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INSTITUTION NOILMLILSNI_NVINOSHLIWS S31NVu) NI ES LIBRARIES WS | SS NOILNLILSNI JILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3IYVUal) 5 INSTITUTION NOILNLILSN! NVINOSHLIWS SAIuVe | SAINVUSIT LIBRARIES INSTITUTION NOILNLILS S3INYVUGIT LIBRAR! ©) saiuvual oe INSTITUTION NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN NVINOSHLIWS Pn NVINOSHLIWS Saluvugl LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITU = n = vs a O a o ul a a oc = w Me ea e (EM 5 GAME) 2 5 em 4 E i rhe ¥ ; \ \ ora ) ? ‘ \ ' SORE MRE ADORE AES CR RS ee Peer oe 39 "aa m ~~ “ aad . waa ns tee oe & of fairy rie «fis :; arg xi ov ea S. S het \ oy a ¥ og ‘s a 2 - < ‘\e ¢ ae J . st | “i rr, { j | : ; vf , ; : : a pee W eg J rat d¥ saa at , ~ : = = hg ‘ oa ; { } ~ = = | powisitie i? ” are won ana a": : Wg x ad & H ob ; G pits | = = ~-h AD0— OTE: Th 3 ee Cpe 7 sgh | Si oat li dt at rt renin: yt tb wy te Beanies ee then ng ears ~*~ CS NE A NE, LRN NE RE OOM em Rea mi : o- OM re yn 7 lhe a ~ ; ; ; | . | i S : & : sf 3 i & i : i ! e ¥ { : ; . a i ; eS . : 5 { x ae a z ; A 5 : = : } = } . a ad r ' os : ° = . s 5 { y ; % é | 5g Sle As eet Published monthly by the New York State Education Department BULLETIN 340 MAY 1905 New York State Museum JoHN M. CLARKE Director Bulletin 35 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 12 MYDROLOGY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK BY GEORGE W. RAFTER PAGE PAGE MM EWAMEVOLY NOTE: Jsheluidit ad as 8 ach» SSeROMeEAIES yo 2s Vag eek ec ks vse ss 26 RRA eat ee lea od ick See ais <9 Hs TASS SGU CCG.2 7; Rew tren ne 30 EU TET Ee pe oe ne aS CUS DT ASs4 Sy ee ee 885 ist OP Winsttationse .~ 6 ais, cee 22 ALBANY NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 1905 M154m-S4-2000 Price $1 .50 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORE NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM RELIEF MAP OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 1905 SOALE OF STATUTE MILES wo 40 =a ‘ * - i. ‘ i j tah ql se j k ¥ ‘ vi » -< ; i - : é , ) bl i G's ‘ % é * 4S HA Pi ys, ~ a fi ue tay STATE OF NEW YORK EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Regents of the University With years when terms expire j 1913 oe Reip. M.A. LL.D, Chancellor 2 2 eee York 1906 ST Crain McKetway M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. D.C.L. ace Chancellor. +) 20 ak Oe Brooklyn r908 Danie. Beach Ph.D: LL.D.’ 9+ - .. 9) gee ron4 PLIny TL. Sexton LL.D. Lh Ree ec ro12 V. GuiLForD SmirH M.A..C.E.LL.D. - 2: 2) >See 1907 WiuLiam NortincHam M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. - - Syracuse t910 CHarLes A. GarpDINeR Ph.D. L.H.D. LL.D. D.C_L. New York PeUG CHARLES ©, FRANCIS B/G... 62 a8 sy. a> Ser Troy 1911 EDwarpD LAuTERBaACH M.A. ee rge9 ‘Hucrene A. Puitpin LL.B: LL: D.: - °-;.\- <<) eee Pou CUCIAN I, SuEDDEN LL.B: -t >= %/ 2-2 Plattsburg Commissioner of Education ANDREW S. Draper LL.D. Assistant Commissioners Howarp J. Rogers M.A. LL.D. First Assistant Commissioner EpwarpD J. Goopwin Lit.D. Second Assistant Commissioner Aueustus S. Downine M.A. Third Assistant Commissioner Secretary to the Commissioner Haritan H. Horner B.A. Director of Libraries and Home Education MELvIL Dewey LL.D. Director of Science and State Museum Joun M. Crarxe LL.D. Chiefs of Divisions Accounts, WiLtLiam Mason Attendance, James D. SuLiivan Examinations, CHarLes F. WuEeEtock B.S. Inspections, Frank H. Woop M.A. Law, THomas E. Finecan M.A. Records, CHartes E. Fitcu L.H.D. Statistics, Hiram C. Cass. University of the State of New York New York State Museum JoHN M. CuArRKeE Director Bulletin 85 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 12 HYDROLOGY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK INTRODUCTORY NOTE The great importance of water as an economic mineral is becoming daily more and more fully appreciated by the commer- cial public, though its recognition as a source of power in engineering enterprise is a matter of great antiquity. It there- fore seemed appropriate that the geologic work of the New York State Museum should make some contribution to the sum total of public knowledge on this matter. Accordingly my predecessor in office, Dr Frederick J. H. Merrill, invited Mr George W. Rafter to write a general discussion of this important subject in its rela- tions to New York. Asa result the following report is offered to the citizens of the State, with the feeling that Mr Rafter’s wide repute as a specialist in this branch will make this publication a - communication of much value to engineering and to commerce. JOHN M. CLARKE, State Geologist Albany, N, Y., April 15, 1904. PREFACE This report is a revision of Water Supply and Irrigation Papers of the United States Geological Survey, Nos. 24 and 25—Water Resources of the State of New York, published in 1899. In regard to calling the revised report the Hydrology of New York rather than continuing the title previously given, it may be stated that the information has been considerably extended and, while it is true that it still pertains. to the water resources of the State, it seems to the writer that, on the whole, hydrology better expresses the meaning than does the former title. Broadly, hydrology may be defined as that branch of physical geography treating of water, and it is in this sense that the term is used herein. Physical geography is an exceedingly elastic term, and it is quite as proper to treat of the effect of restrictive laws upon the development of the State as to treat of purely political divisions in an ordinary textbook on geography. Any- one writing upon geography, physiography, hypsography, geol- ogy or hydrology knows that the lines separating these several divisions are not very closely drawn and that one runs into the other. Physiography treats in a general way of the present con- dition of the waters of the earth, while geology treats in some degree of their former condition, or at any rate of the effects produced by water in a former condition. It is quite as appro- priate, therefore, for the State Museum to publish a paper on the hydrology of the State as to publish those relating more specially to geology. What may be termed the geologic phase of the physiography of New York has been treated by Professor Tarr, but his work is incomplete in this—it does not treat of the flow of streams. This report is intended to, in some slight degree, supplement Professor Tarr’s work. Moreover, hypsography is not extensively treated, nor is hydrography. Tides and their effects, etc. are, aside from a short reference to Hudson river, entirely omitted. Only enough geology is given to illustrate the subject, 4 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 5 The data herein embodied have been gathered from many sources—the reports of the State Engineer and Surveyor, the Superintendent of Public Works, the Forest Commission, the State Board of Health, the State Weather Service, and other public docu- ments. The data in the reports on the water power of the United States, Tenth Census, have been used in some cases where later data are not available. During the years 1896 and 1897, the writer, in addition to his regular duties in the State Engineer’s Department, gathered a large amount of information bearing on the hydrology of the State and not published in the reports of the State Engineer. Much of this was in the way of piecing out earlier information and bringing the subject up to date. Some of the figures as to the catchment areas have been obtained by checking those given in the reports on the water power of the United States, Tenth Census, so far as they are available, and by planimeter measurement on the topographic quadrangles of the State made by the United States Geological Survey. Bien’s atlas of the State of New York has also been used as a check, and a number of areas have been taken from the report of the Deep Waterways Commission, while a large number of catchment areas have been taken from the report of the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. 7 After completing the original report to the United States Geo- logical Survey, the writer continued the collection of data, and specially in 1898 and 1899, when he undertook for the Board of _ Engineers on Deep Waterways the investigation of a water supply for enlarged canals through the State of New York. The report to this Board includes a detailed study of the hydrology of cen- tral New York, covering three hundred and eighty octavo pages. This report was published as an executive document of Congress, | but only a few hundred copies were issued. It results, then, that most people have not seen this report, and accordingly consider- ~ able use has been made of the matter contained therein. The report is, however, in most of the leading libraries and may be consulted by any one interested, 6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In 1899 the writer was consulting engineer to the Canal Com- mittee, and added very greatly to his knowledge of the hydrology 7 of the State. . : In 1902 he was a member of the Water Storage Commission of New York and extensively considered a number of storage and power projects in the State. Since 1900 he has been in general practice as consulting engineer, and during this time has been employed on power projects in this and other States, until at the present time there is hardly a phase of power development or water storage that has not at some time been before him for consideration. During all this time he has been gathering information in regard to water power and allied subjects in New York. There is, however, still much to be learned, as, aside from the studies of the writer, very little has been done in the State, outside of the City of New York. The elevations of points above tidewater have been compiled from all available sources of information, such as the Dictionary of Altitudes in the United States, Bulletin No. 76 of the United States Geological Survey; the reports of the New York State Sur- vey and railway and canal profiles; the topographic quadrangles of the United States Geological Survey and the reports on the water power of the United States, Tenth Census, as well as the report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. Mr Free- man’s report on the New York water supply, together with the report of the Merchants’ Association, has been drawn upon in discussing the water supply of New York city. It may be easily inferred that this report is not very even; that is, the information is more completely developed on some | streams and on some subjects than on others. On the Genesee, Oswego, Salmon, Black and Hudson rivers and their tributaries, and on the Niagara river, the information is tolerably complete. It is also fairly complete on some of the smaller streams, al- though on the majority there is still a large amount of work to be done, but on the streams of the southern section—Allegheny, Sus- quehanna and Delaware rivers, with their tributaries—very little Seen een tT * «. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 7 information has been gathered. These are still, so far as definite _ information is concerned, practically unknown, although a slight beginning has been made by the United States Geological Survey. The information given herein is therefore, such as is available, either from personal knowledge or the work of others. The information as to the hydrology of New York has grown so rapidly in the last few years that considerable condensation was necessary in order to keep within the limits of even as great an extension of the original papers as is herewith included. The omission of some matters which may seem to the reader important is therefore no certain index that they have been overlooked, but merely indicates that they have not seemed to the writer import- ant enough to mention. The report has been very largely rewrit- ten and extended from an original length of 200 pages to 900 pages. The meteorological tables, as well as the tables of stream flow, have never before appeared in their present form. All these tables have been specially computed and rearranged for this report. The data of rainfall, temperature and stream flow have been arranged with reference to a water year beginning with December and ending with November. Cubic feet per second, inches on the catchment area and cubic feet per second per square mile are, except in some of the longer records, given in columns side by side, thus showing at a glance the comparative results and very greatly extending the value of the tables. The writer’s thanks are due to his daughter, Myra Willson Rafter, for com- puting these tables. The criticism has been made that the writer’s views on some of the questions herein discussed are not the same now as for- merly. On this point it may be stated that his work on the hydrology of New York has, aside from several formal reports, as on Genesee river, Hudson river, report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, etc. been largely a matter of opportunity, and such writing, while extensive enough, is scattered through a large number of miscellaneous papers. Nevertheless the writer has casually discussed in these papers a number of the most important questions confronting the people of New York. With more study 8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM some of his views have been slightly modified. The present re- port, therefore, wherever it differs from preceding papers or reports, must be taken to represent his latest views. In order to make this treatise as complete as possible, the Report on the Relation of Rainfall to Runoff, published in 1903 by the United States Geological Survey, is herewith included, so far as applying to the State of New York. Extended excerpts on floods have been made from the report of the Water Storage Commission. The discerning reader will observe an occasional repetition. A few such have been made, either to save too frequent reference to a preceding page, or where a different phase of a subject has been discussed. Where the subjects are similar, references thereto have been frequently made by a foot-note. The object of the repetition is to reduce the labor of reading to a minimum. The writer is indebted to the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power _& Manufacturing Company, the Niagara Falls Power Company, the St Lawrence Power Company, the Hudson River Power Trans- mission Company, the Hudson River Water Power Company, the Empire State Power Company, the Utica Gas & Electric Com- pany, the Hannawa Falls Power Company and the International Paper Company for photographic illustrations for this report. The writer wishes to specially acknowledge his indebtedness to the Report on Stream Flow and Water Power, made since 1900 by the State Engineer and Surveyor, acting in conjunction with the Hydrographic Division of the United States Geological Survey. These reports have been compiled by Mr Robert E. Horton. Rochester, April 1, 1904. | Georce W. RAFTER. CONREN TS PAGE Pee SOURCE OF THE GREATNESS OF NEW YORK... 5.620206 008 oe ce ceecens 30 SiON AE (HOI OSAt=D MULE ES. Oe gaitect setxsece cen ec aye er cafe, a\f0. a sha old. «alae dG when ate ew aa 30 ate le AEM Al COMCUUIONS a0. ho ef Ahetelel al coal ke cap Vaue ese dea) oie a) 81% ars, wee nae e 32 Artificial modifications....... LEI AS Gs A TER Lia orale ee a Re aS 3D Why water powers are less reliable now than formerly......... 33 ONDE) SSE OUST ea Wa yey en esa 2 (5 (ea, Ce Re a Pe nea 38 SMR RATE LO! TIMOR SURIES 227. cleus lols ois) cme "fe bia cle, che. ols 0 a!'s, hn gj Wis lee alge» “® 39 ihe relation of the mountains to the river valleys..............0eu- 40 imivers and lakes of the Adirondack plateau....2......60022cecewccs 44 ReEorest- FOLeSt AS 4) SEFEAM) CONSELYVALOR. wc. his occ ctw ww wk we ee wee 45 RAG OF CANUATH. IN, NEW YOBK é . oc cieare ole os wee c cee at hers erie) cinksi ata 9.0) *: = 46 Mheradi vision OF Lhe Stare: into CHMALIC ATEAS 6.055 oie Ree ce eee 49 WeEScEipLion OF meteorological Tables. 220... ee ee ee eae SPS eae nese aoa 52 Division of the year into storage, growing and replenishing periods.. 80 ESHA N SO BATNE AI: TO. BUNOWH, (2 o.7s).tae eau ca ec cs Se ee sce eerie 82 see Ar Migs FN Clem ee Per a ath tele ela ci Clots Big ait, aye of 6 © aNaAdcecd ew own ale acs oats 83 (STINE > GIP STERN ET Ya Cee nae Sc a reenter ina ce en PO 83 Pe CCE NE Mi Oiy Meanie Nees 2 ec cecials cieka’s ikea Ole s ered eee ie) ol Ma. ole a sene'e Sue 84 Determination of minimum rainfall....... Stati ee ge ERMAN OO AE eS 86 eer hole TMCE CASING 2S i Soo ols seid cara cals oe Me ae is eek aE Neots ele arate a 87 Pelamen) of Taimtall) to allitude 2. pe. ci vee jee ei te eee ee ws 87 iMmcekense OF EFUNOI with. Increase Of rainfall oo... wi. cock wee ec ee 92 “SRI S Sy TY CIR ee ic BREA Se et acne eg OL a ag eT 92. LEUEG IS STD TEAMED. te 4 | Se eM ee Cae ele ehh Se eg an 93 PN eOrEn SIMEH (mr mn eee enn Suc, cata GvuNtval als: «ica le aoe) Mele al wide ® Bs 94 Average raintatl imthe State of New York... 22.256 ccc. cea ws ee wes 95 Length of time required to make good a series of rainfall records.. 95 Min recipi tadiom im New: Vow... 8 sth le aren ee sewed ole 97 LEADIOC IRE | SLE wee Se RAR AR sire ie tee NNO ee ea 105 PCM AW ScOESUPCAIM [LOW sc le ohs oo: aclele co Scale stele ele do shes e's pea Sesh Seta: 105 AGM mORE A SINCE MLETIE spe tksrela gisele ade ais athe bre See’ Soel ale G5 clots occ -elelele 106 Cha LAcrerisiies! OF EME Mima» TUMOUL o oc \se) 2s cc ais wis me Secs os ee, wel av’e 107 Division of streams into classes.............. Me Te aaes Ae Rae ee, Pacer 108 Hsiimation of runott from rainfall diderams . 4... ese e eee eo eee 109 SUCRE! WT IE We) Ds Se eit caren aM, reel ES Bust Me be a A ee eS 110 STEM CGO CR IST CCL Wey hae se anne are Re PMN ee AN Meet ciate ke ote hoe Qa Sg fila CLIRIGM OEE” CPSU NE 6 ae ae a gS Re gir av a eg a ot LE CEL SITE SoS Soe ele SEn eae py ane eee 7 Oe ee on nT ter Compurtivon Os tae sania TIMOR: 6 sci ws ¢ sis, cc ode wv eS we ws 6 cues ows 113 Discrepancies in the computation of Tumotl. 64.46.05. dee ee he 113 Actyal gagines preterable. to general StudieS:...........6 fb... ee ee ws 113 PEt oy aT Rie cre ESR TOUNIN LS ee aes hats cs ls eratace God ale oe ok etl iy Aieis ceed eee laae 115 Pier USC MALES sPOCHOUIAS: o.i5 6 . cieis 5. Wowie dui Jae > s.ciee «ey 00's ole 6 116 Coetheient table for representative areas... 62:00... es woe wcssecens ala hye NCTE Se TIC TETTTIN AIS? COAG SR cares ae REC Roe a illire AMS eG Ge MICE VORA IS os 1. cs eke Berd baidis s 6 vieelecs Go de wee's veya gee 118 10 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM PAGE THE RELATION OF RAINFALL TO RUNOFF (cont'd) Runoff (cont'd) Daneer-of USing percentages:..2 6. feceec eds cde vlewcnw «eves « See 118 Hunoit eoefiicient misleading ..: =. 5.42) 2.6. ee at ee 119 Relation between total runoff and runoff of storage period........ 119 pidectsof low Sround: Water i.) vsc snes sare cae oe oo ea on 2a 120 Vermeuie’s* formulas 2 o.s ice so die le bs oe ances Bienes eee TAL FSUSSeliCS LOMULAS: 6 ovis aan See ces are ine (0.3. 0 vs ere e's eee ge eo 125 Relation between catchment area and maximum, minimum and MPOAIY PR UMIOLE gies ae whole ed aleperebegece (ele as eo ale boc 36 the en eo 125 ihe extreme low-water Perio@ ei... oe. ac ods ca we os cs oe one a eee 127 Rainfall, runoff, evaporation and variation from the mean on Hudson and Genesee rivers... ss eee bw e's oo wn bc clon ale ee 130 EEUGSONM (TIVE © oa) s viscec o%s. < Sicha oe leleee ood Slew 2"'s iain 0 eo eleg er 130 GeNnESCEUTIVED a sans tts sucipe.c ale ame ae. 2 ee i. aS oebeMee 130 Comparison of rainfalls, Hudson and Genesee rivers............ 131 Comparison of runoffs, Hudson and Genesee rivers............. 131 Comparison of evaporations, Hudson and Genesee rivers........ tee Variation in, weir. measurements. .... 5... 252.626 «<0 c-cre eee 132 Genesee and Hudson gagings reduced to sharp-crested weir meas- MA OTMEM US Os ola ccSraca sie oon ace wa ece-2 ale ahaa cl Sic a en oie e elev ere o'er exe a 133 MUG CU GISANGIOT 655 3 ufo 2 %e ace) eer 0 0c. 8ne- bps we Tow, 0 8 ww we ms 0. open taal ede eee 134 Ritz Gerald’s formula for evaporation... .. sv... ws se we eee 134 HOLA ClO: TELATIONG ee 6S ein cic aw ace 8 ave wie aves’ e eves a Ae 6 epee 135 Effect of wind and other meteorological elements..............-e.¢ 136 Persistency of evaporation ............ Us ge ela dive elieplas's 6/cte tele pe a 137 Neeativelevaporation 2.2.:.....+.> <= sldcdecsaeucss sds cee 138 Evaporation ‘at Ogdensburg... 2... 6.5. s ee ec ews (. os» sieis een 140 Croton Water Department’s evaporation recordS............+.e+. 141 Evaporation: at ROCHESEED: -c. 2... 66. 5 ose os clove hile ele mee Deen 144 ran 2006S Gt GeMCVA cs ea bo oe wb dw oe 00s oben bide eee een 144 EMA Ht Or Water IM WEIS foi. dea ed ce es was dues eee ee eee 158 ithe relation of, geologic structure to runoff... ...%...0.2...5 ene eee 162 LOTRESVIS 5 2 5 A RR aT a ek [aces i>. chee 172 Wonroucsps mmerease Tainkall? 2.0.1... de ck eo deems irs he 172 Relahon OF LOrests fo Stream HOW... 25... 6 .-cc acide eocche anes Seen 173 ORTOP ES DE PILESCEVG ci, acts secs 6 oes ese es seu cu elele eh ee wid leas 174 De: eNO E OM ACK HPAI Soc: Seo ni on o's 0s 6 370 be ne ele nie 0 ne he eee 175 Area Ol Ee WOreESE PLESCLVe caf c. vec. cae ccyen cs ov cp ew cle cg eee 176 hea” (OBS SIRIUS Cold (a nine TA 177 HTeCETOL LOLECSESs o cic cranes ae ao a's ss s-occs eens se ve 0ce se cide 178 Morestatrion of the Croton catchment area... ..-........0ssse eee 186 Details concerning tables and diagrams........... Pree or co oS 188 Topographic relations of the catchment areas of some of the main SnGeaTns stint lee@Gh sous. woe 'e cc aie ow che Sue sos ccege dia) e0'e'b 0 0s oie ee 188 Mamiy recentblance Of Streams. .o.... 0.4.52. ee ee oa e's Joel eee 189 Description of Muskingum, Genesee, Croton and Hudson rivers.... 190 MESCEMiIOM Of ClAST AMS. ce. 2/2 o siciaiale wvieinieie wee eee « eo oa tet Sperone 192 HM ePOMEM Pla OEM elo ccs es wia)~ oe 224 Early waterpower and manufacturing projects on Black river.... 224 Pe ION LCM IA ke NOE MLCT rey ce tees cos Sioa nN cass cc ee ee te eee wes 226 ripened Tt ESPOWIMVINLC. 0 ct cen we wie Ge Re SE a hoe eee es wa ee 220 RieMigacribiney vat NV ALCEUOWAL. >... ccc cus ele's ek eG os ee ac ce be ee ee aes 220 Manmiacincine ab Beaver River. village... cc... es ee ee ee ee 230 Matinee ALM GLES IDS 222s oe ek biel ck Soe ec esa wt ee bees 230 LSA) TO VE NT Taro Mie GA cre aged BY es 010 OS Ary a ea ee a te ie eee 230 Manufacturing at Carthage..... et SPREE yo Grctnie Saini o's We eoa as 231 VES TEIS TOTS Oe Ci beed 29 2 CC ay i es gi, Ae ee ee ed 231 PMecspermancicy Of Black river PUWOM. ........os8 ck sie eck we ee cen 232 The main waterpower developments of New York................ 235 EHeonomie statistics of the city of Watertown...............cc0. 00. 230 SErcams Howie into St Lawrence Tver... 0.2.0.6 ss ce ns cow cece 240 “AD BEST TERS ST E Fe a A Rie eee eae ee eee 241 Waserpawer Ot OSWeeALCMIC TIVED 2... c. ddsic poise coc see cles Oates 242 TEE EGE LCDS ype Ee 2 UR A Pe a a tp ea See ta 243 Re E OBO ihe er Date aItV OR ic ivy bau bie be RSMAS 0s 4e eels sdawed 243 ee Ty ere ie onic aha kA cu cee CATO Cate oe Yo ee Re ot Mis tee el sOly LAINE be MPEVEL.... .caccmtbae viet e-ce estes badvle eas Sede 245 regina IMEC Meee be AR eee byl cote meee oe cco cid Vé-caid eee cle Bows 246 12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM RIVER SYSTEMS (con?’d) St Lawrence river (cont'd) Trout river Chateaugay Lake Champlain system Big Chazy river Little Chazy Saranac river PE VC 3/3 6 ee Gk ae a Re ee ae ee TIVER oc othe SS Le Se Re Re Le Oe ee eee eeceere ee ee ee ee ee ee ew woe ee ee ee em em eee mee ewe wees eeee eeereeeeees se eee esee eee eee eee eee ee ese see eee see SADIE: EVEL 2 5 5c aid cafes eee Ree ieee ae ae elecs rae aie clelait Geer IROUGIWEE ‘LIVER: ae od se078 oa 6 oes ahs oe eter e wlale a aats ota le pee Outletof Lake ‘George 24% 5.62. e Be viele a » We 0 8 a ee Hudson -Tiyer SySt@Om. . . fics c's-6 bey desea oe ao neha alee oneal Or FTGASON TIVER o05 6.2 2 ers SS @ oe, MS eels wie Seite oe Waterpower Of Hudson. Liver ec e25 i en's. oo ea Oe eee Harlem river and Spuyten: Duyvil ereek:.... .. 5.32% < iige fee Croton river eeerecereeeer ese ere ees ee ee ee ee ee ee we ee ee ee we ee eeeseeses & SHIKGITE iGPe@le se 6. bode beng Se wh Somes Saw Wie eRe We Be wR eee Waterpower of Fishkill creek... acec wo oh ewe oe Ce eh ee NNVOINOET CrEG iis. 2 \c iis iw sends Ma Ae eialela abn ce si oc ese elele oer UE WITRE I 6) Spe Coe (o) i ee eh Pre a Ke ey OME CROOK 9 mess Sie ae nel ike oc) eh Sa os oso 6 ae da ard Buclalie's hats Waterpower Of Rondout Creek 2k ic ei we se wee ieee ee eee VW ON THT GI 12) pe ee eeu MN Waterpower Of W alikill Liver. c 6. eens a os ns he ESO ISOM ECK: © foc 5s . ov ler dia eens Sesaa ale te adele pio. 6 ekaewe @ ve glares eer Waterpower Of HDSOPUS (GPEC . 60.03.66 oe od Sw aie eo 0's a 0 oe ne rr Walon GROCK se ss a Ce eas ble Bo ds ca hc w answers ee et Waterpower Of Catskill creek. se... 6. ek es eas wets os ee ee INGA | i a ne TAP Tro FOC sanNSeMm, Wan cd ole. Ok ek eek weeds ess bee chet se MO ae KOI GE CON 2 c.0 c's alg cla's ao oe 0.6 ee wwe dese Wi Wie 8 cate ofa eee een ISGP MOGI SCLECI 3. i. civ. ce a's ve ee ce ta as Seek ee ae ves ee Hoosie river Battenkill river Fish creek . eeceveereer ee ee ee es ee ee ee ee we woe ee wee wee wwe owe ee wees eee eee eeeeeee ee ee eer ee eeee see ee es ee eer ee eee ee eee ese ee ese ee ee & eecerereveceveer ee eee eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee weer we eww eee eee eeee es SSAC AMI CA CUCL fa aracicte sis es alee en le eS alee cee sue «e's dees nn aa MINVIOT sie. sels cla sclan cee < b.c's cle ess’ ewlds cae 4s ee + ae Waterpower Boreas river OLMSCWUTOOM UEIVEL ob 26. sili aves coe © Blain eles a eoveeevevee eer eevee s ee eeeeeeers eee eee ee eer eee eee eee eee & Mier GicaHITs ET ee i a ek tiotg cc slates pM seas te ee ad as ne Cedar river Mohawk river ecececeoceveeneeseeec eer eee eee ewe ewe ewww eee eee eee ee eee e eee ee ‘e ble ©, 6 O46, 6 0.6 6 (¢ @ @ 60 6 0.0 6.6 6 6 © 8 Cin a0 © @ 6 6 6 0.0.6 © ¢ 66 6 2s 8 ee eee ere remy CEeela aie. Se oo ee ea i a SNP Oe a 466 STEP SOB VEIN 2K ie hi ae at art aes ae rT ge eR 466 eA mane ae eee eM Gos io ke he SO ACG LEE (TSENG atte ee iy oe Gach) raed ie ce, 2. gel Oe SEA nae SO Se MO aia tt ean ee 466 iSaNiC ane OL CrMALVCLE Raion atin 8 een ede LT) Sarees bo Sok kes cated weaned 466 LEUETU GLE UIUE: “IcTin SNe rohiyc ge or a aca 245 Ay Anne WR yg ag ES Ge CS 467 FIMOSORY TIVER oi )2.cin ghee $28 vsletreniles ae a, a HYDROLOGY -OF NEW YORK 17 PAGE MAxIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW OF STREAMS (cont'd) Minimum flow of streams in New York (cont'd) : WEA WaALesElver sands tEIDTMEATTOS so (ao). tis ie'e's 6 on Se dee wv ee eevee se 512 Summary of information regarding minimum flows............... 591 Quantity of water which may be stored on the several at aime 514 SEE OW NERSHEP OF PUBLIC) UPMLTTTBS Fi iii. 8 os ee ek eae oe ela tie eles 516 ae LMS PLY fara e cess cts p.cial © ebesslatcleme Wie, Wet vince e wie cle Wie e'ste 626 v16)s isle es 516 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER POWER IN NEW YORK........- ec eeeeceeeees 526 Power comployed in manUbachOriNS ss... ok Ae ok Peek ie hee ee aes 526 eunee MUA ONMOT AE <7 Shwe UE Se ree cal smh ahcl Selim ley Lag ety Ave alee Ce eee ae 527 0 SUESTE SOE GI poe MA ME a Se oon oe oe ee a er ae aa O20 Beceenine@elnercase of SkeaMpOwer oi. f.. as chan. fete eee ete ees ves O2T Peneetnrn eC IMerease “Ol. WHLER DOWEL © 6082 Geld ere Stele wie eja eee wn aye es 528 Comparison of development of waterpower in New York with de- Peo Meares Ne MMM. oo eee Sa oe ai its Ries CMR ek oes 528 Waterpower reservoirs in New Hngland........5....22.e0e00e% dca Ooo SEC MmMmie deiS Ty NCW, NOTE... 6). 20 cece She, oa dee els b bhe'k queens Ga eS ele 530 State ownership of Hudson river and its effect in restricting the de- Pe TEN Miter Oh MUVA EST OO NEE Ciyhie, thas clots ideo Wo Sixt shoe els dis evn deals ¥ di aie auel Dol Bins | Selec driver KCOMIMOVELSY n+ cs ess Shure ke Va wince Co duvscducews 536 Compensation in kind on ‘Black river. 2.6... a... wee ee Pop baltens te itaoy sete 539 The case of Skaneateles lake............. SAG Fase ec EAL Rene Cee Tce 545 Waterpower development discouraged in New York................. 552 Future power development of the Adirondack region................ 555 imerced yvaliecor the: AGirondagk TeESION si... oi. victee bloc dd o's weet ces cc DO6 Power development at Glens Falls and vicinity........ APM ASS 2 558 ‘Statistical comparisons ....... ie pe _ Relation of population to capital: iny Posted in SHieenitaghivinis Ua Tk at oak une 560 Eeccenti ce AMMeCredse (Of DPODUIATION bile bs eS cles sce 6 bee! alas oduet bie’ 560 eeu mea hea LO, WONUMEA TON 2405 nists bead hv aust se so Sus Ge vw cae eseouees 563 Relation of values of agricultural products to waterpower values.... 564 SEONG VNC MRM Cee ty ed phat in yas 8le ane ydteae ol oS rai My Sheveee ods bh} aiciw « wuhar Sate oo 567 CO entA soit AEROS DA ried TN OUROTINOTN Gs sess. ce he oe oe elo -aile, suslcl bic. vee ler cle Gok s, hove olor 568 Comipensatvon fOr, WTOPCELY “CAKEM. 2.6 s'sca.c oles tis'ae oe clace ov a dled a°s en vlog 569 WHEE DOMeR. DY= IMICMSLGIeS ity t HOO ee i eels en nc ee ee ca 5 lie, 2 OO) POE eS DOPAC HOP ROH OLS. 2% sm cle sc cre eee sends vot Sieted a’ S nhac Qos dock cau 571 (SHEEVERE BY TEINV SIE Bae ene SRR MEN OORT Ie RR pet RE RES none 573 ESC TAM UIA ANE VON CSN MOMS! Fe eas ce a Sh olareie tes io se woe av bs © «viele bose e bs SYC: Mp ROS or BO MCSE MCE: ern ss Wem omen sb. gas wae ban gd oils oak ois sanc AE TICE IETS WGUIVOTE IETS © NOTICE Wt uci tS Mand oe aN A a I Sc aN DTT emi oem SUE, me eae Mate ey ett ke PC h ae wat arar to, \o 4 ale oe hoes CREE Go en tsta te 579 Comparison of Mount Morris and Portage sites................... 5088 Someniaty Ol Genesee! PIVET “ShOTAZe oc ee ls kee ee ee cat ce O91 ie OR Ve CNA Me aedetc Alcea 9 8s ie een SS ols a ee wie ne ig ty ot, Bel a oe 592 Mimic vans in its relations to Genesee rivers .250.05.... 05 52.03. 592 Mier Oeneeee wimlver MOOMMPAILY .).,5. Neca. och s' date he vlc e aay cae eleGoe colle 601 Cetera E Ole Nar OVEN fc cation ee ya Sudo rhs coe ult. 602 Elsinore eae Nm aver ILEUS Ae 2s i lee sek hoe dekolte. 603 Things to be done to place the project on its feet:................. 603 18 NEW YORK STATH MUSEUM ; PAGE WATER STORAGE PROJECTS (cont'd) Description of the Rochester waterpower...........ccecececccecees 605 Johnson and Seymour TACCWAY . .'s ssc es ieee sou ee noes eee 607 Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhuech raceway. a2. .o.0.+ eo nee 608 ESPON SC EACE WAY alc iersic ve ots alateSrbis Be aleRials Ceulte merc eee ee ee - 608 Rochester Power Compaty’s raceway. .os. Ge 378 Wanvon Nohawik piver at Rexford Wlats......:.0)...00. 44.5 eee 404 Secon onmaameay late Walle be. vie. ei. eae oe wee oe eee 405 . Cross-section of dam on Mohawk river at Ridge Mills, in compari- Solanum s Semes NOL WG2Z. cee ates oe ea cee oes Vs eee 405 . Section of dam on Hast Canada creek at Dolgeville. aera ig, “Aetah . Cross-sections and profile of dain on West Canada creek at Middle- allt CEM Rei ee. Ne, eae ohn Oe ce we oe wee 2 ns ae 414 PAGE 33. Cross- Station and longitudinal profile of dam on Sauquoit creek at New York Mills, in comparison with Bazin’s series No. 175...... 416 34. Cross-section of dam on Oriskany creek at Oriskany.............. 416 35. Flood flow of Genesee river, May 18-23, 1894. .......... 20.0000, 446 36. Cross-section of dam of Empire State Power Company at Schoharie TG LR ye Bs Se ea aR OLE Cg dct a a a a 483 37. Outline section of State dam ae Binghamton. ce 486 38. Cross-section of dam near Fredonia on west heamcls of Canadian ECCI. Chee es 5 oe toe 39. Dam, 58 feet high, eanoeca fore cs river near sue Nome: 578 40. Section of dam and gate house as proposed for Genesee river ait aerial SOU ee we a ced 2 en ee Saas lee ci a arole A Meee: Seely Oe Wo era OS Se: wb Oe 589 41. General plan of development of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power Cee mare Ine “COMMA 685 oe cae day Sele cle sie aren Ge a Ue viate e's oe 649 42. Niagara Falls and vicinity showing location of the great Sanaa . 651 43. Section of overfall of Hudson River Water Power Company....... 660 PEO Sechion Of gam ab Hannawa Wallon... oe ee ea ele ve 667 Perera (OCk USCH ON “ETIG: CANAL, oaiee ccinielsd Ge ve co eee ee eee eee 719 46. Enlarged lock used on Erie canal. SNe CA AR ie gS oe aan carga ape pe S727 47. Proposed lengthened lock for enlar ded aoa EMS, OE cr MAAN ac iccy Ed Rg ee 729 48. Lock recommended by Canal Committee for Barge canal........... 739 49. Original boat used on Erie canal............. ET eps eee es nies ee TA9 a boat used at beginning of enlargements... 2... ee ee T49 mie boat used Guringe process of enlargement. 3.0... be ee eee 753 52. Boat used after enlargement was completed in 1862............... TOD 58. Boat suggested by Canal Committee for Erie canal improvement... 759— 54. Boat recommended by Canal Committee for Barge canal........... 761 55. Harth section of deep waterways for 21-foot channel.............. 767 56. Rock cross-section of deep waterways for 21-foot channel.......... T70 57. Cross-section of deep waterways, partly in rock and partly in earth, HORI URC Nin CUP AINETEN Pit hac ia Ses. Poses cal, eXkis ole Kote eS 0 ao tREA Oe (72 58. Harth section of deep waterways for 30-foot channel.............. 774 59. Rock cross-section of deep waterways for 30-foot channel.......... 778 60. Rock cross-section of proposed Barge canal..........6......0 cc eee 780 61. Earth section of proposed 1500-ton Barge canal.................8% 783 62. Earth section of Barge canal recommended by Canal Committee.:. 784 63. Major Symons’ proposed Ship canal, Lake Erie to Hudson .river.... 786 Peetiine seeriOn. or. orloinal Hrie enmal. 4s. os 6s cca dk wile ae wales ous ied ae 197 65. Earth section of enlargement of Hrie canal of 1862..........:..... 797 66. Earth section of improvement of Erie canal suggested by Canal Wommiptee? 25 os v26 2 Pease fears) 67. Earth section of Erie ue fr om eee imck, fo: TPonarantlas .. 800 68. Cross section of Erie canal below Lockport................60000.. 802 69. Cross-section of Hrie canal, 21%4 miles above Lockport.............. 805 70. Earth section of Erie canal from Pendleton to 21%4 miles above CRC Daioh We emai EE PM Sa CM Ba or 5.508. M Wises mie! ols Gerke Brdlinte td 4 -e vane be ws Pots BE eines 806 fe arth section of Hrie canal east of Rochester: .. 0.3.00. ...% 0.0050 807 72. Earth section of Welland and Soulanges canals:...............0.. 816 73. Earth section of Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian Bay canal....... 818 74. Earth section of 22-foot canal carrying vessel of 8,000 tons capacity. 819 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 25 LIST OF TABLES. PAGE Table No. 1— Showing the number of weather bureau stations and approximate elevation above tidewater in 1898 and 1902.......... 51 Table No. 2— Meteorological summary at Albany for the calendar years: 1891-1901, inclusive. ....) 04.5 eo. vice Uae ele 58 Table No. 3— Meteorological summary at Buffalo for the calendar ‘wears 1891-1901, inclusive... dace ead: Sele = oie eee 54 Table No. 4— Meteorological summary at Hrie for the calendar years q1S91—1901, ImcCluSiVe: 6.2. ool cose Vainio 0. ble 6 ales be ec oer 55 Table No. 5— Meteorological summary at New York for the calendar years 1891-1901, incCluUSiVe. con oe oe eine osc oie ela merce nee 56 Table No. 6— Meteorological summary at Northfield, Vt., for the calendar years 1891-1901, inclusive... 5.5... .c 12. .)e< ae cl eee 57 Table No. 7— Meteorological summary at Oswego for the calendar years 1891-1901, inclusive.....22.. Shoe. 3.5 2a.ab eat oe ee 58 Table No. 8— Meteorological summary at Rochester for the calendar years 1891-1901, IMCHSIVE. 0 25 ee sel Acte. CS.Glslc wees a ee 59 Table No. 9 — Mean temperature of the western plateau for the water years 1891-1901. inclusive: . soc. eases new. be eee eee eee 60 Table No. 10 — Mean temperature of the eastern plateau for the water MOALS: 1891-LOOL,: MMCHISIVE Dey Pak eres hele a Es Welle e ace oe se ee 61 Table No. 11 — Mean temperature of the northern plateau for the water Fears 1S91—1901>. INClISHVED Ms eS ee ed se oe als ose Ue ee 62 Table No. 12 — Mean temperature of the Atlantic eoast region for the warLerryears 1891—190R SImeliSIVe... ooo. eee sce do a a oe 63 Table No. 13 — Mean temperature of the Hudson valley for the water Vers poole lOO AINClhUISIVie! 2.220. koi. eos coe sk Rl eee 64 Table No. 14— Mean temperature of the Mohawk valley for the water MEALS: USOT OOIs WICMISIVIE Lc oy le case cas ee eb ve aee ec eee 65 Table No. 15 — Mean temperature of the Champlain valley for the water MEMES lool tO VACMUGIVC rie. cs cals ess ca cs ok te ae eave een 66 Table No. 16— Mean temperature of the St Lawrence valley for the Walere years 1Sol— 190d. InGlUSIVe...... 0.0... 6.00 es cen ee eee GF Table No. 17— Mean temperature of the Great Lakes region for the Weber Vercs Soi 1901. IMGCIUSIVE: <2... we wee ee ee es ee 68 Table No. 18— Mean temperature of the central lakes region for the maven years: Logi—tGOl INCISIVE. 2. 2). cee wa we ew ee we eee 69 Table No. 19— Precipitation of the western plateau for the water Peat lel OOD, MCMISIVE. 6. kes ews ee se ene cease coe 70 Table No. 20— Precipitation of the eastern plateau for the water Mears US NAS MMCIUISIVC sc a. alee ve ove eet ede eee os is ca ht ee Table No. 21— Precipitation of the northern plateau for the water SS el SOU OO AMINCHAST VCS fcc al elecdie cle dice alte ee te de cead ss Steen (2 Table No. 22 — Precipitation of the Atlantic coast region for the water VARS ESO OOM, MIACIUISIVC sc), Sojc cea ddan de eed sale ba 6e b alee «lohan Table No. 23 — Precipitation of the Hudson valley for the water years fs mM MIO re Msi ows oh ote Mos ir ui feck ek. oe ee 74. . @ ee 1891-1902, inclusive HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 27 PAGE Table No. 24 — Precipitation of the Mohawk valley for the water years eecerveceeeee eo ee eer ee ee ee ee ee ee woe ee ee ee se sees ee @ Table No. 25— Precipitation of the Champlain valley for the water years 1891-1902, inclusive................ Pe ONIN SURELY Spot bes aol Siofione- tk Table No. 26— Precipitation of the St Lawrence valley for the water Beat en POM) ABMCNEE STV a) orate cia Siepe Acie) ed ania e 0 eee wa wale ee Table No. 27 — Precipitation of the Great Lakes region for the water ee RES NO TTI SRV rcs Glaiiaicas's)'s/Sib ie aa ee Wik ois eo ele ee ke a see Table No. 28 — Precipitation of the central lakes region for the water ea eed ep Me = INCI VS arce oetiace isis, feee Gio 6 0a shaves alate a de we se ba Rote Table No. 29— Evaporation experiments of the Croton Water Depart- PEDETISE ISBNS eto AUER ike Some on erage hc he geen ee Table No. 30— Evaporation from a water surface as observed at ee BeiOr! 1597 — 1s LICHISIV Es ee so cea 2 fs ete ecee oie se mee w eleteieie ie ss os Table No. 31 — Evaporation from an exposed tub on land as observed at Rochester, 1892-1902, inclusive........... EPO / Siiec sech t Table No. 32— Precipitation at the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station for the water years 1883-1889, inclusive. ................. Table No. 33 — Percolation of drain gages at the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station for the water years 1883-1889, inclusive...... Table No. 34 — Runoff data of Oswego river at High dam for the water ee eet ea Ole TGA SVC a ncan, ok septate ec 6 ale o/ae ciel cenB accel ecels eid ese Soate Table No. 35— New drain gage record, June to December, inclusive, 1889 Table No. 36— Hight of ground water in an abandoned well at the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station, from December, 1886, to SSI pales, TICUTISINIC s), gd srciatornie aie cheba c ccel Se slated. kde gieccasds ‘Table No. 37 — Catchment areas of tributaries of Genesee river...... Table No. 38 — Economie statistics of the city of Watertown......... Table No. 39— Precipitation within and in the vicinity of the catch- ment area of the Great Lakes, 1892-1895, inclusive............... Table No 40 — Rainfall and runoff of the Desplaines river as deter- mined by the Chicago Drainage Commission from 1886-1897, in- clusive Table No. 41 — Evaporation from Desplaines catchment, as given by differences between rainfall and runoff in the preceding table..... Table No. 42 — Rainfall, runoff, evaporation and mean temperature of Muskingum river, as measured by the United States engineers, eerseeee ee ese ee eee eee see se ee ee wee oe ee ese see eee eee esse ee ee ee ee @ oseee ese ee ee se ee ee es ee se ee ee ewe we wees essere ee ee es Fe Fees ee ee @ PTC Meera NON) TLS ola eval neat aie as la, iS ho Ware Red aoe Sie ceca bialees « Table No. 48 — Runoff data of Genesee river for the water years, 1890— eye een CNB Rete eA ee Neen he ptm -ca'd, dN aM alae ieee brellel’ai a?a wi atoowses 6 Table No. 44— Mean monthly elevations of Lake Erie, 1865-1898, RLSM SSC I ne Pune te ce Pela ei otie, Shs eet i Sls eSBs Gala wlorcle cas ehaue boo -> wil Table No. 45 — Monthly discharges of Lake Erie at Buffalo, 1865-1898, CC LUISTY 2.7 GRE oot 6 a cig Bae ae ene a ee ae Table No. 46 — Runoff of Genesee river at Mount Morris for the water years, 1890-1898, inclusive (in cubic feet per second)............. Table No. 47 — Runoff of Genesee river at Mount Morris for the water years, 1890-1898, inclusive (in cubic feet per second per square mile) eoeceoeeo ee ee ee ee ese ese see ee eee ew ese ee ee eevee ee eee eee esees eevee eee 28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM PAGE Table No. 48 — Comparison of original and corrected record at Roches- ter with reduced record at Mount Morris, 1894-1896, inclusive..... 336 Table No. 49— Water drawn from Hemlock lake for the water years A SSOSISSA ACHISIVE. 0. sisieck ais» Wins em OR Sie Me eenate SE Snes eee ee 388 Table No. 50— Runoff of Oswego river at High tienen for the water wears - 1 SO7=—1901, - MElUSIVEs os 6. a ecsc es ee Skin el ee 343 Table No. 51 — Runoff of Seneca river at Baldwinsville for the water years 1899-1902, inclusive. oe SRE . 346 Table No. 52— Mean monthly sletations oe Skanéatcles ‘ae as ae rived from observations taken on the 1st, Sth, 15th and 22d day of each month for the water years 1890-1901, inclusive.............. 348 Table No. 53 —Runoff of Skaneateles outlet at Willow Glen for the water years 1895-1902, inclusive, 22... 224. wee ee 349 Table No. 54—Runoff of Chittenango creek at Bridgeport for the Water years 1898-1901. 2. o2iaaw 2. eee a 2 a ee 353 Table No. 55— Runoff of Black river at Huntingtonville dam for the water years 1897-1901, inclusive..% oo... 2. ose ek Se ee 355 Table No. 56—Runotf of Richelieu river (outlet of Lake Champlain) at Chambly, Quebec, for the water years 1880-1902, inclusive (in cubic feet Per Second). ys eae Se eee eek Bak ee 358 Table No. 57— Runoff of Richelieu river (outlet of Lake Champlain) at Chambly, Quebec, for the water years 1880-1902, inclusive (in imehes on the catchment area): 0ock. soa s 6 no eee 360 Table No. 58 — Runoff of Richelieu river (outlet of Lake Champlain) at Chambly, Quebec, for the water years 1880-1902, inclusive (in cubic feet per second per square mile) . ote . abe Table No. 59— Monthly mean elevations ap aie: @hamnbn Pe neee Montgomery, 1875-1808, ImcluUSive. . 22... 0 ee ee oe oe eee 364 Table No. 60— Runoff of Hudson river at Mechanicville for the water years 1888-1902, inclusive (in cubic feet per second) . . eee Table No. 61— Runoff data of Hudson river at Mestaier ile for ihe water years 1888-1901, inclusive (in inches)..................... 369 Table No. 62 —Runoff of Hudson river at Mechanicville for the water years 1888-1902, inclusive (in cubic feet per second per square mile). 374 Table No. 63 —Runoff of Hudson river at Fort Edward for the water VeaESlsoe- N90) WNGMUISIVE . 1. se ee ee ig sa ae ees er Oe 376 Table No. 64—Average flow of Croton river at Old Croton dam, in- cluding storage draft, with catchment area and reservoirs as ex- isting in the given year, for the years 1868-1899, inclusive (in gal- OMS NT Wal AVA) ee eas he litle Galea eee ve sds Doe ee 381 Table No. 65 —Runoft of Croton river at Old Croton dam for the water years 1868-1899, inclusive (in cubic feet per second).............. 386 Table No. 66 —Runoft data of Croton river at Old Croton dam for the water years 1868-1876, inclusive (in inches on the catchment).... 389 Table No. 67 — Runoff data of Croton river for the water years 1877— MSV EMESIS 1 so stk Sins wierd aiale's side ates oe Ste Eas vo ohne a 391 Table No. 68 — Runoff of Croton river at Old Croton dam for the water years 1868-1899, inclusive (in cubic feet per second per square mile). 396 Table No. 69—Runoff of Schroon river at Warrensburg for the water Per AMCHISIVE. 4.5). 2 e's vis eh ve a6 sls wie «foe oye eee 401 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 29 PAGE Table No. 70—Runoff of Mohawk river at Dunsbach Ferry for the mero years: INL OO MGNISIVE So es es ee te ec ca wee ee ees 406 Table No. 71 — Runoff of Mohawk river at Rexford Flats for the water eel yt OL € URICNIISRVCL at, ce Get aes ah ticle 5 aR mje we arst oie es be so % 407 Table No. 72— Runoff of Mohawk river at Little Falls for the water eS I ON: IOUS VE ie a cet ate, AEROS Dies sis oS sie Glo ec old we wie oes 408 Table No. 73—Runoff of Mohawk river at Ridge Mills for the water eee ON, AAMC UISEVIEL cae cnia dia coe san Mie mh eel ded ous. u's ne we ole oie Sh8 410 Table No. 74— Runoff of East Canada creek at Dolgeville for the MEME yCAES ASO0 LOO. AMNCUIEGSIVIE! Geos ck ce ein ee eee ee eee eae 412 Table No. 75 — Runoff of West Canada creek at Middleville for the mater years 1S99-May 1901, INClUSIVe... 2. Po. ee ae ce ee ee we we 415 Table No. 76—Runoff of Sauquoit creek at New York Mills for the water years 1899-1900, inclusive. . 418 Table No. 77 — Runoff of Oriskany erpare af Orisiany te ae Sater TES EN Sat CUUISVE Siena s cyelee od ie wor clal ava aieealar care Sie e -Oetee ee ose 419 Table No. 78 — Rainfall and runoff of Eaton br joie : Bika HP 420 Table No. 79 — Rainfall and runoff of Madison brook................ 420 Table No. 80 — Effect of full reservoir in mitigating extreme floods... 455 Table No. 81— Daily mean discharge in cubic feet per minute of west braneh of Canadaway creek, near Fredonia. ...2-..........00ceee- 493 Table No. 82 —Daily mean discharge in cubic feet per minute of Morris PERERA CLES Vye eK OO es eto ae era cicie curd oo Sky Shelve the ee ey oth diets e A497 Table No. 88 — Capacity of proposed Portage reservoir............... 581 Table No. 84—— Regulation of the Genesee river by storage at Portage. 585 Table No. 85 — Flow into and from EPRES reservoir under the condi- EOS. ASS TOTS 5) ek See een ce oe eee ees a ene. fC Oo arc i ae es ee er 586 Table No. 86 — Mean precipitation on the Upper Hudson catchment area. 629 Table No. 87 — Showing state of water storage in Schroon valley reser- voir for the water years 1888-1899, inclusive...............:..... 634 Table No. 88— Total annual rainfall, per cent utilized and average yield per square mile of the catchment of the Brooklyn Water- WOLKS 4.9.73 a Bem pbs the oy Table No. 89 — Pr Teed: ree age reservoirs on Siccnas. cr aie SESE: Meg ae Table No. 90 — Proposed storage reservoirs on Catskill creek. . T05 Table No. 91— Proposed storage reservoirs on Schoharie creek...... 706 Table No. 92 — Number of bushels of grain carried by the Erie canal, es I ee ee eae ee Ao re MG MR Lawn Tails atkate a hoe iw bee sh ecarene 734 Table No. 93 — Total tonnage and value of canal freight, 1837-1902... 786 Table No. 94 — First cost and revenues from New York State canals.. 738 Table No. 95 — Reservoirs for the water supply of Erie canal. . 765 asurements and estimates of loss of water from New York canals by evaporation, percolation, waste, etc.......... 832 Table No. 97 — Analyses of Hemlock lake water for 1902. ae 843 Table No. 98 — Analyses of Genesee river water, fisether with tiie SONORA ea bcl UNIO Vi El yh OM aera Me oe Fave oh arc Gio ie ig lelb.ab ts 60a etree cw leds e 857 Table No. 99— Monthly chemical, microscopical and bacteriological analyses of Lake Erie water at Buffalo, from April 1902, to March ener Cree Les r oe Dekh ee ee ON a, LEMS Neds Lee ve ema 859 Tae My pROLOGY OF THE STATE SOE NEW YORK THE SOURCE OF THE GREATNESS OF NEW YORK Introductory statements. It is proposed to give in this report some general statements in regard to the water resources of the State of New York, to be followed by a discussion in detail of the chief contributing causes which have made New York State great. As we proceed, we shall see not only in what manner the resources of the State have been developed, but also how restric- tive legislation has prevented any such full development as has occurred in neighboring states where such restrictive legislation has never been enacted. A comprehensive commercial policy will be outlined, which, if followed, will lead to a relatively far greater development than has occurred in the past. The preeminent position of New York is due almost entirely to her great natural water resources. Reaching from the ocean on the east to the Great Lakes on the west, she has gathered to her- self the treasures of the foreign world as well as those of half the western continent. Her inland rivers, with their great water powers, have been in the past and will continue to be in the future a perpetual source of wealth. Taking into account the commercial supremacy guaranteed by the Erie canal, it may be said that the history of the State’s progress during the nineteenth century was largely a history of the development of her water resources. It is the purpose of the writer in this report to relate briefly not only in what manner these resources have been em- ployed, but to indicate the recent lines of development and the probable future of the State if her water is utilized to the fullest degree. It is proposed to describe in a general way the river systems, giving brief descriptions of several of the more important utilizations of water in New York, together with a discussion of some of the economic problems confronting the people of the State. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 31 As regards the water power of New York, the Tenth Census of the United States (1880), Vols. XVI and XVII, gives in detail the statistics of the main water powers as they existed in 1882. Many of these show considerable increase at the present time, although the extensions are for the most part similar to those described in the census report, and hence present few additional features of interest. Several of the recent plants, however, are on quite different lines both as to their scope and as to the method of development-adopted. It has therefore seemed more important to describe a number of the new plants, illustrating them by photographs, and to give the main facts of the great storage proj- ects of the Black, Genesee, Hudson, Salmon, Schroon, Wallkill and other rivers, than to spend time on small and relatively unim- portant powers which are already sufficiently described. The peculiar relation of the State to water power development on the main rivers of New York is an interesting subject for dis- cussion. Owing to the circumstances of the early settlement and the development of the canal system, the State has assumed owner- ship of the inland waters, or, at any rate, of all streams used as_ feeders to the canals. This assumption has worked injustice to riparian owners, and is at present a bar in the way of the full development of important streams by private enterprise. Moreover, New York is preeminent in position by virtue of the fact that she is the only State resting on the ocean and at the same time grounded on the Great Lakes. The Hudson river is a navigable estuary for one hundred and fifty miles inland, and | the depression of the Mohawk valley, together with the valley of Oswego river, extends, with slight elevation, from the northern end of this estuary west to Lake Ontario. It was inevitable, therefore, that from time immemorial the Mohawk valley should be the highway, along which passed the commerce between the east and the west. Hf the proposed deep waterway connecting the Great Lakes with the ocean is ever constructed, nature has from the beginning predestined by two possible routes, both of which pass through the State of New York—one by way of Oswego- Mohawk valleys to tidewater and the other by way of St Lawrence: ~ a2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Champlain-Hudson valleys to tidewater. The former of these routes—that through the Mohawk valley—was the pathway from the east to the west when the white man first came. Here the Lroquois warriors journeyed back and forth, and here, where the Dutch patroons built with the fur trade the early beginnings of what is now a vast interstate commerce, is the great highway of today. At Rome, the highest point on the divide between the Mohawk river and the Great Lakes drainage, the surface of the ground is only 430 feet above tidewater. This is the lowest pass from the Adirondacks to Alabama; all other lines of communica- tion rise to much higher altitudes than this. Hence, it was ineyi- table that New York State, by virtue of position alone, should become a great manufacturing State. Let us see why the great waterpowers, indispensable to the development of manufacturing, happen to be located on the direct line of greatest commercial activity. The explanation is partly geologic and partly topographic, or, if we consider topography as an outcome of geology, then the explanation is all geologic. Favorable natural conditions. New York State is great in water resources, not only by virtue of her position between the Atlantic ocean and the Great Lakes, but because topographic, geologic and climatic conditions have combined to make her the highway of commerce as well as the manufacturing center of the United States. Some of the contributing causes to this position may be found in her mountain systems, affording great water centers, from which large streams descend to the neighboring low- lands, affording large opportunities for the economic development of waterpower, as well as insuring an adequate supply of potable water to her towns and municipalities. As regards waterpower, the other chief contributing causes are the possession, as part of her domain, of the Niagara and St Law- rence rivers, with their extensive waterpower development. A study of the climatology of New York shows that in nearly every portion of the State the amount and distribution of the rain- v9 ieee HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 33 fall are such as to insure a large enough runoff of streams to furnish, even under natural conditions, considerable waterpower. Artificial modifications. Natural conditions have been largely interfered with by the cutting off of forests and the consequent extensive development of the agricultural interests of the State. Under conditions now existing, the water yield of streams is very different from what it was originally. As a tentative proposi- tion, it may be assumed that the general cutting off of forests in New York has decreased the annual runoff of streams issuing from the deforested areas to a depth of from four to six inches per annum. The proof of this proposition is found in considering that in a number of places the runoff of streams is gradually decreasing, not only because of the decrease in forest area, due to clearing up of lands for agricultural purposes, but is even changing because of the varying character of the crops raised from year to year. The fact that such changes are taking place has been very strongly impressed upon the writer in a number of litigations in which he has been at different times employed where the question of damages for diverting water from streams, either for municipal. or manufacturing purposes, was the leading issue. Invariably in such cases a large number of old residents have been sworn as witnesses for the plaintiff and have testified that formerly, say, thirty, forty or fifty years ago, as the case may be, the stream in question had a sufficient summer flow to operate a mill of a given capacity. In western New York, where several of these cases have occurred, there are mills from sixty to seventy years old, in which, up to the time of changing from the old-fashioned grind- ing process to the roller process, the machinery was substantially as it was made at the origina] erection. Why waterpowers are less reliable now than formerly. How- ever valuable water privileges at these mills may have been originally, it is nevertheless certain that now a number of them are practically worthless during several months of the summer and fall of the average year. In order to present a valid reason why the waterpower of streams in western New York may be 34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM less valuable now than forty or fifty years ago, there was pre- pared for use in a certain litigation an extended discussion of this question. The discussion in question applies particularly to catchment areas in Wyoming county, the runoff data being from gagings of Oatka creek for the years 1890-92. Wyoming county is an elevated region of the same general character throughout. Formerly it was covered with heavy pine, hemlock, oak, beech, maple, ash and elm forests. At the present time the forest area is exceedingly small, and what there is left of it is so scattered and so open as to exercise almost no effect on stream flow. In order to illustrate the progressive changes which may take place in the water-yielding capacity of a given catchment area, the writer compiled from the census reports for each decennial period from 1850 to 1890, inclusive, the statistics as therein given for Wyoming county, the assump- tion being that whatever was true of Wyoming county must be substantially true of the Oatka creek catchment area of 27.5 Square miles, situated in the central part of the county. The census data give the total area, total improved area for a por- tion of the period, tilled area and permanent meadows, total unimproved area, woodland and forest area, and the miscel- laneous unimproved area. As illustrating the changes which have taken place in Wyoming county since 1850, the writer merely cites from the tabulations that, with a total area of 387,840 acres, the total improved area was 223,533 acres in 1850, and 356,880 acres in 1890. The total unimproved area was 164,307 acres in 1850 and only 30,960 acres in 1890, of which 26,960 was woodland and forest and 4000 miscellaneous unim- proved area. | Again, the tables show that in 1850 there were 50,035 acres in clover seed and grass seed, wheat, rye, corn, oats, peas, beans, potatoes, barley and buckwheat, while in 1890 the same crops showed 71,915 acres. In 1850 the area in oats amounted to 18,132 acres, while in 1890 it amounted to 29,083 acres. Barley in 1850 covered 2409 acres, and in 1890, 14,164 acres. Again, the area in hay amounted in 1850 to 62,563 acres, and in 1890 to ! HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 35 80,446 acres. The total tons of hay in 1850 were 75,076; in 1890, 105,184 tons. Probably the statistics as pertinent as any to the case in hand are those relating to changes in live stock. For instance, in 1850 the total number of milch cows was 10,022, while in 1890 the total number was 22,919. The total number of horses, mules, milch cows, oxen and other cattle in 1850 was 40,812, while the total number of all these classes of stock in 1890 was 44,810. Considering the total of hoof cattle, we might say that the increase had not been so great, but when we con- sider the total of impreved area in comparison with the unim- proved area in 1850, and also in comparison with the amount of stock then and in 1890, we see at once that in 1850 the principal pasture area of the country must have been in forest, whereas the pasture in 1890 must have been, as in fact is well known was the case, largely in permanent meadows. Referring to Risler’s results as to the amount of water required for crops, we learn at once the great increase in water demand for supporting crops from 1850 to 1890. In a paper, Recherches sur ’ Evaporation du Sol et des Plantes, Risler has given the results of experiments at his estate in Switzerland, carried out specially with reference to ascertaining the mean daily consumption of water by growing agricultural plants, as well as by vineyards and two kinds of. forests. The following matter relating to Risler’s experiments is con- densed from Ronna’s Les Irrigations: By way of confirming the results of investigations as to the water consumed by growing plants, etc. carried out at the Agri- - cultural Experiment Station of Rothamsted, England, Risler has shown the different methods employed by him in 1867 and 1868. By a continuation of these experiments in 1869-72, he has shown | the mean daily consumption of water by lucerne, wheat, oats, _ clover, meadow grass, etc. One of his interesting conclusions is _ that winter wheat would have consumed daily from April to. July, 1869, 0.10 inch of water per day for 101 days, or over 10 inches for the growing season. The experiments on water con- tent of soil show that for the year 1869 the crops must have taken a small amount of water from the ground which, with the rainfall. was sufficient to produce a satisfactory crop for the meteorological conditions prevailing that year. 36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM For oats there was needed in 1870, according to Risler, a quantity of water 250 times the weight of dry material con- tained in the crop. In 1871 clover transpired 263 units of water to produce one unit of dry substance, and English ray- grass 545 units of water for one unit of hay containing 15 per cent of water. For this last the quantity of water corresponds | to 0.276 inch in depth per day. Risler observed, furthermore, that following rains or wet- tings transpiration of plants increases, gradually diminishing in proportion as dryness increases, other conditions remaining equal. When the water given off by the leaves is less than that taken up by the roots, growth is active, while under Une contrary condition, plants wither. * * * + + * + * In a general way, the consumption of water by plants is more regular in clay soils than in sandy. Hellriegel states that in a sandy soil plants begin to suffer from drouth when the soil does not contain more than 2.5 per cent moisture. Risler finds that the approximate limit for clay soils is 10 per cent, although in clay soil, part of the water escapes absorption by the roots. Taking as a basis the observations made on the crops raised at Caleves, Risler expresses the mean daily consumption of water as a depth on the cropped area as follows: Inches. Meadow grass requires from 0.134 to 0.267 Oats require from 0.141 to 0.193 Indian corn requires from 0.110 to 0.157 Clover requires from 0.140 to Wheat requires from (0.106 to 0.110 Rye requires from 0.091 to Potatoes require from 0.038 to 0.055 Vineyards require from 0.035 to 0.0381 Oak trees require from 0.038 to 0.035 Fir trees require from 0.020 to 0.043 Risler determined the consumption of water on a meadow of one hectare (2.47 acres) of very thickly turfed English ray-grass as 281 millimeters (11.06 inches), amounting to a daily depth of 0.267 inch. This consumption applies to a meadow well provided with water during the warmest season of the year. The ex- periments showed that on cloudy days evaporation was reduced to about one fourth of the mean, that is, to 0.069 inch per day. In Switzerland the fields begin to grow green the latter part of March, and the hay harvest occurs in June; hence, the growth of the plant takes place in April and May. The point is brought HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ot out very forcibly by Risler’s experiments, that hay crops depend more on the quantity of rain than on temperature; thus, in 1867, when the temperature of the two months was the lowest but the rainfall high, the meadows yielded abundantly, while in 1868, with a high temperature and medium rainfall, the crop was satis- factory because the soil had water in reserve, the drains con- tinuing to flow until the end of May that vear. Taking into account the foregoing data, the writer prepared a table giving the per cent that each crop actually raised in 1850, was of the total area in the county assigned to forest area, fallow land, ete., each in its proper area. Similar data have been prepared for each census period to 1890, inclusive. From such tabulation it was learned that in 1850 the area in wheat, rye, oats, barley and buckwheat was 10 per cent of the whole; Indian corn, 2 per cent; potatoes, 0.7 of one per cent; long grass, 16 per cent; short grass, 20 per cent; fallow land, orchards, peas, beans and miscellaneous, 11 per cent; and forest, 40 per cent. Without giving the details of 1860, 1870 and 1880, we may pass to 1890, in which year the following percentages were found: Wheat, rye, oats, barley and buckwheat, 7.9 per cent; Indian corn, 0.7 of 1 per cent; potatoes, 1.6 per cent; long grass, 20.8 per cent; short grass, 33.5 per cent; fallow land, orchards, peas, beans, miscellaneous, 25 per cent; clover, 1.5 per cent, and forest, 9 per cent. It will be noticed that the forest area had changed from 40 per cent in 1850 to 9 per cent in 1890. Taking Risler’s data as a basis, it was then easily computed that wheat, rye, oats, barley and buckwheat would require 9.2 inches of water on the actual area cropped to fully supply their demands; Indian corn would require 12.2 inches; potatoes, 4.3 inches; long grass, 19.3 inches; short grass, 15.4 inches; fallow land, peas, beans, orchards and miscellaneous, 12 inches; clover, 12.9 inches, and forest, 3.6 inches. Proceeding on this line it was ascer- tained that in 1850, the total depth of water over the entire area of Wyoming county, required to fully support vegetation as it existed in that year amounted to 10.17 inches; in 1860, it amounted to 11.15 inches; in 1870, to 11.89 inches; in 1880, to 13.24 inches, and in 1890, to 13.57 inches. Hence, the conclusion 38 . NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM seemed to be safely drawn that in 1890, due to changes in forest area and in quality of crops grown, the amount of water re- quired in Wyoming county to support vegetation during the growing season would amount to 3.4 inches more than in 1850. Why a mill stream in Wyoming county, which was ample for all demands in 1850, entirely failed in 1890 seemed, therefore, fully explained. In order to determine whether such conclusion was in accord with the rainfall records of western New York, a large number of such were tabulated in periods, with December to May, in- clusive, making the storage period; June to August, inclusive, the growing period, and September to November, inclusive, the replenishing period. From a tabulation of the rainfall records kept at Middlebury Academy, in Wyoming county, for certain years—seventeen in all—from 1826 to. 1848, inclusive, the mean rainfall for the growing period was determined at 9.52 inches. In 1832 it was only 6.76 inches. The maximum at Middlebury Academy was 14.36 inches in the growing period of 1828. Tabu- lating more recent records it was found that at Arcade, in Wyoming county, from 1891 to 1896, the mean of the growing period was 13.61 inches, the minimum of 9.62 inches occurring in 1894. At Leroy, in the adjoining county of Genesee, the mean of the growing period from 1891 to 1895, inclusive, was 10.381 inches, the minimum being 6.61 inches in 1894. At Rochester the records show a mean of the growing period for the years 1871 to 1896, inclusive, of 8.29 inches, the minimum being only 5 inches in 1887. It appeared, therefore, that at the present time, with the catchment areas almost entirely de- forested, streains must necessarily be very low during the sum- mer season of nearly every year. Practical observation in western New York amply confirms this theoretical deduction. Variation in water yield. The runoff of Niagara river has been. commonly assumed on the authority of the Lake Survey at about 1Abstract from Stream Flow in Relation to Forests, by George W. Rafter, in An. Rept. of Fisheries, Game and Forest Commission for 1896. The portion relating to Risler’s experiments is from paper on the Data of. Stream Flow in Relation to Forests. IIYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Bt!) 265,000 cubic feet per second. The recent studies indicate that the extreme low flow of a cycle of minimum years may not be more than 60 per cent to 70 per cent of this figure. From this point of view, the people of the State of New York have great interest in any project which would tend to decrease the low- water runoff of that stream. The figures obtained by the Deep Waterways Survey, substantiate this statement. Such interest is equally pronounced in the case of the St Lawrence river. The measurements of discharge of a number of inland streams of New York indicate considerable variation in the water yield in different parts of the State. Genesee river, in 1895, gave, with a rainfall of 31 inches, a minimum flow for the year of only 6.67 inches. The catchment area of this stream is, as already stated, mostly deforested, whence it results that serious floods arre frequent. The lowest annual runoff thus far measured in the State of New York is that of the Hemlock lake catchment area, where, in 1880, the total runoff from an area of 48 square miles was only about 3.35 inches. Oswego, Mohawk, and Hudson rivers and their tributaries in this State all have large pondage on natural lakes, which, with other conditions, tend to maintain the low-water flow. Croton river presents surface geologic conditions which tend to increase its low-water flow. Without going into detail, we may say that - these streams will yield a minimum flow of about 0.2 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. Variations from this limit are given in the chapters specially discussing minimum flow. As a typical flood stream of the State we have Chemung river, where serious floods, due to deforestation of a mountainous catch- ment area, have become so common as to necessitate the carrying out of extensive protection works at the large towns on that stream. | Value of water to industries. Water power is extensively sold at Oswego, Cohoes, and Niagara Falls, and to some extent at Rochester. It will also be extensively sold at Massena when the development there is completed. 40° NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The value of the internal waters of the State to some of the leading industries, such as the lumber industry and the woodpulp and paper industry, may be noted. On the Hudson river, from 1851 to 1897, inclusive, the total number of logs taken to market by water transportation was 23,313,585, these market logs fur- nishing 4,662,717,000 feet B. M. of lumber. The cost of driving logs from the headwaters of the Hudson to the Big Boom above Glens Falls is said to be from 50 to 75 cents per thousand feet Eo) Me The wood-pulp and paper industry is developed in New York State to a point beyond that reached in any other State of the Union. On January 1, 1900, there were 191,117 net water horse- power in use in the State in the production of mechanical wood- pulp, including from 30,000 to 35,000 consumed in operating paper mills. One obstacle to the easy operation of water power in this State is the formation on many streams of frazil or anchor ice. A study of the formation of frazil and anchor ice, as made by the ‘Montreal Harbor Commissioners, indicates that it may be possible to learn in the future how to remedy this difficulty. The most of these interesting questions are discussed in detail in the following pages. The relation of the mountains to the river valleys. Studying the hypsography of New York one can not fail to be struck with the fact that there are within the boundaries of this State six main elevated mountainous or semimountainous regions from which waters issue in all directions. In order then to understand the river systems of the State we need to briefly consider the mountains as appearing in Chautauqua, Cattaraugus, Allegany and Steuben counties and extending northward into Erie, Wyoming, Livingston, Ontario and Yates counties. The Genesee river and the lake system of western New York mostly lie in valleys between the spurs of these mountains. On the State line between New York and Pennsylvania the higher peaks of the Alleghenys rise to an altitude of over 2500 feet. North of the Allegheny river there is a well-defined plateau, varying in elevation HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 41 from 1500 feet to 2000 feet, the northern extremity of which lies in the central part of Wyoming county. To the north of this there are three well-defined terraces gradually stepping down to the level of Lake Ontario, the first of which varies from 1000 to 1500 feet above tide; the second, from 500 to 1000 feet, and the third, between about 250 and 500 feet. Lake Ontario lies at a mean elevation of 247 feet above tidewater. It is by these several successive steps that the northern spurs of the New York plateau gradually run out and merge themselves almost imperceptibly into the flatlands about and in the vicinity of Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence river. The course of the streams of this region has thus been defined by the topography. With the exception of those trubutary to the Allegheny river, their course is generally to the north, to either Lake Erie, Niagara river or Lake Ontario. Farther east we find a number of mountain or semimountain ranges which are a part of the great Appalachian system, and which extend across the State in a general course from southwest to northeast. The first of this series extends into New York from Pennsylvania and extends northeast through Broome, Delaware, Otsego, Schoharie, Montgomery and Herkimer counties to the © Mohawk valley. This mountain system consists of broad, irregu- lar hills, broken by deep ravines, with many of the slopes steep and precipitous. To the north of that river an elevated area of crystalline rocks forms the Adirondack mountain range, which extends to Lake Champlain. To the westward of this area the land is more level, gradually declining to the northwest until it finally terminates at the level of Lake Ontario and the St Law- rence river. The streams of these sections mostly flow west and northwest to the east end of Lake Ontario and to the St Lawrence river, while a short distance from the Mohawk they flow south to the Susquehanna river. The Chenango river is the typical stream of the section, tributary to the Susquehanna. Still farther east and south of the Susquehanna valley a second series of mountains enters New York from Pennsylvania and extends northeast through Sullivan, Ulster and Greene counties, terminating in the Catskill mountains upon the Hudson. The 42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM highest peaks are about 4000 feet above tide. The Shawangunk mountain, a high and continuous ridge which extends through Sullivan and Orange counties and the south part of Ulster, is the extreme easterly range of this series. The Helderberg mountains are foothills extending north from the main range into Albany and Schoharie counties. The streams rising in the Catskill moun- tains flow in all directions—Schoharie creek north to the Mohawk; Rondout creek easterly to the Hudson, and the head- waters of Delaware river southwesterly to that stream. The most easterly mountain range enters the State from New Jersey, and extending northeast through Rockland and Orange counties to the Hudson, appears’ on the east side of that river, forming the Highlands of Putnam and Dutchess counties. The northerly extension of this range passes into the Green mountains of western Massachusetts and Vermont. The highest peaks of this range in New York culminate in the Highlands upon the - Hudson where there are points from 1000 to about 1700 feet above tide. The Wallkill river, the principal stream of this divi- sion, lies in a deep valley to the west of the main range and between it and the Shawangunk mountain. We have referred to the main Adirondack mountain range as beginning near Little Falls on the Mohawk river and extending northeasterly to Lake Champlain. There are a number of other - well-defined mountain ranges in the northeastern part of the State, all of which are included under the general term of Adirondack mountains, and which require notice in detail. The Adirondack range proper crosses Herkimer, Hamilton and Essex counties and — terminates near Port Kent on Lake Champlain. It is about 100 miles in length and may be considered the backbone of the Adiron- dack mountain group, its ridge line dividing the waters of the St Lawrence from those of the Hudson river and Lake Champlain. Mount Marcy, rising to a hight of 5430 feet, is the principal peak of this range, while McIntyre, Haystack and Skylight, each over 5000 feet in hight, are also in this chain. Next to the main Adirondack range to the eastward is the Bouquet range, beginning on the south in the vicinity of Hast HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 43 Canada creek and extending through the northwestern part of Hamilton county, and crossing the center of Essex county to Lake Champlain. The highest peak is Mount Dix, with an altitude of 4915 feet above sea level. Other prominent mountains of the Bouquet range are Giant, Noon Mark, Dial, Nippletop, McComb, Sable and Boreas mountains. The third range, known as the Schroon, begins at the valley of the Mohawk, in the eastern part of Fulton county, and crossing through Warren and Essex counties ends near Westport, on Lake Champlain. The Schroon river flows along the eastern base of this range. The fourth range is the Kayaderosseras, which begins in the lowlands north of Saratoga Springs and extends through Warren county to Crown Point. Mount Pharaoh, a high peak near Schroon lake, is the only important mountain of this range. The fifth range, known as the Luzerne mountains, begins in the foothills near Saratoga, crosses the Hudson river a little above Glens Falls, and running northeasterly encircles Lake George on the west, ending at Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain. The peaks of this range around Lake George are about 2000 feet above tide- water. According to Prof. Arnold Guyot, the main mass of the State of New York is a high triangular tract or tableland, elevated from 1500 to 2000 feet above the ocean, and may be considered | the northeastern extremity of the western half of the Appalachian plateau in this latitude. The natural limits to the west and north are the depression now only partly filled by the waters of Lakes Erie and Ontario, and which continues in a northeastern course down the St Lawrence river to the ocean. The natural limit at the east is the long and deep valley of Lake Champlain and the Hudson river. In the south the tableland continues unin- terrupted into Pennsylvania. The eastern edge is formed by a series of mountain chains, more or less isolated, in which are the highest summits in the State. These are the Highlands, crossed by the Hudson, the Shawangunk mountain and the Catskills on 44, “NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the western bank and the Adirondacks covering the territory be- tween the St Lawrence and Champlain valleys. Beyond this eastern wall the true mountain chains cease. The surface of the western portion of the Appalachian plateau is deeply indented by valleys with their bottoms generally several hundred feet below the common level and separated by high ridges. The deep trans- verse cut forming the valley of the Mohawk river and Oneida lake and opening a channel from the low lake region to the Hudson river, thus dividing the main plateau into two distinct masses, is not the least remarkable feature. It was the possession of this mountain pass, with broad level valleys in either direction, which made New York State the original highway from the east to the west. | Rivers and lakes of Adirondack plateau. From the Adiron- dack plateau streams flow to the north, southeast and west. The principal streams flowing north, east and west to the St Law- rence system are Moose, Beaver, Oswegatchie, Grasse, Raquette, St Regis, Salmon, Saranac, Ausable, and Bouquet rivers. The southern streams, which all belong to the Hudson system, are Sacandaga, Indian, Cedar, Opalescent, Boreas, and Schroon rivers, and Hast Canada and West Canada creeks. All these streams head in lakes, of which the most important, tributary to the St Lawrence, are Placid, Saranac, St Regis, Loon, Rainbow, Osgood, Meacham, Massawepie, Cranberry, Tupper, Smiths, Albany, Red Horse Chain, Beaver, Brandreth, Bog River Chain, Big Moose, Fulton Chain, Woodhull, Bisby, Raquette, and Blue Mountain. Following are the principal lakes of the Adirondack plateau tributary to the Hudson system: Pleasant, Piseco, Oxbow, Sacan- daga, Elm, Morehouse, Honnedaga, West Canada, Wilmurt, Sal- mon, Spruce, Cedar, Lewey, Indian, Rock, Chain, Catlin, Rich, Harris, Newcomb, Thirteenth, Henderson, Sanford, Colden, Boreas, Elk, Paradox, Brant, Schroon, and Luzerne. There are | a number of other lakes in New York, as Chautauqua, Conesus, Hemlock, Honeoye, the Finger Lakes, Onondaga, Oneida and others. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 45 The great forest as a stream conservator. The great forest of northern New York occupies the central part of the Adirondack plateau, and deserves notice from its importance as a conservator of the streams issuing from that region. The outlines of the great forest are substantially as follows: Its eastern boundary coin- cides quite closely with a line drawn through Keene Valley and thence along the valleys of Schroon river and the upper Hudson; its southern boundary is for the main part identical with that of Hamilton county and the town of Wilmurt, in Herkimer county, although in some places the forest extends a short distance into Fulton county; its western boundary is the county line between Lewis and Herkimer counties; its northern boundary runs in an irregular line from a point near Harrisville, on the Lewis and St Lawrence county line, to the Upper Chateaugay lake, which is situated near the line between Franklin and Clinton counties. This territory contains about 3,590,000 acres, of which 3,280,000 acres are considered to be covered with dense forests. Within this region there are from 1300 to 1400 lakes and ponds, while from it the eighteen important streams just enumerated diverge in every direction. The general elevation of the Adirondack pla- teau is about 2000 feet above the level of the sea. Little discus- sion is needed, therefore, to show the great value of this elevated forest-covered plateau as a conservator of the natural waters of the State. 7 One important utilization of the waters of this State formerly was the carrying of logs to market through the various streams. By reason of the clearing off of the forests, that business has grad- ually declined until, except in the Adirondack plateau, it is now of little importance. It has been the policy of the State for a number of years to acquire, as far as possible, by tax title and purchase, bodies of land in the Adirondack forest for the purpose not only of conserving the forests in order to increase the yield of streams, but for the further purpose of creating a forest park worthy of the great Commonwealth of New York. In order to carry out this project the Forest-Preserve Board has been empow- ered to purchase lands within the forest, or, failing to agree on 46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM terms with the landowners, to take lands under condemnation proceedings.t The Adirondack plateau is a rugged, rocky region, sparsely popwated, and worthless for agriculture. Its chief value lies in a complete utilization of such natural resources as attach to its unparalleled water-yielding capacity. From this point of view it may easily become an important factor in the future development of New York. To insure this result, the water yield of every stream of the region needs to be conserved by reservoir systems. DATA OF CLIMATE IN NEW YORK Climate may be defined as the atmospheric conditions affecting life, health and comfort, and including temperature, moisture, prevailing winds, pressure, etc. The climatic data of New York have been accumulating for over seventy-five years. In 1825 the Board of Regents organized a Systematic service at over fifty schools and academies in the State. This is noteworthy as being the first important attempt made in this country towards the investigation of local climate. In 1854-59 the Smithsonian Institution began the distribution of meteorological instruments throughout the State and a large num- ber of observations were taken, some of them by private parties, from 1826-1875. The work of the Board of Regents was discon- tinued in 1863, although weather records were maintained at the military posts at Sackett Harbor, Plattsburg and in New York harbor, as well as by independent observers. From 1871 to about 1874 stations were established by the United States Signal Service at Buffalo, Rochester, Oswego, Albany and New York city, and in 1895 at Binghamton. In 1903 a station was established at Syracuse. The State Meteorological Bureau was organized in 1889, and for ten years, in consideration of the number of observations, the records are the most satisfactory thus far made. In 1899 this bureau passed under the control of the Department of Agriculture 1The State holdings in the Adirondack region up to the year 1902 may b determined by reference to a Map of the Adirondack Forest and Adjoining Territory as issued by the Forest, Fish, and Game Commission in 1902. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 47 of the United States, and has since been operated as a bureau of that department. Complete observations are taken at the six original stations established by the United States Signal Service, including barometer, temperature, dewpoint, relative humidity, vapor pressure, precipitation, wind, cloudiness and electrical phenomena. Generally, the Regents and the Smithsonian obser- vations only included temperature and precipitation, although there were a few exceptions where barometer and wind were taken. The Meteorological Bureau also generally confines itself to temperature and precipitation, except that at the central office at Ithaca, and at a few other places, barometer and cloudiness are taken. The same statement applies to the work of the Meteorological Bureau as carried on under the direction of the United States Department of Agriculture: | The average annual temperature is generally taken as decreas- ing with altitude at the ratio of 1° F. to every 300 feet of eleva- tion, the rate being somewhat below this average in winter and above it in summer. An approximate determination for the State indicates that the rates of decrease are 0.5° F. per hundred feet elevation for the winter, and 0.4° F. per hundred feet for the sum- mer. For the mountains of northern New York a much smaller variation than 0.3° F. appears to hold for the winter months. The intimate relation which exists between air circulation and precipitation in New York is one of the most interesting facts to be noted. Owing to lack of moisture in the continental inte- rior, northwest winds in the spring, summer and fall are essen- tially dry. In winter their dryness proceeds from low tempera- ture and consequent small vapor-carrying capacity. The winter precipitation is due almost entirely to storm areas passing either actually across or in the vicinity of this State and deriving their supply of vapor from the inflow of moist air which they induce, either from the Atlantic ocean or from the Gulf region. The winter months—December, January, and February—have somewhat less precipitation than either of the other seasons, although in the vicinity of the Atlantic coast, on the southwestern highlands of the State, and in the region of the Great Lakes the winter precipitation is relatively large. 48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In the spring, rising temperature produces a modification and shifting of pressure systems, the winds decreasing in velocity and their direction being more variable than in winter. The frequent showers occurring in April and May appear to be due more than at any other time to the effect of an admixture of air having different temperatures. In summer the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic ocean con- ‘tribute large supplies of moisture to northward-moving air cur- rents, and, although cyclonic depressions are less frequent than at any other season, the rainfall accompanying each storm is heavy, and in New York the maximum seasonal precipitation, amounting as an average for the whole State to 10.96 inches, occurs in this season. 7 As regards the fall months, the rainfall of September is usually light in the region east of the Great Lakes, while in October the maximum general rainfall occurs. As regards meteorological conditions, winter may be considered as beginning in November. A study of the data shows that there are a number of contend- ing forces which are distinctively operative in New York, and which by modifying one another tend to produce numerous irregu- ' larities of the rainfall. So irregular indeed is the precipitation that frequently places only a short distance apart show wide variation. In a general way it may be said that the amounts of annual rainfall in different sections of New York are mainly determined by proximity to sources of vapor or to vapor-laden air currents, and by the character of the local topography. As regards the latter statement, a more definite form would be that under similar conditions the precipitation is in some degree proportionate to the altitude. This rule, while generally true, does not apply to the valley of the Hudson river, where the upper portion, including the Champlain valley, receives a somewhat deficient rainfall as com- pared with the State as a whole. To the west, the Adirondack plateau receives a marked increase of rainfall, while farther north- west there is a decrease in the valley of the St Lawrence. This is also true of the elevated region in the vicinity of Hemlock lake, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 49 which, although several hundred feet higher, has a rainfall con- siderably less than that at Rochester. In the southeastern portion of the State the ocean winds find no obstruction along the coast, but, passing inland and meeting the abrupt ranges of the southeastern counties, give a copious rainfall as compared with that of the intervening regions. Western New York, on account of the frequent southwesterly direction of the winds, receives an appreciable portion of its vapor supply from the Gulf of Mexico. The rainfall in central New York, although less than that of the southeastern and south- western highlands, is generally abundant. The principal valleys of the Susquehanna system, and also the depression of the central lakes tributary to Oswego river, show a deficiency as compared with the average of the State. A knowledge of the snowfall is important in a study of the water resources, because by reason of the snow lying on the ground continuously for several months it is a great source of loss in open regions subject to severe winds, the evaporative effect of the winds tending to carry away large quantities of moisture which would otherwise be available to maintain stream flow. Thus far the only data relating to depth of snow are those derived from the Reports of the State Meteorological Bureau. The follow- ing are a few figures so derived: In the winter of 1893-94 the total depth of snow at Humphrey, in the western plateau, was 186.5 inches; in 1890-91 the total depth at Cooperstown, in the eastern plateau, was 110 inches; in 1891-92 the total depth at Constable- ville, in the northern plateau, was 170.7 inches; in the winter of 1890-91, at Utica, in the Mohawk valley, the total depth was 165 inches, and in 1891-92, at the same place, 151.6 inches. The records show that at the places where these large snowfalls oc- curred the ground was continuously covered with snow for seyv- eral months. If the winds were of high velocity at the same time the evaporation loss must have been very great. Division of the State into climatic areas. In 1891 the State Me- teorological Bureau divided the State into ten subdivisions, 1For extended discussion of climate of New York see a monograph by E. T. Tanner, in 8th Rep’t New York Weather Bureau. 