, food, 852°.

Alabama, clays, 523°, 525°, 611*-12%.

Albany, terrace, 591’; brick yards,
706*-7*; clay deposits, 706*-7*; sewer
pipe manufacture, 770'; drain tile
works, 771°.

Albany county, brick yards and clay
deposits, 704°-7°, 708'; underlying
material, illus. facing p. 578; drain
tile works, 771°.

Albany slip, 806°—9".

Albion, brick yard, 722%.

Aldridge & Sherman, brick yard, 697°.

Aldridge Bros., brick yard, 696°-97?;

clay bank, illus. facing p. 577.

Aleksiejew, W., on plasticity, 541’.

Alfred Center, brick yard, 726°; roofing
tile manufacture, 7657-66'; illus.

. facing p. 765; shale, 831*, 8377-38°.

Alfred clay co., 726°, 7667, 8397.

Alfred Station, Chemung shale, 838°—
397.

Alkaline compounds, 513°-15°.

Alkalis in clay, 5128-15, 5691, 680‘,
861*. See also Analyses.

Allegany county, Chemung shale, 837—
38°.

Allen’s creek, Cashaqua shale, 834°.

Allenshill, drain tile works, 771°.

Allophane, 505°.

Altitudes, table, 5897.

Alumina, 511’, 568%, 5697, 6407, 861°.
See also Analyses.

Amber, 509°.

Amenia, clay deposits, 572°.

American magnesite, 785°.

Ammonia, 512°, 513%.

Amsterdam, brick yard, 714’; clay de-
posits, 714°.

Analyses, feldspar, 498°, 4997, 8427; fire
brick, 786'; fullers’ earth, 851; kao-
lin, 610°, 862-65; porcelain, 794°,
796;

clays: table, 860-90; methods of
analysis, 530°-387; mechanical analy-
sis, 561°-63°, rational, 5337-38"; abode
soils, 882-83; brick clays, 6387-39%,
882-99; buff clay, 692°; fire clays,
536'-37°, 789*-90°, 866-77; flint clays,
6177; determining fusibility, 559*;
paving brick clays, 900°-3°; pipe
clays, 904*-7*; clays and shales used
in manufacture of Portland cement,
847; pottery clays, 878*-81°; residual
clays, 860-61; slip clays, 807°, 880%
83°; stoneware clays, 792°, 818%, 819°-
20%, 820°; terra cotta clays, 7604,
904'—5*;

at Barrytown, 702°; Breesport,

727’; Brockway brick co., Fishkill,
688°; Buffalo, 723°; Canandaigua,
719*; Catskill, 702°; Coeymans Land-
ing, 705°; Dillsboro (N. C.), 540°;
Drowned lands, 732°-33?; East Wil-
liston, 7337; Edgar (Fla.), 5407; Far-
mingdale, 739°; Fishers island, 7387;
Hornellsville, 726*; Newfield, 728°;
Ogdensburg, 7127; Plattsburg, 710°;
Rathenow, 5707; Rochester, 720°;
Rondout, 699°; Southold, 7377; Ver-
planck, 692°; Warner, 7167; Water-
town, 711°; West Deerpark, 742°;
West Neck, 735';

shale: 716, 769°, 847, 8994-901‘;
Chemung, 838', 839°, 840°; Hamilton,
8337; Medina, 8277; -Niagara, 8287;
Portage, 835°; Salina, -830*.

Anchor brick co., 689°—90°.

Angola, sewer pipe works, 769°; illus.
facing p. 767-69, 774; shale, 831°;
Portage shale, 835°-36*.

Annandale, well record, 608°.

927

928 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Arch brick, 6454, 6777.
Archaean rocks, 5877.

Biscuit ware, 796°, 816°; illus. facing
. 806.

Arches, arrangement, 674°; number of | Bishop, I. P., test of Hamilton shale,

bricks in, 674°; number of courses,

674°; labor required to tend, 677°.
Arkansas, clay deposits, 612*.
Arkison Bros., brick yard, 703°.

Arlington, brick yard, 7017-27; clay

deposits, 701727.
Armstrong, W., brick yard, 714°.
Arrochar, clay deposits, 607".
Arthur’s Kill, 609'.

Athens, terraces, 590°, 591%; brick

yards, 704*; clay deposits, 704%.
Auburn, brick yard, 718°.

Auger machine, 663%, 745°; illus. fac-

ing p. 773.
Aurora, depth of clay, 574°.

Babcock, J., brick yard, 706’.
Baeby, J., brick yard, 708°.

Baker, I. O., crushing tests, 751°-52°.
Baldwin, Mrs, brick yard, 718’.

Baldwinsville, brick yards, 717°18?;

clay deposits, 717°-18’.
Ball clay, 614’, 793°.
Ball mills, 657°—58*.
Ballou, M., brick yard, 715°.
Baltimore, clays near, 511°.
Barium, 683°.
Barnard college, illus. facing p. 763.
Barrytown, clay deposits, 7027.
Bartlett, W. E., brick yard, 703°.
Basin-shaped deposits, 573%, 584%.
Bat, 805".
Bath brick, 852°-53".
Beauport, terraces, 594°.

Bedford, feldspar, 842; quarries, 8437.
Belgian white earthenware, composi-

tion, 796°. |
Belgium, glass-pot clays, 787%.
Belleek ware, 798}.
Benches, working in, 631°—32?.
Bender, M. H., brick yard, 706°.
Benkert, A., stoneware works, 823°.
Bennett, C., brick yard, 718”.

Bennett, Rowan & Scott, brick yards,

694°.

Berrick, Charles & Sons, brick yard,

723°.
Berthier, P., experiments, 517%-18?.
Beryllium oxid in clays, 511%.

Bibliography of clay literature, 908-
12

Bigflats, brick yard, 7268-277.
Binghamton, brick yards, 731°.

Bischof, C.. experiments on action of
silica, 526°; on testing plasticity,
543%: formula for relative fusibility
of clays, 5527; method of determin-

ing temperature, 5587.
Biscuit burn, 814°.

8337-34".

Blasting, 632°.

Blistering of ferruginous clays, 517°.

Blue clay, characteristics, 577%.

Bohemia, glass-pot clays, 787°.

Bolton, William, brick yard, 724°.

Bone china, 794°.

Bonner & Cole, brick yard, ee

Bonner brick co., 693%.

Borek, F., brick yard, TAS?

Bostwick, W. H., brick yard, 728°.

Boulders, 577°, 5827, 5847, 584°, 586°,
5887, 592%, 5957.

Boyd dry clay presses, 665°; illus. fac-
ing p. 665.

Brazilian clays, 511°.

Breesport, brick yards, 727°—28°; clay
deposits, 576°, 727°—28°.

Brennan, J., brick yard, 694’.

Brick, time of burning, 676°; time of
cooling, 6767; cost of production,
685°-86°; cracks in, 6511, 676°; crush-
ing strength, 648°, 647°-50*, 6957;
drying, 668°-72°; efflorescence on,
679°-85*; ground, used to prevent
shrinkage, 548; methods of manu-
facturing, 653°-56'; repressing, 668%,
745'; sorting, 679°; weight, 528°. See
also Building brick; Common brick;
Cost; Enameled brick; Fire brick;
Glazed brick; Hollow brick: Orna-
mental brick; Paving brick; Pressed
brick; Testing; Vitrified brick.

Brick clays, alkalis in, 515°, 569';
alumina in, 5691; analyses, 6387-395,
882-99 ; burning, 6398-428, 6724-7954;
illus. facing p. 674-79; characteris-
tics, 636-398: color, 6398-427; fer-
ric oxid in, 5207, 5204, 5691; lime in,
5237, 5691, 6367, 640?, 6414; magnesia
in, 524°, 5697, 640°; silica in, "525";
tensile streneth, 545°;

in Alabama, 6115-121; Arkansas,
612°; Colorado, 6134; Delaware, 614°;
Florida, 614°, 6151; Georgia, 615°;

‘Kentucky, 6177; Louisiana, 618";
Michigan, 620*; Mississippi, 620°;
Missouri, 622°: Nebraska, 6237;
North Carolina, 624°; Ohio, 6254;
Pennsylvania, 625°; South Dakota,
6267; Texas, 626°; Virginia, 627°;
Wyoming, 627°.

Brick yards, three kinds, 669°-707;
ownership, 685°; detailed account,
686°-743%.

Brickbuilder, extracts from, 680°.

Brickmaking industry, 643*-757°.

Brigham Bros., brick yard. 699°, 700°.

Brighton, clay deposits, 575”.

INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 929

Briquet method of testing plasticity, | Cartersville, Salina shale, 829°.

5428, 544°.

Brockway brick co., 688°, 697°;
facihg p. 697.

Brookfield brick co., 731°.

Brooklyn, pottery works, 823°; illus.
facing p. 793-94, 799, 800-1, 808,
816, 824.

Broome county, brick yards, 731°.

Brophy, J., brick yard, 715’.

Brousseau, Theodore, brick yard, 700°.

Brush & Schmidt, brick works, 650’,
724°; illus. facing p. 662, 664, 665,
672, 724.

Brush Bros., brick yard, 723°.

Buckley & Carroll, brick yards, 694’.

Buff brick, manufacture, in Massachu-
setts, 6207.

Buff clay deposits, analysis, 692°.

Buffalo, clays, 523°, 574°, 7234-247;
brick yards, 7234-24’.

Buffalo star brick co., 7228-237.

Buhrstone mill, illus. facing p. 793.

Building brick, clays for, 636°; tests,
648°-50*; side-cut, 6645; manufac-
tured in New York state, 650°—-537;
properties, 854°—574.

Building stone, resistance to fire, 7595;
illus. facing p. 759.

Burlington, clay deposits, 5957.

Burned clay, 549°%—50?.

Burning, brick clays, 6667, 639°—42%,
672*-79*; illus. facing p. 674-79;
china, 811*-14°; cost, 676°; drain
tile, 770°; fire brick, 785°; illus. fac-
ing p. 784, 786; modern methods,
495°; paving brick, 745°; illus. facing
p. 745; sewer pipe, 768°; stoneware,
809?; sulfates arising during, 681°;
terra cotta, 762°; time of, 676°; white
earthenware, 811*-14°.

illus.

C. C. ware, 793°.

Cable haulage, 6337, 6867.