50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM namely: Western plateau, Eastern plateau, Northern plateau, Atlantic coast, Hudson valley, Mohawk valley, Champlain valley, St. Lawrence valley, Great Lakes and Central Lakes. The Western plateau includes the western portion of the central plateau extending across the southern part of the State from the Hudson valley to Lake Erie. This plateau extends from Lake Ixrie to the valley of Seneca lake and to the point due south of Seneca lake where the two main branches of the Susquehanna river unite. The Eastern plateau includes the portion of the central plateau to east of the valley of Seneca lake and the point due south of Seneca lake where the two main branches of Susquehanna river unite. It is terminated to the east by the Hudson river valley. The Northern plateau includes the region north of the Mohawk valley, west of the Champlain valley and east and south of Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence valley. ; The Atlantic coast region includes Long Island, New York city and its neighborhood, to the northern part of Westchester county. With the flat, sandy beaches and low ground surrounded by water, with hills never rising more than one hundred feet, this region is entirely open to the influence of sea winds. It has the highest temperature and precipitation in the State. The Hudson valley is a narrow strip of land on both sides of the river, surrounded by hills and tablelands as far as the High- lands. Higher up, the valley widens into the extensive plains on the west side of the river. Although this region is nearly at sea level, its climate is generally much severer than the Atlantic coast region, owing to the cold northern winds flowing from Canada along the valley of Lake Champlain. The Mohawk valley extends along the Mohawk river to beyond Rome. The rainfall is about two inches less than that of the northern plateau. The Champlain valley includes the valleys of Lakes Champlain and George, only a few hundred feet above sea level for the whole distance. On the east, in Vermont and Massachusetts, moun- tains rise to over 3000 feet, while on the west, the Adirondack oe = ™ fore. SS z ‘3 « : 7 = : is Salle 1 eet eS LL 5 ee EDUCATION DEPARTMENT UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM MAP OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Showing the NATURAL METEOROLOGICAL DIVISIONS OF THE STATE together with Evevartons Anove THE S Bare ite a: Approximate Lines of Meteorological Divisions thus: ————— SCALE OF STATUTE MILES O39 40-0 10 Nors.—The contour lines on this map are considerably generalized from data of U. S. Geological and State Surveys. Bulletin 85 Fee ea nen ay TOK AMP yt AY AO ATATA) ee vail HAL JOROSTAM JA ne Poke. G e a TA Te } ZA z » f os q SHE AOA 2 XOLTAY walt AXing * See ana ¢ “ ‘ Sh ie oy Rot RY A 6 Sa : We i b U HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 51 mountains are over 5000 feet in hight. The temperature of this region is low, for the same reason as given in the description of the Hudson valley. St Lawrence valley extends along the St Lawrence river from Lake Ontario to the north line of the State. It is a level region, gradually inclining upward to the northern plateau. In New York State it is from 40 to 50 miles in width, while in Canada it extends for a long distance to north and west of the St Lawrence river. The region of the Great Lakes begins as a narrow strip in Chau- tauqua county, gradually widening and extending along the shore of Lake Ontario, from 20 to 40 miles in width, to Oneida lake. North of Oneida lake this region shrinks to a narrow belt, at Oswego, but widens again above this point towards the plains of the St Lawrence valley. The region of the Central Lakes includes the valleys of Keuka, Seneca, Cayuga, Owasco and Oneida lakes. On account of its central location, it possesses climatic peculiarities differing con- siderably from the balance of the State+ TABLE No. 1. SHOWING NUMBER OF STATIONS OF WEATHER BUREAU AND APPROXIMATE ELEVATION ABOVE TIDEWATER, IN 1893 AND 1902. 1893 1902 Number of | Approximate | Number of | Approximate stations elevation stations elevation (1) . (2) (3) (4) (5) Western plateau ............ 14 1 eylin! 17 1,135 Pastern plateai............. 14 1, 192 19 1, 068 Moerthern plateau ........... 7 1, 828 12 1,318 Ppiantic coast .......25...3. 4 82 5 175 feadson valley ..0...24...035. 4 303 8 382 Mohawk valley. .i.i..s5s.s-- 2 491 3 556 Champlain valley ........... 2 233 6 286 St Lawrence valley......... 7 389 4 351 Great Lakes region.......... 12 496 12 446 Central Lakes region........ 5 742 6 676 1This description of the climatic divisions of the State is abstracted from the 2d An. Rept. of the Commissioners of the State Meteorological Bureau and Weather Service, 1890. 52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM These several regions have considerable difference in elevation, as exhibited by table No. 1, showing number of stations and approximate elevation above tidewater in 1893 and 1902. In 1893 the western plateau comprised fourteen stations, with an approximate elevation above tidewater of 1211 feet, while in 1902 the western plateau comprised seventeen stations, with an approximate elevation of 1135 feet. Owing to the fact that the observations are voluntarily made, considerable change in the stations has taken place between 1893 and 1902, many stations at which observations were kept in the former year having been discontinued and new stations at other places substituted. The showing, therefore, of table No. 1 is relative, and merely intended to give a general idea of the approximate elevations of the several divisions. In the case of the northern plateau there are no sta- tions in the higher mountains, and hence that region is inade- quately represented in table No. 1. Description of the meteorological tables. Tables Nos. 2 to 8, inclusive, give a meteorological summary at Albany, Buffalo, Erie, Pa., New York city, Northfield, Vt., Oswego and Rochester, for the calendar years 1891-1901, inclusive. Column (11) in these tables gives the maximum precipitation in 24 hours for each year, and column (12) the month in which the maximum precipitation occurred. The utility of these columns in designing sewers and in considering effects of floods is obvious. Tables Nos. 9 to 18, inclusive, give the mean temperature of the several climatic areas into which the State has been divided for the water years 1891-1901, inclusive. The mean temperature for the eleven years included in these tables varies from 42.2° per year in the northern plateau to 50.9° for the Atlantic coast region. In tables Nos. 19 to 28, inclusive, we have the precipitation of the several climatic areas of the State for the water years 1891-1902, inclusive. ‘The average precipitation varies from a minimum of 34.46 inches in the Central Lakes region to 46.71 inches in the Atlantic coast region, or a range of 12.25 inches. etait HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK | | = re | | . : MODS OMOMNHIDOS Dt ~-redrerdrrrrr SolTut ‘puIM JO AYOOTOA Ajyanoy OSBIDAY 06°G sess goaey | PI'S *--requreydeg | 18°¢ -ereeeesoune | PLZ erates RES. 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In reference to taking as a water year, the period extending from December—November, inclusive, instead of from January—December, inclusive, it may be stated that such or a Similar division has been customary with advanced hydrologists for many years, although in the United States the advantages of this division have not thus far generally appeared obvious to writers on this subject. In England a water year beginning with September and ending with August is quite common. The same thing has been done by the Philadelphia Water Department in tabulating the data of Neshaminy, Perkiomen, Tohichon and Wissahickon creeks and Schuylkill river. However, no hard and fast rule can be laid down for the beginning and ending of these periods. In some years the storage period will end soon after May 1, while in other years it may be extended into the first or second week in June. After some consideration a division of the storage period from December—May, inclusive, has been taken as, on the whole, best representing average conditions. 7 The storage period is the period when evaporation is lowest and the largest amount of water may be stored. On reference to table No. 67, runofi data of Croton river for the water years 1877-1899, inclusive, it appears that the mean runoff for the storage period is 16.83 inches ; the mean evaporation, 6.85 inches; and the mean rainfall, 25.68 inches. The mean runoff, therefore, is 71 per cent. of the mean rainfall. In the growing period on Croton river the mean runoff is 2.57 inches, with 138.58 inches mean rainfall, or the runoff is 19 per cent. of the rainfall. In the replenishing period the mean runoff is 3.42 inches and the mean rainfall 12.08 inches, or the runoff is 27 per cent. of the rainfall. It is obvious, therefore, that it is only during the months ‘of the storage period that any large amount of water can be stored. A similar condition is shown by tables Nos. 43 and 61. During the storage period, vegetation is inactive and evapora- tion takes place chiefly through wind action. It seems clear, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 81 therefore, that a forest-protected area will show less evaporation during the months of the storage period than will an area which is fully exposed to the sweep of the winds. In proof of this it may be cited that the Hudson area shows, on an average, only 4.6 inches evaporation during the storage period, while the Genesee area, during the same period, shows 8.9 inches. The Croton area shows 6.85 inches evaporation for the same period. It is probable that, due to greater elevation, winds are more searching on the Genesee area than on the Croton area, although the forestation is not very different. It is also probable that owing to proximity to the ocean the humidity is greater on the Croton area than on the Genesee, but since there are no observations this latter point can not be stated except as an inference. At Erie, Buffalo, Rochester and Oswego the conditions are somewhat the same as at New York and the humidity shown by tables Nos. 3, 4, 7 and 8 is not very different. We need humidity observations for the upper Genesee in order to settle the relation. In the growing period vegetation is active and large demands are made upon ground water to supply its requirements. Dur- ing this period, as an average, 2.57 inches of water runs off from the Croton area, although in 1880 only 0.68 inch ran off. As a broad proposition, ground water tends to become lower and lower throughout the growing period. | In the replenishing period the average runoff from the Croton area is 3.42 inches, from an average rainfall of 12.08 inches. During this period, broadly, ground water is rising and con- ditions tend to restore themselves to that at the beginning of the storage period. The varying conditions on the Genesee and Hudson rivers during these periods may be seen by reference to the tables relating to those streams. One great advantage of dividing records into these periods is as follows: Since evaporation and plant absorption are light during the months of the storage period, it follows to a great degree that the amount of water which can be stored is exhibited by the rainfall of the storage months. Realizing this fact, it 82 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM has been the writer’s habit for several years, in storage projects, to first tabulate rainfall in the manner indicated. Such pro- cedure has the advantage that it leads one away from the con- templation of mere detail. There is a positive disadvantage in considering the monthly quantities, for which there is no com- pensation. The division into the three periods exhibits the more important characteristics without overburdening the mind. It is believed that a considerable advance on ordinary practice has been made by proceeding in the manner stated. THE RELATION OF RAINFALL TO RUNOFF The runoff of a stream is influenced by many complex condi- tions—as, for instance, amount of rainfall and its intensity, nature of soil, slope of surface and area and configuration of catchment basin. It is also influenced by geologic structure, for- ests, wind, force of vapor pressure and other elements. Data are still lacking for a really satisfactory discussion of the question, although they have accumulated so rapidly during the last few years that many conservative conclusions can be drawn which may be accepted as substantially true. As a result of many years’ study of the problem indicated by the heading of this chapter the writer has come to the conclusion that no general formula is likely to be found expressing accu- rately the relation of rainfall to the runoff of streams, for streams vary widely in their behavior, and when they do agree the agree- ment is usually accidental. As a general proposition we may say that every stream is a law unto itself. The final formula of runoff for a given stream, therefore, will differ in some particulars from that for every other, except that there may be accidental resemblances as regards slope, shape of catchment area, surface geology or some other peculiarity. It is, however, true that an empirical formula may be made for certain classes of streams which will give approximately the runoff for a series of years. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 83 Rainfall Cause of rainfall. The cause of rainfall has been discussed by Mr Velschow in the transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers! This paper may be referred to for a very good dis- cussion of the subject. | The subject is also very ably discussed by Alfred J. Henry in one of the Weather Bureau Reports. Mr Henry remarks that the theories of rainfall! given in books of twenty or thirty years ago are not now wholly accepted. Still there is one simple principle upon which no disagreement exists—that in order to produce rain the temperature of the air must be suddenly cooled below the dewpoint. When the air is thus cooled a portion of the vapor is changed to the liquid and the particles thus formed may float away with the wind or they may increase in size and fall to the ground by virtue of gravity. Whether the condensation results simply in cloud, or whether rain falls, depends on the magnitude of the temperature changes taking place in the air mass. The precise manner in which air is cooled to produce rain, whether by contact or by mixing, is not clearly apprehended. Cooling by expansion, aS air ascends, is one of the most effective causes of rainfall. The ascensional movement is brought about in several ways, probably the most important of which is circula- tion of air in cyclonic storms, by a radial inflow from all sides and an ascensional movement in the center. A very large percentage of the rain of the United States is precipitated in connection with the passage of storms of this class.’ Mr Henry discusses the precipitation of the United States under the following topics: (1) The statistics used and their accuracy; (2) geographic distribution and annual allowance; (3) monthly distribution by districts and types; (4) the precipitation of the crop-growing season; (5) secular variations; (6) details of the 1The Cause of Rain and the Structure of the Atmosphere, by Franz A. Velschow: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Vol. XX XIII, 1890, p. 303. 2 Rainfall of the United States, by Alfred J. Henry, chief of division: Ann. Rept. Weather Bureau, 1896-97, p. 317. 3 Abstracted from Mr Henry’s paper. S4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM precipitation by geographic districts, and (7) excessive precipita- tion. The chapter on “ Excessive precipitation ” is probably, from an engineering point of view, the most important. Mr Henry states that in 1888 attention was first directed to the importance of Statistics of excessive rainfall. At the present time the Monthly Weather Review publishes a table of maximum rainfalls in five and ten minute and one hour periods, ete. Table No. VIII of Mr Henry’s paper gives details of excessive rainfall at Washington, Savannah, and St Louis, and table No. IX gives maximum intensity of rainfall for periods of five, ten, and sixty minutes at the Weather Bureau stations equipped with self-registering gages, compiled from all available records. Inasmuch as this paper may be readily referred to further detail is omitted. | Measwrement of rainfall. The subject, “ How close may rain- fall be measured?” has been fully discussed by Prof. Cleveland Abbe.t. Professor Abbe states that the influence of altitude was first brought to the attention of the learned world by Heberden who, in 1769, in a memoir in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, stated that a gage on Westminster Abbey, over 150 feet above the ground, caught less than half as much as a gage at the ground. | Profs. Alexander D. Bache and Joseph Henry, and Mr Desmond FitzGerald have studied the question extensively in this country. Mr FitzGerald’s results may be found in the Journal of the Asso- ciation of Engineering Societies for August, 1884.7 Mr FitzGerald kept two gages, one at a hight of 2 feet 6 inches above the level of the ground, and the second at a distance of 150 feet from the first, and at an elevation of 20 feet 4 inches above the lower gage. Both gages were 14.85 inches in diameter. 1 Determination of the True Amount of Precipitation and its Bearing on Theories of Forest Influences, by Cleveland Abbe: Appendix I of Bulletin No. 7, Forest Influences; Forestry Division, United States Department of Agriculture. 2 Does the Wind Cause the Diminished Amount of Rain Collected in Elevated Rain Gages? By Desmond FitzGerald: Jour. Assoc. Engineering Societies, Vol. III, No. 10 (August, 1884). HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 85 These gages were located at Chestnut Hill reservoir, in the city of Boston, but the observations for wind velocity were taken from the Signal Service observations, 5 miles distant. With only five exceptions during the five-year period, the upper gage delivered materially less water than the ground gage, the average difference being 10.6 per cent for the whole period. But snowfalls and mixtures of snow and rain are not included in the table of data — given in the paper. The results recorded by Professor Abbe are somewhat more extensive than those presented by Mr FitzGerald, though Mr FitzGerald states in his paper that he has prepared a series of experiments with nine gages and a self-recording anemometor, from which in the course of time some more definite results may be reached. So far as the writer knows, this second series of observations has not been published. In order to show how the catch of rainfall diminishes with hight of the gage, Professor Abbe gives in his table No. IV the results of observations at different places. These range from 90 per cent of a gage at the ground to 47 per cent. In tables Nos. I, II, and III, Professor Abbe also gives the result of various | gages, which gave 52 to 7 per cent less of rainfall, and from 80 to 16 per cent less of snowfall, than gages at the ground. Professor Abbe remarks that these tables show conclusively the large influence of wind on the catch of rain, but show nothing of its influence on the catch of snow. As an observational method of obtaining the true rainfall from gage readings, Professor Abbe suggests the following as offering a fair approximation : If the present gage has been standing in an open field at a few feet elevation, place two or more similar gages near it, and simi- larly located as far as obstacles are concerned, except only that one of these is to be decidedly lower than the old one and the other decidedly higher. From a comparison of the simultaneous records of any two gages and their altitudes, we should for each Separate rainfall, rather than for the monthly and annual sums, deduce the normal rainfall by eh solution of two or more equa- tions of the form: Observed catch of gage—(1—w» altitude) (desired catch of hornial pit gage). (1) 86 ; NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Where # is the unknown special coefficient of deficiency due to wind at that altitude—that is to say, having two gage catches, c, and c, for the two altitudes, H, and H,—we obtain the true rainfall (R) by the formulas: ¢—(1—wr/ H) R; and (2) ¢—=(1—w/ H,) R. (3) whence, | ec el 1 ae Gh Vee 1 If cand H, relate to the lower gage, we shall generally have e>c, and H, dues 62 8.3L 5.23 Comparing any two years, we have: LEAVE cc ote ee RET Ree ee a ze 41.69 15.42 ee ero ota RTM a NES ca asteece! bee 3 40.68 12.80 MDa MeCN Cate tres ec Scare Ste Ghee ne, so) Ae: 3 a OL 2.62 Comparing storage periods: Eropmace pertod OF 1892 Po. eres eas be 19.84 9.38 POI Werlod: Ol LSIG 4. 8. eee eee oan ee 17.84 9.25 POETIC Cee se, eee aD So at ono cha wale ala she 2.00 0.13 Comparing growing periods: PeLOMMMOMCTIOM. Of ASI2. 0)... es oii. le ec e e's s 15.30 4.90 SAOiis PSlOd -Orl SOG.) eRe le es 10.28 0.83 Mitterence 2.20. a: Sead CT i CA Coa Oe Ae 5.02 4.07 Comparing replenishing period: meplenishing period of E896. ./.2.5..... 5. 12.56 Dees Beplenishine period of L892....5..65. 0.5.5. 6.55 1.14 HPP Uni eV Bee ee eae os eae a RN Ged Gln a we a» 6.01 1.58 Hudson rwer. SeMi AVE MOC. 0. 2.) de) osha! siecle Peck tercls 0 ose 44 21 23.27 feos, (MMM WIM Ved) oo a cieals oboe. Sa Ra 36.67 17.46 ESOS Be FIGS are Bl a Se Vn ne a 7.04 5.81 eee (MMAMINAUET: VEAL) fo). ss ek elo « 53.87 30.08 SITE EE) S002 re ee a a 44.21 23.27 ME GOMER ere pare cut Sy) fac aptic ints, ar acc lara eh ses 9.66 9.81 Comparing the maximum year with the minimum, we have: rng ite re ah ula and sie dcx Sa hes 53.87 33.08 RM PE sy 5 A RT ee ic Papen ave retin: 2a 1.17 Replenishing period of 1898s. 5) .22.5...554% 1209 See Replenishing period of 1891. ...........5... 8.78 1.90 EICMNC Oe etantcraee sae Gale abe Wea aw agus 3.41 3.00 Croton river. Average of storage period....... eee: 23.68 16.88 Storage period of TSI. sve. Las oe leh mae 20.55 14.64 HER EINCE Sc; sic BE Gs koe ee ee gi Ostet Fg! be 2.19 Borage period: Of U898.o5 de ou e es eee os 28.81 20.08 Average of storage period... ....... 2.650666 as 23.68 16.83 ADIIEOECH GC. Awe ase seek oe we tie ee one 5.13 3.25 Comparing any two storage periods, we have: Srokaee. Pemod, Of SOG e.g. oa estes ee 24.84 18.01 Sromace period Ot A895... schoo ele cela on Bes 192 aa 14.78 DIN IE Seo) 6 Ee i ceaneans at en areer ne nto an Pao reese” On 5.29 3.23 Suorame period Or US88 ioe se Oe Se eee 30.33 21.74 Bponaee.Derlod Of 1 88a. 8 2c ck 2 aides tawann 19.038 11.37 TIPE PE TCE: 8 dec aL aoe Stem tee as Bente so 11.30 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 95 By observing the relation indicated in the foregoing tabula- tions, together with hight of ground water, one may approxi- mately compute the rainfall from the runoff. In the same way the runoff may be approximately computed from the rainfall. Map of average rainfall in the State of New York. On plate XCVIILI of the Report of the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, the writer has given the average rainfall at a large number of stations throughout the State of New York. When this map was prepared considerable time was expended in drawing lines of equal rainfall upon it, but so many discrepan- cies appeared that it was finally concluded, for the present, that it should be allowed to stand without such lines. The only way these contours could be drawn with any satisfaction was to omit stations which conflicted too much therewith. This, the writer did not feel justified in doing. The observations are not exten- sive enough to enable one to draw these lines. Length of time required to make good a series of rainfall records. This question is partially answered in the writer’s second report on the Upper Hudson Storage Surveys, for 1896, by a short analy- sis of a paper by Alexander R. Binnie, Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers.! oe One of the important problems worked out by Mr Binnie is an answer to this question: What is the least number of years the continuous record of which, when a mean fall has been deter- mined, will not be materially affected, as far as the value of the mean is concerned, even if the record be extended by a greater number of years of observation? Mr Binnie says: Collaterally, inquiry must also be made if the period necessary to determine the true mean fall is in any way affected by the amount of the mean fall of rain; or if any approximate rule can be applied to all countries, and to differing amounts of mean annual rainfall at different stations. To approach the subject without bias, some good records of long periods must be carefully examined, and it must be found, not how near the averages of the shorter periods into which they 1On Mean or Average Rainfall and the Fluctuations to Which it is Sub- ject, by Alexander R. Binnie, M. Inst. C. H.: Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. CIX (1892), pp. 89-172. 96 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM can be divided, approach the mean, but rather what are the ex- treme divergencies from the mean of such shorter periods. By this method, any approach to a general law will soon be detected, if the extreme divergencies are found gradually to decrease, as the subordinate periods into which the record has been divided increase in length. : Also, What is the probable accuracy of any record the length of which is less than that necessary to give an average which will not be materially altered when the record is extended? Space will not be taken to show Mr Binnie’s views in detail, for which reference may be made to the abstract in the second Hudson report, or, for the complete views, to the paper in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, but assuming that the observations are properly made it is stated that “ depend- ence can be placed on any good record of thirty-five years’ dura- tion to give a mean rainfall correct within 2 per cent of the truth.” Further, it can be stated that for records from twenty years to thirty-five years in length, the error may be expected to vary from 3.25 per cent down to 2 per cent, and that for the shorter periods of five, ten, and fifteen years, the probable extreme devia- tion from the mean would be 15 per cent and 4.75 per cent, respectively. A twenty years’ record, therefore, may be expected to show an error of 3.24 per cent. This is about as close as rainfall records in this country will agree, as comparatively few are much beyond twenty years in length. In his paper on Rainfall of the United States, Mr Henry has examined this question, using long records at New Bedford, St Louis, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and other places. The rainfall has been measured at New Bedford for 83 consecutive years, and at St Louis for 60 years. For a 10-year period Mr Henry found the following variations from the normal: At New Bedford + 16 per cent and — 11 per cent; at Cincinnati, + 20 per cent and — 17 per cent; at St Louis, + 17 per cent and — 18 per cent; at Fort Leavenworth, + 16 per cent and — 18 per cent; and at San HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 97 Francisco, + 9 per cent and — 10 per cent. For a 25 year period, it was found that the extreme variation was 10 per cent, both at St Louis and New Bedford. Mr Henry reached the conclusion that at least 35 to 40 years’ observations are required to obtain a result that will not depart more than + 5 per cent from the true normal. The average variation of a 35 year period was found to be = 5 per cent, and for a total 40 year period + 3 per cent. This preliminary study indicates slightly more range than was found by Mr Binnie, although it may be remembered that the observations of the latter are far more extensive than Mr Henry’s. Again, since the runoff is a function of the rainfall, it follows that it must be affected in some degree in a similar manner. As to just the relation, so far as known, very few computations have been made. Indeed, very few runoff tabulations are extant which are long enough to settle this question. It is clearly, therefore, very difficult to solve definitely so abstruse a problem as that of the extent to which forests affect rainfall. All solutions are necessarily tentative in their character and will be for some time to come. Minimum precipitation in New York. Let us now examine as to what the records of precipitation in New York indicate in regard to the probabilities of extreme low-water periods. The following records of minimum precipitation are herewith in- cluded: At Albany the water years 1895 and 1896 represented a period of very low precipitation. The following are the totals of the several periods: 1895 1896 RIE al af id's at's ns) alle sap. xiao, aba e. one 12.58 14.79 NEON een iy Ne a laa Vagiea en-a0. 3) © 8.88 8.31 SN ENE ea cae ies a ices ake Soka afl S aoa a, 4 bs 8.93 6.64 TEE On Ae Pe ee 30.39 29.74 The total precipitation of the previous year, 1894, was 34.45 inches. It is probable that for the water year 1896 streams in the vicinity of Albany did not run to exceed 9 inches on the catch- ment area. 98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM At Auburn the years 1836, 1837 and 1838 cover a period of very low precipitation, as shown by the following: 1836 1837 1838 BUG AG OL hed aod cehens, ele een epee 19.41 10.37 7.50 AVI 09 ne aan ota alee aka emeeNae 6.39 11.35 8.14 VCC M SIMS 6.555 Sas ntl cae nee ee 6.56 6.78 6.05 Mota i310 bie eae 32.36. 28:50 aieeene Taking into account the sequence of the foregoing record at Auburn, it is probable that in the water year 1838 the runoff of streams in that vicinity did not exceed 3 to 4 inches on the catch- ment area. In view of its relations to the runoff of the Upper Hudson catch- ment area, we may refer to the record at Burlington, Vt., for the years 1893-1896, inclusive. We have the following from the Burlington record: 3 1893 1894 1895 1896 SHOLAge vn. oi eae 8.68 10-35 10.70 9.70 Gromaris. ese a tds 13.78 Ae 10.08 11.05 Replenishing |... . 2... 5.25 8.34 8.19 8.55 Total oat be eG 23.20) 28.97 29 30 Taking into account the low precipitation of 1894, it is prob- able that in 1895 and 1896 streams in the vicinity of Burlington did not run to exceed 5 to 6 inches on thecatchment area. At Cazenovia the two lowest consecutive years are 1834 and 1835, when the total rainfalls were 34.29 inches in 1834 and 32.82 inches in 1835. Inasmuch as streams in that vicinity fall in the Same category as the Genesee river, if we assume similar con- ditions of forestation, the runoff was probably about 8 inches on the catchment area. At Cooperstown the mean precipitation for the period from 1854 to 1898, inclusive, is 39.07 inches. The three consecutive minimum years occurred from 1879 to 1881, inclusive. The fol- lowing are the precipitations for those years: HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 99 1879 1880 1881 | ETE SARE a Rene agen Pee a. cewrams es 14.91 18.57 12.338 MMMM io Pee hee ah ease Piet oe os 8.44 10.05 7.38 MESISHINS . . e ee eee e 6.38 8.61 9.56 BM a le tee es ek coca. 28 oe Ae 37.23 29.27 In 1881 the runoff of streams in the vicinity of Cooperstown probably did not exceed 7 inches. The Cooperstown record is considered one of the best long records in the State. © At Geneva the mean precipitation for twenty-five years, between 1850 and 1898, inclusive, is 30.86. In the period from 1883-1888, inclusive, the precipitation at Geneva was continuously below the mean, as indicated by the following: 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 SLorage ...... 9238, LOc4S 5.61 10.02 6.102 10, 48 SLOWwineg ..... FOLD T tee ie eet LO Th 4d 8.89 Replenishing.. 5.76 5.85 6.35 7.18 4.07 8.22 Maen cl 0G. 2611, 27.39 22.18 - 27.59 For the years 1887 and 1888, it is probable that streams in the vicinity of Geneva did not flow to much exceed 2 to 4 inches on the catchment area. At Glens Falls the mean precipitation for the years 1879 to 1898, inclusive, is 87.76 inches. The following is the record for the minimum years, 1880-1884, inclusive: 1880 188f 1882 1888 1884 ae eee 1G 1 1S 138 0F = 15.97 eins 6G) a Boge ana + 9 BT): 5 Oh ks. Fe Replenishing ......... 138 ete 6-49 108 1s, 26587 eA i a ae 29.72 28.06 31.21 28.19 29.65 A study of runoff records shows that the precipitation of the storage period largely controls the runoff for the year; hence, in a year like 1883, when the precipitation of the storage period was only 15.07 inches, specially when such a year has been pre- ceded by years like 1880-1882, inclusive, the runoff will certainly be very low. Probably in 1883 it did not exceed, in the vicinity 100 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of Glens Falls,.6 inches. In 1884 the precipitation of the stor- age period was 2.90 inches greater than in the preceding year, but this small additional precipitation was probably mostly without effect on the streams because of low ground-water. It appears, therefore, entirely safe to assume that the runoff of streams in the vicinity of Glens Falls must have been quite as low in 1884 as in the previous year 1888. ; At Gouverneur the total precipitation of the year 18388 was 20.93 inches; of 1839, 18.87 inches, and of 1842, 17.06 inches. Assuming forestry conditions at that time in the vicinity of Gou- verneur substantially as they now exist on the Hudson river catch- ment area, the runoff of the streams may have been 3 inches, or _ from deforested areas probably 2 inches. At Ithaca the two lowest years of precipitation are 1884 and 1895, in both of which the total happens to be 26.98 inches. In 1846 the total of the storage period was 9.67 inches, the total for the year being 30.07 inches. It is probable that the extreme | minimum runoff in the vicinity of Ithaca does not exceed 5 inches. At Keene Valley the lowest precipitation recorded occurred in 1881, the total for that year being 28.20 inches. The precipita- tion of the storage period was 13.15 inches. The totals of the previous years, 1879 and 1880, were 32.15 and 33.32 inches, re- spectively. The runoff for 1881 probably did not exceed 8.9 inches. At Lowville the period of lowest precipitation was for the years 1843-1846, inclusive. The following are the figures for those years: 1843 1844 1845 1846 LORAMO Carte tite b eS Som 7.06 11.53 12.90 9.16 rowine neo Se nal 12.12 7.64 8.30 5.78 Replenishing ......... 8.30 7.34 9.60 11.63 ote Sr, core ee 27.48 26.51 30.80 2a kt A marked peculiarity of this Lowville period is the low pre cipitation of the storage period for all the years included. Taking this into account, it is probable that for the years 1845 and 1846 the runoff in the vicinity of Lowville was very low. In 1845 it may have reached 8 inches, but for 1846 it is doubtful if it HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 101 exceeded 5 or 6 inches. These conclusions, it must be understood, are based on present conditions of forestation. In case there were much larger forest areas in that vicinity at that time, the runoffs may have been somewhat larger. At Mexico the total precipitation for the year 1840 was 20.21 inches, the storage period of that year being 9.73 .inches. The runoff probably did not exceed 2 inches. At Mount Morris the total precipitation of the year 1891 was 23.69 inches, that of the storage period being 10.24 inches. In 1895 the total was 25.05 inches, the storage period giving 11.95 inches. From the writer’s personal knowledge of the subject he has no hesitation in saying that in 1895 streams in the vicinity of Mount Morris did not run to exceed a total of about 3 to 4 inches. The year 1895 was generally a year of low precipitation throughout the whole State. Thus, at Newark Valley the total was 28.40 inches; at New Lisbon, the total was 29.93; at North Hammond, the total was 29.80, and so on. An extended analysis of the precipitation records shows that for a large portion of the State of New York the runoff of 1895 did not exceed 6 to 12 inches on the catchment areas. At some places the runoffs were less than 6 inches. At Onondaga Hollow the year of minimum precipitation occurred in 1841, having been preceded by several years Of rather low rainfall. Streams in that vicinity probably do not exceed 6 inches runoff in years of minimum precipitation. At Oswego the precipitation sank to 26.15 inches in 1855 and to 23.46 in 1887; in 1889 it was 30.39 inches. In 1887 the total for the storage period was 10.55 inches. It is doubtful if the runoff at Oswego exceeded about 2 to 4 inches for that year. At Oxford we have the following record for the years 1832-1834, inclusive : 1832 1833 1834 RE. fs Paces vies wc eos Fess 13.72 14.65 9.62 mementos i ara oes ee 8.71 9.61 £L75 Bpepecwmen rae eo ee 5.64 10.69 6.99 MERON cer witha 05s Sac shevsis as wis. s0 0: 28.07 34.95 28.36 102 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The low precipitation of the storage period of the water year 1834 indicates runoffs in the vicinity of Oxford for that year of perhaps 5 inches. At Palermo, where there is a continuous record from 1854-1898, inclusive, there are several years in which the precipitation is given considerably below 30 inches, as for instance in 1871, 27.81 inches; in 1875, 28.11 inches; in 1881, 26.87 inches; in 1882, 28.86 inches, and in 1895, 25.97 inches. The precipitation of the storage period of 1895 was only 10.15 inches. It is probable that for that year streams in the vicinity of Palermo did not exceed a _runoff of 2 inches. At Penn Yan there is a continuous record from 1829-1867, inclusive, the mean of the whole period being 27.93 inches. There are several periods of from three to six years when the rainfall was less than the average. So marked is this that it seems safe to assume that streams in the vicinity of Penn Yan do not ordinarily run more than from 4 to 6 inches on the catch; ment area. In 1854 the total precipitation was 19.66 inches. There are several years in which the total precipitation at Penn Yan for the storage period has not exceeded from 8 to 9 inches. At Pierpont Manor the totals for the years 1852-1854 are as follows: 1852, 30.98 inches; 1853, 27.57 inches, and for 1854, - 28.89 inches. In 1862 the total precipitation was 28.15 inches. At Plattsburg the total precipitation in 1858 was 29.11 inches and in 1859, 22.78 inches. In 1893 it was 25.69 inches, with a total of only 9.92 inches in the storage period. For 1895 the total was 29.75 inches. It is evident that the minimum runoff of streams in the vicinity of Plattsburg does not exceed 6 inches. At Pompey the totals for the years 1836-1838 are as follows: For 1836, 24.22 inches; 1837, 28.37 inches, and for 1838, 24.82 inches. At Port Ontario the total precipitation for 1855 was 26.15 inches; for 1871, 29.76 inches, and for 1872, 28.81 inches. At Potsdam we have the following record for the years 1837- 1839, inclusive: HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 103 1837 1838 1839 oo gS a ee ee eae ay 10570... 10.19 TT MIRAE mae Bee a es Sot hay ts E294 eran 10.20 BMbenichine 4.5.0. .6Gr,.2. 9.63 744 4.67 “EET ea es aes 98.94 27.20 22.62 In 1895 the total precipitation at Potsdam was 381.83 inches. At Poughkeepsie the total for the year 1895 was 31.58 inches. At Rochester there is a continuous record from 1884-1898, inclusive. The mean precipitation for this whole period is 33.61 inches. For the period 1834-1840, inclusive, the total -for each water year is considerably under the mean, as follows: In 1834, 20.37 inches; 1835, 28.67 inches; 1836, 26.88 inches; 1837, 29.57 inches; 1838, 27.02 inches; 1839, 29.97 inches, and in 1840, 28.64 inches. In 1854 the total was 28.06 inches; in 1882, it was 26.74 inches; in 1885, 28.68 inches, and in 1887, only 20.61 inches. In 1888 the total rose to 27.84 inches, but the precipitation of the storage period was only 9.65 inches. It is probable that the runoff of streams in 1888 in the vicinity of Rochester did not exceed 3 to 4 inches. In 1895 the total at Rochester was 30.15 inches. At Rome the year of minimum precipitation for the period 1890-1898, inclusive, was 1895, in which year the total of the storage period was 13.57 inches, and the total for the year 31.30 inches. ; At Romulus the total for the storage period of 1895 was 10.87 inches, and the total for the year 27.76 inches. At Rutland the period 1854-1856, inclusive, covered the years of lowest precipitation. The mean at that place from 1846-1861, inclusive, is 36.54 inches, but the total for 1854 was only 29.50 inches ; for 1855, 32.07 inches, and for 1856, 28.83 inches. In 1836 the runoff of streams in the vicinity of Rutland could not have exceeded 5 inches. | At Sacket Harbor the mean 1864-1898, with four years omitted, is 32.50 inches. The period 1870-1876, inclusive, was far below the mean, the totals being as follows: 1870, 25.16 inches; 1871, 104 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 26.62 inches; 1872, 30.75 inches; 1878, 28.79 inches; 1874, 27.58 inches; 1875, 22.30 inches, and 1876, 25.42 inches. In 1875 the total precipitation of the storage period was 8.63 inches. The total runoff of that year in the vicinity of Sacket Harbor could not have much exceeded. 2 inches. The years 1879-1888 were also low years at Sacket Harbor. The following gives the record for 1886-1888, inclusive: —— 1886 1887 1888 SOMACE is, 6 wa). beers Bees ee 14.64 11.10 4.24 REELING TTD OE he sds ob aah ya unas Cae 7.38 4.10 5.92 HePlenIShine 05 Woe e eee ee 8.82 (oe 14.359 Motal oi) 20 ve we Rae, tees 30.84... 23.165 ote These three years were preceded by several years in which the precipitation ranged from 22.50 inches to 28.87 inches, the year 1885 having shown a total of 26.83 inches. For the year 1895 the total at Sacket Harbor was 29.39 inches. At South Canisteo the total for the year 1895 was 30.72 inches. At Utica the mean of thirty-six years, included between 1826 and 1892, is 42.39 inches. The lowest year of this period was 1836, with a total of 31.75 inches. At Watertown the mean of the period 1862-1898, inclusive, is 33.53 inches. There have been several short periods in which the precipitation has been far below the mean, as for instance 1874- _ 1876, inclusive; 1879-1882, inclusive, and in the years 1887 and 1888. In 1875 the runoff of the storage period was 9.82 inches, the total for the year being 21.16 inches. The preceding remarks as to occasional very low runoff apply with force to conditions in the vicinity of Watertown. The minimum runoffs of the locality may be safely placed at from 4 to 6 inches. At Waverly the total precipitation of the year 1895 was 25.10 inches. | At Williamstown, Mass., in the catchment area of Hoosic river, a tributary to the Hudson, there is a precipitation record cov- ering certain years from 1855-1898, inclusive. The mean of the period is 89.41 inches. The year of minimum precipitation occurred in 1888, with a total of 29.55 inches for the year and 11.24 inches for the storage period. - HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 105 The foregoing data of precipitation in the State are cited for the purpose of establishing the proposition that at times the run- offs of New York streams are very low, though undoubtedly the saving grace of the whole matter is that apparently the cycles of low precipitation do not affect the whole State at the same time. Indeed, it is only occasionally that catchment areas as large as the Upper Hudson, Black, Mohawk, Oswego, Allegheny, Sus- quehanna and Genesee rivers will be all subject to drought in the same year. A balancing of conditions is thus to some extent brought about. Nevertheless, while the preceding statement is fairly deducible from the data, it is the writer’s opinion that if we had complete records it would be easily shown that the pre- cipitation of nearly the entire State has in some year been on an average less than 30 inches, and that consequently the streams of the State, as a whole, did not average in such a year a runoff of more than about 7 to 10 inches. For individual catchment areas, like the Upper Genesee, where the total is 1070 square miles, or for the Oneida lake area, with a total above Brewerton of 1265 square miles, it is quite possible, and indeed probable, that the minimums affecting the whole area may sink somewhat lower. Probably 25 inches precipitation is not an unreasonable figure. If such a minimum should occur for the Oneida lake area, the runoff for the water year would not exceed 5 inches.! Runoff The laws of stream flow. A general statement of these laws from Mr Vermeule is as follows: The waters of the earth are taken up by the process which we call evaporation and formed into clouds, to be again precipitated to earth in the form of rain or snow. Of the water which falls upon the basin of a stream, a portion is evaporated directly by the sun; another large portion is taken up by plant growth and mostly transpired in vapor; still another portion, large in winter but very small in summer, finds its way over the surface directly i The foregoing in regard to minimum precipitation records in New York State has been abstracted from the writer’s report on Special Water Supply Investigation, Appendix 16 of the Report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways Between the Great Lakes and Atlantic Tidewaters. Executive Document No. 149 of the House of Representatives, 56th Congress, 2d Session. ° 106 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM into the stream, forming surface or flood flows; finally, another part sinks into the ground, to replenish the great reservoir from which plants are fed and stream flows maintained during the periods of slight rainfall, for the rainfall is frequently, for months together, much less than the combined demands of evaporation, plant growth, and stream flow. These demands are inexorable, and it is the ground storage which is called upon to anpUIyE them when rain fails to do so. All of these ways of disposing of the rain which falls upon the earth may be classed as either evaporation or stream flow. Evaporation we take to include direct evaporation from the sur- face of the earth, or from water surfaces, and also the water taken up by vegetation, most of which is transpired as vapor, but a portion of which is taken permanently into the organisms of the plants. Stream flow includes the water which passes directly over the surface to the stream, and also that which is temporarily absorbed by the earth to be slowly discharged into the streams. A portion, usually extremely small, passes downward into the earth and appears neither as evaporation nor as stream flow. It is usually too small to be considered, and we may for our purposes assume that all of the rain which falls upon a given watershed and does not go off as stream flow is evaporated, using the latter word in the broadened sense which we have above described. Probably one very important effect of forests is that upon the sround-water flow of streams. The stream with a catchment area wholly or largely in forests will show, without exception, a much better ground flow than one with the area denuded of forests. Neshaminy and Tohickon creeks may be cited as streams with the smallest amount of forest and the lowest curve of ground- water flow. Possibly this is not entirely due to forests, but it may be assumed that they bear some relation to the result. Units of measurement. Clemens Herschel, member American Society Civil Engineers, in his paper on Measuring Water? has defined the essential elements of this question in the following terms : For most purposes the unit of volume, when using English measures, has been agreed upon in favor of the cubic foot, and 1 Examples of ground-water curves for the chief streams therein con- sidered may be found in Mr. Vermeule’s Report on the Flow of Streams, ete., in Final Rept. State Geologist of New Jersey, Vol. III. Trenton, 1894. 2Measuring Water, by Clemens Herschel; An address to the students of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK {OG the nations of the earth being fortunately agreed upon their measures of time, have settled upon one second of time as the unit to use in measuring water. Nevertheless, the million United States gallons in twenty-four hours has become a standard for _ city water supply practice in the United States, and an acre in area covered an inch or a foot deep in a month or in a year is used in irrigation practice. But I would warn all engineers to be very slow to add to the number of such standards of measure for flowing water, and to abstain from and frown down such absurd standards as cubic yards per day, or tons weight of water per day, or even cubic feet per minute (instead of second), and other incongruities. .°. As exercises in the art of arithmetic for children such computations may have value, but in the work of civil engineers they become a stumbling block to an advance of knowledge, and while unduly magnifying the unessentials, they indicate a deplorable lack of appreciation of the essentials of the art of the civil engineer. Cubic measures do well enough for the contents of vessels, or as we may express it, for dealing with the science of hydrostatics. But so soon as the water to be measured is in motion, or so soon as the science of hydraulics has been entered upon, we must get clearly in our minds the idea of rates of flow, or of a procession of such cubic volumes passing a given point in a certain unit of time, as of a flow of so many cubic feet per second. Very little can be added to what Mr Herschel has here said. It is a clear exposition of the whole subject. Such units as cubic feet per day and cubic miles have clearly no place in a modern paper on hydrology. | The unit of inches on the catchment area may, however, be pointed out as an exception to the foregoing general rule. This unit is exceedingly convenient because it admits of expressing rainfall and runoff in the same unit and without reference to the area. It brings out a number of relations not otherwise easily Shown, as will be exhibited in discussing the tables accompanying this report. Characteristics of the minimum runoff. Since the rainfall varies so widely, the runoff, which is a function of the rainfall, will also vary widely. On the Hudson river the maximum runoff of 33.08 inches, with a rainfall of 58.87 inches, occurred in 1892. The minimum, with a runoff of 17.46 inches and a rainfall of 36.37 inches, occurred in 1895. On the Genesee river the observed maxi- 108 ; NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM mum rainfall of 47.79 inches, with a runoff of 19.88 inches, occurred in 1894.1. The minimum rainfall of 31 inches, with a minimum runoff of 6.67 inches, occurred in 1895. These figures of rainfall indicate that either the extreme maximum or the extreme minimum rainfall has not yet occurred on the catchment area of this stream. _On the Muskingum river the maximum rainfall thus far observed. is 56.97 inches, with a maximum runoff of 26.84 inches, which occurred in 1890. The observed minimum rainfall of 29.84 inches, with the corresponding minimum runoff of 4.9 inches, occurred in 1895. It is also doubtful if either the extreme maximum or the extreme minimum rainfall has been yet observed on the catchment area of this stream. As to whether the rainfall will go lower there is no certain way of determining. Moreover, 4.9 inches seems a very low runoff—and the runoff is not likely to be less than this figure. However, the runoff in any year depends very largely on the rainfall of the months from December to May, inclusive. There may possibly be, therefore, a lower annual runoff than 4.9 inches, even though the total rainfall should exceed 29.84 inches. The rainfall for December to May, inclusive, was — 13.04 inches. The runoff for that period was 4.04 inches. Division of streams into classes. The foregoing statements indi- cate that, as regards runoff, streams of the eastern part of the United States may be divided into classes. In the first class will fall streams where the maximum rainfall is from 50 to 60 inches, with corresponding runoff somewhat more than one half of the rainfall. The minimum runoff will be about one half the rainfall, or a little less. These statements, it may be again repeated, are general ones, to which there are exceptions. Another class of streams, of which the Genesee and Muskingum rivers are typical, are those with maximum rainfall on their 1In the combined Genesee river and Oatka creek record the maximum runoff of 21.22 inches occurred in 1890, when the rainfall is placed at 47.54 inches. This, however, is less reliable than the rainfall and runoff of 1894, which latter is accordingly given the preference. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ~ 109 catchments of 40 to 50 inches and with a corresponding runoff somewhat less than one half of the rainfall. The minimum runoff for these streams is from one fourth to one sixth of the corres- ponding rainfall, or from about 16 per cent to 25 per cent. A further class, the far western streams, may be mentioned, in which the runoff is only a very small percentage of the rainfall, in some cases not more than 4 per cent to 5 per cent, or at times even less. Probably comprehensive study would further subdivide these streams, but the intention at present is to merely call atten- tion to some of the more marked peculiarities as a basis for final detailed study. If one takes the streams of the far west, as for instance Loup river, in Nebraska, with a catchment area of 13,542 square miles, where the rainfall in 1894, observed at 24 stations, was on an average only 12.84 inches and the runoff of the stream did not much exceed 1 inch, he will find entirely different conditions from those above stated. In many cases streams in that locality run much less than 1 inch. The South Platte, at Denver, Colo., in 1896, with a rainfall of 11.84 inches, ran 0.62 inch. The catch- ment area at this place is 3840 square miles. At Orchard, Colo., the South Platte, in 1898, with a rainfall of about 17 inches, ran 0.9 inch. The catchment area at this place is 12,260 square miles. The Republican river, at Junction, Nebr., with a rainfall of about 26 to 28 inches, in 1898, ran 0.39 inch. The catchment here is 25,837 square miles in extent. The foregoing statements indicate the essential truth of the proposition that, broadly, each stream is a law unto itself. Any formula, for either maximum, average, or mean runoff, which » does not take this into account is incomplete. - Estvmation of runoff from rainfall diagrams. Can runoff of streams be estimated from diagrams of monthly rainfall? The - writer has spent considerable time on this problem without arriv- ing at any very. satisfactory conclusion. For some months such a diagram may be made to fit quite closely, while for others, differences of as much as 2 or 3 inches appear. The conclusion 110 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of the writer is, therefore, that such diagrams are at the best crude approximations. Such study is, however, very fascinating, and it is not surprising that different hydrologists have attempted at various times its solution. Two lines of work may be men- tioned. One is, by a combination of a large number of streams. and their rainfall, to attempt to produce a universal formula. This, however, as has been already shown, leads to what is, in effect, a hodgepodge. Averages 80 applied *‘ bring out class like- nesses, to the exclusion of individual features.” } The other method is to plat rainfall and runoff appearing monthly in inches, as abscissas and ordinates, respectively, and in this way to preserve the individual peculiarities of each stream. In some respects the most satisfactory way is to plat the rainfall and runoff of the storage, growing, and replenishing periods, thus grouping similar characteristics. Storage in lakes. The runoff of a stream is very materially influenced by the number of lakes within its catchment area. If there are many, flood flows may be expected to be much smaller than they otherwise would be. Oswego river, as a marked stream with large lake pondage, may be discussed in this connection. The total catchment area of this stream is 5002 square miles. , It issues from a region with a mean annual rainfall of from 30 to 40 inches and with heavy snowfalls, frequently melting suddenly at the end of winter. Nevertheless, the ordinary flood-flows do not exceed 4 cubic feet per second per square mile, and even extreme flood flows are only 6 to 7 cubic feet per second per Square mile. As to why this is so is an interesting question which may be answered by considering the large temporary storage on the surfaces of the lakes, marshes and flat valleys in the Oswego area. In order to show this, the writer has prepared the following tabulations, in which appear the names of the sev- eral lakes, with their approximate catchment areas, areas of water surface, areas of flats and marsh, and total area of water surface, flats and marsh. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ACIAG (1) Seneca basin Total area of Area water surface, ee eres cana mara. marsh, Name of Lake or River. sq. mi. sq. mi. sq. mi. sq. mi. Canandaigua ......... 175.0 18.6 S20; 26.6 EUS 52 RO age ee 187.0 20.3 3.0? 23.3 MQMCCA ci vince se ee 707.0 66 .0 4.0? 70.0 eas ese nis 2 1,593.0 66.8 2.0 68.8 MISCO fhe ois oe ot co She 208.0 12.4 5.5 17:9 Skaneateles .......... (esta) 12.8 0.5 ito ae BSC ON ore tne yee 34.0 3.0 0.5 Sep) SEEDS ig aa a Paes oe (a) 4.3 (2) 4.3 Crome ae 233 .0 4.0 0.5 4.5 Beneca river . 2... 09... naka!) 350) (2)r 3.5 Montezuma Marsh. 00 ele eek. 45.0 45.0 Miscellaneous small FAOHMGE SS Meets tn sates cat By Lee Be Ode ca ei oeae cates Bw) Miscellaneous flat | valleys Rebate a ey dicta Cath cheb oll etal Bas 20.0 20.0 MOnbAL Pees os cae ass 3,433 .0 Dios 2 89.0 304.2 SS a a = ae (2) Oneida basin CAZEMOVIA Sos ee es o> «9.0 2.8 0.3 3.1 MVCN hi 8 ee Pe ee 1,265.0 80.0 120.0 200.0 Miscellaneous small WOM OE So Gis. disse hoes Ba OES Fin cea ds ae0 Miscellaneous flat WN ten Aapcttstesarayc voc tksrniar eles tia‘ 6.0 6.0 Omeida TAVER. oc. 6 62 33 128.0 0.9 PAL 3.0 UGA kes imei au are Mi ree 4,835.0 304.8 217 4. 522.2 (3) Oswego basin Miscellaneous small 7 OMS: a cites a kiscasvireee 96 fae om ats VD oat Me Gee PARE OewWeLO LIVET Re +25 dsa5 - 160.0 2.0 3.0 5.3 TCA) Se ea Sie ae 5,002.0 309.3 220.7 530.0 (1) Hnlargement of Seneca river. (2) Area of flats and marsh included in Montezuma marsh. . 112 ; NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The foregoing tabulation is mostly self-explanatory, and attention is merely directed to the footings, from which it is learned that.the total area of water surface is approximately 310 square miles; the total area of flats and marsh, 221 square miles, and the total of water surface flats and marsh, 530 square miles. Dividing the total area of water surface, flats and marsh by 5002, the area of catchment basin, it appears that the total area of water surface, flats and marsh is 10.6 per cent of the whole eatchment. We do not often have flood runoffs in New York exceeding 3 or 4 inches in depth over the catchment area, but 4 inches in depth over the Oswego area would be only 37.7 inches on the pondage area of 530 square miles. Several of the large lakes of this basin fluctuate considerably between high and low water. From tabulations given in the Report of the Superintendent of Public Works it is shown that the fluctuation of Skaneateles lake, which is drawn upon as a canal reservoir, is as much as 5 feet, and of Otisco lake, about 4.5 feet. According to figures given in the Eleventh Annual Report of the State Board of Health of New York it appears that the maximum fluctuation of Cayuga lake for a long series of years has been 7.06 feet, although this large fluctuation may be possibly partly due to work done by the State in cutting out the channel of Seneca river for the purpose of draining the Montezuma marsh. Ordinarily the fluctuation of Cayuga lake does not exceed between 2 and 3 feet. From March 4, 1887, to December 2 of that year, the lake fell 2.98 feet, and from March, 1889, to December of that year, the fluctuation was 2.3 feet. The figures are not at hand giving the fluctuation of Canandaigua, Keuka, Seneca and the other large lakes of this catchment, but it may be certainly assumed that they do not vary greatly from the preceding figures of Skaneateles, Otisco and Cayuga lakes. By way of illustrating how these great natural reservoirs tend to prevent floods, it may be mentioned that the configuration of Cayuga outlet with rela- tion to Clyde river is such that frequently, when there are heavy rainfalls in the catchment area of Clyde river, Cayuga lake being at the same time at a low level, the entire flood flow of Clyde river A) HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 113 is discharged into Cayuga lake without affecting Seneca river below the mouth of Clyde river at all. It is undoubtedly due to this fact that fall floods on Oswego river are almost entirely unknown. The evaporation of the Oswego river catchment area is exceed- ingly large—about 28 inches—whence it results that the runoff from a mean annual rainfall of from 36 to 37 inches does not exceed about 9 or 10 inches.! Computation of annual runoff. No general rule can be formu- lated for computing annual runoff. The formulas of Mr Vermeule are excellent formulas of the purely empirical class, applying fairly well to many streams in the northeastern part of the United States, but they do not apply at all to streams of the middle west and far west. Nor do they apply to some streams in the north- eastern section. Nevertheless, they take into account the ground water, and are the most useful formulas thus far devised. It may be mentioned that Mr Vermeule specially disclaims any inten- tion of working out any formulas applying outside of the State of New Jersey. His general formula is in the nature of a suggestion. Discrepancies in computation of runoff. In computing the run- off of various streams small discrepancies will continually appear, and when such do not exceed 1 to 2 inches they are outside the limit of discussion. The question does not admit of such minute- ness as to permit the discussion of small differences, although a difference of 2 inches on several thousand square miles would be much less serious than on the usual municipal catchment area of from 20 to 100 square miles. The size of the catchment area should, therefore, in this particular be taken into account. | Moreover, the runoff of streams has thus far been almost uni- versally over-estimated. Only a few were really down to the actual fact. Probably in no department of professional work are there more things to be taken into account than here. Actual gagings preferable to general studies. While on the gen- eral subject of the computation of runoff the writer may repeat 1The preceding chapter has been abstracted from the writer’s report on Special Water Supply Investigation to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. 114 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM what he has said in his report to the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, viz: The data for estimating the water supply of a large canal, specially when on a large scale, should be based, when such data are available, upon actual gagings of streams, rather than on general considerations derived from study of the rainfall alone. An examination of a large number of estimates of canal water supplies, based on the usual method, shows that rainfall data alone are in close cases inadequate for solving a water-supply problem of the magnitude of the one now under consideration. When, however, actual gagings of the streams, extending over a sufficient number of years, are available, there is no reason why a water-supply problem on a large scale may not be worked out with the precision of a proposition in mathematics. What is here said in regard to water supplies for canals is equally true as regards all other water supplies, either municipal or for water power, etc. Farther on in the same chapter it is stated: It is not intended to say, however, that rainfall data are not of use in a hydrologic discussion. When, as in the present case, in addition to stream gagings an extended series of such data are available, the argument is made doubly good and the demonstra- tion strengthened. When records of gagings are available the computation becomes very simple. It is merely a matter of simple addition and sub- traction. The complete data required in order to compute the safe pos- sible yield of a stream are as follows: 1) The catchment area. 2) The rainfall of the minimum year, as well as for a series of years. 3) A ground-water diagram of the stream or, lacking such, a diagram for a neighboring stream lying in the same or a Similar geologic formation, and, so far as possible, with similar condi- tions of forestation. 4) The available storage capacity of the stream. 5) The loss by water surface evaporation from the reservoirs, together with an estimate of the loss by percolation. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK coe The data required for ordinary computations may be frequently limited to the totals of the storage, growing, and replenishing periods, although. when ground water is to be taken into account the monthly data should be given. Formulas for runoff. At the risk of being considered some- what elementary the writer will give the more important of the formulas for runoff, expressed in terms of inches on the catch- ment area: I __ mxXQ~x 86400 x12 : : m™ Ax 640x 48560 (5) Whence we deduce, nmxQxC ; I, = ak aa (6) Also, QxC, | ate (7) and Q Poa 8 Pa (8) To change gallons per day into inches per month we have: Also, 7 I Bee, Jere 10 ae: (10) In the reports of the United States Geological Survey the dis- charge of streams is sometimes given in acre-feet per month. To reduce such to inches per month, we have, when total acre-feet are given: : Seon Tae oui (11) In these formulas, A=—area of catchment in square miles. B=total acre-feet per month. D=cubic feet per second per square mile. G=—gallons per day. I,,—=inches in depth per month on the catchment area. I, =inches in depth per year on the catchment area. a—number of days per month. kG NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Q—cubic feet per second flowing from the catchment area, as determined by gagings. C,= constant = aera 640 x 438560 fe.— constant — ee) 640 x 48560 C= constant —= (—aacassa): (7.48 x 640 x 48560 12 C= constant = Ga The constants, C,; C,; C,, and C,,- are left im, form item ies arithmic computation. For a given case, catchment area 1s con- stant, and A, in the final logarithmic form, will be combined with these. It is sometimes convenient to have a formula for converting discharge in cubic feet per second into inches draining from an area in 24 hours and vice versa. The following formulas answer to these conditions. In these formulas, Q—discharge in cubic feet per second. — 7 34 Coe ie SI 2 GR RNR I? SSE Rn ae ra ie 20°56 ~14.05 . 46.51 eens ta ois tei ee eG agile ap Wo, 1a. 42* -oe. 6G DDE SEEN Geet oe getdate oe area 21.91 18.35 48.56 ete BH. 20. oy Th Sacto PS (Oro ely A O38) 0. Of, GD DSS: 5 Spe aa ae a es 17.46 6.67 +10.79 Drteree Re ee Oe le 8 23.63 12.80 410.83 RUM ie og a! cnc 26.19 9.388 416.81 nee ee rs en TS Ee Ok ey on too TPR SIB. 4112-52 Se taME Re dee PS, BB Akl SH oh; timeatenoats, A416 440.11 BO eo raed rs = — 132 NBW YORK STATE MUSEUM COMPARISON OF EVAPORATIONS, HUDSON AND GENESEE RIVERS Hyahorsuen Evaporation of Hudson of Genesee Year area area Difference NN ee eric hap a Sg hoe Se ah heen PC hey ae Rye Ue 21.79 26.32 —4253 BIR aR Betts ga ee er rd Nl aa Set era a en ee ee 22.40: 24.07% ieee 1S 5 As ee ne Sag Rn MEM eae Meet ne Aalst ine ne 20.79 26.27 —5.48 | JS aa alae arirg ert of. ga ae 20.27 25.95 —5.68 “acy 4 SAO ee Oe eae rr ney wee AU Mr eebmcnarne te 22.00 . 28.419 =6e45 MODS coe oy SS a chdy he ac Pee ee ee 19.21 24:33 —5a2 1 oy LP aetna ais gate Pen a poh hc ly, whey eats 21.58 27.88 — 6.30 130) Qn DS eaeier mio fan renese fe (seta Sup peal 20.382 25.01 ~—=2569 ES AD a ees Se Rae anG oso eee, Saree 20.65 20.8% > —=fe¥2 MCA Gc sos Se a ES ey 21.00 26.18 —5.18 It will be noticed that in the first of the two preceding tabula- tions for the Hudson river, there are eleven years included and that the average of the rainfall is 44.94 inches; the average runoff is 23.98 inches, and the average evaporation is 20.96 inches. The Genesee river, on the contrary, only includes nine years, from 1890 to 1898, inclusive. | _In the second tabulation the years 1890-1898, inclusive, have been taken for not only the Hudson river, but also for the Genesee, for purposes of comparison. The taking of the Hudson river for nine years instead of eleven makes a slight difference in the means. The rainfall is 45.27 inches; the runoff, 24.27 inches, and the evaporation, 21 inches. The Hudson river table is not worked up to date, although the data are at hand, for the reason that the Genesee river data do not extend beyond the year 1898. There is no way, therefore, of comparing the two since that year. Variation in weir measurements. The writer has shown? the considerable variation in weir measurements due to the difference in form of weir alone. So great are these that any conclusions based upon the data of sharp-crested weirs applied to other forms 1Partially abstracted from paper, Data of Stream Flow in Relation to Forests, by Geo. W. Rafter. Lecture before engineering classes of Cor. Uni., Ap. 14, 1899. Trans. Assn. of Civ. Engrs. of Cor. Uni. Vol. VII, 1899. 2On the Flow of Water over Dams: Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLIV, p. 220. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 133 are extremely unsatisfactory. In one case of a flat-crested weir, the flow at a given depth is only 75 per cent of what it is over a sharp-crested weir. Variations of from 5 per cent to 20 per cent are common, as may be easily observed by examining the tables in in the paper on the flow of water over dams.* In view of the importance which gagings are now shown to bear in estimating the value of a stream for water power or city water supply, in future every statement of stream flow should be accompanied by a concise statement of the method of gaging used, thus permitting hydrologists to judge of the general relia- bility of the method. Had this been done in the past, some of the uncertainty which now attaches to many gaging records would undoubtedly be removed. Genesee and Hudson gagings reduced to sharp-crested weir measurements. The writer has shown in another place that Gen- esee river gagings have been reduced to sharp-crested weir meas- urements. As to the Hudson gagings, pl. CX XVII in the Report to the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, may be cited. This plate is a comparison of the discharge over weirs by different formulas, and it appears from it that Mullins’s for- mula for a flat-crested weir, which has been used for the Upper Hudson gagings, at a depth of 4 feet gives results less than Fran- cis’s formula for a sharp-crested weir by about 10 per cent. How- ever, in order to simplify the computation and to avoid velocity of approach, the width of the crest was taken at 5 feet. Again, the crest at Mechanicville is not flat, but is slightly sloping back- ward. The sloping front probably affects the flow to increase it somewhat. There are also flashboards used during low water, which are properly computed by Francis’s formula for a sharp- crested weir. These several elements undoubtedly make the problem somewhat complicated, but taking everything into account it is probable that the results as computed are not far from right. They may, however, be in error as much as 2 inches per year.? 1On the Flow of Waters over Dams; loc. cit. *See the diagrams of Hudson and Genesee rivers on this point. 134 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM _ As regards the relation. between mean annual temperature and evaporation, the questions raised by Mr Vermeule are very inter- esting and have received considerable study from the writer ever since the publication of Mr Vermeule’s report in 1894. This study has been specially directed toward determining whether there was any way of showing by diagrams, ean that any such relation really existed. Evaporation FiteGerald’’s formula for evaporation. We may consider Mr FitzGerald’s formula for evaporation,! which is == 60 In this formula V—the maximum force of vapor in inches of mercury corresponding to the temperature of the water; v—the force of vapor present in the air; W=the velocity of the wind in miles per hour; and E==the evaporation in inches of depth per hour. It can be shown that there is going on nearly always a condensation of moisture from the air upon any water surface. At the same time there is going on a loss of moisture from the water surface by evaporation. The intensity of both these opera- tions depends upon the difference in temperature between the air and any water surface with which it may be in contact. When the temperature of air and water is the same, theoretically both processes stop. Broadly, evaporation may be said to measure the difference of these two exchanges. Wind velocity also exerts a decided effect on the intensity of evaporation. For illustrative purposes, v, the force of vapor present in the air may be computed by the following: a an 0,480(¢—1’) 7 (31) 1130—7¢’ In which v=force of vapor in the air at time of observation; V=—force of vapor in a saturated air at temperature of t’; ¢t—temperature of the air in Fahrenheit degrees, in- dicated by the dry bulb; i’—temperature of evaporation given by wet bag h==hight of barometer. ‘Tyans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XV, pp. 581-646.” oe, 0) HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 135 The temperatures indicated by the foregoing formula (31) are above the freezing point. For temperatures below the freezing point, the denominator of the fraction in the second member of the formula should be 1240.2—7’. For Centigrade degrees, the denominator of the fraction should be, when the temperature of the dry bulb is above the freezing point, 610—?’, and when the temperature of the wet bulb is below the freezing point, the bulb being covered by a film of ice, the denominator should be 689—?’.1 There is no difference between evaporation from a water surface and evaporation from land, except that on a water surface it goes on continuously, while on land evaporation may be interrupted from lack of something to evaporate. The preceding formule shows that the force of vapor is dependent upon the difference of the dry and wet bulb thermometers, and not in any degree upon the mean annual temperature. Evaporation relations. Prof. Cleveland Abbe? gives the follow- ing relations of evaporation, as established by Prof. Thomas Tate: a) Other things being the same, the rate of evaporation is nearly proportional to the difference of the temperatures indi- cated by the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. b) Other things being the same, the augmentation of evapora- tion due to air in motion is nearly proportional to the velocity of the wind. ce) Other things being the same, the evaporation is nearly in- versely proportional to the pressure of the atmosphere. | *In the original discussion of this matter, in paper on Relation of Rain- fall to Runoff, there is an error of statement in formula (31). The de- nominator of the second member should be 1130—t’, instead of 689—t’. The former expression is for Fahrenheit degrees, while the latter is for Centigrade degrees, and with the bulb covered by a film of ice. In formula (30), it will be noted that Mr. FitzGerald makes V the maxi- mum force of vapor in inches of mercury corresponding to the temperature of the water. Recent study of this matter indicates that there is considerable doubt whether formula (31) strictly applies in the computation of V, but since for present purposes an illustration of the matter is all that is needed, it is not attempted to settle these difficult questions in physics here. *Preparatory Studies for Deductive Methods in Storm and Weather Pre- dictions, by Prof. Cleveland Abbe: Ann. Rept. Chief Signal Officer for 1889, Part I, Appendix 15. 136 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM d) The rate of evaporation of moisture from damp, porous sub- stances of the same material is proportional to the extent of the surface presented to the air, without regard to the relative thick- ness of the substances. = e) The rate of evaporation from different substances mainly depends upon the roughness of, or inequalities on, their surfaces, the evaporation going on most rapidly from the roughest or most uneven surfaces; in fact, the best radiators are the best vaporizers of moisture. f) The evaporation from equal surfaces composed of the same material is the same, or very nearly the same, in a quiescent atmos- phere, whatever may be the inclination of the surfaces: thus a horizontal plate with its damp face upward evaporates as much as One with its damp face downward. | g) The rate of evaporation from a damp surface (namely, a horizontal surface facing upward) is very much affected by the elevation at which the surface is placed above the ground. h) The rate of evaporation is affected by the radiation of sur- rounding bodies. i) The diffusion of vapor from a damp surface ihinaaee a variable column of air varies (approximately) in the inverse ratio of the depth of the column, the temperature being constant. j) The amount of vapor diffused varies directly as the tension of the vapor at a given temperature, and inversely as the depth of the column of air through which the vapor has to pass. k) The time in whith a given volume of dry air becomes sat- urated with vapor, or saturated within a given percentage, is nearly independent of the temperature if the source of vapor is constant. 1) The times in which different volumes of acre air become sat- urated with watery vapor, or saturated within a given per cent, are nearly proportional to the volumes. m) The vapor already formed diffuses itself in the atmosphere much more rapidly than it is formed from the surface of the water. (This assumes, of course, that there are no convection currents of air to affect the evaporation or the diffusion.) Effect of wind and other meteorological elements. That the velocity of the wind must have a very material effect upon evap- oration, and hence upon the runoff of streams, is at omce apparent on inspection of Mr FitzGerald’s evaporation formula, given in a preceding section. Again, on examining the annual summaries HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK AST in the report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau the average yearly velocity of wind is found to vary from about 3 miles to 16 or 18 miles. With other conditions the same, evaporation will be much larger with a higher wind velocity. The preceding summary of evaporation relations further shows that evaporation will vary in some degree in proportion to pressure, temperature, moisture—which may be taken to include dewpoint, relative humidity, vapor pressure, precipitation, and cloudiness—and, finally, in proportion to average velocity of the wind. Jt may also be expected to vary in some degree in propor- tion to electrical phenomena—thunderstorms, auroras, etc.—but as yet we know so little about these that they can be no more than mentioned. The writer, however, believes that studies in the direction here indicated would be very prolific of results. For this purpose two or three stations, observing all the elements herein enumerated, should be established in each catchment area. In the present study an attempt has been made to correlate these elements with the runoff, but, aside from the rainfall, the data are too indefinite for satisfactory results. It is for these reasons, with others, that the writer is able to give only tentative conclusions in regard to the relation of rainfall to the runoff of streams. Persistency of evaporation. The persistency of the amount of evaporation for any given stream at about the same figure through long periods of time was first pointed out by Messrs. Lawes, Gil- . bert, and Warrington in their classical paper On the Amount and Composition of Rain and Drainage Waters Collected at Rothamp- sted, published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England for 1881. As to why evaporation exhibits such per- sistency these distinguished authors consider it largely due to the fact that the two principal conditions which determine large evaporation—namely, excessive heat and abundant rain—very rarely occur together. The result is, specially in the English climate, a balance of conditions unfavorable to large evaporation. In a wet season, when the soil is kept well supplied with water, 138 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM there is at the same time an atmosphere more or less saturated, with an absence of sunshine; while in dry seasons the scarcity of _ rain results in great dryness of the soil, with scant, slow evapora- tion.1 N egative evaporation. Ina strictly scientific sense this term is : taken to mean that when the temperature of the evaporating sur- face is lower than the dewpoint, water is deposited on that sur- face. As regards the rainfall, runoff, and evaporation tables, herewith included, negative evaporation means that the runoff for certain months is greater than the rainfall. Sometimes this may legitimately happen when a heavy rainfall comes at the end of the month, or when, with much snowfall, the temperature of the month is mostly below freezing. In order to show as much as possible in regard thereto, the writer gives the detail for each of the tables of Muskingum, Genesee, Croton and Hudson rivers, together with a tentative view as to the real significance of the so-called negative evaporation. On Muskingum river, during the 8 years gaged, negative evapo- ration is Shown only twice for one month. On Genesee river the detailed tabulation shows negative evapo- ration 5 times for one month and once for two consecutive months, a total of 7 months in all. ; On Croton river, for the entire period of 32 years, negative evaporation is shown 29 times for one month and 6 times for two consecutive months, a total of 41 months in all. On Hudson river negative evaporation is shown 7 times for one month and 4 times for two consecutive months, a total of 15 months. , The writer has no doubt that, except in very cold climates, when negative evaporation occurs for three or more consecutive months, there is an error in the gagings. He also doubts their accuracy somewhat when negative evaporation appears for two consecutive months. As regards the storage period, there is no difficulty in 1Since the presistency of evaporation has been extensively discussed in the writer’s paper on Stream Flow in Relation to Forests, it is merely touched on here. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 139 accepting it for one month as true, because rainfall or snowfall at the end of the month can be easily carried over to the next. This is also true sometimes for two months, but for the present it seems quite doubtful that other than in exceedingly rare cases would negative evaporation occur for three consecutive months. Its occurrence for six consecutive months, or for the entire storage period, is believed to be impossible. It may, however, be again pointed out that its occurrence renders an attempt at monthly diagrams showing the relation between rainfall and runoff absurd. Assuming that the foregoing propositions are reasonably true, it follows that the frequency of the occurrence of negative evaporation in gaging records may be in some degree a criterion as to their accuracy. The writer, however, does not wish to urge this very strongly, but merely to point it out as a possibility. The writer hag no desire to be insistent on this point. There is very little on the subject of negative evaporation in engineering literature, and the writer will be glad to have the observations and conclusions of others. | In a report on the flow of the river Thames, by A. R. Binnie, Chief Engineer of the London County Council,! the matter of nega- tive evaporation is elaborately discussed, and in order to obtain all the information possible about it Mr Binnie applied to George J. Symons, F. R. S., to assist him in arriving at some approximate idea on the subject. Mr Symons submitted an exceed- ingly lucid and conclusive report. Eleven distinct cases of nega- tive evaporation were submitted to him for study and comment. In regard to these he arrived at the following conclusions: 1) Under normal] conditions a fall of rain will increase the flow at Teddington weir on the second day after it falls. . 2) Under normal conditions the water running off from any given fall of rain will all reach Teddington weir before the tenth subsequent day. 7 3) In the winter an interval of two months, or in extreme cases even more, may elapse between the precipitation of moisture from the clouds and its flow over Teddington weir. *Report on the Flow of the River Thames, by A. R. Binnie. Publication of the London County Council, dated November 1, 1892. . q 140 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AS a consequence of (2) it is clear that a heavy rainfall on the last days of any month may not appear at the point of gaging until the next month. Mr Symons also states that the one great fact which has been impressed upon him by these investigations is the effect of winter frosts in regulating the flow of the river Thames and in mitigating winter floods. These conclusions are more specially intended to apply to the river Thames. Hence, while it is true that so-called negative evaporation exists on all of the streams considered, the condi- tions are nevertheless very different, and in the United States the effect of holding back the flow of streams by frosts is in very many cases to precipitate a flood of water later on. This element would hardly be considered with us as either a river regulator or as mitigating floods.! : Evaporation at Ogdensburg. Observations of the amount of evaporation from water surfaces in New York were made by Prof. James Coffin, Principal of Ogdensburg Academy, in 1838. The following are Professor Coffin’s results for the vear 1838, as taken from the Regents’ reports for 1839: Evapora- Mean Month “iuches oc nebent ae ae SUMMA, dc ee vorete See ae eee 2.36 1.65 24.8 TENE) EN EUS ev ere Pe ee a ce a. 0.97 0.82 12.3 TABS REl (To iSla iy Saar a SUS ae pees ee? Geer © ae ats 2.07 32.9 PAREN Oren en es Ak Sees ige lke akewes IN. ().40 1.62 39.8 IN saree eed! oc eMad Pia. gare cre ee age 481 el) 52.5 UNICORN ra AS so. CARR eu Rey Se (A 6.75 66.5 ol! (WII te, eee tea AN a ae acd pee RP arta ERD | 1.88 gees) Tk JDL UIS TEAR ae ae Mee cain ie 33 5.42 68.3 SCMEMINER wires ccs. cee det eos 1.01 7.40 a9. 2 WepoMeirr tae fe ek See ee! hes 3.95 44.6 INO MeO Meee ares bois LE de 2 OF 3.66 29 WDC CEM DER peste sulis is hese ede hades 1.08 1.15 19.4 ‘NOTES AG AA Ree Re Mie ds a eee es 24.61 49.36 43.5 tNegative evaporation is discussed somewhat more extensively in the writer’s paper, The Relation of Rainfall to Runoff, than it is here. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 141 Professor Coffin’s results were obtained by observing the varia- tions of weight of a dish of water of the same size as the rain gage, with which the evaporation determinations are compared. This method would probably give results considerably in excess of the truth. Moreover, a single year is too short a period for safe results. Croton Water Department evaporation records. Table No. 29 presents the results of evaporation for certain indicated months (1) for the years 1867-1870, at Boyd’s Corners storage reservoir, Putnam county, as determined by J. J. R. Croes,! from a wooden tank sunk in the earth; (2), for certain indicated months, 1864- 1869, inclusive, from a wooden tank sunk in the earth at the receiving reservoir in the City of New York; (3), from a wooden tank in a batteau at the receiving reservoir in New York, and (4), from a tin box in a batteau at the receiving reservoir in New York. The foregoing evaporation experiments are referred to in a paper by Mr Croes on the flow of the West Branch of Croton river. The gage used was a tight wooden tank 4x4x3 feet, sunk in the earth in an exposed situation and filled with water. As indi- cated, the mean evaporation at Boyd’s Corners for the indicated months was 24.47 inches, while at a_ similar tank at the reservoir in New York city it was 34.06 inches. Mr Croes attributes the difference in these results to the different methods of observation and measurement, and states that the Boyd’s Corners observations were made twice a day, and any discrepancies that might have occurred were thus found and corrected at once, while the observations at the reser- voir in New York city were made only once a month, the differ- ence between the reading of the gage on the tank and the ob- served rainfall being taken as evaporation. Mr Croes therefore considers the work done at Boyd’s Corners reservoir as more reliable. ehrans, “Am, cSoc.-C,..E.;, Vol. It, 1874, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 142 90° FE {8° 66 8t SE 80° TE 19 LE VG GE GT LE i 960 VEG 69'@ 6 eececere ee se f[e eee ees eeereseeee lps leave eee ee ee ae es 0 ~~ «lo9's—SsCd@ 9¢°0 eT'T aye oe g Le 9 ggg joss = jag7g—fea'e uss '99°2 6'F ese 10's 18% 6lb eek —- [909 og'¢ geo fess "MOANASAL BWIAIA00L 4D YIIDO UY YuNs Yuoz, UapooM 6 V se ep ip. -0) wie) see) 8) em ‘ci |honlanmelete Je le) silva ce el.esmi @ \e).9 {elds ke) Sie) e° 8) me: we 16 (Cine el aiie LV Ve evreeeee & 19 &@ 80 06 99 LG —_—___ (81) T8430. 