Cairo, shale, 8314, 8325-345, 841?.

Caleareous clays, 731‘; for common
brick, 636°; burning, 6427. See also
Lime in clay.

Caleiferous sandrock, 582?, 584°.

Calcite, 506°-74. See also Lime.

Callanans Corners, terrace, 591?.

Campbell, F. C., brick yard, 7284-29°.

Campbell brick co., Newfield, 6507.

Canandaigua, brick clays, 636°; brick
yards, 650°, 719'-20?; use of hy-
draulic dry press machine at, 665°;
clay deposits, 719'-20?.

Canastota, brick yard, 715°.

Capital pottery, Brooklyn, 823°.

Carpenter Bros., stoneware clay bed,
8187-198.

Cars, haulage with, 633°.

Carthage, brick yards, 710°-11?; clay
deposits, 710°—11?.

Carts, haulage with, 632°-33°.

Cashaqua creek, clay deposits, 575';
shale, 834".

Casting of pottery clay, 8067.

Catskill, brick yards, 702°-3°; illus.
facing p. 659; paving brick manu-
facture, 756°; illus. facing p. 679;
terrace, 578%, 591?;

clays: 577%, 7025-3°; characteris-
tics, 578"; stratification, 578%.

Catskill creek delta, 577°.

Catskill mountains, terrace, 590°.

Catskill shale paving brick co., 832°.

Cattaraugus county, brick yards, 725°.

Cayuga county, brick yards, 718‘;
drain tile works, 772°.

Cedar Pond brook, delta deposits,
588°, 588°.

Celadon terra cotta co., 7657-667, 8381,
838°; illus. facing p. 765.

Cement, clays used in manufacture of,
699°, 7167; manufacture in Michi-
gan, 620°. See also Portland ce-
ment.

Center Island, brick yards, 734°; clay
deposits, 597°, 6027, 606°.

Central New York drain tile and brick
co., (11°.

Central New York pottery, 824°.

Ceramics, see Pottery.

Cerium oxid, 511°.

Chamotte, used to prevent shrinkage,
549°-50?.

Champlain valley, clays, 594°-95°; ter-
races, 594°; illus. facing p. 592;
stratification, 595°.

Chaser mill, 803°.

Chautauqua county clay deposits,
576'; brick yards, 7247-25°; Chemung
shale, 8377.

Chemical pottery works, 823%.

Chemical properties of clay, 5107-387.
See also Analyses.

Chemung county, brick yards, 726°
28%.

Chemung shale, 725’, 765°, 826°, 831?,
836*-41’; analyses, 838*, 839°, 840°;
physical tests, 8317.

Chicago, clays, 523°.

China, value of output, 494°; iron-
stone, 793°; burning, 811*-14°; dec-
oration, 815?-17*; manufacturers,
913°-25*. See also Porcelain.

China clays, in Alabama, 612'; in Mis-
souri, 621°,

Chittenango, drain tile works, 771°.

Chittenango pottery co., 824°.

Chlorite in clay, 524’.

930

Chromium, 511*, 567°.

Chromium oxid, 777°.

Chromolithographie decoration, 816%
Wels

Cimolite, 505’.

Cistern brick, 645°.

Clamp, 674’.

Clarkson, brick yard, 722°.

Classification of clays, 564*-71°.

Clay, absorption, 515°, 528°-29°, 546°;
methods of analyzing, 530*-38';
burned, 549°-50?; chemical effects of
heating, 561°-63°; chemical proper-
ties, 510’-387; classification, 564*—
71°; clay substance, 497°, 510°; color,
515?, 515°, 517°, 519%, 5217, 527'—28?,
565°-71", 574°, 577’, 610°; crumpling,
593°, 597°, 6037, 606°; definition, 496°,
4971; formation, 500°; fusibility,
512%, 550°-61?, 562°; impurities, 508°,
511°-28*; adaptable to different
molding methods, 6677-68’; miner-
alogy, 503'-9°; origin and nature,
496*-502°; physical properties, 510’,
538"-61?; plasticity, 496°, 504°, 528%,

- §307, 5391-44", 637%, 8457; porosity,
522°, 672°; preparation of, 6557-60";
properties, 510-63°; pure, 500%, 505°,
5101, 5114, 511°; purification, 633°-
35°; refractoriness, 511°, 5267, 5637;
shrinkage, 522°, 529°, 530°, 5457-508,
636°-37*, 637°, 6397, 672°; method of
counteracting shrinkage, 547°-50°;
tensile strength, 541°, 544*%-45°, 637°;
uses, 5645-65°, 6361-428, 8451-53". See
also Analyses; Brick clays; China
clays; Fire clays; Flint clays; Glass-
pot clays; Kaolin; Paving brick
clays; Pottery clays; Residual clays;
Sedimentary clays; Slip clays; Stone-
ware clays.

Clay banks, ownership, 685°—-86?.

Clay conveyor, illus. facing p. 660, 761.

Clay deposits, geologic distribution,
5727-627'; unstratified material
found with, 592°; illus. facing p.
592; structure, 6281-297; sections of,
table, 858-59.

Clay dogs, 507’.

Clay industry, statistics, 493°—947;
growth, 494*; adoption of modern
methods of molding and burning,
495°; conduct of business, 685°—-867.

Clay wares, testing, 854-57.

Clay workers, directory, 913725‘.

Clay working, 628*—35°.

Cleansing clay, 633°-35%.

Clifton, clay deposits, 607°.

Clinton county, brick yards, 709°—10*.

Clinton shale, 8287.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Coal, used in burning calcareous clays,
642°.

Coal dust in brick, 6757, 676°.

Coats, William, brick yard, 712°.

Cobalt oxid, 567°, 777°.

Cobbles, 582*, 583%, 583°,
592°.

Coe, 8. E., brick yard, 714".

Coeymans Landing, terrace, 591*; brick
yards, 704°-6°; clay deposits, 5887,
704°—6%.

Cohoes, brick yards, 708*;. clay de-
posits, 708*.

Coke, used to prevent shrinkage, 548’,
550°.

Coke oven brick, 785°.

Coldspring, delta deposits, 588°; brick
yard, 695°.

Coldspring Harbor, stratification, 597%
98°; clay deposits, 734°; illus. facing
p. 735.

Collins, J. H.,
feldspars, 498°.

Collyrite in clay, 505°.

586*, 5877,

on kaolinization of

‘Color, of clay, 5157, 515°, 517°, 519%,

DOME R Arie One
610°; of brick clay,
decorative tile, 777°;
7824; of paving
pressed brick, 646.

Colorado, clay deposits, 572%, 612*-14".

Columbia county, brick yards, 703°-4?;
shale, 826%.

Common brick, absorption, 643°, 644;
burning, 672°, 673', 673°; crushing
strength, 643°; different grades,
6457-477; table of dimensions, 6437;
requisites, 643’; standard size, 643°;
tests, 648°; value of output, 493°,
4945;

manufacture: 6451, 650°; clay used,
521°, 636%; in Colorado, 6137; con-
tinuous kilns used, 6794; manufac-
turers in New York state, 9137-25;
shale used, 495”, 686°. See also Brick
clays.

Conecretions, sand, 585°;
94°, 6027, 604°.

565%-71", 574°, 577,
639%—427; of
of fire clay,
brick, 7447; of

clay, 593°—

Cones, Seger, 553°-58’.

Conewango, clay deposits, 576*.

Connecticut, clay deposits, 572°, 6147.

Continuous kilns, 495+, 6787-794, 814°;
illus. facing p. 679.

Cook, G. H., on quartz in clay, 525*;
on plasticity of clays, 539°.

Cooney & Farrell, brick yard, 700°.

Copenhagen biscuit ware, composition,
796°.

Copper oxid, 777°.

Cornell university, New York state
veterinary college, illus. facing p.
719.

i rl li ee

INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 931

Corning, shales, 831*, 839°-40°.

Corning brick and terra cotta co.,
650", 755°-56', 763°, 764°; illus. fac-
ing p. 764, 839.

Cornwall (Eng.), kaolin mines, 498’,
499°, 5007.

Cornwall (N. Y.), terraces, 582°-837,
590°; delta deposits, 588°, 589%.

Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, clay deposits,
577*; brick yards, 696°.

Cortland county, brick yards, 731*. »

Corwin & Cullough, brick yard, 705°
GF.

Cost, of burning, 676°; double-coal
bricks, 675°; dredging clay, 690’;
enameled bricks, 651%; flue driers,
671°; ornamental brick, 646°; produc-
nee of brick, 685°-86°; working clay,

Covered yards, 669°, 6701.

Coxsackie, terrace, 5917; clay concre-
tions, 593°-94'; brick yard, 704’; clay
deposits, 704?.

Coykendall, S. D., brick yard, 699.

Cracks in bricks, 6517, 676°.

Cramer, E., cones, 554°; mixture in
glass-pot clay, 787°.

Crandall & Marble, brick yard, 731’.

Crazes, 7977; cause of, 651'; tendency
to, 6537.

Cremiatschenski, P. A., on plasticity,
541?.

Crescent, brick yard, 708°; clay de-
posits, 708°.

Cretaceous clay deposits, 572%, 596+,
602°, 605°, 606%, 608°, 609°, 610°, 7887;
illus. facing p. 608, 781, 819-20.

Cretaceous plant impressions, illus.
facing p. 611. ©

Cripple creek mines, production of
kaolinite, 500°.

Cross-breaking tests of paving brick,
749°—50?.

Crossman Bros., brick yard, 735°.

Croton, clay deposits, 577*; delta de-
posits, 585*, 589*; illus. facing p. 589.

Croton brick co., 690°-91°.

Croton landing, clay deposits, 585’,
689°; terrace, 591°; use of steam
shovel, 632°; brick yards, 689°.

Croton point, clay deposits, 585*, 691*;
clay concretions, 594’; dredging,
632°; brick yards, 691+.

Croton river, delta deposits, 588°; ter-
races, 591*.

Crucibles, 613°.

Crugers, clay deposits, 585°; brick
yards, 6917—92?.

Crumpled layers, 593°, 597°, 603", 606°.

Crushers, 6567; illus. facing p. 653, 656,
759, 765.

Crushing rolls, illus. facing p. 660.