70°0 = owt ovr oor e eee ele se eere ee ele ee se & 6 © © 00° T TE Stk OL T 40 0 \P T 69'°& Gus ane ee) ‘00d “AON "490 60 & 80°F 66 V 06°% VL v 90 ¢ G8°G 06°& co V 46 & 8&6 & 86 °€ 96 °G WwW? 698 Cis (8) (4) yy S “ada “sny Ayne i ——————————— '* UBOT Free sseess gogy ae ent Peete sees poor Freese ees QogT ros GQQT Feteeeee es ggg ss * UROL “5+ Qyoy Da Nctes Fete teees Boar bee teeee nese ess Qogy Ferseeee eres pogT —— a MOALISIL BODLOIS SLBUAOQ SPhOT 1D 44.1 UL YUNS YUH] WAPOOM, INGAWLUVdad YALVM NOLOYD AHL JO SINAWNIVIdXad NOILLVAOdVA—6 97° SilersMOhen a ek reMebeteroms: oPameicne PONG TS ok CUR Oncaea One: c 19q0300 Ze"G 91°F 10° G 00°9 (0 LF 66" $ 69° G 08° > |Te°9 61" G 29" - 80°9 See ater OSE rower anon tutte aren nlehchemenion her ete reheaepecelecmentGens requreydeg 68°9 26°C 909 16°2 SP ! we 9 66" 9 G6" 9 Gio), GQ"), Ge"), OOe Onarlcr as ete” eee ae tinge sete tee eee ee ee we ee ‘qsnsny ze"g 96°9 198°8 %B"8 9) 9 10° 6 EL L or L 18°8 98°8 G9°8 SOHO. Hey teegs eo Got eat tetera, Seer a a eae Ame 162 '29°9 10°8 976 818 16°9 16° 9 20" 9 eG'G a ee°Q 1S’ L Sgloloa drs ee SES Sy Pa ies rans ane ea eune 10°9 '26°S 16'F 99°9 eG eg'e [ogc I9g° I) 78°8 ZG'g %0'9 °6'F Cbka geaid ebgeieesaros Dy Weneon cena eras nitat ree Mpa ee CSE 89° p 6r'F 61 F gh ¢ 96" $ 88 'F 12° ia oF y 16'F 62°F 6S 'F 6o'F Sa Ag OE Er CA Ancets SuSE hoy Omen ee ADC OO eRe Sw Caibcecee + sad yy Aut) Geant hein tios Once to Gach Cud cillicaG-020, Cech apo CcaG dlboue co alld A ecitlliceaiCeO RON toc, OROA Tach Gach Ghicatcch| purine moun PSacm 55 6.O-crOS0 ME ein Mer Ianto nano aree eis Shere rene nnistenene ene YOre TAL Ce OCC ir sates Hos Seo ollisedsosnrs ollicho accel 6:3 Beer hedliemahiceeiionel iemeire: [enero eed ollslansi| Kuans Bee | eee tos et aciacisO i SC MOR CROCUS BNC ieee Tar scat me STernO OMI HOWORO RS TC Aren.1G 2,4 te eee ieee A eeccet es ced ah OS TARR es: aR ic OS ia ee Re A liscan Wars raaeere tamer) OR ote 2a ae eae largiteng (eT) | EO COD GIO) We eee 0) | (O) Gee eee) es (a) (T) uve | ZO6L TLO6T | OO6T 6681 8681 L681. | 9681 C681 F687 €681 | C681 HINOW (seqour UT) HAISQIONI ‘ZOGI-G68L PALSHHOOY LV GHAUASAO SV GNVI NO SNL GIsOdxXd NV WOT NOILVAOdVAW—TE “ON FIAVL HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 147 then forced underneath, cutting the frame and contents free, the box and contents inverted, and a bottom of copper, dishing slightly to a common center, where a pipe was inserted and securely sol- dered, and to which a perforated guard was attached, was strongly fastened into position by bending the copper sides over the edge of this bottom piece and securely soldering. _ These three boxes were then carried from the point of filling to the drain-gage lawn, where they were placed carefully in posi- tion, their surfaces level with the surrounding ground and the pipe which passed from their bottom carried into a subterranean alcove built below them, and upon the arch of which the boxes rested, with the intervention of about six inches of soil. These alcoves branched from a pit carefully arched and to which admit- tance is obtained by steps. A bottle kept under each drain gage and to which the pipe leads enables us to collect all the water which drains through, and a graduated measure enables us to measure this water in thousandths of an inch, thus making a ready comparison with the rainfall, a record of which is kept by one of Green’s eight-inch gages located alongside. In order to estimate the drainage from different kinds of soil, these gages have different classes of surfaces. On the surface of No. 1 is a heavy sod; of No. 2 the surface is bare and undisturbed ; while of No. 3 the surface is kept pulverized during the open sea- son by frequent stirring with a trowel. | An edging of hard brass, one inch high, extends around the top of the frames, accurately defining the area. Hence, all the rain- fall over the area is compelled to enter the soil and by measuring the amount percolating, we can account for the balance which evaporates. Having the three gages we can calculate the amount of water evaporated from growing sod, from a bare surface and from a stirred surface, respectively. The difference between the precipitation and drainage from such gages is taken to represent the evaporation from the ground. In order to show the meteorological conditions existing at Geneva, table No. 32, Precipitation at Geneva Agricultural Ex- periment Station for the Water Years 1883-1889, Inclusive, is given. This table, however, while apparently a table of precipi- tation, does not give a complete record of precipitation in the form of snow and is somewhat deficient as to quantity during the winter months. Nevertheless there is a tendency to very low NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 148 66°93 ——s|_—* 16" GILG |__ 8ST 68 LS LL'¥@ 90°86 Wet ht ee tee "rots yeqoy AT Tee K 19°9 98° 6 8'8 L0°% STL ce"9 gg'¢ OURO g er I aie we re ee ‘ported sutystuctdoy So Motte 36 mate aa bee 505 “ier tr ial (oe aes ees oe ene oe TOqUIeAONT osralae nae Dee oa fe Son ANG ime noe Sees RA erie 3 negCacGi as ae 09° ahs CL"0 18'S relied | Lig Ponca i Ab oonoMbohdbauaGedo Guo eh uous requreydeg eh OL 0° FT 68°8 Their 61° OT CL'St 8L°¢ DT ONO eRe PR Petes wa is potted sup aory) eeeccee 961 00 'F e0'e 98°¢ 60'S PPT LP e poodghounmoas PoepoeoupuavooooaG eee eee qsnsny eeeeee Lo’ PT 66°0 12°9 It P t9'F GE'S 96'S sa eT RS eae ae a a aa Ajue vessel gen | 88° (Ce Snees 2 ey ce al | Ce eee oma 68°8 £9°6 8r'0 0L°9 6001 T9"¢ eh OL olga re Races Cie saat oe ported 008.1099 oud 006 121 61'S 970 26° 9G" T. 6r'S CE EEY See oleae RIS Fao geen rma EN SONS | KEW eeeene 8% 2 60°2 LET el'P 9% T e9°() 9c" T Goro Gt cs0rcnon Geo OOO GOett Oro) o> OO Ub oO DOO oO [udy 2 SHE alpen a Se ne 4 sous 3 |e onignie ae ecue Bees ene oan on aon: Tae Ee eibent 2s ce" 2 Ce" F0'T 16S C60 190 10'S PPT i. (e) Velie ste? yet (eu fe le. ies (e) efhs) isle cea x) (e190) <9 isles baBE eee, eis lens AICNAQI A Ll eeeeeee 66° 81,0 ST '0 el T L0°T e8°T QF 0 siitsh elceule) (ai lshifs) ei lerie) a\ (6) (eiieiile) \e) (A) Jee) opiella) «/ (ovlelie) eu (aice|euie) ie Arenue pr hee ey ae" Seon ao een aa Hoge, a\eeeen gee ee nee qoquieseq (6) (8) (4) (9) (¢) (7) (g) C9) (1) uve 6881 888T 1881 988T S881 P88 S881 HLNOW (Seqour UT) AAISOTIONI 688T-ES8L SUVA WALVA TH YOL NOILVLIS INAWIYAdXa IVAALINOIMSV VAGNGY AHL LY NOILVLIdIadg—Z§ ‘ON ATAViT, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 149 records at the north ends of the valleys in this vicinity, as at Hemlock lake, Avon, Penn Yan, Lyons and a number of other places, and the Geneva record is probably not very far out of the way. In order to compare the precipitation record with that of the drain gages the precipitation for the water years 1883 to 1889, in- clusive, is given—the yearly mean for the period is 25.99 inches. The yearly mean precipitation at Hemlock lake for the water years 1877-1900, inclusive, is 27.70 inches. The mean of the stor- age period at Geneva from 1883-1889, inclusive, is 8.89 inches, while at Hemlock lake it is 12.21 inches, indicating that if these two records are otherwise comparable the Geneva record is short in the storage period a little over 3 inches. Continuous records were kept at Penn Yan from 1829-1867. The mean rainfall for the water year of this period of forty-eight years was 27.93 inches, or substantially the same as Hemlock lake. For the calendar year of 1899 the recorded precipitation at the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station was 19.35 inches, while at Lyons for the water year 1899 it was 20.91 inches. On account of the uncertainty as to the winter months, the Geneva record is not used in compiling the average precipitation of the Oswego basin as given in table No. 34. In table No. 33, Percolation of Drain Gages at Geneva Agri- cultural Experiment Station for the Water Years 1883-1889, In- clusive, we have the runoff of the three drain gages given for the water years, divided into storage, growing and replenishing periods, and in table No. 34, Runoff Data of Oswego River at High Dam for the Water Years, 1897-1901, Inclusive, we have given the rainfall, runoff and evaporation for these years. This table shows that the average runoff for the years included was 11.07 inches, while the preceding table shows that the average runoff from the sod for the seven years, 1883-1889, inclusive, was 5.07 inches; from bare soil, 7.55 inches, and from cultivated soil, 11.12 inches. The average rainfall during the years 1883-1889, inclusive, was according to the record at Geneva 25.99 inches, while during the years 1897-1901, inclusive, it was 36.50 inches. This excess of rainfall in the period 1897-1901, over what it was in the period 1883-1889, would, by itself, cause a largely increased runoff. In NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 150 | ae cgo's epe’e jozo'e |184°02 604" oT|L00°8 ( Fete : CEP’ OT SLs 9 'e80 ; 199° |6LL°F 118s Le IT 9Lh'8 lesc'e |" 000°F [0080 Jun, 8 |6L6°0 009°T 291m loe6:T | 070 \STS"0 loge’ | 0°0 086's e66'T \gt0'L |°°**** ‘porsed Surysrueydoy 000° F |008°0 0°00 &F9'S \646°0 096'°0 |0F9'0 \8TL'0 0°0 0°0 0°0 00 e860 108° 0 Ce6.07 | eee = S| OGG AO NI 0°0 0°0 0°0 joge's coc’ 0 | 0'O |S10'T ITPO'T 0°0 IS9T°O |ZET°O 0.0 888° 796°0 880'0 [°C ttt tt *10q0700 0°0 | 0°0 | 0°0 0%e"O |G41°0 OGe'T jOTS'e 961'°0 | 0°0 joce’o leor'o | 070 ee9°0 Lee'0 | 0°0 |v t+ zoquraqdeg G0¢"L |ces'o | 0°0 lor9'9 eset | 0'0 |eeo'F |ez6'e |800'0 J90r'0 90¢°0 t0'0 ‘cx6°e ogr's lore t [°° "7" ported Supaox4 ef —— ———————— |_| ———————————_ | — ——————_ | — | — — EE eee cco LT |S69°0 0°0 086 7 OFT 0 00 |6E¢°T |TS8'T |800°0 00 0°0 0°0 ‘eee’ 696 0 | O20) ee ee ee STL SFL 0 |OFT 0 0°0 OLL T COF TI. 00 )0F9 LT \99¢'T 00 |9T8°0 |826°0 00 697 0 OSE OOOO Oa et ee Ea ae eA ae 00 00 0°00 069°0 |OFF' 0 0°0 968'0 |G10'0 : OO 0G0L0ri8cGr0. SIOROYSI2G ISL 0G bles te Se one 68P & |106°S 1069'S a 8EL 4 \L0F 9 SPSS 967 T 710.0 (974° 7 S10 FP 964°8 688" F FS0' PF 99ST | ++ porsed eseir0yg SS al gears poe ral pce Ma Ease a ane A a SAN ee eee G81'0 [0F0'0 |ee0'0 jog’0 [g00°0 | 0'0| 070 | 0°0 | 0°0 joxo'r jors’0 | 0'0 ‘ofo'e l6er's frost | Sen OSG’ 0 |OFT'O |06S'0 loce¢ OSS’ S |06h'G |0OV9 TF 186L°0 |720°0 |OTS' 0 690 °0 061 0 99¢ £ i166 FT |100'°0 PTS SS ICSI Seopa soem |e 064°0 |e8r°0 |0FS'0 josd"0 JOso'T j4seE | 0°0 | 0°0 | 0'0 |TT9°E |ee9'T loze'T |t00°0 'T00°0 |100°0 [itt ttt goren OOF T ILLP'T \S88°T O€8'0 JOFE T ISTO T 00 00 0°0 |694° T \OPS' TL (690°6 00 OO Gri Oe CO LOE°0 |SF0'0 OVE O OST T j086°T JOFS T 199c°0 |996°0 0°0 |0°0 '626°0 620°0 |900'0 2S0'0 |200'0 [°° ccc ccc Arenuee 0680 0S 0. 00g 0 9060 CPL T i€l6'0 16880 SSP 0 00 |180°0 |$F0'0 SOTO 676 0 (1460 (OO es = St lay > oe ae ** L9qQ ULBD9(T CO TOE LONG) YC GD) EO a) Ga) I EE (Ga) ye ea (T) 1108 [ros [ros [tos [IOs | elias [Ios | [fos [Ios [fos Fatng | over | POS | Elis | over | POS | Ting | fea | POS | Eaitg | oxva | POS | Roig | area | POS sel HLNOW ISB 988I G88 F981 E88T Batic Ome [e404 AT 1V9 XK | ‘688I-E88SI Suvax (Soqour UT) HAISONTONI WALVM HHL YOL NOLLVLS INGTWIYACXA IVHALINOIWDV VAENAD LY SH9VO NIV JO NOILVIOONag—e¢e ‘ON FIavy, 151 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK “OYVI SVA ‘/ggT ‘IoQuIGDEq] LO] pIODEI AoyJOYA y.10doa 9Y4 DIOIF UIVJIIOUN SI 4] x. cou'e lere's lown'e lees 089° 186°@ 66e°T /299°0 pent ispe's [9041 1LFe'0. ee eeeele eee eo 199°6 |VIG'& = G Selo G ot ep eens eee oe eee ceo allele) (ofa) te| elvis) <8) wilhalla prs) «ie eee. a) oie) @ \e).6)|) 010-010 @ p)l|\ @ wie tele, 6 oeee eeeeewejy*t®t#ree . oeeeenr eoeee (CAG as te) P.31aU0 est | OS | ros up | Ber | oie pos reat 131090 : a LENA —— 118 JO | GULULIWO 6881 PUB 9R8T uevoy SUVGA HLIM NVAW @16'h ort 1099's lox0'e lose’ Pt 099 etlove etleos"9 logge |e90'F | ee iatiee 1eq04 ApTe9 K. BLES 880. 7 leon t T j986'T j0ge's” “¢ es'F } 080°F jole’s Sen's [968s |'-*- “ported Surystaepdey * ° ee »e eee se eceerleeo ee ee 061 '€ 06'S OFS e 0880 088°0 C9), 0 ° . oe cee ee eee esee “OQ ULOAON Soksrleradeepldics tise owe -lngeke: lage lapeeinola: 1 OOni ODEs tee oe “7990900 aoe arene sean 5 018.0 OUP 0 0°0 0180 ggg" ose’ T | eee Spe eis) (eke, wire ets) edie ub ipi asks tlequteydeg B16°T 8ee°@ |966'T e1¢'0 loze’y ogre ogee OSE CulOGCi Ele OCOEy meee ‘ported Sarmorp So eeeoerel[oeeee eee Eee ""19e¢'0 0%2'0 020°0 0860 086 '0 0°0 Ce : . qsnsny eee ete ee aae oe ey oes sale 03" T 0°0 | 0°0 0°0 0°0 a (Slate laisse ie) ah et eP Gulp, (eile! s.\eing (afare@er slip! wlisieyen Aqne oss ea Ne ee 0CE sO UGE Wee ee OST SN DOC sO UUs cc te eee ace wiebaian” 8 Bs9"S 'GEB"E \6SL'S [ELVES [0G8°F |00G'S jOG8"S g9L°0 |GOS'T ‘OL T | ported 098104 Becca sede) oaks ale eae a lan es Pe a ie 9 a pulenguito @00 ko bo eae 2 ca one 2 ada SMe te te On aesty er ol anaes (SOE TE CEQ’ T 086 T 019 0 OSt'T OLE°1 aoe CU CnC CONC Tek bc eC ee ‘judy iste os) aie eer ES TM Ee 1) O8F 0 00 00 | OOH Rear eee ee ae ‘ “"'* YOTe Seine el e||/'4) owl el et losieab)| cers! mee sis 680°0 G00 0S0°0 | 0°0 00 | 0°0 Seale ora RCA aie: eieieaw We OE erates * Kren.iqeq a, eee wats: a ws pee Oe hese ieee Ocl I 0@8"T eet"0 CCT'¢ | 0°0 ee Ara ke @ ble te ere 0 0s tie) eabierns "+ ATenuee teeeecleveeeseseees[osossloge-t loge T |OUG'T | 00m O'Ox! O'Oe|'Coccococcee : zequnedeg (oy) Ce 1G) 4) ace) eed a) | ata) (1) fete Rae | soit Loa IOS . ros ist ates pog pave ated pog ee le pos ear “FIND W100 re) HINOW | Nvaw 6887 8881 (Seqour uz) PopMIvOQ—NOLLYLS LNAWIGAAXA IVAALINOIWDV VAINAD LV SHOVO NIVUC JO NOILVIOONAT—EE ‘ON TTAVA, Runoff in inckes Runoff in inches Runoff in inches 152 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM order to compare the two we may plat diagrams showing the rela- tion between precipitation and runoff in the years 1897-1901, in- clusive. These diagrams may be extended so that they will show TGR Eaa0a HBEeesesneeeou GR ESSER SERBRRRaAS aan ann ig tzecccess Sooocassoecersessaevarseeceracasraaaeraae REECE SSORED PER BESERRS Be BSeSoDeeeeesoug | tt S20000000 00000008000 eSeeeeeeeeeSeeSeeeSSaSne ann FEE EEEECSEEEEEEEESEESEE EEE CECE EEE EEE EE eee te rot EEE Beeetatetsteatatta H | HEC peepee RES Sees eeowara a tan SEEEeaE8 |_| aan BESERaEa SESo + | | TAT = ise PEEHEEEE EEE spec sauueeuueaee rH BEEEEEEEECEEECEHE EE EEE EEE an EEEEEH [eal | lA Fe fafa] = aa |_| | | Hie cH HHH [| re pee a Dest EC 50 . Cee SoeaGeeenGnaee i Heres ced HGnnbssssstelOosesssafiniz ae FEE EECEEEE EEE He Seceenee an 4 EEE EEE EEE ane an Sean CT] Bean Bae onos an oo oH 4 fea fede H4+H4+4+4 oH scste EEECEE SPEEA EEE oO 10 Rainfall in inches. Fig. 1 Diagram showing the relation between precipitation and runoff in the Oswego river catchment during the storage period. 10 a cS st aa SERS SERRE - eee \\} SESS SSSR R8L. sipssstdfeesszssesstccrsz sa esttats PEGE Ee ECE \ (4) cy 10 135 Rainfall in inches, Fig. 2 Diagram showing the relation between precipitation and runoff in the Oswego river catchment during the growing period. ere | Bags HO BSaSeSEn) S) BEE EEE Peet Ef Rainfall in inches. Fig. 3 Diagram showing the relation between precipitation and runoff in the Oswego river catchment during the replenishing period. approximately the runoff with a lower rainfall, as in the water years 1883-1889, inclusive. Figures No. 1, 2 and 8 are such diagrams as platted from the record of the runoff of Oswego river, 1897-1901, inclusive. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 153 In order to extend these diagrams to lower limits, there are a few points platted from the extreme low water of Desplaines, Muskingum and Genesee rivers, these latter being indicated on the diagrams. Taking from these diagrams the probable runoff of Oswego river for the water years 1883-1889, inclusive, we have for: 1883— Inches SS IRDIDEL ULE “SB Bh ep iee an ena arn eee ee eer 3.00 EOWA GT IM eS Lol ead Shenae oi 1.75 LEE TOIT TUS) GTR ADA Ne ee A Re 0.80 ‘SE GEUEIRY® ROE Beto dokects rete Renae i re a 5.55 1884— SS UDIIBS Pennie Fae hae ok Rn 3.40 LEATAQINY EAI She a ES AURA 2 A 0.50 EeeHrenS MMe ee sey eres Bk Nk 0.80 Rea UObALS ee eae a ER a a ede k 4.70 1885— BSI Nace Mir Se ea a peres AM oa By Like, PA east Resead et 1.70 STAG AITO sed a eee 9 aR oho re eee eS 2.60 AG [POMS ENE IV OM ted, Po) ins mes fo Ses ado: «as ee 0.70 plea DyarbOtalic. S425. y.% fp tatee SO ) ea 5.00 -1886— eT Ey Baie Bev a gs gota eg ee eee 3.30 St, OPN ee eee A Sets 3 athe gee Sag 3) 9 1.60 BREW CMMSMMUL ys he as Abt yh olen 2 ps yeah ws 0.85 ‘Vaeialit--? iE Tape th ee Me aM Zen ln 5.75 1887— SS ULO PADIS PG RUNS ae A Teepe tA ar a a 2.00 SALTO LTO ges, Se aie © Seeger a Pe 2.20 eS RCTS IDI ce te SE Re ne a ala AN ee SE seit Se. 0.50 BCA EOI MMR as ded, tun ds Od» Nilesa-o Geri oso Ih =cialolo oon} ll) Gc OF Oost oso co 98°0 oe eee o ne #5 @ sls @ Co 0 oe ee eo ipa ee om eae Bien Were eS PLU AE bee ces dee 9s Beats te ance a as SE aaa Se fee ene 27 1] See eee ene ec en aososcue ar sr: 8h'8 eee 9L°9T Lk oF TT | €9°8T | Lo"6 TE Sex| Os ie Ivo Dil gg arene “ported e6B10}§ © (ao) j8i<6 61a, Foi faye) oi| ees) 0) a) ce [If se) ehiw sete vo |) ee el 0) a) ce, tas 8) sh 02°% see eo Doo Cho cere Oo 4 9), 1. Cee ae Tian eee ea Cae Cee 5 C Se kei ip ayselieiee my 6 ie 6) ||) telieie esis, J Wwe ee im ‘J e) tee lelew © si 100 08g eee eee | we ee we oe ww CLs Cr Tudy Boece eeepc a Oh tele es enaky Shae ea hoe tot |e fet) ppp. [cceces [eres ee ene bees eee eens ees oe ego Seale mulvagie)(msyrewern || a lwimelta\ /eifsitey | wil) 4) late tecctienieg chet relas— ein) (6) (eure. e 920) Gan dM a vee ee ew ow 96'0 see coe See iat. “as Saar. ewe eee AGT EER any Oral ia) aire Copiarie) le (ait | emelie) es) ° coe ewe Ce ee 2% T. ao poo GCodqoGG0uUn Cc 010 eee eee cies pair ee wl barter ads Se AC CHEN TTOLE Mado TGt aioe | eee a eae Ee ee eee sore [ccc [cette | getg. | ccccce [eee tteceesesceseseeeess s+ zoqumeaecy (F) (¢) (3) (F) (g) (8) (7) (g) (8) (1) UoTye1odBAg_ | youny | [[ejurey | uoMmesrodeAg | Pouny | [[eyurey | uoryetodeag | Founy [eyUurey —— HINOW NVaWW TO6L (Se[It sienbs ONO'G JO BoIB JUETIQI1BD 9y} UO SeqoUr UT) O06T Papn)/aIuvo0O—_NVd HOIH LV AAATA ODAMSO AO VIVG JHONNY—PE “ON WIdvV 156 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1888 — Inches Storage pervs Lek Gete oe eon ma hee hea Sie eae nee 3.50 GOWAN Sage tek LE oe ys ee 1.15 ep lemishin@: Sate. is a ee has ieee as eee 1.00 Yearly: totality ee se errr aici ako es ag 5.65 1889— SHOPA@Os 0 o UA UR eet pee gee te ocean ee 3.10 GLO WHILE. 72h ise rae ee aly ae eo eae 3.95 Replenishing (aii. Babee pe ee eee 1.05 Yearly total............. ccc eee eee eee S105. Mean 20 u20, Lae RR epee Coe Re ae 5.63 Comparing the foregoing mean of 5.63 inches with the mean of runoff from sod, bare soil and cultivated soil, as per table No. oo, we see that the mean of all is 7.91 inches. If, however, we omit the years 1886 and 1889, which appear to be abnormally high, we find that the mean of all is 5.77 inches, which compares very closely with the mean found by the computation. Undoubtedly there is some inaccuracy in the record of the drain gages, as well as in the record of the precipitation, and the foregoing computa- tion is given chiefly to show that with good data the computa- tion of runoff from a rainfall record can be made with consider- able precision. In the Sixth Annual Report of the Geneva Agricultural Experi- ment Station (1887) it is stated that discussion of the results from these drain gages has been deferred, hoping that sufficient data would reconcile the discrepancies existing between the drain gage results and what apparently takes place in outside soils.t In regard to the discrepancies, the foregoing discussion as to over- sight in precipitation records largely explains them and probably further discussion is unnecessary. | Nevertheless, it should be stated that in an ordinary drain gage, since the soil within the gage is not in connection with a perma- nent water table, the acquisition of water by capillarity from ‘Report of Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva for 1887, p. 389. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 157 beneath is excluded and the conditions within the gage are differ- ent from those existing in outside soil. This leads to the earth within the gage becoming abnormally dry in times of drought, and on the advent of rain absorbing more water than it would if not thus isolated. In order to obviate some of these possible diffi- culties, new drain gages were constructed in 1888, which differ from the preceding gages by being provided with an artificial water table which is kept at a nearly constant hight by the addi- tion of sufficient water, daily, to make up the loss by evaporation. An even distribution of water is insured by a layer of pebbles placed at the bottom covered with another of clean sand, the lat- ter reaching up far enough to cover the drain pipe. The soil above, while not directly in contact with water, rests upon a satu- rated layer of sand. Four drain gages were constructed on the new plan—two contain a column of soil three feet in depth, ex- elusive of the sand at the bottom, while the other two contain a column of soil six feet in depth. One of each pair was filled with soil in place in order to preserve its natural composition and solidity. The other was filled with air-dried and sifted garden soil. Each drain gage was made of whiteoak staves of equa] width, cylindrical in form and lined with sheet copper. The area was one ten-thousandth of an acre as before. - The cylinders filled with soil in place were sunk about the col-: umns of soil by excavating on the outside and dressing down the column to fit the inside of the cylinder. The cylinder having been sunk to the desired depth was inclined to one side sufficiently to break the column of soil at the lower end, when the plank bottom was inserted into the fissure thus formed. After various manipu- lations which it is not necessary to describe, the cylinder was lifted with jackscrews until it could be rolled out of the excava- tion, after which it was loaded upon a wagon and hauled to the pit prepared for it, where it was unloaded, with the end intended to enter the soil upward. The plank bottom was removed and six inches of earth taken out to make room for the layer of sand and gravel upon which the column of soil rests. The drain tube was inserted, soldered to place, after which the copper bottom was 158 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM soldered on. The space between the copper bottom and the end ot the cylinder was fitted with a false bottom, after which a plank bottom was put on and securely fastened by means of angle iron. - The drain gage was then lowered to position by means of an in- clined plane and a windlass. After connecting drain pipe with drain gage pit, it was inserted and soldered to place. ! The apparatus for supplying water to these gages is quite dif- ferent from the usual form. When there is percolation from the drain gage, the water percolated flows out through a drain cock and is collected in a bottle beneath it. On the other hand, if the soil of the drain gage absorbs some of the bottom water, the level of the latter falls, permitting a bubble of air to enter, which passes upward and is conducted into the upper part of a reservoir out- side the gage. This allows an equal quantity of water to pass out of the reservoir into the drainage tube. : Table No. 35, New Drain Gage Record, June to December, Inclu- sive, 1889, from the Report of the Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion for 1890, gives some of the particulars of the workings of these new drain*gages. These new drain gages were not satisfactory and the record was discontinued after December, 1899. 3 The hight of water in wells. The hight of water in wells is related to evaporation, and in order to show some of the phe- nomena connected with the movements of ground water, a series of measurements were made during 1887-1889, inclusive, of the hight of water in an abandoned well at the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station. The well is forty feet deep and situated near the top of a ridge of such a hight that in three directions it is necessary to go only a few hundred feet before reaching land lower than the bottom of the well, while in the fourth direction there is a railroad cut, the bottom of which is but slightly above that of the well. The measurements began December 1, 1886, and were continued daily until the end of 1889. In table No. 36, Hight of Ground . Water in an Abandoned Well at the Geneva Agricultural Experi- ment Station from December, 1886, to December, 1889, Inclusive, _ HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Ria peels Cie p sicrel| fetta tieiue tas eerie Sich weiiey teietie. ce 6198 OF PE 09'T¢ Le OF sical ‘o, attatislinas| eesinealel cms ““Tpeyure 0} esvurerp 90 10g | ge’ bE) 008" 98 008° Cl 002'6 000° 2 008° FT 009 Ge 9) Ai ie) (@) 8) 6) ooeirel ie) «a8. 16 wiki ie) sa) Ws) 6) 8) wirelie eo oer oe OSCULBIG o99'9F | 69e"ee | 6oo're | epe'ee | 6cs'oe | 999°0¢ | Iss9n fo “7772 portddns zoqem peqog, ELS otk weg 7 ON 0T0°0 | e100 | 988°0 | 8F@'0 | 09970 | 86u°e | FOTO |" ee era oe MWOATOseL wtoTZ UoT}d10sq Vy 0c9°9T | 9¢e"g¢ | SBI PE | 969° SS | 66B'0G | 898° OF | LAL OL | ek = Se ee) OM Wier sw Weyl n ele ene See Chet Cech By Clare 0 69 ST 2 FP OF 2z QC &F Paes OG O60 08. 0 4 aoe " Treyures 04 esvurlerp 4900 Idd ) OOF" tet 0g2"@é | 0008 | 008'F | 000°6 | OOG'OT | soF'es PU Rea SB fon 12 ee 8e6'9T | 1¢6°¢e E eeL'be | 99L'Ce | 008 008°0% | 166'9F | 96°92 | Sh Sigg nes ‘** porddns rezva [eqoL, CE ante ae sar ¢ ‘ON SST ef er a Ea Re bone nian ies O9°9T | 9GE°SE | BT FE | 969°SS | 66G'0S | B98 OF | LLL OL [OO Technine oat Treyarey J ee oes eo ele ee ew eee oe 9% OT ec'¢ 6r° IZ Ce [[eyure.t 04 osvULBap qUdd. 19g 0S), SI. 008° 9% 000° CL 008° 008’ _08'0 008" or ei POS 6) ya (6) w) Oy Bh rulve) tele) "oto hk PUN Sarg bia MPner eval «Mel ats. con bemelsiisie o.cvUreIg 989°9T | 988°9¢ | BIZ’ FE O18" ce | eee | spo'nr | 068'9L [00 eh eae ae porddns toyem peyoy pp @ ‘ON 980'°0 | 080°0 | 960°0 | STT'O | 040°0 | O8T'O | BIT'O fii tt tt ttt +s afoadeser urory uorydsosq Vy 029°9T | 988°SE | SST Fe | S69'SS | 660°0S | 898°OF | 44-94 | Sager Ie FEA We ress Tpeyurey J Ce Cry ee eee ee elo eee ones $9 Pe IL’ 9% 96 OF CZ LE Nicairay es) “airs is)) 6 wle eee "*[LesUres 0} osvareap 4u00 10g 00L° ST ogee Te 00¢°9 006°8 008" G 008° 6T OOG eee ee are er eos AEC oy /E lacie) ‘ainat fou eseureiq eog'or | ogee | terre | eaues | 1re-08 | e96°9P CL6'9L | hae a ae poryddus oye pez, iene T ON GLOKO ROO (0; S00" 0. se in0 sO ar 0( sn C80 Ome | eal tle eae ee’ TOatoser Woy WoTyd.108q ¥ | OS9"9T | 99E°SE | SBI" PE | G69°SS | 668'0S | 898°9F | LLL OL | ge ey oat eat Tea (6) (8) (1) (9) (¢) (7) (g) (6) (1) “00d “AON "490 ‘qdag “suy Aine oun | go3us ulBip MON (Sor}IT UT) HAISNIONI “GSS ‘adawaodd OL ANAL ‘axoodu ADVO NIVEA AMAN—Ge ‘ON ATV, —_—_ _— _— _ — wes 0G 861 Lo YP Lv dk Ie'T 86'S 990 co 0 666 vo T MUSEUM (6) SotOUr ‘qjuoUL sulpodeid JO [[BVJULBY NEW YORK STATE 6881. ee 8c 7 GO 'G 0G SL Lb §& F8 OL LG v9'8 60 P 66 9 66° 0 oo PT 88 °§ 69 9 6L°6 WO S 60°& LG P er tL 60 9 vO 1 iiss 84 0 99 7 cs 1 (8) (4) Bniterster ro} uimeaead 160 JO [[BJUIVY 888T (9) yooy ‘101BM 04 Q0UB ISIC, 8g" bh CL 60" Le 10" OF Le- 8P 0 46 °6 8t'0 ve I (¢) MOM 5) ore soqour *‘UqUuOUr oulpoooid FO [[BfULBY A881 aay ‘1078M O} Q0uUBISIC, Door tet ie tia poder a o-oo ao reo oe On Op OF reiCied aciaiomec® O soqoul ‘qq. UO0OUL sulpaoe1d JO [[BJULVY 9881 COO koruc ag ‘@) ) 6) 6) ble Sus © le ceri) qJooy ‘10VBM OF J0UBISICL Roan tip, io oy eure amien@isia cence ells Uetiam@ilalire ‘Ty 19Q0}00 aituarss GiSt arena, Seu eS aT requieydeg OU ane ie LEP Et Ito Ole fc Ch Oto FOC OR En Ao a. if asnsny 1 Ajne ULV d HAISNIONI “68ST “WaaIwaoaq OL ‘ogst ‘saawaoAGg WOUL NOILLVIS LNAWISGdXa IWYNLINOIWSV VAAN AHL LV TIA GHNOGNVaV NV NI YHLVA ANNOY AO LHDIE[—9G ‘ON Wav, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 161 we have given the distance from the curb to the water surface on the first day of December, 1886, and on the first day of each month thereafter, and also the rainfall of the preceding month. 1886. __ 1887. 1888. 1889. I J 1 % a == _ z —-r»A—2,—- ~#*—3-3-=-5 3-303 -4 -P 3S Eva | SS fiacaf Saree Bawa a BG WPS | i Bex Bs femuhec| fence aes nea fee spree al ai es la SS ee Ee ie BE aS a sa eee Bae by nS ae ale Ss aaa pes | ad a ee aS 2 BS Saas EABSRs *» Se ae a Pd ae we CF Be Gel Bay Lp ES (SBE a6 eae ; ie Eas a BS Cy se S56 06 sew ee tg es Des 2 a ae Sa es by i ESEIg8 2S Sime RAy a fe ae a ne is mA SS S wae io Sa Wael a rss Ya Dias oa [Se (eas SS a ee = Rnb Gabe RS ee es ee (Scale for hight of ground water in feet and for rainfall in inches. ) Fig. 4 Diagram showing the relation between rainfall and hight of ground | water at the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station, from December 1, 1886, to December 1, 1889. In the cut, figure No. 4, the figures in table No. 36, have been platted, showing graphically the relation between rainfall and hight of ground water for the three years from December 1, 1886, to December 1, 1889, inclusive. In discussing these records, the Acting Meteorologist of the Agricultural Experiment Station notes the following facts: 1) Fluctuations in the precipitation from month to month did not much affect the hight of the water-table. The very light pre- cipitation of January, 1887, did not stop the rise of the water- table, nor did the extremely large rainfall of July of the same year cause the water-table to stop falling. 2) The rapid rise in the water-table from January 7 to April 1, 1888, or from December 1, 1888, to January 1, 1889, was not due to large precipitation during this time, nor was the fall from May 7 to November 1, 1888, due to small precipitation. 5) The rapid rise of water from November 18 to December 1, 1889, was in part at least due to the heavy rainfall of the 18th to 23d, which found the soil nearly or quite saturated. The rainfall for that time was 2.60 inches, followed by 0.51 inch more during the latter days of November, 162 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Although evaporation played an important part in the fluctua- tions, so far as appears from the report, this element was not taken into account in drawing the foregoing conclusions. The error in precipitation, due to not fully taking into account the amount of snow, should also be considered. Relation of Geologic Structure to Runoff Among the principal factors affecting stream flow should be noted the structure and texture of the rocks, specially those of the surface. For example, in regions with stiff, heavy, clay soils, a larger proportion of the winter rainfall runs off on the surface, passing immediately into the streams, than is the case in regions with open, porous soils or extensive sandy areas, while in summer a much smaller proportion runs off. But such streams have a very much smaller ground- water flow, from whence it results that the total runoff per year is smaller than for streams with open, sandy soils. The Genesee and Hudson rivers represent the extremes of the State in this particular. A general knowledge of the surface geology is therefore desirable in a study of the water resources of the State. The relative position and area of the dif- ferent geologic formations are best shown on the large Geologic Map of New York prepared by Dr F. J. H. Merrill, State Geolo- gist, in 1901 (scale 5 miles to the inch). A similar but smaller map by the same author,showing essentially the same features was also printed in 1894 under authority of the Regents of the University to accompany the Report on the Mineral Exhibit of New York at the World’s Columbian Exposition, this being on the scale of approxi- mately 14 miles to an inch. This map was also published with Bulletin 15 of the State Museum and was reproduced in 1901 by Edward A. Bond, State Engineer, in his report on the proposed barge canal. On examining either of these maps one will note the preponderance, so far as area is concerned, of two classes of rocks—the ancient crystallines, which cover a large area in the northern part of the State, and the conglomerates, sandstones and shales of the Devonian, which form the greater part of the Appa- Jachian plateau, stretching from Lake Erie across the State to HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 163 within a short distance of the Hudson river, this being the area classified by the State Weather Bureau under the names of the Eastern and Western plateaus. The streams from the northern crystalline area undoubtedly furnish the best water supply of the - State. This is probably not due wholly to the character of the rocks, as many other factors contribute to this result. The sandstones of the Upper Devonian along the northern boundary of Pennsylvania are bounded on the north by the long narrow belts of outcrop of the underlying rocks stretching in a general easterly and westerly direction. The streams pursuing a general northerly course pass in succession across these. As a ‘rule, the soils of the region are heavy, with considerable clay, and the rainfall being absorbed somewhat slowly, a considerable por- tion of it flows directly into the watercourses. The primeval forest has for the most part been cut away and heavy floods are common, such as those of the Genesee and Chemung rivers, described more fully on a later page. The only streams of this region on which extensive discharge measurements have been made are the Genesee river and its tribu- tary, Oatka creek. Streams of similar character in western Penn- Sylvania, however, have been measured for a number of years by the Philadelphia Water Department,and the results of these meas- 7 urements are available for comparison and discussion. The results obtained on the Pennsylvania streams, the Neshaminy, Tohickon and Perkiomen, are applicable particularly in estimates of the flow of the tributaries of Delaware river, rising in New York State, and to the more easterly streams which form the Susquehanna. The catchment basins of the Oswego, Mohawk and Hudson rivers are so highly composite as regards geologic formations and embrace such a wide variation in topography and surface geology that no definite deductions concerning the effect of the formations on water flow have been drawn. The streams of Long Island, rising among the sands, tills and gravels of comparatively recent, unconsolidated formations, offer peculiar conditions, which are discussed on a later page. 164 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM We have seen in the preceding that it is somewhat uncertain whether difference in soil due to difference in character of rocks has much influence on the runoff, although casually it appears that sandy soils, from their porousness, do considerably affect the result. Recent European studies of this subject have shown (1) that in many river basins the annual runoff stands in a nearly constant relation to the rainfall, and (2) that this constancy is more marked when the excess rainfall above a certain minimum annual depth is considered. This latter statement is equivalent to saying that if the yearly rainfail is less than such minimum depth little or no runoff will take place. The general truth of this proposition is shown by many western streams where the runoff is little or nothing. In New Jersey 12 inches of rain during the summer season produce a runoff of 1.5 inches, though others have stated a somewhat different relation. In the State of New York from 1.7 to 2 inches may be considered the general range. As to the amount of rain required to produce any runoff at all, from 12.5 to 16.5 inches have been given. For this minimum many western streams do not run more than 0.25 to 0.5 inch, and some even are perfectly dry. These statements indicate that the character of the soil, nature of vegetation, the elevation, etc. are of comparatively small importance as regards relation between the yearly volumes of rainfall and runoff. If, however, we consider the rainfall and runoff of the several periods, as shown by the accompanying tables, it is not entirely certain that these propositions are other than approximately true. The weight of evidence indeed is, on the whole, negative. Mr Ver- meule is disposed to attribute nearly all of the differences between streams to difference in geology, and accordingly gives a geologic classification for the New Jersey streams. Mr Vermeule says: As a rule, the watersheds which lie upon the same geological formation will be found to have a strong resemblance, both in the character of flow and in the chemical composition of the waters. Yet, as will be shown later, the Genesee and Oswego rivers, two streams with approximately the same runoff, lie mostly in differ- i 1Barge Canal Report, Dp. 798. | | | CR eee HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 165 ent geologic formations. As regards quality of soils, Mr Ver- meule also says: It may be inferred that the kind of soil has much less to do with the amount of evaporation than has the temperature. As regards the relation between geology and runoff, it is undoubtedly complicated, although it is interesting to note that in the State of New York streams which flow from the north into the Mohawk river, after crossing over a narrow strip of Trenton lime- - stone and Calciferous sand rock,and which head in the Laurentian granite of the Adirondacks, have larger flows than those coming to the Mohawk from the south, which lie mostly in the horizon of the Hamilton shales, the headwaters of some of them—as, for instance, Schoharie creek—being in the sandstones of the Che- mung and Portage groups. In their lower reaches they: cross over the sandstones and shales of the Hudson and Utica groups, with narrow strips of Helderberg limestone, Oriskany sandstone, and Onondaga limestone. However, there is another consideration. The headwaters of the streams to the north of the Mohawk nearly all lie in a region heavily timbered—some of it is still primeval forest—while those to the south are from a highly cultivated country, practically — deforested. We may now consider the case of the Genesee and Oswego rivers, referring to the large Geologic Map of the State of New York. Genesee river has an average rainfall of about 40 inches and Oswego river of about 37 inches. That portion of Genesee river which has been gaged lies almost entirely in the shales and sand- stones of the Portage and Chemung groups. Oswego river, on the contrary, lies in the horizon of the Portage sandstones and shales, - Hamilton shales, Onondaga and Helderberg limestones, Oriskany sandstone, the rocks of the Salina or Salt group, the Lockport limestone, Clinton limestone and shales, Medina sandstones, and Utica sandstones and shales, including the Oswego sandstone. The Chemung, Portage, and Hamiltou formations have a wide outcrop, while the Onondaga, Oriskany, and Helderberg are com- 166 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM paratively narrow bands. The Salina, Lockport, Clinton, and Utica formations are all of considerable extent. Both of these streams are practically without forests, although slight exception to this statement may be noted on the extreme headwaters of the Genesee river in Pennsylvania, where there is still a small area of partially cut forest. It is an interesting circumstance that the geologic formations in which the Genesee and Oswego rivers lie all have a slope to the south or southwest of from 10 to 30 feet per mile. The main . trend of the Genesee river is south and north, while the two main branches of Oswego river—Seneca and Oneida—lie east and west. The Mohawk also flows from west to east. On this basis the Portage, Hamilton, Onondaga, Oriskany, Helderberg, and Salina groups lie mostly south of the Seneca and Oneida rivers, while a portion of the Salina, Niagara, Clinton and Medina groups lie mostly to the north. It is interesting, therefore, to speculate as to whether it is possible that considerable water escapes through these formations, finally appearing far to the south, but in the lack of any certain evidence this must be considered as merely a speculation. It may be also noted that for tributaries of the Mohawk river lying to the north, the stratified formations—Utica shales, Tren- ton group, Calciferous sand rock, ete——slope toward the stream, and hence may be expected, if there is anything in this view, to deliver more water than that merely due to the rainfall of the catchment as measured on the surface. On the Upper Mohawk there is some evidence that this is true. The limestones here are open, and at several places streams on the surface sink, to reappear, in one case at any rate, with greatly increased volume several miles farther down. This condition is specially marked on the headwaters of the main Mohawk a few miles south of Boonville. Again, at Howe’s Cave, in Schoharie county, there is a large stream of water flowing in the cave which, so far as known, does not appear anywhere on the surface. The Muskingum river may be mentioned. This stream lies in the unglaciated region in southeastern Ohio, mostly in the horizon + Ney HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 167 of the Conglomerate group of the Carboniferous. The main Mus- kingum river flows generally from north to south, with its main branches to the east and west, that to the west going a short dis- tance into the Waverly group, which is chiefly sandstone and shale, a subdivision of the Carboniferous. The dip is from north to south. In view of the extremely low runoff of this stream, it seems tolerably evident that there can be no material contribution by percolation through these strata. As other examples of underground flow, the writer may men- tion Toyah creek, in Texas, where a stream of (his recollection is) 4() or 50 cubic feet per second flows from the base of a mountain with no indication as to its source. The well-known streams in Mammoth and Luray caves are doubtless familiar to all. There are also a number of river channels in the west where the water sinks into the porous soils, to reappear at some point lower down; but these are hardly allied to the cases under consideration, because the source is here visible. | A stream at Lausanne, Switzerland, may also be mentioned. In 1872 there was a serious epidemic of typhoid fever at Lausanne, Switzerland, which, on investigation, was found to proceed from a brook irrigating lands about a mile distant from a public well, from which the 800 inhabitants of the village mostly took their water supply. Ten years before, or in 1862, a hole had appeared in the channel of the brook at a certain point, 8 feet deep and 3 feet wide, which disclosed at its bottom a running stream, appar- ently fed by the brook from a point higher up. The brook itself was led into this hole, with the result that the water all disap- peared and in an hour or two streamed out at the public well, showing a connection which lad been suspected for years. On refilling the hole the brook returned to its bed. After the epidemic had ceased in 1872 an investigation was held, the hole was reopened and a large quantity of salt thrown in; its presence in the public well was easily ascertained by a chemical examination. This case discloses some points of interest. Here was a con- siderable stream flowing underground which was easily increased 168 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM - from the water of the brook, which was on the surface. Again, the flow here was through coarse gravel. Moreover, we may consider the origin of those bodies of fresh water which sometimes rise up in the sea, as in the Mediterranean near Genoa, the Persian Gulf and in the Gulf of Mexico. It is stated that in two of these cases the flow is so great as to permit of ships taking water. In the Gulf of Mexico the water surface over the outflow is stated to be several feet higher than the sur- rounding sea. In the literature of canal construction there are a number of cases cited in which large losses of water have taken place either through coarse gravel or seamy rocks. Doubtless there are numer- ous other cases, which, however, are not specially important, for it is the writer’s intention only to point out, in a general way, reasons why such losses may sometimes take place. The outflow from Skaneateles lake hag been cited as showing a large loss, presumably by percolation through strata, but on ~ reference to the original authority it is clear enough that an error has been made in so citing it, because the flow measured was really through 9 miles of natural channel and 8 miles of canal, to Montezuma. It may be mentioned that the problem to be determined by this measurement was the discharge into Seneca river and it is quite possible that there may have been a deficiency from the west. Skaneateles lake lies at an elevation of 867 feet above tide- water and a distance of about 9 miles south of the Erie canal, for which it has been used as a feeder since 1844. In 1859 Mr S. H. Sweet made measurements of the flow to the canal and © through the same to Montezuma, where the surplus water is dis- charged into Seneca river, to which it was found to deliver 125 cubic feet per second. Measurements were also made at the foot of the lake, where the flow amounted to 188 cubic feet per second. The loss was 63 cubic feet per second, or one-third of the whole. Skaneateles lake itself lies in the Hamilton formation, and its outlet, on its way to the Erie canal, flows across the Onondaga, Oriskany, Helderberg and Salina formations. The dip is here HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 169 from north to south, while the stream, which is tributary to the Seneca river, the main westerly branch of the Oswego, flows from south to north, or in the right direction to realize the maximum possible leakage, or percolation, through the strata. Inasmuch as no such leakage is mentioned, it may be reasonably concluded that none occurred. Cazenovia lake and Erieville reservoirs ‘are also mentioned, and considerable loss of water is given, which when analyzed is found to be loss of water in the canal, and hence not in any degree attributable to leakage through strata. Cazenovia lake and Erie- ville reservoirs both lie south of the Erie canal, and flow across substantially the same strata as the outlet of Skaneateles lake. Such facts as these, while lacking the proof of a scientific demonstration, are still very interesting and indicate that we have yet much to learn of the peculiarities of stream flow. On the whole, while they point to a moderate loss from percolation, so far as the writer can see they do not indicate any great prob- ability of very large loss from this cause. They do emphasize the fact that every catchment area will have its own formula. By way of showing that the theory of large evaporation on deforested catchment areas is broadly more reasonable that the theory that there is any great loss of water by seepage owing to inclination of the strata, we may consider the Croton record as given by the appended table, where it will be noted that the evaporation from this area is substantially the same as that from ' Muskingum and Genesee rivers; that is to say, it is the evapora- tion of a deforested area—the area in forest on this catchment -does not exceed 10 per cent. In placing it at 10 per cent the writer means the equivalent in actual effect of dense forest. As regards geologic formation this catchment lies almost entirely in granites and gneisses, in which, from their homogeneous char- acter, it is difficult to assume any loss by percolation through strata. There is, however, a small area of metamorphic Hudson formation, consisting of slate, schist and quartzite, and also a ‘Ann. Rept. State Engineer and Surveyor for 1862, pp. 403-404. 170 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 4 small area of metamorphic Trenton and Calcifercus limestones, but it is exceedingly improbable that any rocks which have been subjected to metamorphic changes are in any degree permeable. This catchment must therefore be considered as underlain by an impermeable formation. All of the water falling upon it except that absorbed by evaporation, chemical changes, etc. reappears as runoff in the streams. It may be safely assumed that there are no other losses. Nevertheless, the evaporation of this stream is that tentatively placed upon other deforested areas. Moreover, there is another interesting consideration of which brief note may be taken at this place. In deference to the Water Supply Depart- ment of the City of New York, the writer has used in computing the monthly runoff the catchment area of 339 square miles. Mr Vermeule, however, asserts that this area is not the true one. He says the true area above old Croton dam is 353 square miles. If we assume this to be true, it follows that the average runoff, instead of being 22.8 inches, is over 4 per cent less, or is, roundly, 21.8 inches. This raises the evaporation from 26.6 inches to 27.6 inches. In his report on forests, Mr Vermeule has placed the evaporation of his second Croton series, which the writer under- stands him to consider more reliable, at 22.6 inches, a difference of 5 inches from the foregoing figures, which it may be remarked is based upon the latest revision and is presumably more likely to be-correct. On the upper Hudson river, with a catchment above Mechanic- ville of 4500 square miles, the average rainfall for the fourteen years from 1888 to 1901, inclusive, was about 44.2 inches, the average runoff 23.3 inches, and the evaporation 20.9 inches. Above Glens Falls¢this stream lies almost entirely in the Pre- cambrian gneiss, from which it is improbable that there is any loss of water. Its main tributary to the west, Sacandaga, is, by observation, an exceedingly prolific water yielder. To the east, the Battenkill and Hoosic rivers have a different geologic history. The Battenkill flows across the Hudson shales, the Georgia lime- stones and shales, finally rising in the metamorphic Hudson and Trenton formations. The Hoosic river has a similar geologic his- HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Wwe tory. The runoff of the Hoosic river is, without doubt, consider- ably less than that of the main Hudson. The average precipitation in western Massachusetts from 1887 to 1895, inclusive, was 38.98 inches, as against 43.29 inches in the northern plateau from 1889 to 1895, inclusive, a difference of 4.31 inches. Should such dif- ference continue, the runoff of Hoosic river might be expected to be, on an average, about 20 inches. Moreover, the Hudson river above Glens Falls (catchment about 2800 square miles) is still largely in forest—probably about 85 per cent—but on the catch- ments of Wood creek, Battenkill and Hoosic rivers the proportion of forest is very much less—as an offhand estimate, the writer would say perhaps 20 to 30 per cent. The runoff of Schroon river, which is perhaps 70 per cent of an equivalent to fairly dense forest, is for four years 26.84 inches. There is, however, some doubt whether this record ig entirely reliable, and for the present it is not intended to more than merely call attention to the gen- eral proposition that this stream, which issues from an imper- meable catchment with 70 per cent of it in forest, has a rather large runoff. The whole catchment area of the Upper Hudson of about 4500 square miles, will probably not exceed 50 to 60 per cent of forest. : The following are the catchment areas of the several streams here considered: Hoosic, 711 square miles; Battenkill, 438 square miles; Sacandaga, 1057 square miles, and Schroon river, 570 square miles. The Pequannock river in New Jersey, not far from the New York line, is an interesting case. This stream is characterized by sharp slopes throughout its whole extent. Its headwaters are at an elevation of about 1500 feet, while the mouth is only 170 feet above tide. The catchment.is about 14 to 16 miles long by 4 to 7 miles wide. Mr Vermeule states that its headwaters lie in the Precambrian highlands. The sharp slopes, combined with small catchment area, undoubtedly account for the relatively large runoff of this stream. There is also an uncertainty of 1 or 2 inches in the rainfall record. The catchment is judged by the writer to be 70 per cent forest. 172 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In riding over the Pequannock catchment several times the writer was much struck by the fact that aside from the main valleys there are no gulleys throughout this area. The record shows that precipitation is frequently very heavy, but it has been thus far without effect. The indications appear to be that the rainfall, however intense it may be, sinks almost entirely into the ground, and without doubt this peculiarity has its effect on the runoff. It may be pointed out that the geology of Muskingum and Gen- esee rivers is substantially the same, while the geology of Croton river is entirely different. Nevertheless, when analyzed by aid of the diagrams, these streams are all seen to have substantially the Same evaporation and runoff, although the rainfall on Croton river is different from that of Muskingum and Genesee rivers. Hudson river, however, which has much the same geology as Cro- ton river, has still a very different runoff and evaporation. Oswego river, which lies in a different formation from Genesee river, has still nearly the same evaporation. These several facts favor the view that deforestation is the real cause of the smaller runoff of Muskingum, Genesee, Oswego and Croton rivers. Forests Do forests increase rainfall? The evidence on this point is con- flicting. The variation of the observed from the true rainfall being so great, as has just been shown, the answer to this question must be regarded as very uncertain. It has been discussed by Professor Abbe and Dr Hough. The following summation by Dr Hough, although made 26 years ago, may be accepted as expressing the fact at the present day. The reciprocal influences that operate between woodlands and climate appear to indicate a close relation between them. It is observed that certain consequences follow the clearing off of forests, which can scarcely be otherwise regarded than as a direct 1The evaporation of Oswego river is, in fact, a little greater, due to the existence of large marsh areas on Oswego river. 2Report upon Forestry, by Franklin B. Hough, U. 8S. Department of Agri- culture (1877). HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK rE effect, such as the diminution of rivers and the drying up of streams and springs. Other effects, scarcely less certain, are seen in the occurrence of destructive floods, and of unseasonable and prolonged droughts, with other vicissitudes of climate which it is alleged did not occur when the country was covered with forests. These appear to have been brought about by their removal, and might, in a great degree, be alleviated by the restoration of wood- lands to a degree consistent with our best agricultural interests. On the other hand, there are many facts tending to show that the presence or absence and the character of forests are the effect of climate, and that their cultivation generally, or the planting of particular species, is closely dependent upon it. These conditions of climate should be understood before forest cultivation is attempted. It is also to be noticed that differences of opinion have been expressed among men of science as to the extent of influence that forests exert upon the climate, and it is quite prob- able that the advocates of extreme theories may have erred on both sides. But where principles depend upon facts that may be settled by observation, there should be no differences of opinion; and as there is no fact in this subject that may not be verified or disproved, the existence of such differences only shows the want of accepted evidence derived from trustworthy records. The interested reader is referred to Dr Hough’s report, which may be easily obtained, for an extended discussion on this point. Relation of forests to stream flow. The extent of forestation has probably a considerable effect on the runoff of streams. With Similar rainfalls, two streams, one in a region having dense primeval forests, the other in a region wholly or partially deforested, will show different runoff. The one with the dense forests will show larger runoff than the stream in the deforested area. In some parts of the State of New York these differences may amount to as much as 5 or 6 inches in depth over the entire catchment area. Yet it must be said that this proposition is, for the present, tentative in its character. The writer is particular to specify dense forests, because a good deal of discussion has clustered around this point. Of such for- ests, the most effective are those composed of spruce, pine, and other evergreen trees. Where the forest is more or less open to wind and sunshine, its effect, while considerable, is still much less marked than that of dense evergreen forests where the sun seldom 174 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM penetrates and the wind effect, even in a gale, is only slight. On a catchment area where there are only scattered patches of forest, the effect is practically the same as on a deforested area. The Same proposition is generally true on a catchment with young trees. What is wanted for the maximum effect is a mature ever- green forest. This proposition, however, though definitely stated here, has been nevertheless the subject of considerable discussion, and owing to its complex nature, it is improbable that a final conclusion concerning it will very soon be reached. The subject of the influence of forests on runoff has assumed considerable importance in New York because of the policy of the State government to purchase large tracts of land in the Adiron- dack and Catskill mountains (1), for the creation of extensive State parks, and (2), for the purpose of conserving the runoff of the streams issuing from these regions. The creating of State parks is commendable and does not enter specially into the present discussion, but whether the creation of forest areas in the Adiron- dack and Catskill mountains will materially increase stream flow is a question on which widely varying views have been expressed. It is proposed, therefore, to give an indication of the probable bearing of forests on stream flow, and in order to make the dis- cussion as valuable as possible, numerical values will be used. The Forest preserve. In 1893 the Legislature passed an act creating the Forest preserve and the Adirondack park. The For- est preserve is defined as including: The lands now owned or hereafter acquired by the State within the counties of Clinton, except the towns of Altona and Danne- mora, Delaware, Essex, Franklin, Fulton, Hamilton, Herkimer, Lewis, Oneida, Saratoga, St Lawrence, Warren, Washington, Greene, Ulster, and Sullivan, except (1), lands within the limits — of any village or city; and (2), lands, not wild lands, acquired by the State on foreclosure of mortgages made to the commissioners for loaning certain moneys of the United States usually called the United States deposit fund.t 1Chap. 332, laws of 1893. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 175 The Adirondack park. The Adirondack park is situated within the Forest preserve. It is defined as: Lands now owned or hereafter acquired by the State within the county of Hamilton; the towns of Newcomb, Minerva, Schroon, North Hudson, Keene, North Elba, Saint Armand and Wilming- ton, in the county of Essex; the towns of Harrietstown, Santa Clara, Altamont, Waverly and Brighton in the county of Franklin; the town of Wilmurt in the county of Herkimer; the towns of Hopkington, Colton, Clifton and Fine, in the county of St Law- rence; the towns of J ohnsburgh, Stony Creek and Thurman, and the lends in Lake George, in the county of Warren shall constitute the Adir ondack park. Such park shall be fen reserved, maintained and cared for as ground open for the free use of all the people for their health and pleasure and as forest lands, necessary to the preservation of the headwaters of the chief rivers of the State, and a future timber supply; and shall remain part of the Forest preserve.t From the foregoing it may be seen that the Forest preserve is much more extensive than the Adirondack park. The Adirondack park, as shown on the accompanying map, includes the whole of Hamilton, and parts of Warren, Herkimer, St Lawrence, Franklin and Eissex counties, and includes 2,807,760 acres (4887 square miles), or about one-eleventh of the land area of the State. In 1893 the lands within the Adirondack park were classified, lot by lot, with the following result: Acres Square miles Bete Val TOTES... 6 aio starscn < Pears Se ices 1,575,483 2,461.7 PMG CEC TOROS: 2.0" 2 oy Severs S odecs ard Soalws 1,027,955 1,606.2 RN GCG oe pe ies ae eo Pete Lae hes 50,050 78.2 TASTES) ga ae atone ae oa Cen 13,480 21.0 NE CUES Eo WA ne Le Se 0 apg ee ne 18,526 28.9 Water ..... hare tnt Wyeth ER Ui 57,104 89.2 RN ORMTETNISOWIS 5 os, cue 5.g: 60% ar ase See es es 495 0.8 MRI Ea. o is he dics ded dy sahager ive. 2 64,717 101.1 LCE ame a age ee ae ee ee 2,807,760 4,387.1 *Chap. 332, laws of 1893. 176 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In that year the State owned 1142.9 square miles, of which 861.1 square miles were situated within the lines of the Adirondack park. In 1897 the Forest Preserve Board was created, consisting of three members, whose duties were to acquire for the State, by purchase or otherwise, land, structures or water in the territory embraced in the Adirondack park. Under this act, purchases were made within the limits of the park, between May, 1897, and January 1, 1900, amounting to 497 square miles. The total owned by the State, therefore, in the park in 1900 was 1358.1 square miles. There are 101.1 square miles of improved lands within the lines of the Adirondack park. It is not proposed to purchase these lands, although if any should be abandoned or offered for sale at woodland prices, they might be purchased for reforesting. The soil of the Adirondack plateau is mostly worthless for agri- culture. Over a considerable portion of the region frosts occur in every month except July, and it is impossible to cultivate any of the cereals except oats, as well as many of the ordinary crops of the lowlands. Hay is the principal crop. The region generally is valuable only for forestry and water storage. Area of Forest preserve. The following area, with small deduc- tion as previously noted, is included in the Adirondack Forest preserve: Square miles WI SSeR COMME a che heres cet die ie a rk Be Gee tek. a 1,926 STAT COH (COMMIN Ln Fecask wen enna eT ee wes co 1,745 Wierren ‘COUMMiNe ae eee: weird Bk och nice dene © Sp ene ee 968 Sit. Lawrence -Commmy ner tee act Pac... eae hoe gee 2,880 Eranklin county 222 2 Reem 2, 0 Se ee 1,718 Herkimer Commis. cee eee et tk er 1,745 Clinton coumty> i.e aera pk VES YS he 1,092 Pron ‘COUNTY -. 5.2) a ee eee eth we ok yh Pa ae 544 emas county |; |): 22 ag teers ee mee Sy oy ic ~ 2 1,288 Omeida county . sb: cpcke eee ee ere + oe bec alee 1,215 Saratola COMNTY: . .. -.. 4 Ree ae Bega et oe. Sod ve cena 862 Pyashimeton county '..5. eee eee Settee, 2. Cee 850 helterson county >... 5.0. cs abe ane eters eee eco eeeaeree _ 1,868 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Bre The Catskill Forest preserve includes the following: Square miles LE NEES ET eS oes re A oe ice ee eee ae a 1,580 ereetic COUNTY ..-.-- 2-2-2 - e i ie nee tees 686 MMRMETI ie te eee ee a ewe a ee os 1,204 OME MIICOMIING Vous fee Pele cca tcik sigma wii'e oale oie se 8,84 sees 8 1,082: LETS gt IS Naeem po a Ae ee ee a 4,552 Adding the area of the Adirondack Forest preserve to the area of the Catskill Forest preserve, we have a total of 23,253 square miles. There is, however, some deduction from this, but the entire area is over 20,000 square miles. The total land area of the State of New York is about 47,620 square miles. Hence, we reach the conclusion that the originators of this act propose to ultimately reforest perhaps 42 per cent of the total land area of New York. Catskill park. Thus far the Catskill park has not been defined _by law, although considerable time has been spent by the Super- intendent of Forests in a personal examination of the Catskill region in order to determine the portion best adapted to forestry © purposes. For the present the proposed Catskill park includes 703 square miles, which the Forest Preserve Board deems advis- able to purchase in this region. It is described as follows: _ This area includes the towns of Hardenburgh, Shandaken, Den- ning, Woodstock and the westerly portion of Olive and Rochester, in Ulster county; the greater part of the towns of Hunter and Lexington, in Greene county; that portion of the towns of Col- chester, Andes and Middletown, in Delaware county, which lie south of the Delaware river; and that part of the towns of Never- sink and Rockland, in Sullivan county, which are situated in great lot 5 of the Hardenburgh patent. This area, forming the proposed Catskill park, may be described also in a general way as bounded on the north by the Delaware river, Schoharie creek, and the line of the railroad running from Hunter to Kaaterskill station; on the east by the line of the Great Hardenburgh patent; on the south by the south- erly line of the great lot 5, and on the west by the town line between Lexington and Halcott. | 178 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In addition to the territory thus outlined, the Board is willing to make purchases of forest land, if offered at a reasonable price, on the mountain ranges, including the peaks known as Black Head, Black Domine, Thomas Cole, Acra Point, and Windham High Peak. These are the mountains which are in full view from the Hudson River valley, between Hudson and Saugerties. These ranges could not well be included in the boundary previously referred to, as they are separated by wide valleys that are entirely occupied by well-cultivated farms, several villages and a large population.! The preceding figures show that the total amount of land in the Adirondack and Catskill parks, proposed to be purchased and held as public parks forever, is 5,090 square miles. As regards the purchase of these lands for park purposes, the writer wishes to express the fullest sympathy, but as regards the conservation of streams and prevention of floods, that is quite another question— one, indeed, permitting of somewhat broad discussion. While it is conceded that forests are of considerable value in this direction, it is nevertheless believed that the effect has been overestimated. In 1901 the purchase of lands by the Forest Preserve Board was discontinued, Governor Odell vetoing the appropriation on the ground that we need to know a great deal more about the results and effects before proceeding further on these lines. Since that veto there has been a good deal of discussion, but without much clarifying the subject. Effect of forests. The difference in runoff between a forested and a deforested area in New York State may be taken at an average of 5 inches. That is to say, when forested with dense forests of spruce, pine, balsam and hemlock, the runoff will be, roundly, 5 inches per year,? more than it will when deforested, but in order to secure such result the entire catchment area of a stream must be in dense, primeval forest. It will not do to have a few hundred square miles at the headwaters in primeval forest and *From 4th An. Rept. of Forest Preserve Board, p. 14. *The average annual runoff varies from about 23.26 inches on Hudson river to about 14.2 inches on Genesee river. Hence, the excess runoff due to forests is 21 per cent of the average annual runoff on Hudson river and 35 per cent on Genesee river. ae in HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 179 the balance deforested. The reason why dense, primeval forest is specified is because such forest acts more efficiently as a wind- breaker than does an open forest. It has been common to assume that even when the soft wood (pine, spruce, hemlock, etc.) is removed from an area the hard wood still forms about as efficient a covering as before the removal of the soft wood. The writer, however, thinks that anybody who has spent much time in the forest will understand that this is a mistake. Certainly during the late fall, winter and early spring, a period of from six to seven months, when the leaves are absent from the hard woods, they are not a very efficient wind-breaker, although without doubt consid- erably better than nothing. As an estimate based on judgment, it is considered that a hardwood forest is not equivalent in water protective influence, on an average, to more than 50 per cent to 60 per cent of dense, primeval forests of spruce, pine, balsam and hemlock. Moreover, the weight of evidence goes to show that the soft wood consumes less water than hard wood. In the Adirondack forest beech, maple, birch, elm, ash and other hard woods are mingled with the soft woods spruce, pine, hemlock, balsam and to some extent, larch. If we remove the soft woods, we have done two things to lessen the protection from evaporation: (1), we have opened up the area for the admission of wind, which by itself will materially increase the evaporation, consequently leaving less water to run off, and which will be specially operative during the six or seven months of the year when the leaves are absent from hardwoods; and (2), we have left on the area the hard woods, which, so far as the evidence goes, consume more water than the soft woods. The writer has no way of proving the proposition, but assuming that the data as to transpiration of hard woods as compared with soft woods are measurably true, he has no doubt that the combined effect of _ transpiration and evaporation will be, on an area from which the soft woods have been removed, from 2 to 214 inches more than on the same area with the soft woods standing. We have seen in the foregoing that the area of the Adirondack park is 4387 square miles, of which a little over one-half was, in 180 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1898, primeval forest, while the balance was largely lumbered forest—that is to say, forest with the soft woods removed. Prob- ably the proportion of primeval forest is somewhat smaller at the present time, and may be taken at 50 per cent. For the whole 4387 square miles, we may say that the forest protection is now equivalent to 314 inches additional runoff due to the cover. Tf, therefore, the entire Adirondack park were reforested with dense primeval forests, we might expect an addition of an inch and a half per year in the runoff from this area. On reference to table No. 61, Runoff Data of Hudson River for the Water Years 1888-1901, Inclusive, it will be seen that the average runoff per year for fourteen years is 23.27 inches. The maximum runoff, of 33.08 inches, occurred in 1892, and the mini- mum, of 17.46 inches, in 1895. With dense, primeval forests over the entire area of the Adirondack park we may expect an average of about 24.75 inches annual runoff, or the increase of about 614 per cent over the present runoff—an amount of water which, dis- tributed over the entire year, as it will be, is inappreciable in its * influence on the flow of streams. In the Catskill region the soft woods have long since disap- peared and the hard-wood forest is mostly open, presenting less satisfactory protection than does the Adirondack hard-wood forest. It is doubtful if the open hard-wood forests of the Cats- kill region are equivalent, in protective effect, to over 25 per cent to 30 per cent of a dense, primeval forest of spruce, pine, balsam and hemlock, or we may say that the present runoff of the Cats- ‘kill streams is only an inch and a half more than it would be if the region were substantially deforested. The effect, therefore, of reforesting with soft woods would be to increase the flow of streams annually about 314 inches in depth over the area actually reforested. But the reforested area is so small a proportion of the whole area that the total effect on the flow of any given stream is so slight as to be scarcely perceptible. This proposition is reit- erated because in the extensive discussions of this question which have recently appeared it has been tacitly assumed that the refor- estation of the Adirondack park would have so great an effect on . * ‘= 7 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 181 the streams issuing therefrom as to make water storage in New York not only unnecessary but undesirable. In the case of the Hud- son river there is perhaps 1500 square miles of the catchment area within the Adirondack park, which, if entirely reforested, would, as we have seen, increase the present flow of the stream 114 inches, but this increase of 114 inches is only obtained on the 1500 square miles actually reforested. The catchment area of Hudson river above Mechanicville, the point where the gagings shown in table No. 61 have been made, is 4500 square miles. The net effect, therefore, at this point is only one-half inch of water, distributed throughout the entire year, an effect which is inap- preciable. However, there is another consideration. Owing to less rainfall on the eastern plateau than on the northern plateau, streams in the Catskill region do not flow as much as those in the Adiron- dacks. As we have seen, the average flow of the Hudson river for fifteen years is 23.27 inches. Taking the difference in rainfall of these two districts at 4 inches, the flow of the streams in the Catskill region, provided forestation were equal to that of the _ Adirondacks, would be over 19 inches. But taking into account the existing differences in forestation, the flow of streams in the Catskill region does not average over 16 or 17 inches per year. It follows, therefore, that an increase of 314 inches in the Catskill region is relatively of more value than a corresponding increase in the Adirondack region. As has been shown, for the Adiron- _dacks the increase of 114 inches is equivalent to 614 per cent of _ the present annual flow of streams issuing from that region, while in the Catskills, 8144 inches is equivalent to 2214 per cent of the present annual flow of streams. Reforestation, therefore, is considerably more valuable in the Catskills than it is in _ the Adirondacks. But the foregoing does not mean that 5 inches more water will flow over the entire area of the streams issuing from the Catskill region, but only from that portion of the region on which forest has been restored. AS we have seen, the area of the proposed Catskill park is 703 Square miles, while the area of the Catskill Forest preserve is about 182 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 4500 square miles. The area, therefore, of the proposed Catskill park is only about 15 per cent of the area of the Catskill Forest preserve, which includes the catchment area of the headwaters of the streams as enumerated on a _ preceding page. The balance of the territory is mostly deforested, and chiefly in use for grazing purposes. In the Catskill region therefore, the forested area would be, on this basis, about 1/7 of the deforested, or the real effect on stream flow would be to in- crease it 1/7 of 5 inches. An average annual increase of about 0.7 of an inch may be expected. Moreover, if forestation is valuable in increasing stream flow, there should be a number of other forest parks in various parts of the State. Genesee river issues from the Allegheny water center. With the exception of a small tract of timber at the extreme headwaters, this stream is practically deforested, with the result, as shown by table No. 45, Runoff Data of Genesee River, that the average annual runoff for a period of nine years is only 14.2 inches, while the minimum runoff is 6.7 inches. If forestation is specially valuable for increasing the flow of a stream, here is a marked case to which it could be applied. The writer, however, does not wish to be understood as stating that forestation is not of value, and he cites from the Genesee River Storage Report! the following specific case, showing that on Genesee river foresta- tion has value in increasing the summer flow. The proposition is that, by itself, it is not of enough value to justify any such expenditure as has been proposed. ‘The benefits, in short, are not commensurate with the expense. Gagings of the low-water flow of Genesee river were made by Daniel Marsh, C. E., in July and August, 1846, and the quantity flowing at that time was found to be 412 cubic feet per second. Mr Marsh gives this figure as the average of nine gagings made at various times during the summer of 1846. The meteorological records of western New York for the years 1844-46 show that the period covered was one of low rainfall. At Rochester the rain- fall for the storage period of 1846 was only 11.57 inches, and the total for the year was 36.03 inches; in 1845, the total for the *8d Genesee River Storage Report, Jan. 1, 1897, pp. 40-41. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 183 year was 34.66 inches, while in 1844; we have for the storage period, 10.52 inches, and the total for the year of 26.46 inches. At Middlebury Academy, for the storage period of 1845, the rainfall was 12.59 inches; for the growing period, 4.82 inches; for the replenishing period, 8.6 inches, and the total for the year was 26.01 inches. The record for the year 1846 at Middlebury Acad- emy is not given, but it is clear, so far as we have any definite meteorological record, that the gagings made by Mr Marsh were at a time of very low water. Gagings made in 1895 show that in the month of July the flow at Rochester may have been as low as 232 cubic feet per second, and in September, 221 cubic feet per second. These results are derived from actual gagings at Mount Morris by comparison of catchment areas. Taking approximate gagings made at Rochester, at the Johnson and Seymour dam, for the same year, we have 220 cubic feet per second for the mean of the month of October. . Moreover, gagings made at the raceway of the Genesee Paper Company during the summer of 1895 indicate that on several occasions the flow was less than 200 cubic feet per second. The canal, however, was low during these years and was drawing “some water through the feeder at Rochester—probably, on an average, about 50 cubic feet per second. We have, then, a total low-water flow at Rochester of about 250 cubic feet per second during the period July-October, 1895. This quantity is 162 cubic feet per second less than the low-water flow of 1846, as deter- mined by Mr Marsh. . 3 The catchment area of the Genesee river at Mount Morris, where the gagings were made, is 1070 square miles, and at Roch- ester, with deductions for the area at Hemlock lake, used as a water supply for Rochester, etc. 2365 square miles. In 1846 the upper Genesee area was still largely in forest—probably for the entire area above Rochester the primeval forest was from 50 per cent to 60 per cent of the whole? We have here, therefore; a 1In Allegany county, according to the State census of 1855, the unim- _ proved area was 60 per cent of the whole, but in Livingston and Monroe counties it was considerably less. Since the rapid removal of the timber did not begin until after the construction of the Erie railroad, it is con- sidered that in 1846, 50 per cent to 60 per cent is not far from right. 184 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM marked.case where the deforestation of a large area has mate- rially reduced the minimum runoff, but it should not be over- looked that of the total area of 2365 square miles, 55 per cent was still in dense, primeval forest, consisting over a considerable portion of the area of pine and hemlock. The cleared area, there- fore, was only 45 per cent of the whole, or 1060 square miles. Hence, we have over 1300 square miles still in primeval forest. The writer has no doubt that deforestation not only decreases the yield of streams, but may increase the hight of floods some- what. At present the data are not complete enough to justify final conclusions, but it is considered that the effect of deforesta- tion is more marked in decreasing the yield of streams than in increasing the hight of floods.t Apparently this view occurred to the original framers of the - Forest law of 1893, because they provided therein for a Forest pre- serve of over 20,000 square miles, and should this amount of ter- ritory be reforested, it would undoubtedly materially assist the low-water flow of the streams issuing from the reforested area, the amount of assistance on any particular stream being in pro- portion to the reforested area in comparison with the deforested. But even with these 20,000 square miles of territory reforested, there would still remain 27,600 square miles of the State prac- tically deforested, and in which the streams are exposed to low water in the summer and destructive high water in the late winter and spring. The conclusion seems, therefore, irresistible that if reforestation is of such importance for 5000 square miles, it is of more importance for 20,000 square miles, and of still greater importance for the entire area of the State of 47,600 square miles. But this conclusion reduces to an absurdity. The reforestation of the whole State would mean not only very mate- rial reduction of its productive capacity, but would mean that a large proportion of the population must move to other states. In regard to the decrease in productive capacity, if the entire area were in forests it would produce not to exceed $2 per acre *For extended discussions see 3d Genesee Storage Report. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 185 per year! in the way of forest products; or since for 47,620 square miles there are 30,476,800 acres, we may say that the forest products would be worth about $61,000,000 per year. But accord- ing to the United States Census of 1900, the agricultural products of New York were worth $245,000.000 per year, or, as an average, about $8 per acre. It is absurd, therefore, to discuss the refor- estation of the whole State of New York in order to increase the low-water flow of streams and to decrease the hight of floods. Were this to be done the productive capacity of the State would be reduced over $180,000,000 per year. The long-time element in forestry may also be taken into ac- count, and the following statement by Mr B. E. Fernow, Director _ of the New York State College of Forestry of Cornell University, is pertinent. The one thing in which the forestry business differs from all other business: is the long-time element, for it takes a hundred years and more to grow trees fit for the use of the engineer, the builder and the architect; hence, the dollar spent now in its first start must come back, with compound interest, a hundred years hence. In view of this statement it is well to keep in mind that refor- estation will be substantially without effect for fifty years and of only partial effect in one hundred years, and that for its full effects in increasing the flow of a stream about one hundred and fifty years must elapse. In many parts of New York the flood flows of streams are very destructive—a conservative estimate places the loss in 1902 at over $3,000,000. The question, therefore, may be asked, Must we wait from one hundred to one hundred and fifty years, while forests are growing, in the meantime suffer- ing nearly every year from the devastating effects of extreme floods? Whatever question there may be as to the influence of forests on rainfall, there is, in the opinion of the writer, none as to such *6th An. Rept. of Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New York, for 1900, p. 96. *The Forester, an Engineer, by B. E. Fernow. In Jour. of Western Soc. of Engrs., Vol. VI, No. 5 (Oct. 1901). 186 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM influence on stream flow. Yet this proposition has also been dis- cussed pro and con and is likely to give rise to further discussion, — and the conclusion will therefore for the present be considered tentative in its character. It seems to the writer that the removal of forests decreases stream flow by allowing freer circulation of the air and by caus- ing higher temperature and lower humidity in summer and so producing greater evaporation from water surfaces, as well as from the ground. That the removal of forests renders stream flow less equal throughout the year and so causes floods and periods of dryness. in rivers seems to be beyond reasonable question, for the forest litter and root masses serve as storage reservoirs, tending to equalize the flow of streams. Space will not be taken to discuss these propositions, because very little can be added to previous discussions. The reader is referred to the Bulletin No. 7, of the Forestry Division of the Department of Agriculture on Forest Influences, as well as to Dr. Hough’s report on forests, for fairly complete discussions. Forestation of the Croton catchment area. In a paper read before the American Forestry Association in 1901, Mr Vermeule proposes the question whether the forestation of the catchment area of the Croton water supply is advisable. In considering this question it may be pointed out that if the Croton catchment were forested, there is no probability of reaping the full benefit under from 75 to 150 years. For the sake of the argument we will assume that on this catch- ment in 120: years the full effect of forestation would be realized. This would give, as an average, amincrease of from 4 to 6 inches in runoff. For the purposes of this discussion we may assume it at 5 inches. . In order to forest the catchment it would be necessary to acquire the entire area, which, so far as the writer can ascertain, could hardly be done for less than $100 per acre. Probably the price would be much greater than this, but to avoid an overestimate 1New Jersey Forests and their Relation to Water Supply, by C. C. Ver- meule: The Engineering Record, Vol. XLII, No. 1 (July, 1901). HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 187 it may be fixed at $100 per acre. At this rate the catchment area of 339 square miles would cost $21,696,000. The planting out of trees could hardly cost less than $20 per acre additional, but in order to make the estimate as reasonable as possible we will take it at $10 per acre, which makes an additional sum of $2,169,900, or a total of $23,865,900. If we assume the annual interest at 3 per cent, and place this sum at compound interest for 120 years, we have at the end of that time the sum of $779,510,000. The present safe yield of the Croton catchment, with all available storage, is about 280,000,000 gallons per day. We would pay, therefore, this large sum for, perhaps, 75,000,000 gallons additional per day at the end of 120 years. It is true there would be some increase in water supply after about’30 years, and the supply might be expected to go on increasing until the average increase of yield was attained in 120 years. But the increase in water supply would not be at all commensurate with the increase of capitalization. It is very evident that an expenditure of this sum of money would procure a far greater quantity of water from other sources. Hence it does not seem expedient to suggest the forestation of the Croton catchment area aS a method of obtaining an increased water supply. As to whether it is desirable to reforest this area as a forestry investment is another question which is not discussed here. Another objection to the forestation of the Croton catchment as a remedy for the water difficulties of New York city may be found in the fact that a considerably increased water supply is wanted at once; it is entirely out of the question to wait 120 years for such increased supply. As a broad proposition, however, catchment areas from which municipal water supplies are drawn should be in forests, and undoubtedly as time goes on this condition will be more and more attained. Already various European and American municipali- ties have recognized the advisability of owning the catchments from which their municipal water supplies are drawn. From this point of view it is desirable to reforest the Croton catchment. 188 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Details Concerning Tables and Diagrams Topographic relations of catchment areas of some of the maim streams tabulated. The following gives an outline of the topog- raphy of Muskingum, Genesee, Croton and Hudson rivers. The headwaters of Muskingum river lie at an elevation of about 1100 feet, and it flows into the Ohio river, near Marietta, at an elevation of about 500 feet. The Muskingum river proper has a length of 109 miles, with its main tributaries, the Walhonding and the Tuscarawas, having an additional length of about 100 miles, thus giving the basin a length of 200 miles. From the head of the Tuscarawas to the junction of the two main tributaries there is a fall of about 2 feet per mile, and from this point to the mouth of the main Muskingum the descent is about 1.5 feet per mile. On the Walhonding the descent is more rapid. At its headwaters, near Mansfield, the stream is from 400 to 450 feet above what it is at its junction with the Tuscarawas. The Genesee river rises in Potter county, Pa., and flows in @ northerly direction across the State of New York, emptying into Lake Ontario at Rochester, having a total length of about 115 miles.. Its headwaters are at an elevation of over 2000 feet, while Lake Ontario lies at a mean elevation of 247 feet. This stream is specially characterized by two sets of falls. The three falls at Portage have an aggregate of about 270 feet, while at Rochester the river falls 263 feet, also in three falls, with some intervening rapids. This stream flows for several miles, at Rochester and Portage, over bare rocks. The ‘Croton river flows into the Hudson at Croton Landing at an elevation of practically tidewater. Its extreme headwaters in Dutchess county are at an elevation of about 700 feet above tide. Its length is about 35 miles. Hudson river, at Mechanicville, is about 60 feet above tide, while at its extreme headwaters it is about 3400 feet above tide level. The catchment area above Glens Falls is from 40 to 50 miles from east to west and from 60 to 65 miles from north to south. Below Glens Falls the catchment extends well into southern Vermont and Massachusetts. The length of the stream above Mechanic- ville is from 120 to 125 miles. ee HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 189 Family resemblance of streams. In tables Nos. 42, 43, 61 and 66 we have the mean rainfall, runoff and evaporation of the storage, growing and replenishing periods for Muskingum, Gen- esee, Croton and Hudson rivers. Those tables show what may be termed the family resemblance between streams. For instance, for the Muskingum and Genesee rivers the mean rainfall of the storage period is about 19 inches, with a runoff of about 10 inches and an evaporation of about 9 inches. For the growing period the mean rainfall of each of these two streams is about 12 inches, with runoff 1.7 inches and evaporation 10 inches. For the replen: ishing period the mean rainfall of each is about 9 inches, with runoff about 2 inches and evaporation 7.5 inches. The total rain- fall of the whole year is 40 inches for each stream—runoff 13.5 inches and evaporation 26.5 inches. The Croton river has a much higher rainfall. Twenty-four inches in the storage period produces 17 inches of runoff, with an evaporation of 7 inches. From 13.6 inches of rain in the summer we have 2.6 inches of runoff, with 11 inches of evaporation. The rainfall for the year is 49.4 inches, or, say, 9 inches more than for Muskingum and Genesee rivers. The runoff is also about 9 inches in excess of that of these two streams. The evaporation is, how- ever, the same, pointing very strongly to a similar cause. The Hudson river shows apparently the effect of an impermeable catchment, combined with a large forest area. It has a mean annual rainfall of 44.2 inches, yielding 23.3 inches runoff, with 20.9 inches evaporation. For the storage period 20.6 inches rain- fall yields 16.1 inches runoff, with 4.5 inches evaporation. For the growing period 12.7 inches rainfall yields 3.5 inches runoff, with 9.3 inches evaporation. For the replenishing period 10.9 inches rainfall yields 3.7 inches runoff and 7.1 inches evaporation. The classification here given is experimental merely, and is subject to modification with the gathering of more complete data.1 In the foregoing the classification is, with the exception of Muskingum river, not only limited to the State of New York but 1For more extended discussion of classification of streams see paper on Relation of Rainfall to Runoff. 190 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM is further mostly limited to streams with considerable length of record. Description of Muskingum, Genesee, Croton and Hudson rivers. Table 42 gives the rainfall, runoff, and evaporation of the storage, growing and replenishing periods, as well as the total of these three items, on the Muskingum river, for the years 1888-1895, inclusive. The minimum year was 1895, the total runoff being 4.90 inches. The maximum occurred in 1890, with a total runoff of 26.84 inches. The mean runoff for the entire period is 13.1 inches. Table 43 gives the same facts for the Genesee river for the years 1890-1898, inclusive. In this table, for the years 1890-1892, the record of Oatka creek which was gaged by the writer, has been used. For a portion of 1893 the results are computed. The dam at Mount Morris, at which gagings were taken, was carried away by a flood early in 1897, and for the years 1897 and 1898 the gaging record has been deduced by comparison of the rainfalls with those at Rochester, where gagings are kept by the City Engi- neer. The results, aside from those for the years 1894-1896, must be considered somewhat approximate, although probably within 10 per cent of the truth. The mean evaporation for the years 1894-1896 was 27.21 inches. Tables 66 and 67 exhibit the rainfall, runoff, and evaporation of the storage, growing, and replenishing periods for Croton river, from 1868-1899, inclusive, a period of thirty-two years. This record has been revised as per experiments at Cornell University,described by John R. Freeman, member American Society Civil Engineers, in. his report to the Comptroller in 1900. As shown by Mr Freeman, the rainfall record from 1868-1876, inclusive, is not very reliable, and accordingly two sets of means are given. The mean rainfall from 1868-1876, inclusive, was 45 inches, the mean runoff 23.37 ~ inches, and the mean evaporation 21.63 inches. For the second period the rainfall from 1877-1899, inclusive, has been so ration- ally treated by Mr Freeman as to leave nothing to be desired. The means for this second period are: rainfall, 49.33 inches; runoff, 22.81 inches, and evaporation, 26.52 inches. A comparison of these two sets of means shows how dangerous it is to draw final HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 191 conclusions from data about which there is considerable doubt. The rainfall differs by 4.33 inches and the evaporation by 4.89 inches, or from 20 per cent to 25 per cent. In preparing these tables the figures of table No. 26 of Mr. Free- man’s report have been used. This table is in million gallons per 24-hour day, and has been reduced to inches per month on the eatchment area of 338.8 square miles. The following gives the water surfaces exposed to evaporation at different periods: Per cent _ 5.8 square miles, 1868-1873, — ee is 6.2 square miles, 1873—October, 1878, leo 6.9 square miles, 1878-1891, =e 8.4 square miles, 1891-1893, —=2),48 9.5 square miles, 1893-1895, == Oe 11.0 square miles, 1895-1897, =a ALO 12.0 square miles, 1897-1900, —= 3.56 It may at first thought be imagined that these large water sur- faces exposed to evaporation have considerably increased the ground evaporation over the entire catchment. When, however, one considers that it is only the difference between what a water- surface evaporation and what a ground-surface evaporation would be, the difference is seen to be not very much. For instance, - assuming the water-surface evaporation at 36 inches per year and the ground surface evaporation at 27 inches per year, the differ- ence becomes 9 inches. With 12 square miles of water surface in 1900, giving 3.56 per cent of the whole, the excess of water-surface evaporation over ground-surface evaporation is 0.32 of an inch, a quantity which is so far within the limit of possible error in other directions as to be negligible. At the most, taking the catchment area at 338.8 square miles, it would only reduce the evaporation from 26.5 inches to 26.2 inches. | The minimum year in this table is seen to be 1880, when only 13.71 inches ran off. In 1883 the runoff was also very low, being only 13.74 inches. Table 61 gives the rainfall, runoff, and evaporation of the stor- age, growing, and replenishing periods for the Hudson river area for a period of 14 years, from 1888-1901, inclusive. The minimum MUSEUM NEW YORK STATE 192 hes as Inc ° was 1895, when 36.67 inches of rainfall yielded 17.46 runoff in the stream. yeaT 2 We may now consider a few of the Description of diagrams. large number of diagrams which have been prepared. 2 S ie) Q > x= oO a QoQ > jJuawy)d) vo sayouy ANSE PLT zlayuaayno4 saasbag Fig. 5B Diagram showing relation between "precipitation, evaporation, runoff and temperature on the Upper Hudson river. Fig. 5 shows, for the Upper Hudson, precipitation, evaporation, runoff, and mean annual temperature for the years 1888-1901, lusive, platted in the natural order. Inc 193 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Fig. 6 shows, for the same area, evaporation and mean annual temperature, platted in the order of evaporation. Ly : ce 5 il ae BERESES IGN tH st HHH: ar PTT PTET TL iseee PEE zee BU PL 682 PEELE LE eee STRUTT | LULL TTT | 96e¢ TS Neoex UaETLAEEEEEET TRL Ee 8681 UPPER HUDSON LLL ST Diagram showing the between Bigs i relation runoff, evaporation and temper- Fig. 6 Diagram ‘showing the relation between evaporation and precipitation, temperature on the Upper Hudson river, the years bein according to ature on the Upper Genesee river, g arranged amount of the years being arranged in order of dryness. the evaporation. Fig. 7 shows, for the Upper Genesee, precipitation, evaporation, runoff, and mean annual temperature, platted in the order of the itation. precip MUSEUM YORK STATE NEW 194 Fig. 8 shows, for the Muskingum river, precipitation, evapora- tion, runoff, and mean annual temperature, platted in the order of the precipitation. Qc SN = ac = S o = = =: = padv 2UaUYoZNO UO SaYyoUT TCC ieee PTET oes Zlayuasyoy s004boq showing the relation between the precipitation, runoff, evaporation and temperature on the Muskingum river, Ohio, being arranged in order of dryness. Fig. 8 Diagram the years On fig. 9 the relation between precipitation and runoff, for the 84.5 R. These diagrams (figs. 5 to 14) all show, together with many 2 Upper Hudson, has been expressed by the formula P UPPER HUDSON P?= 84,5 R HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 195 Run-off in inches SESSRe Re SPDR a BS22 e880 PERE SERRE BRR ARs Precipitation in inches 20 30 40 TESSSGEGoeSeene HERE EEE EEE CEH BERERRRSARS en p= aoe Fig. 9 Diagram showing the relation between the precipitation and runoff, in inches, on the Upper Hudson river. UPPER HUDSON P'7Z34.3R Go So LS) S Run-off in inches Precipitation in inches 20 30 40 Pig. 10 Diagram showing the relation between the precipitation and runoff, ches, on the Upper Hudson river, expressed by exponential formula. "= BC _eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 196 NEW YORK STATE UTTTNTTTT TTT MUSEUM 5S SAO PEN ssgecis HHNTTH Benois fluc. nw S N \ © ZSSSEKHKCGH 3 < S CNH] «=O SS Seeeee | IN ; RS a Deas ee | Ss PCOEECCEEN TE SR SAREMS OQ Sert HMC «© S$ 24853) \ ~ S> 8§ns ole to PENT) =. | a es © Mie: «| € Essssasls HANG «6, BE SSSRaIS lab W GS Tehon S = e COLON Tea re apes = ENT IPENTIINS BS SsSSsle © p al ly a PENTITTEEN TING Sa eeS ONS PENTITITIN ITS S85 2 egels TON ETAT SeSGrals » OUCH os Sk ig eae © (NUTINI =ssk8 3| Se PACTOIN TT 4 SUAS OS eINTTUINTT Ss Se Ca NUT NUL Ee es UDEU\' SOMME VEN Hsia eigen se CSN) Ss 2 cs oe COTTPIRETTEN EIT oS ace S a i TN TRAST S oe BESSNEERINGEELE e ly BESUANSEZSANEED febeae le TNT : TTT ePNeaa NTs Ss ly S raQ bite & iS ly TSENRE SN [ELL = a PST NEI TS Ols = = Shee eueeines N [el ha ean wa Sey 5 3 NSA iy = Gh ee NTT = zi sais ae Ne - =< econ A fit BANEEES an % = ae POONA S Seika sar A EEL YM ££ sq S| | | 3 ~ GERD URRNGHOND Spee A ae ecu Rye ols | WL 2S, ss5s 8/5 PENAL S44 = eats =I3 PORE ELE ; ly Be Ss : LN SD wy S © a]o ve) eo ee EMAL oe eS eee eeSee 2 BERGA Pa = SS i Ss eae = REECE QeEVSH RSSEIS = CAA eae AR incon | S = SS UR ete Ee PEELE NTA 1 Sat QOrN O]N sees 2 TG > Su. = & ~ 8 on xfe & TTT Miles u oe = = i~ Siaddgals 5 SEROOOOEL D>s N o>) a) | Sve 3 ima SS Rags a Ss FS ala Ss c ir » a ; 5 Q 2 = S = S ae Cees Tua D SRUCGRCGEE Dadv JuauYya}vd UO Sayou! ul ffo-uny ELT CET POET, S S N ~ Fig. 11 Runoff diagram of Hudson and Genesee rivers. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 197 others not here published, that there is no definite relation between evaporation and mean annual temperature. Haponential formula. On fig. 10 this relation is expressed by an exponential formula, after the manner proposed by Mr Fitz- Gerald in his paper, Flow of Water in 48-inch Pipes. Such a curve has the advantage that it is the best approximation possible to obtain from the given data. It will be noticed that it differs slightly from the curve of fig. 9. At 30 inches rainfall this differ- ence amounts to about 1.3 inches of runoff. While on the subject of exponential formulas it. may be re- marked that their chief advantage lies in the possibility of taking any set of data and deducing the curve which best suits the conditions. | Description of runoff diagrams. Fig. 11 is a runoff diagram of the Hudson and Genesee rivers, Hudson river for 1888-1901, in- clusive, and Genesee river for 1890-1898, inclusive. In preparing this and the following diagrams it is considered that if both run- off and precipitation were correctly measured the points would fall in a regular curve approximately like those shown on figs. 9 and 10. Such diagrams may therefore be taken as a criterion of | the accuracy with which the observations have been made. It is easier, however, to measure the runoff than it is to measure the precipitation, and hence when large variation occurs, as it does in these several diagrams, we may first look for it in the pre- cipitation records. As regards the Hudson area, it has been the writer’s custom to take the rainfall of the northern plateau of the State Weather Bureau as, on the whole, best representing the rainfall of the Upper Hudson area. With the exception of the years 1899 and 1900 the points all fall within from an inch to an inch and a half of the curve. Those two years have, however, been computed by a less accurate method than the preceding ones. It is concluded, therefore, that aside from 1899 and 1900 the curves represent the rainfall and runoff of the Hudson and Genesee rivers with considerable accuracy. Fig. 12 shows in a similar manner a runoff diagram for Mus- kingum river from 1888 to 1895, inclusive. 1Trans. Am. Soe. C. E., Vol. XX XV, p. 241. 198 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM NTH at HINT S PNT HHH Ss ENT MW 8 TANITn= | ONT PCAN PNT : SIE he a Sas 6 (INIT ® TENT : TeLNT s PPT NTT E AAAREANTEIT Sle Ss pares OIG © NTT $ Mati s NTT so TNT = ERREAVIEH 2 NTT s 2 LNT 3 me és a : HN ce 2.S5QNQ OMe gessri3 CUNT TTT NTH © =P one. LepMOls 5 ee S818 HHA ce ~ cc -= ENTS TT = See es Se \ = ae HREERORNE > Ss &Sevealy TTT AN Te S ce SSGSGN|¥ LTT Th Cu an 3 © TEMPO By oe PENT = a w = ¥Sst¥ ATT Foe HH SE Se ce = Sie TW Ss & PSs = = SSNS 05 aus BUGUOUERE Same AT SS eae OUGHOROREH eS ° Rig eeae ale BURUERGEL S RO Egy eee OES = =< 2 = ROGHERIGEN Q == 3 Sy Sls PETA Se Ger ha CA r == ~ CO = SS A ie TT Teo = ™e feci3 AONETOOLOD oe HH 5 2 Spee Pr Scans lcs oes HH &. DaAD JUaWYI}2VI UO Sayaul ul ffo-uny =) ° s roa) CT CO ooh PENNEIOUEL SURROTOEEE SUNUERITE PC S So N -— Runoff diagram of Muskingum river. 12 Fig. RUN-OFF DIAGRAM OF CROTON RIVER 1877-1899: INCHES ON CATCHMENT AREA MAXIMUM YEAR Rainfall. Run-off. Evapor- Rainfall. Run-off. Evapor- HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK HNO 5 TNT SBGSOL cae eau CONT? PNT EEE CCPErEN [HTHTE AA = LING aka: bog eeree ns eels ere Heres isa |] ONPSSAEANGANN Rainfall. Run-off. Evapor- ation MINIMUM YEAR . ation 30.83 21.74° ' 32.60 27.74 60.34 Storage: Growing Replenishing. DAA 2UBWYI}2VI UO SaYydu! ul ffo-uny S S v oD Tse N ORLAGR AED NAOR ORE TT BINT TT st Precipitation in inches.on catchment area 2 Runoff diagram of Croton river. é ° 13 Fig. 199 200 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fig. 13 is a diagram of the revised gagings of Croton river from 1877 to 1899, inclusive. . The maximum, minimum, and mean runoff may be obtained from the tabulations on each figure. It is evident that proceeding in the same way as for the fore- going diagrams, figs. 11 to 13,inclusive, diagrams may be prepared . for the storage, growing, and replenishing periods, and a curve drawn from which the runoff for a given rainfall may be taken. UPPER HUDSON RIVER Storage period ul 7) © = S = = 5 i = = ce i TT fe) fad | ; fi 2° Be mle Riga (i ae ee ed fd ee Precipitation in inches 75 20 Fig. 14 Diagram showing the relation between precipitation and runoff in the Upper Hudson river catchment during the storage period. Hig. 14 is such a diagram for the storage period on the Upper Hudson river for the years 1888-1901, inclusive. This diagram shows that aside from the years 1890 and 1894 the runoff of this eatchment area was substantially accurate during the storage period. It is probable that in these two years their accuracy may have been interfered with by ice, although just the cause is not definitely known—it may have been in the rainfall. Fig. 15 is a similar diagram for the Upper Hudson river during the growing period for the same years. This diagram shows that aside from 1897, the runoffs were substantially right during this period. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 201 Fig. 16 is a similar diagram for the Upper Hudson during the replenishing period for the same years. This diagram shows that in 1890 and 1900 there was a discrepancy, which, as in the previous cases, was presumably in the precipitation of that period. UPPER HUDSON RIVER Growing period ho S 70 ay iss) = S = = = 5 1 = s & i SS BE BG, ae Be Gel ee a a ee es Ce Ae Gs Cs a ES ES a ES De Va Da, [Doe Dg De ea Fe (re GD ee eee a] peg 75 20 Precipitation in inches 70 15 20 Fig. 15 Diagram showing the relation between the precipitation and runoff in the Upper Hudson river catchment during the growing period. UPPER HUDSON RIVER Replenishing period No S = . =) Run-off in inches Precipitation in inches 70 15 20 Fig. 16 Diagram showing the precipitation and runoff in the Upper Hudson river catchment during the replenishing period. Proceeding on similar lines, the writer prepared, several years ago, a series of curves, from which the monthly runoffs may be 202 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM taken. But, unfortunately, owing to negative evaporation in the storage period, the individual months of that period were too dis- cordant for publication. The writer, therefore, does not give any such diagrams in this connection. His present view is that, for the reason stated, they can not be safely used. One or two general conclusions of some interest may be drawn from figs. 11 to 13, inclusive. Taking the extreme low water as represented by the year 1895, on Muskingum river, at 4.9 inches for the whole year, with a rainfall of 29.8 inches, it is interesting to observe that in the preceding year of 1894, there was a total runoff of 8.7 inches, with a total rainfall of 30.5 inches. That is to say, the rainfall for the year 1894 was 0.7 inch greater than in 1895, but the runoff was 3.8 inches greater. This extreme difference may be ascribed to the difference in the hight of ground water. In 1895 ground water stood much lower than in 1893, with the result of a lower runoff. On fig. 11, for the Genesee river, with a precipitation of 30 inches, the runoff is found to be 6 inches, while on fig. 8, with a precipitation of 30 inches, runoff ordinarily may be expected to be about 8 inches. This statement is made on the assumption that the curve is drawn in a mean position, or in such a way as to give average mean results, but it should not be overlooked that Muskingum river observations are too few to draw absolute con- clusions. The diagram, fig. 12, shows that there is some lack of accuracy in at least one-half of them. Fig. 11 shows that on Hudson river, if during any year the total rainfall should sink to 30 inches, the runoff may be expected to be somewhat less than 10. inches, though the modifying effect of full or low ground water may be taken into account in reaching such conclusion. Probably there would be, due to elevation of ground water, a variation of perhaps 2 inches. On the diagram of Croton river, fig. 18, it is also seen that 30 inches precipitation may be expected to produce a little less than 7 inches of runoff, showing also that this stream has substantially the characteristics of Genesee river. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 203 In all of the foregoing statements as to minimum runoff, it should be understood that the actual quantity appearing in the stream as runoff from a given precipitation will vary, depending on whether ground water is high or low at the beginning of the period considered. All such statements, therefore, are necessarily approximate—they may have a plus or minus variation from the diagram of one or two inches. Possibly the maximum variation may be more than this. RIVER SYSTEMS Classification of rivers. The rivers of the State may be classi- fied into seven general systems, whose relative position is shown by the accompanying map, fig. 17. These are: _ Fig. 17 Map of rivers of New York. 204 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1) St Lawrence system, which includes all waters draining to Lakes Erie and Ontario, and Niagara and St Lawrence rivers. — 2) Champlain system, including all streams in the State tribu- tary to Lakes Champlain and George. The Champlain system is in reality a subdivision of the St Lawrence, but made separate here merely for convenience in discussing the river systems of the State. 3) Hudson river system, including all streams tributary to the Hudson and its main branch, the Mohawk. 4) Allegheny river system. 5) Susquehanna river system. 6) Delaware river system. 7) The streams of Long Island tributary to Long Island sound and the Atlantic ocean. The Ten Mile river, one of the headwaters of the Housatonic river in Connecticut, flows out of the State to the east, while the headwaters of Ramapo river, in Rockland county, flow from New York into New Jersey. These latter are of possible future im- portance by reason of the necessity of water for the supply either of Greater New York or, in the case of Ramapo river, also for the municipalities of northern New Jersey. Chateaugay river and tributaries of the St Lawrence also flow northward into the Dominion of Canada. St Lawrence River System This group embraces the streams tributary to Lake Erie, Niagara river, Lake Ontario and St Lawrence river. On the extreme southwest, in Chautauqua county, the watershed line approaches within a few miles of Lake Erie, but at an elevation of several hundred feet above, and as a consequence the streams are short and rapid. A small amount of power is developed on Chautauqua creek at Westfield, and on Canadaway creek near Fredonia. Cattaraugus, Buffalo, Tonawanda and Oak Orchard creeks are tributaries of Lakes Erie and Ontario and Niagara river in western New York. Buffalo creek is important as form- ing a large portion of Buffalo harbor at its mouth. Several of HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 205 these streams will be discussed in detail on a later page. Tona- wanda creek, which flows into Niagara river at Tonawanda, is used for several miles as a part of Erie canal. This stream is sluggish throughout nearly its whole course and affords only a small amount of power. The water supply of the village of Attica is taken from its headwaters. | Lake Erie and Niagara river drainage. There are a number of streams tributary to Lake Erie and Niagara river, but with the | exception of Cayuga, Buffalo and Cazenovia creeks, which unite to form Buffalo river, within the city of Buffalo, Eighteen Mile creek (tributary to Lake Erie), Cattaraugus creek, Tonawanda creek and Ellicott creek, none of these streams are very large. The catchment areas of these different streams, as determined from Bien’s atlas, are as follows: E Square miles. CE TEE SOE SS ie SA a ane ee ee ae 127 TSS TSU) POPE Ee Nee Bae ah glia Aa Op ee eee ee 145 PET CS PG STE i ag Oe I Be ea for a 141 Below the junction of these several streams Buffalo river has~ a catchment of about 7 square miles, making a total of 420 square miles. The following are the catchment areas of the remainder of the streams tributary to Lake Erie and Niagara river: Square miles. SS LC LCEWe S16E 21 IS Be TEA A cape ee cele 25 ire Ser OTe. he ee Ls pelea be ease 50 ha UG GS Re 6s Sp ieee Se ae teu a eee 15 Cattaraugus creek....... Pe a a 560 Wredmaieereek “Silver creck ic) Ji oc es os: 60 Re tcplaayet el Pek cee a ba Byte eee - 35 ADEPT 2 aD oo! eine Mena ee 32 Pongwanda, creck) Milicott ¢reek.2.)2 2.2... 610 Cayuga creek. Cayuga creek rises in the western part of Wyoming county and flows through generally level country to its junction with Buffalo creek. Buffalo creek also rises in the west- ern part of Wyoming county and flows westerly. Its headwat7r are at an elevation of about 1500 feet above tide. 206 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Cazenovia creek. Cazenovia creek rises in the extreme south- — western part of Erie county and flows in a northerly direction to its junction with Buffalo creek, to form Buffalo river. The head- waters of this stream are in hilly country. Highteen Mile creek. Wighteen Mile creek flows into Lake Erie about eleven miles west of the city of Buffalo. It rises in the south part of Erie county. Cattaraugus creek. Cattaraugus creek is the boundary line between Erie and Cattaraugus counties. Its main branch rises “in the southwestern part of Wyoming county. Its course is gen- erally west and northwest. The elevation of its headwaters is about 1600 feet to 1800 feet above tide. Smoke creek, Big Sister creek, Muddy creek, Silver creek, Wal- nut creek, Canadaway creek and Chautauqua creek are none of them very important streams. | Tonawanda creek. 'Tonawanda creek rises in the western part of Wyoming county, flows northerly through Attica to Batavia — and thence westerly to the Niagara river at Tonawanda, at which place its chief tributary, Ellicott creek, joins the main stream. For the first thirty miles of its flow the creek drains hilly and rolling country, having a sharp descent. Its extreme headwaters in Wyoming county are at an elevation of about 1200 feet. From Batavia to Tonawanda, a distance of nearly sixty miles by the stream, the topography is flat, having a total fall between these points of about 310 feet. A considerable portion of the catch- ment area of this section is not only flat and marshy, but also narrow. Between Batavia and Tonawanda the creek has been modified by two artificial interruptions: (1), by the diversion of a portion of its water through a diversion channel into Oak Orchard creek, from which water is drawn to the Erie canal at Medina; and (2), at Tonawanda the creek is artificially raised by the State dam and the stream canalized and used as a part of Erie canal for a distance of twelve miles to Pendleton. The major portion of the water supply of the western division of the Erie canal is drawn from Lake Erie through this canalized portion of HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 207 Tonawanda creek. It will be noticed that the current of Tona- wanda creek is reversed here for twelve miles. The Tonawanda creek, in its relation to Oak Orchard creek, will now be briefly discussed. Although Tonawanda creek is not a tributary of this catchment, the fact that the catchment areas are merged into one another, and also owing to the fact that a portion of the water of Tonawanda creek is diverted into the Oak Orchard swamp by the Oak Orchard feeder, makes it necessary to discuss it briefly here. The dam diverting water into the Oak Orchard creek is about one-half mile east of the west line of Genesee county. From the — point where the Tonawanda creek crosses this western boundary the creek is the boundary between Erie and Niagara counties. The fall in Tonawanda creek from Batavia to Oak Orchard dam is about 260 feet. From the Oak Orchard dam to Pendleton, where the Erie canal leaves Tonawanda creek, the fall is about 45 feet. On this portion the channel is extremely sinuous, the total length of the channel between Oak Orchard dam and the canal being 29 miles, while the direct distance is 15 miles. Niagara river. Niagara river forms a portion of the boundary : between the Dominion of Canada and the State of New York. The difference in elevation between Lakes Erie and Ontario is, approximately, 325 feet, of which about 160 feet are at Niagara Falls. Between Lake Erie and Niagara Falls the river divides into two channels around Grand Island, which is 10 miles long and 4 or 5 miles wide. The general course of the river is from south to north, but in passing around Grand Island the eastern channel bends westward, and for 3 miles from the foot of the island the course of the river is west. Goat Island lies at the foot of this westerly stretch. On the New York side the American channel finds its way around the island to the American falls, which break over the rough ledge at right angles to the main river. The Horseshoe falls, on the Canadian side, are about 3000 feet higher up and lie between the west end of Goat island and the Canadian shore. At the Cana- dian falls the main river again turns to the north and pursues that general course to Lake Ontario. 208 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM x The elevation of the water surface at the head of the rapids above the falls is 560 feet above tidewater, thus giving a fall from the Lake Erie level to that point of from 12 to 13 feet, of which from 4 to 5 feet are included in the rapids at the city of Buffalo, in front of and just below Fort Porter. The descent in the river from the head of the rapids to the brink of the falls is about 50 feet. At the narrows, half a mile above the whirlpool, the eleya- tion of the water surface is 300 feet, while that of the surface of the still water opposite Lewiston is 249 feet; the fall in this section, which ig from 4 to 4.5 miles in length, may therefore be taken at 51 feet, while from Lewiston to the mouth at Fort Niag- ara the fall is only 2 feet in a distance of 7 miles. The total length of Niagara river is about 37 miles. The catchment area of Niagara river above Niagara Falls is 265,095 square miles. On account of the immense water-power developments now taking place at Niagara Falls the runoff of Niagara river must necessarily receive extended discussion in a complete account of the Hydrology of New York. Lake Ontario catchment area. This catchment comprises the strip of territory draining directly into Lake Ontario and extend- ing from the Niagara river to beyond the Black river. The im- portant streams of this section are Genesee river, Oswego river, Salmon river west and Black river. The less important are Eighteen Mile creek (tributary to Lake Ontario), Johnson creek, Oak Orchard creek, Sandy creek (Orleans county), West creek, Salmon creek (Monroe county), Irondequoit creek, Salmon creek (Wayne county), Wolcott creek, Red creek, Sodus creek, Nine Mile creek, Fish creek, Little Salmon river (Oswego county), Beaver Dam brook, Sandy creek (Oswego county), north and south branches of Sandy creek (Jefferson county), Skinner creek, Little Sandy creek, Stony creek, Perch river and Chaumont river. None of these small streams are of any great importance, although some of them have considerable water power upon them.! 1For statement in detail of water power on streams tributary to the proposed Black river feeder canal, see table No. 129, water power in use on streams tributary to proposed Black river feeder in 1898, at pp. 857-861 of the Deep Waterways Report. ~ st HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 209 The following are the catchment areas of a few of these streams: Square miles Kighteen Mile creek (tributary to Lake Ontario)...... 90 7 SLEYOTOV RTE SEI RUA ST Se ge ip eae 105 MME GIR CECOK ae ee seh ee ene ge ee 295 ine eagle SURES Se ARES oe Or rea ee era ee 85 Ee NG SON MIOR CECCKG ace tele se ama e a ees oes 110 eRe MICE EYES. iene aon a cela tials wie Geis cele cache he foe The following notes on these streams have been collected from various sources: Eighteen Mile creek. Eighteen Mile creek rises near Gasport, and flows first westerly and then northerly to Lake Ontario at Olcott. A small branch of the stream flows through the city of Lockport, rising two or three miles south of that city. Ever since the construction of the Erie canal the Lockport branch has received a considerable quantity of water which is discharged by the water powers at Lockport drawing their supply from the canal. Oak Orchard creek. Oak Orchard creek rises in the eastern — part of Orleans county, whence it flows to West Shelby and then turns northeasterly, reaching Lake Ontario at Point Breeze. Above West Shelby it mostly flows through swamps and swampy ehannels, while below that point the country is dry and rolling. The distance from the head of the Swamp to its foot near West Shelby is sixteen miles in a direct line, but upwards of twenty miles following the stream channel. The fall of the stream is 37 feet, making the average slope 1.8 feet per mile. The topography of the country adjacent to the swamp is level and its boundaries are accordingly indefinite. Large areas of land around the mar. gin of the swamp are wet during the fall and spring and dry during the summer. There are about 20,000 acres of imperfectly drained or marshy land lying along this portion of the Tonawanda creek and about 25,000 acres in Oak Orchard swamp proper. Swamp lands occur in the towns of Alabama, Byron, Elba and Oakfield in Genesee county. The catchment area of Oak Orchard swamp is about 133 square miles. 210 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genesee river. This river issues from the highlands of the Alle- gheny plateau in Potter county, Pennsylvania, a few miles south of the New York State boundary. Entering Allegany county, it first runs northwesterly for upward of 80 miles to near the village of Caneadea, at which point it turns northeasterly, this direction being generally maintained to the mouth. It flows entirely across the county of Allegany and then for several miles forms the boundary between Livingston and Wyoming counties, after which _it crossés the northeast part of Livingston into Monroe county, through which it continues to its mouth at Charlotte. Above Portage its course from the State line is chiefly through an alluvial valley. From Portage to Mount Morris the river flows through a deep and in some places narrow canyon for a distance of over 20 miles. The Portage falls, with a total descent including the intervening rapids of about 330 feet, are at the head of this canyon. The Upper Portage falls have a descent, including the rapids, of about 70 feet. Halfa mile below are the Middle falls, with a descent of 110 feet; while 2 miles below begin the Lower falls, consisting of a series of rapids about half a mile long with an aggregate fall of 150 feet. These three falls may be taken as aggregating about 270 feet, exclusive of the rapids. At present no power developments exist. Formerly a sawmill was located at the Mid- dle falls, but on account of the extinction of the lumber business ~ on the stream it has not been operated for many years. At Mount Morris, Genesee river issues into a broad, level, allu- vial valley from 1 to 2 miles wide, which continues to near Roch- ester, where there is a descent of 262 feet in about 3 miles. The Upper falls at Rochester, 90 feet in hight, are a cataract in the. Niagara limestone, while at the Lower falls, 94 feet in hight, the Medina sandstone appears. The foregoing figures do not include the dams above the falls. The principal tributaries of the Genesee river are Canaseraga, Honeoye and Conesus creeks from the east, and Oatka, Black and Wiscoy creeks from the west. Honeoye, Canadice and Hemlock lakes are tributary to the Honeoye creek, and Conesus lake to HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK irk Conesus creek. Silver lake is another small body of water in the Genesee basin and tributary to the river by the Silver lake outlet. Canaseraga creek joins Genesee river near Mount Morris. From Dansville to its mouth, a distance of 16 miles, this creek flows through a broad alluvial valley with very little fall. Above Dans- ville the stream is more rapid, but the comparatively small, de- forested catchment area limits its value for water power. Honeoye creek, which is the outlet of Honeoye, Canadice and Hemlock lakes, furnishes some water power. There are also several mills on the outlet of Conesus lake. Formerly there were a number of mills on the Silver lake out- let, but changed business conditions have led to their decay. The other tributaries of the Genesee have little significance as mill streams. It appears, then, that the two places of importance on Genesee river, from the water-power point of view, are Portage and Rochester. The following table gives the detail of the several subdivisions of the catchment area of Genesee river: TABLE No. 37—CATCHMENT AREAS OF TRIBUTARIES OF GENESEE RIVER (In square miles) Catchment Areaabove Area below Creek area mouth mouth Demme tn ee Ree ee Ao ee 43.3 S39 143.2 MRE NUNGA 5 '6 6) v. . oe eee ae See oe 30.0 181.0 211.0 RS ons Ay aa cevst. “aad's fe arse oe 68.3 214.0 282.3 MPA TAVG 2 cops iicics onic! wag doayelane's 21.6 301.3 322.9 oo ELS so eee i ar eg ae 22.3 323.9 346.2
  • | Qe es] te ne) > D> m Lr) EXS) au fe) REGSSES | STSRSE | ScESe Bes a 5 = % $ = epee BS ios | SBS Peo f 6 © iB : ad © 450 FE FOtee, OS pn a= ena) =e 5 ro) = tf 0 4m are ar pos Cyn p< ) = Seg Rs < aOP05 Caan et or oo 9, = 4 99 a0 55 © S| Se 46,90 a Ko D ® ey) 8 UVAA OFR aoe |Pobs elie t= hee fe) oe = = & ie Oe © eer acl 5 9 S © i DEBB Sao Cerera'S ees i i = ct CO” He ee OD ED ipo © ) BBS 4 g ag ct BHF ; 8 5 BSsere | 8 98S | RRS eas . 38 2: HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 239 In order to make such showing we may consider the statistics of the city of Watertown, as given by table No. 38, showing the amount raised for State tax since 1869, in which year Water- town became a city, to 1898, inclusive. In this table column (1) shows the years in sequence; column (2) the area, which has remained fixed during the whole period at 3237 acres; column (3) the assessed valuation each year; column (4) the rate on the dollar of the State tax; columns (5), (6) and (7) the State taxes for each year; column (8) the total State tax on an equal area of farming land in the adjoining township of Watertown; colunm (9) the annual net profit to the State on account of the city of Watertown—that is to say, the difference of columns (7) and (8) ; and column (10) the present value (amount) of the annual net profit, being the total increase in wealth in the State by reason of the values created at Watertown. The rate of 6 per cent has ~ been used in computing column (10). Referring to the footings of the table, it appears that the total State tax from 1869 to 1898, inclusive, was $472,330.16, and that the total State tax on an equal area in the adjoining township of Watertown has been, for the same period, $9,918.41. A comparison of these two columns shows forcibly the economic value to the State of munici- pal developments. The footing of column (9), which is the differ- ence of columns (7) and (8), is $462,411.75. The total value (amount) in 1898 was $1,435,193.88. These figures, it will be remembered, represent merely State taxation—they do not repre- sent the increment to the county, the municipality itself, or to the private wealth of citizens. Inasmuch as Lockport is a town of about the same size as Watertown, it is of interest to compare the statistics of the two places. Lockport was made a city in 1865, and the statistics have been brought up to and including the year 1896. The assessed valuation in 1865 was $2,929,130, while the assessed valuation of Watertown in 1869 was $3,171,702. The assessed valuation of Lockport in 1896 was $6,785,100, and of Watertown in 1898, $9,359,612. The total State tax at Lockport from 1865 to 1896, inclusive, was $511,861.59; the total State tax on an aes 240 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM equivalent area of farming land in the adjoining township of Lockport was $17,692.88; the total annual net profit to the State on account of the city of Lockport for the whole period from 1865 to 1896, inclusive, was $494,169.16, and the present value (amount) is found to be $1,584,765.174 Streams flowing into St Lawrence river. Proceeding along the St Lawrence river we find a number of streams, such as the Oswegatchie, which flows into the St Lawrence at Ogdensburg; the Grasse, which enters the St Lawrence near the north line of the State; the Raquette and St Regis, flowing into the St Lawrence a short distance below the Grasse, and finally the Chateaugay, which flows from this State into the Dominion of Canada and thence into the St Lawrence. These streams all head in and about the Adirondack plateau and, as a rule, fall rapidly from their sources to near their mouths, affording large water powers, which thus far have been chiefly utilized for pulp grinding, paper making, and sawing lumber. There is a lack of definite information in regard to all the streams of the northern part of the State. No detailed surveys of this region have been made, Partial reservoir systems have been constructed on the Oswegatchie, Grasse, and Raquette rivers. Some of the economic questions involved in the construction of these reservoirs have been discussed on another page. Until within a year or two, no measurements had been made of any of the streams tributary to the St Lawrence river proper. It is probable, however, that several of them are the best water- yielding streams of the State, because they flow from the great northern forest, and because their headwaters are in the extensive_ lake region which lies immediately west of the main Adirondack mountains, and which extends westward from the base of the main range to the borders of the forest, a distance of nearly 50 miles. This portion of the Adirondack plateau is compara- tively level. As regards geographic distribution, these lakes are most numerous in the northern parts of Herkimer and Hamilton 1A bstract from Report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK QAL counties and the southern parts of St Lawrence and Franklin counties. Those in Herkimer county flow into the Moose and Beaver rivers, tributaries of Black river. The following are the elevations of a few of the more important lakes of Hamilton, St Lawrence, and Franklin counties, which are tributary to streams flowing northward into the St Lawrence: Lake Feet MAM IN ets sc MPEG os sane as a vic ac es ne kek Se 1,540 EULER hie SR eS a en eee 1,774 MD eee eee cule w lela d's ole Sly wie tie we 1,753: Long PE MCM eM aCMaeNe tra cle a/ceheisttale) al (a ioijal'el dlapiavelvela ts’ ea © oi)secs\ wires lee ae) 0's e if 680. MIME SUNT eee sg nies Shehele! ope Wie 6. fe aioe @ oa aré bd wens © 1,728. RumuMCRe pn eee ee a ee eR et eens 1,552 Oswegatchie river. This stream has its source in several lakes and swamps on the Adirondack plateau, in the southern portion of St Lawrence county. The main stream is the outlet of Cran- berry lake and flows in a general northwesterly direction, enter- ing the St Lawrence river at Ogdensburg. Indian river, one of the principal tributaries of the Oswegatchie, rises in Indian and Bonaparte lakes, flows to and through Black lake and joins the Oswegatchie a few miles above Ogdensburg. The following are the’ catchment areas of the Oswegatchie river and its main tributaries : Square miles East Branch Oswegatchie river above mouth............. 3508 West Branch Oswegatchie river above mouth............ 272 Oswegatchie river below junction of two branches........ 630 Oswegatchie riyer above Gouverneur....:..............-. 127 Wewecatenie river above Galilee: i. ccs alge dae ees 1,033 nian yer apove Pniladelphias.. 225.050.0000 s.scve. ease 216 Pe ena cemetery CEP re 5 totes as cyctaenl «4, osha She's oe Gia es 3 544 Oswegatchie river below Black lake junction............. Late Osweratelie river above Ogdensburg... ......6.5.0....5.. 1,609 The flow of the Oswegatchie at Ogdensburg varies from 614 cubic feet per second at low water to 15,500 cubic feet per second during the spring floods. 247; NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Water power of Oswegatchie river. Water power i Pe s developed by twenty-six dams on the Oswegatchie and its branches, and is used mainly in lumber and paper industries at various points, as shown by the following tabulation: fos) 2 (2 | 2 | 3 | 5 S 2 | Location Use SO tea q Shes =| =) a Z (1) | () (3) ee) 1 17 | Ogdensburg. ....| General manufacturing...... 2 2 | Heuvelton Woodworking and gristmill. . 3 3 | Rensselaer Falls.| Sawmills and custom mills... 4 { 1 | Coopers Falls ...| Sawmill privileges .......... 5 4 | Wegatchie...... Abandoned woolen mill. Saw- mill; runsin winter........ ‘S46 1 | Natural Dam....| Saw and paper mills......... i 7 | Gouverneur..... General manufacturing...... 8 Le) Elia SbORO 2. ee. PaGApill pois uae eae 9 ie) HasiShoro nso... NG MOTEL -he a esree ec eee 10 2a) Hiatisbore.. 2.2% Woodworking mills. Custom CTD er ee ete ee 11 1), 4) “iailsboero:. o..6 Tale pulp: : 5S. 32g ese 12 lS la ISbOre:s.205 hc Oswegatchie Light & Power Co 13 1 | Emeryville...... Gouverneur Wood Pulp Co... 14 14 Dolgeyille 222222. UxSifale & Pulp Cox..." 15 dR i bP ea aa eee Tale Quine 2h eso ee ee 16 2 Edwards yo. oce Grist and sawmills........... Hdpee| eas co" Sout We wards.) 2carGe Sees sh hos Seee ees aoe 18 PEAS Tice et OR a Saw and paper mills.....:... 19 1 4 Oswegatchie ,....| Standard Pulp Co.:.......2—- 20 t ./ Newton Halis.. .u Wood pitlp.) 7.2.52 cue Seer 21 1 ! Newton Falls....| Wood pulp paper ............ Water Power on the West Branch. 22 1 |"Below Fallerville|*Vale pulp. 2. 2: 0.26 eae ee 23 1. |*Pullerville:. 3... Iron works (abandoned)...... 24 1 | Folferville. 2: Wood and tale pulp.......... 25 1 | Gears Corners...| Sawmill (abandoned)........ 26 1 >| ealarriswilles 3+. Gara Sir See eee ae & | a do J q | #3 oa a Lee z f= Oo > = 4 |e (5)o Os s | 336 8 5 ret tee a. hc aie | } dat |e | 193 | 150 . 7 82 | 12 4 18s! aah 20 4 31 33. 16 11 12 1 12 10 Vs SO led i 20 = t 150 13 5 igs 191 | 30 4, ee Cranberry lake, with a water surface area of 12.8 square miles, could furnish additional storage if the present dam were raised a few feet. Black lake, with a water surface of 17.2 square miles, | is virtually an enlargement of Indian river and greatly aids in regulating the flow at Ogdensburg, offering a chance for additional storage at a reasonable cost. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 243 Grasse river. The next stream is Grasse river, which drains a long, narrow catchment area lying between Oswegatchie and Raquette rivers. The channel of Grasse river is parallel to the St Lawrence throughout the whole eighteen miles of its course. For several miles it is separated from the St Lawrence by a neck of land about four miles in width. The Long Sault rapids of the St Lawrence river, comprising a fall of about 50 feet, occur within this reach. This fact has been taken advantage of for the construction of an hydraulic power plant by the St Lawrence Power Company. A canal, three and one-half miles in length, has been cut across the divide, by which water is diverted from near the head of the rapids to a power plant on the bank of Grasse river. After using, the water is turned into Grasse river for a tail-race; 35,000 horsepower is developed under a head of 42 feet. The catchment area of Grasse river above Canton is 113 square miles and 637 square miles above its mouth. Water power of Grasse river. The following shows the prin- _eipal developed water powers on Grasse river, but not including the large power plant at Massena: | | ae a is aera a 3 |= : ae ee 6 | iS E Location | Use a 2 S Sa Ho Ti rs | on | ia 242 | g | BS a- 3 § © = = 3 > | zl 2 ... Grep and sawmills.2:.)..... 7 6 3 | 1 | Chase Mills...... Custom: sawmill. 02.0 a... ws 8 2 4 | ie ci (Se ig 6 eae en Clothing, feed and sawmills. . % 57 a1. —.|-- Bucks. Bridge... ..| Sawmill... ......2c6.5. 0 ee aes 84 | 50 Mon et Morley... 6.3.5. Woodworking and feed mills. 6 8 eae | MOANLOD. bors odes | Grist, sawmills, foundries, etc. Bie 8 sth ay mie art) Canton 3 ss. 5. . poe R Ls 0 Fog aa a Ane ge it aes Aad Rei a 9 | 1 | Py erieas et oe Sulphite pulp mill........... (or RU Beale 10 aa © euass]elh e056. | Woodworking and grist mills. Boe waar Water power on Little river. a1 1 | Little River..... PLT Re anon ge ea 12 | Larsen, 12 1 | Little River..... Woodworking and grist mills. 14 3 18 | 1 | Little River..... (CON itr) Ce ae eee ne 14 | er Little River..... | A Ae Sp ON Se Ea St Seah Rt | 12 244 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Raquette rer. This river flows northerly through St Lawrence county, entering the St Lawrence river near the Canadian line. It drains a long, narrow catchment area, extending from the north part of Hamilton county to the St Lawrence river. The upper portion of the catchment is a flat plateau, with many lakes, furnishing opportunities for storage at reasonable cost. After leaving this plateau, the stream descends rapidly, forming many excellent sites for water-power developments. The following are the main divisions of the catchment area of Raquette river: | _ Square miles - Above Pierceield...... 120.554 ceber bite eee se nas 2 695 Above Hannawa, Palls..o054..00)0.004.2.05.. 5 ee 967 Above Massena. .Sprimig@ ies vase sive cs 0s ¢ 555 2s. eek ees. aml co ABOVE: (TOUTE 5 0 Fees sete kL aeh dale Caeee oe oa 1,240 The following gives the water-surface areas and the catchment areas of some of the lakes on the upper plateau tributary to Raquette river : Surface Catchment r area, area, square miles square miles Blue “Mountain dake. 2 2200). 02s eee oe kes 2.0 39 ecco eabe Lalee so enclose ee ate ans ok Bue ee: aah eke 10.0 94 MA OTCC Mel aee iG ane tee Mine oa dS wikis ane et oe ake he ee 2.3 40 RO ca ee esctsy oo pause de ds Shea 8.7 152 Little Tupper lake......... vate a beeches 4.0 59 tee upper dla wea 8. aie accede hee bia cunts i, eeemecnes 1 Do eee eee Storage can be secured in Big Tupper, Little Tupper, Long and Raquette lakes at a reasonable cost, owing to their being bordered by cheap flatland, a great portion of which is a part of 'the State Forest preserve.! Storage reservoirs can be built at other points on the Raquette, notably at Moosehead in township 6 on Cold river, and on Moose creek. 1This statement does not take into account that there is at present a constitutional provision against the cutting of forests. Water power of Raquette river. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 245 The following water powers on Raquette river are either fully or partially developed: Owners and location Meng cp iiliee ain Noro: saath isd. wis oat Eayamondville. (State dam). oci.ces6. 0... Raymondville Paper Company........... Remington-Martin Company, Norfolk..... Remington-Martin Company, Yaleville.... Frost Paper Company, Norwood......... Raquette River Paper Company, Union RMON barca tery Pategers, Shy sual wie cel Siu as Bae Deere Rares cc) SOS uate Gin, oe SR She wow os A. Sherman Lumber Company, Sissonville. Potsdam Village Power, Potsdam........ Hannawa Falls Water Power Company... Raquette River Pulp Company, Colton.... Piercefield Paper Company, Piercefield. .. Present head in feet 296 If fully developed, head in feet 328 The following water powers on Raquette river are undeveloped : Number of feet fall 01S LRRB ING i See sa N a Sanat rales A a a ee 22 “ERTS DIIGO ee ae a Nee ae eh 40 wa SESE Nu EAD Ao 2 ee ae I Se ee a mee (5 Oe LIS TD LSEE PILL S82) pee llah Daal Bian cabaret (& Peer HM ry ee ee, Ll eine eiaeccnate eabacaie Meat othe tor 70 Pemeri dils ee AY. BP Se At Garett het Rick 2st « 70 South Colton falls (undeveloped)...... Eom eink Ae Oe paint ea 40 seiner ed Werte eet ea hed et ic Po da OO 6S a's we os 25 Soliton falls, (undeveloped) .. 2.2.0. .cc cee ee ee ea ee. 250 etm MITIMOVCLO MCU ere a rs ote of oflce ce Riplsaueieg kea eis Ge dete ws 30 Sam EL ies eRe OM Ey OE i sees ccs ba gs boas 697 246 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The foregoing undeveloped powers may be considered as either vertical falls or as rapids of sharp descents. In addition, the following with smaller catchment areas and less rapid descent, may be enumerated: Buttermilk falls, above Long lake; Raquette falls, below Long- lake; Jamestown falls and Moody falls. There is about 70 feet fall per mile at all these places, There are also numerous small falls and rapids, capable, when the country is settled and lines of communication established, of furnishing valu- able power, although at present such water powers have less value than they otherwise would have because there is no way of utiliz- ing them. The discussion on a later page of this report, how- ever, as to the developing of mountain powers and transmitting - them electrically may be taken into account in estimating the value of undeveloped water powers. With efficient water storage on the many fine lakes at the headwaters of Raquette river, it is perhaps possible to keep the stream in its lower reaches (at Piercefield and below) up at all times to at least 1000 cubic feet per second. Assuming that it is practical to develop 900 feet out of the possible total of 1025, we would have about 100,000 gross horsepower from this stream alone, and this estimate does not take into account a number of the smaller water powers.t St Regis rier. This stream rises in various Adirondack lakes in the southern part of Franklin county, flows northerly into and through St Lawrence county and enters the St Lawrence river at St Regis village. Like most of the streams flowing north from the Adirondacks, its catchment consists of a high plateau, then a steep, rocky portion, followed by a low plateau near its mouth. The catchment areas of the St Regis river and its principal branches are as follows: Square miles West Branch of St Regis......... Spain, Win jee le 280 East Branch of St Regis.......... ise eid oo 347 Br eels HElOW JUMCEION.% nic. vie valle ae a os it we. so eee 627 DSP Re: i, ares ere re ae eet os be oe 212 Se VG OMS Nal TMOG fare eueytr ete anise, erate into ots. ibaa eda a 910 1TIn a paper, the Future Water Supply of the Adirondack Mountain Region ~ and its Relations to Enlarged Canals in the State of New York, the writer has estimated the water power on Raquette river at 70,000 horsepower. It is evident that that estimate is very conservative. ee ee ee HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK QAT Water powers have been developed at Parishville, West Stock- holm, Skinnerville, Brashers Falls, Brasher Center and Hogans- burg. There are undeveloped power sites at Sylvan Falls, High Falls, Kerr Falls, Whittaker Falls and Allens Falls. Considerable storage can be secured by raising the dams on sev- eral of the larger lakes at the headwaters of the east and west branches of the river. The chief tributary of St Regis river is Deer river, which, like the St Regis, flows generally in a northerly direction. Deer river joins the St Regis river about seven miles from the St Lawrence river. Salmon river north. The next stream is‘Salmon river north, which flows northerly into the St Lawrence a short distance over the Canadian line. Its chief tributary, the Little Salmon river, enters the stream at Fort Covington, on the New York State line, about four miles from the St Lawrence river. The following are the catchment areas of this stream: Square miles Little Salmon river, above junction with Salmon river...... 1038 Pmnamiryer above Malone (22... 612.0. c ea ks ee ce eee if? Salmon river, above Little Salmon river .......... gene ee 273 Salmon river, below junction with Little Salmon river..... 452 PTO river WOVE MOULM. 20. S00 fl. es ce eek as oe ee cee ts 480 Trout river. The next stream flowing to the north is Trout river, the catchment area of which, above the New York State line, is 129 square miles. Chateaugay rwer. The next stream is Chateaugay river, with a catchment area above the New York State line of 199 Square miles. Very little is known about the water power of this stream any further than that Chateaugay river heads in Upper Chateau- gay lake and flows through Lower Chateaugay lake. The elevation of Chateaugay lake is unknown. Lake Champlain System Lake Champlain has a water area of 400 square miles. The area of its catchment in New York State amounts to 2950 square miles; in Vermont to 4270 square miles; and in the Province of 248 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM . Quebec to 740 square miles. The total area of the catchment, not including water surface, is 7960 square miles, or the total area of the catchment basin, including water surface, is 8360 square miles. Lake Champlain is considered as beginning at Whitehall and ter- minating at St Johns, on the Richelieu. Its length is 125 miles and its breadth in the northern portion is about 13 miles. The standard low-water elevation is given at 95.08 feet, and the standard high water at 103.78 feet, above tide. The streams tributary to Lake Champlain are Big Chazy, Little Chazy, Saranac, Salmon river east, Little Ausable, Big Ausable, and Bouquet rivers and the outlet of Lake George. There are also a few small streams of no special importance. Big Chazy rwer. This stream rises in the western part of Clinton county, and flows in an easterly direction into Lake Champlain, at King bay, five miles south of the village of Rouse Point. The main branch issues from Chazy lake, of which the elevation is 1500 feet above tidewater. The headwaters of the north branch probably are at a somewhat greater elevation than this. The catchment area is 300 square miles. Inttle Chazy rwer. This river enters Lake Champlain two miles south of the Big Chazy. | Saranac river. The streams tributary to Lake Champlain are, as a rule, not of great length, but rising, as they nearly all do, in or near the high mountains of the northern plateau, they have a rapid descent with an abundant fall. Saranac river has its head chiefly in Upper Saranac lake, at an elevation of 1577 feet above tide and flows northeasterly, entering Lake Champlain at the village of Plattsburg. The length of the river, according to Bien’s atlas, is 55 miles from its mouth to Lower Saranac lake. The elevation of Lake Champlain above tidewater is 101 feet, while that of Lower Saranac lake is 1539 feet; hence, the fall in 55 miles of river course is 1438 feet. Middle Saranac lake lies at an elevation of 1542 feet and Upper Saranac, as already given, at 1577 feet. 1There are a number of lakes and ponds tributary to Upper Saranac lake which are not here specially considered. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 249 The catchment of the Saranac river has an area of 628 square miles, about one-half being wooded. The lakes on its headwaters have a water surface of 21 square miles, and afford an opportunity for considerable storage. This storage could be largely increased at comparatively small cost for construction, but the land dam- ages on the Saranac lakes would be considerable owing to the large private residences and summer hotels on their banks. The quantity of merchantable timber likely to be cut on the catchment of Saranac river is small, owing to the large area owned by the State or by private parties as forest preserves. There are a few developed powers on Saranac river, ‘the prin- cipal ones being at Saranac Lake village, Cadyville and Platts- burg. There is an undeveloped power at Franklin Falls with a possible fall of 60 feet. Salmon river east. This river rises in the western part of Clin- ton county and flows easterly into Lake Champlain near the village of South Plattsburg. Its catchment area is 480 square miles. ; Tittle Ausable rwer. This stream rises in the south part of Clinton county and flows northeasterly to the village of Lapham, — then southeast, entering Lake Champlain about four miles south of the mouth of Salmon river east. Ausable river. This stream has its source in the central part of Essex county in Upper Ausable lake, which lies in a valley in the midst of the highest mountains of the State, at an elevation of 1993 feet above tidewater. It flows in a northeasterly direction to Ausable Forks, from near which it is the boundary line between Clinton and Essex counties. It then flows a little north of east, entering Lake Champlain three miles above the village of Port Kent. The length of the stream from its mouth to Lower Ausable lake, the elevation of which is 1961 feet above tide, is about 42 miles; hence we have a fall of 1860 feet in a little over 40 miles. For several miles of its course the stream flows through Ausable Chasm. The catchment has an area of 519 square miles of partly wooded, mountainous territory. There are only a few small 250 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM developed powers on the Ausable. The merchantable timber has mostly been cut, and the original dams used by the lumbermen for floating logs have decayed. There is a large undeveloped water power at Wilmington notch, where there is a fall of 100 feet. There. is also a fall of 100 feet at High Falls. From the upper end of Wilmington notch to two miles above the village of Wilmington there is a fall of 600 feet in a distance of four miles. This part of the stream is as yet entirely undeveloped. These water powers : are on the west branch of the Ausable which heads in Lake Placid. Bouquet river. The Bouquet river rises in the eastern part of Iissex county and flows northerly to the village of Willsboro and thence southeasterly for two miles, when it enters Lake Cham- plain. Outlet of Lake George. The most southerly tributary of Lake Champlain of any great importance for water purposes is the outlet of Lake George, which in about 2 miles has a fall of 222 feet. The greater portion of this is concentrated in the first mile from the lake. The elevation of Lake George above tidewater is 323 feet. The area of the lake surface is 43 square miles, and the tributary catchment area about the foot of the lake is 229 square miles. The streams in eastern New York can not be depended on to. furnish a natural flow of more than about 0.2 cubic foot per sec- ond per square mile aS a minimum in a dry year. On account of the large water surface of Lake George in proportion to the catch- ment area, it is possible, by utilizing the storage on the lake sur- face, to realize in an average year a much larger quantity. From 0.7 to 0.8 cubic foot per second per square mile may be assumed as. a conservative estimate, the results being based on allowing the water to flow out of the lake 24 hours per day for only 310 days in the year. On this basis we may assume a mean flow for minimum dry years of about 200 cubic feet per second. Since the entire 229-foot fall of the Lake George outlet is now utilized, we may place the permanent power in a dry year at about 5000 gross vy oa HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 251 horsepower. The village of Ticonderoga, at which this power is utilized, had a population in 1900 of 1911. Wood creek, the most southerly tributary of Lake Champlain, is of interest in a study of the water resources of New York, chiefly because of its relations to the Champlain canal, its channel being utilized for several miles as part of the canal. At Fort Ann there is considerable power developed on one of its tributaries, used at present for grinding pulp.t Hudson River System Hudson river. The Hudson river rises in the high mountains of the Adirondack plateau, in the western part of Essex county, and flows with some turnings in a generally south direction to a short distance below Palmers Falls, where it flows from 15 to 20 miles mostly in a northeasterly direction to Sandy Hill. It then turns again, and for the balance of its course is nearly due south. It enters New York bay at New York. Its headwaters may be taken to issue from Lakes Henderson and Catlin, which are at eleva- tions above tide respectively of 1889 feet and 1570 feet. Lake Colden, at an elevation of 2764 feet, is the extreme source of the © Hudson river, but as this lake is small and the stream issuing therefrom is also small, in a discussion of water power the larger lakes at lower elevations are preferably taken. The length of the stream, measured roughly along its course, is something like 285 miles. Hudson river, with its principal tributary, the Mohawk, is the most important river of the State. From its mouth to Troy, a distance of over 150 miles, it is a great inland estuary subject to tidal action, and because of its great length and the large fresh-water inflow, it is unique among inland estuaries. From the first landing of the Dutch on Manhattan Island to the present time it has been an important channel of commerce. On his voyage of discovery in 1609 Hendrik Hudson ascended to the head of tidewater, and doubtless discerned the possibilities of future Partially abstracted from the Report of the Water Storage Commission on the Fourth or Northern Division. 252 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM settlement which were soon realized at Albany, Waterford and Schenectady. When the great Dutch navigator sailed up the river, no doubt as he passed on from day to day, penetrating farther and farther inland, the conviction grew upon him that he had discovered a’ passage through the continent leading to India, nor could he have overlooked the vast possibilities of trade and commerce opened up, even when he finally reached the head of navigation and found that the East Indian passage was after all a myth. Indeed, one can imagine him saying to his companions, “What a great place for navigation!” We can imagine a company standing upon the deck of his ship, gazing in silent wonder over the panorama at either side, and saying to one another, “ here, indeed, is the seat of — future empire.” | The tidal action of the Hudson river originally terminated at the rapids above Troy, but its present termination is a few miles below, at the Troy dam, a structure erected about 1820 as a part of the State canal system. There is a lock at the east end of this dam through which canal boats pass into the pool above, thus. enabling them to reach Lansingburg on the east side of the river, or Waterford, on the west side, where they may enter the Cham- plain canal. In ascending the river the principal streams on the east side are Harlem river, Croton river, Fishkill creek, Wappinger creek,. Roeliff Jansen kill, Claverack creek, Kinderhook creek, Hoosic river, Battenkill, Schroon river and Boreas river. On the west side, the principal streams are Murderers creek, Rondout creek, Wallkill river, Esopus creek, Catskill creek, Normanskill, Mohawk river, Fish creek, Sacandaga river, Indian river and Cedar river. The principal tributaries of the Mohawk from the north are Chuctenunda creek, Cayadutta creek, Garoga creek, East Canada ereek and West Canada creek. From the south, Schoharie creek, Sauquoit creek and Oriskany creek, and from the west the Lansing kill. There are tributary to both the Hudson and Mohawk rivers a considerable number of smaller streams, some of which have Map of catchment area of Hudson river above Glens Falls. e a Aes ee - HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 253 power development upon them, but which are not specifically mentioned here. Below Troy the tributaries of the Hudson river are mostly small and generally not of very great importance, although some of them have considerable power development. One of them, Croton river, is the principal source of water supply of the City of New York. On this part of the river, the catchment basin is rather narrow, and many of the streams issuing from the highlands at either side have such small-catchment areas as to carry only moderate quan- tities of water. | Tides in Hudson river. The following are the elevations of mean tide, mean low tide and mean high tide above mean sea level at New York, and the mean rise and fall of tides at various points along the tidal estuary between New York bay and the Troy dam: Locality me ieee bie tie ae fall Mee OOKe che cal wes asec. - re ee ee ey ad”: 2h RO Governors Island...... Bares ee OF Wiis. 2220... 7, 2220 4.40: Rebs Berry -..6.s..<1--s03 ss. (i824: 62. 1.98 - 3.60 Coxsackie light-house........... 1.68 a Or 3.53 oa. 10 Mew Baltimore:....:.0..-...-- EG Stee yea we 2 ee ae MRM RUUNTRS ei ab isha) one aha wh 6 Se 1.88 0.44 3.31 2.87 SFE se eaten DROOn E82 1895. *) 9 58 (pT eee Pea WS. 3.90), -° 2.33 Ne a a psc os OMe ae COT 2 3.59): 2.82 FT Ore ee Sige Se7b.... (1.94 Mi eos ied oa Sas Pe eee OT. 0.80 The following gives the hight above tidewater at New York of a number of points on the Hudson river: Feet MAIER C OSE TIDE Foes sions sate tt. ore dletalotora Gc ce an leiels a ss 0.0 ee Coe me ISDE IEA RR nae ae On Wi Ne 3.8 eee CLIN COMO oot, he iia, oa a eat ae, acceded a ag Cones « 102.0 Pere ward. (DELO W Gal) co.cc sco uie no cees cece eves 118.0 pene alls (erest of feeder dam)...........2..-..000+- 284.0 204 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Feet Mouth: of Sacandaca “river? : 2 32.0. 4... sites ae 556.0 MOUpnY OL Stony Creek Pas: owe Sauget ee ee 584.0 Month of Schroom river... 2.16.05. 0......0.. on eee 608.0 At Glen bridge...... Aes ON ete SG nh he See ee 728 .0 Ae IverStde DITO Va yan sai yt ce fe cs ae ae nee 875.0 Jer Nionths ‘Creek: brides 6s ee ee 998.0 souk NORUM SRAVET Sec cia ake was ae ea alee ie ee 1,050.0 Mouth of Boreas Liver... 8... aos Po a ee 1,140.0 Mouth of Indian iver. i560) oo nas oe 2 1,415.0 Mouth: of. Cedar-2ivierrs ae ion oon) Meee Us ee cg oe 1,460.0 Lake; Sanford: o's .0sia ice ee ese ee oe ree a 1,723.0 Waiter power of Hudson river. There is a large amount of power on the Hudson river at Troy, Mechanicville, Stillwater, Northumberland, Fort Miller, Fort Edward, Bakers Falls, Sandy Hill, Glens Falls, Feeder Dam, Spier Falls, Palmers Falls and Hadley; on Sacandaga river at Conklinville, and on Schroon river at Warrensburg. A canvass of the Hudson river powers was made in 1895 and appears in detail in table No. 12, Showing Water Power in Use on the Hudson River in 1895, of the Report on Upper Hudson Storage Surveys, December 31, 1895. The detail] is too extensive for insertion here, but may be obtained by refer- ence to the said report. According to this table, the total power in use on the Hudson river in 1895 was 43,481 net horsepower. This power remains substantially the same in 1904 as in 1895, except that the Hudson River Power & Transmission Company has built a new plant of a stated minimum capacity of 5000 horsepower three miles below Mechanicville. There has also been some increase in the power in use at Bakers Falls, but just how much, the writer is unable to state. The new plant of the Hudson River Water Power Com- pany at Spier Falls has also been built. The total power in use on the Hudson river in 1904 is perhaps 75,000 to 80,000 net horse- power. Harlem river and Spuyten Duyvil creek. This river and creek are an arm of the Hudson, extending from Hudson river to Kast + si 4 pager * HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 255 river. For two miles they flow in an easterly direction and then southerly, for a total distance of about 7 miles. ‘These streams have been canalized by the Federal government and are rapidly becoming an important artery of commerce. They form the northern and, for a portion of the way, the eastern boundary of Manhattan island. The two streams join at Kings Bridge, New York. | Before improvement the Harlem river had an available depth of 10 feet from the East river to Morris dock, except at High- bridge, where it was only 6 feet. From Morris dock to Fordham landing there was a crooked channel 7 feet deep, and above the latter place the river could be used only by the smallest class of _ vessels. Spuyten Duyvil creek from Kings Bridge to the Hudson had a depth of 4 feet. The original project for improvement, adopted in 1874, provided for the removal of old bridge piers, Candle factory reef, and ‘boulders at various places near the East river to a depth of 12 feet, the cost of the work being estimated at $167,875.56. In furtherance of this project $21,000 was expended. The existing project, adopted June 18, 1878, and modified October 7, 1886, provides for a continuous channel, 400 feet wide and 15 feet deep, from the East river to the Hudson river, except just north of Highbridge, where the width was made 375 feet, and the rock cut through Dyckman’s meadow, where the width was reduced to 350 feet and the depth increased to 18 feet. The cost of the work was estimated at $2,700,000. The amount expended in carrying on work under the existing project to the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, was $1,244,851.90. , The maximum draft that could be carried June 30, 1903, over the shoalest part of the channel was 12 feet. The commerce of this river is very large. In 1895, the tonnage amounted to over 7,500,000 tons.1 1 Report of the Chief of Engineers for the year ending June 30, 19038. 256 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Croton rwer. The Croton river is formed by the uniting of three branches, known as the East, the Middle and the West branch, which rise in the southern part of Dutchess county, flow- ing in a southerly direction through Putnam county and uniting near its southern boundary. From this point the river continues in a southwesterly course across Westchester county to the Hudson river, into which it enters at Croton point thirty miles northerly from the City of New York. The principal tributaries of the Croton are the Titicus, Cross, Kisco and Muscoot rivers. The catchment of the Croton, extending about thirty-three miles north and south and eleven miles east and west, lies almost entirely in New York, only a small portion being in Connecticut. Its area is 3389 square miles above the old Croton dam and 360 square miles above the new Croton dam now being constructed. - The catchment is hilly. The surface soil is composed principally of sand and gravel—clay, hardpan and peat are found to a limited extent in a few localities. The rock formation consists largely of gneiss. Limestone, micaceous and talcose slate, granite, ser- pertine and iron ore occur in a few places! This stream is of very great importance because its runoff is completely utilized for the water supply of the City of New York and it is accordingly exten- sively discussed in this report. ms oh, Fishkill creek. This stream rises in the central part of Dutchess county and flows southwesterly into the Hudson, one mile south of Fishkill station. Its headwaters drain the western slope of Chestnut Ridge mountains. In its upper reaches the stream receives the drainage from extensive swamp and flatlands. The lower reaches of the stream flow along the foot of the Fishkill — range. From Fishkill village to Fishkill landing it falls over slate and limestone ledges, making a descent of 200 feet in five miles. This fall is largely utilized to provide waiter power for manufactories on its banks. As a result, the stream becomes greatly polluted from manufacturing waste and other impurities which it receives. 1 Wegman’s Water Supply of the City of New York. (1896). ye at a HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 257 Water power of Fishkill creek. The extent of the manufactures of Fishkill creek is shown in the following tabulation, which gives the principal developed water powers on the stream in 1901: Number of dam on pear es ™I Gd Ot phe CD 0 be Location (2) ge! a | See is lira | eer ela Matteawan...... Matteawan ..... Matteawan ..... | Gilenhant....:... a 5s = CH | se -- Name of mill and of owner or Ee | Dey | oo operator oc | aga! Ex ae | aa | Bo Sea See fs On | ~o tH OD > Sons o q |e be (3) (4) | (5))} (6) Wieesida late Works... 022.020. 2S. eee eas New York Rubber Co. ...... 17 | 430). 250 iRocksrel Silic Mills oo le el. te Cie, en ap Matteawan Mfg. Co.......... 26 | 168 225 William Carroll & Co.... ... 29 | 283 140 Carroll Mlectrie* Co... 2... 5: rN rae ae 525 Glenham Carpet Mill, Hilton | 324 2 ok ha eae are | 460 | 1,500 The catchment area of Fishkill creek above Groveville dam is 200 square miles and the total catchment area above the mouth, 204 square miles. : Wappinger creek. This stream rises in the extreme northern part of Dutchess county and flows in a southerly direction into the Hudson river, near the village of New Hamburg. The catch- ment area of that portion of the stream above Hibernia and Clin- ton Hollow dam is 116 square miles. During the last year the New York Water Supply Commission has extensively considered this stream, with Fishkill creek and others, as a partial source of a water supply for the City of New York. Considerable opposition, however has developed to this project. There are large manufacturing interests at Wappinger Falls and other points which depend wholly upon the water power of the stream, and a bill has accordingly been introduced at the session of the Legislature for 1904 prohibiting the taking of any stream for a water supply for any municipality in the State where any number of people depend upon the water power of the stream for their livelihood. 258 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The headwaters of Wappinger creek are at an elevation of 700 to 1000 feet above tidewater. Murderers creek. This creek rises in the central part of Orange county and flows easterly into the Hudson at Cornwall. Its chief tributaries are Otter creek and Cromiline creek. It is not an important stream. Rondout creek. This stream has its source in the timber-covered mountain group forming Wittemberg chain. It flows south- easterly to Napanoch, where it encounters the foot of the Shawan- gunk range, turns abruptly to the northeast and enters the Hudson river at Rondout. Its catchment on the south is very restricted, as it is separated from the Wallkill river only by the narrow Shawangunk mountains. Notable waterfalls occur at Honk falls — and Napanoch over the Hudson river shale, and on Good Beer kill _ above Ellenville. On Good Beer kill there is a total fall of 870 feet from the Cape, three miles above Ellenville, to Bllenville. Of this about 200 feet are concentrated in a series of cascades called Hanging Rock falls. | Water power was orginally developed at Napanoch in 1754. At present there are five dams utilizing a total fall of 115 feet. A series of cascades with a descent of about 50 feet occurs at High Falls, where the water flows over Rosendale cement rock. The following are the catchment areas of Rondout creek: Square miles: Avovesthonic Malls. face ti tai ai. CO ee Se 88 pibonew bile he Waillse (cee eel ak is ee ooo Aboverrinosen dale: 3.2 xo pecs pie ae 365 Above VW alll rivers: oi. 3 nie ec aR he saad 369 Below NVadikill tiver® joc. ou. is. 2 wile hee 1,148 Above Rondout ‘villages: 0; 4aan cos 3c wcis ic eetens bane eee 1,164 Formerly the Delaware and Hudson canal utilized slack water from the mouth of Rondout creek to Eddyville. From the head of the pond above Eddyville dam, the canal runs parallel to Rondout creek as far as Napanoch. In 1898 the canal was abandoned from Honesdale, Pa., to Ellenville, and in August, ee HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 259 1901, the remaining canal, with the exception of that from High Falls feeder to Rondout, was abandoned. Above its junction with Sandberg creek, at Napanoch, Rondout creek is a mountain stream. At Honk falls a natural declivity affords a fall of 125 feet over tilted strata of Hudson river shale. There is a dam at the head of this fall of 2214 feet, making the total head 14714 feet. Water power of Rondout creck. The following is a list of the principal developed water powers on Rondout creek in 1901: | & soe | ‘ — ie on 142 Ga me of mill and of owner an Fa | 2a@ oo S Location ue operator acre a5 S33 Be 2 be es ihe eee S > aOn S z | ee eae j= (1) (2 (3) (4) | ©) | ©) Poo dy Vile 2. . S. We A ea Oe es ec a | ee | | None; None 2 | Lawrenceville ..| Lawrenceville Cement Co....; 10 |...... | ae 3 | Below High Falls} W. I. Vandermark, J. H. Van- : deriiable estate: erst. 22 tT}. ae 80} 125 4 mueh Palic: Hasbrook & Hopper, Ulster County Savings Banks..... fr det omen beens eee Soe ae URE ee ee ee a oe ee eae paris eed epee [ispawe re 6 | Port Hickson....| D. & H. Canal............... 1 a eo oe ig eae aie PRETO, 36/5. i ©: Shogk & Sots fou a. =. 6 60; None S | Napanoch....... pot Se INL og ge ee ee [NR ca acon) Se aege 9 | Napanoch, R. H.| Humphrey & Young......... 30 226. Ce fo Mapamoch, Pobit ss. © &o.. DBD. Hornbeck...| 80° |....../....-. oi.) Napanoch . 30... Pittsburg Ax Factory 12 | Napanoch, L. H.| Napanoch Knife Co,........ 154 i None OE Se CR 5 ee ie io Sr ee a ed eed Parana Se 14 | Napanoch, R. H. H.) Ree e wl acetal os al ’s ais = 9's sm \l exe 6. 0 8s J.C. & 8. E. D. Hornbeck.. 30 Young & Humphrey, John | : eLetter’ | Cea 2 ane 15 | Napanoch, L. H.! M. M. Pillsbury Paper Mill...) 56 | 593)... |. 16 | Napanoch....... | Honk Falls Power Co........ 1474 | 1,500) None 17 | Lackawack ..... eels Mpa tases 2. SE: 10 140) None i ep eS i sco ieee So ean ee ain ae ee | 19 | Bull River...... [9 Sea gerd Bt Meie Opals 4 Wass ay MIs al Wallkill river. Wallkill river is the chief tributary of Rondout creek. It has its source on Sparta mountain, New Jersey, about twenty-one miles from the point where it enters New York State. From its source to the head of the Drowned Lands it is essen- tially a highland stream. 2EOr < NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The Drowned Lands are an extensive Pleistocene lake bottom situated mainly in New York. They comprise an area of 28 square miles. A dam of drift at the north end of this tract holds back the water of the Wallkill, causing an overflowing of this entire flood plain. Formerly, this area formed a shallow lake or undrained swamp. An artificial canal, cut through the drift at the foot, has enabled a large part of the downstream portion to be reclaimed for agricultural purposes. Below the foot of the Drowned Lands, fifteen miles from the New Jersey line, the Wallkill flows in a broad, shallow valley, averaging about one half mile in width. This valley has been eroded from the drift, leaving a stream-bed of cobble and small boulders too heavy for stream transport. The river terraces are not abrupt, often curving gracefully to the uplands 30 to 60 feet above the stream, and leaving a narrow plain submerged only during freshets. At frequent intervals the stream cuts through the over- lying drift to the Hudson river slate, and passing over ledges of this slate produces waterfalls. At Gardiner the Wallkill receives its principal tributary, the Shawangunk kill. The divide between the two streams is formed by vertical strata of a blue shale fold, making a definite ridge between the catchment areas. The following are the catchment areas on Wallkill river: Square miles Wallkill above Franklin Furnace, N. J............00. 31 Wallkill at New York and New Jersey State line...... 210 Wallkill above foot of Drowned Lands................. 393 Wallkill above Freeman’s proposed dam site........... 464 Wallkill at mouth of Shawangunk kill................ : 563 Shawangunk kill above mouth’. -...02.005 5 Poe es eee 149 Wallkill below Shawanpunk:-kill. so 222,525. .2 25 Goon 712 Wattkill above Rifton: Glen... 2)... sa ee ee 761 Wallkill at junction with Rondout creek.............. 779 Wallkill total catchment in New York... .......5...i 567 ee HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 261 Water power of Wallkill river. The following is a list of the water powers developed on Wallkill river in 1901: 2 Ss 5 =i = E Be | eee) ° ; N f mill and of d | 2EOo| So 3 Location ened Paeerarin kaa 2 - § E 2 | 34 > WH 5 Z q |e@es| m (1) (2) (3) 4y-\@)= | (6) i.) Creek Locks..... Empire Powder Mill, Laffin & | hand Powder Coz...) 2. 8 14 288 | 100 og a 02 00 ee ae Rifton Gristmill, J. W. Dim- TORE en ee oa 16 119 | ewe D E 3 etches. . it es wwe Drmick Co. Soe ee as ate wee ds Gia oe fees 4 Pris ies o.oo 2 2 in BL Boia Pale Sota Me Sao el SSE Ree ae Le at ee Se Tesla oe tence, oe pe osc Ae ws a es | POS; |e: es seine 6 AES] ad he ee ae BT Grd VECO RECa 1 2 ec oom cas a ae reece (eee lees ek i Maid Gtr oo WWalaomnwite OOS... 22 020k... 8 150 75 8 Wialdome-. soi: Nive Weniter Works 2-3. ss. 32 300 | None 9 | Montgomery.....| Crabtree & Patchett......... 9 LEO") 15 10 | Red Mills......): Rad MAM: cif 2.152. >. | 10 | eS None 10n Shawangunk kill. There are a number of tributaries of Rondout creek and Wall- kill river, but none of them are at present important as power streams, although some have been considered as water supplies for the City of New York. Esopus creek. The source of Esopus creek is in Winnissook lake on the northwestern slope of Slide mountain. From Big Indian to Olive Bridge the stream flows through a valley with timber-covered mountains on either side. A number of sites for storage reservoirs are offered at points where the valley broadens out to receive the inflowing water of tributaries. Some of these are at Big Indian, where Birch creek enters; at the mouth of Bush kill at Shandaken; at the mouth of Stony Clove creek at Phoenicia; at Cold Brook at the mouth of the Little Beaver kill, and at Olive Bridge. 7 The descent of the stream is rapid, although not precipitous above Olive Bridge. At this point the stream flows over a rocky ledge, 22 feet in hight, forming Bishops falls. Below Bishops falls the stream flows through a narrow gorge for some distance, 262 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM after which the valley broadens with a decrease of slope. The general course of the stream is mostly southeasterly, until Marble- town is reached. At this point it turns and flows northeasterly to near Kingston. From Kingston it flows northerly, entering the Hudson river at Saugerties. A second waiter fall occurs at Glen Erie, where there is a cascade with a fall of 56 feet. The final descent to tidewater at Saugerties is made over a fall of 42 feet. The following are the catchment areas on this creek: Square miles Above mouth at SS AMIS OUEES ee ues. cia tae deed ALT Above Glen divie falle 7. cnet oat eset (So — 409 Above gasing station, Kingston. 5... 25... oss... eee 312 above Bishop's: talls, Olive Bridge... *... 7). 5) 7 aa 234 Water power of Esopus creek. The following gives the prin- cipal water powers developed on Esopus creek : | 2, | #2 | 3 a a E | 38 | Bs] S, (2) = 3 i] ro Location Name of Dap ceatae owner or : 5 g Fa Ee = ; S Oo: ie) 3 | | o 3 oe e 5 E | sa | gFs| gZ = > om S A | | < Bos) wi (1) (2) | (3) | (4) | @) | ©) 1 | Saugerties....... _ Diamond Paper Co., Sheffield | | Margi cs ire heat a tiene arte a Meneame 39 607 | 425 DE SOUR IES a2. _ Saugerties Mfg. Co., Sheffield | [PSUS Bay Coe sans cls era Si oe ns 21 Othe ® 4.) males. above! Leere’s Mall... 2.8. eb. gs alia eee | Saugerties..... | Ay) (Glen Bete Soon © Zz ,...25 see 1,337 East branch at Brighams pomd ...2/.......%.:27.eeee 1,706 PASCO lake, 5302205 aerate oie aac fers weed wale Une ck eee abe pp OO & pale: Pleasant. 3.0 fo. vee bes Ges: Us ee 1,706 Sacandaga take. le... .k eo cs be fe. soe oe 1,706 From Conklinville to the mouth of the river, a distance of a little over 5 miles, the river falls 141 feet. At present thigy section of the river is entirely unutilized except by two powers, one at Conklinville and the other about 2 miles from Hadley. Thus far there are no detailed measurements of the Sacandaga, but since the catchment area is still largely in primeval forest it is without doubt an excellent water yielder. 7 Schroon river. This stream rises in Egsex county, along the southern slopes of the highest mountains of the Adirondack group. As shown by the map, it flows in a general southerly direction for about forty-five miles through Essex and Warren counties, and joins the Hudson just above Thurman. .On the boundary between Essex and Warren counties the river flows through Schroon lake, a body of water nearly 9 miles long and from a little less than 0.5 to 1.5 miles in width. The following are some of the important subdivisions of the eatchment area of Schroon river: Square miles PASM; Gaccn eve is Sees cee. ee GS eae a es 550 Ns GUMS Sig et retro rerene un hep ror os aie 539 Manrrolehneade Lalis.: .o. se sews xe csc eele che hile Oo encanto eee 502 oot or Schroon lake... cb. 3 ehcke ee A79 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 269 Some of the elevations on Schroon river are as follows: Feet PM TOUD. oe ee ee te te eet eee 610 iy GIES ESS Sil ties us SL Schiele lett aa a 807 NER ACG oe PRs a ay gee tee a cha eie ete ek ates ge ea ees 820 EER DIS ete rs ile mre ets eccte ahi eos CaM Go wlice b e's os 840 CRS ca SO hae Leelee kre ky Gulebeck a bok Ge Basis bole seas 1,986 Water power of Schroon river. There is no developed water power on Schroon river except at Warrensburg. The Schroon River Pulp & Paper Company at that place use something over 1000 horsepower, while at several other dams there is 450 to 500 horsepower in use, making a total in use at Warrensburg of about 1500 horsepower. The detail of this power may be obtained from the writer’s first Report on the Upper Hudson Storage Surveys, in a table facing p. 150.1 _ Boreas river. This stream rises on the south slope of the extreme high Adirondack mountains, at an elevation of over 2000 feet above tidewater. It flows through Boreas pond, in a south- erly direction, entering the Hudson river five miles north of North River village. The country through which Boreas river flows is mountainous and there are no power developments. ‘There is, however, a fine opportunity to make storage at Cheney pond, Boreas pond, etc. and undoubtedly this stream will be ultimately utilized for water storage as part of the Hudson river system of storage reservoirs. Indian river. The Indian river issues from a precipitous, for- ested mountain area in the eastern part of Hamilton county. It rises in Indian lake and flows in a northeasterly direction into the Hudson river. In 1898 the writer constructed for the Indian River Company a masonry storage dam at the foot of Indian lake, replacing the lumberman’s dam which was formerly at this loca- tion, and raising the level of the artificial lake twenty-three feet, or about thirty-four feet above the original water level. The length of the reservoir is about twelve miles and it stores 1In An. Rept. of State Engineer and Surveyor of New York for 1895. 270 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 5,000,000,000 cubic feet of water, the area of water surface being 5035 acres and the elevation of the spillway crest 1650 feet. The Indian River Company were the owners of the original rights of flowage of Indian lake as held in the timber dam since 1845. LS ZABzSSS=aN ? —) =) | Ladder Ft. 16360<7 LTS Gate Rod °» SN TINNAMMMMAA My My nS ‘ ‘ tay is Ree AA LY lid R RIF REA PA IRSIERKKKKKKKK 4 » 7 NS i Af GX\L/NJAG Z SSG WANAE <3 BIO ae ee Zag ae Fig. 19 Cross-section of main dam and gate house at Indian river. This company deeded to the State of New York about 18,000 acres of land in township 32 and 24,000. acres in township 15, or 42,000 acres in all. The price paid for this land, including the present structures thereon, as well as the structures contracted for and in process of construction by the company (the masonry dam), together with any damages which might accrue from the appropriation of land and structures, was $164,000, or a little less than $4 per acre. The total cost of the dam, including engin- eering, was about $100,000. The operation of this dam is under taht HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ARG | . »_ the control of the Superintendent of Public Works. The object of constructing it was to store flood water to be turned into the Hudson river during the low-water period of each year, thereby equalizing the flow. The fact that the Champlain canal takes water from the Hudson river through the Glens Falls feeder was the reason why the State considered it necessary to control this dam. The catchment area above the dam is 146 square miles. The storage cost is at the rate of $20 per million cubic feet stored+ Cedar river. ‘This river rises in Cedar lake in the central part of Hamilton county at an elevation of about 2530 feet above tide, and flows northeasterly, generally parallel to Indian lake and river, entering the Hudson river two miles north of Indian river. There is no water-power development upon this stream, but there is a reservoir of considerable capacity at Wakeley, at an elevation of about 2000 feet above tide. Mohawk River Mohawk river, the largest tributary of the Hudson, rises in the western central part of the State, near the Lewis and Oneida county line. It flows in a southerly direction to the city of Rome, from which it takes an easterly course across the State, emptying into the Hudson a little above Troy. The principal tributaries are Schoharie, East Canada, West Canada and Oriskany creeks, while less important tributaries are Chuctenunda, Cayadutta, Garoga and Sauquoit creeks and Lansing kill. There are a num- ber of small streams, several of which are utilized as water sup- plies for the villages of the Mohawk valley. The following are the elevations above tidewater of a number of points along the Mohawk river: Feet. (7 NIE Ss sk SS Ope A i it ile art le bane ee An ar gn arse 12 ESPACE 568 1 012005 (6) ge ae 162 NER Celi pte eet gc pA tr Ds PE chet ieee ade ele ease ecee 214 (ETN QT Wig eC6 2) (eS cae 270 PeMEEOTe AONE TOCNCE GAMs 5 iui ith ie hee ces wir bp tet ee 431 1¥or complete account of Indian river dam, see Engineering News for May 18, 1899. C2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a There are two principal falls of the Mohawk river, the Great falls at Cohoes and the Little falls at the city of the same name, where are found the only important water powers developed on this stream. At the Great falls at Cohoes there is a fall of 105 feet over Hudson river shale, which has been extensively utilized by the Cohoes Company for power. ‘Cohoes is a city of 25,000 inhabitants, entirely devoted to manufacturing. According to the statement of David Van Auken, Engineer of the Cohoes Company, there are about 10,000 horsepower developed. At Little Falls there is a total fall of about 45 feet, occurring in about one-half mile, of which 40 feet are utilized by three dams. The population of Little Falls is 12,000, extensively devoted to manufacturing. There is stated to be about 3000 horsepower developed at this place. Aside from a small amount of power developed below Cohoes, just above the “ sprouts ” of the Mohawk, there are no water-power developments on the stream other than those of Cohoes and Little Falls, except a few unimportant mills on the extreme headwaters. The waterworks of the city of Rome are at Ridge Mills, 2 miles north of Rome, where a water power pumping system is in use. The following are the principal subdivisions of the catchment area of the Mohawk river: Square miles A GALE Sb: 2-2h nears eee oud cle eect miele ieetetia Gc io detat err 3,400 Below mouth of Schoharie creek... 