Crushing strength, of brick, 643°, 647°-
50*, 695?; of paving brick, 7507, 7517
52°; of clay wares, 855*.

Cupola brick, manufacture, 788°.

Cuylerville, depth of clay, 574’.

Dana, J. D., on origin of Long Island
sound, 607’.

Daub, use of, 674°.

Daubrée, A., on kaolin, 499°.

Davenport, W., brick yard, 713°.

Davidson, D., brick yard, 709°.

Decoration, of tile, 777'-80°; of pottery,
8147-17; illus. facing p. 805, 808.

Deerfield, brick yard, 715%; clay de-
posits, 715°.

Delaney & Lavender, brick yard, 705°-
6°.

Delaware, clay deposits, 614*.

Delft ware, 797°.

Delta deposits, 576°, 577‘, 5817, 582°,
583°, 588°-89°, 592°.

Demond, C.D., use of Bishof’s method,
558%.

Dennings Point, clay deposits, 586°.

Denton, J., & Son, brick yard, 731".

Deposits, see Clay deposits; Delta
deposits.

Derbyshire brick co., 703°.

Devonian shale, 8257.

Diamond brick co., 694°.

Diatoms, 5944, 595°, 597°, 5977, 598°,
6037, 609°; illus. facing p. 600-1.
Dietschler, H., & Son, brick yard, 723°.
Dillsboro (N.C.), clay analysis, 539°-

407.

Dinan & Butler, brick yard, 697’.

Dinas brick, 784°.

Diorite, 584".

Directory of clay workers, 913*—25*.

Disintegrators, 6567-57‘.

Dolan, John, clay bank, 709°.

Dolgeville, brick, yard, 713".

Dolomite, 5087, 5207, 524*.

Donnelly & Son, brick yard, 693".

Double-coal brick, 675%.

Dove, W. G., brick yard, 7187.

Down-draft kiln, 673°, 674', 677°-78%,
745°, 8145; illus. facing p. 677-78,
745, 768, 784.

Drain tile, value of output, 493’, 494°;
characteristics of clay for, 770°;
four kinds, 770°-71‘; size, 771°;

manufacture: 7707-72’; illus. facing
p. 768; in Missouri, 622‘; manufac-
turers in New York state, 771°—-72°,
9137-25*; in Texas, 626°.

Drainage, of clay bank, 630°; of brick
yards, 669°.

Dredging clay, 632%, 690".

932 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Drowned lands, clay deposits, 7327,
733°.

Dry clay process, 664°-66°; illus. fac-
ing p. 664-66; cost, 686°.

Dry pan crushers, illus. facing p. 653,
656, 759, 765.

Dry press machines, 495°, 664°; illus.
facing p. 666, 816.

Dry pressed brick, see Pressed brick.

Drying, bricks, 655°, 668°-72°; drain
tile, 770*; pottery clay, 806%.

Dufek, W. T., stoneware works, 823°.

Dummler, C., on weight of sand, 549+;
table of analyses, 5667.

Dunkirk, brick yard, 7247-25; clay
deposits, 574°, 7247-257.

Dunn, Dolan & Co., brick yard, 734°.

Dutchess county, brick yards, 696’,
696°—98?, 7017—2°.

Dutchess Junction, clay deposits, 577%,
5867, 696°-97?; illus. facing p. 577;
terrace, 5867; illus. facing p. 592;
delta deposits, 5887; brick yards,
696%-97?.

Earthenware, description, 791*, clay
used in manufacture, 521°; manu-
facturers, 823°-24°, 913%-25*; value
of output, 494°. See also White
earthenware.

East Bethany, clay deposits, 771°-72';
drain tile works, 771°-72%.

East Kingston, brick yards, 699°-700°,
illus. facing p. 700; clay deposits,
699°—700°.

East Williston, brick yards, 733°-34?;
clay deposits, 605%, 733°-34?.

Eastern hydraulic pressed brick co.,
650°.

Eastern paving brick co., 7567; illus.
facing p. 679.

Eddyville, stratification, 579°—80?.

Edgar (Fla.), clay analysis, 539%—40’.

Edgarton, W. D., brick yard, 718°.

Efflorescence on bricks, 679°—85*.

Eggshell ware, 798.

Eighteen Mile creek, Cashaqua shale,
834°.

Electric supplies, 798°; manufacturers,
8247, 824°; illus. facing p. 809, 814-17.

Elko mining and milling co., 848%.

Elm Point, clay deposits, 596°; terra
cotta clays, 7617; stoneware clays,
817°-18°, 820°.

Elmira, brick yard, 727*; clay depos-
its, 576°.

Emmons, Ebenezer, on boulders, 5957.

Empire brick works, Horseheads, illus.
facing p. 840.

Empire china works, 823°.

Empire state brick co., 727°, 7287.

Enameled brick, manufacture, 6507—52°.

Encaustic tile, 774°; manufacture, 514°,
Tito. 1675 painting, 7784.

Endaly kilns, 674%.

eee glass- pot clays, 787°; kaolins,
793

English ball clays, plasticity, 5427.

Epsom salts, seé Magnesium sulfate.

Erie county, brick yards, 7228-247;
shale, 829°.

Eskars, 5755. See also Kames.

Estuary deposits, 576°, 5927.

Eureka pressed brick co., 714°.

Huropean clays, per cent of quartz in,
525°; glass pot clays, 787°.

Evans, brick yard, 724°.

Exeelsior brick co., 693’, 694*.

Expansion tests of fire brick, 785°.

Experiments on glazes, 653°.

Exploring for clay, 629°-30?.

Hye brick, 677’. :

Fairport, Salina shale, 829°.

Farmingdale, brick works, 738’—42°; il-
lus. facing p. 665, 678, 740; clay de-
posits, 604°, 738"—42°; illus. facing p.
604.

Feldspar, 497°, 5067, 514*, 578°, 652°,
705’, 841°-447; analyses, 498*, 4997,
8427; effect on color of clays, 5157,
565°, 635*; aid to fusion, 512°, 563°;
kaolinization, 498°-501:; lime in,
520’; mineralogic characters, 8418
42°; occurrence, 793°, 8423-437; prep-
aration, 843%; illus. facing p. 793;
price, 843°-44°; properties, 534°;
source of potash and soda, 513;
source of alkaline compounds, 514°;
uses, 547°, 843*; varieties, 497°.

Felter & Mather, brick yard, 695°.

Ferguson, Alexander, brick yard, 707°.

Ferric carbonate, see Siderite.

Ferric oxid, see Iron oxid.

Ferrier & Golden, brick yard, 703;
ring pit; illus. facing p. 659.

Ferruginous sandstone, 605°.

Ferruginous shale, 646%.

Fickes, E. &., tests of common brick,
648°.

Filling paper, 852°.

Finnegan T., brick yard, 705%-6°.

Finnimore, D. W., brick yard, 711.

Fire brick, 783*-84?; analyses, 786*;
use as chamotte, 550°; expansion
tests, 785°; specific gravity, 786°;
value of output, 4937, 494¢;

manufacture: 784*— 86; illus. facing
p. 783-86; in Colorado, 613°; in Kan-
sas, 6177; in Tennessee, 626°; manu-
facturers in New York, 913° 954,

Fire clays, 568°, 781'-90°; illus. facing
p. 781; alkalis in, 515%; analyses,
536'-37°, 789°-90°, 866-77; ferric

‘
i
‘

1
,

INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 933

oxid in, 520’; fluxes, 512’; lime in, | Front brick, 639°; repressed, 668‘; clays

5237; magnesia in, 524%; silica in,
525°; used for paving brick, 7437;

in Alabama, 612*;, Colorado, 613°;
Delaware, 614*; Indiana, 615°; Kan-
sas, 6177; Kentucky, 617*; Maryland,
619°; Missouri, 621°; New Jersey,
6237; New York, 788-908; North
Carolina, 6238, 624°; Ohio, 536*-37°,
6251; Pennsylvania, 625°; South Da-
kota, 626°; Texas, 6277.

Fire gases, effect on color, 641*, 641°—
428,

Fire sand in New Jersey, 6237.

Fireproofing, bricks used for, 773°;
forms, illus. facing p. 773; value of
output, 493°, 494°.

Fires, time of crossing, 6757.

Fishers island, clay deposits, 597°,
603°, 606", 737——38°; crumpled layers,
606’; brick yards, 7377-38°.

Fishers Island brick manufacturing
co., 7377-38°.

Fishkill, clay deposits, 577’, 697°-98?;
illus. facing p. 697; terrace, 586°,
590°; illus. facing p. 586; brick yard,
688°, 6973-987.

Fishkill creek, delta deposits, 588°.

Fitzgerald, J., sons, brick yard, 703°.

Flagler & Allen, brick yard, 7017.

Flange tile, 770°.

Flashed brick, 646’; illus. facing p.
464.

Flint, 506°; used to prevent shrinkage,
5491,

Flint clay, 781°;

in Kentucky, 617°; Maryland, 619%;
Missouri, 621°; Ohio, 624°.

Floor driers, 671°-72°; illus. facing p.
672.

Floor tile, 774'-76°; manufacturers,
9137-254.

Florida, clay deposits, 614°-15?, 7323;
brick yard, 7321; ball clays, 793°.

Flower city pottery, 824°.

Flower pots, manufacture, in Missouri,
622*; New York manufacturers,
9133-254.

Fluxes in clays, 511°-12°; purification,
635%.

Fonda, brick yard, 713°.

Food adulterants, 852°.

Fort Edward, pottery works, 824°.

Fossils, 587°, 595°, 600-1, 6027, 602°,
603°, 604°, 6057, 609°, 610°.

France, glass-pot clays, 787%.

Free silica, 525°.

Freshpond, clay. deposits, 597°, 603°,
606*, 735*-36°; crumpled layers, 6067;
brick yards, 735*-36°; stratification,
ears

Frit, 810°.

for, 639°; manufacture, 771°.
Fuel, cost, 676°, 686°.
Fullers’ earth, 8487-51; analysis, 851;
properties and uses, 848°—49°;
in Florida, 614°, 615‘; New York,
849°-50°; South Dakota, 626°.
Fulton county, brick yards, 714+.
Fusibility of clay, 512‘, 550°-61?, 562°;
fire clays. 783'; slip clay, 808‘; feld-
spar, 841+.
Fusion, temperature of, 5064, 552°, 562°.