0.350. oo. es on eee 3,100 vat pred Batti elec Owe Pe oa me Reed ar eet St wk ee Cr 1,275 Poa tka: hy ee ee rr 524 DAN ONG ely & asd Oe eter ta Ss Ota «Dur lachinett aie tide) ape), ee 184 Chuctenunda ereek. This stream rises in Saratoga county and flows southerly into the Mohawk river at Amsterdam. There is a small amount of power on this stream, at Rockton and Haga- man. The city of Amsterdam, with a population of 21,000, is a manufacturing city on the Mohawk river at its mouth, but most of its manufacturing is by steam power. It offers a. good oppor- tunity for the sale of power from an electrical power plant on HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 273 Schoharie creek. Chuctenunda creek itself has too small a catch- ment area to be of much value. Cayadutta creek is another small stream which rises in the cen- tral part of Fulton county, and flows south through the cities of Gloversville and Johnstown into the Mohawk river at Fonda. There is considerable water power developed upon it, but state- ments in reference to the quantity are not at hand. The catch- ment area above its mouth is 62 square miles. The catchment at Johnstown is 40 square miles. Schoharie creek. This stream rises in the southern part of Greene county, whence it flows 18 miles northwesterly, and then northerly about 50 miles to the Mohawk. Its catchment comprises the greater part of Schoharie county and portions of Greene, Albany, Delaware, Otsego, Montgomery and Schenectady counties. Its headwaters, which lie at an elevation of about 1800 feet above tidewater, drain the western and northern slopes of the Catskill mountains. The lower reaches of the creek flow through a long, flat valley in a channel largely covered with flat boulders. At Central Bridge, about 19 miles from the mouth of the creek, the water surface is 560 feet above | tidewater; at the mouth the elevation is 274 feet. Notwithstand- ing this large fall, Schoharie creek is not considered specially valuable for water-power development. It is subject to great extremes of flood and low-water flow. This is largely explainable by the nearly complete cutting off of the forests from the catch- ment area many years ago. The impervious character of the soil may also be taken into account. The principal subdivisions of the catchment area of Schoharie creek are as follows: ONDA eee) oe a's) oe ah Sy a gid ond eo) Gla ea dlesd sae» 947 ISTE GIS 2 ale nae toe eA Na ae ee Aes eo Po 684 eG eee me re Ace AR co or Ma ahels waite totes he e's 3 308 Water power of Schoharie creek. With one exception the water powers thus far developed in the Schoharie creek catchment are nearly all small and unimportant. The principal tributaries of the stream are the Cobles kill and the Batavia kill, but neither of 274 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ee these streams is important from the waterpower point of view. The headwaters of the Batavia kill have been proposed to be taken by a tunnel through the Catskill mountains as part of the water supply of New York city. In 1899 and 1900 the Empire State Power Company developed — an extensive water power on Schoharie creek at Schoharie falls a few miles south of its mouth. Their dam, however, has been twice injured by floods and it is understood that at present (spring of 1904) they are out of business. There are however negotiations in progress looking toward a consolidation with the Hudson River Power Company, but until these are completed it is uncertain whether the dam will be repaired or not. Garoga creek. This stream rises in the Garoga lakes and Peck pond. It flows southerly into the Mohawk river two miles above Fort Plain. The catchment area above its mouth is 89 square miles. ° Kast Canada creek. This creek, which is one of the important | tributaries of the Mohawk river, rises in the southwestern part of Hamilton county and flows southerly, joining the Mohawk at East creek, about 7 miles from Little Falls. According to a map fur- nished by Stephen E. Babcock, of Little Falls, the total catchment area of East Oanada creek is 285.7 square miles, of which 58.2 Square miles are in Hamilton county, 98.4 square miles in Herki- mer county, 128 square miles in Fulton county, and 1.1 square miles in Montgomery county. Following are the elevations of principal points on East Canada creek: Feet Bottom of Beardslee falls near mouth........ Creer. 0 Top-ot ‘Beardslee falls... 45040 euee: sa oe @ ole eee 105 Betvom of High Talis... 35. s..Gan See eke ee O27 Man Of Hach falls... 0... s.6 has hee eee Se err 379 Grest-ef dam at-Dolgeville: 2... 7) ee. 445 Mouth of Spruce creek..... Gils sig Mies, Se en ATT Mouth ove ish: creek 20.305 5 ae eee ee 559 MMM OMSIUL ST 60.5. ee. whe See My eked nh ot oe Se 646 SRO es Srp se Sac Sia Roe cher oe ke 2 oe ee ee 720 ‘2681 ut Auvdmo0D J19MO0,J pus LYST] Apel e[fAvs[oqd ey} Aq pejonmsuop ‘“Yoodd BpvuBH ISU oY} JO S[[VA Ysty oy} JV wep ioMog } Ig HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 275 The distance from the mouth of the stream to Oregon is about 25 miles. The principal tributary of East Canada creek is Fish creek, which is the outlet of the Canada lakes. The distance from its point of junction with East Canada creek to the mouth of the Canada lakes outlet is about 9 miles, and the total rise in this distance 635 feet. The outlet of the lakes, which is nearly level, is about 3.5 miles long. There are no falls of any magnitude on this creek. For the first 5 miles from its mouth Fish creek rises 245 feet, and from that point to the mouth of the outlet of the Canada lakes, a distance of 4 miles, the rise is 390 feet. The second tributary of East Canada creek is Spruce creek, which has a total length from its mouth to its head in the Eaton millpond of about 8.7 miles, the total rise in this distance being about 550 feet. Just below the Eaton millpond there is a fall of 180 feet in 2000 feet. At Salisbury Center, Spruce creek falls 85 feet in about 900 feet. Water power of East Canada creek. In 1904 there are twelve dams on Spruce creek. The water supply of Dolgeville is taken from Cold brook, a tributary of East Canada creek. Aside from the development at Dolgeville, and small developments at Beardslee falls and at one or two other points, very little use has thus far been made of the water power of East Canada creek. It is probable, however, that within a few years the water power of this stream will be nearly all utilized. According to a manuscript report on the water power of East Canada creek, by S. E. Babcock, the fall in this stream for the first 1500 feet from its junction with Mohawk river is very slight. At this point the first rapids are encountered, where it has been proposed to develop a water power, with a head of about 60 to 70 feet. About 1000 to 1200 feet farther upstream there is an addi- tional fall of from 30 to 40feet. This takes one to the top of the so-called Beardslee falls, referred to in the foregoing. It has also been proposed to construct an extensive system of power development by a series of dams on East Canada creek, 276 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM some of the details of which may be gathered from the following tabulation : | ' Plan of power development on East Canada creek Cost per Location Dies. 2 aiomen ics ene power win Ides soc. fe 43 1172 $108,427. $92.51 Green street ...... Ae 26 1,023 73,667 72.08 Ba cign es to 29 1,141 30,910 27.10 © Intermediate 4%. s2.8 22 865 46,090 53.28 EPO LALIS 25.0 ea rahe wate, aati 72 2,700 56,320 20.86 No. 1 (below High falls) . 74 2,956 125,092 42.40 No. 2 (below High falls).. 34 1,360 56,408 41.40 No.1 (Ingham’s mill).... 44 1,778 135,410 76.16 No. 2 (Ingham’s mill).... A4 L778 1295806 73.00 Beardslee falls ........ ie LOS 5,112 128,326 25.10 Totals and mean.... 423 19,885 $890,450 $44.80 This plan of power development further includes the construc- tion of a storage of 1,250,000,000 cubic feet, which is estimated to cost $148,000, making a total for the whole development of $1,038,450. With these figures the final cost per net horsepower becomes $52.22. The estimates leading to this result include cost of land to be flooded, masonry of dams and head works, turbine water wheels, flumes and head feeders, tail raceways, waste gates, _power stations, racks, engineering and superintendence, etc. So far as the actual power developments are concerned, the work can probably be constructed for the estimates, but the cost of the storage is, in the writer’s opinion, somewhat too low. The total - number of dams which it is proposed to build is stated at 40, thus giving an average of only $3700 per dam. This sum would only build timber dams of the most temporary character. The proper operation and repairs of this number of dams, scattered over an area of 200 square miles, would entail in the end an annual expense of $30,000, which is the annual interest at 5 per cent on $600,000. To obtain the real capitalized cost we need then to add $600,000, which gives an amended total of $1,638,450, whence the HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK mia? eost per net horsepower for the entire system would become $82.40. In 1897 an electric-power station was in process of installation by the Dolgeville Electric Light & Power Company at the high falls just below Dolgeville, capable of developing 1200 net horse- power. The wheels set are two twin horizontal 36-inch Victor special wheels, to work under a 72-foot head, and which are claimed by the manufacturers to yield, at full capacity, 600 net horsepower each. A portion of the power generated at this sta- tion is used at Dolgeville for manufacturing, and the balance is transmitted to Little Falls, 8 miles distant. Dolgeville is the seat of the piano-felt and other industries originally established by Alfred Dolge & Son. The power for the establishments now in operation is derived from two 35-inch Victor turbines, working under a 25-foot head, and raited -by the manufacturers to furnish, when running at full capacity, 229 net horsepower each, or a total of 458 horsepower. According to the manufacturer’s catalogue, these wheels will consume 197 cubic feet per second when working at full capacity, and the statement — was made in 1897 that they were ordinarily so worked. The catch- ment area of Bast Canada creek above Dolgeville is about 250 Square miles; hence the present development is based upon a minimum flow of 0.79 cubic feet per second per square mile. As there is very little pondage at Dolgeville, it may be assumed that the power is sometimes short in a dry season, although the effect of the pondage of the large number of lakes and) ponds on the head waters of East Canada creek will undoubtedly be to increase considerably the minimum flow. There is a power development at Beardslee falls, near the mouth of Kast Canada creek, which is stated to be capable of developing 1000 horsepower, but owing to deficiencies in the design it is uncertain whether or not this amount of power can be produced continuously. | 278 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The following tabulation gives the principal water powers devel- oped on Hast Canada creek, substantially as they exist in 1904: — Number Hffective of dam Location head, in. feet 1 Beardslee falls 120 2 Ingham’s mills 10 3 High falls 72 4 Dolgeville 20 D Stratford West Canada creek. ‘This creek, another important tributary of the Mohawk, rises near the center of Hamilton county and flows southwesterly about forty miles, by general course, to the eastern edge of the town of Trenton in Oneida county, where it turns and first runs southeasterly and then southerly for a total dis- tance of twenty miles, finally emptying into the Mohawk at Her- kimer. The following tabulation gives the catchment areas on this stream: Square miles ASt TG UH eye sce ‘Sk ince’ dite tase eee erect y Woy vias ere eee 569 Middleville: ..-o. acs Sees be ee ee - Zz . < a ea (1) (2) (3) (4) |) Seen 1 |New York Mills. .|The New York Mills No. 4....) 28 |...... 266 1 '!New York Mills. .|The New York Mills No. 2....) 29 |...... 500 2 INew York Mills. .|The New York Mills No. 3....| 18 |...... 300 De OAPLOO Gy ca ee wee Utica Cotton Company....... 21 250 | 100 14 |New Hartford....|Divine Brothers, ....:.......- 6 50 25 14 |New Hartford....|New Hartford Knitting Mill..| 9 None |e 14 |New Hartford....|New Hartford Mills.......... 12 @: boweie oi 14 |New Hartford....|New Hartford Cotton Mfg. Co.) 20 140 | 120 5 |Washington Mills|Utica Tool Company.......... 13 90 | 150 6 |Washington Mills|Washington Mills............ ae None| 100 7 |Willowvale ...... Utica Willowvale Bleaching Co.| 9.5 | 270 | None 8 |Willowvale ...... JecO CDew Wurst ire Gee eats 10 None jin oy 8 |Willowvale ...... OE Selma tis th aati ehe eae 10 2 80 9.) \Chadwicks ...7...%: Chadwicks Mills Cotton Co...| 22 12d eats HOF Sauquoit s. 2.02.2: hewais) Jen titimes, CO as. tae we. 20 100 65 del ee aAuOIOIb: Yo Ye bo h: Sauquoit Valley Mills......... 15 4; 101 PP ISANICUOIG . os 6 2 Polk's Knife Mactory, woo 2)... 2 20 2 87 HMI AUGUOLL: ..v...% Adolph Seigel, Lower Mill....| 20 None | None ea EG OMG Lc ess 3 Adolph Seigel, Upper Mill....| 22 15 | None Po Clay yvalle ss os PATER O GARIN rr rtaate srt age we hoepa ns CD) | eee 50 Moa Cla yavalllies eect iane Kmpire Woolen Company..... 25 55 80 ie (Clavie. os oe. Empire Woolen Company..... 15 None | None Sr niGlaywalkes si So e8" First National Bank, Utica...| 15 None | None 19 Clay walle. iia. ss Babbitt’s Wire Works........ OO | cee 114 1 Water used in four levels; total fall in power canal 48 feet. md HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 281 The catchment area of Sauquoit creek above its mouth is 67 square miles. Oriskany creek. This stream rises in the northern part of Mad- ison county, flowing northerly across Oneida county into the Mohawk river at Oriskany. The catchment area above its mouth _is 146 square miles. There is considerable water power developed on Oriskany creek. Comparison of the flow over two dams on Oriskany creek. This ereek is of slight interest because, in connection with the work done for the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, two gaging stations were established at widely varying types of dams and it was found that even in winter fairly comparable results could be obtained by gagings over such dams. The first station was estab- lished at the State dam at Oriskany, where water is diverted for the use of the Erie canal. The catchment area at this point is 144 square miles. During the navigation months, a record was kept of the gate openings, together with daily observations of the differ- ence in water surface above and below gates. Outside of the navigation months, the feeder gates were entirely closed and the record is for flow over the dam only. The second station was established at Coleman, a couple of miles above the first, where the catchment area is 141 square miles. The object of establishing two stations on Oriskany creek was to determine whether on dams of somewhat different forms, but with nearly the same catchment area, the flows could be gaged close enough to give comparable figures. Space will not be taken to give the method of computation used in detail, but those inter- ested can refer to the report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways for an extended account of the method used. For present purposes it is sufficient to refer to the accompanying tabu- lation, in which are given the flows at the two stations for the months from October, 1898, to February, 1899, inclusive. During the winter months, December to February, the ice was kept clear from the crest of both dams. The results show good agreement and indicate that even when one of the cases is complicated by discharge through a number of water wheels, as at the second 282 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM station, comparable results may still be obtained. The following | are the flows at the two stations in cubic feet per second. The apparent discrepancy at the upper station in October is explained by the fact that the figures for that month are the means of only the last sixteen days. Station Station N No. oo Oriskany Coleman Oerober, ESOS. . a eos ing ies oe eas Nee B20 246 November) 1898s e476 0) Meee eo eee ee 327 306 Wecember; WBS ea ek ee Me ee eae O27 BY ts) pe ary, LS IO rs ee ati ae oy Bateie ete waeah tee e ne 295 297 HPebruary, S99. ieee Meee Fee eect eas cise stn ean 291 283. Lansing kill. ‘This stream rises in the extreme northern part of Oneida county, near Booneville, and flows southerly -to the village - of Leila, where it enters the Mohawk river. The Lansing kill has rapid descent, but thus far there is not much power developed upon it. Allegheny River System Allegheny river. The Allegheny river enters the State of New York from Pennsylvania in the southeastern corner of Cattarau- gus county. It rises in McKean and Potter counties, Pennsyl- vania, and flows thence northwesterly to Salamanca, about thirty miles in the State of New York; thence southwesterly for twenty miles, crossing into Pennsylvania again near the western boundary of Cattaraugus county. The catchment area of Allegheny river and its tributaries within New York, at the point of leaving the State, including Conewango creek, which joins the Allegheny river in the State of Pennsylvania, is about 2100 square miles. Its principal tributary from the north is Conewango creek, which receives the outlet of Chautauqua lake and Cassadaga creek as tributaries. Little Valley, Great Valley and Olean creeks are also tributaries in New York, but none of these streams is of special importance for water power. Chautauqua lake outlet. Chautauqua lake outlet receives drain- age from Chautauqua lake, which is twenty miles in length and from one to two miles in width. The northern extremity of this HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 283 lake is only eight miles distant from Lake Erie. Its elevation above tidewater is 1,297 feet, while that of Lake Erie is 578 feet. This stream flows into the Conewango creek about five miles north of the Pennsylvania line, where the elevation above tide- water is 1243 feet. The fall from Chautauqua lake to the south- ern boundary of the State along the drainage line is therefore only 54 feet. The catchment area of Chautauqua lake outlet at the foot of Chautauqua lake is 178 square miles and of Chautauqua lake outlet below Cassadiaga creek, its chief tributary, 345 square miles. Cassadaga creek. This creek rises in Cassadaga lake at an eleva- tion of over 1300 feet above tidewater, and flows south into Chau- tauqua lake outlet. Conewango creek. One branch of this creek rises in the extreme northern part of Cattaraugus county and the other in the northern part of Chautauqua county. It flows south for part of the way near the county line between these two counties, and enters Penn- sylvania four miles west of the west line of Chautauqua county. The territory drained by Conewango creek is, in general, hilly and rolling, although the northern portion of the stream has slight descent with swampy valley. From Markham, in the town of Dayton, to Clear creek, in the town of Conewango, the fall is only 25 feet. Throughout this whole section the channel is quite irregular, and probably the average stream slope does not exceed one foot per mile. The elevation of the headwaters is 1500 to 1600 feet above tide, while at the Pennsylvania line this stream is about 1200 feet above tide. The catchment area in the State of New York is 770 square miles. Intile Valley creek. This creek rises in the central part of Cat- taraugus county and flows southerly into the Allegheny river at Salamanca. The headwaters are at an elevation of about 1700 feet above tide, while the elevation at its mouth is about 1380 feet. The catchment area is 42 square miles. Great Valley creek. This creek rises in the north central part of Chautauqua county and flows southerly into the Allegheny river, three miles east of Salamanca. The country at the head- 284 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM waters is 1600 to 1700 feet above tide. The catchment area is 145 Square miles. Olean creek. The principal tributary of this stream is the Ischua creek, which rises in the northern part of Chautauqua county and, with the main Olean creek, flows south, entering the Allegheny river at Olean. The elevation at its mouth is 1433 feet, while the headwaters lie at an elevation of about 1800 feet above tide. None of these streams is important for water power. The topography of the catchment areas of all these streams tributary to Allegheny river is rugged. With the exception of a portion of the Allegheny river itself, and some of its main tribu- taries, the slopes are several feet to the mile. The slope of the main Allegheny river is slight. The Tunungnant creek enters the Allegheny river four miles. - south of Carrollton, from Pennsylvania. Susquehanna River System Susquehanna river. The headwaters of the north branch of the Susquehanna lie chiefly in the State of New York, the catchment area in this State being taken at 6267 square miles. The main stream may be considered as rising in Otsego lake, from which it flows first southwesterly, then westerly with a short portion of its course south of the Pennsylvania line. It finally leaves New York State in Tioga county at Waverly. The Susquehanna, while one of the large rivers of New York, is not at all important as regards. water power. The main river and most of its tributaries in New York flow through a rolling country with fairly uniform declivity. While utilized for small powers in many places, thus far there are no extensive developments on either the main stream or its branches, except at Binghamton, where considerable water power is utilized. The slope of the stream in and near New York State is shown by the following elevations, in feet, above tidewater: ' Feet At Towanda, a few miles south of the State line........ 700 At Athens, on Chemung river, near the State line........ 744 BpOisexn Jake.,..°fa.5: ole. ls do ae ee 1,193. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 285 Chemung rwer. This river is formed by the confluence of the ~Cohocton, Canisteo and Tioga rivers, at Painted Post. The Tioga river receives the Canisteo at Erwin, a few miles south- west of Painted Post. The elevation at Painted Post is 947 feet above tidewater. From Painted Post the Chemung river pursues a southeasterly course, crossing the State line at Waverly and joining the Susquehanna near Athens, in Bradford county, Penn- sylvania, a short distance south of the State line. Tioga river. This stream rises in Tioga county, Pennsylvania, and flows north to join the Cohocton at Painted Post. Canisieo rier. This stream is the principal tributary in New York of the Tioga river, joining it five miles south of Painted Post. It rises in the extreme northeastern part of Allegany county and flows southeasterly to its junction with the Tioga at Erwin. Cohocton river. The Cohocton river rises in the town of Spring- water in Livingston county and flows southeast to join the Tioga at Painted Post. There are several small powers on this stream at Bath and other places. The area drained by the Cohocton and Canisteo rivers is almost entirely denuded of forests, and these streams are in consequence less valuable for water power than formerly. For a considerable length of time in the fall of 1895 the natural yield of these streams was probably not more than 0.05 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. At an early date _ the Cohocton, Canisteo and Tioga rivers were extensively utilized for floating logs to market, but this business has, of course, long Since ceased for lack of material. The topography of the country from which these streams issue _ may all be classed as semi-mountainous. The parts remote from the main streams are roughly rolling, while in their vicinity the topography is more rugged, with valleys flanked by high and steep hills, in many cases precipitous and bluff-like at their bases. The main valleys are at elevations ranging from 800 to 1200 feet above tidewater, while the hills rise to an altitude of 2500 feet. Cayuta creek. This creek rises in the central part of Chemung county and flows south through Waverly into the Susquehanna © river just south of the Pennsylvania line. Its headwaters are at a wn thy 286 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM an elevation of about 1200 feet, with hills in the vicinity rising © several hundred feet higher than this. Owego creek. This stream flows into the Susquehanna river at Owego. The east branch rises in Cortland county, flowing first westerly, thence southerly to its junction with the west branch at Flemingville. The west branch of Owego creek rises in the southeastern part of Tompkins county and flows south to its junction with Catatonk creek, the principal tributary of Owego creek. Catatonk creek rises in the northern part of Tioga county and flows south to its junction with Owego creek, two miles north of Owego. These streams all have characteristics in common. The headwaters are at an elevation of about 1000 feet to 1200 feet above tide and they flow through valleys of similar character with long ridges between. There is very little power on any of them. Chenango rwer. This stream rises in the central part of Madi- son county in the towns of Eaton and Madison, and flows south, across Chenango and Broome counties, into the Susquehanna at Binghamton. About two miles south of Earlville the east branch joins the main stream. The elevation of the valleys on the head- waters is about 1200 feet above tide. Tioughnioga river. This stream is the chief tributary of Chenango river. The east branch rises in Madison county and flows southwesterly to Cortland, where it joins the west branch. The west branch rises in the extreme south part of Onondaga county and flows south to Cortland, from which point the general course of the Tioughnioga river is southeast to its junction with Chenango river at Chenango Forks. Otselic rwer. This stream is the chief tributary of the Tiough- -nioga river. It rises in the town of Nelson in the south central part of Madison county and flows generally southwest, joining the Tioughnioga river at Whitney Point. The valleys at its head- waters are at an elevation above tide of 1450 feet. Unadilla river. The Unadilla river rises in the town of Bridge- water in the extreme southeastern part of Oneida county and flows southerly, joining the main Susquehanna near Sidney. The elevation of the valleys at its headwaters is about 1200 feet, while ~~ HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 287 the elevation of the Susquehanna river at Sidney is somewhat less than 1000 feet. - Charlotte river. .This river rises in the western part of Scho- harie county and flows west into the main Susquehanna a few miles east of Oneonta. Oak creek. This stream rises in Schuyler lake and flows south, joining the main Susquehanna three miles south of Otsego lake. Richfield Springs is at the north end of this lake, with an eleva- tion above tide of 1450 feet. The streams of the Susquehanna catchment area largely issue from the region of Chemung sandstones and shales. The country is deforested and they are all flashy and uncertain in their flow. While there are no measurements verifying the statement, the writer considers it probable that all, or nearly all of them, have a minimum flow not exceeding 0.1 of a cubic foot per second per Square mile, and several of them, in an extremely dry time, sink to about 0.05 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. The flood flows, on the contrary, are universally large. The valleys at the headwaters, as we have seen, usually lie at elevations of from 1200 to 1400 feet above tide. In regard to the following tabulation of the catchment areas of the Susquehanna river and its tributaries in New York, it must be stated that they are approximate only. Some of them are from the Report on Water Power in the Tenth Census, and were taken by planimeter measurements from French’s Map of the State of New York, published in 1860. Undoubtedly when topo- graphic maps of the region are prepared, they will be modified somewhat, but they are the best available at the present time. The following are the approximate catchment areas of the Susquehanna and its tributaries in the State of New York: Square miles Main river below mouth of Chemung river (south of Penn- OS UTR TS) Ua 0 ae eet nee ae 7,463 otal area north of Pennsylvania line.................... 6,267 mere mouth of. Chemung river. . i... eee ee on vee 4,945 mew mouth of Chenango river: ..........0....02 ec cena 3,982 peer = 288 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Square miles At Binghamton. 7 5.200 as. hes as eee one ee cel 2,400 — At SUSqMeHa ma. oo. ss aie cu ccc eh ce fe oth ss eink ln 2,024 | At Nineveli 0) 620505 ae oe ee ie Above Oneonta <0 ice Vea we Sosa Fie was bs as 6 eater 686 Below mouth of Unadilla river... 5.20. 0s. s\- «0s 6 9 ee eee 1,638 Below mouth of Oak creek... 0.4 5... 230s tan dee cee 212 4 Above mouth of Oak creek...........0.00+e0+ ‘ce ae act. ean | Oak (creek. 3 so esis fac ae Gan Soe eet ee 115 Cherry Valley: creekic sca inc. 2.6 true oo en 121 Pehenevus: Creek 2 yc.-0. wise oiecte oa Veet os Jadoes ak, Charlotte Piers ons: indents @ aces. na So oie, so, a 178 Onretio scree oc ecw | case ht wae eee Sivede cal ht 106 CHEE OE SEREBIES oor 5 fan oo eee a es Perera ro 115 Unadilar rivers oes sass s oie wns oo se es ee 561 IS WOLEPOIED, CREEK 82 Sl an oo did eb reas wee tase a lees oe 123 Chenaneo river at MOULRS .i. 6.06/04. nas ese 2 te 1,582 Chenango river above Tioughnioga........ “sos 4 «(eee 685 Chenango river below Tioughnioga.......... bs) 1,488 © Chenango river above Canasawacta creek................ 297 Tioughniosa: river at MOU oo ico. ss. we ot 2 a ss 753 Tioughnioga river above mouth of Otselic river............ 428 Otselie rivers cae se sala ote wees oie vies owas w «ele ote 259 West branch of Tiouphnioga Liver. ..... .... 2. «yee 103 East branch of Moughnioga river... 6.02. <. . ie «toe SNS WIEOO CLCCR 5 25s cutee ete isct a aie io b's 6 Sued wee ate ne 08 ea 391 Cavite: Creeks... cc5h sa sess oss woo 3s 0,0 0 nll os oe ee ee 148 Chemung river at junction. of Canisteo and Cohocton rivers. 1,941 Chemune river at Mima... 5... so a's 2 oe cuss epee mee 2,055 Chemung river at mouth..... PPO OT 2,518 Cohocton river at mouth..... Pas ee ee he PEL. i eine 425 Tioga river at mouth... . 55 0.9: We. e sao ee eo 1,530 Tioga above mouth of Canisteo....... hee se te 750 Canisteo at mouth....... See ee te aid ies hisiie =e ae 780 Dasearora creek atmouth 2.5... 2 sg dee ds hoe o 120 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 289 Delaware River System Delaware river. The main Delaware river drains the western . slopes of the Catskill mountains, originating on the slope of Mine mountain near the southwestern line of Schoharie county. It - flows southwesterly across Delaware county to Deposit, where it is joined by Oquaga creek, a large tributary draining eastern Broome county. The upper catchment area is long and narrow, with numerous short lateral tributaries. It is precipitous and to a considerable extent covered with a not very dense second-growth forest. At Deposit the stream turns abruptly to the southeast, forming the boundary line between New York and Pennsylvania until Port Jervis is reached. At this point it encounters the foot of the Shawangunk range and its direction of flow is again turned to the southwest. It leaves New York State at this point. Above Hancock the main stream is known as the West branch of the Delaware river in order to distinguish it from the East or Pepac- ton branch of the river. It is also sometimes called ‘ Mohawk,” but should not be confused with Mohawk river, a tributary of the Hudson. The declivity of Delaware river in New York State is shown by the following elevations above tidewater: Feet Re Papeete ee ee ee Se ele os ce lve wea 600 EMRE AA cers Burs esd Ce 2 oe 8g BOs 984 REL TES SET SS SE DAES Ute ge feo a ge ane, ena one) Ae 1,886 East branch or Pepacton river. The principal tributary of Dela- ware river in New York State is the East branch of the Delaware or Pepacton river, which rises in the eastern part of Delaware _ and Greene counties, flowing southwest in a course generally parallel to the main stream. The catchment area is broader and more branching than in the case of the West branch. Several of the tributaries head in small lakes and ponds. Neversink river. This river rises in the foothills of the Catskill mountains in the southwestern part of Ulster county. The east and west branches unite to form the main stream near the south line of Ulster county, from which point the main stream flows 290 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM nearly due south, across Sullivan and Orange counties, entering the main Delaware river at Port Jervis. The catchment area of this stream is long and narrow, and with the exception of the Basher kill and Bush kill, is practically without tributaries for its whole length of about 50 miles. Mongaup river. This stream rises in the north central part of Sullivan county and flows-due south, entering the Delaware river at Mongaup. 3 . There are a number of other streams tributary to Delaware river, but none of them is of enough importance for extended mention. Very little water power is developed throughout this region, although there are a number of places where powers could be developed. The location of railways near the water level has interfered with such developments. The removal of forests has further undoubtedly considerably injured the tributary streams for mill purposes. The following gives the more important catchment areas of the Delaware river and its tributaries in New York State: Square miles. Total area in New York State................- 292 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM terranean water is taken in large quantity for the supply of cities or for manufacturing purposes the party taking it is liable to. the adjacent landowners the same as in the case of diverting sur- face water. Long Island is chiefly a sandy plain, about 120 miles in length, with a total area of 1682 square miles. A considerable portion is below an elevation of 100 feet above tidewater, although in places it rises to elevations of 300 feet and more. The streams are all small and only a few miles in length, running down from the high land of the middle section to the Atlantic ocean on the south and to Long Island sound on the north. As regards water power, the water resources of Long Island have little significance, although there are many places where small powers are utilized for grist- mills and other similar uses. The chief value of the inland water of Long Island is for the water supply of the city of Brooklyn. Kast river, which connects Long Island sound with New York bay, may also be referred to for convenience as a Long Island water resource. The great value of the stream to the commerce of New York is so obvious as to hardly require mention. The foregoing description of the river systems of New York has been made brief, because very complete descriptions have been given in the several monographs relating to New York State which appear in the report on the Water Power of the United States, Tenth Census, 1880. In these reports may be found the detail of the several river valleys, with statements as to agricul- tural production, population, geology, climatology, and many other subjects either not at all touched on, or only briefly, here. RUNOFF OF NIAGARA AND ST LAWRENCE RIVERS In view of the size of the streams and their importance the runoffs of Niagara and St Lawrence rivers are discussed sepa- rately from the balance of the streams of New York. Niagara river. The great developments of the Niagara Falls Power Company authorized by the laws of 1886 have been in part completed, while at the same time the original Niagara Falls power development, now owned by the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power & HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 293 Manufacturing Company, has increased greatly in capacity. The laws of 1886, and amendments thereto, have also authorized the taking from Niagara river of large quantities of water for the purpose of creating a water power near the city of Lockport. A ship canal is projected connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario, and the Canadian government has made a concession for extensive power developments on the Canadian side of the river, which are in progress in 1904. Hence it is evident that the future demands for water to be taken from Niagara river and delivered either into the lower river below the falls or into Lake Ontario independent of the river are very large, and the interest which the people of the State of New York have in the runoff of Niagara river becomes exceedingly important. A recent determination of the area of the basin drained by the Great Lakes and of the water surfaces of the lakes themselves is that given in the report of the United States Deep Waterways Commission, from which the following general summary is taken. This determination was made in 1896. In 1898 the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways redetermined these areas but with- out changing any except that of Lake Erie, which was taken at 9932 square miles. Area of Area of Total area ee ee) ae MMO ok aac gato tak fg. + ke, « 31,800 48,600 80,400 MMMM gM 8S Se wa nis a te 22,400 45,700 68,100 MMIII aS. faye ok iets, oe wise Bale 23,200 52,100 75,300 PE Nee eta Bs SE eee a 4 ee A495 6,320 6,815 1 2. cd. Mon alae ees a are Ree 10,000 24,480 34,480 Te tet in GN Se ail i ee Py 87,895 177,200 265,095 —— That portion of the catchment area of Lake Erie lying within the State of New York is given as 2210 square miles. The area of islands in Niagara river is given as 29 square miles. That portion of the catchment area of Niagara river lying within the State of 294. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM New York has an area of.789 square miles. The area of the river itself from its head at Lake Erie to the falls, is 21 square miles.! The accompanying table gives the precipitation within and in the vicinity of the catchment area of the Great Lakes for the years from 1892 to 1895, inclusive. In this table a few only of the many precipitation records which are now available have been used. The records here appearing are, it is believed, sufficient to show the mean precipitation of the basin of the Great Lakes for the years indicated. In this table the monthly precipitation has: been omitted, as it can readily be found in the annual reports of the United States Weather Bureau, and the data have been con- densed to show the total quantities for the storage, growing and replenishing periods, together with the total annual quantity. i TABLE No. 39—PRECIPITATION (IN INCHES) WITHIN AND IN THB VICINITY OF THE CaTCHMENT AREA OF THE GREAT LaxKgs, 1892 TO 1895, INCLUSIVE. December June September to to to Locality and year May August November Annual Pokegama Falls, Minn. : SOD lhe ae eee ARS SeCch ae LL SC6 6790 2786 2ot SOS dente Meth Gare Oe aera e 9.64 18.06 2.84 25.54 | Rose Same aie ae gone to ROMO ET ad pt 14.72 8.04 9 Ola aah NS Oa Gee tee etc. Sar a eeu ena ae Oe Ah A eG 5.10 o> BESS M@an oo. ose. ects saeess leis o. nn *Report of the United States Deep Waterways Commission, by the Commis- sioners, James B. Angell, John EB. Russell, Lyman BH. Cooley, accompanied by the report on technical work and the several topical reports and draw- ings pertaining thereto. Printed as House Document No. 192, Fifty-Fifth Congress, Second Session, Washington, 1897, pp. 146, 147. For the catchment area of the Great Lakes in detail reference may be made to an excellent map of the basin of the Great Lakes and of the St Lawrence and Hudson rivers in relation to the surrounding drainage sys- tems accompanying the report of the Deep Waterways Commission. Also see map on page 318. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Taste No. 39—Continued. December June September Locality and year . May tease Meseiber Duluth, Minn.: TUS SOS eae aliens ee Oe em eo IRC Cee lal Fal 2.39 i ieress, SS a eth. ceo ken 11.08 6.86. 3.64 1 OYE Ae RS Cae ie 19.44 3.80 8.51 Loh oe Pee oe 6.44 9.32 he EO CEU Ne ip eT Pe Se ee ee rr Minneapolis, Minn.: vob PuAR a Pe eects Sa, a OCR e si 138.” 2aan Ze ToS ee a ee Pea 12.80 9.79 5.68 ees hd Pi Fel ie re aigtete 15.66 Leto 6.46 Toe dE ee ee he 9.96 5 OL RY DENT. 2 As Rie A Poe i gE sa I so Green Bay, Wis * Ea SURO peo i ein ag aac 14595. LAT 7.95 SS 25 cea eae 14.85 8.12 Fear 0s Deere aah es 19.65 Seb2) 80.46 epte rs ter aber Ok ioe tOSOG fs. Tab? 3.14 WNC tenes rates Sh aan al hn a eo a bw dledtes Madison, Wis.: ee ne Pe Sy is Ta de LSS) loose 4.89 1S 4 Peis RS Oe ee ee oa Laois oe he 5.82 Lite SE, 2 Rages oe aa eae LO296. 4.6223 (61 ya Ee De, yey nen tee eect aries oa 5. b4 oe Sor aa. Or uc Ba TT aula ta Ea cg emi aac oe Milwaukee, Wis ee ee ee ad ee Some LT Gumpmonel 2 aes 910 sel TRS ante: Eicia eG th oes Lasoo. tO 14 6.06 LESLEY OS SDASRLE SE ets tear aa a 15.94 4.81 8.79 Re ape ei ahs oe Sette 10.34 TAD oo Annual 32.13 21.58 296 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Taste No. 89—Continued. Locality and year Chicago, Il.: SOD 2 MA eat a te ee Oe December t oO May 03 55: 48 .58 June t Septem (a) fe) August November 14. 6. Oo. 10% 66 5. 6. 30 00 10 CeoxnN © Ss 56 18 1 Petey 0 ee Oe Rae sh Me Net ew ane NPRM RMR NS Grand Haven, Mich.: me HH Oo © Cc © = @ Annual 36.25 26 .96 27.94 27.28 _ HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 297 TABLE No. 89—Continued. December June September Locality and year May aece Rowerahen Annual St. Ignace, Mich.: er ee er te ean eo «L000 Tee Lease eA Veg ey a ae ee een eae f5.68 7.94. Seale = Sh 8G Pe ok ee kes oe 17.80 6.83 9280, - 34.43 ae ee cat ee 11.66 4.59 Clete eer AS APS ELGG he Se RRO Grok, ner. ee a 30 i 6 Traverse City, Mich 1 EN) ah A a Si eT Cr, cababete PESO. 6 LOL SY eS maha ta) ee eee oe es De a eS 17.88 FL Cp co) ees 9 LS 1 6s d “Lh EL cee a a ae a 20 . 62 5.61 9272 © 3b.95 reece tg aot ots 16.69 ae 7.85 — 29.07 UGA eee ee Rn ek es ASE ooh woe 6 oe ee Me Salmo ys) Cleveland, Ohio: TSS ol Barkan a as ag aa a TO 8457s JOE DIOL FS C65 “Us ds I A dedi are 19.09 5.46 G45 232-00 Re ee i ene, hice raed: i 20 5.55 OTe AOL OU) SUS Aaa eee te a aan 9.29 7.59 1 SON ee) NUIGS TU phous AP ae Lan LO AR er Be men ln Sak Mu ae a ae a 30.76 Toledo, Ohio: “LG 7 SORE 8 Bi eee en Ley A OS O26 = 37.00 iS aie eh ee een Oe ee 1017 4.81 6.92 21.90 A ee. PE eee acl coke 14.93 2.78 er ea OA. “oS Lt ae A ee ee 9.23 6.24 (a ee a: SAN ees eR, eee RE eke ee eae SG en 26.10 uttalo, N, Y.: Teo TAR a1 i Alege CR cae as ones nem D2 62) 0. L698 role mage A Oro LSB ick, Mer i Na co 20.65 8.00 Coote aO. De Ne See eros repre thy neste 22.47 yes tet hO 40.79 TSS LR FARR ere ete oe nn et AN loa 76 6.23 Sisa we 29.25 298 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Taste No. 39—Concluded. : . . December June September Locality and year ere AGease Noverieee Annual Rochester, N. Y.: PRONE, eee See eh ert 17.75 18.41 — 5 Os eae MSO eis ors y us, ace eee, ee 18.05 9.36 6.02. -" 48343 | ph De i i i a ae pk Ea 21..26 7.05 ( Say Sees SO Reo een ree ict eee 16.16 6.84 T 15 esas Ne 550 0 Ee ora Agra tae oe ah st a gcta- nee ne 34.03 Oswego, N. Y.: POOR rd rhe oe alee ee 2 A teres 6.82:. Siivet PSGSLS coy leeks Lee a 14.63 9.83 8.01 2 22389 OTE LE ar at eee Sees 19.55 6.46 iS eee MSO ee Shes s suteoe ae 15.06 6.25 9.08 30.389 MEGAN costacoas Beliels 5 de tbaS ol dukcclee ahsdis ete steel 34.34 Winnipeg, Manitoba: A bic)! Mave are mEhe eet! Ihe ek 6.65 8.70 3396 “a ioser LO Se Sek CSE ee eee 8.2517 410e8h 4.35 - 23.41 POOLS oe or ae ae ue eee ees 8.55 3.80 5.84 .18.19 POO Det ot ce ie eee eee 8.18 6.62 2 AD Ae Mean 628.85 i Ga Me oe eek eee gi! bee ey Port Arthur, Ontario | He i gee hada ae a ae 8.84 1.8) 5 ok =e oT oh) ene a eens ces St ao A a 8.48 i259 6.50 22208 op Sage eR ae GEOR Bees Cpe eaaies 8.20 Brad 8.30: 322A aeF TOOT OR el) Be Re Ae ote 8.76 7.86 6.05 * = 22a Meats he hs oh ee eee oe pap se 1 Toronto, Ontario: MSO e ed Pe Oe EE OA ae a byte 6.65 4 3hoes eS ape ak cea s tons 6 ee onveeie ae 18.64 9.85 1.863625 fs Aes See EE crocs Shee 19-90 3.07 8 445 Sieas 1S VRIES ia ibe eae pre cme ee 193s 6.24 7. 16:22 25208 REAR dae Sto oS te Sl oa, eae cP Rae ee er GLEE HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 299 These precipitation data are of speciai interest because the year 1895 was the culmination of a period of exceedingly low water. They show that for a period of four years the precipitation of this basin was low, and in consequence the runoff of the tributary streams must have been exceedingly small. As illustrating this proposition, we will refer to the runoff of the Upper Mississippi, where there is a reservoir system controlling a catchment area of 3265 square miles, first operated about 1885. The rainfall of the area tributary to these reservoirs, as indicated by records kept at Leech lake, Lake Winibigoshish, and Pokegama Falls from 1885 until the present time is, on an average, from 24 to 26 inches per year. The highest recorded yearly precipitation is 31.87 inches, at Pokegama Falls in 1894. The rainfall of the area tributary to the Upper Mississippi reservoirs is found to be quite similar to that of the region tributary to Lake Superior. Hence the runoff of this reservoir system may be considered as representing the runoff of the catchment area of Lake Superior and the northern portion of Lakes Michigan and Huron. The following gives the discharge from these reservoirs for the years 1892 to 1895, inclusive, corresponding with the years of precipitation shown in table No. 39. Mean rain- Runoff Proportion fall on (e) of runoff catchment catchment to Water year. area. area. rainfall. Inches Inches Per cent be 2S = ie ROR Re tener a eer DAlseese 4.43 20.8 My ss os 2S ek ES Oe 25 42, o.OL 14.2 _ op ety SRS a eee 26.63 3.62 1556 Ee Sek SU an eee Fe mad 1B 2.79 ites fe PGP SEN Hs AY Sees Ske 98.49 | 1 07s 45 Sa a Mera te Bde eo 24.62 3.61 £427 *Annual report of Chief of Engineers U. S. Army for 1896, part III, p. 1843; also for 1897, part III, p. 2169. 300 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The tabulation shows that during the years 1892 to 1895, inclusive, the mean runoff of the Upper Mississippi area was only 3.61 inches on the total catchment. These figures, however, are subject to correction because the state of the reservoirs at the beginning and ending of the four-year period is not given in the report of the United States engineers, from which these data are taken. This correction, however, can not be very large, because the reservoirs are so operated as to be emptied, generally speaking, each year. In considering the runoff of these Upper Mississippi reservoirs, due consideration should be given to the fact that the water area of the reservoirs is 585 square miles, or nearly 18 per cent of the whole. For Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, St Clair, and Erie we have a total water surface of 87,895 square miles, with a total catchment area, including the surface of the lakes, of 265,095 square miles. The water surface of these several lakes is, therefore, about 33 per cent of the entire area of the basin, or nearly double the relative area of water surface and catchment area for the Upper Mississippi reservoirs. With other conditions the same, this fact would probably lead to a somewhat greater proportion of runoff from the Great Lakes. The Upper Mississippi reservoirs are in a forested region, and it is interesting to consider what the runoff will be after the forests are removed. Taking into account results in other places, it is probable that the runoff, under conditions of deforestation, will not exceed an average of about 2 inches per year. Runoff of Desplaines river. By way of further illustrating the yield of streams in the vicinity of the Great Lakes area, we will refer to the runoff of the Desplaines river, as given in table No. 40. This stream has been measured by the Chicago Drainage Com- mission, with certain intermissions as shown since January, 1886, the catchment area above the point of measurement being 633 square miles. The catchment comprises a long and narrow flat region extending from near Chicago to a few miles north of HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK S02 _ Milwaukee, the eastern line being for the entire distance nearly parallel to Lake Michigan and in places only 2 or 3 miles distant therefrom. The area drained by the Desplaines river is large enough to give a fair idea of the average yield of streams tribu- tary to Lake Michigan in northern Illinois and Indiana, western Michigan, and southern and central Wisconsin. In 1893, with a mean rainfall on the catchment area of 39.96 inches, the total runoff was 10.14 inches, of which 8.61 inches occurred during the storage period from December to May, inclusive. In 1894, with a total rainfall of 27.94 inches, the total runoff was 7.70 inches, ~ of which 7.54 inches occurred in the storage period. For the year 1895 the total rainfall was 27.28 inches. The runoff data of this year are incomplete, but taking into account the sequence of the rainfall it is clear that the total runoff for that year did not exceed about 2.0 to 2.5 inches. The effect of the three dry years 1893, 1894, and 1895 in the Desplaines catchment area is shown by the record of 1896, where, with a total rainfall of 39.58 inches, the total runoff was only 6.69 inches, of which 5.89 inches oc- curred in the storage period. These figures indicate that the ground water of the Desplaines area must have been so low at the end of 1895 as to absorb a large portion of the heavier rainfall of 1896 before any great amount could appear as runoff.t *For details of the measurements of the Desplaines river see Data Per- taining to Rainfall and Stream Flow, by Thomas T. Johnston, Journal Western Soc. C. E., Vol. I (June, 1896). MUSEUM YORK STATE NEW era ee cere ee eee i he ae Te eee ee aarese Se ee 100 Bue 100 | 90°8 ie . 5 689 Bente Calis LY g 500 10 OL Sicitalis hte’ acleh nivel eri ete hetiecieuin ute The eos ite ih iREer potted surystue,doy CR GRCE er] Ah ese aia) 6G I 100 6r'e 00°0 68°S 10°0 iGaarc 00°0 99 ‘I Ssh Ge ena Soo Ratna rate Saree t= 2 TOTO AO NT ier ge coo los? looco lest loo'o lcee le9:0 lo lto0 leet [ccc 280709 ens . . 100 Gere OOLOn Ge ee “"7"""186'0 860 20 'P e200 669 elec” es ae kaw we. 3 in ee Ne .elese toe th el ietielate «+ ue) le 0 1s ‘al aicele. roqureydeg re as oe. | 086 BB el i ©) lous aie ow eG’ () ge) '9 |Tg'0. /g8°¢ Salter bilaice) @i-© Xe. creeiwrte ae vela> aka ee) a Sine meire cat ate potsed SUIMOLY ebietie here. 01] ese. bbe 6 600 9°? Cr’ 0 620 OD eat | nah caret |) Pea) cee 100 Ree Sd Gelonarespibnlsh Sai ci tcatalane am Aerator Cus. tert 0.0 row OST TL: Ue ke eee) |valielCel dre. a ena e seis v0 LG"? 60° T 9¢°6 eee | see Een) CG) T FLO eC" | SESE A gS oe OS i See ee ke ae ee aa Sem AUTI LOT Be es Os on aee lee ce leo ener or Oe) Sea eis ht, oe eRe eae aun ates. er mitwi|*etiw ya) « (eter. ote. ete GB'@ G0 FI emeva elie: aillene lp «) ets LL 6 GL SI Eile Seo eet lage he Soke aly ea a aia potsod 988.1046 SLBree ahaa {el eiel ete tail eiyetpicek eisai vallel.pine. « « 68 () gee Sere ens | Re] n/J6) pby ee we i \ixal alle) a eaye a: ee nae pee a oy he Sem geo ec ee ON EO A UE A & Saar aitnciig aecie rel ces each Ole | eins SpeReED el] (tte as poner gee fee pear 2e'0) oF 0 6 CAUNO RO Sol edukiece Duet ho" Gntecnoree gure: cote. camera Gilsvalie’ 7a [eel cetsviiekohviteule, sateen yeisheltste judy Pee: s[ovcsesfesseecleceseleg-g leet lpep lege lpoce lego [ccchccchoo ccc qoreRr Heth iCeoeu ae Sas ees yA a Won ye Ne’? IGT 6g °C OLS ob Soca saith sese SARs Titec ie Pa ttn ae tS unapesets o UP LON) eceee pa een ea ceo ata leas mo Sek Ese $91 Ley Qc | 680 ele Pate ean Ee rene eedenr et rity, ate tae a EMU EYE ele: alten pet nad part | 19° 00°O lO [ctf tft ttt tte roqtta99q (Eh Goh ES) z Se e)) ) ee eS) eat) Ce) le) (T) by bd by ra bd by bd oe ee be bo Se So pS) i=; iS) c © & = = a) = i) S 5 B = B = S = 5 = al, wae = pe ee Ske Se ee her 8 oe ©. ; 2 = = J | = = HINOW 1681 6881 8881 188! 9881 0681 WOUd ‘NOISSINNOO ADVNIVUG ODVOIH) FHL Ad GANINYALAG SV ‘YHAIN SHUNIVIdSHC AO AAONDY [JUeUITOIBO BY} UO SoyoUT] HAISOIONI “L668 OL 98xT GNV ‘I'IVANIVY--OP ‘ON ATIAV YORK HYDROLOGY OF NEW s ies 6070 lee ee 1 }e¢28 lous frose [prot loe-9e |e--2-fee 2: ie oe lee eee ee + rej01 180 x Gceteka witerliare Jo) oh bts gt'T 90° OT 90°0 00°L L0°0__ 08 O01 600 819 [roo 9c'G Cry me Ceo eC) NECA OO? CM. Se ter Otten potted Sulystue,dayy ecules sr'0 9t7e looo lore imo (ert loo'o lope (207g \sotg [fcc 22s eee rel oo meaoyy Sad nee eee ee se0 (961 100°0'(00'0 (00:0. \ra°0: (e0°O (eft 10010 Apury Woon en t ies eee we0 7o9 90°0 | 680 _ 90°0 _ 868 00°0 _ 86. 600 Heels ©: oe) "0:6 e).@) x tel ieieiiut a) efteuiel (auretivicel otxelial winectaMayialcureilcitec an ei ate loquieydag Tietladie, we etlvayle. mush an es 1120) 066 100 |OL°0T |60°0 |or'e _ Ig't |g8°9 j98°9 99° FT Sie’ ;e/lp:.6, iv, skal tejeumalial var siiel leualieaaitsr alist aiiy ional ft ee potsed BULMOLS) Sete ners fimse) wre "1900 wee 100 6F°9 00°0 090 00°0 QT 0 200 ce’ T Shea coke pie tee ceethcca: elphehibeaiteay amare Oriole ta) cee wpe hw lisvetle qsnsny fi) note er wise e 00 19°¢ 00°0 CP'S 10'0 09°0 FLO 20° & 610 OBS oo! rane! ete) a8" a) elhatisy oe eee tater Ua ghar ee AE ak Da Hy ap ccf sooo fee's _loo'o_feu't jgoro foe-t [eet less lpovo |eccor [cc ee iG eas ek ines Gin mire a feliell 7G SI 669 [49°6T |" \8e'6 Pek [er eT ES Ge cater ela w sees eet tee we FOP O00 Ost Gd 0 Oo potted 83¥104¢ 09'0 780 620 OL’ P IL 0 661 06° 1 cee 121 e6°T P'P DM, 9 y0" Ce! Jul BC atue le NOMSl-aCie le) b> wee leaieiis MisipeirL et ane . areca 6 Ta. ee gee ACT QQ T aire LL'0 61°? 62 '0 980) 910 cg e GL OL cya) sayisvien a) |'\oi whet cahianl fabereue re i) atsalie) avon ecb lamin, (SMW ata ete ti ° ere ce eve Cel ans sete . ° . Tudy 19°F lose ict ioe lte-0 eet (cove loge lorce leg [ccececleeeces[eeee heh Sy ac ane ete heaton eae Saree 6e'T S'S 90 T QP’ e 1Z'0 09° T 90° 1 els 12'0 Tr 2 Gi'e ele. 6) 6 . Sj}. 6 18 10 '6\:e)16))6: siete) ee" eo) a (a) 88 aa Cob eoaCe COOL Cee ei eusele «3s AICNIG 9,7 aieeuaileite ec’p |98°9 IZ1'T SiGe je. Ole Ge. T 10°0 180° TE 2g WU Diag a ate ce acta OU ee a MAE sro foro fost foxca |v p9t lreo lere broo fear |e is ESSE Cite aren ern ee eee roaeoe CS) aay AG) Senet CG) Ba Ge) | GG onlGL (ey: | abaya ate yen lao iea: ate) (q) 5 5 =} = 5 i=} 5 5 e) _" ° mc () eb © = © eb fo) Fh eg Co ee ae a ee eee ‘HENOK L68T. 968T. C68T | F681 681 6681 [JUemIYO1B9 944 UO soyour] (PapnjouUod) HAISOIONI ‘P6RT OL 9887 WOU ‘NOISSINMOD HOV NIVUG ODVOIHYD HHL AG GANINUALAC SV “MAATY SUNIVIdSH( TO THONOUY UNV LIVANIVY—OP ‘ON ATAV LE 304 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Taste No. 41.—EvAPorATION FROM THE DESPLAINES CATCHMENT, AS GIVEN BY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RAINFALL AND RUNOFF IN THE PRECEDING TABLE. [Inches on the catchment.] fe Septem- : Water year. Ther to Vee Novem, cc > S68 i i ae 5.54 9:97 1a team : MON Mier. hate ec tons Weak: 2.95 5.50 wa sa 2 ss ee “¢ MOR 2 atcke Guage sg beer ia eons 11.80 10.08 8.05 29 .93 OO eee eet hear eae hese ee tame even eee ere tee 11d eee TESTED ROA SUC teh See 7.80 5.52.5; thoes : 1 OB eee Ra aweies ale oe 5.32 5.34 6.16 16.82 Aes 0) Pie ai see eee oe an Sac ieele aad 6.94 3.07 10.28 20 .24 DS Os 2 Besar eee ee is seae abla aoe eee 10.69 6.94 4 eee LI OP aah aia ee ere ae tes 14.18 9.78 8.93 32.89 Runoff of Muskingum river. In table No. 42 is given the rain- fall and runoff record for Muskingum river, Ohio, as measured at Zanesville: for the years 1888 to 1895, inclusive, the area of the catchment above the point of measurement being 5828 square miles. The headwaters of the stream are not far from Lake Erie and on the dividing line between, the hill country of the east and the prairie country of the Mississippi valley. Hence this stream represents conditions applicable to the runoff of the Ohio streams tributary to Lake Erie. The rainfall record as used in, this table is the mean of the records kept at Akron, Canton, Newcomers- town and Wooster, and may be considered to represent fairly well the mean precipitation of the Muskingum catchment area. For the year 1892 the total rainfall was 41.74 inches anid the total runoff 13.38 inches, of which 9.06 occurred in the storage period. In 1893 the total rainfall was 42.36 inches, with a total runoff of 16.20 inches, the runoff of the storage period being 14.13 inches. 1Survey of the. Miami and Erie canal, the Ohio canal, ete. Report of Capt. Hiram M. Chittenden, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, January 20; 1896, printed as House Document No. 278, Fifty-fourth Congress, First Session, p. 42. ; : zi — YORK NEW OF HYDROLOGY G'1¢ [108 |P8' 9% lL6"9¢ le’ gp 99° LB [668 88° ag [8° LP see 68 |S OL [19° ep CSN ees sree ss -"78909 10 UREUT Ap TRO K B1¢ 686 (|er9 GL'CT 8° 6F 866 96" 96° 0 1B" OF e°8h (chk 6e'e ~ Pr LI ec casa Ape meee poried surystuetdoy ae | ae se ieee Pere es eA eee ds et a ey re ee et aug 0% |oe9 legp fcc 10 leee. lo°cr Pn aes ee pe hee Bae ; oe cote ere 8 - 499010 9°09 re auecctere 92°S 98" 9 @' 19 re 7 Om Lia oe a 0’ Qc eeu od 19°0 Rg 2 St shape) Meyer scout vy! eel awe eterno lela serie: silcuurvisby ets) (a ulcen eielte qequreydeg V 69 FO IL FOG 99° e] L898 _ 88°01 eT emer 6°69 iis eae eae Wie) 0) @) ele. (8) e/a ce wee) 618s epieie! ene Cheb ioeOe: LO potted SUIMO.LD 9°99 ele oe 6F'0 cee 0" HOae le eis 280 961 Q° 39 eS ee 29" 0 FQ" CI Ca acca re CORR eae Ra RC horace rt ae ap! qsnsnyw 6° OL Sicnen stews 1¢‘0 90" @ | LL oe ARORS GG’ () creame FOL Seawater 180 19° PCE OAR as ce CeO aioe retesonte 5 EPara aces Wier rey aan alee Terese Ajne 0k [pon uw eo | apo! leis igo files lowe ee tet rears Peat eee cane SOP 0L°6 10°81 LL Le |e°9e 0S°), {60°9 _ eo er 6°98 [6671 ee OT LT a Se Nese we 6s eles Niatenetviere aren el ereisie ce por1ed a8R10I9 6° 9 PAO RORD SU OLS 199 1’ 6e Se as | eee) 06'°2 Pp’ gc Coe ee et Ch’) cee 4 say ees . rare. eevee s eves weer Picek ws ane) te tacrecy “3 ACT (Sgt) ae aaa (00°% Ire 6° LP sre OREO) s Meee Opes he 108°0 Gi iigss eae. eee ee ee ee ee . pe eeees bee e ee ee [udy Ae ieee ey oi ae ee ghee loss slimy “lab lainey err ger lege uci L amavitn eam Sachi -<- qoreyy GLE seas CT Cah oleae gpa | ere CPL GCL Pp 6? naan ge kets CA WM ae ee ee ae ee wists eS wee ‘+ KIVNIGQey Cuieen e ec'e |eap i2'Te RL HeO 6 iG eee se rel 196° wee ole oe ee we CEO SECC CBr eC EON O et csc ‘+: lors eee ee ; pee tie Se aes Peek Oe Peoe es SSP lor 9% loz 9 ‘og CP l; GP 988s [8g et [PL Th leer 081s 99° CT 98 4e | 1240} 10 uvoeut AT Ive K pigne |sse ceo Wet laze [lero leet jose [ope lee [oc aiaciees CN ae ee sooneaetb mano pee eno yreg [ros -|' 7080 loso Iker [ttcleeo (oer fcc peer WEEE bet Ne otal Mean Bt oe TBU OLS) FEO we Ser LO OO ieceoe | a Be Oke Gk Op ee OP e0 | atietiete 8 0) 0) aL seme alerts! © (eile) alfa) ere) eleaeiee28) (ee orale 7e\ cptle, ei teite Iequioydeg Vth |6os jeer re’ 8'0l J68'@r \c9"¢ peor [ps9 64°F nd 9c" ey peg eee teeters reeeersreersesss poried SULMOIO 6°69 REE Foy ary 12°2 ey eee 09°0 GO F 1°89 cua kel iar | 90°S ACCC NCNCEONCECECEC eee ee eee ee eee ae ees see ew eee qsnsny 9°), PAE SE ah Far) 26'S 60! ee) Seniene ch 0 Pre 9°19 Wile fetta te! Ic 0 662 a) OL ones) ene Ole ahs eis: jeelel@ is. evlelele sele eis uarnire eeeceve aE E.G 1 ae A Se Blo. borehe Wothie| ae logie,, Goey: lob es nero. erm ae BE BR HCE ounp 98 | 16'OL [Sl FT |P0 Se vse [gs Il |90°6 68°06 |I 6E 08 jor St cs cite veto ce, jal ih (es ietecveliel eure! WmrKeune fC @reeeoest ee toe potazed 9SVIOIG 0° Lg e ° C0) F QL G GesG . "eZ? Leh Q° GG Cet hit OnOn Ch) 62°S eeeeal © Scere ewes eie ObinC ay yar Yen Ce ? e e e O2e).e) wee wre tee Av 9° 6F teecsveve bed w 76'S 0) OF eam (OCR f PS 9° 6P eoceeee Qc I PL 1 o/ eczee le ee ene) 68 eae acetate lena ae e BP aS Sy RR, judy ee loos Ine-e Wiree on tbe tk lore lege 1 Sevier | aeret | (emmroe ee ta BO tn Ree ae ie sn eae, an 2° Qe 8 el cp ged 0° ee ee eelice OP'S OLS Q' Pe tints 0 ate 9C'F CPP EM eC Dile te neiie.e: (69 s\50) 007 ome aie WapeteJa ienvatin gtiademes elie, ele ele * ATENAQ9,iT 0°81 Sa eaea ral ec.) 10 '¢ 8° BS ROME 2d SU) OFS 6 1g Cece a OF'S CGS ikeue Sie Grerey arate: eke A ae> Cree calteks fenenbaele Guu eh isiveineievievie! el (els) ile AeNUB (> eg lee Rene a mee We mes Het lea a leat he sig ep dango re) nen eamranSntine hn crncinte crac reomeoe ri (Oy AGP Co) 4) a CG De Oa Gaia Ao) a) (a). ise) (T) pe 3 =e) =e) | a re & ne) 3) < =| © o Ee = ~ ® < ra Ss B = 5 S 5 © =] Ss B © =] 5 r 2 o | & i) i=) S) = ie} 2 cS} =" e 2 ER 9 ® cS) ER 99 ® =) ER 9 s = = 55 5 = FS 9 = ; S ro) = 5 S oO 3 5 a 5 a 5 S681 C681 1681 [vole JUST 9}BO VY4 UO SeyouUr UT | (panuiquUod) AAISOIONI ‘G68T OL Bggl NOUA “SUAANIONA SALVLG GHLIN/) HHL AG GHUASVANW SV ‘UHATH WOAYNIMSOW, AO AYOLVARdWHL NVAW ONV ‘NOILVHOdVAU ‘HHONOU “IIVANIVY — Gp ON WIAV D307 NEW YORK HYDROLOGY OF G6) _|F9'96 |60'ST |99'6S 8 er _[F6 be 06'F |P8°6s |S 19 |T8 Te \OL"8 [to°og | [¥90} 10 UvauT ATIVA MOG tae eT SEB Cae eng) Nee us WROD kl ee ig ee NERO See ee en eee ported durystuepdoy CeCe ele eee nelsernesalecscee "19° OF eG) 68°¢ 9°98 et Oe) Te ASST SSSEI hots i nal 6S MERE ANN ns ea Soa aoe LO] RRND I H iietey eet pe Pier nee ssole-g. leet lees (oo iro jee oe ete raga Pees Sea aie: eae: Re et 619 pels 6: 6 e] 0) 62'S Z “L9 a oO Ohya eeeee oo eee ees ee toe weer ee see ewer ee seeo ease requieydeg 6°69 |¢8°6 891 |ec"Tt jO'14 jg9°8 a a |P1'6 6 fe ils 06'S 99°0 QC'P Cen i Oeveorolo G CeO D LEO ee scab et euelrecs potted Surmo.y a er Ee J te etry oe on foo le yoo [tcc ese: cesses sees nen ginny wees cele eee wets enon Hp Pet oyeare() Bee Oman E( 2's ey a ae ( 79) es Pe ES Ras Ee ae Se ae ee mE eR SES gia oes hg: leo “1008 le GeO sce pic ee ee eunp 9°8@ [ge GS 6 126 28ST G98 00°6 OP $0. ‘eI ic OF 086 e9'}, e691 age, Rlekwes Woe, auellonertine ts etecrtsceca PPC CMC Ones a ONG potzed e8v1019 Wye fe) es aile)|| soe. etia ele | Dy ae Maa pen eH (0) ens hal) eT @° QC ee Se ah e9'f pip Mle he lca here SY i i sit HS Sa A ye We Lele) 8 16i|/eveaW elmira ||el elem) elie! |tegie tetas (6 9° Qe eee cna) Oot 9° 6F ee NO Sith Crs foe oe em woes) ake e eyegm Ete (sine iecei ete (ew) see Oke. Vie ee) San cee [udy eae ling rowan ere ae lie Tee Hiern ce oe are TFL logiey [vocete nthe ttre nee ners cena cent nena ees goa CC ee L 60 Seal a0) 680 9 LS oe eo as al Gitar CGS cata maope bi nee tana Lae ge RATTLE. | niisl-tohieigsray lteaen sien awe [es ecco he ees a eee Oa 662 zee Bes a aie p IL'2 Gaia lca De Yah aay ini bear nS OAT fit Se ise eles ese [ccrloe'o Hoe [ete [cece T. lege [octet cette tee teee es eete sees 89+ geqmmanecy COA SNC) laa) te Gl) ole CY) sila (yi aCe) ay) ai CP) aCe )istam en (1) al ae eae Ae e Selle re aaa lorii te sean oa Pc leag. ine Se ee RAS lie Gainer che eg Fee Kegs et ge io s es ro 5 ee S S Ee = HLNOW S 3 = S = oy 6 F a 5 a = _ NVI C6sI HOST [vore quOUIGOBO O44 UO SOyoUr UT] (papnjouod) AAISOTIONI ‘CERT OL Qggl WOUT ‘SUTMNIONE SHLVLE GaLINQ HL A@ GaMASVaN Sv “wATY WOONIMSOW FO AUOLVUAIWAL NVAW GNV ‘NOILVYOdVAN “IIONOM “TIVANIVY — Bp ‘ON Met! 308 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In 1894 the rainfall dropped to a total of 30.51 inches and the runoff to a total of 8.70 inches, of which 7.63 inches occurred in the storage period. In 1895 the total rainfall was 29.84 inches and the total runoff 4.90 inches, of which 4.04 inches occurred during the storage period. : Runoff of Genesee river. (Genesee river, while not tributary to the Great Lakes above Niagara river, may still be cited as showing that at times the runoff of streams tributary to the Great Lakes is very low. Referring to table No. 438, which, for the years 1890, 1891 and 1892, gives the rainfall and runoff of Oatka creek, a tributary of the Genesee, we learn that in the water year 1891, with a rainfall of 38.12 inches, the runoff was 14.05 inches. In 1892, with a rainfall of 41.69 inches, the runoff was 15.42 inches. 3'« 3” OAK. = = = LS5 BY 12" 12 "x 24-0" oo a HEMLOCK es LZ er ~ Se se <= Zz ee Fig. 20 Section of weir erected on Genesee river in 1896. Taking the record of Genesee river proper, for the years 1893— 1898, inclusive, as given in table No. 43, we learn that for the water year 1894, with a mean precipitation above the point of measurement of 47.79 inches, the runoff was 19.38 inches, of which 15.73 inches occurred in the storage period. In 1895 the rainfall dropped to 31 inches and the total runoff to 6.67 inches. In 1880 Hemlock lake, a tributary of Genesee river, with a catchment area of 43 square miles and a total rainfall of 21.99 inches, gave a runoff of only about 3.4 inches. 309 NEW YORK HYDROLOGY OF ‘o1BUILxoIdd V 4+. *699 ‘d ‘yO MON JO JOABAING pues Jo9UISUq 27815 JO q10doy 968T FO IT ‘ON 9[O%8g, Jod se ‘gale oasoueyy Joddn 911}U9 ou JO BY} UBYY JoY}BI posn UW99q SBY BAIR FNOULYOIBO YOoIO BYIVO OYJ JO [[BJUIBI OY} ‘DAISNOUL ‘ZG-O6LT SIBOA 99 IO Tp 8% |8& "61 lou ut | 96°98] _9e" “e108 68 [46°96 [eh ST (69° Ih Th |L0°Fe_ Q0'FT [Gr 88 [es 96 | Sei Iehe ah | [eq0} Ape X 766 lors lever | cen|cetiore lire wrt feco joo ier lene Ne" Ber ce COS a. porred Surystuejdey Sod liacg clnpat ame! eehalnsstecalts! fh ff ces es en ee Rayne iaes eae doqrasntte Somme sy;| logugesl: os | gag Ice ho ee lere@ | seg lepg |ct ct: fee leery [oot het 10q0490 = 86.0 146” 9 sheen ee) py: oS Brea igees 70 ‘|eo°t Pe ae 0 len: SS bar santeherisy cre Wu Paes rR EERe Cae. requreydeg 69 jor t leon |i4e0°e |ho0'T lec'6 ‘opor joe? loe'er !en'tt |go°t |gu°et |to’s | 19°e jeg'or | ported SuTMOI) se wae 2S 0 PLT dele aa i Sion Pade SPR CG ae Gay | Ch PF Se OR) CoP see eee 86'0 /6a'¢ OCS ae Uae ee et eee has La WOR a, FLO 01° 2 Sst ah Sy eke) cM al a ae OMG S1'P ees eat) CoP Oi Oy Ot) ge") SL's Sk sae ee eee (1, Sa sO aa ES ed ar a Svat 86° TT |S ST x | 18 [+oG°6 [HOT FL/C9°0S |9F'OT j8e°6 |FS'GT |Fe°9 [eB TT fee"st 81 {20° OTS MGC Ch F0veca|" af ee ported 881049 ay tne) uel a £9'°8 cmibe weeds a Galop na een Gof PL G Peer GO) () 09° T Fo O10) aut 9L'e CT '9 rhe esti ba en i Ares eae eee ote ACW Sieh 6-6) 10:8 622 Ce pet eine alg se ese Siler $0 reese NAGuaD 6a Caer cmeneme LZ 23'S ws cl oes: Sache cae eer Ostet Gnu 122 29° 1 sere EM, ae is aah ros ee ee) T Bar dagen |i Kove 012 PENN ae relate WPeuleirese, e.I8 [iS ca) ete tet (wl ayes} ee kits * qorleyl eee eee 980 26 °S Soeemeig lg ec, NGS A BSN e QO TL IL '@ Pe? Tapia LO'F eet heed, e9°@ = he rae ee eae ae Cee trios OFT 1G e os ali ace Sa (18g Sesipes (25H) Re ESN Coe ie aaa ie asia A eye 98°F Ne ARE ROE SU ge Ah ERT Ee ee et 68° See eC rad eZ T eee eee LOE OBIE alk woh 16° 0 19°@ se eee 400° T eg" oe ee Heat Yer ert ak Oy on'h: Cpe es ae A els ‘1equrede(] M®1/@)@)/®!le®!1@O)/®)/@!)@|]@]e@)/@!]@®!] @ | @ (1) ee | ces er So ipa eto Nasco we W|I ieee ba ih eel ie em ce | See < | © < S| 9 ml =| i) 4 c $9 < ae © m2 B =H 99 S| = eo) B iy es) 5 =P Hg 5 = Bel | Ss aes Beh sie eine eae. tece Be ee | eS = oF Be © 3? = 2 a FR 2 | ont FR 2 ee FR E | HLNOW P68T £681 C681 1681 O68T | (Seqour uy) HAISNIONI ‘Q68T-O68T SUVAA WALVM HOT UAATN AASUNAY AO VIVA AIONNY—CP ‘ON WAV orn YORK STATE MUSEUM NEW 1°96 [OFT \8'0F lug 2e [ener OS SF |10'Ss |8E°6 [68° FS 188°LS [08° ST [89 OF |Ee'F% |249°9 |00'TE NA ee. tT eee eS Wile ee SS aad a Pea. Ging eearer are oe yh l0°S lr6 (to's Ig9°e le9°6 |l90°9 (gz0 6L°9 |’8°6 [64'S j92°SE 166°S I99'0 |L9°9 eRe reli elm eGyeg Sat ge eo ng'| ye (oles OF ORG alia o lw " lel sg clea lero Eo Pte ete lee Paella: | ae Seale aor ies T (=< Claro eee |e EO eee es lokco. Bay S86 j\47% iG TT (OF SE \G0'S* IGT FL 99°01 Fe Ll \e6°TT [976 le8°0: Iez°OL lbs "0L (9e°0 let’ Tr See ene ee beloeg een ssl co aes (oe lees We be Pepe lan e Se ee cro loge |v loro lgore [ooo 0. loos Ae cl eaelte de ee eis | 7-0. ieee fo ke, eee eo er dealvens 68 (2 Ol |F 6L |96°8 |OF OT |99'SE j48°S iTe’4 [g9°St jec°s jes'e |PBLT luc's le9°e log’ et Pee ocean ln an leege tea. lensed, 660 lee | ro lee bo: lero ere oe: seelssselesssslag-g dere [ele t Iuee mecca equ ne Teele seecselecescaleceeesleeseesdonig let-p (e---lag-@ 'ltore [oo al ii titnetao Peek ae ieee ie ries uae as hoon) fic ea fareate fon Aooyatiags So laeo lpdcae |leccntel aaampelse os, Heefeeestes-slogt lggre |<<" -len'o. Ieee [ot lueo. lbere. (et: lb'e. lone Agee Rees ~ logo tree |ccc* leno leet ble lose. oc toro. ce Gale A) IG) | CP (Ges G) le (a eG) aa eee ln GF) asl] Qi eC) ee eee fee (02) li (es) 1e3| EO a8) ies] 30) =| ies] =e) 29] es] iso) ae) ies] Bs ry a9] < =I © 4 = 2. 4 = = 4 = ©. el = 2. go 8 | 6 F Sale Cat oe le oma eet ete eee a ee etal ah | FR ©, =a FR eo, a PR eo = PR 2. =e FR 2) = ee | 5 = 3 = Ss 5 = NVA | S681 L681 9681 C681 (seqyour uJ) Se ee cara On: AT.1B9 K “ee ee ee eo ® 19q0490 se oe se eee requneydeg Prot eo cage te potsoed oul MOLD ee eats awe CC Aue o* OUTE “potted 368R.1049 es ae Te er * Arenue se 19quLe09(T HINOW (papnjouos) MAISAIONI “g6g]-068] SUVHA UALVA AOA WHAIN AASHNAD JO VLVA THONAY—Ep ‘ON AIAVY, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Bld These figures are cited to show that in years of low rainfall the runoff of streams tributary to the Great Lakes is low, and as a consequence the runoff of Niagara river will necessarily be affected thereby. Aside from the measurements made by the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways in 1898, the most elaborate measurements thus far made are those of the Lake Survey in 1867 and 1869 which are, however, extremely unsatisfactory. According to these meas- urements the mean discharge, rainfall and evaporation from the Great Lakes for the year 1868, in cubic feet per second, were as follows :! Lake eens PMREEEOG ER 2.8. Be aig 86,000 171,430 27,690 Huron and Michigan...... 225,000 251,450 59,890 © OE gS Bie Tiegh ee ert 265,000 100,540 14,310 PuneANe scene eM S aR A Se ale 523,420 101,890 According to the Deep Waterways Commission’s tabulation of records of hights of the Great Lakes, it appears that the water level fluctuated through a series of years to the extent of about 3.8 feet. In the present discussion we are chiefly concerned with the fluctuations of Lake Erie, which control the discharge of Niagara river. From table No. 44, which gives the mean monthly elevations of Lake Erie at Buffalo for the years 1865-1898, in- clusive, it appears that the highest mean monthly elevation during these years was for June, 1876, when the mean lake surface was 5(4.51 feet. The lowest mean monthly elevation for the period was for November, 1895, when the mean for the month was 570.49 feet. The range in the mean monthly elevations for this period was therefore 3.82 feet. In regard to table No. 44 it is stated in the Report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways that the uncertainty concerning the stability of the Buffalo gage previous to 1896, together with the excessive fluctuations of the lake level at Buffalo, appear to. make the Cleveland gage record more reliable, and it has therefore been used in determining the mean monthly elevations of the lake. *These figures are derived from Mr Cooley’s Lakes and Gulf Waterways, as corrected and given in the Journal of the Assoc. of Eng. Soe., Vol. VIII (March, 1889), p. 182. STATE MUSEUM NEW YORK 312 oF els £6" 11g ey Tis 6L TG 96° OL 68° TL 88° 11g €6" TLe 76° TG #8214 MLe OF BLG OL E24 eT’ 1g 70° ele SL ELg 90°e1¢ 16 €1¢ OF GLS 99° 81g omdhe 80°81 19° 214 6F SL 10°16 bl BG £6 21S 2°11 SP 21g 10° SLs #F GIS 20° SL OF BL Le 21g 82° SIG Lt Gi uBoW 901 TS [4g 66° TL¢ 16 OLS ¢9 OLS GE" Tug GE" 1g VE TLg 10° TLS 6 6LS 18° TLg 80° 61S V6 GL ¥9 OLS GE ELS Ve 6LS 16°GLS OT GL SP GLg 18°12 68° TL Ca GLG €9° 61S P6 GL 61 LS 69° [1S GP OLS ¢O* TLS cP TLS GP GLg PP LS GP TLS Ty Lg GP GLG $8 11g (81) ‘00, eP TLS 96 TLg 88° OLS 6P OLS oP 11g 46° TLG 19148 00° TLS GG" OL SP IOAS 06 61S 66 GL 69° CLG LS" ELE 1 GL 88°61 19° GLG Ge GLG GT OLS LG TLg 49° 61S GP 6Llg 86° ELE 16° TLS 08° TLS 80° CLS 8% TLS 68° 12S LG GLG 60° ¢L¢ 99 TLS £9 12g Th Gg 86° Tg 004 (er) “AON 09° 14S 08° 12S 6F TLS 86 TLS co TLS 6F TLS 69° OLS 40° 11S 99° TLS 86° TLS 19° TLS 60°GLS $6 TLS 0G °GLg PP TLS 68° LLG 89° GL LL GLS GB 1LG |. FE GLE Am OAY TS Lg 6F GL 80° €L¢ 00° €4¢ €¢ S1G 6h SL 69° SL1¢ 62° 61S Gl SLS 96° S1G 89 ELS 66° 61S Ph ELlG OF LG GP CLG &6 CLS 19° GLS F0 GL1S LG GLS $8 21g 61° SL €G° G1 £6 61S 06 LS EL ELS GL CLS 19 GLg 66 CLS 99 61g 86° 61S 89° Gls 19° 12S 84 TLS 10° 21S FL SLE 18° 1S Go SL GG SLS 00° $2¢ 8° TLG LO CLG SL GLg LV GLG 9° GL 99° GL 9¢°GLS 99° @LS 10051 JOON (Ti) (OL) “90 “ydag SI ola 96°G1S 18° TLg¢ AT TLg GT@Lg OF ELS 63 GLG 00°61 9661S 69° SL C6 61S 18°19 Lv ELg PL ELS go’ ELg 68 SL TL &L¢ 08°61 06° 61S 09° 61S 6&8 ELG 10 €2g 06° 62S GL OLg Gl ELS 86° CLS T0'@Lg 16 GLg 0S §1g “16° SLUG 79° CLG 98°24 Zh Le OL 21S 109.81 88° GL eeceovees @oeveeee 09° GLg GV GLS SP GLG 09° TLS eh TLS Go TLS 98° TLS 6G GL §9° SS PL CLS 60 ELG LL ELS CO'ELS LG GELS LE GLS OF ELE 84 ELE 6° GLE PL GLS GO ELS 06° 61S €9° ELS 18° EL1G 89 ELS OL SS EL SL Lu ELS TL ELE €6°EL1G C6 ELS GL SG G8 E1¢ 66 SLS Gl Slg LL §L¢ FL ELG GO SLS G8 GLS 61° 6S 99° §L1g 99° SL1¢ GI €1g¢ 16° GLS 06 FL¢ 1S PLS 91° SLS €9°SLG 86° SLg Go ELS 40 ELS 90° §L¢ $0 GLS CO SL GL Sls FL EL1g GG EL1G TS ELS 1§ ° §LS 60° L1G 90° §LS 60° §1¢ LT ELS 9€ SS 16° GLS 98° GLG 84° SLE G8 Sl VIO 090, (8) (4) Ayne oun LG OlG £6° 619 cP TL 16 TLS 6&6 6Lg §8° 419 66 ¢L¢ 66 6LG Iv &L4g TS" @Lg LL OLG 48° S19 09° EL 96° ELS G8" EL1¢ OSL Lk ELS 66 GLg ¥6 GLG OL GLG 99 €L¢ €8°6LG 06° PLG 06 6g ST &Lg 86° @LG 89° TLg IT 24g PG" ELG OL GLS OL GL GO" ELG 09° éLg V8" GLg FOOT GV SOL $8 11g 00° ¢L¢ Cr ILS 10° TLE 69 OLS GO TLS 08 OLS ¥6 [1G bG 1Ll¢ 66° TLS 94° TLS 6P TG €6 OLS 1h ole $G°GLG 10° €L¢ 89° GLG St ?@lg BL TLS 6G CLG 68° TLG 99° €LG 49 SL1S 08 $LS GV GLE §S' SLG TL 14g 8o°SLg 60° §2G 69 CLS LE GLS L1G°ELG. | GE ELG EG GLE €8° TL¢ 19° @LG 1G GLS GGL 61 GLS 0S §1S 88° 61S 89° GLG GL Glg 88 SL 9§ SLS SL TLS 68° 11g 60° §1¢ 66 CLS 18 GLG €0° Tg GE 1LS FO 1LG P8 GLE 98° SLg €& ELS 89° CLG GT ZLS G8 ILS GG GLS ov LLG §G° CLS 16 GLS 8S Gls 08 TLS 96 CLG $S 1LG WOO 100i (g) (¥) [ady Yow, 8g° 11g 80° TL 19° OLG 61 OLS 1G 12g 40 14g 68° OLS 80° OLS 9 GL v6 11g 61 TLS £8 GL 19 GLG G8" TL¢ 18 GL 86° 61g 06 GLS IG’ 11g LE OLg OT eLG GL OL 88 6LgS TL 6lg 6T 12g 68° CLS 96 0219 SI TLS 16° TLS 16 CLG AS 11g €8 OLS 18° [4g Te 1g 66 1LG FOOT “oH (8) 88° TLS eoesceves 88° 029 CL OLS 60" TL 69° TLg 96° OLS OT TLS OL 62g LT GAG OL 6Lg 90° 61S TH GLg VS ELS 90 6L¢ 89° GLg 20° GLG 06° @L¢ OF TL¢ 6E'GLG 06 6Lg 19° GLS PG GLG CL 6Llg 96° TLS $8 GL G6 OLS LS" TL V6 6LS 89° ol PP TLG Ie 11g ST 6Lg LG TLS 08 14g oN | (3) ‘uve "*TOUL ‘Q681-GO8T “UBS, CC ee Ce ee Seem maser weer erreeeseees eee eee erm eseeeesssesones Cee | eee coer ees ee ee es eeesseee eee eee oe eee eee eee eH eeoes eeeeee eee eos eeeessvsseee eo esse eres ev eeesesreeeeee eee ee eves eeeeeseseaoeeese dVaA 8681 L681 9681 G68T F681 8681 6681 1681 068T 6881 8881 1881 9881 Css F881 S881 6881 1881 O881 6181 SL8T LLBT 9L8T GL8T PLB E181 oL8I TL81 OLB 6981 898T L981 9981 cO8T MAISOIONI ‘Q6QT-COQT ‘AINA ANWI AO SNOLLVAWIG ATHINOW NVAN— Fp ‘ON AIAVL HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ala Temporarily, much greater fluctuations than indicated in the foregoing table have been experienced, due largely to wind action, to which Lake Erie, on account of its shallowness, and the fact that its general direction is favorable for the sweep of the pre- vailing winds, is peculiarly subject. In regard to the measure- ments of the Lake Survey, it may be remarked that they indicate Jarge variations im discharge from all of the lakes, from the effects of winds and other disturbing causes, but give little clew to the quantities at either of the extremes of high or low water. Ac- cording to Lyman E. Cooley the extreme low-water discharge is probably 20. to 30 per cent less than the Lake Survey figures, and extreme high water 20 to 50 per cent more. Measurements of the amount of water flowing in Niagara river were begun in December, 1891, at a time when the water in Lake Erie was very low and the conditions were considered specially _ favorable for minimum discharge. The results are given in the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1893, part VI, pp. 4364-4371. The point selected was about 1000 feet below the Inter- national bridge at Black Rock, near the foot of Squaw island, at which point the river is free from eddies. Niagara river, on leav- ing Lake Erie, has a nearly straight channel about 2000 feet wide for the first 2 miles. The fall in this section is from 4 to 5 feet, and the velocity ranges from 7 miles per hour at the upper end to about 5 miles at the lower end. The point was chosen, after care- fal consideration, as the point in that vicinity least subject to disturbance. In taking the cross sections, the width, which varies slightly with different stages of the river, was accurately deter- mined for gage readings 1 foot apart, and for extreme points the width was determined by interpolating values derived from the known slope of the river banks. A local gage was established at the draw pier of the International bridge by setting gage boards on each side of the pier, with the zeros of the gages on the same level. The local gage was read at the beginning and close of all velocity observations, and the gage at Buffalo was read at 7 a. m. and 1 and 7 p.m. The zero of this latter gage is at the mean level of Lake Erie, or 572.23 feet above mean tide at New York in the Erie canal levels, or as used by the government engineers, 572.96 feet. During the velocity observations in December, 1891, Lake Erie was about 1.5 feet below its mean level, and is stated not 314 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to have been seriously affected by strong winds. Still the daily record shows that there must have been some wind action. The current velocities were obtained after the methods used by the Mississippi River Commission and described in their reports, all velocity observations being taken with a current meter, with electrical appliances for recording the number of revolutions. The following are some of the results obtained : t Mean hight 1891 Feet Feet Cu. feet December 04 Lee) ae 0.05 4995 164,648 December 442-5... eee 0.65 3 es 191,822 December Aili 2 20. ty ween to 0.735 —1.75 193,522 December 20..... IDOL A Die orate 0.835 ie 201,433 December 3200 2 ee es: 1.125 —1.45 >) 2 Wecemiber dQ. s7. abo. «ea eee ioe — 0.50 218,353 1892 | Whey 95204 227 eet, Se eee 1.562 0:80 213,180 NEE Td chat ee eee 1.750 — 0.85 218,988 Mey Die cet Sache eee 2.292 + 0.15 236,762 The tabulation shows (1) a variation in lake elevations, as indi- cated in the Butfalo gage, from —2.95 on December 24, 1891, to +0.15 on May 24, 1892, a range of 3.10 feet; (2) a variation in discharge of 72,114 cubic feet per second. There are some dis- crepancies in the results which it is not necessary to discuss at length ; but in the absence of more satisfactory data we may safely assume, in view of the foregoing evidence as to the small runoff of streams tributary to and in the vicinity of the Great Lakes, that the figures obtained in the fall of 1891 and spring of 1892, are more nearly correct than the larger figures of the Lake Survey. By plotting the observed discharges a mean discharge curve has been obtained, from which the discharge of the river ‘at points within the range of the observation can be taken off, when one has the tabulated hights of the Buffalo gage before him. At present these measurements are, on the whole, not considered sufficiently 1Annual Report of Chief of Engineers, United States Army, 1898, part Wieip. 4o0. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK aL exact to justify the labor of preparing a tabulation of this character. Referring to the tabulation on page 311, it is learned that the rainfall in that portion of the basin of the Great Lakes tributary to Niagara river was, for 1868, 523,420 cubic feet per second, and the evaporation from the water surface of the lakes tributary to Niagara river was 101,890 cubic feet per second. Hence the evaporation from the lake surfaces was nearly 20 per cent of the rainfall on the whole basin. Assuming for the moment the truth of these figures, we have 80 per cent of the total rainfall from which the land evaporation must be deducted before anything can run off. Again assuming the land evaporation at 1.70 feet, there results a loss from this source alone of 298,000 cubic feet per second; adding to this the evaporation loss from the water sur- faces gives a total evaporation loss of 399,890 cubic feet per second. The runoff is the difference between rainfall and total evaporation losses. If, therefore, the land evaporation was 1.7 feet for the year 1868, the runoff would have been in reality only 1There have been a number of independent measurements of volume of the Niagara, and though the results differ widely, they probably do not differ more than the actual volume of the river at various stages of Lake Erie. Lyell (1841 ?) quotes Ruggles as authority for a volume of 250,000 cubic feet per second. E. R. Blackwell, computed by Allen (Am. Jour. Sci., 1841), obtains 374,000 cubic feet per second. His work was afterwards recomputed by D. F. Henry, who obtained 244,797 cubic feet per second. In the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for 1867-68, D. F. Henry gives as a result of observations in August and September, 1867, 242,494 cubic feet per second. A year later he recom- puted from the same data, and obtained 240,192 cubic feet per second. He also made a new measurement by a different method (see report for 1868- 09) from which he obtained two results, 304,807 and 258,586 cubic feet per second. W. IF’. Reynolds (Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, 18707), gives the result of observations from June to September, 1869, 212,860 cubic feet per second. In the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for 1871, there is a mention of a result, without date of measurement, 245,296 cubie feet per second. In the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for 1891-92, Quintus, as a result of gaging, gives the volume, reduced to mean stage, as 232,800 cubic feet per second. Sir Casimir §S. Gzowski, from continuous observations at the Inter- national bridge, 1870-1873, gives an average discharge for tbat period of 246,000 cubic feet per second. 316 NEW -YORK STATE MUSEUM 123,330 cubic feet per second instead of 265,000 cubic feet per second, as determined by the Lake Survey. These figures, while not conclusive, are suggestive, so much so, indeed, that taking into account all the conditions it seems clear that in a series of years of minimum rainfall the runoff of the Great Lakes, tributary to Niagara river, may be as low as from 6 to 9 inches a year on the catchment. At the former figure the mean discharge would be about 177,700 cubic feet per second.t As an additional source of loss from the Great Lakes the diver- sion of 10,000 cubic feet per second through the Chicago drainage canal to the headwaters of I[Jlinois river may be referred to. Thus far the discussion of such loss has been mainly conducted on the supposition that the mean discharge of the Great Lakes at Niagara was about 265,000 cubic feet per second. If this were true the injurious effect of such diversion could only appear dur- ing a series of extremely dry years. The writer can not but think that this whole question of the runoff of Niagara river has become fogged by a discussion based thus far purely on averages. What we really want to know is the runoff of a cycle of dry years. With such data we can compute the effect of a given diversion more satisfactorily than when dealing with means. With a cycle of rainfall years, either high or about the average very little effect from such diversion will be observed, the con- sensus of opinion ait the present time apparently being that it will not exceed about 0.3 to 0.4 foot in depth over the areas affected. Owing to the balancing of conditions due to the pondage of the Great Lakes, and which requires years in order to complete a cycle, it is uncertain whether the abstraction of 10,000 cubic feet per second at Chicago would be specially detrimental at Niagara *By way of illustrating further the probable inaccuracy of the Lake Survey figures. it may be pointed out that if the determination of evaporation from the water surfaces at 101,890 cubic feet per. second and runoff at 265,000 cubic feet per second for the year 1868 is correct, the total outgo froin these two sources was 368,890 cubic feet per second, leaving the land evaporation for that year at 156,330 cubic feet per second, or at 0.9 foot over the catchment. By studying the evaporation of the Upper Mississippi reservoirs, the Desplaines and Muskingum rivers, and other streams herein referred to, it will readily be seen that it is exceedingly improbable that a land evapo- ration as low as 0.9 foot ever occurred over the whole catchment of the Great Lakes. lor a HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ey Falls, although in years of extreme low flow it is probable that it would be apparent. If, however, the minimum flow of Niagara river is really as low as 150,000 to 180,000 cubic feet per second, it is clear that the loss of 10,000 cubic feet per second will be a matter worth taking into account. In a paper on The Reservoir System of the Great Lakes of the St Lawrence Basin Col. Hiram M. Chittenden discusses many of the questions in regard to the runoff of the Great Lakes. This paper is accompanied by a Mathematical Analysis of the Influence of Reservoirs Upon Stream Flow, by Jas. A. Seddon, which elucidates many of the more pertinent facts affecting such flow. ; In the discussion of the effect of diverting 10,000 cubic feet per second at Chicago on the levels of the Great Lakes, by Lyman Ki. Cooley, which appears in the Proceedings of the Annual Conyen- tion of the International Deep Waterways Association, held at Cleveland in September, 1895, it is stated that assuming the cor- rectness of the figures derived from the Lake Survey placing the mean discharge of St Clair river at 225,000 cubic feet per second, the abstraction of 10,000: cubic feet per second would diminish the mean outflow in St Clair river by nearly 4.5 per cent and in Niagara river by about 3.75 per cent. Mr. Cooley says that, reasoning on lines obvious to those unacquainted with hydraulic principles, it is apparent that the ruling depth in the rivers at mean level can not be lessened by an amount greater than the percentages just stated; but if we consider the question as an - hydraulic proposition, taking into account the relation of mean radius to area and perimeter, it is apparent thait the effect on lake leyels would be only a fraction of that indicated by the reduction in volume. From September, 1897, to September, 1898, the Board of Engi- neers on Deep Waterways made an extended series of current meter measurements of the outflow of Niagara river. These measurements were made at the International railway bridge at Buffalo, and are the best thus far made. The minimum flow occurred: in November, 1895, when the mean for the month was 177,852 cubic feet per second, and the mean for the whole year 1Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XL (Dec. 1898), pp. 355-448, inclusive. at MUSEUM YORK STATE NEW 318 O9T OGT = opt ot S3S1IW 3ALNLYLS NISVG@ DONTUMVTLS qHL tO SOYVT 1V0.09 oy} JO Wo skS ILOATSOy —y aTIBIN IS 108 OuDIU_ ayDT ML AYD'T CATO Eh Ll & ALLL : i i HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 319 was 187,255 cubic feet per second. Table No. 45, giving these discharges, has been constructed by substituting the mean monthly elevations of Lake Erie from the preceding table in the formula for discharge of Niagara river. It extends from 1.865- 1898, inclusive. It will be noticed that on a preceding page the writer states that the mean discharge for a year may be as low as 177,700 cubic feet per second, or not exceeding about 6 inches in depth over the entire catchment area. For the vear 1895 the mean discharge for the entire year was only 10,000 cubic feet per second in excess of this figure, but it is certain that 1895, while a low year, was not absolutely the minimum year. In view of the foregoing, it is believed that when properly used, intelligent analysis of rainfall, runoff and evaporation may be sufficient to settle such a question. The literature of the discharge of Niagara river and of the probable effect on the lake levels of abstracting 10,000 cubic feet per second at Chicago has grown so extensive as to preclude fur- ther discussion here. Those wi shing to pursue the subject may consult the references given in the footnote. The following is a summary of the matter: 1) The studies of the Lake Survey indicate a mean discharge of Niagara river of about 265,000 cubic feet per second, with a range above and below the mean of from 20 per centt-to 30 per cent. 2) The measurements made from December to May, 1891-92, indicate a minimum discharge as low, or even lower, than 141,000 eubic feet per second. 3) The measurements of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, made in 1898-99, indicate a mean discharge from 1865-1898, inclusive, of 220,000 cubic feet per second, while for the year 1895 the mean for the whole year is only 187,000 cubic feet per second. 4) Based on theoretical considerations purely, the writer in 1897 estimated the minimum mean discharge for a series of dry years at 178,000 cubic feet per second, or at the ratte of 6 inches in depth over the entire catchment area. 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According to the report of the Deep Water- ways Commission, the area of the water surface of Lake Ontario is 7450 square miles, and the area of the tributary catchment, exclusive of the area of the lake itself, 25,530 square miles. The total area of the catchment basin, including both land and water surfaces, is 32,980 square miles. The area of the water sur- face of St Lawrence river from Gallops rapids to Montreal? is given at 220 square miles, and the area of the tributary catchment at 5710 square miles; hence the total area of the basin of the St Lawrence from Gallops to Montreal becomes 5930 square miles. Tn the foregoing figures Lake Ontario is considered as beginning in Niagara river, at the foot of Niagara Falls and terminating at the head of Gallops rapids, whence the following subdivisions of water-surface area are derived; Niagara river, 5 square miles; Lake Ontario proper, 7260 square miles; St. Lawrence river, 185 Square miles; giving a total, as above, of 7450 square miles. Of the total area of catchment of 25,530 square miles, 14,275 square miles lie within the State of New York and 11,255 square 1For literature of discharge of Great Lakes and allied questions see (1) reports Chief of Engineers, 1868, 1869, 1870, and 1882; (2) reports Chief of Engineers, 1893; (3) Eng. News, Vol. XXIX (March 2, 1893); (4) The Lakes and Gulf Waterways, by L. E. Cooley ; (5) The Level of the Lakes as affected by the Proposed Lakes and Gulf Waterway, a discussion before the Western Society of Engineers, in Jour. of the Assn. of Eng. Socs., Vol. VIII (March, 1889); (6) An Enlarged Waterway Between the Great Lakes and the Atlan- tie Seaboard, by E. L. Corthell, with discussion, in Jour. of the Assn. of Eng. Socs., Vols. X and XI (April, June and December, 1891, and July, 1892); (7) Lake Level Effects on Account of the Sanitary Canal at Chicago, by L. E. Cooley, in Proceedings International Deep Waterways Convention, at Cleveland, September, 1895; (8) A Technical Brief, by Thomas T. John- ston, covered by the preceding reference; (9) papers by William Pierson Judson, on An Enlarged Waterway Between the Great Lakes and the At- lantic Seaboard, pamphlets, 1890 and 1898; (10) Report of Board of Engi- neers on Deep Waterways, Document 149, Fifty-sixth Congress, Second Ses- sion, House of Representatives (1900). Also (11), Report on The Regulation of Lake Erie, by George Y. Wisner. Document No. 200, Fifty-Sixth Con- gress, First Session, House of Representatives (1899). This latter report is also given in The Report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, _ as per reference (10). *Report of U. S. Deep Waterways Commission, 1897, House Document No. 192, Fifty-fourth Congress, Second Session, pp. 151-153. Bes NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM miles in the province of Ontario. The standard low-water eleva- tion of Lake Ontario is taken as 244.53 feet, and the standard high-water elevation as 249.04 feet above tide. St Lawrence river is considered ag beginning at Gallops rapids. The following tabulation gives the elevation of water surface at a number of points.t ELEVATION ABOVE TIDE OF LOW-WATER AND HIGH-WATER SURFACE or St. LAWRENCE RIVER Locality Se Standard ae Feet Feet Ogdensbure wa. os occ 2 eee Hise ieee 244 .28 248 57 aake St Francis, at Valleyneld 5.7.5... . 153.50 155.94 Lake(St. Louis, at: Melicheville ccs... :.* 70.0 77.50 NOWEREAN bso eek be he ree ele eee Ee Ne 25..10 35.78 The area of water surface of the St Lawrence from Gallops rapids to Montreal is 220 square miles, and the total area of catchment not included in the surface of the river is 5710 square miles, of which 3800 square miles lie in New York, 620 in Ontario, and 1290 in Quebec. The total area of the catchment, including water surface of the river, is 5930 square miles. The only measurements as to the discharge of St Lawrence river thus far made are those of the Lake Survey, which give a mean discharge of 300,000 cubic feet per second. The recent data would indicate that this figure is somewhat too large, as in the Lake Survey discharge of Niagara river. The streams tributary to Lake Ontario, however, issue from a region of heavier rainfall than those tributary to the Upper Great Lakes and, as shown by the runoff tables of this report, are generally much better water yielders. ‘Taking everything into account, it is probable that the minimum discharge of St. Lawrence river will not be less than about 8 to 10 inches per year over the entire catchment area. A runoff of 12 inches ‘per year would give a mean discharge of 234,300 cubic feet per second, or a discharge of 0.884 cubic foot per second per square mile. A mean discharge of 300,000 cubie — 1Report of U. S. Deep Waterways Commission, 1897, p. 152. al HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 523 feet per second, as measured by the Lake Survey, gives 1.18 cubic feet per second per square mile. These figures are for the minimum discharge—for years, or cycles of years, of average rainfall, the runoff will be more. RUNOFF OF OTHER STREAMS OF NEW YORK Aside from Niagara river, comparatively little definite informa- tion as to the runoff of streams in New York was available before 1898. Rather singularly, aside from gagings made by John B. Jervis in 1835 of Madison and Eaton brooks, the State of New York had never made any gagings, although one might suppose that in view of its development of an extensive canal system earlier than this it would have investigated this important branch of hydrology. The few streams gaged in New York before 1898 are as follows: Streams gaged before 1898. Measurements of Croton river have been made by the City of New York since 1868. Measurements of Oatka creek, a tributary of Genesee river, were made for the Warsaw Waterworks Company from April, 1890, to November, 1892. Genesee river at Mount Morris was also gaged from Sep- tember, 1893, to March, 1897, and this stream has been gaged at Rochester by the City Engineer from March, 1893 to 1904. Genesee river was also gaged for a short time at Mount Morris in 1890. Hemlock lake, a tributary of Genesee river, was gaged by the Rochester Waterworks for the years 1880-1891, inclusive. The Hudson river has been measured at Mechanicville from October, 1887, to 1904. A record of the water drained from. Skaneateles lake has been kept by the Canal Department of the State for a good many years, but precise measurements have only been made since March, 1895, at which time a weir was established at Willow Glen, one and one-half miles below the foot of the lake. These measurements have been made by the city of Syracuse. The Nor- manskill, flowing into the Hudson river at Kenwood, was gaged at French Mills by the Water Department of Albany, from June 1, to December 1, 1891. Kinderhook creek was also gaged by the Albany Water Department at East Nassau and at Wilson’s dam from July, 1893, until Decemiber, 1894. Quackenkill creek was gaged by the Troy Water Department from January to December, 324 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1894. The west branch of Canadaway creek at Fredonia was gaged from July 18 to September 2, 1888, and Morris run, a tribu- tary of Oatka creek, from July 4 to December 26, 1894. Gibson’s creek, another tributary of Oatka creek, was also gaged from Sep- tember 20,1894, to June 21, 1895. During the autumns of 1856 and 1857 gagings were made of the following streams on Long Island, which are now a part of the Brooklyn water supply, in order to obtain the minimum delivery: Hempstead, Rockville, Valley, Clear, Brookfield, Springfield and Jamaica brooks. Possibly there are other measurements for short periods in the State of New York which have not been made public, but so far as the writer can learn the foregoing include all the systematic measurements of streams made in the State previous to 1898, except those by John B. Jervis, of Madison and Eaton brooks, made in 1835, the results of which are presented in Mr. Jervis’ report for that year to the Canal Commissioners. The broad proposition is therefore true that previous to 1898 the data for computing runoff of streams based on careful measurements of the same were limited in the State of New York. Rainfall records, however, were more common, and engineers were in the habit of assuming that about 50 per cent of the rain- fall would appear as runoff in the streams. How far from true this is may be seen by inspecting the tables on the following pages. There was absolutely no preception of the fact that in the State of New York streams vary from a minimum runoff of 2 to 4 inches to 10 to 12 inches, and that average runoffs of from 8 to 10 inches to 20 to 25 inches are common. Probably no one mistake of engineers has been more far-reach- ing than this. The great bulk of the earlier water supplies throughout the State are insufficient; power projects have been overestimated, and while there is no way of stating the amount of damage done, it may be easily assumed to rise to several mil- lion dollars. This oversight is purely one of the engineering pro- fession, and the same kind of an oversight is taking place in many other states, in 1904. Indeed, comparatively few engineers fully realize the significance of gagings. Streams gaged for Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. In _ 1898 the writer undertook an investigation for the Board of Engi- HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 325 * neers on Deep Waterways as to possibilities of water supply for enlarged canals through the State of New York. The scope of this investigation was exceedingly broad. It showed that a water supply of from 1200 to 1600 cubic feet per second would be re- quired for the proposed canal. This water, it was also found, must be drawn from some stream whose headwaters lay in the _ Adirondack plateau, which, so far as precise information in re- gard to its water resources was concerned, was practically an unknown land. In order to gain information as to the water yielding possibilities of the region, its flood flows, etc. the follow- ing gaging stations were established : Catchment area, Stream Gaging station County square miles HOOCNCCA “TIVET....600.00.06 Baldwinsville: <.cccesass6,0 00% Onondaga ......... 3,103 2. Oswego river..........0.. RESUME OM pat sic ctorsls ossisneie Sivicieleiseiclo avs OSWEEO" occ cscsies's's 4,915 3. Chittenango creek....... IBrOSen Oren cots esis snes Madison) 2... .c0se + 307 4. Oneida creek............. AETV OOG ES. es sisleid weiderscies sie eiie MMaAGISOMN, Aettectece clae 59 Be WWOOd Creek... s.ccseccse. INGA IMNOUENE asccces Sessa s Onmerday css soe neice oss 127 6. W. Branch Fish creek... McConnellsville ............. Omeida .......cce0 187. 7. H. Branch Fish creek... Above Point Rock........... Oneida cass wasbess 104 Se ALIMOM TIVENs «5 wiceicesie «as About one mile above falls.. Oswego ............ 191 SrOMOnNaWK LIVED. 26. ccecce es BAGS OV CMAN coaches ceecieee's ONCIGA es «niece sare 153 10. Nine mile creek......... One mile below Stittsville.. Oneida ............ 63 ii. Oriskany creek........... -siace dam, Oriskany.:..... Oneida .:.........% 144 12. Oriskany creek........... COLEMAN caceceint sce akiaes © smcs Oncidae icccccssacten 140 13. Sauquoit creek........... New, York? MilISs®. cesses. Oneida fs. schesaes 52 14. W. Canada creek........ Middleville ccs veces cist ae stores Dlerkimer 4 .cccicc ac 519 15. Mohawk river............ WTEEIO™ HANISE carci en cio srarcticletecs Herkimer .......+. 1,306 16. E. Canada creek......... PREVI oe aeie's-cibciers' nd vie PI CTIAMET, oi icieccesss 256 if, Garoga. creek..........<.: Three miles above mouth... Montgomery ...... 81 18. Cayadutta creek.......... Below Johnstown............ BUDE OMI secre wisie sinie's) os 40 19. Schoharie creek.......... State dam, Fort Hunter.... Montgomery ...... 947 20. Mohawk river........... Rext Ord’ WIAES: .ccc.ccine v.cclas SaratOPae scntseccecss 3,385 EePELUMOSOM TIVEDS 6.66 6 acs oe cc's Mechanieville=..cicmccescees SALATOLA. oo. sc c080s 4,500 MAPETHORSON TIVEL.. cscs sccc ess HOEt MOWarde cca o scicere SALATOZAy wsiclec «close 2, 800 eee MICNTOON TIVE. 2.06. eciciee IWABEENSDURE & caisntecies scence IWAEEGH CS clases so oie 563 et Black river........... eee EUTIMStOnVITTE® Jo occ ce oo JEMEESOM hase. c cis. *1, 889 Of the foregoing stations, those on Hudson river at Mechanic- ville, Hudson river at Fort Edward, and Schroon river at War- rensburg had been established, in 1895, in connection with the Upper Hudson storage surveys. The station on Black river at Huntingtonville had been established in. March, 1897, by the Watertown Waterworks, the data of which were furnished by the Board of Water Commissioners of the city of Watertown. Aside from these four stations, the foregoing were established in 1898 in connection with the deep waterways work. Streams gaged by United States Geological Survey. The follow- ing is a list of the stations in New York State where gagings were *Some of these areas are approximate only, due to the inaccuracy of available maps. 326 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM kept in 1902 together with a few at which gagings were not kept. Those at which gagings were not kept are. marked thus +. Catchment area, Stream Gaging station County square miles. IS RCAVER < VIVOT ois. s eters DISS Ss BRL gear c dane ce os Li@WiS® ..:5.ce eerie 242 ep eK ELVEN, incr wii) oe « da) be I DY BT KSA Se ney aa Jefferson .......... 1, 851 Brot bs PUR MVCN 3. cre miles inl tiein Huntingtonville dam....... Jeierson 2 cecum 1,889 © AUP Black Pivers. deco. cet wens NWVatercowan, Gaacscaties.cuaaw ies Jefiersony y..eperene 1, 892 Deby ramerrver. VW. Dranch sPortewester (eas scs1oseeee: Westchester ...... —— 6: Catskill” creek. 2....2:---. OUR CAM Om ctaiete maiele stearate GION ca sete a 7. Cayadutta. creek......... MOMM STOW Me cersa sce saws see Bualton “252. 5-eeeeee 40 8 Chenango Tiver... +e leyined Men ONO Aaa IEA h Goo Broome.) jee 1,582 9. Chittenango creek-+..... IBM PepONb: sackrecwe oceans ~ Madison. -cceaunieeel 10. Chittenango creek....... Chittenaneo ey crencscscenee Madison 2am sents 77 MELErotons Liver. ee. a. ssc Croton; dam N(Old) eer. ae oe Westchester ...... 339 12. Delaware river.......... Ort GJenviserecscuste cae aceon Orange nase 3,600 1h He rane Aelawanre bios) Elan GoGks= sates nceuee seit ee Delaware ai.eeenos 919 14 Wa Branch Delaware RK. Blancock? Folmccceen eae ee Delaware o.n.naeee 685 15. wast Canada -creeke..2.. —Doloevalilegs. science one em Herkimer cere 256 N65 Msopus. cnreeki.:...20 3. <=5-)2 KMS SECON scsi: ne ceutestes mae Ulster 3"-7...e eee 312 eo Hushika lI eneekics a2 aac cucies Glenhamir, sieiecus coke cosewee Ditchesse 2 eer 198 18. W.. Branch Fish creek... McConnellsville .......:.:.. Oneida: - 2.2 eigen 187 19% GEWeSee LIV eis a. opeaueer IO CMESTORRoriraeie cinta terete Monroe ....eneacsee ous 20; Honeoye’ Creeks cence acts Basi. Rousse cere oe ciareien arses Monroe «2cc:.b ae Zi ET SOM ARIE. aceneor sale Fort, Hdwardiii.cts...0.62. S2EatOle =e eee 2,800 22. KAUdSONn OPivers:.. sce... Mieechamiennllemirnr cc tcsere rer SavatOga < .nceeeecate 4,500 2B Ibaobiebal yo ehyleses ad sanecuoe iin Gham inallke Spin see crete ee Hamil tona:sseeeeeee 146 24. Kinderhook creek+..... BAGit ANASSatloan es welsen scm anes Rensselaer ........ 121 25. Kinderhook creek+..... Wilsons? Gai ee ctee eae Rensselaer. ......-. 68 26. Lake Champlain outlet. Fort Montgomery........... Clinton, eee 7, (0 reilly, SUI N OND ES a a) ohh 2) Bee lela ecie ec Bedhorde.: seeeriese ee es coerce Westchester ...... —— 28. Mohawk river...:.:....... Dunishbach wherever cco-tee ae Saratoga, .ssesser - 3,440 a. Mohawik - Giversnc. sv. Intttler BALI Shashi cttcctotiests ierkimer (9os2seee 1,306 30; Mohawk: wiver..........- Rexiordsehlaiistr,. seis sle/reniacre Saratoga te «meres 3,385 SL MOhawky ElVel.c-. cee Ridge Mins tes, te cierte oseeete Oneida: cesses 153 Sea VLO awaken sELKEr= saa e ese Schiene Gta iyi sense wc scleave ee Schenectady ...... 3, ook 33. Mohawk -river........... Mito Cas a F scars Setisresioee ie oie nnsiane seh ete Oneida —..skceemee 500 345 MOOSe iWin csmana ook s MOOSE. TIVERS silane csoticcmnons Lewis: 3 nee - B46 35. Neversink. river.......... Ports DeLVAS sc samen cokes Orange 7a Victelsiat emeeO) 36. Normanskill ......: Sees reniehy iMate acu nv cetenrent © acl Albany: +=... se eeeer 111 ou. Oneida. -'ereckssenne canon IKeniwiO0d! OiSAe* cas aceon Madison’. -5.2eeeree 59 38 Oneida Givers nacn nose Brewentonm sires Soe es oes Onondaga seen See 39>, ONeIdAMrIVEl: cae sean Oaks Orehardeas ei. 4222-0 Onondaga ......... 1, 313 40. Oriskany creek.......... Oriskany State dam........ Oneida, 25s eeee 144 Al SOSWESO (GEVeIas eee een SUL O esr neice a See eran he erect OSWePOr tar ecemose 4,916 42° OSWESON Vivier. < ogee oe FU os ta wl uranic ee royese auoleapv ele ests oe Osweso). : .caueeeees 5, 000 AS \OSWEZO). WUVIEI. « lecrcscinl IMUMECEOL I a cee ae oe te aie ee OSwego. 0 teem 4,990 44. Quackenkill.creek....... MOntanekeniks Meera ere ace cle - Rensselaen-<-.ca.e. 19 45. Raquette mriver........4. SiRMaaeivveh’ IRIS seer omcoon St. Lawrence...... - 967 46. Reels creek.............. WGI CA Wren ie ee ane Oneida... 2 ieee A7.-Richelieu’ river.......... Hori Monte omenryey-rae ssc Chintonk emcee , 150 48. Rondout creek........... ISOM yet LS? eres ence eer ate Ulster’ 2.0 22seheeee 88 49. Rondout ecreek.......-.:. ROSEN GACH icc. Anse oe viasuen eave Ulster :.-co33aaeeee 365 50. Sauquoit .creek.......... New YOrk Mills e. cee. feawans Oneida’... eee 52 BA SALNTON) INET ss a. /Jo eles PASI Sy) Sacks of cee ait eee re OSWe20) . -h.eneeeee 264 Den ISCMCCA WHLVEI Jae scee otesee Baldwinsville. sc .c0a6 elsis lyon Onondasa Vee 3,103 53. Schoharie creek... .... 4. Hort Hiumiter dames cac.e. Montgomery ...... 947 54. Schoharie creek......... IM MUDIE 1eXoybaoo ees doce bo c6o On Montgomery ...... 934 55. Schoharie creek......... Prats Ve: case che ciiewe mace Greene | ...wineseeeete 243 56. Schoharie creek......... Schoharie VHailllissen. eceeielae Montgomery ...... 930 Hye SeChTOOM TIVE.) aos... te NV air EMS OUI) ai stemicre, testa etek Warren! .ccccmeeetre 563 58. Skaneateles outlet...... \WiaU Doh ae Celia eects ada meee Qnondaea (see 74 bo. Susquehanna Tver...... Binghamton (2. .ousce3.so-s Broome \..seesseaeee 3, 982 60. Ten Mile river.......... IBYOR Vi ead ed RLS ear enaacn oe cy osc Dulichesses. .-eeeeeee 195 Glemwralllikalllseiversn oie crete Néw Balt cone cotieeoaee eile Ulster: 435-2 ee 736 62. West Canada creek..... iywan Weck Orid2errececaseen Oneida. Vincseeeees 352 Methods of gaging pursued. The method of gaging pursued at these several stations varies considerably. At one or two small stations sharp-crested weirs are used; at other places the flow is gaged over dams, while at a number of stations-the current meter This does not include the catchment of Hemlock lake of 48 square miles. Plate 5. General view of hydraulic laboratory of Cornell university. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Sot is employed. Gagings are also sometimes made by the use of floats, but so far as New York streams are concerned, the results would be so unsatisfactory as to render this method undesirable. It has also been attempted to gage the flow of the Mohawk river by velocity and slope measurements, but thus far the results are not satisfactory. The method of gaging streams by the use of the current meter has some advocates who consider it superior to any other. Prob- ably the reason for such an opinion is that tests of a current meter in uniform masonry or concrete channels, where the condi- tions are the most favorable possible to obtain, have shown fairly accurate results; but in a shallow stream, flowing over a boulder bed, the conditions are so different as to make rational compari- son impossible. The current meter is indeed only really useful when the following conditions obtain: 1) A smooth, uniform channel for a considerable distance on either side of the point selected. ; 2) Considerable depth at the point selected and for several hundred feet to either side. 3) Smooth bottom of either fine sand, hard earth or very fine gravel. 4) That the current be positive and of some little velocity throughout the whole section. New York streams as a whole do not, except rarely, answer to these conditions. They are usually shallow, rapid flowing in places, and frequently encumbered with boulders. Current meter observation may be at times from 100 per cent to 200 per cent in error. Broadly, we may say therefore that where a good dam exists on a stream the gagings should preferably be first of all made at this point. Or, if there is money available, a special weir may be erected. Failing in either of these the current meter is a proper instrument, with due understanding of the limita- tions indicated in the foregoing. Streams discussed in this report. It is impossible to give in the following discussion the measurements of all the streams now being gaged in the State of New York, and accordingly a number of the more important have been selected for which the records will be given. The detail of the balance may be obtained from the 828 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Annual Reports of the State Engineer and Surveyor. The follow- ing are the streams discussed in this connection: Genesee river. : Hudson river. Oatka creek. Croton river. Hemlock lake. Mohawk river. Oswego river. East Canada creek. Seneca river. West Canada creek. Skaneateles outlet. Sauquoit creek. Chittenango creek. Oriskany creek. Black river. Schroon river. Richelieu river—Outlet of Lake Champlain. Of the foregoing, Hemlock lake has been gaged by weir and measurements of the amount flowing through the conduit leading therefrom to the city of Rochester; Skaneateles outlet has been gaged by weir and the amount flowing through conduit; Lake Champlain outlet by rating curve, and Eaton and Madison brooks by weir. The balance of the streams have been gaged by measure- ments over dams, in accordance with the method described (1) in the Report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways; and (2) in the paper On the Flow of Water Over Dams. Gagings over dams and through water wheels. Before proceed- | ing to describe these gagings we will consider somewhat the methods used. Several of these gaging stations, as at Baldwins- ville, High dam, Little Falls, Middleville, Dolgeville, etc. have ex- tensive power developments, with large quantities of water pass- ing through turbine water wheels for either the whole or a por- tion of each day. The dams at these places vary greatly in type form. Hardly any two cross-sections are alike, although some of them conform generally to certain types. Many of them have considerable irregularity in the crests longitudinally. The method of treatment in order to obtain approximately correct results becomes, therefore, a matter of difficulty. In some cases, as on West Canada creek, where the crest was very irregu- lar, a small amount of work has been done in the way of leveling it. Generally, however, the crests were left in nearly the same — condition as found. A profile was carefully taken and the crest divided into a series of approximately level sections for compu- tation. A gaging blank was furnished the gage readers, with columns for entering depth on crest of dam, and number of water wheels used, size of same, name of manufacturer and daily ‘BG8T ‘2 oun ‘A}ISIOATUN [[EUIOD 1B UTep S}LVIW paojxoy Jo [opour uo JuSUTAedxGy "9 97°%Id HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 329 run, working head on wheels, readings of head-race and tail-race gages, and other information necessary for keeping an accurate account of the water passing over the crest in 24 hours, as well as through water wheels for the same period. Gage readers were employed to take these readings twice each day. In order to obtain flows through water wheels, recourse was had to records of the test flume of the Holyoke Water Power Com- pany of Holyoke, Mass., where the principal wheels now in com- mon use in New York State have, at one time or another, been tested. On requesting a record of such tests, as applying to wheels at the several gaging stations, the Holyoke Water Power Company responded that they would furnish the records under the condition that they be not published unless the consent of parties for whom the wheels had been tested were first obtained. This condition being assented to, information was furnished as to tests of the principal wheels in use, giving proportional part of opening of speed gate for various conditions of tests, revolu- tions of wheel, quantity of water discharged, power developed, efficiency, etc. From these records, wheel-discharge curves have been prepared for the water wheels in use at each dam. By the use of such curves, derived from actual tests, it is believed that the discharges through turbine water wheels at the various gaging stations have been computed with a very high degree of accuracy. Under these conditions turbine water wheels become in effect efficient water meters. In a few cases, where there were no tests applying, the discharges as per manufacturers’ tables have been used. The writer’s thanks are due to the Holyoke Water Power Company for the courtesy of furnishing these useful data. The work of Henry Bazin. In order to apply the results of these gagings, the work of Henry Bazin, Inspecteur General des Ponts et Chaussées, which may be found in Annales des Ponts et Chaussées, for the years 1888, 1890, 1891, 1894, 1896 and 1898, is used. In these papers Bazin has determined coefficients for a large number of cases, not only of crests of different widths, but with varying front and rear slopes, as well as for curved profiles. Indeed, taking into account the backward state of knowledge of flow over weirs, his work is in many respects revolutionary. 330 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Tn the ‘beginning of his first paper Bazin remarks that the the- ory of the weir is the least advanced of all branches of hydraulics. The coefficients used in practice vary between such wide limits that in most cases we are unable to make a rational selection from the many numerical values assigned to them. The problem, he says, is in fact a complicated one, being con- nected on the one hand with the theory of flow through orifices and on the other with that of open channels. The value of the coefficients in each case is influenced by many elements. Thus > we ought to consider: 1) The velocity of approach; that is, the velocity with which the upstream water reaches the weir, the effect of which can not be neglected in weirs of small hight.. 2) The contraction of the vertical section of the stream at the weir, the amount depending upon the hight of the weir and the form of the crest. 3) The lateral contraction which, though unimportant in weirs of great length, seriously modifies the results in shorter weirs. As a further condition, Bazin points out that when the down- stream channel has a width of the length of the weir, so that the overflowing sheet of water, or nappe, touches at the sides, thus preventing free admission of air under the nappe, there occur special phenomena greatly affecting the flow Bazin’s method of experimentation may be referred to briefly. A standard weir was set up at the head of a long chamber, in which the actual volume passing over was measured a sufficient number of times to give averages, which Bazin considers are accurate to within probably less than 1 per cent. Having estab- lished in this way the values of the coefficients for a standard weir, with heads varying from about 0.164 ft. to 1.969 ft, the experiments on weirs of irregular profiles were made by placing 1Bazin’s earlier papers are directed specially to a detailed investigation of these several points. Space will not be taken here to describe his experi- ments in detail. The original data may be found in the Annales des Ponts et Chaussées for the years already cited. a ~—oe en HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK © 335 When the measurements were first begun, it was considered that the formula Q—1142 H? was best suited to the form of the dam, but after more careful consideration it was apparent that the results given by this formula were somewhat in excess of the actual discharge, specially for the low-water flows. The computed discharges, as shown by columns (8) and (4) of the pre- ceding tabulation, are somewhat irregular. This result is due to the disturbing effect of the irregular sections of the crest, the highest point of which was 2 feet above the lowest. Column (5) shows the percentage variations between the dis- charges as determined by a sharp-crested weir, up to 5200 cubic feet per second, and the discharges computed by the formula. For discharges beyond 5000 cubic feet per second the original determination has been used. An extension of the plotted curves shows that some little distance above 5000 cubic feet per second discharge, the results of the two amethods are substantially the same. The two curves crossed at the point of about 6000 cubic feet per second discharge. For discharges above 10,000 or 15,000 cubic feet per second there is probably an error in the results of from 5 to 10 per cent. Below 5000 cubic feet per second it is believed that the results are now accurate within a few per cent. Francis’s formula, Q=3.33 L H?, has been used for the weir computations. The measurements taken previously to the construction of the weir and the rating of the dam, have all been corrected to con- form to the new determinations; hence all the data of the Genesee measurements of this table may be considered as accurate within the limits stated. | The original Genesee river data show for a portion of the range more error than is consistent with good work, and which remained inexplicable until the experiments at Cornell Univer- Sity were carried out. These experiments showed that for high heads the tendency was to neutralize the differences at lower heads. The flow of all the weirs, in short, became sensibly uni- form at from 5 to 6 feet depth and at 10 feet depth, there will be very little difference.! 1Ten feet depth on the crest is not unusual in flood flows. In order to measure such flows, a weir formula should be worked out to at least 10 feet depth on the crest. Such a formula will apply without more than 15 per cent to 20 per cent error to almost any form of crest. 336 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The preceding discussion shows that while the Genesee river record is a composite one, nevertheless it is believed to be a good record. The reason for this belief is largely founded on the curve as per fig.11. Gagings have also been kept at Mount Morris from June to December, 1890, and at Rochester from March, 1893, to the present time, but the gagings at Rochester are not very reliable. Possibly some method of correcting them may be worked out in the future. In table No. 48, a comparison has been made of the measure- ments at Rochester with those at Mount Morris for the water years 1894-1896, inclusive. TABLE No. 48—CoMPARISON OF ORIGINAL AND CORRECTED RECORD AT ROCHESTER WITH REDUCED RECORD AT Mount Morris 1894 To 1896, INCLUSIVE [In cubie feet per second] 1894 1895 1896 eS | ee) jp 53 55 Be BS ol / as as MONTH ie! os rol Cis os] oy i a Fan q q 8 8 cs) 2 2 3 he ro ae 3 5 cs) ae 3 £ | 9 | Sea2/ 8 | & | Shan) 2 eee uw Ss) egy oy 3) Saux oy S) Sak Se | Hos) 2 | 8) Bos) ae e | Sse # | Sse H | SSS 4/8 \8'"\ 3. 8.\ 8771s (1) (2) | (8) (4) | (2) | @) (4) (2) | (@) (4) DE COMUDEM ye c.cc eee so ate ole « salans 3, 914! 3,914 4, 797| 1, 459, 1, 100 1, 256 1, 839 1, 700, 2,710 POMUMALY assis Reis inn haw weeeas 2, 841 2, 841 2. 867) 1,619} 1,200) 1,335] 1,645) 1, 400 964 RSTO UEA Ts taiotete eisies Cleiae oltejolete spn 9. 584 9° 584} 1,954) 977' 700 495| 2,702! 2,702) 2,005 IMAL CHAT encase se eis e ten nots 6,008/ 6,008} 6,794! 4,035) 4,035} 3,985 3, 725| 3,725| 6,158 SASPTDN cer ate c raise stele e aalcels ete ee 5, 646] 5,646] 7,172; 3,083) 3,083 4, 257| 7, 623 ” 623) 7%, 172 AVERY: tratrartrahevete elena ee erin otetist eens 6, 304) 6,304! 9,080} 1,309) 900 385 ie SiGe ie 347 Mean of storage period...... 4, 576| 4, 576 576) Eye ATT 2,099} 1,848’ 1,958] 3,181] 3,054) 3,218 UNC aslo ns oe ae soe sidetac ome aries 2, 951) 2, 800 2 31 i 885| 535 283 4 Bie “1, 000 654 SPUR G ai oae ate esctava suerensie e-siaiel ec ovatenee wre ha A 055} 3=792 292; 645) 390 232) 854] 645 501 PAIS cc sarolore wrctere Geter nustevorsieoieists 973| 732 442} 600} 400 254| 585) 440 416 Mean of growing period..... 1, 656) 1,426} 1,003) 728) 440 206 977) 692 522 Sentember 2s. heute 1,664! 1,500] 1,963} 407| 250| 221) 324| 240! 327 WCETOWERA Ce acig wares Sas weitere 1,226, 920 899} 366) 220 230; 2,271) 2,000} . 3, 667 INOMCIMNDCT hice teases suet 1,782) 1,600} 1,729} 834} 500 993 ee 745). 1,728 Mean of replenishing period) 1,573} 1,335} 1,528) 534 333] “478 "1, 353 353] 1, “1,006 ie 926 Wearly Meats cccccss cere ass 3, 088) 2, 2,978 3, 370 370 1,364] ie S16) ie , 163 2,174 2,174 4 1,951 he 220 Inches on catchment......... 19.20; 18.35 9.38] 8.48 | 6 4] 6.67 67 | "12.48 48} 11.20} 12.80 « Increased in proportion to increased catchment area at Rochester ——— rr HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ook —Geologically, the catchment area of the Genesee river above Mount Morris lies in the shales, sandstones, etc. of the Portage and Chemung groups. Its extreme headwaters south of the Pennsylvania line issue from the Carboniferous. Generally the soils throughout the whole basin are heavy and tenacious, in- clining to clay. Their capacity for absorbing and retaining water must therefore be considered small. Discharge measurements of Oatka creek. The measurements of Oatka creek, referred to in the preceding, were made at the milldam in the south part of the village of Warsaw, in Wyoming county. The dam was new, practically tight, and well adapted for securing accurate results. Measurements were also made of the outflow of the head raceway leading from the dam for different elevations of water on the dam, and a curve prepared from which the discharge of the raceway was read off and added to the discharge over the dam. The catchment area of Oatka creek above Warsaw includes 27.5 square miles of rolling, semi-mountainous country. The valley of the creek is deep cut, with numerous springs at the headwaters. The catchment is mostly deforested and in a high state of cultivation, the soil inclining to clay for a considerable portion. Geologically the stream lies in the rocks of the Port- age formation, as developed in western New York. The runoff from this area may be taken as typical of many small streams in western New York. Discharge measurements of Hemlock lake. Measurements of the runoff of the Hemlock lake area for the water years 1880 to 1884, inclusive, were made by the Rochester Waterworks. Hem- lock lake lies at an elevation of 896 feet above tide, and has a length of 6.5 miles, with an average width of about 0.5 of a mile. The area of the surface at low water is 1828 acres. The total catchment, including the area of the lake, is 27,554 acres, or about 43 square miles. The shores are bold, and on the east side rise to a hight of several hundred feet above the lake in a dis- tance of 2 or 3 miles. At the head of the lake there is a swamp of 118 acres, partially covered at high water. The outflow of the lake during the period covered by the measurements included in the following table may be considered as having taken place at three points: (1) At the natural outlet 338 NEW YORK STATE M USEUM of the lake; (2) at an artificial channel through which water was discharged at will for the benefit of the millers on the outlet; and (3) through the conduit of the Rochester Waterworks. runotfs given are the sums of these several outgoes. determine the outflow of the natural outlet, a weir was con- structed and the discharge observed at different hights of the lake surface. The In order to The discharge into the artificial channel was through submerged orifices of known dimensions, and has been computed from standard formulas for the discharge of such ori- fices, the size of the openings and the difference of level of water surfaces above and below being known. The discharge of the conduit of the Rochester Waterworks is as computed from standard formulas for discharge through pipes. Measurements made by the writer and others during the last few years show that the computed quantities passing through the conduit were not far from correct. TABLE No. 49—WATER DRAWN FROM HEMLOCK LAKE FOR THE WATER YEARS 1880 ro 1884, INCLUSIVE [In inches on the catchment] MONTH SANUAPY-.-< oneelee reno os ck eee erececeeeseseeseces se eeeesereeeceseseseons July Ceeeeeeeeseeseeseesone eeeceeceereseerseesns seeteve September October INOVERDUDERS: cs ces clccte den es ceveecrereteses Replenishing period eae Yearly mean or total se esecesece seecee seeeee eeecee eceeee eecee eeeeee serene seoces eeeeee 1880 1881 a) a | Bo S 58 E 5 2 OH | Be OH: a =) | o Ss o 2e Ep aleetat =e ae 2g | & |ag! & | Be - | aol os as pee ae 8S) es 3s | Se | 5 Ou = = cs H eel m — a=] Sol aye 18 | 8 | ees See E as1 8 | 21/8 | 2) 88) 2 eee of) @ iis S D of | @ x ‘a = | 8 | Fe Ss |S | | ayes 2 |.@)| 416) © | @ | ® | @ Seka. |—-—— --— —_— ———— | q— | q—]— | _ —1.67| 1.26) 0.16)...... a31.4|—1.33} 0.72} 0.49]...... 27.3 0.91) 3h) SO. Lop. 2 sc a25.5|—1.47| 2.24) 0.44]...... 24.7 sae 0 ae Ls a 2) ae a27.3|—0.11| 1.08) 0.54)...... 29.7 OES eae tOe Uap es ee | a81.8/41.20) 1.92) 1.'73]...... 39 ok -+-0.79) 1.25)- 0.15)...... a45.7|/+1.47| 0.52) 1.24)...... 45.2 +0.87; 2.08) O.17)...... 71.8)-E1.32|. (2523) Aaa eee 69.7 —0.14 8.88 0.94! 7.94) 38.9 +0.18! 8.71, (5:5d" SelGl sees +0.45, 1.66) 0.36!...... 76.5 +1.08' Bilis: a Nas | 73.9 =) 15) 1-93) -9 O24 oe ae: (7.1)-+0.58| 3.71) O.43i.c2 6. 75.6 —0.70) 3.46 0.35)...... WAAL ees 0:95)" 050). 80.0 —0.13) 7.05) 1.12) 5.93) 76.0)+0.55) 7.79) 1.69) 6.10) 76.5 —1.13] 1.35 "0.31 aap 69 7|—0.69 1.73) (OfSaieearee | 77.9 —1.57) 3.85) (Dei eaeiare 53.4|—0.81) 4.23] 0.33]...... 59.1 —1.24 0.86, SOc on 37.1/—0.71} 1.81] 0.46)...... 44.8 1.81) 6.06) 1.01) 5.05} 53.4|—0.74| 7.77] 1.141 6.63] 60.6 —0.43) 21.99 3.07) 18.92 2 otal ligue 24.27) 8.38 15.89 53.9 alInterpolated from average of fifteen years HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 339 TABLE No. 49 (concluded) 1882 1883 ee = 2 qt | O# | = Ou a } = / ES = os | MONTH ey Ble en ieee arene lees es Bees | ee | a4 Ssepleaaal eae oa | @ |@F| 6 | 64 am Pee a ba Pol aula |S | 5 Seite here = z= | w |S © a x | & D pessoas | fo 2 | 2 |8 >) e | OF | 38 3 oD os | 8B 4 = = |e | ele | ee ee |. bee = (1) (2) | Syl @iat G) |. 6). 2). 3) (4) | ©) | ©) “apo eee —0.05| 4.02] 0.66|...... eaces!— 50) 10.911. 0-19). ..... 31.0 _ EIDT A 7 ee ee ene SEeGs OB Z204 ee ee 29.4;,—1.56) 0.84] O.21!...... 23.7 Rewnaidiye ee Sek +139 1.07; 1.401... ... 37.0'+0.03| 3.11| 0.28|...... | 30.6 ib eristiit 6 oe tes. 1.67) 1.47] 2.82]... 38.71+0.95| 0.90] 0.68|...... os3 EL See A eae 41.51] 2.49) 1.58]...... Paes Eta) 26431 1.581. ..... | 47.8 Ll eS aie ees SER INE ROSIE. 174 | 57.4|-41.59) 9.54) 2.59)... 59.1 Storage period............... 1.291 15.37! 10.19] 5.18| 41.8|+0.18, 17.73! 5.53] 12.20; 37.9 ee ae eo, as) Sail 1 Bah 71.9|4-1.38| 4.52 melee = 74.2 Seite ee at Shh... +0;81{ 1.42| 0:62|...... 78.0|-+1.29| 2.13) 1.08!...... "5.7 Ween Oe goes... | 0.251 2.17) °O.41N..... 76.8|-+0.64| 2.86] 0.45|......| 73.7 Growing period............. +0.80, 5.90} 2.88} 3.02) 75.6|+1.10] 9.51) 3.18} 6.33) 74.5 Semlember f..5 occ encv 2S oases eos —0.44) 1.78] 0.43! 69.4/+0.25| 2.36] 0.21I...... 65.1 2 en. ee —0.99! 1.00) 0,63|...... 61.4|-+0.07| 1.62] 0.18|...... 55.7 MVEHUDET: 200-2 ossd... 000. | ASB IAT) 60.28) .40¢.. 41.8|+0.17| 2.02! 0.19|...... 45.1 Replenishing period......... 9.94, 4.19} 1.44) 2.75] Ee 6.00, 0.58) 5.42, 55.3 Yearly mean or total +0.61| 25.46| 14.51] 10.95 54.2/+0.41) 33.24 9.29} 23.95] 51.4 1884 Mean | MONTH ope wank Rainfall) = eleva- . Jater ess the | Temper- tion of Rainfall drawn water | ature lake drawn | surface (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Res IARR NED ait onc Mis one a Prate.6,s Ak Sea steatepiee +u.44 2.01 OS eke: | 34.0 SURES ee nctt ts Seid. eas 5 Boe side c Ace eres a desis +0.46 1.78 OUR a ost ee. 24.7 ICUSIIAT Vis (2 Satarreaiss Ser as 6 ore Sok Sa wena +1.28 2.17 ZEkO cites eeelo as 30.2 MMC ie ery Serta tec aan Ries lalovn «ake tne hie es & = +1.47 3.18 CAs Gl A ae 30.5 2 atin Hale's Bare sleiciehs cares eReiuir oftikrs 2's)» 5 +1.56 2.21! A Ue (le ee ies 42.7 TTR Ade ook See aks Gee i eae Sees +1.62| 3.30 MUGS Rade soe 56.7 Storage period................ Brave sk oes etd), 9) 14.65) 910.02). < 4.58|) 36.5 smatie, 32-'. 2. A REN UE at an +1.01 OPE amie el Re TOG Re eos na RS Sei eailicie'> do's, wreie vlsiAawfeciy dowe'e's +0.58) 3.98) ESS entice athe = 8.4 PATI ss Ge naeiead yaa BF cael cleat A ie Ww wie: isin +0.27 1.08 DEAN cee. ae 70.8 Growine POVIOM. «vm. b enna ‘eee +0.62 7 .50| 1.36, 6.14 69.9 SCPLCMDEL: » fas v's ove Mei GM dS aputeien stele Hilal ts. —0.26 2.24. | Si | Beas 66.9 October... 05. Repeiee .etera aig tde Ante. cied = ne ne —0.70 1.34) OH ese winas 52.3 PEI TEE DIOR 2 of ta.ss a pitieiap un steadiness » aaa aie ee he =] .17 1.01) ASUSI irk sicis slants 38.9 Replenishing Period... .02.iss.sss0. 00. —0.71 4,59) 1.09 3.50 52.7 Meariy MEAN OLR TOUMs jaca cs ss uve soe aes 0.55 26.74 12.57 14.17 ame Ce: 340 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The catchment area of Hemlock lake is, as stated, 27,554 acres, and the area of the lake itself at the elevation + 0.0 is 1828 acres; hence the lake surface is 6.6 per cent of the total catchment area, or the catchment area is 15.1 times the area of the lake surface. On this basis 1 inch on the whole area is 15.1 inches on the lake. Taking into account these statements, it is clear that the data of the table give approximately the natural runoff, although for exact figures corrections for actual elevations of lake surface at the beginning, as well as at the end of each year, should be applied. On this point see the discussion on the minimum flow of Hemlock lake. Comparison of the runoff of Hemlock lake with that of the river Thames in England. Hemlock lake may be compared with the river Thames in England, where somewhat similar climatic conditions obtain. The catchment area of the Thames above the point of gaging is 3789 square miles, while the catchment area of Hemlock lake is given at 43.1 square miles. It is shown on a preceding page that comparison may be legitimately made be- tween streams with even as great variation in catchment areas as here exists. Accurate gagings are at hand of the Thames from 1883-1891, inclusive, from which it appears that the mean or average rainfall during this period was 27.01 inches, and the mean or average runoff, 8.49 inches, or the runoff was 31 per cent of the rainfall. In order to compare the climate of the catchment of the Thames with that of Hemlock lake we may consider the following; The mean annual rainfall at Hemlock lake for the water years 1877-1900, inclusive, was 27.70 inches; the mean annual tempera- ture for the same years was 50° Fahr., and the mean annual evaporation for the years 1896 to 1903, at Mount Hope reser- voir, 28 miles north of Hemlock lake, was 34.55 inches. The rain- fall of Hemlock lake exceeds that of the Thames by only 0.69 inch. | The mean evaporation from a water surface at Oxford, Eng- land, for five years, 1852-1856, inclusive, was 31.01 inches; the HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK o41 mean annual rainfall at Oxford for the same period was 27.30 inches, and the mean annual temperature, 48.5° Fahr. We have, therefore, 3.54 inches less mean annual evaporation, as measured in the catchment of the Thames, than at Hemlock lake. During the ten-year period, 1893-1902, inclusive, the mean run- off of the river Thamas was only 7.29 inches, instead of 8.49 inches, aS in the previous ten-year period. In consideration of the showing made of the low runoffs of streams in the State of New York, it is probable that when a complete computation of the runoff of Hemlock lake is made, it will be found to be some- what less than that of the Thames in England Geologically the Hemlock lake catchment is in the Hamilton and Marcellus shale, with the hills at the sides rising to the rocks of the Portage group. Discharge measurements of Oswego rier. The following record of Oswego river is taken daily, with the exception of Sundays and holidays. These gagings are made at the State dam, three miles from Lake Ontario, with an effective head at the dam of about 32 feet. This dam is of masonry, with its crest 365.5 feet long. Flash- boards are maintained during the greater part of the year. In estimating the flow, when flashboards are removed, a discharge curve has been prepared using coefficients in the weir formula, as per Cornell experiment No. 3, given in the paper On the Flow of Water Over Dams. It is possible that the records are somewhat too small, owing to leakage and settlement of the dam. A_headrace sup- plies water to an electric-light plant and the Oswego water works pumping station. There are eight water wheels in use. The amount of water passed through these wheels varies from 300 cubic feet per second to about 650 cubic feet per second. In the 1Discussion of the flow of the river Thames from 1883-1892, may be found in (1) the Report on the Flow of the Thames, by A. R. Binnie, Chief Engineer to the London County Council—a publication of the Coun- cil, 1892; and (2) a Report on the Shrinkage of the Thames and Lea, by Maurice Fitz Maurice, Chief BEngineer—a publication of the London County Council, presented to the Water Committee on February 10, 1903. 342 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM accompanying table allowance for diversion to the Oswego canal, which is also supplied from this dam, has not been made, but such diversion can not be very large because of the small amount of business on that canal during the last few years. Gagings of Oswego river above Minetto have also been made from September, 1900, to date, at which time a current meter station was established at this point. Gagings were also begun in 1898 at the upper dam at Fulton, which is a well-built stone dam and has no leakage. The dam is 404.6 feet in length, with a crest practically level. The following cut shows the form of this dam: L= UNAM NUS SAL Fig. 22 Section of dam at Fulton. Geologically the Oswego river lies in the horizon of the Medina sandstone and Clinton groups. Discharge measurements of Seneca river. This station is located at the stone dam on Seneca river at Baldwinsville. The outlets of Otisco, Skaneateles and Owasco lakes, tributaries of Seneca river, are crossed by the Erie canal and a portion of their flow intercepted for the suppiy of this canal. The chief supply for the Erie canal to Montezuma marsh is from Lake Erie and Lake Erie water is discharged into Seneca river and thus returned through the Oswego river to Lake Ontario. It is uncertain, there- fore, whether the abstraction from Otisco, Skaneateles and Owasco lakes is very material, as the amount discharged in Seneca river varies and has never been closely measured. The upper reaches of Seneca river are canalized, forming the Cayuga and Seneca canal, while the portion below Baldwinsville, Ge) aa) YORK NEW OF HYDROLOGY 6o'0 a 00° = C6’ &6°0 oF or oF9 ‘> | BES sated as i oe CTO oF 0 ae 294 Z0°0 “| CLT 609“ | 28°0 260 ee 0 PS '0 ¢60'T 680 660 Cor ‘F 920) OF 0 110 Cr'0 Ege OF ‘0 OF ‘0 S10 ‘S 130 FS 0 CLO ETO C19 UG 0 080 Lhe“ Go" 0 coc an Be '0 | C40 men 10 ES OPES | OM fase 810 FTO ran) 8T'0 | 060 C86 | LP Po'0 CL" 110 SPL 9¢'() IP 0 PEs ‘T CF) 6F 0 OF PP'0 | 600% 18°0 16°0 eG. fal ne OL a0 £8°0 00'T 949 omo'¢ | 281 er'6 OCR. te le a a ee get cc PSL 9 eg T ope ik TOL ‘8 oa road Oke 6 eT OL 1 789 ‘2 1¢'T 891 BLG ‘L, pote ie L6°0 ol T bL8 Pf 66 I 66°S 868 '6 ope ae 6F 0 1¢'0 CLP ‘Z Pe T 6ST Bes ‘9 et a an C80) 860 CLS “P 860 Gia 968 'f Ra ete sx ENR SL 0 06'0 668 ‘& 880 G60 QOL ‘F Se ae ete (7p) (g) (@) (Pp) (e) (Z) (Pp) (g) Ae rod Seepey ete puooes 10d averted REnaa oe puooes 10d means god ye ees ear ie uo sayouy | 49°F OFAN Haag eet uo soqouy | 1094 OfANO reer ans uo soyouy 6681 8681 L681 (SOTIUr 9IBNDS 000G = var1B oe ne AAISQOIONI ‘[OGT-L6O8L SUVAX YALVM AHL YOA WVA HDIH LV AAATY ONDAMSO AO AIONNY—OG ‘ON ATAV, OLE S alae 108 puooes sod yooF OIQuy) srgt gaa [e104 10 weetTA ATIvO X Ber W es Mee on ete potared surystus[deyy Wie sete eb auareeyetatale piste ete TOQUIOAON ** 19q0J00 ** requueydag | Teh. Bho) 0s) s) a, ee, wie SPOT Wh wheels oe big, ome emer eee a2 potted Sumo see we eee ‘qasnsny shieniey stad aver afer of ete ahel cbiavene pobabaase (che dri moc ave Hee oun | sain ohio ty"sntensostan af ehianet potred a8v1049 POLE Ch iee2 Cie een CJes hk Wee a seca gat aty det ont AIVN.AGO oj (es ay etree. ay eterna s PSPS ES Phat esi "** Tequlede(] HOLNOW NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 98°0 v9 TL | S18 ‘P 61 T | cl OL | Oat eo eo 96°6 | vOL'S Gg 0 91'T | Shut | 970 Get | 908 “6 98° 0 98°0 | 608 ‘T. Rahs 6 Uwe . a ie: etie ele el) Shane). ee @ 9c'0 c9 0 106 @ Sr 0 2C'¢ SIF ‘2 OF epi Rags or me nar : SP 0 67 0 OST & LO 610 €o8 BS 5 ORS P| cae aan bie eh tae a 12°0 0 | ust E10 710 019 $F'0 sor | see's | 860 aa g0o'7 =| 180 o'r | eug‘t ileie; gael mee (eo eat e-s; 8) ene spout) fue! see ‘efile le 620 Cr 0 866 I eL'0 CeG 699 ee a ale ee ee le eek. Pe oO 98°0 OL ‘€ 61:0 200 996 Gharelaperusevelie il) Celie) sine) anise) il Ge elie, s::si carts. 9° T e8'T CSL 8 69'0 ; 690 SEL ‘2 jie |e c8'8 | PLE ‘9 69 T oF TT | OLF ‘8 : 6h 1 708 616 “@ 5 pg ae a en ea are iia 00°% 0e'¢ 90001 eo'T | 9) T 79 _ocoreptititles. tee eps ge ces saree | 62'S 08'¢ 1:6 ‘91 08°¢ a1 ¢ G0 FI Mee eee Pee eer Sle Ng er CFT 19°T O16 66°0 eU'l 166 ‘F ee a ete ee, 12°0 92°0 FLS‘T 260 96:0 ecg % MMMM Ralial ctietsts Mears metietaws. ouchtyll! (eSecieierstishale 10° ee" T 9g ‘G 19'0 010 LLO ‘8 Ae ee |e eal ae rae 08°T 30°¢ “0 6 ee'( 9¢°0 219 ‘1 (F) (g) (3) (F) (g) (3) (P) (@) (3) enenneuad loan aida puooss 10d arante aol pres ae puooses 10d Srenieaad eee puooes od Lae ae uosoyouy | 79°F ?!00 ane ae uo seyour | 79°F FMD Deane uo seyouy | 79°F OFANO NVA TO6L OO6T (Sa[Iu s1BNnbs 000g = BoB JUSTAYO1eD) geht [8304 10 meour AT Ivo XK ported Ssurystue,doy M8) 8) ORO R ROMAL dra Lelcetis |p \ce0 ele) ete) ieee 19Q0490 lequieydeg potted Surmo.y 5) 9." e) a) af ee. 0) mim) .0 100.8) 1.6) @ Wie) esas plas eiie skins cooeee seer wee eee see eee we eee es ¢, 60a (0d 6.9) 8h Ss le (8 18: 88) a8 elie iw Arenuep Iequleseq, HLINOW (papnjau0o) AAISNIONI ‘{TOGT-LEST SUVAA WALVM FHL VOI WVA HDIN LV ATAIY ODAMSO AO AIONNAY—OG “ON ATAVY, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 345 which is deep and without current, admits of slack-water naviga- tion, forming a part of Oswego canal. This canal enters at Mud lock, five miles below Baldwinsville. There is also a towpath along Seneca river, admitting of the passage of boats through a lock into and above the dam at Baldwinsville. The Baldwins- ville pond is navigable for a few miles. Water is diverted at Baldwinsville through power canals. Power is used at ten mills, having a total of forty water wheels. Owing to leakage of the water wheels and penstocks, some diffi- culty has been experienced in securing accurate results during low water at Baldwinsville, but in 1901 repairs were made to a number of :penstocks and water wheels, considerably reducing the leakage. When this station was originally established the leak- age was taken at 100 cubic feet per second. This quantity was added to the computed flow over the dam and through the water wheels. The following cut shows a section of the dam on Seneca river at Baldwinsville: fe y | | | | Y a | : Fig. 23 Cross-section of dam on Seneca river at Baldwinsville. Geologically the Seneca river lies in the horizon of the Salina group, with its tributaries to the south rising into the lower and upper Helderberg and Hamilton shales. The extreme headwaters are in the Portage and Chemung groups. : Discharge measurements of Skaneateles outlet. The measure- ments of the runoff of Skaneateles lake, as given in table No. 53, have been made by the Syracuse Waterworks over a dam at the foot of the lake, or over a weir a short distance below, since Octo- ber, 1890, but the record is only given from March, 1895. 68°0 [PO GE OL" JOLT [62 FT jeoe’s [TLE |s0%eT lncr‘e jexro |es'6 |eco's frovo |eo's luge‘ |" T2909 10 weour Sy1w0X SPO |P9'T soa‘ |I40 Fe 661s 19" 0 loo'e 216 ‘T G0" |01 E1110" Te bee 0s 6690 e200 a = Spomodi amr aetuai da cecal ee ee eee ee Re a | OR ge a a RY Pj a a Soe Spe Ie ai aa @8°0 |16°0 Gee CGO Or 0 CBy 0 10 eer Taces0 See O Hele Lap Sa tedOAON Bee ee ee Oe 19°0 j0L 0 |@68 1 |P8"0 |\68°0 [890°T [06'0 Fe 0 [keQ fo "755+ * "1810900 Brew) a ets ||| glevetele iii|\e) mre stele 09'0 19°0 SFR i Le’O G9" () OL) T CL 0 LL'0 LLP OTs 0 ae 0 ISP Ondo Gite ebecagio. "* "+> Tequrieydeg 09°0 |00°S |9F8‘T [860 [96'S (892° 68°0 ‘90°¢ een‘e lez'o |t0'r loee eco leo |se6 |--:--7** “posed Sutmory SERS Aas RS Wee pe tiem —| ——|-—— S| CAC acy aig nO) Ose fonos ancy Oe 00° T CLT rite Q9° 0 Qh 0 660 *@ SL 0 1Z‘0 cere CLO Liat cur nM OkO Om 0. 0-o-ueto CeO SUNS I Vrosi a ve 5 eceee eee ewe . “"l26"@ 00°T £98 °@ cg) cL 0 P20 ‘S "0 9% 0 OGL, CS'0 GSO OL), PC eC ee Ayo See eee ee ~si0 180 ee 48 1 eS ele y ish 0 |rei0 B08 1 Ig 0 echo igre Tt | Soe ae aR oun =) = eceeeenies —— — - ~ — = = = === 2 SSS SSS ne = 81 OF 8 (8988 OGL \S6'6 [ces r LPT (966 Lech FLT [res Lee's 1660 j49°9 je90'8 | poled 998.1048 a Rey | ee tee eee el aceon Mala ta ee | Wing etme ear tebe orl alg 5 GaGa io: helcu ct Cec. Ceca tcmOac) ceria 06'0 F0'T 664 °@ (Wie i 90°S GPG ‘Gg 00 it Gray. al 8 rete) 0 CG 0 Qgc g Gel vib) (a) o[ier si wisi tel caieesiacetivivel:s (ae telie "+ LEW a ee a ie G9'T |@8'T |9C0'o |88°S [TGS [196.8 |1e°S [Lbs [S89 |OP'T jeo 1 ere % oer eo tee poses (2096 OS aia eae ee Oe ie lee Oat 2 0Ser Grey eres COT si ye Leary) Cue Cae a Mea a 2 Youre oT a a a a ea te CLO |8°0 |TrS*e je9°0 |F9°0 [086'T TOT |GO'T j6er's [L9'0 690 (694 T | pigs cesses £TRNAG OT Ee te 90'T |So°E (6L6E |88°0 |86'0 [089% |69°0 60 Oem eoee One Ieee hes ae ArenUv 2) ie a tat oe an G0'L 96 1 "466 Shige i jee ke iSer 7 89.0) 19°0 eel 1 L810 008 P1689 6 2 aah oe TequLs90q aa SA RL ge ska EA ae oa eG emeniee |G) a -@) he Ge) ©) Giese G@ ©) ae) (1) Zi es = x —— Q on Q Q Et o) ) = a ® SI Oe a = a Sec he ee | sais) Bey) Gees Sem eee e |e ee leec ee es aa 216 So |Ga8 |] Bo Sf | oa8! 85 go GAG | So Se | dae] 8, oe Bm noieen| (2G alee tees 3) SC a ceo ree We Seon Om Se ee eel ae HLNOW So'd ott S =3'3 Bt s Sor [ct “e) =o oct co) So chet co} epee) 2 eee eR | BPR B |B PeRE| | eee] ee NVA c06T 106f 0061 668T ike) = (SOTIU etvnbs eoTg = voile WUSUTTDIVO)~ ra aie zs A) AAISNIONI ‘ZOGI-G6ST SUVAA SALVA AHL VOX ATITASNIMGIV LY AAAIM VOANAN JO ATONOY—TG ‘ON WIAVL HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK oat Previous to 1886 Skaneateles lake was the principal feeder of the Jordan level of Erie canal, but in that year Otisco and Owasco lakes were also made feeders. The Skaneateles lake dam was reconstructed 9 feet high by the State in 1887, and in 1893 was again rebuilt by the Syracuse Water Board with its spillway 2 feet higher than the crest of the old dam. The following are the catchment areas of this stream: arene Meimdeanrrace above State Gam. 4.6 Fc ee ee ee ees 60.3 ESET SLING Set0 ied Pl (ea ee ei Be Soke er ae er ee A 12.3 Poet catchment area, above foot of lake ................ 73.0 Total area above Willow Glen weir.................0055 74.3 Peer catecniment aADOVEr:JOVGAMs 0... te ke ee ee cee 3.0 The elevation of Skaneateles lake is 867 feet plus tidewater, while that of the outlet at the Erie canal crossing, near Jordan, is about 400 feet. The lake lies in a deep valley, with bold shores rising several hundred feet at either side. The figures given in table No. 53 do not represent in any degree the natural runoft of this catchment, but merely the water yield during the years indicated, in which there was large storage. In March, 1895, the city of Syracuse began to draw water through the new conduit to Skaneateles lake. The results given in table No. 53 are the quantity flowing in the outlet as measured on the weir located at Willow Glen, plus the outflow through the conduit. In table No. 52 the mean monthly elevations of Skaneateles lake, above and below an arbitrary datum, as derived from ob- servations taken on the first, eighth, fifteenth and twenty-second days of each month, are given for the water years 1890-1901, in- clusive. These observations have been made by gate keepers of the Canal Department and are approximate merely. In the original record they are given to the nearest quarter of an inch, while in the present record they have been translated to feet and tenths—it has not been considered worth while to carry out the hundredths of a foot. Geologically, Skaneateles lake catchment lies in the horizon of the Hamilton shales. 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Gagings of this creek have been made at the mill-dam at Bridgeport, a short distance above its mouth. Gage readings were taken three times a day, showing the hight of water above crest of dam, head on wheels and width of gate openings. The dam is of tim- ber, backed with stone, and has a nearly level crest, 215 feet long, with flood gates at the ends. Figure 24 shows a section of this dam. The relatively low runoff of Chittenango creek during the Summer months may be attributed to the diversion of a portion of the flow to supply the Rome level of Erie canal. For this Fig. 24 Cross-section of dam on Chittenango creek at Bridgeport purpose State dams are situated on the main stream at Chitte- nango and on its two tributaries, Limestone and Butternut ereeks. Cazenovia lake, Erieville, De Ruyter and Jamesville reservoirs are situated on these streams. The Erieville reservoir has a tributary catchment of 5.4 square miles. The storage capacity is 318,425,000 cubic feet, and the water surface 340 acres. - Cazenovia lake has a tributary catchment of 8.7 square miles. The storage capacity is 207,000,000 cubic feet and the area of water surface 1.7 square miles. De Ruyter reservoir has a tributary catchment area of 18.5 square miles, which is naturally tributary to Tioughnioga river, a tributary of Chenango river. The storage capacity is 504,500,- 000 cubic feet and the. area of water surface 626 acres. The out- flow is diverted into Limestone creek, entering Erie canal through Fayetteville feeder. 352 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Jamesville reservoir has a tributary catchment area of 46.2 square miles. The storage capacity is 170,000,000 cubic feet and the area of water surface 252 acres. It is situated on the head- waters of Butternut creek, tributary to Chittenango creek through Limestone creek. The outflow reaches Erie canal through the Orrville feeder. : From Chittenango falls to Chittenango village, a distance of five miles, this stream falls from elevation 860 + T. W. to eleva- tion 420. From the foot of Chittenango falls to Chittenango vil- lage, the stream flows through a deep, narrow valley, where several water powers formerly in use are now mostly abandoned. Owing to its location below three feeders of the canal, the records at Bridgeport do not show the actual runoff of the catchment area during the canal season. During the winter, drainage into the canal is sometimes drawn off into Chittenango creek at the aqueducts crossing the main stream and its tribu- taries. Owing to uncertainty in the runoff, the Bridgeport sta- — tion was abandoned in May, 1901. Geologically, Chittenango creek les in the horizon of the Niagara, Salina and Lower Helderberg groups and Hamilton shales. | Discharge measurements of Black river. Observations of the flow in Black river have been made at the dam of the Watertown Waterworks, located about two miles above Watertown, at Hunt- ingtonville. This station was established in February, 1897, and the record has been furnished by the Board of Water Commis- sioners of Watertown. At this gaging station the stream flows in two channels with an island between. A high dam on the right creates a settling basin for the water supply of Watertown. The second dam, on the opposite side of the island, is of timber with crest slightly irregular in profile. For ease in computa- tion this crest has been divided into six parts, each being con- sidered as horizontal. The discharge over the dam has been computed, using coefficients derived from Cornell University ex- periments Nos. 2 and 12, as given in detail in the paper On the Flow of Water Over Dams. The entire flow of Black river, aside from the leakage and diversion for the water supply of Watertown, passes over the 35d HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK "* "78404 IO Uvour ATIVA K ie ore potsied Surystue,doexy oo eee ee ew wee PR hl OCCUR wi Me eh 10qQ0400 oq uieydeg eeleerer ee ele wesw ee eens ported Surmory Oe ee ce eile) Se nee eer) Suel es Beet ae amie] a ee rerin Cm e.6 es og med nope ah tk AT Re) bab te) @ Weep Were ele Seo ee) ee Ae ale mn) atawe [udy : Mt Dec oar Be On ea Oy - yorepy oe Olas wtte acy ie Rie) BU 85a /e/6).e = a "+ ATeNIG 9,7 oO ee nls w wwe 6 eles wim iewevere . "+ Arenuee jtivcra in| We ethomeiees c Se RA -roquIe0aq (3) (1) Q c at HINOW he 8 ia abt skeh lpi fey] aca a ‘ttt loocet lee leet ler‘or lese | oe ; GCOS HOGI oN Dt one tne eal rk eal secs 19°0 iPL'T |8ct j9e°0 je8'o [ez SI'T (00° CLE ae een Fre eel nee lar ee Aha as eis nrenrcaln fore ee TEES Ot ace ieee comilenaeee mee Oe beta jac ane ea ea ey Mae soe SP rey re eter eee eter st Pompeo. ae cenomelee tone at se elieae pray eran ee ee ere he ree we eee he AE aclbysdas. coal eee tins eae | poche eee, nt loaep alan Pare Sa ain a ee es mallet yi Se | a Bee MG ie Ge OMRe AUPE Oa GEO Te NGaa eee ee 2a learners ae tie nen ee hoo loe0 fee-o lee Sep HISGhORS ToT aah eel etl 96°T |@8°ST |809 [86'T 6e'er |L09 CS 1 (See 669 i0ne. iOr PL Gp Reh ee “loot fort feos |xo:0 [ano loz oso leeo lore [ef pb gumple pg ical eae Rope lane Pentre Cade. Teo note eee en ke es See er enis hee ok Bie eeu MGA eels WOE nebo Rete Clee: leas omaemees emeaea spies easier ae Ome OM Gees: Celene Sleds Vinee s\te ptanae. eae oe ay ie Nad | ean: Men ta easinan logan Ga HelLG eeTNGH, OR OG Bead ae eens ona CR LelOMNGu Coe ae OOo MCOen mee IPG Le eere a OCs |b ami ome ss Gt EDL (EI 1G) CDSE) Ge CCST Gy sl Cee eGay Jf a3) (>) ‘onl Se) (2) onl Q (a) ‘oy Q ( amy Q Q len! mee | 96 Se aed Bel 2e el | a6 S| ecules 2 | eee] 96 sos eo mn com Str m= oOr eo ™ hs eon oS ™ ms gom == 9 O° o8 one) aoe 08 (ome) poe as ome) soe of OD ® ome) oP Mee) were: ere oaig | ceig |: Cah. ra eietnde aul Sigh | Re Ri ee |: Ghat Glen aa a eS] BF | BS |e S| 8 | 28 |e 8) ge | Be |e S| ge | 28 |e 8| ge oye | "| BLPEE| "Ee | 3 | FEE] Pe | B/eRE| FE | F | ERE] Fe NVATY TO6T OO6T 668T 8681. TO6T-S68f SYVIA WALVM THL YOR “LHOdMOAIU IV HATO OONVNALLIHO JO IMONAY—FS ‘ON ATAVY, (So[]t o1vnbs JOg—vore Juemy97EO) a 354 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Huntingtonville dam. Two or more readings of the gage are taken daily and a mean taken. In computing the flow an allow- ance of 200 cubic feet per second has been made for leakage through seams and crevices in the rock underlying the dam. This amount is somewhat general,-as it has only been arrived at from an estimate of the size of the openings from the state- ment of eye witnesses when the water was drawn down in the summer of 1897. The following cut shows a section of the Huntingtonville dam on Black river: a Se | 7 HAS YS > ‘ Y TALIXs Fe Yet Fig. 25 Section of dam on Black river. Geologically, Black river lies in the horizon of the Trenton limestone, with its tributaries rising into the unclassified granites and gneisses of the Adirondack region. Discharge measurements of Lake Champlain. WUake Champlain drains an area of 7960 square miles, which is subdivided as fol- lows: Square miles.. Perea. i. Quebec. a: fea ie PO wk OS Ae So eee 740: ATeg- i. Viermonte 2... nS OS. RO ee eae eee 4,270 Peer Gal vith. INC W DVO S 2. Ske Sse Bin pe Cae ea oe 2,950 Area-of water surface of lakes 2.4 44.0.2: ser. ee 400 0 1 lege Cenenbee Wome Gems T Sea Me. epi emer 8,360 00 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK eQ°T 2), FS COP ‘e | 98°1 | LE‘ PS 0ze ‘ge CO i COC Caimi | Pri Che tas Chic cee eee eee a pero" Io uroul Ayare9 X 79 °0 CLS S12 ‘T I@'L | OLS Pag ‘¢ CHS eR || Sew EeOe Cec e eeceves 5) oe We) sy 6) eum potsed surystuedoy *? 180 160 BGO “T 80'S GES 686 '& 03°% chs CT ee ole Goes a ae came CL ONT P90 09'0 810 ‘T 99°. | 16°T Set I¢'0 8¢'0 126 Hike ae ee pat ae aes "1040990 6G’ 0 Qc () 066 8h 0 18°0 COP ‘T ots Sie 0 eens Kalen s «ees pelea ake aries aie die) tials SLO LOOKS I AO IS) S een = = ee el — == =~ Saecaces f [rm sa soem | weed a a Ss SS 790 LS 906 ‘T Gho |. uae STP ‘T G0'1 eg’ Cy dius talent ae) eee potted SULMOT) Lb 0 Po'0 168 G20 a) 2 O~0 CGP ‘I 1e'T 681 BGG owinei tenan cick she he "08" gsneny 790 e210 COS ‘T 090 69'0 SGI 'T LP'0 7e'0 618. 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SUVA MALVAL GAL OX WV ATITANOLONILNO}T LV YIATeY MOVIG WO JIONONY—GG ‘ON aTAIV T, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM B56 10'S | 16°96 | 108 ‘g | FES qlee | sith 10°% 79°93 | 308‘g |" '*" "12907 10 Ueew APIA _ 9v't | 68°> | GLE ‘S | 19°T c0"9 SFO ‘8 LB'T LP POPS «| potsed surystaetdoy Dede fare eee | ae Ueno . CPT 09 ‘T SIL 'S COZ 96°% 710 ‘9 ern Peet GO LON eee ee Ev aie Wier hate. 8 8's 69S 918 ‘e 90 TL'0 816 ‘T er ecenelele ne sens & 00 sae set TSROIOC) ge se wines. « ee eee e9 "| e9°T 680 ‘2 FSO 09°0 0c0 I oe arora he oe SUN aaieaaish (210 [FU GGItK6 Ks) v6.0 6| OL's | OPL ‘T | 69° T bys 100° 6h 0 F's BOG Aho: irae Meee ported SurMory) sige nee: Fetter ELL 08 'T CET ‘Z 09'°0 690 PEL T ottin ~ iedigs see mrec at “-asn3sny . Reta alert eee eee 98°0 660 929 ‘T 01° 0 08°0 Teg 'T Ce Ce i oes ene diastase LONE rf ee é eer sen eae 13°% cle 9Te ‘ec 980 96'0 029 ih e ete veral . 4)e le) «6 ius orale uae en 0404 6 66 | Sh 6T | oge‘g 80° 99°08 | s08‘e 60'S (C66E | gee‘g ft ported ese104g eat pect [eee wees Manis COS co's 100‘ 20'S | QP'e ITL ‘ Caras Me Om mnt res OH OmCi ao, CHU Onn Cio eens AAT . tae . eee Chis pte 09°, 1g¢'8 PGS ‘FI Leh, 2'R 966 ‘81 oe eee eee CC Ce a ay (9 a ia sei ee aera a aero SL's 99°¢ $30 ‘9 ony 18'T 0L6 °% Ce eee eee m8 oc OETA rao # Seige pisiieis/ ere 9e'T ee'T Ler ‘Z +02 91'S FEL ‘a v2 S sain Who? pee aa sia gc Ten eee ° Sodas or eeee 0ST en T PPS ‘S 03ST eT HEB °B eee eee eee ee sor eee ees eae Arenue pe eee eee ® eeeeee FES I BG's 083 ‘F CGg8'T CGT Toe ‘g Pat BeBok 8 Se Rta SERS Ae AR ES OUTED (F) (g) (8) EME Tic 1G C3) (¥) (g) (8) (T) axons sod geet ay puooes 10d auunibs sod We eaniee puooses 10d ouentbs 10d eer OA. puooes 10d uoodds I oF VIQnN d NVGW | 1061 006 SSS BS eS — (SO[IUL 2IVNDS Gg8I=—=BoIG UII OIBO) (papnjouod ) HAISNIONI ‘TO6I-L68L SUVIA UALVM AHL XOX WA WITIANOLONIINOP, LV AAATH MWOVIG JO AFONNY—GCg ‘ON @IAV HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 357 We have, then, a total area of the basin of 8360 square miles.t - The rainfall of this catchment is stated in the Report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways at an average of about 33 inches per year. But table No. 25 shows that for the 12 years from 1891 to 1902, inclusive, the rainfall of Champlain valley was 37.06 inches. The lake is considered as terminating on the south at White- hall and on the north at St Johns, on Richelieu river. The low- water elevation is 95.03 feet +T. W. and the high water, 103.78 feet+T..W. The length is 125 miles from Whitehall to St Johns, and the breadth 18 miles. The outlet of Lake Champlain is Richelieu river, which flows northerly across the Province of Quebec, entering the St Lawrence at Sorel. The length of the river is 75 miles. It receives from New York the drainage from the northeast slope of the Adirondacks, amounting to 385 per cent of the whole. A record of the elevation of lake surface at Rouses Point has been kept by the United States Corps of Engi- neers since 1875. In 1896 the construction of a power plant at Chambly was begun by the Royal Electric Company of Montreal. The dam is of concrete masonry, strengthened with imbedded iron bars. | The hight from apron to crest is 18 feet, affording a fall of 28 feet at the power-house. A calibration curve of Richelieu river was constructed by the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways by comparing the computed discharge over this dam with the corresponding stage of Lake Champlain at Fort Montgomery, and taking into consideration the slope of Richelieu river in the intervening distance of thirty-five miles. The discharge in cubic feet per second has been deduced from this curve. The record of Lake Champlain is given not only because it is computed over a dam, but because it is a long record, although in the following tables it has only been taken from 1880-1902, in- clusive. The catchment area of 7750 square miles, as given by the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, is placed at the head of the tables. 1The preceding figures are derived from the Report of the United States Deep Waterways Commission (1896). The Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways gave the area of Lake Champlain at 487 square miles and the total area of the catchment at 7,750 square miles. 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The engineers of the British government in India have had, in con- nection with their large irrigation works, perhaps more experi- ence in this class of measurement than all others combined, and the formulas used by them appear more rational in form than those commonly used in the United States for such computa- tions, and after some study it was decided to use these. As many American engineers may not be familiar with these formulas they are here reproduced. They take the following form-— , Q=3 LO V2 9a, 0) in which— _ | @=— the discharge over a thin-edged clear overfall, in cubic feet per second, L= the length of the dam in linear feet, C = coefficient depending for its value.on d, == acceleration of gravity = 32.2, d — depth on crest, in linear feet. Equation (37) may also take the form— Q=5.35 LO Vv d* (38) To find C for different values of d, we have— 0.04 (84.6 + d)\} C=1— (ae), (39) This gives a series of values of C corresponding to d. For instance, for @==0.25 foot, C= 0.051; for d=]0 0s aer C = 0.649, and so on. For a wide-crested dam the coefficient is further modified to suit the actual width of the crest. For this we have given the expression— C=C Bek! 025 C (B+ 7 40) 1l+dad *Equation (39) may be written in a simpler form, C=1—0.01(84.61d). HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Co =| oD in which— B = the width of the crest in linear feet; C =the coefficient for a thin-edged weir, corresponding to a depth d, aS per equation (39), and ; C’ = the adjusted coefficient corresponding to a given breadth B and a depth dt In the case of the Mechanicville dam we have a stone crest 7 feet in width and slightly inclined upstream. The width of the river a Short distance above the dam is considerably over 800 feet ; the depth for some distance back is from 16 to 20 feet. In order to avoid a correction for velocity of approach, a crest was assumed 5 feet wide and values of C’ were computed on that basis. Having obtained values of C’ for d= 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75 feet, and so on up to 8 feet, corresponding values of Q were computed and plotted at a large scale as a curve with values of d as abscissas and the corresponding flows as ordinates. From this curve intermediate values of Q have been read off. - The water wheels at Mechanicville have a capacity when they are all running of about 2400 cubic feet per second. The working head varies from 15 to 17 feet, depending upon the condition of the flashboards. A test of a 39-inch Hercules wheel, which has been in use about eight years, shows the actual discharge to be substantially as given in the manufacturers’ tables when running at the speed of greatest efficiency. The crest gage is read twice a day and a mean taken for the hight. A continuous record is also kept of the run of the water wheels at the mill. Discharge measurements of Hudson river at Fort Edward. This station is located at the dam of the International Paper Company, which was established by the writer in 1895 in connec- tion with the upper Hudson storage surveys. The dam is of timber on rock foundation and with very little leakage. The crest is nearly level, 587.6 feet in length. Flashboards are main- tained on the dam 15 to 18 inches in hight. There are sixty-two water wheels in the adjoining mill. A record is kept of the daily run of each in hours, as well as the working head, which is about 19 feet. The capacity of the wheels 1The method of deducing equations (39) and (40) may be found in Mullin’s Irrigation Manual, 1890, pp. 11, 12, 138, 189, 171, 172. MUSEUM NEW YORK STATE O74 *savod L0'@ | co — | SLT | 10°@ | oO T | Sot AVE | BE | 68°01 | 18°0) ip | 880 1 ie eece TGs On| nO aoe eee. 0 sue OE er UF $0'T_ | 09°F | at | 49°. 5 0 Peo t | 09°0 Bee RG | GL20. | 2e.0 LUE se OS 68° | £9°@ | 08'S | OF'e SO te O08.) 00:8 22) Oe "s 829.) Gore mea Ga @deitel ey T PE NWS a See aller D0! Tee 600) 08 1 ae eT ee Lio Os CG) Gey) uso GO06L 106. O06T Wt) 86-r 88° | 90°F rt | go's G00: | GT “Or 05) 18 0 470 | 960. Tes) lek 7o'0 | L£g°0 8g°0 | At Tt 88'8 | Bee Ye ee Ge"G, | 20r¢e PLS | OFF Vit) OS at GPL | BL°T BBN | 0°8 (OE aq) 668T 868T Uee}.INOJ JO UBIUI—po}v[Od10} 0] x (SOTIUL O1VNDS ONGP = VoOIV JUDO WITO}CO | eo't | vact | set | ert | eoct | ere | got 60'T | 9F'T | TOT | 88°0 | 90° | 60°T | 99°0 le S| 26-6! L8> Ts) Grey 8 04 69 Lal 160 9¢°0 | 16°0 | 88°00 | 18 0 | 98°0 | 89°00 | $8'0 _te'o | 1¢'0 | 8c°0 | Tro | eg'T | 660 | FO” 66'S | FLO | 49°0 | F6°0 | 16°0 | 00°% | o9°0 68°) FG Os 28505) SSO TE Lak Gé. 1e'°6820 68°% | 69'0 | OG'0 | 040 | 9S°0 | 80°S@ | @S'°0 ¥9°@ | SOT | €9°0 | 89°T | 20°T | 94S | TAO. I'S | HS | BLT | 961 | FES | 08's | Fe OL Gee Ts) GS. La8o° Tl S6 £98 FCG TE Po P|) GG Se eG. Uk Go| Ro S) 6L°F | kee 67'S | GOS | $60 | 8c S 1.88 LT | Shs | P68 48°0 | FOL | 64°0 | SOT | 20 T | 90'S | 89°@ 680 | [oe Oe OS OS be Le Oe Oh Ps PST | BFS | 26°0 | 09°F | 06°0 | 16'T | @4°0 Cre (OD) since) (g) ()) GG) ai) L681 968T C681 F681 €68T G68T T1681 OS ECL NOR ia Pea, | pe MM eS EEE RP Ge 068T (g) 6881 Fe T |potsed Surystuedoy 8881 Peis seate t's * OCT AGN . were 2 TOMOROC) eile) aiiaiie) [el (atte roquieydeg ‘ potted SULMory Pe ee Tas DN Sere wicaten oh Soke AMT GD "* potted 3381049 eee eee eee eee “> kB ae aaa) Ke Ie ROSE hes) *ATVN.IQ 91 > Aen er ers ts 1equ1ed9eq (1) ‘a[Tu eIvNnbs isd puodes 1ed Jooz O1Qnd UT) TAISQIONI ‘ZOGI-SSSL SUVA WLVM FHL YOT WITIAOINVHOSJ LV VATA NOSaNFT JO AIONAY—zg ‘ON AIA, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 3t5 is about 4000 cubic feet per second. They are mostly of modern types and have been tested at Holyoke. When the flashboards _are on, computations at Fort Edward have been made by the Francis formula for sharp-crested weir, but when the flashboards are off, the flow is computed by means of the East Indian engi- neers’ formula. In the winter of 1896-97 a flood spillway was cut in the rock at the south end of the dam over which the water begins to flow whenever it reaches the level of the crest of the flashboards. The profile of this spillway is irregular and causes a good deal of uncertainty in the calculated flows during high water. Indeed, the uncertainty is so great that the writer has for a number of years been unwilling to publish the record of this dam. He has, however, finally reviewed it, recomputing a portion of the same, and the figures are given for what they are worth. There is con- siderable uncertainty in the high-water flows—perhaps as much as 25 per cent. The entire low-water flow passes through the water wheels, and there may be some uncertainty in this, although not as great as in the flood flows. The summer flow of the Hudson river at Mechanicville and Fort Edward is materially increased by the outgo from Indian river dam, built in 1898. A record of the flow at Indian lake has been kept since July, 1900. The geology of the Hudson river basin is complicated—from its mouth to its extreme headwaters it crosses nearly every -formation appearing in the State of New York. Discharge measurements of Croton river. This stream serves as the principal source of water supply for the City of New York, Borough of Manhattan. The average daily consumption of water in all the Boroughs of the City of New York was, in 1899, 371,778,000 gallons, distributed as follows: Gallons. MSU 2 eat od 6 dag Ge ee 230,000,000 STA SS gg s 21,000,000 SOQ ELST 0s se a 102,663,000 UGB Coe. ole eg eee ee ee 12,925,000 haat ae IUINO le ear 2a eee. ho, Ws nen, ecko ee = 5,190,000 The catchment area of the Croton river lies almost entirely in New York, only a small portion being in Connecticut. It NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 376 SA RMN Tl [W304 10 vou AO 880 86 % LLP ‘o o. , oa 66 'F OS Peel Mice ORC mE eer CT 'p Pras ee poe 0g°o SeTeRED)#|| lw ele’ we eae eee Ue, ee ie Bc Cieip air sy tee eo, Whur ir erat potied Surystusdoy, C8'L 20'S 960 ‘G @he) a) 6 e0¥ Tie @ PPR ecOee On WON rem La ey 00'S CO h ac rhe lhal cle cio w 6P'e Sena i eet Oe i ea hs hh ae eee SON 12°0 Gh'0 |eg0'T eereeve 8e'L CeCe) tlt i ve LG'0 Cis lot yer Werte Te] iim ye Pane 92°, eee, en LONI eR coe ie hae ; nee O) 8h 0 ec'¢ LPe i AD aes 080 _ soc See prewar LS ae ae one rec) £90 ety sono a op uele. 60) ee & 2 0) pice (wine, orb 6a. se ue Jee 6 19qU104 ag 0 ye a ied rl? ah ae Sonata bite eS OT [ aie 2 ets. can a Weer os la srovis Rey buvetia’ buetliessey, olke™ ohieerierre\teePel nhc enattatrie stake potsed SUIMOLD 92°0 020 FIL fsa: ey id’cetie SLT Ce OO ery re ee ier iP a) Gy" Lien) a ew fee Comb Yen Wet eu De 2m ) $c’ 0 ad er et a WO. ee i Lome Ir 0 LPO OST ‘T elute: x@ Talis: 9c ‘0 Gs) oe ewoultae)is) exiente 09° ©) atierraath, Jor ||iee wera wun OL T Peart Pe eit eee Pee ae Rho ke I ne a jue EO OR a MO Seca ty (el Wa eu el fat gal Gus) 16 88'¢ Se Pesce cutee ee Bila. Cott ceas al wie eucrehete sphere aca 60/918 Cusp ere (Sele, Our kaneis oun ges 0891 829 ‘9 AS ApeR Le 18 | ek GHICAE REDE. 6 9G eT Le, Saree 99 GT rere oe wiTaLen hae SSO aMoh wig corey eee eu e. leaaivak altaya teeta Males meat potased O3PR1019 P'S e9'e 19g ‘6 aus!) eee 26'S miele. Wen elitns ie tmulelaeh 08's Riu Meira inal Reeitat eh oa 19 'T eco ea see 1 Re CS RS AN ee ea AVI 00°9 69°9 ITS ‘OT aiyiicks ots IF gated saeco |ahiaticitedt ett. G0’ areata. ah ofl oiomataueier 9F'9 SR AROSE 0S S24 Sa ea qudy 6L°T COS G00 ‘e dP lemie a ora Cc), c SiO) d..etsss|\(a: ee” a eine C2°S fe Fah aa een’ ie neruuiseie 16 69'S Fs We Oe ce Sean Ct Gee Seeangs he | ges YOorLeyL 990 010 606 ‘T fai? eee Peon Reem erie ae ata eMal Tarts £90 Aadmeecec 2 || ovsoee nec 960 mite (ess eee RM eR gi oe te AIVNAQO, 90° T CGT LEG ‘e COCO 1¢'T Sen CCE Oh che IO lie AiO c9'0 a Ogee Gers Bono oae ten OFT SEPSIS eh LS SO SO Oe AIVNU LE 08°0 _ BUDS. BPG 'S Moet eo ¥ 08°o _ — cee sree! C1 . i srai'e a Kr aee 19'S She o.6) (Bae) a) 68 ia pis uledie ous (01188 6, (6: 64 \e65Brie) Bae eS eq ue09( yy) 2@) 16). | @) a). 1) | (2) |. @) | (g) | @) (1) Sac ee @.2 ce © ge° Qe chs ei oh acy poe 9.2 aes @a8 | Bo oo | oag| Bo Co | e¢a8!| Bo os CaS | Bo os H S| oP | ak ig S| eB | a8 Be|/ ee | ee |e S| ee | ad HENOW [ott ct io . coe bode, oes | “EF | & |e88| “8 | BBB] “EF | & |e88] “E | & 6681 8681 L681 9681 (Se[Iur dIGNbS 0N8Z —= BoIB JUV I1BO) HAISNIONI ‘ZOGT-O68T SUVAX AALVM AHL AOA GUVMAY LAOT LV ATATH NOSGAFT JO ATONAY—F9 “ON AtaAvy, YORK HYDROLOGY OF NEW Tu'T_|T9"F@ |884_F [26 T [16'S |P8e's |8L'T [Lees 66 F [Q9°T jog'Te |ETO | [2909 10 uvewd ATIVE A e0'T [48° [9ss‘s jer't [co's jear‘r l2s'0 |e jeer‘e sso lose ea ES ek a a tae et ported surystucpdoy Fe RR SOC 18° [60° 1618 Jono [eso see (eh 1 we wo" Co Ree ere tl SN agent ea gh't |ge't |18‘7 (96:0 jor't [eso’e 'rp:0 JoG-0 lera‘t [occ ucttcteetettccet ees zeqoqog dale ceeeee pees QQ" 0 96° 0 |99F ‘ g 88" 0 66" (0) EOP‘ OF'0 PPO On SUUUNe Re St aie Sw eee! wi w alba 8: wire) l6 SL Siena mie oe rIequteydeg Tete i 2 a Ont ‘e G'S 20°9 [eon ‘o 0g 7 Shy 129 ‘e 89° oi Bes be LOL aT Reames Sew wv elk) QKe le) & 0) ee) 0s 8 8 wie es mae wee porsod UTMO.LY) Corer tn ca iy Gc tases, are in sc 69° 1 CBT ShL'P |06°0 20° T Teo ‘6 6S 0 990 BOS Ft, aolipe cca. tla cork eee Rife) 4 ler dbieifie ce fee ,,0 | eNie! ala a fe LG'S 96°C 06 °L |8L'0 06'0 061 ‘6 [Sh 0 1S'0 8P6 ‘I Ws ys ete RUeN es 6 6s cetiel ew eiiey SicK "as See ‘* ATO camel prea NUS on sey CAAA (ces inci (Ne anche ee pea eunp G6°S |AT OT £899 [20'S [Pe'ST |FO8'S |6F'S 00°91 [1969 \ee's fro AT fggo’n | ported esB109g iat a nacneac Ge 1971 (seer 269 ‘F [00'S Cp’ G68 ‘8 12°2 19°% Re Bn BAS Ae Leckey cries 2 cma a e wp sea ia ae a's 18°2 090 ‘h GG"), 9F'9 PST Telr0 9 P19 PLO OH it ce iat se Ay at is . ae epee Tudy wikia igi gare peOD cay |ur¢ lore‘eriect tpt lape‘e lop:t ftot lree'e [ccc ode Pere ot aed Rese ctech TSCA era Wace ee 610 z8'0 818% GG’ () 1G°0 Led 'T GC's £9'S PLO ‘D, S Wapmbhes a CURLY nea MeraineLUNE ArieCeT WMC AGA: Inetiocs: x aeroMue ts 8 hein | AvenIqeT x Ata oe ey 980) 660 CCP ZS G90 Ch, 0 L68 “T CLT C2 T 116 ‘8 CeCe CORRES Tear eae Arenue pt epee ipost. eet jeoe's lene joe t |teeo fret fete \non‘a [oo se terre ssesicee yequ1e0eq ®M®i@!/@!/@M!@)/@!) m/l el @!@®)] @ | @ (1) Q =H Q Q ei eer ik Q anu va eee Ln) ene ig She i ee ang oP g nn of q nne ob Ss; ane 5 =| ‘ Oo! io) ie) g o Ke 26 ese| se | es |ese| ee | ge |ese| GF | gS | ese] SE | Be eee) fe | 28 | S98) Bo | SF | S2e| Bo | BE | sae) Fo | SF Bt | oe Pree | et | ge Pact E ewe a ta Ten ae Dict HLINOW PHE| E | EPEE| “| F | PEE "E| ESHER] TE] 3 NVOW 2061 T06T 0061 (So[tur arunbs 008z my VOIIB JUIMIYO1VO) K te bs ba (PAPNjOU0d) AAISQIONI ‘GO6T-968E SHVAA AILVM AHL YOU GUVAGY LUO LY wary NosdnAy{ dO AIONNY—E9 ‘ON BIavy, 318 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM amounts to 339 square miles above the old Croton dam and to 360 square miles above the new Croton dam under construc- tion. The main river is formed by three branches, known. respectively as east, middle and west branches, which, rising in the southern part of Dutchess county, flow through Putnam county and unite near its south boundary. The river then flows across Westchester county to the Hudson river, into which it empties at Croton Point, about thirty miles north of the City of New York. The principal tributaries, aside from the east, mid- dle and west branches, are Kisko, Titicus, Cross, and Muscoot rivers. The flow of the Croton river is diverted through two aqueducts. A record of the flow has been kept at old Croton dam since 1868. Fig. 27 Diagram of old Croton dam. This record includes the quantity of water wasted over the crest of the dam, as well as that diverted for the water supply of New York. . | In 1900 John R. Freeman made a report on the New York water supply! in which is an extended study of the yield of the Croton catchment area. It is stated that the results previously published average 10 per cent too large, the difference between the earlier estimates and the present being due mostly to the use of erroneous data, as follows: 1) The flow wasting over the old Croton dam was overesti- mated about 9 per cent by the use of a formula not strictly ap- plicable to this peculiar form of dam, and because of a mistaken assumption in length of overfall. On measuring the length of crest line of dam, it was found shorter than heretofore assumed 1Report on New York’s Water Supply, with Particular Reference to the Needs of Procuring Additional Sources and Their Probable Costs, by John R. Freeman, C. E., 1900. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 379 by 10 feet 6 inches (or 4 per cent) for all depths less than 8 inches, while the length between wingwalls heretofore used was _ substantially correct. It was also found that the dam crest is not absolutely level because of settlement near the center pier, and that the method of measuring the depth gave results about 0.30 inch too high. 2) The flow in the old Croton aqueduct at the depth commonly used before the new aqueduct was opened is less than previously estimated by about 14,000,000 gallons per day, or 15 per cent. These earlier estimates were based on using for the old Croton aqueduct the same coefficient of flow found for the new, smooth and clean Sudbury aqueduct, and not upon a gaging of the old aqueduct itself. 3) Gaged by the same observer with the same instrument, the new Croton aqueduct is now delivering less water for a given depth of flow than when new, to the extent of about 40,000,000 gallons per day; or, when the depth measured at the head of the aqueduct is 11 feet, the shortage is about 15 per cent. 4) An error was made five years ago in setting the gage by which depths in the new aqueduct are read, so that it makes the depth appear 24 inches too large; this cause alone contributes about 6,000,000 gallons per day to the overestimate mentioned “above. 5) The effect of storage drawn from Boyd’s Corner and Middle Branch reservoirs and the Croton lake in modifying the natural flow had not been taken into account in these earlier estimates, neither had due allowance been made for the controlled natural ponds.1 | Croton river is an average water yielder. The minimum yield for a complete water year for the whole period 1868-1899, in- clusive, was in 1880, when from December to November, inclusive, the total runoff was 18.71 inches. The Croton catchment contains thirty-one lakes and ponds, many of which have been utilized as natural storage basins by constructing dams at their outlets. The following tabulation gives the entire natural and artificial storage, either actually carried out or under construction in 1902, for the Croton catch- ment area: 1Freeman’s report, pp. 121-128. 380 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cutie Name of reservoir exeui, Ge ane DOVES. ge POR ieee 2 tae ee tak ere eer ane cee 2,727,000,000 Middle Draneh ei ack = (os cok ah ee Ger eles On ee ie oat 4,005,000,000 Hast Branch Sodom. ccna a ew emeia oer a 4,883,000,000 OS DrOOks. 72. Fs ce Pk ontk thn Bate heen ee oa pe 4,145,000,000 AEC GGUINY score caedesv aca akg Ce ene ea ae Rice ae ot ea 7,167,000,000 West Branch Carmel .....272)....c PCR NERS ot TS 10,070,000,000 MMT AN ca ot ee tree at Bi sirle ee Pee ain: (so ree cae ae 7,678,000,000 |e Fie) Ce Cane ee me Ra meric aren recast ote eee Oo eM 575,000,000 WATE acs 5 ig atelier Oe ag ee “Ay tn 565,000,000 COMET acnaly So aici: Wi ee a dea eee TL cee ence eee 165,000,000 CCU (2-11 0 Poems Seamennemirna eae ID cats Ab Ice aeoraen cae ae eS 380,000,000 ISSIGEGEEIS: Pe So cna ee a Se dente Senses s eGo bea eae 170,000,000: TANG Gi i cam rare Mie at eR aeaMancl Par Sst agit talk te Are PON archi 200,000,000 | TEE (CRORES HR eth ayes. SRA aye oe Sa Acne Se 230,000,000 SAWN G21 LI Ee eae Ra a JE Sra im iP rat Nae Sy or 200,000,000. MOUS Sasa 2 ate pai oe & eee ee ea eae ei ee he 110,000,000 CHRD; (a sca ere neg teg ence a cerned ie eke aan 105,000,000: BIG 2S) oe taal eal ee ei er hes eae meee 75,000,000: DOTA eS eh CRS Sg vitae age wat mgs Sipe a kt aaa ~ 60,000,000: OMe ba, seit ce, sy fect oat eR eI Hr acd aoe SAA 50,000,000 I aIneS = 26 2h ys Sees eas. Eee et A tee pees a 25,000,000 - OIG GTO ton. Taner hic Be acca eM aeiee ayaa aes edn eae 160,000,000: New Croton: (approximate, svete ie ie Ue tes eens 21,200,000,000: Additional in New Croton lake above Muscoot CLA ae eS pe Og OKC, i iene Be RNR el Eats wi ee LN 2,500,000,000 Increase Dy iashPoardst po 0ki ess 2 FO. tee oe 2,800,000,000: Dota StOVagere wet tee es Be ee es eran 70,245,000,000: The catchment area above new Croton dam is, as already stated, - 360 square miles. It is considered that the storage afforded by this reservoir system will furnish a daily supply of at least 280,000,000 gallons. At this rate the utilization from this catch- ment will become 778,000 gallons per square mile per day, or 1.20 cubic feet per second per square mile. The accompanying tables are given in illustration of the yield of the Croton catchment area. ied 381 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 000 “000 “G0F 000 ‘000 ‘FOF 000 ‘000 ‘642 000000 F18 | 000 “000 ‘OTS 000‘000‘r8¢ | 000 ‘000 ‘tor 000 ‘000 ‘T8@ | 000 ‘000 ‘986 000 ‘000 “F9% uvout AjIea XK 000 ‘000 ‘e9T — | 000 *000'89¢ | 000 (000 198% 000 ‘000 ‘Lg " tequreseq 000‘000‘0TT | 000000 ‘86% | 000 £000 ‘e9F | 000 ‘000 ‘P29 | 000 ‘000 ‘OTT | 000 (000 'F9E | 000 000 G69 nl a ea 1eqULOAON 000 ‘000‘98F — | 000 ‘000 ‘0F% —_| 000 000 ‘@8T | 000 *000 '88E | 000000 ‘kh | 000000 ESF | 000 (000 20% 2S iat or SRO 000 °000 'e9 000 (000 88 000 £000 ‘80% | 000 ‘000 ‘90T | 000 (0000 | 000000'9E | 000,000 096 fr " tequteydeg 000‘000‘TFE | 000000 ‘eet | 000000 ‘92% | 000 ‘000 ‘EFT | 000‘000‘8% | 000‘000‘8e | 000‘000‘0Ge fit tres" gsngny 000 ‘000 486 | 000 '000 +8 000 £00066 | 000°000 ‘411 | 000 °000'T8 | 000°000 ‘OT | 000 (000 981 ames srrtt) Aqag 000 (000 FST | 000 000 (98 000 £000 ‘0% | 000 ‘000 ‘FF% | 000 ‘000 TFT | 000000 68% | 000 (000 [LLG oe og 000 ‘000 ‘982 | 000‘000‘T9E | 000 ‘000 60% | 000 ‘000 ‘ers | 000 ‘000 “e0e | 000'000 F8F | 000 ‘000 ETO "T |.” ne aaa se pea AVI 000 000 ‘E89 | 000000 £298 ‘T | 000 ‘000 ‘Tre | 000 ‘000 ‘FFE | 000 ‘000,284 | 000 ‘000 ‘26S | 000‘000%e99 fit tt Teddy 000 ‘000 F9E | 000 ‘000489 —_ | 000 000 ‘26% | 000 ‘000 (S6E | 000 (000 ‘009 | 000 (000 'SF6 | 000'000 '@hL fT ys eee 000 000 eee | 000 ‘000'TTE — | 000 °000 ‘LTS | 000 ‘000 ‘9TF | 000 (000 ‘OTS | 000 (000 TLE | 000000 0ST J seeeeeetss ArenIqQe,T 000 “000 ‘84g ‘T | 000 “000 “664 | 000000 “LFS | 000 *000°86 | 000°000"L9 | 000 ‘000 “O8E | 000°000*eEe | pies Si Avende iS ea (9) (¢) (*) (g) @) (1) PST S181 els TA81 OL8T 698T S98T A.LNOW (Avp dod suo[[vs Ul 410401 SI JO 10Z-90Z SOSvd 1B 9[qQvI S,weUMVdI,7) te MAISNIONI ‘G6ST-S98T SUVAA AHL YOU AVAA NAAID AHL NI DNILSIXA SV SUIOANTSAY GQNV VdaV CNAITHOLVYO IAN ‘LIvud ANVIOLS ONIGOIONI ‘Wvd NOLOYD AIO LV VAIL NOLOYD JO MOTA ADVITAY—F9 “ON WIAV MUSEUM 382 NEW YORK STATE 000 “000 “OTE | 000 “000 "E0@ | 000 “000 "LTE | 000 ‘000 ‘ser —_ | 000 ‘000 “9e8 000 ‘000 08 | 000 000 ‘SL | 000 “000 ‘446 | 000 ‘000 “FEE ‘T | 000 “000 ‘208 000 '000 66 000 (000 6 | 000 000 TOT | 000 (000 ‘98 | 000 ‘000 “Tes 000 (000 64 000 “000 (08 | 00000069 | 000'000'F9T | 000 “000 ‘906 000 ‘000 ‘OT 000 000 68 | 000 000 ‘461 | 000‘000‘ser | 000 ‘000 ‘sr 000 000° ST | 0001000 (46 | 000 (000 'F& | 000 ‘000 ‘SOT | 000 £000 ‘FF 000 *000 'Bt 000 £000 6h | 000000 ‘8@t | 000 ‘000 F&E — | 000 ‘000 “oF 000 (000 S66 | 000 ‘000'9S | 000 ‘000 ‘9ET | 000000 ‘696 | 000 “000 ‘eoT 000000 T86 | 000 ‘000 ‘SST | 000 ‘000 ‘90E | 000 ‘000 ‘948 | 000 ‘000 ‘9FT 000 ‘000 “eee | 000 ‘000 ‘248 000 °000 ‘68 | 000 ‘000 ‘96% | 000 ‘000 ‘ets 000 (000 S91 “E | 000 °000 ‘eee | 000 ‘000 “P&L | 000 ‘000°L69 — | 000 ‘000 ‘Lee ‘T 000 (000 996 | 000 (000 ‘%9S | 000 ‘000 912 | 000 “000 °S6L | 000 “000 ‘88e 000 "000 "OST —_| 000 “000 “e9F | 000 ‘000 ‘ees | 000 ‘000 ‘06F | 000 “000 “EFT (97) (cr) (FT) (eT) (81) T881 O88T 618T 8281 LAST 000 ‘000 “6g¢ 000 ‘000 ‘get 000 ‘000 “69 000 “000 ‘99 000 ‘000 ‘8F 000 ‘000 ‘LF 000 ‘000 ‘TIT 000 000 ‘FEE 000°000 TOT ‘T 000 ‘000 ‘802 ‘T 000 “000 ‘619 000 000 ‘T#% up) 000 “000 ‘Tz, 9181 | | 000 000° 007 uvoeul ATIvO K 000‘ 000 BK Ses ee tee napa Iequreseq 000 000° OCR ae ides abe ORO N 000 000° Ast eeeee eeee *19Q 0900 000 ‘000 * Abt : "* 7" requieydeg 000 000 "296 silefien een @) sifetel nvekene “asnsny 000 000° 09 eee eee eee ee wo we . Ane 600 “000 Te [tte oun p 000 000 P08 0) 1@ Je) sf) 2) 0) 6) @ 3 oes ee oe ABIN 000 00077001 |e ena 000 000 ‘ogg cee ee we wo wo wo S),.a8) s) ele Qoleyy 000 ‘ 000 ‘608 pare es an ee . *ATVNAQI 000 000 °000" 16 eee ere eee eee ne ‘AIVNUB LE Sp (6) CLT HINOW GNV VYaadV GNHWHOLVYO HIIM (Avp tod suo[[Ves uy “‘J1Ode1 SIT JO 102-902 Sosvd Je 9[qQ¥BI S,ueUTeET,7) (paniwiywoo) AAISQXIONI ‘G68T-SOST SUVAA THL YOX AVAR NAAIO AUL NI ONILSIXA Sv SUIOANTSA ‘LdVud @NVAOLS YNICGNM'IONI ‘Wvd- NOLOUD GIO LV WAIL NOLOY) JO MOTTA AVUTAyY—F9 ‘ON WIdvy, 383 NEW YORK OF HYDROLOGY 000 ‘000 *4.98 000 ‘000 ‘686 000 “000 “g¢¢ (000 ‘000 ‘¢gF 000 ‘000 ‘119 (000 ‘000 ‘88T 000 ‘000 ‘29 000 ‘000 “hs (000 ‘000 ‘89F 000 ‘000 ‘806 000 ‘000 ‘ess 000 “000 “68 000 ‘000 “904 000 ‘000 “6¢F 000 ‘000 ‘0&F 000 ‘000 “69T 000 ‘000 ‘SLT 000 ‘000 ‘9ST 000 “000 ‘819 000 ‘000 ‘6¢F 000 “000 ‘80% 000 '000 06% 000 ‘000 ‘96¢ 000 ‘000 ‘FF9 000 ‘000 ‘946 000 ‘000 “cre (83) 000 ‘000 ‘Fee 000 ‘000 ‘F&z 000 ‘000 ‘F8T 000 (000 ‘es 000 “000 ‘9% 000 ‘000 ‘OL, 000 ‘000 ‘48 (000 ‘000 ‘88T 000 ‘000 ‘698 000 “000 ‘F&8 000 ‘000 ‘964 000 ‘000 ‘9&6 000 ‘000 ‘909 (2) L881 9881 (Avp 19d suoj[es uy 000 “000 ‘98% 000 ‘000 ‘80F 000 ‘000 ‘T9F 000 ‘000 ‘8 000 ‘000 ‘Sz 000 “000 ‘Sz 000 ‘000 “Le 000 “000 ‘89 000 (000 "49% 000 ‘000 ‘8eF 000 000 "SFE 000 ‘000 ‘LLP 000 000 ‘882, 000 ‘000 ‘488 000 (000 '689 000 (000 “661 000 (000 'F9 000 ‘000 E01 000 “000 661 000 (000 "261 000 (000 ‘801 000 (000 Tee 000 000 ‘seg 000 (000 P48 000 '000 S80 ‘T 000 “000 ‘FOF (03) P3881 000 ‘000 ‘g1% 000 ‘000 ‘268 000 ‘000 ‘TT 000 ‘000 ‘SFT 000 ‘000 “86 000 ‘000 ‘OT 000 ‘000 ‘8 000 ‘000 “99 000 ‘000 “ETT. (000 “000 ‘962 000 “000 “6LF 000 (000 ‘664 000 000 ‘co 000 “000 ‘T6T 000 ‘000 ‘61% 000 ‘000 ‘¢9T 000 “000 ‘F88 000 (000 ‘L469 000 ‘000 ‘6T 000 ‘000 ‘68 000 °000 '@6e 000 (000 'e8& 000 ‘000 ‘FF 000 ‘000 ‘ess 000 ‘000 ‘906 000 ‘000 ‘16F 19Q0}90 Sarat od ieee sme ate ilequieydeg Og; vi in s 12° P CLG see eee ee eee ee eo ** KTeNIQe 7, Ea Sr IG) CP'e “""1a9"@ Ipc Seater, 18°F Oitean 00 100° T Ors "OL NG 99 'P aie ta conien se) terug seat ena. 05 15) 4N,0 11 21 Pee ee we fae talee gas 19°0 leoe |---leo-t lore |store fara | Sy one . - z9quae0eq Geran) al atc miss (Glen (G) || mCP )ae| a(S)r all OG Neale) 4) 00G)on|, see) Gy Say ie) (T) -odvag FOUN) tier -odeag BOUL) -Uieay |-odeag FOUL! Urey |-odeas| FOU] trey Lodwagy|SOUNA) -areay ott ee : H.LNOW 9881 G8s8t F881 6881 881 (So[Iul o1Bnbs Gee = BeIv JUOUIIDIVO) (SoqouL UL) (panui4Uod) AAISAIONI ‘G68T-LLST SUVAA YALVA AHL YO AAAIN NOLOYD JO VLVG ASONOY—LO “ON array J, 393 NEW YORK HYDROLOGY OF 86 Go [LP So |0L SF (6 2979 |TTE |ebk eon 19, Ole Ghee ota es 0 22's erie al ml eOnthes, SLOT [PLT [oe tt Tae pecauelenta eg, uleo oo G20) eee W'g |e" 16 999s See ae HBL Ont OG. mae lpese lege ec peeedl aha Cae sineiig pe a er O00 6 Oo SEE: Pe -@) Soe Ag OE easy T68T ee eee 169 eneere (f) UTOlYVI -OdBA 20° \o0-Fr Jer or aon se al et ich yas dae SURUE pe mene Ie {Fe ST (88 OT ele a pee eg alhove. lees et (468 | OGL /18'Se fpe'g aay Al ang eles “leone ciapunealc see seins leeOe oo late sneer ce Cer aeed bias) ce pe (ose US eee ye) Ge) OCU er vate | Gare O68T. > 09 G& ve" 09_ 68°66 |S Ge |8¢ oc 04 . ee'st [eo'ot fee's oust fare oo'e feun POP “PG .8 | GOS IO Pl 2 198 0 1Ge xe QU SWGPGe iS” sae Gere G0ctn ieee 76°00 |9¢°¢ OO GeviGr On| Wee OOLOI | aga ee Ome (me 69 ASAT /e9'8 [89'S [So TT [PO ST te 9 (kh Ve (GVM OUR A Carel Sn 66/0. (09: 9) aia eee, Se. Seley Cea pales ginal) 25 Ot liane a amy oye |@o 11 HoT UeSECL sl | Gah Vere ia Us ea Gees 98°91 OP's foe's PL'Te fee'0e |19'9 [FF 9F |e0" ee Oise OG Gi le ap ote Oe one UIE eO ial leeeamee Oma nea NGGR Gs mCi Voc \a tune 00 NO Gees SO eeaaiGiee TS) aa CY ee ene (2) | KOC 62°e |2L'e TENG: wal @@aee als goen siGeay Ml COMOpe ea oon F9'F |60'9 ‘Ig0°F |¢o'sS Srore eae 4 IEGaG hs bon eer bes 067 T8G:09\ 5) Were ee o Citra ye ing ees fe) ~(@) meet COACH Ga ee om occa | ts coca ner OUR EL | eteitay \eoateate COUTEIN eouagp 688T betetedl & A881 (panwzuod) DZAISNIONI ‘G68T (So[lul vienbs ¢gs = BaIv jJUSMITIIeO) (seqout ul) cee ee ae see ee wwe ® = = 6 6 6 = 16 eee eee Seay et/e) eu eis) [ej04 ATTVe potsed surystue,deyy IOqUI9AON eee **10Q0190 se wees "requieydeg eee e ewes see potted SurIMmo.y *ATue ee ee ak te we i Jes ++ YouRT * ATSNAQGA AlenuUe pe IoquLe0eq, aia. @ 0) at ia (os eoKey (w HLNOW \ —JIST SUVAA HALVM AH UOL AFATA NOLOUD AO VIVA ATONNY—LO “ON AIAV MUSEUM NEW YORK STATE 394 OT” 8G _ AIs 86 _ of" SP 8&6 Ol” at 86 OF [96 96 (panuyuod) ZAISNTIONI ‘668T > mre Sle er wee Wet aoe as Ieee jase [oo eeco pees |npco og" |" fee'o_ co OL 80" 6 G6 GT Pl OL oO L~ fe a Jeo pee [ooo fees Wis SBN 8B Bot 88 0. ge'9 [10-8 fers us jeu pr lee” ee cUnlesg feoe foi jena CUUBS'g ogee coos fouce SUE ie [ooo ors ce ea Re Tore | nee Ge) aie) (8) (y) | (8) Ng wouar] a | og prow 968T C681 oe 98 98°18 [paar [e0°e. Ve _ a ci ae goy [bee lear fot 79'S “--l60°9 1ey,°9 er et a PERS as GLUT jaro (eet [ee'4 [econ rep ct logo. ee bo Cm el eee teen la Os: gee Sn 90°61 62.4 _|o9°9T [FO 8s [e6'9 Prepon legen ulema caeee: joe lt -lope lees [ct aliate Soe aC] 9 PS ill te OS ca oer clap t lope let one lore lporn leere. Vtee OE sl Sareea ie Sols 0 Pi tale ae CDG) a EtG) mey dag von ara lagehen 94°96 |18°0S |68'08 [84° LE 09° 8h He'g [e0°Fr |66'4 [tee Coupee er GG tT. 12h k Towle Oe te a ewlec 02> |eGn0 My'O _fog'@ |" "kr'0 [aes PSE [68 'O1 Auer jogs jee gt POROs ae etme 2 ON Or eGo ger. GSpeivd. OC2OF aT. < 880 |8e"s (eaten DSS 116 Jaa 90" OF [48° er [86 '% CGiiOe GO te TP ES 198 -@ OW Ge er Pe 8OcT GONO. Gg ean SIS |t9's eee al\Gpatealae es aCe ee raael Gr Over eee cae Pro Op |) Oe ose Ce EG) APG) oun | ee | Saag SOUT! area S681 G68T | act cv “ees 190g “ATI? A ‘potied Surystuce,doy, DE TO a ead 310 (08 Ae AO AL Les eeeeeees® 19q0900 ** Jequreydeq mes potted SULMO.LY) * asnsny SE Aqu {t eevee stnc a Cece Mens «pce esa Makehs)'s soe your yy * LIVNAG9 * ATeNUB Iequle0eq HUNOW (So[Iu e1BNnbs Ges — BoIB JUVUITYI}eO) (saqout uy) —JJST SNVEL AFLVYM FHL WOT ATATY NOLOUS) AO ViIVd TIONAY—LO “ON AAV 395 YORK NEW HYDROLOGY OF 69" 9 _ 9 18°66 |68" Gp [1808 [E67 FG Co_ a7 vy OF |06 8c |PE" 6¢_ 08" G6 08" na UES 0) STi ings rica arate eae sts orc eye] en! Aj .189 K Cesar ii esther cam raed eae ee an en aate eae ee aloe ge tggrgh b iwtav serie et tenn eee - JeqUIeAON ee speed cee alee lipo ter ange tmgie. | sl< ee metres eal ore eaets | Cag oealtacie [Eats Sieg ae Gg'e reese 96 sreancers* largeni 6r'& nighe ies othe dante ete Bid Ponaes teeta arte ; ar oneue sie ‘Avenue pe ae nse oni -nes ep Wig. bee tlaorers ge iu 7 SIASCE Mea ce a ge ee Seteeeens vy - zequie09q] CP) Cael 1G) eG Ce) CG) Ges caer Ce) 2) pends (aNertic .