Ganister, 784°.

Gardeau shales, 834°-357.

Garden City brick co., 740?7-41'; illus.
facing p. 604, 665, 678, 740.

Gardiner’s island, clay deposits, 603°,
605‘; crumpled layers, 6067.

Gardonas, N., brick yard, 708°.

Garnet, 516°, 520’, 5787, 7057; source
of alkaline compounds, 514°.

Garrett, H. L., brick yard, 713°.

Gas retorts, manufacture, 788°.

Gay, Robert, brick yard, 7223.

Geddes, paving brick manufacture,
756°—57°.

Genesee county, drain tile works, 771°
72*; shale, 829°.

Genesee river, clay deposits, 573°; Me-
dina shale, 826°-27'; Cashaqua shale,
834°; Chemung shale, 8368-371.

Geneva, brick yards, 718°.

Geologic distribution of clays, 572—
627.

Georgia, clay deposits, 615°; kaolins,
793°.

Gerlach, O., on efflorescence, 680*-81!,
682°-§3*,

German brick and tile co., 720°.

Germany, glass-pot clays, 787°.

Gilette, Mrs C. 8., brick yard, 718‘.

Gilliland & Day, brick yard, 710°.

Glacial action, at Long Island, 606°;
at Staten Island, 607°.

Glacial deposits, 575°, 576°, 5847, 591°,
604", 609°, 6204.

Glacial scratches, 577°, 579%, 5824, 584?
588".

Glaciated boulder, illus. facing p. 582.

Glasco, terrace, 579'; brick yards,
700°-1"; clay deposits, 700°-17.

Glass-pot clay, 618°, 786°-87°.

Glass pots, manufacture, 544°.

Glazed brick, 6508, 652%.

Glazed tile, 777°, 779°.

Glazes, calcareous clays used in manu-
facture, 521°; use of Hudson valley
clays for, 689?; pottery, 796°-977.

Glazing, brick, 652*; terra cotta, 762';
sewer pipe, 767°; stoneware, 806°—-9°;

934

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

white earthenware and porcelain, | Hammond, William, brick yard, 735°;

8097-115, 813°-14".

Glencove, clay deposits, 596°, 605°;
crumpled layers, 606°; stoneware
clays, 817°, S18-20%, 820°.

Glens Falls, tests of brick, 6477.

Glens Falls brick and terra cotta co.,
650°, 760%-61', 763°, 764°.

Glost kiln, 814°; illus. facing p. 807.

Gloversville, brick yard, 714*.

Gneiss, 582°, 583%, 584*, 5848, 585°, 586’,
586%.

Gold work, 816’.

Goldrick, Philip, brick yard, 694’.

Goodwin & Delamater, brick yard,

Muse
Goshen, brick yard, 731°.

Gouverneur, brick yards, 710°; clay
deposits, 710°; stratification, 710°.
Graham chemical stoneware works,

823*; illus. facing p. 800-1, 824.
Granite, 583*, 584°, 584°, 5857, 586*.
Graniteware, 793°.

Graphite, used to prevent shrinkage,

548%, 550%.

Grassy Point, clay deposits, 583°.

Gravity planes, 633°.

Greatneck, clay deposits, 596°, 605°;
stoneware clays, 817°.

Grecian magnesite, 785%.

Green Point porcelain works, 823°.

Greenbush, see Rensselaer.

Greene county, brick yards, 702°—3°,
704°; shale, 832°—34°.

Greenport, clay deposits, 604*, 736*;
brick yard, 736+.

Greenridge, clay deposits, 6077, 6097,
609°; brick yard, 742°.

Griggs, C. G. & Co., brick yard, 698".

Grimes, H. C., brick yard, 714".

Grogs, used to prevent shrinkage, 548°;
purification, 635°.

Gumbo clay, in Missouri, 6227.

Gypsum in clay, 507°, 5207, 5228-234.

Haake, F., brick yard, 723°.

Hacking, 669".

Half Moon, brick yard, 708°.

Hall, Horace, brick yard, 731+.

Hall, James, on Chemung shale, 836°—
37°; on clay deposits in N. Y., 574°;
on Gardeau shales, 8349-357; on di-
visions of Hamilton shale, 832?; on
impressions in clay, 594°; on Niag-
ara shale, 828°; on Salina shale,
8294-30!.

Halle, Germany, kaolin, 499°.

Halloysite, 5057, 505°.

Hamilton shale, 8315-345:
tests, 8317; analysis, 833".

physical

illus. facing p. 735.

Hand-picking, 634°, 635%.

Hand-power dry-press machine, illus.
facing p. 665.

Harris & Ginley, brick yard, 697°.

Harvey, John, brick yard, 718°.

Haulage, machines used, 654°; cable,
633’, 6867; with cars, 633°; with
carts, 632°-33°; with gravity planes,
633°; with locomotive, 633°; steam,
6867.

Haverstraw, tests of brick, 648', 6957;
brick yards, 693*-94°; clay concre-
tions, 593’; clay deposits, 577°, 584°;
illus. facing p. 693; delta deposits,
588", 589*; dredging, 632°; terraces,
5837, 590°.

Hayne, P., brick yard, 731°.

Hecht, H., on cones, 554°; on glazes,
653", 796°-97'; investigations on com-
position of porcelains and white
earthenware, 795'—97".

Hedges, C. A. & A. P., brick yard,
6967.

Hematite, 516*.

Hempstead harbor, clay deposits, 596°.

Herkimer county, brick yards, 7137,
714".

Hilfinger Bros. pottery works, 824°.

Hill, R. T., on uses of clays, 564'—65°.

Hilton, William, brick yard, 7247-257.

Hofman, H.O., use of Bischof’s method,
558*; experiments on refractoriness
of clay, 563"; experiments on fusibil-
ity of clay, 782°.

Hog neck, clay deposits, 603°.

Hollick, Arthur, fossils found by, 6027;
identification of fossils, 602°; on
glacial origin of Long Island hills,
606°; on origin of Long Island sound,
607°; on plant remains, 609*, 6107.

Hollow brick, 7731; manufacture, 769°;
illus. facing p. 767, 769, 773-74;
manufacturers, 913?-25%.

Homer, brick yard, 731*.

Hoosick Falls, brick yard, 709°; clay
deposits, 709°.

Hornblende, in clay, 5097, 516°, 520’,
524°; source of alkaline compounds,
514%.

Hornellsville, brick yards, 725'—265;
paving brick manufacture, 756*; il-
lus. facing p. 756; shale, 831*, 839%.

Hornellsville brick and tile co., 7257.

Horseheads, Chemung shale, 840°-41?.

Horseheads brick co., 7277; illus. fac-
ing p. 653, 679, 727.

Horseheads, Empire brick works, il-
lus. facing p. 840.

Horseshoe tile, 770°, 7717.

INDEX TO CLAYS

Hudson, clay deposits, 588, 703°; brick | Kames, 584’, 591°.

yards, 703°.

Hudson river brick co., 692".

Hudson river shale, 5788, 8268.

Hudson valley, terraces, 578°-91°, 6295;
illus. facing p. 592; depth of pre-
glacial channel, 581*; probable ge-
ologie history, 584°, 591°; delta de-
posits, 588°; brick yards, 689°—-709°;

clays: 523°, 576°; stratification,

577°; illus. facing p. 577; underlying
material, 577°-78°; illus. facing p.
578; recent borings, 588°; physical
character, 687; uses, 689".

Hunter, Alfred, brick yard, 707.

Hussey mountain, terrace, 590°.

Hutton, W., brick yard, 699°, 700%.

Hyatt, C., brick yard, 6928-93".

Hydraulic dry press machine, 665°.

Ilion, brick yard, 714’;
714".

Impurities of clay, 508°, 511°-284; test-
ing for, 856%.

Indian bay, brick yard, 710?.

Indian creek, delta deposits, 588°.

Indiana, clay deposits, 6157-16°.

Indiandite, 505°.

Tron, in clay, 512*, 566%, 5697; in brick
clay, 636°, 640°; separation from
clay, 634°-35°; sulfates of, 680%.

Tron carbonate, see Siderite.

Tron oxid, in clay, 508%, 508°, 511?, 5124,

clay deposits,

515°-20°, 565°, 569%, 639°, 861°; in
feldspar, 635°; in decorative tile,
777°. See also Analyses.

Ironstone china, 793°.
Ithaca, clay deposits, 576°.
Ivory creek valley, 584°.

Jamestown, brick yards, 725°; strati-
fication, 7254; shale, 8314, 8377.

Jamestown shale paving brick
756", 8377;
757, 837.

Japanese porcelain, composition, 796".

co.,
illus. facing p. 663, 677,

Jefferson county, brick yards, 710°
MATa le
Jewettville, brick yards, 650’, 724?; il-

lus. facing p. 662, 664, 665, 672, 724;
Hamilton shale, 8337.

Jigging, 805*-61.

Jollying, 805*-6'.

Jones, C. C., on Hudson river clays,
588°.

Jones, Gomer, method for testing the
resistance of paving brick to abra-
sion, 752°-54".

Jones, O., brick vard, 734".

Jonespoint, clay deposits,
race, 5897.

Jova, J. J., brick yard, 698°.

5837; ter-

935

OF NEW YORK

See also Eskars.

KKansas, clay deposits, 6177.

KXaolin, alkalis in, 515*; analyses, 610°,
862-65, composition, 510°, 5127, 534°;
structure of deposits, 628°; ferric
oxid in, 519°, 520°, 793°; impurities,

610"; lime in, 523°; magnesia in,
524°; mica in, 503°, 535°; origin of
name, 497°; pure, 497°, 510?; silica
in, 525°; tensile strength, 545°; use
of term, 497*; washing, 504", 800*-3*;
water in, 530°;

in Arkansas, 612°; Delaware, 614*;
Florida, 614°; Georgia, 615*; Indiana,
615°; Long Island, 596°; Maryland,
619°; Massachusetts, 620?; Missouri,
621*; North Carolina, 623°, 624°:

. Pennsylvania, 6257; Staten Island,
6077, 609°; Virginia, G2

Kaolinite, 4977 501°, 503°-48, 5105, 5252s
formation, 497"; properties, 534° ;
use of term, 4978

in Missouri i 621%: New Jersey, 623°.

Kennedy, F. H., brick yard, 715%.

Kentucky, clay ‘deposits, 617-184; flint
clays, 781’; ball clays, 793°.

Keramics, see Pottery.

Kilns, building, 674°; continuous,
678"-79*, 814°; cooling, 6767; down-
draft, 673°, 6741, 677°-78°, 745°, 814°;
for enameled brick, 652°; for paving
brick, 7457; scove kiln, 674°, 6744+—
77°, 689*; for stoneware, 809°; types,
495*, 655°, 673°, 677*-79*, 814°; for
white earthenware and china, 8142,

King & ey brick yard, 692°.

Kinkel, P.. H., & Son, feldspar quarry,
842°.

Kirkover, L., brick yard, 723°.

Kline, J., brick yard, 699’.

Kneading machines, 804°.

Kreischer, B. Sons, brick industry,
650°; illus. facing p. 782-86; terra
cotta factory, 763°, 7644; illus. fac-
ing p. 763-64; fire brick factory,
7887, 788°; illus. facing p. 784-86.

Kreischerville, clay deposits, 6077-97;
illus. facing p. 608, 781; brick yard,

4954,

650°, 743°; terra cotta manufacture,
763°, 7644; stoneware clays, 817°,
820°.

Kyser, A. C., brick yard, 713".

Lahey Bros., brick yard, 697’.

Laneaster, brick yards, 722-238; clay
denosits, 722°-23°; stratification,
7237.

Laneaster brick co., 7228, 7237.

Lansingburg, brick yard, 708‘; clay de-
posits, 708*.

La Salle, clay deposits, 574’; brick
yard, 722°.

936

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Leaves, in clay beds, 576‘, 594°, 605‘, | Lowe, J. R., clay bank, 726°-27'.

610’; illus. facing p. 611, 820; in
sandstone, 596°, 605°.

Le Chatelier’s thermoelectric pyrom-
eter, 560-61’.

Lefever Falls, stratification, 580°.

Lemberg, J., on kaolinization of feld-
spars, 498°.

Leroy, shale, 831.

Lester, A., brick yard, 718°, 772°.

Levant, clay deposits, 576’.

Lewis county, shale, 826°.

Lewiston, clay deposits,
beds, 8277-28".

Lignite, in clay, 596‘, 609°.

Lignitiec shales, in Louisiana, 619‘.

Lime, in clay, 506°-7*, 5117, 512%, 520°—
93°, 5475, 565°, 568°, 5697, 652°, 861°;
in brick clay, 5237, 5691, 6367, 6402,

575'; shale

641*; separation from clay, 634°,
728°; sulfates of, 680%. See also
Analyses.

Limestone, 520’, 582%, 584*, 5877; peb-
bles, 573°, 5857, 722°, 723°.

Limonite, 516+, 5857, 603°.
Tron oxid.

Linden, clay deposits, 574°.

Lithia, 512°.

Lithium, 511°.

Littlefield, C. H., brick yard, 701°.

Little neck, stoneware clay, 6027, 817%,
820°; illus. facing p. 819-20; clay de-
posits, 6057.

Lloyd’s neck, sponge spicules, 599°.

Loams in Alabama, 611°.

Locke, F., manufacturer
supplies, 824°.

Lockport, shale, 828°.

Lockport brick co., 7224.

Lockville, shale, 8297.

Locomotive, haulage with, 633°.

Locomotive blocks, 613°.

Loey Bros., brick yard, 727°, 728".

Loess, per cent of quartz in, 525*; in
Colorado, 6131; in Kansas, 6171; in
Missouri, 622°.

Long Island, glacial origin, 606°; cost
of producing brick, 685’; brick
yards, 733°—42°.

Long Island brick co., 736+.

Long Island City, pottery works, 823%.

Long Island clays, 495°, 572°, 573°,
595°-607%, 629°, 823*; probable geol-
ogic history, 605°; stoneware clays,
817°-22°; terra cotta clays, 761?.

Long Island sound, preglacial origin,
6073. x

Longbottom, G., brick yard, 735°.

Louisiana, clay deposits, 618*-19*.

Low point, terrace, 586°; delta depos-
its, 5887; brick yard, 697°.

See also

of electric

| MeConnellsville,

Lyons, brick yard, 718°.

Lyons pottery co., 824°.

Lyth, John, & Sons, sewer pipe works,
769°, 8357; illus. facing p. 767-69,
774.

McCabe Bros., brick yard, 742°.

McCarthy, T., brick yard, 706°.

fullers’ earth, 849%
50°.

McDuffie, H., brick yard, 714*.

Machines, 495°; used in manufacture
of brick, 654°-55°, 689°; used in
manufacture of pottery, 804°.

McLean, Alexander, brick
7025-31,

Madison county, brick yards, 715°,
731°; drain tile works, 771°.

Madrid, brick yard, 712°; clay depos-
its, 575°, 712°.

Magnesia in clay, 5117, 5238-24°, 565°,
861°; in brick clays, 524°, 569%, 6407.
See also Analyses.

Magnesite, 5087, 512%.

Maenesite bricks, 784*, 785°.

Magnesium, 512°.

Magnesium sulfate, 524°, 680%.

Magnetite, 509°.

Magnets, use of, 6357.

Maine, R., & Co., brick yard, 699°, 700%.

Maine, clay deposits, 619°.

Majolica, 7984, 8157.

Malden, clay deposits,
brick yard, 700°.

Malley, R., brick. yard, 694’.

Manchester, D. 8., brick yard, 699°.

Manganese, 512*, 6397.

Manganese brick, 646°.

Manganese oxid, 511°, 512%, 567°, 777°.

Maplewood, brick yard, 722%.

Marcellus shale, 830°-31*.

Markets, for bricks, 687°.

Marl, 507°, 5087, 640°.

Maryland, clay deposits, 619".

Massachusetts, clay deposits, 620*.

Mastodon bones, 5837.

Mather, W. W., on leaves in clay beds,
594°.

Meade, J. V., brick yard, 697°; clay
bank, illus. facing p. 592.

Mechanical analysis of clays, 5617—63°.

Mechanieville brick co., 708°.

Mecusker, M. J., & Son, brick yard,
72

Medina shales, 825°, 826°-28".

Merrick, C. H., brick yard, 715°

Merrill, F. J. H., on clay near Far-
mingdale, 605‘; on clay at Gar-
diner’s island, 603°; on delta depos-
its of Hudson river tributaries,
588°-89"; on geologic history of Hud-

yard,

578°, 700°;

INDEX TO CLAYS

OF NEW YORK 937

son valley, 5917-93°; geology of Long , Muhlheim clay, 544*.

Island, 5967;
Island hills, 606°: on origin of Long
Island sound, 6071; on plant remains
in clay, 5977; on terraces, 579°; on
occurrence of white fire clay, 597°.

Merrill, G. P., definition of clay, 496°.

Meyers, M., brick yard, 7387-40".

Mica, 5038, 5077-8, 512%, 5134, 514°,
516%, 5247, 549?; source of alkaline
compounds, 514°; a clay substance,
534°-35°.

Michigan, clay deposits, 620°.

Micro-organisms from clays, 598-601;
illus. facing p. 600-1.

Middle Granville, brick yards, 709’;
clay deposits, 709%.

Milwaukee brick, 636°.

Mineral paint, 848".

Mineralogy of clays, 5037—9°.

Mining clay, methods, 631°-33%, 654+.

Minisceongo creek, delta deposits,
588°; clay deposits, 693°; brick
yards, 694°. :

Mississippi, clay deposits, 6207.

Missouri, clay deposits, 621-22"; brick
clays, 638*; flint clays, 781"; glass-
pot clays, 787°; ball clays, 793°.

Mohawk valley, clay deposits, 5767.

Molding, 661°-68"; illus. facing p. 661—
66; modern methods, 495°; machines
used, 6551, 665'; electrical supplies,
illus. facing p. 816; fire brick, 784°;
hollow brick, illus. facing p. 773;
pottery clays, 799°, 804%-6*; roofing
tile, illus. facing p. 7 765; stoneware,
illus. facing p. 800-1; terra cotta,
illus. facing p. 762-64.

Molding sand, 670°.

Monroe county, brick yards, 720°-22°;
shale, 828°.

Montauk point, clay deposits, 606*.

Montgomery county, brick yards, 713’,
714; shale, 826%.

Montmorillonite, 505°.

Montrose, clay deposits, 585°;
yards, 6917-927.

Moodna river, delta deposits, 581’, 582°,
696°.

Moore, J. C., brick yard, 706’.

Morley, C. A., brick yard, 725%.

Morrisania, pottery works, 823°.

Morrisey, T. F., brick yard, 708*.

Morton, J., brick yard, 692°-93'.

Mosher Bros., brick yard, 696*.

Mosquito inlet, clay deposits, 596°.

Mottled: brick, 646°, 650°.

Mt Marion, clay deposits, 578°.

Mt Morris, depth of clay, 574°.

Muffle kiln, 814‘.

Muffles, 613°.

brick

glacial origin of Long | Murder creek, terrace, 591%.

Murray, J. E., brick yard, 708.
Muscovite, 5134, 514°.

Nebraska, clay deposits, 623°.

New Hamburg, terrace, 581';
deposits, 588°.

New Jersey clays, 572%, 622°-23% 8238;
titanium in, 526°; plasticity, 5427;
continued on Staten Island, 6087;
fire clays, 7887; ball clays, 793°.

New Paltz, clay deposits, 732%.

New Paltz brick co., 732%.

New Windsor, clay deposits, 5774, 581’,
696°; illus. facing p. 582; delta de-
posits, 588’, 589*; brick yards, 696°.

New York Anderson pressed brick co.,
743°.

New York architectural terra cotta
co., 650°, 760*, 7617, 763°, 764'; illus.
facing p. 759, 761-63.

New York city, depression of land,
591°; pottery manufacturers, 8237.

New York fullers’ earth co., 8497.

New York hydraulic brick co., 719%
207.

New York paving brick co., 756°-57°;
illus. facing p. 757.

New York state, occurrence of clay,
572°-611°; sedimentary origin of
clay, 629°.

New York state drain tile works, 771°.

New York state veterinary college, il-
lus. facing p. 719.