(g) (T) odeagy BON] TE |-oaeam| FOUN | trea |-oamary OU] WF, | Sagan sour | es no HINOW NVOUW | 6681 8681 L681 reat ie re (SO[TUI 2d1Bnbs 6S§ = vPo1B Se eamtneuien ee SPN ST Ae Ta (seqourT uy) (pepnjouod) AAISO'IONT “G68T-LL8T SUVAL YALVM AHL FOU ATAIY NOLOUD JO VLVA AMONNY—JO ‘ON ATAVY, ; MUSEUM NEW YORK STATE 396 ‘sivaA 9u0-A}11G} JO UBvsUI—po}e[Od19}U] x — 9g'T Pee OO mee 16° obese ia ee 191 GGT 97'S =| 7) weou AT TeOX i se0 | 10'T ec'0 | 760 =| 6@T OO eels 2850 Fale 08 1 1g {ported surysraejdey 79 T crs GG"() ideale jee re 1 CLS 86'S 6P 0 99°T GET aE S wie Se OQ UIGAON 690 6L°0 630 290 620 60° T g8°0) OT ee"0) 10°S Gases oe ee aS 1940990 L8T 1s°0 0¢'0 19° Or <) §Sr-0 Ir'0 G60 | 870 | 880 GIO; A) 06 opie et wets saa “ requreydeg gL 0 iia) Fr 0 fee 280 CFO ae 880 910 US RS (OSE "potted SuULMO.L 6F 0 1e°0 8e'0 oT 19°0 GG" () 96° G90) 620 96° 0 GOR lie men ie ese “-qsnsny GG 0) 88 "0 Ir 0 er’ 0 80° T 1e°0 oF 0 ec '() 680 970 GOO SIN SS 2 ea oe alee Ayn CLT Ls |e e500 | 0L20 or’ 0 Te OF el te 7 79"0 a) TCR ete arene ra ILA 10°S 08't | 86% GE-2 Hea PLS Ig" Ww 18°23 18°83 Che ria potted aSv104g Mead 19°0 EG 5] 6¢°T CP'S G9" 1 960 eT Tipe St a 18°2 5 ag REO Papas einem a OL AV ie PES g0'S 1¢'P 68°S vane LES 107 6G" ILS PORE ieee ee aa eS [edy: 00° Lease eo"G 6's 18:z FIs een ee PLS Ce'P GGUEM Sree snr ta “** OLB Lene Ge" 10° GoG Ke ote Gre 660 06'T Cues 69° T Ta owls eden es ye AIENIQO ves 19°0 OT 9F 0 STL Gee SGT GPO. 10° PLT Gove saliwte ys arenas ArenuUe le? 6r'T nO 28 inte 04 0 wes G0 tere a OF 0 6r'S IL Giclee eee aie Taq/uL898C] (1) (11) (01) (6) (8) (1) (9) (g) (7) (g) (Z) ({) 8I8T LLB 9L81 GL8t PSL E181 GL8T TL81 OLST 6981 8981 HINOK (SoTIur alvnbs 6gg = BIB JUNUIqIIVH ‘s[TU sivNbs ed puodes ted Joayz OIqnd UT) HAISQIONI ‘GG8T-SOST SUVAA FALVM AHL XOX WVA NOLOUD GIO LV YAATY NOLOUD AO JHONNY—Q9 ‘ON WIV, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 397 &P I Oc I | “""Uveuu ATIBO Z potsed surystue,doy 19q0190 “-"* Tequieydeg “** "potted Surmory Cec iene Me a, Ce OF Cra eit) ya 8 Orc ota "6 Ye eres, sl ty OSS thy, Ce ee Ayn Fate your neces ATenIqo7 "++ Arenuee * Lequieseq 98'S. | Le GBT rot LOT 6r'T 96'T BO se S268 Lee Ors LL 0 GPO T8°0 620 | LF'0 Oe een weet .0 “90 WP 72° LL'0 69°0 L9'T 820 ec" 0 PL 0 980 CF’ 0 90 6P'T 00°% 18°0 680 Sh 0 SP 0 ag" 0 CLT 680 88°0 870 cg" T 19°% 640 62° 0 Ge'0 Le'0 | 68°0 Os 6g°0 | 68°0 18'0 06° T 640 | 96% | oso | sro 69'0 Ope ere Oe 0 or 0 BLO 66 '¢ c8'0 18°3 0 PP 0 60 68" 0 68° 0 680 680 80° T 3° T eF 0 60°% oF 0 680 890 680 oO | SF'0 IF'0 CG" CL eg | atiel 760 | 890 | 9F°0 ee" 0 go" 0 CG vee arc 69'0 6h e's GES 09°@ So 98° | 69°T Ue oe aa SU Ee tt ke RS per rae T0'T G9'T TST OFT S027 = | nel r0'T 19°0 CPT 80% eI'P 69°% 08'S 60°% aK LI jai! “pT | 89'T 80°F 69° T 6L°e 76°C 16'T Le" T Gore || a6"e €0'F 69°F 9% °@ 18's 40'S 90°F OPP 86 F 81'S Lb'P 86° 64'S 16°8 IP's 98° co'g P'S PBS Plo 88's wT 980 12 1 9c 0 60°% L0'T Sa he PO ERD oP 9) 2 RO ase 1 a OLS SI | PO ag ees (¥) (g3) (83) (1) (08) (61) (ST) (LT) (91) (cT) (FT) 6881 8881 1881 9881 S88T P88 €881 6881 T88L O88T 6181 | (SoTful o1vNnDdDS Egg —= BoIv JUBITOILO ‘o[Tur aivnbs 19d puooes dod Joey orqno uy) ( panwyuo) HAISQIONI “G68T-S9ST SUVAK TALVM FHL XOX WV NOLOUD AIO LY WAATY NOLON) JO ITONNY—R9 “ON AIAV, eteeies 2) BONG eh EE Geo 00 Nae rey ha te week eo) CIOL kOe Pass S|) SOC a Bes a be OE BE 1 Oks0 Vor eee rls wie FO 1 LOT 160 66 T GL 0 C6 T GZ'T S aie r0'T CHEE 88°0 680 ©)0 Bh. O 86°0 : Stee 60'T 80 T 10° 880 C802 Weell0, SSleo 5 880 60° CPT 861 060 910 160 180 a ee ee ie Se OEE eee ue ree ens CBee oA S : F0'T ee aa 60 840 PL'0 98°0 SN eet 00°T G60 els G80 GLO 91°0 PL 0 A eee ¢0'T IA Gia 260 G0 Gg T ¥8'0 % ce'g | ste 88°% aoe | re ee OG 02° 10° eee ae ier Tg 68°e 96'S aa 701 LPT 6L'P SS ene: 0g’ 9L°T 10° | TES Ciac e6°T g8°S 2 cee et 90°9 COS aaa COT 89 °% 80°F 60° Bae she fon re F 061 10'S 160 e8'T Cane ia eae Hie 86° OL'T e0'T GE's teal 6F'T pigs eee aia oe ORO sy SO | ae ee URGE) SORE a (98) (cg) (78) (gg) (2g) (Tg) (0g) (66) UBvOTL 6681 S681. L681. 9681. C681 F681 §681L (So]IU o1BnDS Egg = Bore JUSUITIIVD ‘s[lur saienbds oT Tt C68L 68 1 IL'G O68T 19d puooes tod 4o00f DIqnd Uy) oe ee eee ve eee eee "*-uveur ATIve porsed surystus{doy * LOQULOAON "** 7aqo0O ‘requieydeg “ported SULMOLD eeoeeseee AXLCNAQO, eos ARYL 1equie0e(T (cg) HINOW (PapNjIU09) AATISATONI ‘GGST-SOST SUVAK AALVM AHL AOL WVG NOLOYO AIO LV ATAIN NOLOYD AO TAONNY—8Q ‘ON WIAVA, 098 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 399 Table No. 64 gives the average daily flow of the Croton river at the old Croton dam, including storage draft with catchment area and reservoirs as existing in the given years. This table is com- puted from the observed flow by deducting the quantity corres- ponding to lowering of storage reservoirs or adding the quantity taken to refill, without allowance for evaporation loss from stor- age reservoirs. In his table, the average for each calendar month is given in gallons for each day of twenty-four hours.t In table No. 65 the mean monthly flow of the Croton river at the old Croton dam is given from 1868 to 1899, inclusive, in cubic feet per second” _ In table No. 66 the runoff in inches on the catchment area is given from 1868 to 1876, inclusive. The rainfall is not given because Mr Freeman’s investigations showed that previous to 1877 the Croton rainfall is so uncertain as to make it unsafe to draw comparisons. In table No. 67 the rainfall, runoff and evaporation is given in inches on the catchment area for the water years from 1877 to 1899, inclusive.* | In table No. 68 the mean monthly flow of the Croton river at the old Croon dam is given from 1868 to 1899, inclusive, in cubic feet per second per square mile.‘ It will be seen that the tables on pages 204-5 and on pages 206-7 of Mr Freeman’s report vary somewhat under the different sup- positions on which they have been computed. There is another table on pages 208-9, giving the average daily flow at the new Croton dam exclusive of storage draft with rainfall as in the given year and with reservoirs as in 1902. This table has been computed from the natural flow at the old dam for the given year and month by adding 6.4 per cent for increase in catchment area and de- ducting an allowance for evaporation loss caused by substituting water surface for land surface in the new reservoirs constructed between the given years and 1902. The total catchment area is taken at 360 square miles, with 16.1 square miles—equivalent to 1From pp. 206-7 of Freeman’s report. ; 2This table is based on the table on pp. 204-5 of Freeman’s report. ®The basis of tables Nos. 66 and 67 is the table on pp. 206-7 of Free- man’s report. 4This table is based on the table on pp. 204-5 of Freeman’s report. 400 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 4.5 per cent—as water surface. The quantities in this table are averages for the calendar months in million gallons per day of twenty-four hours. This table is not given here, because it is in effect a computation as to the future yield of this basin. Geologically this catchment lies almost entirely in granites and gneisses, although there is a small area of metamorphic Hudson formation, consisting of slate, schist and quartzite, and also a small area of metamorphic Trenton and calciferous limestones. The present water supply of New York city is derived from th following sources: 1) Catchment of Croton river, thirty-three miles north of New York. 2) Catchment of Bronx and Byram rivers, fifteen miles north of New York. 3) Catchments of a series of streams on the southern shore of Long Island. 4) Ground water which is found underlying a stratum of clay on Long Island and on Staten Island. These statements do not take into account some unimportant well supplies on Manhattan island. Discharge measurements of Schroon river. This gaging station was established at the dam of the Schroon River Pulp Company, two miles below Warrensburg, November 1, 1895, in connection with the upper Hudson storage surveys. During ordinary water an attempt is made to turn the entire flow of the stream through the water wheels, which run twenty-four hours per day, Sundays excepted. This is accomplished by the use of flashboards and by draft from the storage impounded by the Starbuckville dam. The natural flow of the Schroon river is considerably modified by the temporary storage of Schroon lake, which has a low-water area of 9.1 square miles. There is a dam at Starbuckville, controlled by the Schroon River Pulp Company and which stores from 4 to 5 feet in depth over Schroon lake area, which is let down as re- quired for use during the summer months. This fact explains why the Schroon river area apparently yields more water proportion- ately in the storage period than the entire Hudson area and less in the replenishing period. 401 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK POUTEEEY ayy SuLog OS Jad yao} OIQND CGT SB sv Moa ud0q SBY poled siq4 107 MOY — oATSN[OUL sat loe'9e |TL6 10°: lon-ee 991 slelOles 6G 86 | PST 7 ‘T_[P6'T_|6¢ "92 v6 leot Tent 2 aie ction tee : €or fore [ose e970 [out ios rt a fee so Wwe foe 99°T |(80°S \ZP0'T 1280 126°0 [FOP (69°S iol Ph Ik20°C POL. 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Tod Jooy puooes | -4o4B0 043| Tod yooy | puodes | -YO9B00q}! «Od 4ooz uo SOToOUy o1qnO tod ye0F | WO soyoUuy oIquyO ded Joey | UO SoqoUT oIqng orqny orgnyp NVG O06T 6681 MAISQTIONT ‘OOGI-G6ST SUVIN WALVM FHL YOd STII ADAIY LV WAIN MAVHOW AO AIONAY—e) ‘ON ATAVY, (SO[]Ur BIBNDS ScyT = BaIv JUeNITIO}BO)) see eee ee es Ce ee Ce | eeoerr ee ee oe ee ww ee eeeeer eres eer eer ee [e704 10 meow ALTO ZX. oa ete ps Piet. ad Ce pors0d Surystue[doy eee eee eee Ce a) oe eoeew ese ees HLINOW IOQULOAON ** 18q0400 roquie4ydeg Arenue pr Peeks, Be cara HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK i 411 _Geologically the main Mohawk lies largely in the Hudson river shales and schists. The tributaries to the north flow across the Trenton limestone into the unclassified granites and gneisses of the Adirondack region. To the south the tributaries flow across the Hamilton shales and upper and lower Helderberg groups. The headwaters of Schoharie creek—the principal tributary—lie in the Catskill group. Discharge measurements of East Canada Creek. This gaging station is located at the masonry dam of the Dolgeville Electric Light & Power Company, about seven miles from the mouth of the stream. Readings of the depth on the crest are taken twice a day and the mean used in computing the discharge. As at the other stations herein discussed, a record is also kept of the run _ of the water wheels and the elevation of water in the tailrace. The dam is of rubble masonry, 19 feet high, and has a flat crest 6 feet wide. It is 190.25 feet long between the abutments. The following cut shows a section of this dam: = aaa £ \\\, & WY a \ or]? ANY / aT) A We] «ss - ay coe = a VAW ALUN ; pe - Fig. 31 Section of dam on East Canada creek at Dolgeville. 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(¢) aie: ‘wiley ei (=) onlelia: 6) ap asietien ia) ema eee ee ee ewe Sa: ¢ elie (ev) pe) )) m, je) oe) (elec mal ledleln es ca ae e 0) eas) s) el ee wives eo aleemel ie) ante €) elte| Xe) isi le elem) a es) a, (wa aT lena icy el aireue e@seeree ee ee ee ee ee ee we ew ec eo cecee es ee ee ee ee ee we ee Ce ee ee see eee ee ee eee ese ee eee eres eee ce ee ee ee ew eee a: a ©) «© © ey" (© (e je .0 sia, 6) @ 0\ 6 © eo)» (6 (6) (6/10: 09) 616 cece ee eee eee ee ee ee te eee ace eee ewe ee ee ee we DP toe Seta eT a pot qod Surystue[dey I9qUIEAON "19q0990 al ioe! ovneg-0)) oie Iequreydeg Areniqe7 Arenue pe ene Pooalanc jequiese(q (3) (T) puooas rod Jooy ee HLNOW (SeTTM e1BNndDS 9GG BelB JUST OIBD) AAISOTIONI ‘COGI-GERT SUVHA VALVM AHL YOd ATMATN TOG LV MHAUO VAVNVD LSVW AO AAONNY—Pf), ‘ON ATAV 413 MORK HYDROLOGY OF NEW PL & 88° 86 | Org OV % L0°6§ LO9 66° 1 69 9G 2 saggy ene [nt Rae a area | a atk 86 G 866 c8g OV I of}: ati eestor ARs, cote | antes test 9e"@ 19° £98 86°0 el] Me certeee i|bso cava ehete eae 96°0 ver OFS 16°0 _ 601 S00) ey | 908g Oey | Sei | ee Oe ts PU ae |) Me eaains bog Coens 940 v8 0 V6L vL 0 C8 0 Porc Se pues net? PL'e 0c'e P08 89 °() 810 Gate eal aration set) eee 6G°? 66'S ege : 02°? _9F'S SoCs BOB ROT GiB b sf NOG 5) 208 ohh 2 1609 | EB SBE sarc er hs ee Pee cao keen “la: saree 62" CPO 10L Cre 18° Ek a Send eral Rec SD NRC |e ane Le cg"e e1g CLS CLG se eee ° ee se eee 6¢°9 Gor}; 689 ‘T 69°% 60° ieee ere Aicerwcrs 69°0 oh 0 On T 16°0 | 10° Face he ta deal | NOt Gaels olaall Ls eed ematese 00'T CLT 10% 26° 90°T AS Seek a Weenies 5 eres Ree! are ae 2 eg’ ¢ 08°F CEG apa: / 99° j (P) () (3) (Pp) (€) (3) (P) (¢) rayg aoe ey iauet Oru orenbs zed} juour puooses joaenbs tod) yuout puooses joriwnbs 1od| yuout puooes | -4o}B0 o43| 10d Joos puooes | -409R0 0yj| 10d 4ooy puodses =| -99B0 ON4 aed yoo; | UO sOqOUuT oIqnyg dod joo} | WO SOOUT orqny dod jooyf | WO soyOUT orqnp orqny oTqny NVATA 6061 1061 puooes dod joeoy orquy eee nes eae ees e eee ee ee eee eee eee #16: 8 0 6 wet 6 6 ie sie) @ @) @ 6 6) 8 ee) 6) ee e886 5 © ©. 8 Oca 6 8 8, 6 (eu me eevee eene , , eee Ce ee eee ee eee eee eee HLNOW [8303 10 uvour ApIVOX a a 6 ol Pw Slee svene poras0d Surystue[deyy IOqQULOAON 79q0190 "srs Joqureydeg eesee ACW a eee ludy “** GOIvy ATEN.AGOT oss" ATenmer 7 5" Tequrede(T eee eevee eee (So[Iur o1BnbdsS 967 = BaIv JUEUITIOIBO) (papnjouod) HAISO'TIONI ‘ZOG6I-66R] SUVAA UALVM AHL LOT WITAMOTOG LV AAANO VAVNVD LSVY TO MIONOY—P) ‘ON AIAV 414 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM From the date of establishing the station at Dolgeville in 1898 to June 1, 1899, the discharge was computed from a curve derived from Cornell University experiment No. 13. From June, 1899, it has been computed from a revised curve, based on experiments by John R. Freeman on a model of the round-crested portion of the Croton dam, which corresponds with the section of the Dolge- ville dam as regards friction, vertical contraction, siphonage, etc. The flow through the turbines has also been computed since June, 1899, from current-meter measurements in the tailrace, instead of the manufacturers’ rating tables, as formerly. The effect of the changes has been to slightly increase the extremes of flow—both as regards high and low water—the flow for the mean stage remaining substantially the same. This dam is prac- tically watertight and no allowance is made for leakage. The headwaters of this stream lie in the horizon of the granites and gneisses. It crosses the Trenton group and the Hudson river shales. Discharge measurements of West Canada creek. Measurements of West Canada creek have been made at Middleville at the timber dam of the Nelson Knitting Company, which supplies power to four mills. Aside from an ice slide, the crest of this dam is nearly level. The leakage of the dam is taken at 50 cubic feet per second, although the leakage is stated to have increased so much during 1901 as to lead to the abandonment of the station. The following cut shows cross-sections and profile of this dam: El. 101.50 El. 101.60. THM eis 32 ee a 8 eee a Stone ee ee eee G) 5 a eae 45.65— - —— = poe wall { | 1. 97.03 El. 97.03 oe El. 97 y | YZ Fig. 82 Cross-sections and profile of dam on West Canada creek at Middleville. : 415 YORK NEW IZYDROLOGY OF S10. Ww) 6 «| 8'||e 6) o 6 ¢) ¢ ||\'s.1e.. 0 son 6 got 78°98 aro‘ | Gl'T j99°e |req™ | Ce eG &L 0 Cs ci Ce ee © cere #78 | a 6.10: 68) aullie = 16 le) ee ee eer elo we eee ele wn eee er meee ee Roe Ree ae @ felis) 60. 1a ers) et kuen 6)/|!\6. ew) 8 «ene eee ee elo w eee ele we were ona) a a, e 28) 16) mre, 0 ks) et |he anim wre ce 0°@ [6F'0G [eee ‘T Ioe'e PAT Jole‘r fro's fe6'6t eo"r fre |oo' Te Jorg‘T J Rhee, ave 'o ee ae eal OFS PITT Oat COS P66 | 08°% CSE gcp ‘T sv feo e.,0) (oye) 6! 80) e) @) ure) ie) (9) 78 o2a a) Soe 6 |) Bote re) ee bs)| (eras sie Fee S19 CQ 9 LOT S$ 08’ 9x PO’ Lie 996 '&x|8h 9 eS, cge yO SU oc ONC me Sle) 8) eee Ilsa wisw) wren e) |e ier eure) ee [G'S 96°% 082 ‘T I@r Sx QU” Sse BOG ‘Tx|96'S 09°% Oviae Bie e's) wie ie) elias) «ee. 6 Ops 6, Wire elliien ee ee 6/6) eo) 6 8 ee 03° T CZ I FE9 PL Sx CS Se 601 Tx!Z0°S 61'S P6S ‘T Ci Oey a Or Us ecm Uncen) Ce Ce eC Cc i 89 'T e6'T IL8 29° 0's 998 ‘T 12% Po OSL T Sos) 's)@, Seis) 8 Suis) Ce) a7 eis) ens i id NEI DSW AA a UL a i CS HE Ue ag he () | Ce) | (i |’) | (e) | @) | @ | () | @ | | @) |-@) Q aie o) Q EA Q Q = Q Q ay Q Rin ea a: Be | ef | So |Bea| ce | a |eea)| ee | $8 | Bes | se | 8s Lr} eh mr) yet Leas) La) Gr] Eh eh Dor] Eh =) p e| ge | Be |g S| 8 | 82 |e | 8 | BB |e°8| ge | 28 ols) ct 3 | Boo ct og | eos ct oe | Boe | Be cs Poe solara eee |e | a PRBS Gale Be See | eS uBeW TO6T O06T 6681 ‘106L PUB G68 UL SYJUOU SuIpuodsot10d) JO UBO;[—p1ODEI ON + 90°C: |20 Ss \TLO T 68 T LoL _|SL'0 [eas _|F92 LO Go 1S Se Gee TE Acc o rene 98°0 |66°0 |ShP |29'0 |TZ’°0 |Fee 080 |68°0 |6lr |ee"0 [sco |r Poe ike 68°0 |20°1 |e9F 18°0 |00°L |1¢F 840 |L8°0 90% cy 0 ef 0 \Eee 69 0 |1L 0 |P6e 94°0 _|28°0 [268 (Sse[It orenbs g[g— varie yuoUTYO}B)) G9'Se |ES6 I oe te Pe ered ere ier eseoere ee eee sew wwe eoe see eee ee eee wee we we eww eee eee Hw Sew ws eV ce ee He se ec Ce ee | CC cone ees 1¥904 10 uve ATIvOX wNelvaleceweiye. wrens porzed Surystue [doy a ofa le eve 19q UIOAON ©, Gite aise Selva tel ie? malar Set ecg hn es ROO POC) Sige ahar eaiet ake ninerereeene nes Sr rIequreydeq Sele Ale We ghee a! ea ce Blo e NR 6m Meer olece Ayn ib rea Ter Ole WC Ys a OC Aes VC Mo ye ae CE ee ee AIVNAGO,T Bic a a a ORL ET Pate suesere: «ts coro Ae REE aPeLUNae ea weve: Wane eww. seers oe T9q U1e809(, HLNOW WAISOTIONI ‘TO6l ‘AVAN—668T SUVAA UALVM AHL YOM ATTAAICAI, LY WHAYD VAYNVD LSTA JO AAONODY—C) ‘ON ATAVY, 416 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Geologically the headwaters of this stream lie in the horizon of the granites and gneisses. It flows across the Trenton group and Hudson river shales. Discharge measurements of Sauquoit creek. This station is at a dam which is the property of the. New York Mills, used to operate an extensive cotton mill. The dam is of earth, with timber facing, having a spillway 105.8 feet in length. The following cut shows cross-section and longitudinal profile of this dam in comparison with Bazin’s series No. 175: BAZIN’S SERIES No. 175 El. 500.0 L/ El. 499.3 A Vilddilda 4,4 6.5 I ryt e 1.6-48.0 - 88,7 ~~ 8:4>4!48.91 -20-7- 10,81 19:5 hte 17: 6- 5 ! lia! Vs I ® = I = je coll la ; ee E1.496.32 ie 1g is e | 1S | Ne 5 tal: | qi LED 496.18 | 8 |E1. 496.19 R El. 496.04 p77) EL. 496.05 f7 ay Z 7 7 I Fig. 33 Cross-section and longitudinal profile of dam on Sauquoit creek at the New York Mills, in comparison with Bazin’s series No. 175. When this station was established in the fall of 1898 the dam was watertight and leakage consequently neglected, but the state- ment is made that in May, 1900, the leakage was found to be 5.6 cubic feet per second and the station was accordingly abandoned in October, 1900. The flow has been computed, using Bazin’s series No. 175, for which reference is made to the paper On the Flow of Water Over Dams. Geologically this stream lies in the horizon of the Hamilton shales, crossing the Helderberg and Salina groups. Discharge measurements of Oriskany creek. This station is located at the canal feeder timber dam at Oriskany, with a crest length of 214 feet. The profile is irregular and has been divided into three sections to facilitate computation. The dam is about four feet in hight. A section is shown in the following cut. Fig, 84 Cross-section of dam on Oriskany creek at Oriskany. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 417 The coefficients derived from Cornell University experiment No. 14 have been used in computing the flow over this dam. The flow "of Oriskany creek represents the natural runoff of the tributary catchment modified by pond storage, with additional flow during the summer months due to diversion from storage reservoirs on the Chenango river catchment, through the summit level of the aban- doned Chenango canal, into Oriskany creek. The natural catch- ment area above the gaging station is 144 square miles, while that of the Chenango river, made partially tributary through Chenango eanal, is 87 square miles. The effective catchment area during the navigation season is therefore 231 Square miles, while the effective catchment area with canals closed is 144 square miles, less the storage of the several reservoirs. These reservoirs are situated in Madison, Eaton, Nelson and Lebanon townships in Madison county, and include Hatch lake, Eaton brook, Bradley brook, Leland pond, Madison brook and Kingsley brook reservoirs. Their main characteristics and storage capacity in cubic feet are shown by the following tabulation: . Catchment Distance eee 2 St Storage Name of reservoir aeaiaes ieee depth, Barre capacity. miles miles feet acres cubic feet (1) (2) @) | @ (5) (6) EG ARKO ois eo oi cere | rece tee oe 36 10 134 58, 370, 400 faton brook 2: 3... 10.6 38 50 254 5538, 212, 000 Beaatey WEGOK 353 21. en ee 35 25 134 145, 926, 000 TTC St eee as i ee 25 “oe RRS Git 59, 287, 000 Madison brook......... 9.4 29 40 235 460, 647, 000 Minesley brooke o.s...) . 2-2. 2". 33 20 113 98, 445, 600 To‘al storage...... ee: | ee | itn 3 | es 1,375, 887, 000 In examining tables Nos. 76 and 77 it will be seen that the runoff of Oriskany creek is considerably larger than the adjacent Sau- quoit creek, but on making the proper deductions for these reser- voirs the two will be found to be substantially the same. Geologically this stream lies in the horizon of the Hamilton shales, crossing the Helderberg and Salina groups. MUSEUM NEW YORK STATE 418 ‘s1Bod $ snorAoid Ul syquour deo AL 100 jo we — ~ px0904 ON x 10" a Teer eee ou ile 60°91) Lo 160 FTE Ca MUSE, Ph eke re Se A Ct OT aaa eeRereMalay sauaitese:aeaae 1240} 10 WeeUL A[aIvOK SO e9° E | 9% 090 0 80'S | 18 Le 96" 0 ‘0 | eer | 6F 060 90'S ae Gini Sto Sablombouta. ie6 oF acon 8's) ig ieiltenel potred Surysiuedoy St Ps 99 orl pee eae ae ae 9 08’ Ox 06 Ox CPx 0S 0 9c" 9z Ont ee T LG Beate) GS OAR ee ae ee 2 eae OU EO MONT Pep Oboco. OY CHOenpEC alll city Cacia 6c Tai 18 Ox! L&sx ee" () 82°) LI 80'T £2 T 9¢ oa ae ea Mie Sec sii eects Aa ASR (oH OYTO Y (fi) Seb oe eetesce as 68'0- reas SO) 096 98" “0. 62" Or aylieas "0 9c" () ee ape amok CoieBe tial atuatinssete LiaMetsaraalate soe me melemar sieceheas ite eke to ehaate raquieydeq LP'0 Toy ee 9¢°9 | 68° L | & ge'o | Te LT | 0¢ Sees aanar eal hats Ae il CREE er Aeneas eT eRe Boge INNS kort octal io: atinks porred Surmo.1y eee eweloer eee elon eo eee er 0 6r' 0 bard T2°0 920 OT Rig, ont spell m nsee i|aps eve nai aie mam 8 4 rye ings ace sie eeite 2 eiinenae 9) Ocak Rs tl cece meaner Tac Ta Eiee. axfeejiieien © ened is sues «(6 69'0 TL'0 ee 620 CPO 02 Se. se ete) |etaretewaas|sete exe.\epe | nie 60 ot chp evietelietisie: = (als) ee ein ave six mA op neat ae, eager in k aeS eAW ENTS a a ae a a i rn (Oe eG Se Oe ea lah deh fore bree pee ic Tee seeee gor sr 01 08 08 cot ea 98 CPT 616 C) PIPar ees |e Me ne || Ree SAU FaMen Me lakh Mh. coer eh yerema e terse eRe aece See potted e8e.104¢ = eras eae C60 60° 1 67 FL, 0 cso ge ORC A RR eel Ae! | CCRC I Be Ne Cee ae ina care Ac CCM emer Otomo Oere Germ acer Ul Olr Ab ACW 2A ae ie ae 99°S 66°S QeT LPS Ch 2 L&T meget ie ij eeceehgs etl ne = xe |iai igon lon ePeyataly in o/s ss nin f+. 216s -ayik Nie egos sash OU Sic enact eaaen TTR Sa ea ere ee ee cot | 06° | #8 Ore | ere ITE Meterletere: een en [oneness te eee cease aes oe esa met G2 ekew=le wee 8 © 6'lie 6 se se 6 Q'S 16°% OFT aia OVE OE 9G passe) 6:6: -scxne se: sual Sie oiscusl [ime measur asin ts Aael spon ie genveueet Ocs 2 ele re es oa eee MUENRTUCOl SnD CC ee ee 0 OFT 1I9'T Ch CLT 631 8G winée wl ewe bel ei me eer ee..e aceme leer le 5 ayrteeiu Senshi el Winp ae iageste ete ab eats saERg Ee Te ee AQT EN UN Pek is ibe oe eevee 9G 0 +9 0 66 OF T 9% il LG Shdeileto estes tay ecleltelliel eee es. e)|) ese) exe ietuseielie [hl mivalie np meriny 6) elles (eke) mires) 6 egeme) 18 (egal el eee. 186) 6 Tequled9(] areca ce)! Cp) (2) cae) sl) Ce) exes Gp) te) | (8) (T) ° = a a M4 fo) Q ay Qa fo) a a Boel ec 2 lege) eg.) 5 eae | ge bo eee | es | FOe | so So | Sa] fo oo |§6a| So Be |ESo0 | to oo HB eb fay Ob | Suben jer O kth EH jal QO | SB es >? Oey one | Be SS | eae! Bo 53 |e 82) Bo BS | e823] Be g$ [aS ce ee a) Bie oF ag |e | ee ar | Bt oe act HLNOW sgz| "2 | @|egs| "2 | 2 [5EE/ "S| 2 eee] *E |: NVaW 006T 668T. S68T. (sopIur o1enbs gg — BIB JUNIO.) HAISNTIONI ‘OO6I-6681 SUVHA UMLVM AHL WOU STII, WHOXR MAN LV WaAAYO LIONOAVS AO ATONOYWY—9L “ON WIV 419 NEW YORK HYDROLOGY OF See | OS0G Uy ley LOD 99° 6F 8s 686 Vie C8 '§ Vor C6 0 ves wet Ss 1 97 TP 161 eee dt ee nee nae bles a octoe he QI 66° I acre 6r'S LL 09¢ FA rete annie eee tes ar kee eke treeetaeae ¢ 6G°0) 990) CR e9*() a0 16 pM ait eae ee ale ee EE) ec 34; EO OW) | 96h 880 | T0'E Wate GO) Oc) (ee ciel vad ole e0. Mer to ce iemeen Ceory ata mien IL 0 180 01 66 | SP I 981 a be #: hee 69 0 6140 OOT ce I bP I OSL ge ae _99°0 GLO G6 690 LEO te 0's $9 I 166 | 86 HOSE | O66 | 81S | Pe FT 908 es le ake a ee cus 6 0 80° 1 9ST 68 0 C6 0 6LT SP ae ake | Pc Reis ~ 88°¢ LL Ss 88P 6 § 09° € 99P ae bs deal ; L9G LO°S 98§ LEG SL °% GPS , aa) hig ee Sake 69 'G GL G SLE 60°G OLS 166 ie cei Beeches tie 8g 1 6¢ 1 661 FOG CEG C66 Riche: Ranea tots ts 29°) Lh ae Sued = ease jeer (F) | (g) (2) (F) (g) (g) (F) ee @ Oyu | OTUL oyru oienbs zed! yuo puooss jortenbs 19d) 4uour puooes jor1enbs tod} 4yuour puooses puooss | -y99R0 943) Jed yoos puooes | -qo7B0 oy4| aAed Qooz puooess | -Yo7vd 04}] ed Joo dod yooy | UO soyoUT orquy) tod Joos | UO SOyoUT oIqnyD dad Jooy | UO SoqoUT oIqng dTQND orqny SIQny NV 006T 6681 a PERE lies hot ive He! vo Pel ete w [@}09 10 weouUrL AT.1BO X CUS e Mee Cel iviae (6) vehi e Gene ‘*-pored Surystae;doy sre esp! ve ons) btYe laa, Loe dalle CREE Ae BME Io eee RNC Eee cae 10q0990 5 teehee M ate JIoquieydeg "++ SULMOLD ace. 6 \efeyi) wire So ees ane Wire alge) ede) ee ere) ene) muer eile) le Se) 6) (ele eee 6 ls (0 15) es eh eeiy ec) eve) eS oP (pene 6, .6 fw) ie o- o fe fee Sen eee 8 es, (eure 6 ree te: kale wh ew tbh mye ee) (ene eee lalp isle Se ies ce! Boe is) wee (eh 2 eis, ©) Swe vrs ATeNIQeT vos: ATenwerp Pe Cig 18 eee eo. ‘1sequledeqd HoINOW (sorrur o1Bnbs FFT — Bore JueUIYOZRD) HAISQIONI ‘O06I-G68T SUVAA UALVM AHL WOT ANVMSIUOQ LV WATYO ANVUSINO AO AAONAY—})), ‘ON WAVY, 420 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Discharge measurements of Eaton and Madison brooks in 1835. Eaton and Madison brooks are in the central-eastern part of Madison county and tributary to Chenango river. The catch- ment area of Eaton brook is given at 6800 acres, or 10.6 Square miles, and that of Madison brook at 6000 acres, or 9.4 Square miles. TABLE No. 78— RAINFALL AND RUNOFF OF EATON BROOK Rai Rainfall f Runoff f ee ain- a d oO MONTH fall 6,800 aeeese. 6.800 aureda anon! to rainfall (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1835 Inches Cubic feet Cubic feet TNS ye rete ht ee ete 2 eee 6.72 | 165,876,480 | 59, 407, 394 35.8 Sun lege scot cae, meee ees Clee We Reed 2.74 | 67, 634, 160 27, 994, 240 41.4 PASO bias aptamer ec ee Mos 2.86 70, 596, 240 18, 547, 058 19.2 September’ 20. Oe wae soe ae 1.34 | 33,076, 560 9, 586, 513 29.0 October aes a3. Sew easements 3.0 74, 052,000 | 20,694, 651 27.2 INGWEIMbeh fh. y 2s fie en lca 2.20 54, 304,800 | 28,772, 620 43.8 IDECena eI ts. ie. ld ce EO 0.96 | 238,696,640 | 36,525, 544 54.1 June to December, inclusive ...| 19.82 | 489,236,880 | 191,528,020 | 39.2 June to October, inclusive......| ..... 411, 235, 440 | 181, 229, 856 31.9 TABLE No. 79—RAINFALL AND RUNOFF OF MADISON BROOK Rai Rainfall f Rnnoff f een ; nia n Oo MONTH fall. 6.000 wares? 6,000. acceea oneae to rainfall (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1835 Inches Cubic feet Cubie feet Snow of November-December, 1834 sonterounde 7.5. vane bs hee 87,120,000) | ..... 30... SIERO EE by deta egos ia amen ite gaa iveds. | (2.47 1.47, 262,600.) 28, 1927073 49.1 IG Ga ey V2 citer iee ts cee heaee Been 2.50 | 54,450,000 | 35,377,594 64.9 STG ces i a Od A sei ee ik iain 1.03 | 22,443,400 | 48, 284, 656 192.8 WA OTL 3c ian, See coeds, aetna ae 5.0 108,900,000 | 80,776, 974 (451 Wein Gicent tt Ar eee ak nin ee ee 1.98 | 48,124,400 | 58,013,176 184.5 CLATSOP hainnaeen ee owed tenets ehcamne oe 8.05 | 175,329,000 | 20,138, 006 11.5 UR Leys t bec. nade ieee pes eR Re ee 8.87 | 84,288,600 |} 238,141, 302 27.4 INPOUISE. PEI CA ioe eR On 3.06 | 66,646,800 | 28, '725, 060 35.6 SepLemiber sis cp oe hoe ue oe ae 0.88 19,166,400 | 19,158, 957. 99.9 GELGBE Es iok oe ee ee oe 8.86 | 84,070,800 | 19,544, 880 23.2 MowemWer) 25: hicue cee ee eee 2.10 | 45,'738,000 | 18, 282, 872 39.9 IDeGenmber — s.. er e e Oe 0.76 16,552,800 | 19,401,364 11722 January to December, inclusive.| 35.26 | 855,092,800 | 383, 986, 420 44.9 January to May, inclusive......| ..... 363, 300, 400 | 240, 644, 479 66 .2 June to October, inclusive...... 429, 501, 600 | 105, 708, 205 24.6 eeeee HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 421 The following statements in regard to these measurements are abstracted from Mr Jervis’s report + From the Eaton brook results it appears that the average runoff from June to December, inclusive, was 39.2 per cent of the rainfall and from June to October, inclusive, 31.9 per cent of the rainfall. The minimum monthly runoff was in August, which shows only 19.2 per cent of the rainfall. The rainfall in the month of June, 1835, on Eaton brook was 6.72 inches and in July 2.74 inches. The per- centage of runoff to rainfall for June was 35.8, whereas for July it was 41.4, which would indicate that the bulk of the June rain must have been at the end of the month. From the measurements of Madison brook it appears that in 1835 the average runoff for the whole year, including the snow on the ground on January 1, was 44.9 per cent, or nearly one-half of the rainfall. Mr Jervis points out that on account of the storage of the reservoir, the Madison brook record can not be taken for the summer months, but that the year should be divided into two periods. For the first period he gives the results from Jan- uary to May, inclusive, during which the runoff was 66.2 per cent of the rainfall, and for the second from June to October, during which the runoff was 24.6 per cent of the rainfall. During the second period, June to October, inclusive, Eaton brook gave a runoff of 31.9 per cent of the rainfall. Mr Jervis explains these different results by the different characters of the two districts _ drained. Eaton brook valley is narrow, the area drained steep, with a close-textured soil. Madison brook valley, on the other hand, is wider, with easy slopes, and the soil is more porous than that on Eaton brook. Mr Jervis-concludes his discussion with the remark that Eaton brook valley would afford more than 1For Mr Jervis’s original report see appendix F to Ann. Rept. Canal Com., 1835, Ass. Doc. No. 65, pp. 55-60. Mr Jervis’s tables, with extracts from the report, are also quoted in the following documents: (1) Report of F. C. Mills, Chief Engineer Gen. Val. Can., in appendix D to Ann. Rept. Can. Com., 1837, Ass. Doc. No. 80, p. 81. (2) Report of W. H. Talcott, Res. Eng. Gen. Val. Can., 1840, Ass. Doc. No. 96, p. 51. (3) Report of the Regents of the University, 1838, Sen. Doc. No. 52, pp. 208-211. (4) Documentary History of the New York State Canals by S. H. Sweet, Dep. State Eng. and Sur., 1863, Ass. Doc. No. 8, pp. 203-204. 422 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM an average runoff over a large district of country, including the usual varieties of soil, while Madison brook would probably not differ materially from the general average in this State. In his documentary history of the New York State canals,! S. H. Sweet analyzes Mr Jervis’s measurements of discharge of Eaton and Madison brooks and points out several probable errors, specially in the Madison brook result, where because the measure- ments indicate only what. was actually discharged through the sluice pipes each day instead of what drained off from the valley, he concludes that the real drainage of the Madison brook area in “1835 was about 0.518 of. the rainfall, instead of 0.449, as given by Mr Jervis. Jnasmuch as the Eaton brook and Madison brook measurements have only historical interest at the present time, this branch of the subject is not here pursued at length. So far as can be learned the measurements of these two streams by Mr Jervis were the first systematic measurement of the runoff of streams in the United States. Geologically Eaton and Madison brooks lie in the horizon of the Hamilton shales. MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW OF STREAMS The maximum flow of a stream is. merely another name for flood-flow, and since floods are very destructive in New York the general causes may be briefly considered. A typical New York stream rises in the hills and mountainous. country at the sides of the valleys and flows down, with declivities. steepest at the headwaters and in its lateral tributaries, the main stream growing flatter toward its mouth. The profile of nearly all New York streams is therefore roughly concave in form. Streams having a concave profile are ordinarily divided into. three portions, as follows: 1) The upper or torrential portion, where erosion is active and in excess of deposition. 2) The normal portion, where erosion and deposition are about equal and the stream is neither lowering nor raising its bed. 3) The alluvial portion, where deposition exceeds erosion and the bed is gradually being raised, and where also this raising of TAnn. rept. State Engineer and Surveyor for 1862. HYPROLOGY OF NEW YORK 493 the bed, together with the alluvial banks, permit of sudden and extensive changes in channel location at times of floods. This concavity of profile, with its resulting diminution of velocity, is one of the potent factors in the causation of floods, since it permits flood waters to be brought to points having sharp concavities of profile or abrupt flattening of grades more rapidly than the chan- nel will carry the same away, producing at such points temporary accumulations of water with an attendant overflow. It is not to be understood that the profile of any stream is a perfectly smooth concave curve, nor that the grades grow progressively flatter without interruption as one passes down stream. Local causes interfering with regularity of flow, and geological formations interfering with the vertical erosion of channels, cause interruptions in the regularity of the concave profile. The Genesee river is a characteristic type of this inter- ruption by geological causes. Whatever the regularity or irregu- larity of the profile may be, however, it is safe to expect that if floods occur at all on a: stream, they are more certain to occur where the stream slope grows suddenly or decidedly flatter or where extensive local obstructions or restrictions occur." In order to correct the excessive flows produced by the fore- going conditions the stream may be trained or regulated in a number of ways; such training is commonly called river regula- tion or river conservancy. Antiquity of river regulation or conservancy. River regulation, or river conservancy, is very old, and there is scarcely a phase of it that has not been considered at some time in the Old World. The Chinese rivers, particularly the Hoang-ho, were regulated by dykes and embankments over 4000 years ago. The same is true of the Kuphrates and many other rivers on which were situated the cities of the ancient world. This statement is specially true of the river Tiber, at Rome. In the year 53 B. C.—1957 years ago—a proposition was brought forward in the Roman senate for moderating the frequent inundations of this stream, which re- sulted in the appointment of five senators as a river conservancy commission, to whom was assigned the task of so regulating the volume of water in the river that there might be “ no deficiency 1Abstract from the Report of the Water Storage Commission. 424 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in Summer and no injurious excess in winter.”! So far as known this was the earliest river conservancy commission. This com- mission does not appear to have regulated the river very effectively, since many inundations occurred afterwards, and in 1495 A. D. an accurate record of overflows was commenced. The flood of 1495 was, with a few exceptions, one of the heaviest known. Since that time serious floods have occurred on the Tiber in 1530, 1557, 1598, 1606, 1637, 1660, 1686, 1702, 1750, 1805, 1843, 1846 and 1870. The town of Ostia, when founded, in 633 B. C., was at the mouth of the Tiber and soon had 80,000 inhabitants. In the course of years Ostia was deprived of its port by the silt carried down by the Tiber. Thereupon the Emperor Claudius, about the beginning of the Christian era, presented to the Roman senate a project for forming a port three miles from the original mouth. A basin, with two.moles, a breakwater, towers and a lighthouse, was executed and a canal opened to connect with the river. This canal silted up towards the end of the first century. The Emperor Trajan repaired the port, adding an internal basin. The canal which still forms the navigable mouth of the Tiber was opened about 110 A. D. Plutarch, in his life of Julius Cesar, states that Cesar intended to remedy the evil by deepening the mouth of the Tiber, but that his death prevented the accomplishment of this task. An extraordinary inundation of the Tiber is mentioned by the younger Pliny, in his letter to Micrinus, as occurring in the reign of Trajan, who, as already stated, built a canal which still exists. The present length of this canal is about two and one-half miles.” In reference to the reason why the Roman senatorial river conservancy commission did not succeed there is but one remedy which can be applied to a river in order that there may be no deficiency in summer and no injurious excess in winter, namely, water storage. The valley of the Tiber does not present the proper conditions for applying this remedy. In its lower reaches the Tiber flows through a broad plain, while in its upper reaches, “Tithe Tiber and Its Tributaries, by S.A. Smith, 1877, p.60 2W. Shelford, on Non-tidal Rivers, Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LX XXII, pp. 7-8; and The Tiber and Its Delta, by Prof. Ponzi, Proc. Inst. O. E., Vol. XLVII, pp. 342-344. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 425 the yalleys are narrow, with steep slopes, accordingly rendering it impossible for large quantities of water to be stored. So far as known, aside from Black river, Raquette river and one or two others in this State, there are no rivers anywhere on which the task assigned to the Roman river conservancy commission could be successfully applied. On Black river it is not difficult to construct a single reservoir, which practically controls 1889 square miles of catchment area. The Raquette river can also be thus controlled by a single dam at Tupper lake. If it were not for the location of towns near the water level, the Seneca river could be controlled by a series of dams at the foot of the Finger Lakes. ee River regulation on the Seine. The Seine is the most important river of France, not only on account of its being the highway for a flourishing inland trade, but in consequence of engineering works which have been carried out for its improvement. On this stream, the same as on others, the occurrence of high floods is due to the concentration of the rainfall at special periods of the year. The rainfall is considerably greater in the summer than in the winter months, but owing to evaporation the rains of Summer have com- paratively little influence upon the flow of the river, although a heavy rain during the winter months falling upon a saturated soil, when evaporation is inactive, causes a flood of which the hight depends upon the amount of saturation of the basin by previous rains and the duration of the rainfall. Daily readings of the hight of the river have been kept at Paris since 1782. During this time, thirty-one ordinary floods, twelve extraordinary, and two exceptional floods, in December, 1740, and in January, 1802, have occurred. A list is also given of five exceptional floods occurring between 1649 and 1732. In 1658 a severe flood followed the breaking up of the ice in the river after severe cold weather lusting five weeks. Of the forty-five large floods recorded since the commencement of the daily observations in 1732 only three occurred in the warm season, two of them appearing in the month of May and one in the month of September. The foregoing shows that regular floods of the Seine at Paris are almost wholly con- fined to the cold season. iThe River Seine, by L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXXXIV, p. 210. 426 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM A record of floods has also been kept on a number of other important French rivers, as the Garonne, of which special studies were made over forty years ago, the Loire and the Rhone, all of which are the subject-of special extended memoirs. A number of rivers of Germany and Austria have been studied carefully for from 50 to 100 years, but in the United States sub- stantially nothing had been done until about twenty years ago, from whence it results that river conservancy is a new subject here, many persons supposing that nothing has ever been done anywhere. Definition of river regulation or conservancy. The term river regulation or conservancy may be considered as comprising the following objects: 1) The preservation and improvement of a stream for domes- tic, sanitary and industrial purposes. 2) In the case of navigable streams, their maintenance and regulation for navigation. 3) The culture and preservation of fish. 4) The effectual drainage of the district through which a stream runs. 5) The abatement of injury to lands by floods. The cause of floods is, broadly, excessive and irregular rain- fall, although very heavy rainfalls may occur without causing a flood. General statements of why this is so have been made in the preceding paragraph regarding the river Seine. Indeed, an investigation into rainfall shows that the intensity of floods is due only very remotely to the amount of rainfall. On the contrary, floods are very closely related to hight of ground water. On Genesee river, in August, 1893, when as the result of a serious summer drought ground water was very low, a rainfall. of several inches only produced a slight flood of about 4000 cubic feet per second, whereas in July, 1902, preceded by rain enough to fill the ground with water, about the same amount of sud- den rainfall produced a devastating flood of from 20,000 to 30,000 cubic feet per second! Many other examples could be 1Floods on Genesee river vary greatly in intensity. A flood of from 30,000 to 40,000 cubic feet per second at Mount Morris is not likely to pro- duce, owing to temporary storage on the flats, a flood of more than 20,000 cubic feet per second at Rochester. The preceding statement considers the flood as measured at Mount Morris. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 427 cited of this general truth, but, as the object at present is not specially to multiply proof on this point, a single one is sufficient, although it is proper to remark that the same phenomenon has been observed on many other streams. Torrential and gently flowing rivers. In addition to the classi- fication as to concavity of profile, given on a preceding page, rivers may be divided into two classes; (1) torrential, and (2) gently fiowing rivers. The rivers of the first class have considerable fall and usually flow over impermeable strata, while those of the second class flow over alluvium. Many of the streams -of New York State belong to both classes—in their upper reaches they are torrential, while. in their lower they are gently flowing. This distinction is important to bear in mind in treating of the question of floods, because the floods of torrential rivers, while high, are of brief duration. Gently flowing rivers, on the contrary, have lower floods, but they continue for a longer time and are therefore likely to be much more injurious. In New York State the torrential streams gener- ally flow through deep valleys and in many cases present excellent opportunities for water storage. Usually the valleys of gently flowing streams are not suitable for storage reservoirs—the cost of the necessary barrage would in many instances, at any rate, prove insuperable. General principles of river regulation as defined by von Wea. Perhaps as interesting a paper as any is one by Gustay Ritter von Wex, Privy-Councilor to the Emperor of Austria, in which the governing principles of river regulation are so clearly set forth that one can hardly do better than to give an extended extract therefrom. Von Wex’s memoir is limited to a brief general summary of the first principles requisite to the successful regulation of intractable rivers. The quotation follows: In every case, first of all the upper course of the river must be dealt with separately, and then the lower portion of it, to- gether with its mouth, whether it empties itself into an estuary or into the open sea. From long’ experience it has been ascertained that every river or stream, following its natural course through wide tracts *The Conservancy of Rivers, by Wm. H. Wheeler and Arthur Jacob, Proe. Inst. C. B.,- Vol. LXVIT, pp. 201 and 233. 428 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of level country, invariably, if the banks consist of deposits of earth or gravel, attacks them, the lighter particles being carried away, the heavier being deposited in the bed of the stream, so that in course of time its width increases while its depth de- creases, and at the same time islands, sandbanks, bends, creeks and by-channels. are formed. In rivers thus left to nature, the fall, mean velocity and force of the current are continually: decreasing while the river- bed is rising; this naturally raises the general water-level relatively to the adjoining country, and exposes it to frequent inundation, the effects of which are disastrous floods and the formation of innumerable branches and by-channels which inter- sect the whole country, flooding and swamping it at every rise of the river, and rendering it in time unfit for habitation by either man or beast. Instances of this kind are at the present time to be met with in many parts of the world, notably in Asia, Africa and America. In order to deal effectually with such cases, namely, to abate the floods, and to prevent disasters accompanying them, as well as the ultimate formation of trackless swamps, the following procedure is recommended : 1) A new channel following the course of the valley should be carefully laid down by the superintending engineer, either in a direct line or with easy bends, and when excavated, the entire body of water should be admitted into this new channel, the old bed and all by-channels being filled up. 2) Having carefully determined— a) The discharge per second at low, mean high water level of a cross-section of the river, either immediately above or imme- diately below the portion to be regulated, and b) The increased fall which the new channel will afford; then the sectional area of the new bed must be fixed, according to approved hydraulic formulas, so as to allow of the ‘passage of either an ordinary or an extraordinary volume of water. 3) The water having been admitted, the next thing is to protect the banks by random rubble or by stone pitching in order to prevent the action of the current injuring them, or forming bends or creeks. 4) After the completion of the above, the old river bed and by-channels should be filled up, the land thus reclaimed should by degrees be brought under cultivation; in the same manner the marshy tracts exposed hitherto to inundation, and fertilized by the deposit therefrom, should be raised by a coating of rich soil. 5) If exceptionally high floods still overflow the banks and inflict loss and damage to the freshly cultivated valley, dykes at HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 429 suitable distances apart will be necessary to confine such floods, and enable them to flow off gradually without causing damage. From forty-eight years’ observation and experience of exten- sive works undertaken for the improvement of rivers, the author can confidently affirm that by careful attention to the points above recommended, even the most tortuous rivers and the Swampiest valleys have, generally within a few years, but in some cases only after many years, yielded the most satisfactory results, as for instance— a) The increase of fall due to the more uniform section and more direct course, and the concentration and confinement of the stream within a single channel provided with firm banks, con- siderably increases the force and velocity of the current, which tend to deepen the channel, and to carry away the material thus scoured out as well as that brought down from above. b) By lowering the bed of the river, in some cases to the extent of from 3 to 6 feet, the general water level, both of the river and of the ground springs in the neighborhood, is propor- tionately lowered, so that the adjoining country is less liable to inundation, and the swamps are more easily drained and brought under cultivation. c) The velocity being accelerated in the new channel, as shown by (a), floods pass off more rapidly and do not rise so high, consequently the low country is seldom or never under water, or at any rate not to the same extent as before. If, how- ever, these lesser and lower floods are to.be entirely prevented, dikes parallel to the course of the river must be added. d) In rivers exposed to the action of frost, floating ice is apt to accumulate in the unregulated portions of itS course, especially at sharp bends, and on shallows and sandbanks, occa- sionally to such an extent as entirely to obstruct the flow of the stream, and to raise the water in the river to such a hight that it overflows the banks, inundates the neighboring country, and spreads ruin far and wide. When once a river has been regulated this can not take place, as there would then be nothing to hinder the free passage of floating ice, and should a temporary stoppage occur, the concen- trated force of the current would soon overcome every obstacle, by raising the blocks, and bearing them away without causing any flood. e) It is a matter of general experience that even in a deep river following a winding course and dividing into numerous branches navigation is often obstructed to such an extent that the river becomes all but impassable, yet when the same river has been regulated, a direct channel is provided, facilitating 430 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM traffic and commerce, and increasing the prosperity of the country already improved by drainage and cultivation. f) On the banks of many rivers left to nature but a scanty population exists, invariably affected and often decimated by epidemics, and generally exhibiting an imperfect physical and mental development. After regulation, and by draining and cultivating the adjoining country, these evils disappear, the inhabitants improve in health, strength and intelligence, the population increases, new villages spring up, and prosperity reigns where ‘before disease and poverty were rife. The govern- ment earns the hearty thanks of all thus benefited, and has at the same time fully recouped the capital laid owt on the works by the increased revenues derived from the improved condition of the country. Where such an improvement of the waterway has been rationally executed, in accordance with the particular nature and requirements of the locality, most, if not all, of the above advantages have been secured; aS may be proved by numerous instances of works of the kind executed years back in France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Italy. Moreover, the fait that the chambers of deputies of these states have, during the last few years, repeatedly devoted hundreds of millions of florins to the completion of works already begun, and to new under- takings of the same kind, is a proof that the importance and advantage of such improvements are fully recognized. As a complete description of even the most important works of this kind would far exceed the limits of a short paper, the author must confine himself to a brief review of those success- — fully accomplished on the Rhine. The Rhine, between Basle and Mannheim, has for centuries followed a tortuous course, abounding in sharp bends and dividing into many branches, through a valley between 5000 and 6000 metres broad. Having further repeatedly shifted its course, the whole valley became cut up by old channels; to a considerable extent, too, its natural fall was lost, owing to its sinuous course, and consequently the rate and force of the currents were so much diminished that deposit accumulated everywhere, raising the bed of the river and mean water-level to such a degree that the adjoining country was little. better than a swamp. The bed of the Rhine being thus elevated, and its course so irregular, the flood-water could not flow off rapidly enough, but spread abroad, inundating the neighborhood, and destroying whole villages and townships. The riverside communities had in all ages attempted, by dams and other protective works, to abate these evils, but with little HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 431 success, as, owing to the winding course of the river, the floods confined at one point escaped at another, and took their defenses in reverse. This deplorable condition of the Rhine valley con- tinued until the commencement of the present century, when the population, already greatly reduced by poverty and disease, was daily decreasing owing to emigration to America. Colonel Tulla, of the engineers, an eminent authority on hydraulics at that time, by repeated and unremitting exertions, induced the government, in 1817, to undertake a thorough survey of the entire Rhine valley. Upon that survey was based the project for the radical regulation of the Rhine bed, which was approved and ratified by treaty between the border states of France, Bavaria and the Grand Duchies of Baden and Hesse, and according to which the regulation of the Rhine was carried out during the years 1819-1863. The work consisted in regulating the course of the river and making it more direct. This necessitated the excavation of twenty-three considerable cuts, which reduced the distance by river between Mannheim and Basle from 252 to 169 kilometres, and increased the fall 30 per cent. Further, the stream was confined to a uniform channel of suitable section, both banks were substantially protected, the old river bed and all branches were filled in, and the land thus reclaimed was for the most bee brought nee cultivation. The above mentioned regulation of the Rhine may be con- sidered one of the most extensive and interesting undertakings of the kind ever attempted in Europe. It is proved that the following advantages have been: secured: a) The river has undeviatingly followed the new course pro- vided for it; has deepened its bed to the extent of two metres in some places, and lowered the mean water-level proportionately. Flood-water also has been passed more quickly. b) The general water-level being thus reduced in hight, ex- tensive tracts of swampy ground have been laid dry and con- verted into fertile arable land. Further, more than 20,000 hec- -tares of old river bed, water-holes and sandbanks have been reclaimed, and brought in a great measure under cultivation ; and lastly, the low-lying tracts are now no longer exposed to inundations. c) The sanitary condition of the Rhine valley has visibly im- ~ proved, and the general prosperity of the inhabitants materially increased. d) According to the concurrent reports of experts, govern- ment officials and local authorities, the benefits derived from the regulation of the Rhine are so considerable that the capital laid 432 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM out has been amply repaid. Wherefore, in grateful recognition of the eminent services rendered by Colonel Tulla, the original promoter of the scheme, a statue has been erected in his honor at Maxau on the banks of the river. In one respect only has the regulation of the river not ful- filled the expectations of its promoters, viz. the extensive sand-' banks formed at the confluence of its tributaries have rendered inter-communication with them both difficult and dangerous, because these feeders to the main stream enter it across bars little more than 0.60 or 1.50 metre below low-water level. Had the hydraulic engineers in 1817 correctly determined the minimum discharge of the Rhine, and at the same time anticipated a probable decrease of the same, they would have diminished the waterway, and thereby considerably reduced the deposit formation of such sandbanks so that the channels of communication between the Rhine and its tributaries would have remained more open to navigation. In addition to the foregoing general principles, applying more particularly to the non-tidal portion of rivers, rivers emptying into the sea, or into an arm of the sea, may require special treatment, and while, aside from the Hudson river, there are few sueh in this State, and although the improvement of this stream has been assumed by the Federal government, nevertheless it is proper to briefly consider the general principles governing such an im- provement. | Generally speaking, the regulation of rivers flowing into the sea is more costly than that hitherto treated of, because the vol- ume of water is greater and the yielding nature of the silt forming the beds and banks, together with the violence of the stream and force of the waves, render it necessary that whatever the form of protection, it shall have solid foundations and be executed in the most substantial manner. The works necessary for the perfect regulation of such a river - consist of: 1) Rendering the course as nearly straight as possible in order to increase the fall. 2) Inclosing the river at or near its outfall by means of dykes or jetties, and continuing the same beyond the bar and far enough out to sea to enable the current to carry the sand and mud away, thus preventing the formation of a bar at the mouth. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK © 438 3) In order to protect the adjoining country from tidal inunda- tion, it will be necessary to construct on either bank, dykes at such distances that at ebb tide the force of the river will be sufficient to carry out to sea the silt, etc., deposited during the inflowing of the tide. The foregoing principles of river regulation are general in their character, and apply in some degree to every river in the United States.1 In regard to the definition of river conservancy as given on a preceding page, it may be mentioned that the third head—the culture and preservation of fish—has already been fully cared for by the Forest, Fish and Game Commission of this State, and in regard to the second head—the maintenance and regulation of streams for navigation—this phase of the subject has been under- taken by the Federal government and is therefore not specially considered here. The first head—the preservation and improve- ment of a stream for domestic, sanitary and industrial purposes —the fourth head—the effectual drainage of the district through which the stream runs—and the fifth head—the abatement of injury to lands by floods—are specially considered. The three heads are interrelated and the discussion may proceed without further special subdivision. Flood overflows not necessarily injurious. Flood flows, when occurring either late in the fall or early in the spring, are not only not necessarily injurious, but may be a source of consider- able benefit to agriculture. Streams carry, when in flood flow, a large amount of silt which is valuable for manure, which enriches land, and when the inundation is annual, it may be a source of unending fertility. To cite one case, the river Nile has maintained the fertility of its valley from time immemorial from this source. The same thing is true on the Mohawk and Gen- esee rivers, and many other streams of this State. It is also true that floods in the late spring or early summer, after crops have been planted, may be a source of very serious damage. During the summer of 1902 very serious floods occurred in the month of July. Probably the damage from such floods in *The Regulation of Rivers and Waterways, With a View to the Prevention of Floods, by Gustav Ritter von Wex, Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXIX, p. 328. A434 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM New York State exceeded, in 1902, $3,000,000. If damages of every kind could be reckoned they would amount to at least $1,000,000 in any year. Irrigating streams. ‘There is a class of streams which, through the tendency to elevate their beds and widen their channels, noted in a previous section, have actually raised themselves several feet, and in some cases twenty to thirty feet, above the surrounding country, so that whenever there is an overflow from the main chan- nel, the water runs away from the streams, considerably compli- cating the construction of permanent regulation works. But there are, fortunately, only a few such streams in this State and none of those very important. The Missouri, Mississippi, Red and other rivers may be cited as streams of this character. The writer also remembers the case of the Clear fork of the Brazos river, in Texas, where a railway bridge crossing the stream was set level, with a down grade to the east for one half mile of 20 feet, or the country one-half mile east of the stream was about 20 feet lower than at the stream. There was also a down grade to the west of from 20 to 30 feet per mile, for one and one half miles. The writer’s recollection is that two miles west the country was - about 30 feet lower than at the stream. Insufficient waterway of bridges. One main reason why bridges are so frequently carried away in floods is because of insufficiency of the waterways. Every student of hydrology understands that the catchment above a bridge should be ascertained, and a water- way, large enough to allow for all contingencies, provided. Never- theless, under the system of building bridges by road commission- ers, this is hardly ever done. Economy seems to be the sole consideration. The result is that bridges are carried away, and the writer ventures the opinion that enough money has been spent in the State of New York on renewal of highway bridges alone in the last ten to twenty years to make permanent bridges over every stream in the State. So long as the fact remains as it is, the writer can not but think that the carrying away of such bridges is due rather to the lack of definite knowledge on the part of the road commissioners than to severity of floods. Before designing a permanent bridge, the catchment area above the proposed location should be ascertained, together with the HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 435 heaviest rainfall. In case there happens to be gagings of the stream, the maximum runoft may be obtained from the gagings, but thus far there are gagings of comparatively few of the New York streams, and probably the flood-flow will require to be com- puted. As to just how this is accomplished is foreign to the purpose of this report, but it may be simply stated that there is no special difficulty, provided that the data of catchment and rainfall, together with the steepness of slope, length of catchment, etc. are known, in computing a flood-flow from which a bridge opening may be ascertained that will be large enough to carry the maximum flood. Lack of data a source of difficulty. One difficulty in design- ing regulation works arises from lack of data and in order to render data of this character accurate within 2 or 3 per cent there should be a record about thirty years long. Such a record should include rainfall, maximum, or flood-flows, and minimum, or low-water flows. In this way only can accurate knowledge of the regimen of streams be gained. River conservancy in England, Germany and France. In England, largely due to the prevalence of the common law rule that every riparian proprietor owns to the thread of the channel, river conservancy has not made the progress which it should. The taxpayers have generally insisted that all who are to be taxed haye a voice in determining the kind of regulation to be carried out. The result is that many important works have not been undertaken, and on many streams the work has been carried out piecemeal, thus greatly increasing the expense, with ineffectual results. In Germany the system is quite different. Here the State assumes control of the main and navigable rivers, defraying the expenses of their management out of tolls collected from those using the streams for navigation, mill power and other purposes. The State claims absolute ownership in the waters and prevents ' any interference, even with tributary streams. In some cases the riparian owners may combine for purposes of draining lands and flood protection. On application to the government they are constituted a conservancy authority, armed with powers to compel those who fail in their duty to construct the necessary protection 436 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM works, or to maintain them. They may also tax all those who are benefited, but have no power to tax those occupying lands ~ outside of the reach of floods. The State contributes a portion of the cost of protection works where such works have the effeet of improving land and increasing its taxable value, on the prin- ciple that such increase is a source of profit to the State. The State also grants aid to townships, and if it becomes evident that nothing will cure the evil of flooding but a diversion of a part of the water, the State, by virtue of its property in the water, executes the work gratuitously. The system of river conservancy in France is Somewhat different from the German. In this country the general government has always undertaken the conservancy of navigable streams, and has recouped itself from navigation dues and other charges, but lat- terly taxation of this kind has been mostly abolished, and the government is now chargeable with nearly all the expenses con- nected with the conservancy of rivers, though in certain cases the owners are also taxed in proportion to their interests. In May, 1858, it was enacted that the State should undertake works for the protection of towns from inundation, providing also that the departments, communes and owners should contribute to the cost of the works in proportion to their respective interests. There is an inland navigation system on nearly every river of any import- ance in France, which has, perhaps, to some extent, influenced the action of the State.! The storage dam on the Furens river, at Saint-Etienne, was built to protect the city of Saint-Etienne from floods. About 64 per cent of the total cost was paid by the city of Saint-Etienne, and the balance was paid by the department. The cost of con- struction of the Terney dam, also in France, was borne by the State, town and manufacturing interests. A number of other storage dams have been built in France in recent years by a com- bination of the general government, department government, local or municipal government and private interests benefited. The cause of floods. While, broadly, the cause of floods has been stated as irregularity in the rainfall, we may now go some- 1The Conservancy of Rivers, Wheeler and Jacob, Proc. Inst. C. EH, Vol. XLYVII, pp. 246 and 3811. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 437 what further into the detail than this statement implies. The clearing up of lands and drainage of towns, together with farm drainage, are all efficient causes for floods. Ina general way, the water falling in the form of rain or snow runs off by these various means quicker than formerly. In the meantime the channels of rivers have not been correspondingly enlarged to meet the in- creased demands upon them, with the result that overflows fre- quently ensue. An examination of rainfall statistics shows that as a whole the rainfall is no greater now than formerly, and the increased frequency of floods must therefore be ascribed to not only irregularity in the rainfall, but to the greater rapidity with which water runs off. Broadly, we may say that the higher the degree of civilization, the more quickly will surface water be discharged, and hence, without there is a corresponding increase in the discharging capacity of streams, floods will become more frequent, with their attendant evils. Frequency of fioods. This matter has been referred to in a preceding chapter, discussing floods on the Tiber and Seine. Very serious floods have occurred on these streams as often as about once in thirty to fifty years. In the United States there are no records long enough to show certainly how often floods may — be expected, but probably their periods will not be materially different from these streams—in some cases, heavy floods have occurred on the Tiber only a few years apart and it is intended to indicate here only very general averages. Are storage reservoirs effectual im preventing floods? There is considerable doubt about storage reservoirs being a universal remedy for floods. On some streams excessive cost would pre- clude their use—that is to say, the benefits received would not be commensurate with the expense. On other streams their use may be of the greatest value. On the Genesee river, 41 per cent of the total catchment area can be controlled by a reservoir; on Salmon river, 55 per cent; on Black river, 90 per cent, and on the upper Hudson river, 50 per cent. On all these streams the percent- age of control is large enough to prevent destructive overflows. Views of French engineers. The utility of storage reservoirs in diminishing damage from floods was taken under considera- tion in France in 1856. Investigations made in the valleys of 438 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Seine, the Rhone, the Loire, the Garonne and other import- ant rivers resulted in a decision not to carry out the numerous reservoirs which had been proposed, owing to the uncertainty and doubtful efficacy of their action in floods. Further investigations were made after the inundations of 1875. These latter observations show that in the case of the Garonne, a reservoir capacity of about 20,000,000,000 cubic feet would be required to protect Toulouse, and one of 50,000,000,000 to 60,000,000,000 cubic feet to protect Agen and the rest of the | basin. Unfortunately, the capacity of the reservoirs which could be constructed in the upper valley of the Garonne would amount to only about one-sixth of that required for protecting Toulouse. The investigations led to similar conclusions in the case of the lower Garonne, and the other principal river basins in France. In one particular the French engineers seem to have been far from right in their investigation of the utility of storage reser- voirs. Thus the statement is made that such reservoirs, to be useful against floods, must be kept empty throughout the whole season when floods may occur. This, perhaps, may be true in France, but it is not true, under the different conditions of rain- fall, in a number of cases in the State of New York. Possibly, _ the French engineers overlooked the moderating effect of a reser- voir, with large water surface, upon a flood even when the reservoir is filled to the flow-line. The writer has discussed this question extensively in his several reports to the State Engineer and Surveyor, and also. in his report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, and a computation is given in connection with floods on Genesee river which shows that even under the adverse condition of water at the crest, the temporary storage on the water surface is in most cases great enough to practically double the time of a flood and hence to greatly decrease its de- structive effect. The conclusion on this head, therefore, is that - an extreme flood, which would not be effectually mitigated, even though a reservoir were full, would occur not oftener than once in a century. Flood warnings. Since the flood wave in a river is progres- sive, some idea can be formed in advance as to the stages of 1Annales des Ponts et Chaussees, sixth series, Vol. II, 1881, p. 5, trans: lation in Proc. Inst. C. E. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 439 water that will occur along the lower reaches of a river when the stages at points higher up are known. Judgment as to such cases is based upon the observed hight in previous years. Hence, the value of a record of water stages in determining the relation between the wave crest at various points along a river; but the relation between these will not be identically the same in all cases—it will depend upon the distribution of the rain- fall and other causes over the catchment basin of a river. The average of a great many cases gives a result which, though some- times in error, is in most cases nearly right. Predictions as to the hight of floods based on the preceding general method have been kept in France since 1854, and in the United States on the Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio and other tribu- taries of the Mississippi for the last fifteen to twenty years. Generally the rivers of New York State are not Jong enough to make such predictions specially reliable, although on some of the longer rivers they may be successfully applied. At Cin- cinnati, Louisville and Cairo predictions may be made from two to six days in advance of a destructive flood. | This matter is merely mentioned here as one of the practical outcomes of the study of floods in large streams. It is exten- sively discussed in Russell’s Meteorology! to which the reader is referred for more extended information.? Maximum Flow of Streams in New York We will now take up a brief description of floods on the various rivers of the State, following the same order as previously used in discussing the classification of streams. Since there is no information as to floods on many streams, only those will be men- tioned where information is available. Floods in Buffalo river. This stream is formed by the junction of Cayuga creek, Buffalo creek and Cazenovia creek, which unite near Buffalo. The catchment areas of these various streams are given on page 205. The slope of Cazenovia creek is steeper in its *See chap. 10, River Stage Predictions, in Meteorology, Weather and Methods of Forecasting and River Flood Predictions in the United States, by Thomas Russell. A general résumé of the cause of floods is also given in chap. 9 of the same work. “Abstract from Report of the Water Storage Commission. 440 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM lower reaches than either Buffalo or Cayuga creek. It results, ‘therefore, that floods in Cazenovia creek reach Buffalo several hours earlier than those in Buffalo and Cayuga creeks. The chan- nel in the lower portions of all these streams is irregular and sinuous, which, together with the flattening of slopes, produces the usual flood congestion in the lower reaches. The annual oc- currence of floods in these streams has long been a source of dam- age and has been a bar to the development of the city of Buffalo towards the southeast. The Buffalo engineers have been for sey- eral years making studies of floods in these streams in order to devise plans for their prevention. Serious floods have occurred at the following dates: January 5, 1890. December 22, 1898. December 16, 1893. — January 13, 1900. January 14, 1894. February 9, 1900. May 20, 1894. April 22, 190i8 March 30, 1896. December 14, 1901. January 13, 1898. — March 1, 1902. February 16, 1898. July 7, 1902. December 5, 1898. It is stated in the report of the Buffalo Flood Committee, made to the Water Storage Commission, that in the flood of March 1; 1902, the maximum discharge of the Buffalo river was about 23,000 cubic feet per second (catchment, 420 square miles), or at the rate of 55 cubic feet per second per square mile. This, however, was an unusual flood; the ordinary flood-flows are estimated at about 18,000 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 43 cubic feet per second per square mile, although from the conclusions of the committee, given on page 442 of the Report of the Water Storage Commission, it is inferred that exceptional floods may exceed 25,000 to 28,000 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of about 66 cubic feet per second per square mile.1 Floods in Tonawanda creek. High floods have occurred in this stream in 1865, 1889, 1896 and 1902. The flood of March, 1865, is considered to be the extreme maximum, although the flood of 1A large amount of information in regard to Buffalo river is given in the Report of the Water Storage Commission, at pp. 71-76 and pp. 422-448, inclusive. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 441 March, 1896, was nearly as high. At this time water flowed over the State dam at Tonawanda, with a head of 4.82 feet, indicating a discharge of 9600 cubic feet per second. At the same time there was 3 feet of water flowing over a waste-weir directly into Niagara river and representing a discharge of about 1000 cubic feet per second, making the total discharge on March 30, 1896, of Tona- wanda creek at Tonawanda 10,600 cubic feet per second (catch- ment, 610 square miles), or at the rate of about 18 cubic feet per second per square mile. This value of the flood discharge is prob- ably due to the natural storage in the flat and swampy portions of the creek valley west of Oak Orchard dam, as well as to the diversion of some of its waters through the Oak Orchard cutoff during this flood—probably, the entire flood-flow on March 30, 1896, was from 20 to 22 cubic feet per second per square mile. In the upper reaches of this stream the fiood-flows may be expected to approximate anywhere from 60 to 80 cubic feet per second per Square mile. Floods in Niagara river. As shown by table No. 45, the natural regulation of this river is so perfect that floods are unknown. During the entire year 1895 the flow of Niagara river varied from. 195,578 cubic feet per second to 177,852 cubic feet per second, the - extreme variation for the year being only 17,726 cubic feet per second. Floods in Genesee river. The following account of early floods in this stream is mostly taken from the report on Genesee river storage surveys, dated January 1, 1897. Great floods have occurred in this river in 1815, 1835, 1857, 1865 and 1896. Ata number of times between 1865 and 1896 the river has also been very high, but at no time since 1865 as severe as in 1896. Beyond the mere fact that a very severe flood occurred in 1815, which overflowed the flats in the valley between Avon and Mount Morris and the black ash swamp which then covered the area now included in the first and third wards of the city of Rochester, little is known as to the flood of that year. The next great flood of which we have record occurred in 1835. 1See report of F. C. Mills, relative to the Genesee valley vanal, Assembly Document No. 73, 1837, p. 69. 442 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Considerable damage was done to the farms in the flats. Accord- ing to statements made by Hervey Ely, a former citizen of Roch- ester, the flow of the river in the flood of 1835 amounted to about 36,000 cubic feet per second. In February, 1857, a serious flood occurred in the Genesee river which carried away not only a number of buildings on the north side of the Main street bridge at Rochester, but also undermined the piers of that bridge and even finally swept away the greater part of the old structure. A new bridge was in process of con- struction at the time. The great flood of 1865. March, 1865, was a period of general high water throughout western New York. Long continued cold weather and a heavy snowfall were followed by a sudden thaw, accompanied by rain, about the middle of March. On the six- teenth a freshet in the upper Genesee valley was reported, and on the seventeenth the water was very high at’ Rochester, but aside from the usual alarm manifested on such occasions, the sit- uation was not considered specially serious. The river, however, continued to rise during the night of March 17th, until the banks of the Genesee valley and the Erie canals were overflowed, with the water pouring direct from the river into the canals. The river further rose above its banks until finally nearly the entire central portion of Rochester was under water. During the whole of the 18th and part of March 19th the only means of transporta- tion throughout the entire business portion of Rochester was by boat. The gas supply was cut off early in the disaster, leaving the city in darkness. The New York Central & Hudson River Rail- road bridge over the river was carried away, and traffic sus- pended on that railway for several days. The damage to property is stated to have exceeded $1,000,000+ Rochester newspapers of March, 1865, give detailed accounts of the Genesee flood, from which it is gleaned that the damage must have been very severe, and may have even considerably exceeded $1,000,000. 1The foregoing details of floods in the Genesee river up to and including 1865, have been mostly gleaned from Peck’s History of Rochester. The newspapers of the day have also been referred to for particulars of the great flood of 1865. ‘sqo1d oy} ysurese poSpo, dn soqjanj spavd Woody Joquunyy ‘spuvj{s MoU VSNOFT 9UAOGSO MON oq} QO M IVOU 199I1}S [NVI IS WINOG Woaz Jonponbe vy} ssoatov SuTyooY ‘“AoJSoyooy 3% EOST JO poop yeaIH ‘OT 94%Td HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK — 443 The flood commission of 1865. Following the great flood the Legislature passed an act appointing commissioners to inquire into and ascertain the cause or causes of the inundation of the city of Rochester by the waters of the Genesee river in the month of March, 1865, and also to ascertain whether any, and, if any, what obstructions had been placed in said river which tended to cause or increase the extent of such inundation, and the nature and extent of such obstructions, and what measures, proceedings and remedies were necessary or proper for the purpose of guard- ing against or preventing a recurrence of such an inundation. The commissioners were Addison Gardner, Amos Bronson, Levi A. Ward, George J. Whitney and George E. Mumford. General I. F. Quinby was engineer to the commission. The commission begins its report by stating that there is no record in the previous history of Rochester of any serious damage from overflows of the river, no former flood having to any im- portant extent spread beyond the banks of the river. In view of this state of things the citizens of Rochester had felt it to be of the highest importance to ascertain the cause of the unprecedented extent of the 1865 flood, and, as far as possible, to guard against its recurrence. As to the first cause, it is stated that by reason of a sudden change of temperature from winter to almost summer heat an immense body of snow, which had accumulated during the pre- vious winter weather, was suddenly melted and thrown at once into the river channel within the space of three or four days instead of occupying a week or more, as in ordinary floods. Sec- ondly, the effect of the flood was increased in consequence of the obstruction to free flow caused by the bridge and embankment of what is now the New York, Lake Erie & Western Railway at Avon. The openings in the embankment across the river valley, while adequate for ordinary floods, were entirely too small for the quantity of water flowing in March, 1865. The consequence was that at the time of greatest flow the water stood at least three feet higher on the upper side of the embankment than on the lower side. The embankment finally gave way, thus allowing a large quantity of ponded water to flow suddenly down the river, filling the channel at Rochester beyond its carrying capacity. As 444 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a third cause, the commissioners found that the channel of the river was obstructed through the city of Rochester in such man- ner as to cause overflows into the Erie and Genesee valley canals. at that place. The remedy suggested was that the waterway through the city be considerably increased. | As regards the Erie canal aqueduct, the commissioners pointed. out that the piers supporting the structure, instead of being built parallel with the stream, run partially across it, thereby mater- ially increasing the amount of the obstruction by so changing the current that at least one half the river as it passes the aque- duct flows in the direction of the east bank above Main street bridge. ‘The commissioners also pointed out that during the flood trunks of trees, logs and timber lodged against the aqueduct and closed a considerable portion of the waterway through the arches. Under these circumstances the flood rose to the copings, standing more than three feet higher on the south side than on the north. The commissioners also considered that Main street bridge pre- sented. considerable obstruction. In 1865, and for some years previous to that time more than two thirds of the eastern arch of the bridge had been closed by the wall of the building on the north side. This obstruction, however, was removed by the action of the flood, the building in question having been carried away. Since then the east opening has been left entirely free, but there is still in 1904 considerable obstruction to the west arch by a building erected since 1865. The areas of the several openings of the arches of the Erie canal aqueduct at Rochester are as follows: First opening, east side, 516.6 square feet; second opening, 681.4 square feet; third opening, 625.7 square feet; fourth opening, 641.3 square feet; fifth opening, 615.3 square feet; sixth opening, 625.7 square feet; seventh opening, 552.4 square feet; total, 4808.3. square feet. | The following are the total openings of the several river bridges: Court street, 5081 square feet;! Main street, 3367 square feet; Andrews street, 4511 square feet; Central avenue, about 4450 square feet. 1This is the opening of the river arches below the level of the flood of 1865; in addition the arches over the Johnson and Seymour raceway have an opening of 790 square feet and the Erie canal arches of 498 square feet. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 445 It will be noticed that the area at Main street, the first bridge below the aqueduct, is 941 square feet less than that of the Erie canal aqueduct. The commissioners also gave some attention to the causes which made the flood of 1865 greater than that of any previous year, and expressed the opinion that the same causes might produce a still greater flood in the future As a chief cause, the commissioners considered that cutting off the forests and clearing up lands were likely to lead to heavier floods from year to year. In view, therefore, of what seemed to the commissioners a constant source of danger, they arrived at the conclusion that a much larger waterway was imperatively necessary through the city of Rochester? _ A severe flood also occurred in the upper Genesee at Mount Morris in March, 1893, at which time large quantities of ice were left in the streets of the lower portion of that village. Flood in Genesee river of May, 1894. It is very common for the flats in the vicinity of Mount Morris to be inundated, with great destruction of farms and growing crops. The flats between Mount Morris and Rochester were inundated May 20-23, 1894, the damage to growing crops at that time amounting to many thousand dol- lars. As interesting data we may discuss that flood, at which time the approximate discharge of the stream at Mount Morris. (catchment, 1070 square miles), was as follows: | cae ET Lge Siri 15 Ae ee a aia bp oss Side an a 600 May iS. 67 mM... 3-5): SM tal Ug Ah, cine ot an ACNE aie Saar en 3,090 eae ee ee oe a git ee ee a ea oh ok O's 5,530 EL Un ie 07 dee 9) 0 8 i cea ee 5,090 LE 20 PE TUTE ivi a a a ae 16,580 eT te eR Lge Ap OS OT anal ar 22,210 ee Nee i oe eg nk eG celine oe ns 28,000 oi BEE ET kee Lo ee Cea a gia ae aes aca a eS are ae 42,000 i eet ater eh BO . 38,000 *The report of the commissioners appointed to investigate the causes of the inundation of the city of Rochester in March, 1865, may be found in Assembly Document No. 117 of the Session of 1866. 