Newbrand, Joseph, pottery works,
823%.

Newburgh, clay deposits, 5817;
deposits, 588°.

Newell, J. L., use of Bischof’s method,
558".

Newfield, clay deposits, 576°, 728*-31°;
tests of brick, 648+; brick works,
650", 7284-315; illus. facing p. 656,
668; paving brick manufacture, 756°.

Newton Bros., brick yard, 708°.

Newtonite, 505°.

Niagara county, clay deposits, 575*;
brick yards, 7225.

Niagara Falls, clay deposits, 574’.

Niagara shale, 828*-29, 829°.

Nickel oxid, 777°.

Noble, F. W., brick yard, 704%.

Nolan, T., brick yard, 7157.

Norite, 583°,

Norman tile, 646°; illus. facing p. 463.

North Carolina, kaolin, 500‘, 793°;

clays: 6238-24°; per cent of quartz
in, 525°; tests, 5417; brick clay, 638%.

North Dakota, clay deposits, 624".

Northport, diatoms, 603‘; stoneware
clay, 820*-22°.

delta

delta

938

Northport bay, stoneware clay, 6027;
illus. facing p. 819-20.

Northport clay and fire sand co., 820*-

22°; illus. facing p. 820.
Northrup, HE. B., clay pit, 724°.
Northrup, J. I., on rhizomorphs, 593°.

Oakland valley, brick yards, 732°;
clay deposits, 732°. —

Ocher, 598+, 8487.

Ogden brick co., 731°.

Ogdensburg, clay deposits, 575°, 711°-
124; brick yards, 711°-12%.

Ohio, clay deposits, 6248-25*;
536-37"; flint clays, 781";
clays, 787°.

Oldfield Bros., brick yard, 693°.

Olschewsky, W., on plasticity, 540*-
41*; on per cent of water in clays,
543°.

Oneida county, brick yards, 713°, 714°—
15°; shale, 826°.

Oneonta, brick yards, 731’.

Onondaga county, brick yards, 715°
1S

Onondaga pottery co., 823"; illus. fac-
ing p. 792, 795-97, 802, 804-7.

Onondaga vitrified pressed brick co.,
715°-17*, 830°; illus. facing p. 663,
671, 678, 715, 744, 773, 830.

Ontario county, brick yards, 719'-20?;
drain tile works, 771°; shale, 829°.

Open yards, 669%.

Orange county, brick yards, 696°, 698°,
731°—327, 732°-33°.

Ore-balls, 782°.

Organic matter in clay, 509°, 511, 527°—
28%, 860%. See also Analyses.

Orleans county, brick yards, 722%.

Ornamental brick, 646°; value of out-
put, 493’, 494°; manufacturers, 913°—
im

Orton, Edward, jr, cones for sale by,
554°; rattling tests on paving brick,
75l.

Oswego Falls, brick yard, 718°;
deposits, 718°.

Oswego valley, clay deposits, 575*.

Otis & Gorsline, sewer pipe works,
769°.

Otsego county, brick yards, 731’.

Ouimet, J., brick yard, 709°; illus. fac-
ing p. 661, 674.

Overbaugh, D. -C., brick yard, HOLE:

Owasco, brick’ yard, 718°; drain . tile
works, ieee

Ownership, of brick oe
clay banks, 685°-867.

Oyster bay, clay deposits, 597°,

’ brick yard, 734°.

Paige Bros., brick yeu, 71112"
Paint, 848".

fire clay,

clay

685°; of

1348;

glass-pot |

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Painting, see Decoration.

Pale bricks, 676°, 6777.

Paleozoic fossils, see Fossils.

Pallet driers, 670°; illus. facing p. 669.

Pallet-squarer, 670".

Pallet yards, 669°; illus. facing p. 670.

Pan crushers, 656*; illus. facing p. 653,
656, .759, 765.

Paper clay, 852'.

Parian ware, 798".

Parker M.. brick yard, 7202,

Parry, W. W., brick yard, 6478, 715'.

Pass & Seymour, pottery works, 824";
illus. facing p. 791, 809, 814-15, 817.

Paving brick, 673°, 7435-775; cities us-
ing, 743°; end-eut, 664°; total num-
ber produced in 1897, 743°; re-
pressed, 668*; tests, 729*-30°, 7458-508,
8547; value of output, 4937, 4944;..
wearing power, 750°-55’;

manufacture: 745°; illus. facing p.
744-45; shales used, 502°; auger ma-
chine used, 664°; continuous kilns
used, 679*; '
in Arkansas, 6127; Colorado, 613°;

Kansas, 617°; Louisiana, 619*; Mary-
land, 619°; Michigan, 620°; Missouri,

622*; New York industry, 755°-57°,
913%—25%.

Paving brick clay, fluxes in, 512";
composition, 743°-45'; analysis,
900°-3°.

Pebbles, 573°, 578*, 582°, 5857, 5877, 592%,
596°, 7057, 722°, 723%, 728°; separa-

tion from clay, 634°.

Peck, B. F., drain tile and brick manu-
facture, 771°—72*.

Peconic bay, clay deposits, 603°.

Peekskill (stream), delta deposits,
588°; illus. facing p. 588.

Peekskill (town), terrace, 585°—867,
590°; brick yard, 693°.

Pegmatite, 584°.

Penfield, M.A., fullers’ earth mine, 8507.

Penn Yan, Cashaqua shale, 8347. —

Pennock, J. D., experiments on refrac-
tory brick, 785! —86%,

Pennsylvania clays, 625°;- titanium in,
526°; flint clays, 7817; glass-pot
clays, 787%.

Pepper, J. H., brick yard, 709".

Permeability of clay wares, 854°-55*.

Phosphoric acid, 5117, 860%. See also
Analyses.

ey Oana of clay, 510’, 538"—

shea. depth: of clay, 574’.

Pipe clay, in New Jersey, 623°; si
sis, 904+7°. !

Pipe tile, 770°.

Plant impressions, ale. facing p. 611.

INDEX TO CLAYS

Plasticity, of clays, 496°, 504°, 528°,
5307, 539'-44", 637°, 845°; of paving
brick, 744*; of glass-pot clays, 786°;
of stoneware clays, 7918-92; of
shales, 825°.

Platting, 674".

Plattsburg, clay deposits, 595°, 709%
10*; brick yards, 709*-10*; illus. fac-
ing p. 661, 674.

Plows, use of, 631°.

Plunger machine, 663°;
p- 664-65.

Pocantico, river, delta deposits, 588°.

Polishing and abrasive materials, 852°—
537.

Pompeian brick, 646+.

Porcelain, 794'-98°; analysis, 794°, 796";
and white earthenware, comparative
composition, 796'; decoration, 8147
17*; illus. facing p. 805, 808; glaz-
ing, 809"-11°; manufacture, 514°; il-
lus. facing p. 791-92, 794-99, 802,
804; manufacturers, 823°; value of
output, 494°; vitrification, 796°.

Porcelain clays, 568"; rational analy-
sis, 538%.

Porosity, of clay, 522°, 672°; of clay
wares, 854°—55°.

Port Ewen, clay deposits, 577*, 579°,
699"; terraces, 590°; brick yards,
699".

Port Kent, terraces, 594°.

“Port Washington, sands and gravels,
607°; illus. facing p. 596.

Portage shale, 769°, 826’; physical
tests, 831°; distribution, 834°-36°;
analysis, 835°.

Porter, I. R., brick yard, Athens, 704°.

Porter, J., brick yard, Glasco, 701+.

Portland cement, 845°-47°; clays and
shales used in manufacture of, 689°,
847.

Post, W. & J., brick yards, 733°-34°.

Potash, 511?, 512*, 5127, 512°, 513*, 515°.

Potsdam, brick yards, 711°; clay de-
posits, 711°.

Potters’ clay, in Kentucky, 618°; in
New Jersey, 623°; in South Dakota,
626%.

Pottery, 791'-824°; decoration, 8147—
17*; different grades, 791°-98°;
glazes, 689°, 810°-11°; manufacture,
620°, 798°-814°; illus. facing p. 791—
808; manufacturers, 823'-24°; value
of output, 493°, 494°.

Pottery clays, 799'-806°; alkalis in,
515°; analysis, 878°-81°; lime in,
5237; magnesia in, 524°; silica in,
525°; tensile strength, 545°;

in Colorado, 613°; Kentucky, 617%;

illus. facing

OF NEW YORK 939

Maryland, 619°; Mississippi, 620°;
North Carolina, 624°.

Poutre, M., brick yard, 707°.

Preparation of clay, 655-607; machines
used, 654"; pottery clays, 799', 799°
803%.

Prepleistocene clays, 606°.

Pressed brick, 64546’; burning, 666+;
repressed, 668*; illus. facing p. 463-
64, 668; sorting, 679°;

manufacture: clays used, 5215, 6394;
use of shale, 8274;

in Colorado, 613°; Indiana, 616°;
Louisiana, 6197; value of output in
New York, 493°, 4948; New York
manufacturers, 650°, 9132-254.

Preston brick co., 756*; illus. facing p.
756.

Preston Bros., brick yard, 7157.

Printed ware, 815%-16".

Prospecting for clay, 629%-30?.

Puddle, 853°. -

Pug mills, 660°, 804?; illus. facing p.
660, 663, 761, 782.

Purification of clay, 633°-35%.

Putnam county, brick yards, 695°.

Pyramids, see Seger cones.

Pyrite, 508°, 516°, 604°, 646°, 6805; sep-
aration from clay, 634°.

Pyrometer, 553°, 560'-612.

Pyrophyllite, 505°.

Pyroxene, source of alkaline com-
pounds, 514°.

Quartz, 506°, 525", 5267, 565°, 5781, 5968,
652°, 705", 7938, 841-447; aid to fu-
sion, 563°; mineralogic characters,
841°42°; preparation, 843°; illus.
facing p. 793; price, 843°-44?; prop-
erties, 5348; uses, 547%, 5487, 843°.
See also Silica.

Quartzite, 584%.

Quassaic creek, delta deposits, 5817,
588°.

Quaternary clay deposits, 5724, 573°.

Queens county, brick yards, 733°-34°.

Railroads, use of clay in construc-
tion, 853°.

Randolph, clay deposits, 576+; brick
yard, 725°; shale, 848%.

Rathenow, analysis of clay from, 5707.

Rational analysis, 5337-387,

Rattlers, 7464, 752°.

Rattling tests on paving brick, 751?.

Ravena, quaternary plain, illus. facing
p. 591.

Ravenswood, New York architectural
terra cotta co., 763°, 764*.

Raymondville, brick yard, 712°; clay
deposits, 712°

940

Rectorite, 505*.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Rose, A., & Co., brick yard, 7015.

Refractoriness of clay, 511°, 5267, 5637; ) Rose, H. R., brick yard, 702.

of fire clays, 563’, 781°, 782"-83°; of
glass-pot clays, 786°; of stoneware
clays, 792?.

Refractoriness of shale, 841’.
Refractory clay products, 639°, 7834
84°.
Remole,

clays, 517°.

Rensselaer, brick yard, 707*; clay de-
posits, 707‘.

Rensselaer county, brick yards, 707‘,
708%, 709°.

Repressed power brick, illus. facing p.
464.

Repressing bricks, 668%, 745*; illus. fac-
ing p. 668, 784.

Residual clays, 501', 501°; occurrence,
572"-73?; structure, 628'; analysis,
8604-615.

Rhinebeck, stratification, 587+.

Rhizomorphs, 593°.

Ries, Heinrich, on terrace altitudes,
590°.

Reisterer, Martin, brick yard, 7227.

Rigney, Mrs T., brick yard, 707%.

Riley & Clark, brick yards, 694°.

Riley & Rose, brick yard, 694°.

Ring pits, 659*-60'; illus. facing p.
659.

Road materials, clay or shale used for,
8537.

Roberts, J. B., brick yard, 707°.

Robitzels’s Sons pottery works, 823°.

Roehester, brick yards, 720°%-21°; clay
deposits, 720°-21°; pottery works,
824°; sewer pipe manufacture, 769°;
shale, 828°; stratification, 720°.

Rochester brick and tile co., 720°-21°;
illus. facing p. 652, 660, 669, 679,
720, 773.

Rock face brick, 6477; illus. facing p.
463. s

Rockingham ware, 793', 814°.

Rockland county, brick yards, 693*—
95°; illus. facing p. 693.

Rockwell, G. A., use of Bischof’s
method, 5587.

Roman tile, 646*; illus. facing p. 463.

Rome, clay deposits, 576", 714°-15?;
brick yards, 714°-15?.

Rondout, clay deposits, 6995; terrace,
5791.

Rondout creek delta, 577°.

Rénne, Denmark, kaolins, 498*.

Roofing tile, manufacture, 765'—66?,
8377; illus. facing p. 765; properties,
864°-55?; manufacturers, 9137-254.

Roots, separation from clay, 634°.

Rose & Co., brick yard, 688°, 698°; illus.
facing p. 658, 698.

, on color of hard-burned

Rosendale, stratification, 580°.

Rosendale plains, stratification, 580°.

Roseton, clay deposits, 5817, 698%;
delta deposits, 5897; brick yards,
688°, 698°; illus. facing p. 658, 698.

Roseville, terra cotta clays, 759°-60*.

Rough hard brigks, 678°.

Russia, glass-pot clays, 787°.

Rutile, 509‘.

Ryan, T., terra cotta clays, 759°-60°.

Ryder, William, brick yard, 704°.

Sag Harbor, clay deposits, 603°.

Saggers, 652%, 8114-127.

St Johnsville, brick yard, 713'; clay
deposits, 713'; stratification, 7137.

St Lawrence county, clay deposits,
575°; brick yards, 710°, 7117, 711%
12

St Louis fire clays, per cent of
in, 525*.

Salina shale, 825’, 8297-308; illus. fac-
ing p. 830.

Salmon brick, 645%, 677°.

Salt group, 829*-30°.

Saltpeter, 680".

Salts, 512*; in brick clay, 639°, 6408,
6807; determination of, 856°.

Sammis, R., brick yard, 7367.

Sand, 525%, 592°; used to prevent
shrinkage, 548*, 548—49°; in estuar-
ies, 592?; importance to clay in-
dustry, 629°; in brick clay, 637%.

Sandford, C. L., brick yard, 7367.

Sandrock, 5827, 584°.

Sandstone, 5827, 584', 584°, 5877, 596°,
5977, 605°.

Saratoga, brick yards, 709*; clay de-
posits, 709°.

Saratoga county, brick yards, 708°.

Sawdust, used to prevent shrinkage,
550*.

Sawmill river, delta deposits, 588%.

quartz

Schenectady, clay deposits, 5767;
terrace, 591°; depression of land,
591%.

Schenectady county, shale, 826°.
Schist, 5834, 584°, 5857, 5864.

Schmidt, G. W., brick yard, 723°.
Schodack terraces, 590°.

Schrétterite, 505°.

Schultz, C. A., brick yard, 699°, 700°.
Schusler & Co., brick yard, 723°.

Scorifiers, 613°.

Scotland, glags-pot clays, 787°.
Scove‘kiln; 6747, 6744-77%, 689; illus.
facing p. 674.

Screens, 6607-614, 801°-2¢.

@

—

INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 941

Sedimentary clays, 501*, 50172°; oc-
currence in N. Y. state, 5737-935;
structure, 6287—29°.

Seger, H., classification of clay, 564°,
5677; on color of clay, 519°, 565°,

5667, 566°; on effect of iron in clay,

640?; on ferrous condition of iron,
517°; on marly clays, 522°; on effect
of heating plastic clay, 562*; on
plasticity, 543°; method of rational
analysis, 535‘; experiment on effect
of titanium on clay, 527°.

Seger cones, 553°-58?; composition and
fusing points, 555'.

Seger’s porcelain, 7954, 796°.

Semi-dry process, 6671.

Seneca county, brick yards, 718°;
shale, 829°.

Seneca Falls, brick yard, 718°.

Seneca river brick co., 717°18?.

Sewer brick, 645°.

Sewer pipe, clays, 767'; porosity or
permeability, 854°, 8557;

manufacture: 768*-70'; illus. facing
p. 767-69, 774; in Colorado, 613°;
Missouri, 622; New York manufac-
turers, 769*—70', 9138-254; value of
output in New York, 493°, 494°; in
Tennessee, 626°.

Shale, 825'-44?; illus. facing p. 830,
837, 839-40; analyses, 716', 769°,
899*-901*; distribution and proper-
ties, 502°, 5727, 578, 5877, 826°41?;
formation, 502', 8267; in Indiana,
615°; in Michigan, 620’; in Missouri,
622°;

uses: 4948-957, 765°, 769%, 8408, 8457
53°; for common brick, 686%, 7277;
for mottled brick, 646°; for paving
brick, 502°, 7257, 743°, 7457.

Shankey, J. D., brick yard, 694’.

Sharon Station, clay deposits, 572°.

Shells in clay, 575°.

Shrinkage, of clay, 5225, 529%, 530°,
5457-508, 636°-371, 637°, 6397, 6728;
of porcelain, 795%.

Siderite, 5084, 516°.

Siegfried, F., brick yard, 718°.

Sienna, 848°.

Sieves, use of, 634°.

Signor, W. H., brick yard, 726%.

Silica, 5117, 5117, 5251-26°, 860%; and
bases, action of heat on mixture of,
5181. See also Analyses; Quartz.

Silica. brick, 784°, 785°.

Simpson dry press brick machine, illus.
facing p. 664.

Slags, 512°.

Slip clays, 620°, 806°-9'; analyses, 880°
83°.

Slumming, 561‘.

Smith, C. H. L., porcelain works, 8237.

Smith, E., brick yard, 706’.

Smith, J. S., brick yard, 713%.

Smith’s dock, terrace, 578’; clay de-
posits, 700°; brick yard, 700°.

Soak pits, 658°-59*; illus. facing p. 658.

Soda, 5117, 5124, 512°, 513%.

Sodus Point, shale, 8287.

Soft brick, 645%.

Soft mud brick, illus. facing p. 464.

Soft mud process, 6451, 661°-64°, 745;
cost, 6867; machines, 7847; illus.
facing p. 661.

Sole tile, 770°, 771%.

Sorting of bricks, 679°.

South Bay, brick yard, 715*; clay de-
posits, 715%.

South Bethlehem, terrace, 591?; illus.
facing p. 591.

South Dakota, clay deposits, 6261.

South Trenton, brick yard, 713°; clay
deposits, 713°.

Southold, brick yards, 7367-37°; clay
deposits, 6041, 7367-37°.

Spar, see Feldspar.

Spar china, 794’.

Spatting, 669°.

Specific gravity of fire brick, 786°.

Speckled bricks, 6467.

Spencer, brick yard, 728°; old lake bot-
tom, illus. facing p. 573.

Sponge spicules, 594*, 599°, 609°; illus.
facing p. 600-1.

Springbrook, clay deposits, 724°.

Staatsburg, terrace, 5811.

Stanwix, D. H., brick yard, 706’.

Staples, A. S., brick yard, 699°, 700°.

Staten Island, brick yards, 742°-43';
terra cotta manufacture, 763°, 764+;

clays: 573°, 607°%117, 622°, 628°,
742°-43*; plant impressions, illus. fac-
ing p. 611; terra cotta clays, 759°-
60°; fire clays, 788°-90°; stoneware
clays, 817°.

Statistics, clay industry, 4935-94".

Steam drying, 671°.

Steam power, use of, 6625, 6867.

Steam shovel, 632°.

Stedman, disinteerator, 6567.

Stephens, C., brick yard, 715%.

Stenben county, brick yard, 7257-26°;
Chemung shale, 839.

Stewart, brick yard, 7407.

Stiff mud process, 6451; machines, 495°,
662°-64°, 784"; illus. facing p. 662-
63. 765; cost, 686°.

Stoek brick, 645%.

Stockport, clay deposits, 588%.

Stoneware, 7915-92°; burning, 809?;
decoration, 814*-15'; glazing, 806%
92

manufacture: in Colorado, 613°;
Michigan, 6207; manufacturers in

949 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

New York, 823°-24°; value of output
in New York, 494°; illus. facing
p. 800-1.

Stoneware clays, 568°, 6027, 8175-229;
illus. facing p. 820; analyses, 792°,
818%, 819°20°, 820°;

in Alabama, 6123; Missouri, 6227;
New Jersey, 623*; Pennsylvania, 625°.

Stonypoint, clay deposits, 5774, 5838;
terraces, 590°; brick yards, 694°—95°.

Stormking, terraces, 590°; brick yards,
696; clay deposits, 696*.

Stoutner, W. A., brick yard, 714°.

Stove linings, 617°. ~

Stratification, see Tables.

Streeter & Hendricks, brick yard, 699°.

Stripping; 630*.

ec cane clay deposits, 588', 703°—

brick yard, 703°-4?.

suifell county, brick yards, 734°—52".

Sulfur, 6424, 792+.

Sulfur-balls, 508%.

Sulfurie acid, 5117, 861°.
Analyses.

Sullivan county, brick yards, 732°.

Sutton & Suderly, brick yard, 705*.

Syracuse, clay -deposits, 575*, 715°;
brick yards, 715°; paving brick
manufacture, 756°-57°; illus. facing
p. 757; pottery works, 823'—24?;
illus. facing p. 791, 792, 795-97, 802,
804-7, 809, 814-15, 817; Salina
shale, 829°.

Syracuse pottery co., 824’.

See also

Tables, crushing strength of brick,
647°, 695°; dimensions of common
brick, 6437; composition of paving
brick, 7441; brick testing, 730;
depth of clay in Genesee valley,
574; sections of clay deposits, 858—-
59; value of clay output, 493°; tests
of North Carolina clays, 541"; com-
position of Copenhagen biscuit ware
and Seger’s porcelain, 796°; com-
position and fusibility of feldspar
species, 842"; Seger cones, 555'-57°;
number of terraces, 590°;
altitudes, 589";

stratification: at Coldspring Har-
bor, 598’; Hddyville, 579°-80?; Far-
mingdale, 604’; Freshpond, 735°;
Gouverneur, 710°; Jamestown, 725%;
Jova’s brick yard, 698°; Kreischer-
ville, 608°; Lancaster, 7237; Lefever
Falls, 580°; Levant, 576°; Madrid,
575°; Rhinebeck, 587+; Rochester,
720°; Rosendale , 580; Rosendale
plains, 580°; St Johnsville, 7137;
West ‘Deerpark, 604°, 741°.. See also
Analyses. - a :

terrace |

Talbot, Prof., method of testing pav-
ing bricks, 754’.

Tarrytown, delta deposits, 588°.

Tarrytown porcelain tile co., 777*.

Tempering, definition, 658°; machines
‘used, 6547; methods, 655"; of pot-
tery clays, 7997, 803°—4?.

Tennessee, clay deposits, 6267.

45°, 637°; of clay wares, 855°-567;
of glass-pot clays, 787°; of stone-
ware clays, 7921.

Terra cotta, general properties, 758'—

59°; resistance to fire, 759°; illus.
facing p. 759; use of term, 758%;

manufacture: 761°-64°; in Massa-
chusetts, 6207; Missouri, 622*; manu-
facturers in New York, 763°-64°,
913°-25*; value of output in New
York, 493°, 494°; illus. facing p. 759-
64; in Pennsylvania, 625°; Texas,
626°.

Terra cotta clays, 759°-61?;
904'—5*.

Terra cotta lumber, 769%, 7737.

Terra cotta vase, frontispiece; illus.
facing p. 764.

Terraces, table of altitudes, 5897; Cham-
plain valley, 594°; forming at pres-
ent, 591°; Hudson valley, 578°-91°,
629° ; number of, table, 590° ; quality
of soil, 591°.

Terry Bros., brick yard, 699°, 700%; il-
lus. facing p- 700.

Tertiary clay deposits, 572°, 605°, 6067.

Testing, brick, 647°-50*, 729*-30°, 745%
50°; clay, 541%, 631?; clay wares,
854-57. :

Texas, clay deposits, 626°-277.

Thermoelectric pyrometer, 560°—-61’.

Thickness of beds, varying, 629".

Thiells, brick yard, 695°; clay deposits,
584°, 695°.

Thompson, G. R., brick yard, 710°.

Three River point, 575%.

[ Tibbitts brook, delta deposits, 588°.

Tile manufacture, in Kentucky, 617°;
Missouri, 622; New York manu-
facturers, 9137-25*; value of output
in New York, 493°, 4945; illus. fac-
ing p. 745. See also Decoration of
tile; Drain tile; Encaustic tile;
Floor tile; Glazed tile; Roman tile;
Roofing tile.

Timoney, F., clay bank, 6977.

Tioga eounty, brick yards, 728°,

Titanic acid, 511’.

Titanic oxid, 860°.

“Titanite, 509°.

Titanium, 526%-27°.

Tompkins, T.,.& Son, clay bank, 694".

analysis,

See also Analyses.

Tensile strength, of clay, 541°, 544%

INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK

Tompkins & Smith, brick yard, 722%.

Tompkins county, brick yards, 728‘
31%.

Tonawanda, clay deposits, 574"; brick
yard, 7227.

Tonawanda
834°.

Topography, indications of clay de-
posits from, 629°.

Torrey park land co., 718".

Townsend, P. M. C., brick yard, 727°,
7287.

Troy, brick yards, 707°; clay deposits,
707°; sewer pipe manufacture, 770'.

Tunnel driers, 670°-71°; illus. facing
p. 671.

Turner, J., brick yard, 725°.

Turning, pottery clay, 804°—5?.

Ulster county, brick yards, 699*, 699°-
(AO) ys

Ultramarine manufacture, 8527.

Underhill, W. A., brick yards, 691*.

Undermining, 632°.

Union porcelain works, 823°; illus. fac-
ing p. 793-94, 799, 808, 816.

United States, occurrence of clay,
611-27". oe

Up-draft kil. 073°, 677%.

Upham, Warren, on eskars, 575°.

Uranium oxid, 777°.

Uses of clay, 564°-65°, 636*-42°, 845*-
Bas.

Utica, pottery works, 824°.

Utica shale, 5797.

Vanadiates, 509°.
Vanadium, 511%.
Van Cortland, delta deposits, 588°.
Van Dusen, F. M., brick yard, 701°.
Vaughn, Charles, brick yard, 710*.
Vernon, W. H., brick yard, 732'.
Verplanck, clay deposits, 585°; brick
yards, 6917—92*.
Verplanck point brick yard, 692%.
Vicat’s needle for testing plasticity,
5428,
Victor, pottery works, 824°.
Virginia, clay deposits, 627%.
Viscosity, 551", 563°.
Vitrification, 551°, 563°.
Vitrified brick, 494%,
652%;
manufacture: in Alabama, 6115; in
Kentucky, 617°, 617°-18?.
Vogt, G., on plasticity of clays, 504°.
Von Buch, Leopold, on kaolin, 499".
Vulté, H. T., methods of analyzing
clay, 530°-387.

Walling up kilns, 674°.
Wallkill valley, terrace, 590°.

creek, Cashaqua

5515; glazing,

shale, |

9438

Walsh Bros., brick yards, 703°-4?.

Wappinger creek, delta deposits, 5815,
588°.

Ward, D. B., on diatoms, 599', 609°. :

Warners, brick yards, 715°-17°; illus.
facing p. 671, 678, 715, 744, 773, 830;
Salina shale, 829%. }

Warsaw, depth of clay, 574°.

Warwick, clay deposits, 732°*-33°.

Washburn, U. F. & Co., brick yard,
6937.

Washburn Bros., brick yard, 700°-1*.

Washed brick, 645°, 669°.

Washing clay, 7997—-800*.

Washington county, brick yard, 709".

Water in clay, 528*-30', 543%, 5447,
860°. See also Absorption; Analy-
ses.

Water-smoke, 675°.

Water-smoking, 529%, 680, 681°.

Watertown, clay deposits, 575°, 7114;
brick yard, 711+.

Watertown pressed brick co., 711*.

Watson, Robert, brick yard, 712°.

Wayne county, brick yards, 718°;
shale, 828°, 8297.

Weathering, 655°, 856°-57'.

Weaver, G. F., sons, brick yard, 715°.

Websters Corners, Hamilton shale,
833°-34?.

Weedsport, brick yard, 718*.

Wegeli porcelain, composition, 796*.

Weight, of brick, 528°; of sand, 549%.

Wells. & Brigham, brick yard, 731°.

West Deerpark, clay deposits, 604’,
741’.

West neck, clay deposits, 597°, 6027,
6061, 734°-35*; crumpled layers, 606°;
brick yards, 734°-35*; illus. facing
p- 735.

Westchester county, brick yards, 689°—
93°.

Wet pan crushers, 8037-4’.

Weyer, P. J., brick yard, 727%.

Wheeler, H. A., on plasticity, 541°; on
quartz in clay, 525*; formula for
relative fusibility of clays, 552°.

White earthenware, burning, 811+-14°;
decoration, 815*-16°; glazing, 8097
11’; manufacture, 514°; New York
manufacturers, 823°; illus. facing
p- 791-92; and porcelain, compara-
tive composition, 796*.

White granite, 793°.

Whitehall, terraces, 594°.

White wash, 681’.

Whitfield, R. P., on erumpling of clay,
593*.

Williams, C. L., brick yard, 709*.

Williams H., tests made by, 647°!

Willis, H. M., clay bank, 733°.

944 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Windom, Hamilton shale, 833°, 8347. | Yards, see Brick yards.

Wire-cut machines, 662°; illus. facing | Yates Center, clay deposits, 574°.
p. 662-63. Yellow clay, characteristics, 5777.

Wire rope, haulage with, 633’, 686’. | Yellow gravel, 607°, 607°, 6107.

Wolcott furnace, shale, 828°. Yellow ware, 7931, 8148-151.

Wood & Keenan, brick yard, 743'. Yonkers, delta deposits, 588°.

Working clay, methods of, 631°-35°. | York, depth of clay, 574’.

Wrape & Peck, brick yard, 710°-11’. Yttrium oxid, 511°.

Wyandance, clay deposits, 741°; ulus .
facing p. 741. Zettlitz, Bohemia, kaolin, 544‘; kaolin

Wyoming, clay deposits, 574°, 627°. | mines, 5007.

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_UNNVERSITY OF THE STATE OF ste YORK
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

FREDERICK 1.1. MERRILL
Direstor and Stare Geologist

MAP

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LEGEND
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