2The waterway is still substantially the same as in 1865. If anything, it has been somewhat contracted by various constructions since that day. AAG NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Cubie feet per second Mea? 20 12 ahs oS ey Aes re ie op ag eee eee 30,730 Mia: 21205 Dis Mss) See etasets myehe ey, See eae ee 26,500 HE ge Bil eats Oe VI Pe LA Ee ee fos eS e gene ts 15,650 DE Aiy 2 AZ TN 8 3S, eR here ey SR en ke Se he 13,650 Moy 225°) par me is ar ie, Baier ea anne ee 10,720 MPR ay Bs WR aS ee RE ee a de ges 7,300 May 20 12 Wis). Fo AIR OPT ee ee ee ee 6,700 Magy 23, (Os WS Cs koh atts PR Ee ee ae ee ee 5,690 Many 2420 ais MS. Gat Bae ee ee eee 5,090 The total runoff from 7 a. m. of May 18 to 7 a. m. of May 24 was over 7,000,000,000 cubic feet. On the morning of May 21 the flats in the broad, level valley of the Genesee river and Canaseraga creek, between Dansville, Mount Morris, and Rochester, which have an area of from 60 to 80 6AM NOON 6PM 6AM NOON 6PM 6AM NOON 6PM 6AM NOON 6PM 6AM NOON 6PM 6AM NOON 6PM 6AM NOON 6 FM MAY 18 MAY 19 MAY 20 MAY 21 MAY 22 MAY 23 MAY 24 Fig. 35 Flood flow of Genesee river May 18-238, 1894. Square miles, were nearly flooded, in some localities to a depth of from 4 to 6 feet. On account of the large pondage by these flats, although the maximum runoff at Mount Morris was 42,000 cubic feet per second at 3.30 a. m. on the morning of May 21, at Rochester the maximum flow did not at any time exceed about 20,000 cubic feet per second. We have, then, a case where a large pondage has, by prolonging the time of runoff, modified a flood- flow over 50 per cent. Avs further illustrating the effect of a large reservoir, or, what is the same thing, the effect of a large pond ‘MOTE POOPY JO OUT} JV AoSotpoy 7V [[Vy zeddn omy, ‘TT 938 Id tle petals HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 44% area in modifying the effect of an extreme flood, reference may be made to fig. 35, in which, with time as abscissas and runoff as ordinates, the runoff record of Genesee river for May 18-23, 1894, has been plotted. The lower curve of that figure may be taken as representing approximately the law of the runoff of any generally distributed heavy rainfall on the catchment area of this stream. In making this statement it is not overlooked that flood-flows at other seasons of the year may differ somewhat in their movement from that of May, 1894. Inasmuch as the rapidity and intensity of the runoff of any given stream depend largely upon the topog- raphy, the statement may be made that the general law of move- ment of floods in the Genesee river is indicated by the lower curve of fig. 35. With this understanding we may assume any other run- off and construct the approximate curve by drawing it generally parallel to the curve of the actually observed case. In this way the upper curve of fig. 35, representing the curve of a flood one and one-half times greater than that of May, 1894, has been pro- duced, slight irregularities of the lower curve having been neg- lected in projecting the upper one. A flood-flow one and one-half times as great as that of May, 1894, which culminated in a maximum of about 42,000 cubic feet per second at 3.50 a. m. of May 21, gives a maximum of 63,000 cubic feet per second, the movement of which would be, under the assumptions, substantially as in the upper curve of fig. 35. As to the probability of a maximum flood-flow of 63,000 cubic feet per second on the upper Genesee catchment area, the case of the neighboring Chemung river may be cited, where a flood-flow of 67.1 cubic feet per second per square mile occurred in June, 1898. This figure applied to the upper Genesee would give a possible maximum runoff of 71,126 cubic feet per second. Flood of 1896. The flood of April, 1896, came very near reach- ing the danger limit-—so near, indeed, that it is now the opinion of many thinking citizens of Rochester that the regulation afforded by the proposed storage dam at Portage may not be sufficient to fully protect the city from a repetition of the disaster of 1865. If the river were to again rise to the hight attained in that year, the damage would inevitably be several times greater than occurred then. 448. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Flood of March, 1902. On March 3 to 5, 1902, a flood occurred which, at Rochester, lacked but little if any of reach- ing the hight of the great flood of 1865. At Avon, twenty miles above, the high-water mark reached was eight inches below that of 1865. Owing to a fortunate combination of circumstances the damage resulting from this flood within the city of Rochester was much less than that in 1865, but only prompt and energetic measures on the part of city and canal officialy and the rarest good fortune prevented the damage from exceeding that of 1865. This flood was due to the more common cause of floods on this catchment, namely, the general melting of the snows by warm rains. This flood reached its maximum hight at Rochester on the afternoon of March 3. : Flood of July, 1902. On July 6 to 13, there occurred a flood on the Genesee which, from the time of the year, the high stage of water in certain parts of the river, and the extent and severity ‘of the damage arising from it on a certain portion of the catch- ment, is without precedent in the history of Genesee floods. The rains over the catchment generally had been unusually heavy during the latter part of June and the early part of July, and the ground was thoroughly saturated with water. On July 6 the rainfall reached a climax which culminated in a so-called -“cloudburst ” in the region covering the northern central por- tion of Allegany county. At Angelica, within this district, the rainfall on July 6 amounted to 4.5 inches. Heavier rainfalls than this have occurred occasionally on the catchment area with- out producing severe floods. This fact, coupled with the fact that a number of private observers unofficially claimed much heavier precipitation than the Angelica office reports, raises some — doubt as to whether the Angelica station itself may not have escaped the severe downpour, or whether the marked difference in the results may be due wholly to the difference of satura- tion of the ground. The former alternative is rather dis- counted by the fact that the catchment at Angelica creek itself, of which the station is not far from the center, suffered — the most severe flood in its history. This remark in fact is true of the entire catchment of the Genesee in the aggregnte down as far as Portage falls. It is well-established by repeated evi- dence that the hight which the flood attained at Portage was HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 449 several feet—variously estimated at from three to five feet— higher than the highest known preceding flood, and similar evi- dence exists for points on the Genesee up as far as Wellsville. This is not true, however, for the lower portion of the valley. At Mount Morris the flood hight attained was about that of pre- vious floods, but at Rochester the river showed a discharge of only about 20,000 cubic feet per second against 36,000 to 40,000 or 42,000 cubic feet per second for the 1865 flood and the March, 1902, flood. The excessive precipitation, therefore, must have been confined to the headwaters of the river. It must not be inferred that the maximum flood discharge at Portage was less than 20,000 cubic feet per second, the discharge at Rochester. On the contrary, there is good reason to believe that the discharge at Portage with only 40 per cent of the catch- ment area was very much in excess of that at Rochester, and the reasons for this are: (1) the flood hight at Portage was from three to five feet higher than during former extreme floods which gave flood discharges of 40,000 cubic feet per second at Mount Morris, which has only 7 per cent more catchment area; these former floods must therefore have discharged not much less than 40,000 cubic feet per second at Portage; five feet, or even three - feet, added to the crest of these former floods indicate still greater discharges and leave little doubt that the discharge at Portage was nearly if not fully double that at Rochester; (2) an examina- tion of the July flood at Rochester shows that the maximum stage of water was reached at Rochester during the afternoon of July 8, while the maximum stage at Portage occurred during the forenoon of July 6, indicating that the flood crest occupied more than two days in passing from Portage to Rochester. When we consider the topography of the valley between Mount Morris and Rochester, this time consumed in transit must have been accompanied by an elongation of the flood with a corresponding diminution of the discharge per second. A careful study of the circumstances attending this flood of July, 1902, in conjunction with the other maximum floods in the Genesee, leads to the conclusion that the maximum flood at Roch- ester has not yet occurred, and that by a combination of circum- stances which do not seem at all improbable a maximum flood in _excess of 40,000 cubic feet per second may reasonably be expected. 450 NEW YORK. STATE MUSEUM Had the same precipitation which occurred in Allegany county oc- curred on the northern portion of the catchment area with reason- ably high water from the southern district, the flood wave would -not have been elongated as it was by its flow through the alluvial valley north of Mount Morris, and as a result the wave would have been shorter but with a higher maximum discharge. This flood of July is unique in the matter of the date of its occurrence. The other great floods have occurred in March or April, with minor severe floods occurring later. Occurring, as this did, in July, with the crops well advanced toward maturity, the resulting damage was greatly in excess of what would have occurred under similar conditions in the early spring. The destruction of crops was in itself serious. But it was a greater disaster to agricultural interests that the season was then too far advanced to permit of replanting! The effect on floods of Genesee river flats. Considering Genesee river as a whole, the following conditions govern: Between Roch- ester and Mount Morris and between Mount Morris and Dans- ville, in the bread valley of the Canaseraga creek, there are ex- tensive flats, amounting for the whole to from 60 to 80 square miles. The effective catchment area at Rochester is 2365 square miles, as against 1070 square miles at Mount Morris. The por- tion of the catchment area below Mount Morris also contains Honeoye, Canadice, Hemlock and Conesus lakes, which altogether provide a large volume of surface storage, while above Mount Morris there are few flats and only one small lake (Silver lake). There are extensive flat areas in the catchment of Black and Oatka creeks. which are tributary below Mount Morris. | The preceding discussion shows that the upper section of the Gen- esee river has a rapid runoff and is subject to sudden and excessive flood-flows. These flood-flows are received in the extensive flats below Mount Morris, where they are partially retained and grad- ually delivered to the extreme lower river. ‘The flood-flows at Mount Morris are greater than at Rochester, although the dry- weather flow at Rochester is, proportionately to catchment area, usually greater than at Mount Morris. The flats then act to de- crease the flood-flow at Rochester and to increase the dry-weather flow there. At Mount Morris we may expect flood-flows of from ‘Abstract from the Report of the Water Storage Commission. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ADL 25,000 to 30,000 cubic feet per second nearly every year, while at Rochester 30,000 cubic feet per second is quite rare, even the great flood of 1865 probably did not materially exceed 45,000 to 54,000 cubic feet per second. About 30,000 to 35,000 cubic feet per sec- ond at Rochester gives a full river, and anything much beyond that figure will produce a disastrous flood. The flats then act to decrease in a very marked degree the violence of the spring freshet at Rochester. With the river in its natural state, and with the same character of catchment area throughout its whole course that we find to exist above Mount Morris, what is now the chief business portion of the city of Rochester would probably be sub- merged nearly every year. This immunity of the city of Rochester is, however, purchased at the expense of the flats which act as an immense storage reser- voir for the spring floods of the upper river. From an economic point of view one marked effect of the annual inundation is largely to prevent the use of these flats for any agricultural purpose other than grazing. If they can be cer- tainly relieved of the burden of that portion of the annual overflow which occurs in May, they will immediately become the most fer- tile agricultural lands in the State, and their value will be doubled. It is in line with the policy of all civilized governments to estab- lish works for river-conservancy wherever results are to be gained such as these, and the precedent of similar works by other goy- ernments is in view of the benefits to be derived by the Common- wealth in the way of increased valuation of property, the strongest possible argument that can be urged in favor of the Genesee river storage. | The question may be asked whether the annual inundation is not really a benefit rather than an injury, by reason of carrying a large amount of valuable silt fertilizing material over the entire submerged area, as in the case of the river Nile and other irri- gating streams. The answer is that, by reason of a heavy May rainfall, occurring at a time when the ground water is high and before vegetation has become active, there is likely to be an over- flow just at the planting season, which effectually prevents the putting in of crops. Frequently, too, the May overflow extends over into the early days of June. In May, 1893, the discharge at Rochester was at the rate of over 14,500 cubic feet per second, AD2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and on May 20th the mean discharge at Rochester was 12,900 cubic feet per second. Flood discharges of these amounts are sufficient to render farming operations impossible on a consider- able portion of the flat area. On June 2, 1889, the discharge at Rochester was about 20,000 cubic feet per second, and from per- sonal observations on that day it is known that nearly the whole 7 flat area of the valley was flooded. The answer to the question as to the value of the annual overflow is, therefore, that in the case of the Genesee valley, the May overflow comes at such a time as to do only injury, without any opportunity to realize what would be, if the inundation came only in March or April, a great benefit. The cash value then of so regulating the flow of the river as to do away with the May overflow can be estimated as an average of 80 square miles, at say $40 per acre, or the increased valuation of © the whole area would be about $2,050,000. | Moreover, the flats above Rochester are a further benefit to the lower river by reason of an immense storage of ground water therein, which, as the flood level subsides, gradually runs out with the result of greatly decreasing the period of extreme low water. 'Again, in case of excessively heavy rains, in the middle of the | summer, from the effect of which the river channel is temporarily, partially or wholly filled, such an amount of water is stored in | these flats as to keep the river comparatively well up during the fall. This actually happened in the season of 1893, when on August 29, 1893, there occurred a rainfall of nearly three inches over the whole catchment area in a period of about 12 hours, which pro- duced a flood-flow of 5800 cubic feet per second at Mount Morris and 3800 cubic feet at Rochester, an amount of water sufficient to partly fill the channel between these two places, but without any overflow of the adjoining flats. Previous to this heavy rain- fall the mean flow at Rochester had been for a month about 300 cubic feet per second. At'‘Mount Morris it had not averaged, for the same period, more than 125 cubic feet per second. ‘The effect of this rain on the ground water of the flats is strikingly shown by comparing the flows at Mount Morris and Rochester, when it will be found that on September 3 the flow at Mount Morris was again down to 200 cubic feet per second, and remained below that figure, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 453 except for slight rises due to rainfall on September 7 and 8, and September 15 and 18, until October 15, when the flow rose to a little over 2000 cubic feet per second. At Rochester, on the other hand, the effect of the heavy rainfall of August 29, was to so far ‘replenish the depleted ground water of the flats as, with the excep- tion of a few days in the early part of October, when the flow dropped to about 600 cubic feet per second, to keep the flow up to about 800 cubic feet per second, for the balance of the year. The storage value of the Genesee river flats. In order to further illustrate the great storage value of the flats, we may note that the catchment area at Rochester is 2.8 times that at Mount Morris; hence, for proportionate yields the flow at Rochester should be 2.3 times that at Mount Morris. During August, 1893, at a time of extreme dry weather, the flow at Rochester was 3.7 times that at Mount Morris, and after the extreme storm of August 29, which replenished the ground water of the flats, the flow at Rochester, during the entire replenishing period (Septem- ber, October and November) was four times that at Mount Morris. A knowledge of this constant accession of large quantities of water from the flats leads to another conclusion of great practical importance, namely, that we may expect to realize at Rochester the full value of all the water added from the storage at Mount Morris; that is, an addition of, say, 700 cubic feet per second at Mount Morris, in time of low water, will be likely to increase the flow at Rochester 700 cubic feet per second more than it would have been without such addition. In order to show more strikingly the value of the flats for such storage, we will now compute the amount stored and held back therein. Referring to Rafter and Baker’s Sewage Disposal in the United States, page 165, we find a tabulated statement of the per cent of empty space in a number of soils, as follows: Per cent In Illinois prairie soil, the voids are.................. 5D. 2 In East Windsor, Connecticut, clay soil, the voids are... 48.3 In coarse river sand, the voids are from......... 38.4 to 41.0 In subsoils, the voids are from................ 34.6 to 42.6 Pevewine sands, the yOIds are... a6. se ee ee 44.7 454 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM From these figures we learn that an estimate of 33 per cent of void space in the soils of the flats would be very conservative. The mean low-water surface of the river channel is mostly from 15 to 20 feet below the surface of the flats. We will also assume . that the water runs out of tthe upper 5 or 6 feet quickly, but that it is retained and delivered slowly from the balance. We have - then 338 per cent of say 12.0 feet or 4.0 feet in depth over 80 square miles as the probable available ground-water storage of the flats. For 80 square miles this amounts to (80x 640 x 48,560 x 4)—= 8,921,088,000 cubic feet. If there were any way to control this eround-water storage of the flats it would by itself furnish an outflow of 800 cubic feet per second for four months, or 130 days. - During June and July, 18938, the rainfall was used up by the demands of growing vegetation, and the flow of the stream was that due to stored ground water only, except possibly a very slight effect from the rainfall on June 6. By July 24, what may be termed the high level rapid runoff ground water of the flats was entirely exhausted, and from that time on the flow was merely due to the deeper seated ground water of the whole area, assisted, however, by the relatively more rapid delivery of the flats. It may be remarked that the surface storage of the lakes of the lower-viver system is usually about exhausted by July 24. However, it should not be overlooked that in a long continued drought the storage of these flats becomes exhausted, and when this occurs there will be very low water at Rochester until this storage is renewed by copious rainfall. : As to the propriety of including in this discussion the area of the Canaseraga flats it may be mentioned that high water is stated by the inhabitants to only occur there when the Genesee is full to overflowing and is therefore mostly the result of back- water from the Genesee. The catchment area of the Canaseraga creek igs 259 square miles, and although the creek channel has for several miles only slight declivity, it probably has capacity enough to discharge the ordinary flood-flows, provided the Genesee were kept within its banks. The value of a reservoir on Genesee river in mitigating floods. The question will arise in storage projects as to the value of a reservoir in mitigating flood-flows. As this matter has been 455 NEW YORK OF HYDROLOGY OLLIy ee 000 ‘862 ‘880'T | — O°OFE 0'0r 88968 000 ‘899 “ee ee 3 ©9088 000 “G&L 986 © 681 ©°6 E8298 000 “eee “ee aiae . gorse ee 000 ‘ees ‘ee6 0°68I 0°6 Bc9EE 000 ‘91s ‘a4 as 91088 | hee 000 ‘L10 ‘188 @' SSI G°8 ey a ee 91808 0006EF ‘eg ie 000884 T&F ‘% | 000‘F08‘s09‘T | 000°%6‘9GL | — S90I8 03692 91F62 athe 000 ‘826 ‘828 0° S&L 0'8 , , 62086 000 F9E ‘ee ane : 000'zes 978 | 000'Z06'Z86 | — SB0FS OFSIT BOLIZ os 000 “FI6 ‘OAt @* LET a) crs 68892 000 “288 ‘ee ni ; : 000 ‘0g8‘sc¢ | 000‘¢E0‘99T | — ShLer GLY 9L0FS Raia 000 ‘226 ‘2A 0° LET 04 Mee le Me ip @, 6. 6, ket ue) rehie? -@.) © 64 Olt). 3 eye ve: ete =e mil aure)| isis!) iene) ef weirs ie) =) eikei te sis, Cisse) e)leiis)\e' «6. h \ sy, 00) alin REE aha WE Olah a felis lr 's) ict ai tol sl a ee Wm Satis) a inches a elso yee ac ee SLIM Stihl faint la wile! Lara eiiie) ca (esac) a. els Shiels ve) 6 beh wir um yame. Sy ele gf we le Miniteie aL keel talkel’ dhe. er fel joins. voit clo, ails” lel te). e' Keil ol ohne! qa 10 o> inp! ie jess Pas pie eke he Kw eat saw) Oleg a "ee “ev a seer Lee TO ce e.s « | ee, & Sa) ie S) a <2) eae Sere) ia 6) @) 6,10. 10" 8S 6) 6 <8) 6. a 0 6H -@. © 0 19,6: of) at.0 48)” OF 1608 August. 56. 50. 46. 45. 39. 36. 36. 5) 3 eeee ee @ @ September. 47.6 ecooe eee & @ eee ee e © © eee ese 2 © eoeeeree 8 @ eset e ee ee eeceeere ee oeoe ee eo @ wi Oe) 6! (oe ei e. = es. sce) eo @ eo) Hey en et los a Nw eee eee # @ eee ee ef @ © oO. @- 8) Bp ots 0 0 eoeese 8 @ @ oe. -@.e) 49) @ she eee ee 8 @ @ Gy, 0), em elie leek © ee, eo, 40) 60) WS eee ee eee eoceee eo @ eee e © @ e @ oes ee ee 8 eee ee eo coee ee oe & @ © o's « « @ 0 ¢ ose © es © @ © eee e © © @ oe et ee © & © a 6.02 8 Sw a a) le 494. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Minimum flow of Genesee river. The following tabulation gives the mean monthly flows of the Genesee river at Mount Morris and Rochester for several low months of the year 1895, the catchment area above Mount Morris being 1070 square miles and that above Rochester, 2365 square miles: Mount MoRRIs ROCHESTER pan Cubic feet Cubie feet Inches on . Cubic feet Cubic feet per sec- per second the cateh- per sec- per second Month ond Res eae ment ond pes Miya Bete 174 «0.163 >” 0119 385 0.380 UNG. eee et eo ee ee 128 OS Dns, 24 Or els 283 0:.226 701 aR ou cae aoa aa ea Pa 105 == 0099 ed 232 0.165 AMUSUSE.. fey eee oe 115. 0.408 0.12 254 0.169 Sephenrber orev sheet - 100° 0.093 0.10: 221 03106 WetObeR ie or aie a 104: 0.097 Otek 230 0.093 ————— er —_————_—_—_—_— Comparing the foregoing figures for Mount Morris with those for Rochester for the month of October, 1895, it is seen that the proportion of runoff at Rochester was somewhat less for that month than at Mount Morris, although for the previous months it appears to have been larger. The explanation of this is that there are between Rochester, Mount Morris and Dansville extensive flats aggregating from 60 to 80 square miles. The temporary ground-water storage of these flats acts to sustain a somewhat more equable fiow at Rochester than at Mount Morris, above which point there are proportionately smaller areas of flats. There are nevertheless some exceptions to this general proposition, as when, in a long-continued dry time, the flats become exhausted of moisture, and to some extent act like a sponge, taking up water from the river, thereby decreasing, in a measure, the outflow at Rochester. | In the summer of 1846 Daniel Marsh made a series of measure- ments in order to determine the low-water flow of that year. As the result of nine measurements made at various times in July and August he placed the minimum flow at Rochester in 1846 at 412 cubic feet per second.t At Middlebury Academy, Wyoming county, in the catchment area of Oatka creek, the rainfall for the water year 1845 was, for ‘For these low water gagings of Genesee river in detail, see pp. 182-3. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 495 the storage period, 12.59 inches; growing period, 4.82 inches; re- plenishing period, 8.60: inches; total for the year, 26.01 inches. The record for the year 1846 at Middlebury is not given. It is clear, therefore, so far as we have any definite meterological record, that the measurements made by Mr Marsh in 1846 were at a time of very low water. A number of years ago gagings of the minimum flow of the Genesee were kept at the raceway of the Genesee Paper Company, in the north part of the city of Rochester, where it is possible to turn the entire flow of the river through the raceway. These gagings showed that for several months the minimum flow did not exceed about 160 cubic feet per second, and as this included per- haps 10: cubic feet per second flow of sewage, we may conclude that the minimum flow of this stream at Rochester is as low as 150 cubic feet per second (catchment, 2365 square miles), or at the rate of 0.064 cubic foot per second per square mile. These measurements were verified during the summer of 1903, when at Elmwood avenue bridge in the south part of the city the flow was even somewhat less than this, as determined by current-meter measurement. These statements apparently indicate that the minimum sum- mer flow of the Genesee river has decreased from 412 cubic feet per second in 1846 to about 150 cubic feet per second in 1903. As to the reason for this decrease, it is believed that the extensive de- forestation of the catchment area which has taken place since 1846 offers full explanation. In 1846 the upper Genesee catch- ment was still very largely in forest. Probably of the entire area above Rochester the virgin forest was from 65 per cent to 70 per cent of the whole. We have therefore apparently a marked case where the deforestation of a large area has materially reduced the minimum runoff. The foregoing minimum flows of Genesee river show conclusively that in its present condition it is not a good mill stream. The great variation in runoff is conclusive on this point. The figures show that the runoff of the stream may be exceedingly slack for several months during the summer and fall. Minimum flow of Oatka creek. The catchment area of this stream above the point of measurement is 27.5 square miles. The mean flow for the month of August, 1891, was 6 cubic feet per 496 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM second; for September, 5.83 cubic feet per second; for October, 5.8 cubic feet per second. Expressed in cubic feet per second per square mile, the foregoing results are 0.218 cubic foot for August, 0.212 cubic foot for September, and 0.211 cubic foot for October. Expressed in inches on the catchment, the runoff of this stream for August to October, 1891, was from 0.24 to 0.25 inch per month. For several days during the months of August to October, 1891, the flow of Oatka creek was down to about 4.2 cubic feet per sec- ond, or to about 0.151 cubic foot per second per square mile. On September 26, 1891, the recorded mean flow for the day was 3.77 cubic feet.per second, or 0.1387 cubic foot per second per square mile. As a general proposition, statements of minimum flows of streams ought not to be based on the records of single days, specially on streams where there are mill ponds above the point of measurement, because such accidental circumstances as the holding back of the water may vitiate the result; from this point of view an average extending over as long a period as possible should be taken. The measurements of Oatka creek from August to October, 1891,. illustrate well the nearly universal tendency of streams to run either at approximately a fixed rate or to decrease only very slowly after the tributary ground water has become well drawn down. For several days at a time the records show only slight variation. | 7 Minimum flow of Morris run. The result of a measurement of Morris run, a tributary of Oatka creek, the source of a part of the water supply of the village of Warsaw, Wyoming county, made from July 4 to December 26, 1894, is shown by table No. 82. The measured catchment area is 156 acres, but it may, by reason of the peculiar topography be somewhat greater than this. The water issues along the thread of the short valley in the form of springs! The measurement was made by a thin-edged notched weir at a point just below the lowest spring. As may be observed, the flow varied greatly at different times, the minimum being 77,630 gal- lons per day or 7.2 cubic feet per minute, in October. On July 8 the discharge was 238,580 gallons, or 22.1 cubic feet per minute for twenty-four hours. There is a popular impression that springs do not vary their flow at different seasons. The measure- HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 497 ments of Morris run are valuable, therefore, as illustrating that eyen a spring-fed stream will gradually decrease during a dry season. TaBLE No. 82—Daity MEAN DISCHARGE IN CuBic FEET PER MINUTE OF Morris RUN NEAR WaRSAW, IN 1894. [Catchment area = 0.24 square mile. ] DAY. July. August. September. October. November. December. _ eee BG Ae a cae da We See Pe iO ie. Peet Ss. Rea tad ie 5 ties Er EY eco s rn yeae Soi Veh ee Uw oe 55 lee LG +e Sem Er iy nese eat to 10.0 <2 bgs Sean ee 19.4 18.3 8.0 eee eed oe ne in hae | eee AY Ga aR ge 3 OE Sat as hee, cates cae a 19.5 Ba EEE hie ES ek ae as Be eeonaee Pees pee. he's 20:9 0s ee ae yes oe eet aan ene ie samy 23 aoe ee Pie PO Le re Ne Na te ee scielp B.S a kg De 1 EL Mee SF ot ATO 8 Ge RIS Sore ape a ert ere del ae 1a 1 a a earn PU Mee Ba eo eS ee cee sols bog a aes ar 7 et CR gi ae PR se Sele ea 21.9 | oo See eee Zhe et A oe nig tes [ Ficlets tee Paee ry eae LA Es ere ea ieee tp ial AAR VER RNG DS ROG he ees Sreia te anae Sea 16.2 Ls 7 Seas PM Gn Nr reread pal Salve ait ng gi BOE eee ies ss nh Mente SRA og ob Bee, oSarcias 14.9 Le a eae PR cee ee. oot > Ne ee renee ro Las Sea a pa A ae 3 Sol eee agers 8.2 roe aR iere ents _. (es Eee deere e San 13.4 LGA Se AE a og ek eee Nara [a See ee A, “2 Se ae a LTC LED Go Bl WP AR as i a a ea 13.6 Bes DOS Fh ss 5 A See es ja O eS 1.2 Sine ee va BER SR cote Fe 7: As Sea ee ae Seat wee 3% oe ale I sh Ne a ea PS Rees Vaasa fee oS eet eee eee Sr isch es ral AN San pee 8.8 53.8 8.2 13.6 ieee ie er ee a ei ete alk cea ais wt ee OR BRS er oS irra a0 1 Sis i ee amelie eae 8.8 8.2 13.6 Bl asa i ae. oe IEG setae iste fe 4, ee ole | eo hs ae he eee s+ a aN aan SESE pe {05a on re ra ite rp OM te a 1p aR i DL Gi ae ee 8.8 27S) ee ee a a “CE Rao ae erier Sts a lke aris. Beas es oan Poets pee ec as ws Ss 16.5 Pei ee ee, Pe Were) eee sacle a eee stg ———— ey SS ———— el —_—__——_ —_——_——- 498 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Minimum flow of H emlock lake. According to a report made by Henry Tracy,! the minimum flow of Hemlock lake is 5 cubic feet per second (catchment, 43 square miles), or 0.116 cubic foot per second per square mile. Table No. 49 gives the quantity of water passing out of Hem- lock lake for the period covered and without reference to the natural flow. In order to obtain the approximate natural flow for the year we must take into account the mean elevations of lake surface. Thus, for the water year 1880 the. mean elevation. of the first month, December, was —1.67, while for the last month, November, it was —1.24. The difference (0.43 foot) represents the gain in depth of storage for the year. Computing for the value of this storage in inches on the catchment area, we have 0.28 inch, which, added to the quantity of water passing out of the lake (3.07 inches), gives as the approximate total runoff for the year 3.35 inches. Since 1880 was a very dry year, we may compute the flow for the entire water year to be 10.3 cubic feet per second, which again amounts to 0.24 cubic foot per second per square mile. For the five-year period included in this tabulation the total rainfall and runoff are as follows: nchees Haoued® TOO ie Ete eee Ue ets gee Sta es ceed oath er ve 21.99: tr Som PSSiee ce is isles St Ek ise te BT 8 e Oeeh o W A ap a 2A, 2 8.38 S| sete a aD Ia tee ee ae AGRE eee Se cower Fa yee oo 25.46 1a ot NBS) oes PH Aves ett Pee had ate ter Rant ae Ben he ora (382.24 9.29 LESS Ee Ae aE AGE eS OT ah eres Lee te Eeee 26.74 AD 5ST Add fOr rises level So AP. Yo, a aby Lae ee 0.40 N07 231) Bile reser aa. ly St Son WAG Oe RPS aoe 130.70 48 .22 For the five-year period the total runoff was therefore only 36.9 per cent of the rainfall. In 1880 the runoff was only 15.2 per cent of the rainfall. The corrections for rise in lake level are included in these statements. Minimum flow of Oswego river. Previous to 1897 there were no records of any. long-continued measurements of the flow of - *Report on the Cost and Policy of Constructing Reservoirs on Conesus, Hemlock, Honeoye and Canadice lakes. Senate document, No. 40, 1850. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 499 Oswego river, of which the catchment area at the mouth is 5002 Square miles. The minimum flow of this stream has been the Subject of judicial inquiry. In August, 1875, in the case of Michael J. Cummings against owners and lessees of the water of the Varick canal at Oswego, it was decreed: (1) That the average flow of water from the Oswego river into the Varick canal in low water in the summer months is about 45,000 to 50,000 cubic feet per minute; (2) that in extreme low water in the summer, and which usually occurs in the month of July or August, it is about 35,000 cubic feet per minute; and (3) that the average flow of the whole three summer months is about 75,000 cubic feet per minute. Varick canal is entitled to receive one-half the total flow of the river, less the amount of water required for navigation purposes. Hence the average summer flow, according to the decree, is from 90,000 to 100,000 cubic feet per minute (1500 to 1670 cubic feet per second). The extreme low-water flow is placed at 70,000 cubic feet per minute for the whole flow of the river, or at 1170 cubic feet per second, while the average flow of the whole three summer months is given at about 150,000 cubic feet per minute, or 2500 cubic feet per second. From the foregoing figures we deduce an extreme minimum of perhaps 0.23 of a cubic foot per second per square mile, with an average of low water in the summer months of about 0.30 to 0.33 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. The following measurements may, however, serve to show that the minimum figures just stated may be modified somewhat. Beginning in April, 1897, a record of the flow of Oswego river has been kept at High dam, two miles above the city of Oswego. This record is, however, somewhat uncertain as to the low water, but it is given for what it is worth in table No. 50. This record does not include diversion for the use of the Oswego canal. For seven days in September, 1897, the flow was at the rate of about 900 cubic feet per second and during the entire month of September, 1898, the mean flow was 925 cubic feet per second. For twenty-five days in September, 1898, the mean flow was only 795 cubic feet per second (catchment, 5000 square miles), or at the rate of a little less than 0.16 cubic foot per second per square mile. 500 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In July, 1899, the flow for the month was 748 cubic feet per second; for August of that year, it was 612 cubic feet per second; for September, 615 cubic feet per second, and for October, 585 cubic feet per second. In August, 1900, the mean flow was 669 cubic feet per second; September, 670 cubic feet per second, and in October, 853 cubic feet per second. It may be again remarked that these flows do not include diver- sion for the Oswego canal, which, however, probably did not ex- ceed 100 to 150 cubic feet per second. The following tabulation gives the minimum flows of Oswego river at Fulton during 1900, as determined by a measurement through openings in the sides of the bulkhead, the discharge being calculated by the formula for orifices, using a coefficient of 0.62. These figures only apply to the year 1900, which, on reference to the rainfall tables, is shown to have been a wet year. Misccre eae! DaILy FLow Cubic feet Cubic foot per second per second per square mile October 20 aes) alpharetta 1,225 0.25 Octobersalcs Manes nl rns Beem teeta JEL 0.23 OelOb Erte Tey o Woe ah ee eee en ween ale 1,201 0.24 SN Gem ber Ube tio aes ae pena ome nace ae 1,132 0.23 INO VOT GT ig ets n ee ee Bap 1,760 0.36 Ne Vem DSi ss. ia ied ar ou ad os we meee 1,540 0.31 Novem ber: 42 oc. Fs ale o cs Raids Sa a A ee ING vert DERN aan it wt ng he ee ils pata 1,201 0.24 INGVeTIMOeRUO Re hile. hata e SS ead bed ates ~ 1,309 0.27 IN OVE UNDO Sirigey Sorc acide. rice etyors 1,357 0.28 INGVETIDGIIS tice etme be ew aK eacee et ete 1,539 0.31 Novem ben- O08 cre. cue waa sa hah 8 1,193: 0.24 0.26 November dig ca on Roe en ere ee 6 oo, 1.;293 Minimum flow of Seneca river. In July, 1899, the mean dis- charge for the month, of Seneca river at Baldwinsville was 776 cubic feet per second; in August, it was 455 cubic feet per second ; in September, 481 cubic feet per second, and in October, 637 cubic feet per second. 1Sunday. ~*~" ) HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 5OL In July, 1900, the mean flow was 720 cubic feet per second; in August, 551 cubic feet per second, and in September, 471 cubic feet per second. ; Since the catchment area at Baldwinsville is 3103 square miles, the flow for the entire month of August, 1899, of 455 cubic feet per second was at the rate of less than 0.15 cubic foot per second per square mile. For several days in August and September, 1899, the flow was very much smaller than the average, but it does not seem proper to consider the flow of single days in estimating the minimum flow of a stream like Seneca river. The small summer flows in this stream are largely due to heavy evaporation from the marsh areas above Baldwinsville. Minimum flow of west branch of Fish creek. In July, 1900, the mean flow of this stream for the entire month at McConnells- ville was 60 cubic feet per second, and in August it was 57 cubic feet per second (catchment, 187 square miles), or the flow for these two months was at the rate of about 0.3 cubic foot per _ second per square mile. Undoubtedly the extreme minimum fiows of this stream are less than 0.2 cubic foot per second per square mile, since for six days in December, 1900, the mean flow was only 36 cubic feet per second or at the rate of 0.19 cubic foot per second — per square mile. It is possible that the extreme minimum may perhaps be placed as low as 0.12 cubic foot per second per square ° mile for a week at a time. Minimum flow of Salmon river west. The lowest recorded flow of this stream is 75 cubic feet per second for five days in Sep- tember, 1900. Since the catchment area at Pulaski; where the measurements are made, is 264 square miles, this flow would be at the rate of 0.28 cubic foot per second per square mile. Prob- ably the extreme minimum flow of this stream will go as low as ().22 cubic foot per second per square mile. There are a number of streams to the north of Salmon river, be- tween there and Black river, as for instance the north branch of Sandy creek, of which the minimum flows are exceedingly small. As observed by the writer in the fall of 1898 these streams were substantially dry, the flow of several of them not exceeding 20 cubic feet per second. Their minimum flows are as low as 0.05 cubic foot per second per square mile. Their headwaters lie in a deforested country in the horizon of the Hudson river shales and Trenton limestone. 502 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Minimum flow of Black river. The catchment area of this stream at Huntingtonville dam, where the measurements are made, is 1889 square miles. Previous to 1897, aside from measure- ments made by engineers in the employ of the State at the time of construction of the Black river canal and a few made by Frank A. Hines in 1875, there had been no measurements taken of the fiow. In February, 1897, the Board of Water Commissioners of Watertown began a record of the daily flow of the river, from which the following statements of minimum flows are taken. In July, 1897, the mean flow for the entire month was 940 cubic feet per second; for two days it was about 582 cubic feet per second; one day, 630 cubic feet per second, and one Sunday is given iat 480 cubic feet per second. In August, 1897, the mean flow for August 6 was 782 cubic feet per second; for August 7, 630 cubic feet per second; August 8 (Sunday), 362 cubic feet per second; August 9, 536 cubic feet per second; August 10, 630 cubic feet per second; August 25, 522 cubic feet per second; August 26, 566 cubic feet per second; August 27, 582 cubie feet per second, and August 28, 322 cubic feet per second. — In 1898 the minimum month was July, in which the mean flow was 1128 cubic feet per second, although for five days in Sone the flow was about 900 cubic feet per second. The mean flow for the month of August, 1899, was 897 cubic feet per second and for September, 990 cubic feet per second. For a short period in August the flow fell to about 700 cubic feet per second, and on one day it was 522 cubic feet per second. In considering these statements of minimum flow in Black river, the fact that there is a leakage estimated at 250 cubic feet per second should be taken into account; 520 cubic feet per second, which with one exception is the lowest, is at the rate of 0.27 cubic foot .per second per square mile. The daily record of this stream shows that it is a good water yielder, as indeed might be expected. There are a large number of reservoirs at the headwaters and it flows from an area largely in primeval forest. It is doubtful, therefore, if Black river will, while present forestry conditions are maintained, go below about 0.8 cubic foot per second per square mile for more than a few days at a time, although it is claimed to have been less than this for some time in 1849. Minimum flow of Oswegatchie river. From a current meter measurement of the low-water flow of this stream made a few HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 503 miles above Ogdensburg September 25, 1900, the discharge was estimated at 614 cubic feet per second (catchment, 1535 square miles), or at the rate of 0.4 cubic foot per second per square mile. There is not enough information about this river to determine whether or not this is the extreme minimum flow, but taking into account the rainfall of 1900, it is probable that the minimum flow is somewhat lower than this. Minimum flow of Raquette river. Only two measurements of the flow of this stream have been made. The first of these was a current meter measurement made at Potsdam, where the catch- ment area has not been determined, by W. C. Johnson, on August 28, 1898, on which day the flow of the stream was 755 cubic feet per second. A current meter measurement was also made near Massena, October 2-5, 1900, showing the low-water flow of Raquette river to be 934 cubic feet per second (catchment, about 1200 square miles), or at the rate of 0.78 cubic foot per second per square mile. There is very large pondage area on the various lakes at the headwaters of this stream, but probably the low-water flow will go lower than the preceding figures—how much, there is no w ay of stating at the present time. Minimum flow of Hudson river. Measurements of the flow of the Hudson river have been kept at Mechanicville since October, 1887, the record of which to November, 1902, inclusive, is presented in tables Nos. 60, 61 and 62. The natural flow of this stream is. somewhat obscured by a considerable number of lumbermen’s reservoirs on its headwaters, the total storage of which aggregates. 4.000,000,000 cubic feet, as well as by two reservoirs on Hoosic River (in Massachusetts. In 1898-9 Indian lake reservoir was. constructed with a storage capacity of about 5,000,000,000 cubic feet. The water stored in Indian lake is usually let out in the months of August, September and October, assisting the low-water flow materially, while the water from the lumbermen’s dams is let out in the spring, and tends to increase floods somewhat. The month of minimum runoff for the whole period covered by the measurements was August, 1899, the mean for the month being 1393 cubic feet per second (catchment, 4500 square miles), or at the rate of 0.31 cubic foot per second per square mile. The flow for one day during this month was 993 cubic feet per second, and 504 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM for one day 979 cubic feet per second. In September, 1899, the flow for one day was 711 cubic feet per second. For short periods the flow has been less than for August, 1899. Thus, August 14-19, 1890, the mean flow was 1080 cubic feet per second, and October 2-6, inclusive, 1891, the mean flow is also given at 1080 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.24 cubic foot per second per square mile. Taking the diversion for the supply of the Champlain canal into account, we have about 0.29 cubic foot per second per square mile as the actually observed flow. The figures show, however, that the flow of 0.29 cubic foot per . second per square mile has occurred for only two periods—one of six days and the other of five days—a total of eleven days for the whole period covered by the measurements. For July, 1888, the mean flow, including the diversion which was then occurring for the supply of the Champlain canal, may be taken at 0.37 cubic foot per second per square mile. For October, 1891, the mean flow for the whole month was 1472 cubic feet per second, or, including - the diversion to the Champlain canal, 0.36 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. In July, 1890, the mean flow for the month was 1950 cubic feet per second, and in several other months, as July, 1893, July, 1895, and September and October, 1895, the mean monthly flow varied from about 2600 to 2700 cubic feet per second. Hence we may say that for any business where it is not absolutely indispensable to have permanent power, water power -on Hudson river may be developed up to the limit of about 0.4 of a cubic foot per second per square mile, with a prospect of not being interrupted on account of low water more than a few days in each year. For electric power, however, or any application of water power requiring a permanent power every day in the year, the development ought not to be based, under present conditions, on more than about 0.24 to 0.25 of a cubic foot per second per square mile, these latter figures relating specially to that portion of the river from which water is diverted for the supply of the Champlain canal. As is shown in the section on the water power of the Hudson river, nearly all of the plants on that stream are developed far beyond these figures. Above the mouth of the Hoosic and Battenkill rivers somewhat different conditions obtain from those occurring at Mechanic- ville. The Hoosic and Battenkill rivers flow from eastern Ver- HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 505 mont and Massachusetts, and frequently there are rainfalls in this region when there are none on the Hudson river above Fort Edward. This fact renders it impossible to predicate what will happen on this part of the stream from the record at Mechanic- ville. A record of the flow of the river has been kept at Fort Edward from December, 1895, to the present time, which is given to November, 1902, inclusive, in table No. 63. In August, 1899, the mean flow for the month at Fort Edward was 714 cubic feet per second (catchment, 2800 square miles), or at the rate of 0.26 cubic foot per second per square mile. For fourteen days in Sep- tember, 1899, the mean flow was at the rate of 661 cubic feet per second or 0.24 cubic foot per second per square mile. -Probably, in some extreme dry time, the flow at Fort Edward will not exceed 0.2 cubic foot per second per square mile, as the evidence is clear that 1899, while exceedingly dry, was not the minimum dry year. The statements in regard to the reliability of the gag- ings, made on a preceding page, may, however, be taken into account in considering the minimum flows at this place. Minimum flow of Croton river. The daily record of this stream is not available, the flows being given for an entire month. The following are the monthly means for the lowest flows: In August, 1869, the flow for the entire month was 90 cubic feet per second; in September of that year, it was 54 cubic feet per second. The mean flow, therefore, for two months was 72 cubic feet per second (catchment, 339 square miles), or at the rate of 0.21 cubic foot per second per square mile. In September, 1870, the mean flow was 97 cubic feet per second and in October, 111 cubic feet per second. The foilowing are the flows for the growing period of 1877: Cubic feet per second manner 2 ee A Oe ne hee Oe Fahy EM a Mik Ca en tere eg nh Ne 159 The flow for September, 1877, was 93 cubic feet per second. 506 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In the water year, 1880, the flow for the growing and replenish- ing periods was as follows: Wee a Sines saiys Ge eee day hae dae ks 5.20. Sa ie en rr Pilg te ee are ee, Cas cer NAL UIS Ie os a, See Gre ee” a che A bce Ps Gee See 1382 SOMueMT MGR 2 etn ask e ene meee & BR Sin Sime: ea hb ee 132 REP ROWEI Bi chek eae eso Retet eu SIA Le aoeces One aie aes ee 130 INOW ENTER 5005 S202 olsen, eae eet Secor Pi ae 152 Whee’ 3 Reehgte ya We Wanna, eed haa Ae ae 137 Saat SES The flow for the following month of December was 138 cubic feet per second. The entire flow for the water year 1880 was 365 cubic feet per second. In the year 1881 the mean flow for the replenishing period was 129 cubic feet per second. a In the year 1883 the mean flow for the entire year was 363. cubic feet per second. Attention may be directed to the fact that the flow of the storage period will chiefly determine whether the mean flow for the whole year is large or small. Thus, in 1880, the mean flow for the storage period was 592 cubic feet per second and in 1888, 572 cubic feet per second. The maximum flow of the storage period from 1868-1899, inclusive, occurred in 1888 and was 1137 cubic feet per second. In 1888 the mean flow for the entire year was 838 cubic feet per second, which is the maximum mean yearly flow for the entire period covered by the gagings. The lowest mean monthly flow for the entire period was in Sep- tember, 1869, and. was 54 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.16 cubic foot per second per square mile. Probably the flow of the Croton river for several days during these periods did not exceed 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile. According to J. J. R. Croes, the minimum flow of the west branch of the Croton river, with a catchment area of 20.4 square miles, is 0.02 cubic foot per second per square mile. Minimum flow of Fishkill creek. The lowest flow of this stream: thus far observed was on August 26, 1902, and was at the rate of HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 507 4.24 cubic foot per second per square mile. There seems little reason to doubt but that this stream will go as low as from 0.10 to 0.15 cubic foot per second per square mile. A measurement of Clove creek, the largest tributary of Fishkill creek, was made September 24, 1902, when the discharge was 3.5 cubic feet per second (catchment, 20 square miles), or at the rate of 0.18 cubic foot per second per square mile. Minimum flow of Rondout creek. The low-water flow of. this stream is estimated at from 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per Square mile, ‘ Minimum flow of Wallkill river. The lowest flow thus far ob- — served on this stream at New Paltz is 124 cubic feet per second (catchment, 736 square miles), or at the rate of 0.17 cubic foot per second per square mile. This flow is from-a single current meter measurement on July 17,1902. The minimum flow of this stream will go as low as from 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile. ; | Minimum flow of Esopus creek. he flow of this stream at Kingston on August 5, 1901, was 40 cubie feet per second (catch- ment, 312 square miles), or at the rate of 0.18 cubic foot per sec- ond per square mile. This stream will at times go as low as 0.05. cubic foot per second per square mile. In June, 1899, the mean flow for the entire month was only 0.24 cubic foot per second per square mile. Minimum flow of Catskill creek. The available data show that this stream will in dry time run down to 0.05 cubic foot per second per square mile. . Minimum flow of the Normanskill. The lowest recorded flow of this stream occurred in September, 1891, and was 4.6 cubic feet per second (catchment, 111 square miles), or at the rate of 0.04 cubic foot per second per square mile. The mean flow for the entire month of September, 1891, was 8.9 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.07 cubic foot per second per square mile. In October, 1891, the lowest flow was 4.9 cubic feet per second; in August, it was 5.9 cubic feet per second, and in November of the Same year, it was 6.9% cubic feet per second. These figures show at once that this stream is a poor water yielder, and that probably the extreme minimum flow for several days will not exceed 0.02 to 0.03 cubic foot per second per square mile. 508 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Minimun flow of Kinderhook creek. The mean flow of this stream at East Nassau for November, 1892, was 30 cubic feet per second (catchment, 120 square miles), or at the rate of 0.25 cubic foot per second per square mile. In 1894 the minimum flow at Wilson’s dam was 4 cubic feet per second (catchment, 68 square miles), or at the rate of 0.06 cubic foot per second per square mile. The minimum flow for August, 1894, at the same place was 5.2 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.08 cubic foot per second per square mile. Minimum fiow of Schroon river. Gagings of this stream are kept at Warrensburg, but the natural flow is considerably ob- scured by the storage of Schroon lake, which is controlled by the Starbuckville dam. During the month of August, 1899, the mean flow at Warrensburg was taken at 150 cubic feet per second (catchment, 563 square miles), or at the rate of 0.27 cubic foot per second per square mile, but this is not very precise. Minimum flow of Mohawk river. For four days in September, 1900, the flow of the Mohawk river at Dunsbach Ferry was 373 cubic feet per second (catchment, 3440 square miles), or at the rate of 0.11 cubic foot per second per square mile. Probably the extreme minimum would not exceed 0.07 or 0.08 cubic foot per second per square mile. In October, 1900, the flow at the same place was 373 cubic feet per second for two days; 457 cubic feet per second for three days; 625 cubic feet per second for seven days, and 541 cubic feet per second for one day. The minimum flow of the Mohawk river as measured at Rexford Flats during September, 1899, was 228 cubic feet per second (catchment, 3385 square miles), or 0.06 cubic foot per second per square mile for fifteen days, followed by a flow of 278 cubic feet per second for ten days. The mean flow for the entire month of August, 1899, was 294 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.09 cubic foot per second per square mile, while for the last three days of the month it was only 208 cubic feet per second. These figures include the amount of water diverted to supply Erie canal, or they are the total flow of Mohawk river at the point of gaging. The minimum flow of Mohawk river at Schenectady as meas- ured in September, 1899, was 420 cubic feet per second (catch- ment, 3321 square miles), or at the rate of 0.13 eubic foot per second per square mile, for twelve days. The entire flow of the HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 509 stream is included in this measurement. The flow for the month of August, 1899, was at the mean rate of 524 cubic feet per second. In September, 1900, the mean flow for the entire month was 609 cubic feet per second. The mean flow at Little Falls for the month of August, 1899, was 223 cubic feet per second, but this does not include diversion to the Erie canal, which may amount to about 150 cubic feet per second, or to a total flow of about 3875 cubic feet per second (catchment, 1306 square miles), which is at the rate of about 0.28 cubic foot per second per square mile. In comparison with the flow for the month of August, 1899, at Rexford Flats, these figures show that the upper Mohawk river is relatively a better water yielder than the lower—the low flows from Schoharie creek and contiguous catchment areas, probably making the difference. The lowest water observed since gagings have been kept at Little Falls was in August, 1899, when the mean flow for nine days was but 120 cubic feet per second, or 0.07 cubic foot per second per square mile. This, however, does not represent the total flow of the stream, as nearly the entire river was being taken for the supply of Erie canal. In September, 1901, the minimum flow of Mohawk river at Utica for two days was 70 cubic feet per second (catchment, 500 Square miles), or at the rate of 0.14 cubic foot per second per Square mile. These figures are somewhat indefinite. The minimum flow of Mohawk river at Ridge Mills for Septem- ber, 1899, was at the mean rate of 81 cubic feet per second for twenty-two days; for three days, the mean flow was 56 cubic feet per second, and for two days, 53 cubic feet per second (catchment, 153 square miles), or at the rate of 0.34 cubic foot per second per square mile. Mininum flow of Cayadutta creek. In August, 1899, the mean flow of this stream at Johnstown for the entire month was 18 cubic feet per second; in September, 20 cubic feet per second, and in October, 21 cubic feet per second. For several days during these months it was from 14 to 16 cubic feet per second. In July, 1900, the mean flow was 17 cubic feet per second, and for several days it was from 12 to 14 cubic feet per second, which, for a catch- ment area of 40 square miles, is at the rate of about 0.3 to 0.35. cubic foot per second per square mile. 510 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Minimum flow of Schoharie creek. The mean flow of this stream at Fort Hunter for the month of August, 1899, was 142 cubic feet per second (catchment, 947 square miles), or at the rate of 0.15 cubic foot per second per square mile. In July, 1900, the mean flow was 115 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.12 cubic foot per second per square mile. For three days during this month the flow was 76 cubic feet per second and for one day 72 cubic feet per second. | Gagings of Schoharie creek were also made at Schoharie falls _ over a Sharp-crested weir, 25 feet in length, during a portion of . 1900 and 1901. According to these gagings the mean flow of the stream for August, 1900, was 89 cubic feet per second; for Sep- tember, 32 cubic feet per second, and for October, 40 cubic feet per second. In February, 1901, the flow was 166 cubic feet per second. The catchment area at this point is 930 square miles. Hence, 32 cubic feet per second was at the rate of 0.04 cubic foot per second per square mile. In May, 1900, the writer reported at length relative to the low- water flow of Schoharie creek. At that time, the Empire State Power Company was contemplating extensive developments on this creek and had procured reports from several engineers. These reports agreed that the minimum flow of this stream would not be less than about 400 cubic feet per second. In regard to this matter, it was stated that the minimum flow of Schoharie creek had been taken too high, as might be sufficiently appreciated by considering the figures derived from all the rivers of the State which had then been studied. Figures were given for Oatka creek, Genesee river, Hemlock lake, west branch of Canadaway creek, Oswego river, Black river, Mohawk river, Hudson river, Croton river and Niagara river, and the conclusion was arrived at from such comparison, based on general considerations purely, that the flow of Schoharie creek might go down to as low as 0.2 cubic foot per second per square mile, or to about 190 cubic feet per second. The following was the conclusion of this part of the report: If, therefore, we were to accept the idea that there is at least 0.4 cubic foot per second per square mile minimum flow in Scho- harie creek, we should have about the best flowing stream in the State—better even than the Hudson and Mohawk. A stream, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK FIL too, without any lake pondage, with steep sharp slopes, and with everything against high flows. Obviously, then, the conclusion that Schoharie creek flows as high as 0.4 cubic foot per second per square mile is absurd. At present the writer does not feel justi- fied in assigning to it, on the evidence, more than from 0.2 to 0.25 cubic foot per second per square mile. Such flows, however, prob- ably do not continue yery. long, because the stream responds quickly to relatively small rains, which is certainly an advantage, the more especially because the rainfall is possibly slightly greater in the elevated highlands from which this stream issues than it is in less elevated regions. : It was also stated: In the absence of gagings of Schoharie creek the determination of the minimum flow is a matter of judgment, but taking into ac- count all the evidence, the writer believes he has given Schoharie creek a liberal place. Since that time definite gagings have been kept, showing that the low-water flow of this stream is lower even than estimated from general considerations in 1900; it is, in fact, shown to be an exceedingly poor water yielder, and it is clear that the writer’s report of 1900 did not place the low water flow as low as it really is. Minimum flow of East Canada creek. The mean low-water flow of this stream at Dolgeville for September, 1899, was 92 cubic feet per second. For eleven days it was 67 cubic feet per second (catchment, 256 square miles), or at the rate of 0.26 cubic foot per second per square mile. For August, 1899, the mean flow for the month was 97 cubic feet per second. For September, 1900, it was 1383 cubic feet per second. Minimum flow of West Canada creek. The mean flow of this stream at Middleville for September, 1899, was 221 cubic feet per second (catchment, 518 square miles), or at the rate of 0.42 cubic foot per second per square mile. For several days the flow was only 145 cubic feet per second, and for eleven days, September 2-12, inclusive, the mean flow was 183 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.35 cubic foot per second per square mile. In the pre- | ceding month of August the mean flow for the month was 235 cubic feet per second. These figures show the superiority of both East and West Canada creeks over Schoharie creek as water yielders. 512 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Minimum flow of Sauquoit creek. The mean flow of this stream at New York Mills for September, 1899, was 14 cubic feet per sec- ond (catchment, 52 square miles), or at the rate of 0.27 cubic foot per second per square mile; for August, 1899, it was 16 cubic feet per second, and for October, 1899, 17 cubic feet per second. For September, 1900, the mean flow was 15 cubic feet per second. Minimum flow of Oriskany creek. The low-water flow of this stream is likely to occur during the months when canal navigation is closed, at which time the water flowing is only the natural con- tribution from the catchment area. For ten days in December, 1899, the mean flow at Oriskany was 53.5 cubic feet per second (catchment, 144 square miles), or at the rate of 0.37 cubic foot per second per square mile. For four days during this month the mean flow was 81 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.22 cubic foot per second per square mile. Minimum flow of Allegheny river and tributaries. So far as known, minimum flows have not thus far been determined for the Allegheny river and its tributaries. They are, however, small and may be placed at 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile. Minimum flow of Susquehanna river and tributaries. So far as known, minimum flows have not thus far been determined for Susquehanna river and tributaries. They are, however, small and may be placed at 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per Square mile. Minimun flow of Delaware river and tributaries. So far as known, minimum flows have not thus far been determined for Delaware river and tributaries. They are, however, small and may be placed at 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile. The preceding discussion of minimum flow is of considerable value in that it includes comparison of a number of New York streams for the year 1899, which, as shown by the rainfall statis- tics, was rather a dry year, although there is no reason for sup- posing it was the minimum dry year. Summary of information regarding minimum flows. ‘Summar- izing the present knowledge of minimum flow of streams in New York State, we may say that in western New York for streams like Genesee river issuing from regions of heavy, compact soil, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 513 mostly deforested, the minimum flows will run as low as from 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile. In extreme cases they may be even less than this. In the chapter on the classifica- tion of streams we have shown that Croton river properly classi- fies with the Genesee. It is also shown that this stream has low minimum flows. Spring-fed streams in western New York and those with considerable lake surface pondage may be expected to have somewhat greater minimum flows than the preceding. In the central part of the State streams flowing from the south - side of the Mohawk north into that stream have generally low minimum flows; they do not differ greatly from the Genesee river and tributaries. To the north of the Mohawk river the conditions are different and the flow of the streams is larger. The Mohawk river and upper Hudson may be placed, while their present condition of forestation is maintained, at a minimum of about 0.2 to 0.25 cubic foot per second per square mile. Reser- voirs on the Hoosic river in Massachusetts tend to increase the minimum flow of the Hudson at Mechanicville somewhat. Streams issuing from the Catskill mountains, where conditions similar to those on the Genesee river obtain, have minimum flows of from 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile.* The streams of Long Island, issuing from sand plains, will give larger yields, the available measurements showing minimum run- offs as high as 0.5 cubic foot per second per square mile, but whether these runoffs would be maintained in a minimum dry year is uncertain; at present, it appears somewhat improbable. Moreover, it is proper to say that these measurements were made about fifty years ago and there is some doubt whether they are entirely reliable; probably an extended series would show per- haps 0.85 cubic foot per second per square mile as the minimum. The streams of the northern part of the State, issuing from denser forests and with large lake storage, may be expected to give minimum yields somewhat in excess of 0.3 cubic foot per second per square mile, although until definite measurements are made this must be considered an inference merely. 1Streams issuing from the Catskill region have not been gaged long enough to entirely settle the question of minimum fiows. The difference in forest- ation may be taken into account in estimating these flows. ol4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Nothing is known as to the minimum yields of streams tribu- tary to the Allegheny, Susquehanna and Delaware rivers, aside from the measurements of Katon and Madison brooks made in 1835. So far as can be learned, aside from those recently inaugurated by the United States Geological Survey, no measure- ments of any other of these streams have been made. It is prob- able that they will mostly be found substantially the same as Genesee river and streams issuing from the Catskill region. Quantity of water which may be stored on the several plateaus. The foregoing treats of the yield of streams in a general way, but the practical summation of the preceding discussion is as. to the quantity of water that can be safely stored on different catchment areas of New York in the year of minimum runoff. The tables of precipitation on the several plateaus show that the quantity which can be stored varies in different parts of the State and in some degree in proportion to the rainfall. It is also shown that when the rainfall is above a certain minimum amount, the excess quantity of runoff is roughly in proportion to the rainfall. In order to emphasize the preceding propositions, we have the following as the mean rainfalls of the ten plateaus into which the area of New York is divided for the twelve water years 1891-1902, inclusive, together with the low rainfalls of 1895 and 1899. Mean of 1895, 1899, vos inches inches. Western: plaveauk lec mes eecte ass as 37.03. - 29. 76 see Hascenin, ‘plateals-c i285 Peet tao oe 40.30 . 32.81% 9 san8a6 Northern plated 2/2, tsb Gmiss baie kM. 44.03. 36.61oe eae Pet Lebnies COM bk ets tek Deh ie age 46.71 40.77 44.54 Hudson valley..... Pe eae PR a ies ie 42.59 - 35.14 Mobenykjonilleyy oe ere ties el ees 42.13 31:30 9 enced Champlain yallevor ieee jek ieee st 37.06 . 32.95 2) Sasa Si: Lawrence vallewco keds otk. oe 36:18 .. 33.175." 28008 Great uakes. i). 2.20 eee aeetee Se 35:65: 29.13. 23368 @erttral Lakes. oc <4 shies Sheers 34.46. 27.31. Ata The difference in the average precipitation of the Atlantic coast and the Central Lakes regions is 12.25 inches. We may expect, therefore, about 10 to 11 inches more average runoff in HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 515 the Atlantic coast region than in the region of the Central Lakes. The preceding mean edralls are ‘for a period of 12 years only, which is not long enough for perfectly safe averages. Moreover, while these 12 years have included the minimums of 1895 and 1899, these minimums were not as well defined on some of the plateaus as on others. Since the precipitation of the storage period largely determines the runoff of that period, let us for a moment consider the relation between precipitation in the storage period of the Atlantic coast and Central Lakes regions. The minimum precipitation in the storage period of the Atlantic coast region for the 12-year period included in the tables was for the year 1896, and amounted to 19.70 inches. The minimum precipitation of the Central Lakes region for the same period was in 1895 and amounted to 11.26 inches, a difference of 8.44 inches in the storage period alone. The yearly minimum precipitation of the Atlantic coast region for the period considered was in 1895 and amounted to 40.77 inches. The yearly minimum precipitation of the Central Lakes region was also in 1895 and amounted to 27.31 inches, a difference of 13.46 inches. The proposition that there was over 10 inches more runoff in the Atlantic coast region in 1895 than in the Central Lakes region is therefore abundantly established. In the same way a comparison of the balance of the regions will show in a general way the runoff that may be expected in any given year. Taking into account in a broad way these several precipitation areas, we may say that in the minimum year the following quan- tities of water can be stored, the statement being made without reference to the economic conditions involved in considering the area of catchment, topography, cost, etc. The statement also involves conclusions based on consideration of all the circum- stances, which are much too extensive to again give in detail but which are given in different parts of this report: 1) On the western plateau, from 6 to 7 inches may: be stored in the minimum year. 2) On the eastern plateau, 7 to 10 inches. 3) On the northern plateau, 10 to 12 inches. 4) In the Atlantic coast region, 13 to 15 inches. 516 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 5) In the Hudson valley, 10 to 11 inches. 6) In the Mohawk valley, 10 to 11 inches. 7) In the Champlain valley, 7 to 8 inches. 8) In the St Lawrence valley, 5 to 6 inches. 9) In the Great Lakes region, 5 to 6 inches. 10) In the Central Lakes region, 4 to 5 inches. 11) And finally, for particular localities, not more than 2 to 4 inches can be stored. In the Atlantic coast region, by storage is meant the total quan- tity of water which may be practically utilized, either from sur- face flows or underflows. Moreover, the foregoing statements are made for a single year and without reference to the water yield that may be supplied by considering a period of three years. Usually, taking into account a 3-year low-water period, more storage can be provided than when only a single year is considered, and the question as to just what the water stored is to be used for will largely deter- mine which period to take. If for water power, where exceedingly large quantities of water are required, it is not generally desirable to take more than the single dry year, while for water supplies a period of three dry years may be taken. | Many persons consider that 11 inches of water collected in a dry year is a conservative assumption, but the preceding dis- cussion will serve to show that anybody assuming such quantity in the State of New York would, in some parts, be wide of the mark. . STATE OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC UTILITIES When a country becomes thickly populated there are some things which can be better done by the State than by either an individual or by a single community. We will briefly discuss a case of this character here. State water supply. New York State is specially suited for a State water supply because, due to fortuitous conditions, it is possible to deliver water by gravity without excessively long con- duits, to nearly every city and town in the State. Such supplies would answer the requirements of purity and would settle the question of water supplies in this State for all time to come. The writer therefore considers that there should ‘be a State cammis- sion specially authorized to define the limits of these reservations HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 517 and that forestation should be carried on within the limits fixed by such a commission. Examining the hypsometric map accompanying this report, we observe that there are six high points which may be denominated water centers, which are referred to on page 40. The largest and most important of these is the elevated region known as the Adirondack mountains, or for present purposes, the Adirondack center, the highest peaks of which rise to an altitude of over 5000 feet, and there are about 4000 square miles at an ele- vation of 2000 feet and over. This region has a population of. from 8 to 10 to the square mile. The population of the balance of the water centers ig somewhat greater than this, but in none of them is it beyond the limit of a pure water supply, with proper precaution. The principal lakes lie at an elevation of from 1500 to 2000 feet. ; The second, or Catskill center, includes the Catskill mountains in the southeastern part of the State, where the highest points rise to an altitude of over 4000 feet and there is an area of about 1000 square miles at an elevation of 2000 feet and over. The third, which may be called the Allegheny center, is the ele- vated region in the southwestern part of the State in Cattaraugus, Allegany and Steuben counties, where the highest points are at an elevation of over 2000 feet and there is.an area of from 500 to 800 square miles at an elevation of over 1500 feet. The fourth, or Rensselaer center, lies east of Troy, Albany and Poughkeepsie, and its highest altitudes are over 2000 feet, while there are from 1000 to 1200 square miles at an elevation of over 600 feet. Since the distance from the Hudson river is short, this elevation is enough to supply the cities and towns naturally tributary. | The fifth, or Chenango center, is west of the Catskill mountains, with an extreme elevation of over 1800 feet, and there are from 1200 to 2000 square miles at an elevation exceeding 1200 feet. The sixth, or Lowville center, is to the north of Oneida lake, with an extreme elevation of from 1800 to 2000 feet, and there are from 400 to 600 square miles at an elevation of over 1200 feet. The issuing streams are lower than the foregoing, but still high enough to insure gravity supplies. *For elevation of lakes of Adirondack region, see pages 221 and 241. 518 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The preceding statements of area above certain elevations are rather general—time has not been taken for detailed estimates. There are, however, from 8000 to 10,000 square miles available. From all these centers, uncontaminated streams of great natural purity issue. There are also several minor points thrones the State for which the same statement is true. The Adirondack water center is separated from the Catskill by the valley of the Mohawk river, which receives drainage from both—the East and West Canada creeks and other tributaries of - the Mohawk on the north side of the valley rising in the Adiron- dack center, while the Schoharie creek on the south side is an important tributary from the Catskill center. In addition to the Mohawk river, other important streams of the State issuing from the Adirondack center are the Black, Oswe- gatchie, Grasse, Raquette, St Regis, Chateaugay, Great basis: Saranac, Ausable, Bouquet and Hudson rivers. From Catskill center, in addition to Schoharie creek, we find issuing the headwaters of the Susquehanna, Delaware and Wall- kill rivers and Esopus creek. The Allegheny center supplies the headwaters of Cattaraugus creek, Genesee, Chemung, Canisteo, Tioga, west branch of the Sus- quehanna and Allegheny rivers. From Rensselaer center issue Hoosic river, Kinderhook creek, Claverack creek, the Jansen kill and Croton river. From Chenango center issue the Chenango and Tioughnioga rivers and Oriskany, Oneida and other small creeks, flowing north. From Lowville center Salmon river issues, together with Sandy creek, Fish creek and other small streams. Generally speaking the main river valleys of New York are at comparatively low elevations, as may be sufficiently appreciated by considering the elevation of a few of the principal streams. The main Black river valley is less than 800 feet above tide water ; Oswego river, with its principal tributaries, the Oneida and Seneca, is less than 500 feet; main Mohawk river is less than 500 feet; Genesee river, between Rochester, Mount Morris and Dans- ville, is about 500 to 600 feet; main, Hudson river, below Glens _ Falls, is less than 200 feet; main Susquehanna river is less than 1,000 feet, as is also the main Delaware; main Allegheny river in the State of New York is about 1,000 feet; Lake Erie is 573 feet; HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 519 Lake Ontario 247 feet; and the St Lawrence river, from 247 to about 100 feet above tide water. The cities and towns are mostly situated in these several valleys along the streams. The quantity of pure upland water that can be furnished from the six water centers is sufficient for 45,000,000 to 50,000,000 people, as may be shown by considering that the available areas are more than 9000 square miles in extent. If we assume an average collection of only 400,000 gallons per day from 9000 square miles and an average daily use throughout the State of 100 gallons per capita, we have water enough for 36,000,000 people, and which could easily be increased by additional storage to a supply sufficient for 45,000,000 to 50,000,000 people. On the accompanying map, the reserved elevated areas are con- siderably in excess of 9000 square miles, but this is merely to insure that no town or group of towns be required to go further than necessary for an upland water supply. These areas can be reduced when definite information is at hand as to just where the supply for each town or group of towns can be obtained. In order to emphasize the proposition that the main river val- leys of the State should be kept clear for manufacturing, they are generally excepted from the pure water reservations, shown on the accompanying map. This map is subject to modification in this particular on detailed study. The Adirondack center is a rugged region, consisting of primeval crystalline rocks, covered locally with sand areas. Here appeared some of the first dry land on the western continent, and thus was laid, in early geologic time, the basis of those fine river sys- tems which, issuing from this water center, have created water resources of vast value to the citizens of New York. From this center water may be supplied to Plattsburg, Malone, Canton, Pots- dam, Ogdensburg, Utica, Herkimer, Johnstown, Saratoga Springs, Schenectady, Lake George, Albany, Troy and many other large towns of the region, all within practical distance of the purest water, flowing from granitic catchments. This region is also extensive enough to furnish abundant supplies to the cities of the Hudson valley, including the City of New York. : The geologic history of Catskill and Allegheny water centers is quite different from that of the Adirondack center. In both these regions the sedimentary sandstone rocks of the Chemung and Cats- 520 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM kill groups have attained their greatest development. In the Catskill mountains these rocks are still practically horizontal, as originally deposited, and in places several thousand feet in thick- ness. Limestones and other hard rocks, underlaid by shales and soft formations, are found beneath the sandstones in a lower stratigraphic horizon. From Catskill and Rensselaer water centers, water may be taken to Albany, Troy, Hudson, Catskill, Kingston, Schenectady, New- burg, Goshen, Monticello, Delhi, Cooperstown and other large towns of the surrounding region. The City of New York is now chiefly supplied from Croton river, which issues from the south end of the Rensselaer center. From Chenango center, water may be taken to Norwich. Cort- land, Binghamton, Oswego, Syracuse, Utica, Auburn, Waterloo, Geneva and other places nearby. From Lowville center, Lowville, Watertown, Carthage and Oswego may be reached. From Allegheny center, Buffalo, Lockport, Albion, Batavia, Warsaw, Rochester, Geneseo, Angelica, Bath, Corning, Elmira, Canandaigua and Lyons may be reached. In view of the vast increase of population in New York State — for the past one hundred years the writer considers that the time has arrived when the State should make provision for retaining a portion of the headwaters of the streams issuing from these — several elevated regions as a future water supply for the inhab- itants. . The population of New York in 1800 was 589,051. In 1900— one hundred years later—it was 7,268,894. In the year 2000— another one hundred years—it is perhaps difficult to predict what it will be, but if with the data from 1790 to 1900, inclusive, we plot a population curve, a reasonable estimate of the population in the year 2000 is found to be 20,000,000—it may be one or two million more than this, or one or two million less, but for a period nearly one hundred years in advance, 20,000,000 is a con- servative estimate. Z Of the present population of 7,268,894, in 1900 6,206,657 were on an area of approximately 23,440 square miles, or a trifle less than one-half the land area of the State, which is, according to the twelfth census, 47,620 square miles. However, this statement HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 521 does not quite represent the conditions in New York State as regards the relation between population and area. If we con- sider that there are thirty-seven cities included in the preceding area of 23,440 square miles, in which there is a population of 4,302,000 on about 1000 square miles, or at the average rate of something like 4300 per square mile, we learn that on the 23,440 square miles the purely rural population may be taken in 1900 at 1,904,000, which rural population is again situated on about 22,400 square miles, or at the average rate of about 84 per square mile. The foregoing review of the statistics of population in New York indicates the present tendency to concentrate in cities. Un- doubtedly, such tendency will be considerably accentuated in the future. The clear tend of perhaps one-half of New York State to become a great manufacturing district will lead to this result. In the year 2000 it is probable that a relatively larger propor- tion of the population will be located in the river valleys than at present. Time will not be taken to discuss the conditions in each valley, but the Mohawk valley will be briefly referred to as illustrating conditions in several of the more important river valleys. The catchment area of Mohawk river is 3468 square miles and the population of nineteen principal towns situated therein was in 1900, 215,539. These towns are all large enough to have sewer- age works at the present time. They are manufacturing towns and are growing rapidly. If they were to increase in the same proportion as the whole State, the population in the year 2000 would be something like 600,000, but undoubtedly they will in- crease much more rapidly than the whole State and we will not be far from right if we take the population in the year 2000 at 1,000,000. Moreover, this urban population will not be scattered over the whole 3468 square miles, but will be concentrated on perhaps 1200 square miles. The average population will, there- fore, be, aside from the denser population of the cities, over 800 per square mile. Approximately the same average conditions will obtain on about 20,000 square miles of the State. With an average population of over 800 per square mile on 20,000 square miles, the 20,000 square miles will have become urban and sub-urban area, with water supply and sewerage in 522 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM every street, and a vastly important question is raised not only as to the source of the water supply, but as to the sewage dlis- posal. With an ample upland water supply for the entire State assured, we may consider a little further the most practicable form of sewage disposal to be applied in New York. The ma- jority of the streams are already so far contaminated as to make their use for water supplies undesirable, the more especially as it is entirely practicable to obtain uncontaminated upland sources of water supply without prohibitive expense. In many cases, several towns will join together for the construction of a conduit and in order to harmonize the various interests, a State commission should take charge of the construction. The writer fancies that in many cases purification of sewage by dilution will be sufficiently effective even when the population of the State shall have reached 20,000,000, and in other cases, some different form of purification may be used. For satisfactory results by dilution, there should be in the stream about 4 cubic feet per second for every 1000: of the population. For Mohawk river, when the population of the valley reaches 1,000,000, this would mean a flow in the stream of 4000 cubic feet per second. The minimum flow at the present time is for short periods occasionally as low as 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile, although such flows continue for only a few days and would hardly apply in discussing sewage disposal. For present pur- poses, we may take the low water flow at from 0.25 to 0.3 cubic foot per second per square mile, or at about 1000 cubic feet per second for the flow of Mohawk river at its mouth. The balance of the 4000 cubic feet per second must be furnished by storage, which will again provide the water power for driving a consider- able proportion of the manufacturing establishments of the valley. 3000 cubic feet per second furnished from storage is as much as can be practically developed. Hence, when the population of Mohawk valley reaches about 1,000,000 some other plan must be adopted, but up to that point, the writer considers that the pref- erable plan is to go to the neighboring highlands for uncontam- 1For minimum flows of Mohawk river in detail, see tables on pages 406-10, together with statements-on pages 508-9. —s ' HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 523 inated water supplies, discontinuing the use of Hudson and Mohawk rivers therefor, and reserving them instead for sewage disposal. This proposition is equally true as regards the other principal rivers of the State. | The foregoing indicates that pure water supply and sewage dis- posal must go together—that they are of equal importance and neither can be neglected. To accomplish these objects, a per- manent State water supply and sewage disposal commission should be created at some time in the future. This commission would work substantially on the lines laid down by the several English commissions, who have considered questions of water supply and sewage disposal for the last 40 to 50 years Before the work of such a commission can be effective, it is necessary that a new topographical map of the State be made at a scale not smaller than ystoo. The work of the English com- missions has been specially effective because of having the Ordi- nance Map of Great Britain at a considerably larger scale than tso00- The area included in the several water centers should be undertaken first and will occuy from 10 to 15 years. After this map is well advanced, such a commission could be properly — appointed. : In reference to the present topographical map of the State, it is at too small a scale (gs30y ) to be of use other than as a general guide. The definition of the several water areas will require more precision than is possible on a map of the scale of the present topographical map. The writer will indicate some of the duties which may be likely to fall upon such a commission as is here suggested, drawing some- what upon an act proposed a few years ago in New Jersey, largely the work of the late Lebbeus B. Ward, of Jersey City. In the first place, with the topographical map at a scale of ai . . . . tso00 in hand, the commissioners would precisely define the area *Some of these commissions are. (1), Sewage of Towns Commission, 1858-65; (2) First Rivers’ Pollution Commission, 1868; (3) Second Rivers’ Pollution Commission, 1870-74; (4) Royal Sanitary Commission, 1871; (5) Royal Commission on Metropolitan Sewage Discharge, 1884-85; (6) Royal Commission on Metropolitan Water Supply, 1893; (7) Royal Commission on Metropolitan Water Supply within the limits of the Metropolitan Water Companies, 1898-99; (8) Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, 1898- date. 524 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM from which a given water supply was to be drawn, such a defini- _tion to be made with due reference to the several interests, what- ever they may be. Especially, in making their determinations, the interests of manufacturing by water power should be duly conserved. | After these preliminaries had been attended to, the commission should investigate the possible sources of the supply of water as they now exist, and should tabulate and report in detail upon each supply. There are a number of places where the water sup- - ply is not only ample, but of which the purity cannot be improved, but due consideration should be had as to the sufficiency of the present supply for future growth. The possibility of sewage in the future going into any present water supply should be taken into account. ; These commissioners would be empowered to construct and maintain works to supply, from the specially reserved State catch- ments, any city or town in the State which would comply with certain conditions. It would be made the duty of such a com- mission to defend the rights of the State, as regarded the use of reserved waters, and as to the policing and other lawful control of the same. Where necessary, proper sewage disposal works would be included, although generally, with the rivers left free to take sewage, this would be unnecessary—at any rate, for the present. 7 Any town or group of towns wishing to receive a water supply from a State catchment would be authorized to make application to the State board therefor, and thereupon the commissioners should consider such application, make examination, and submit plans and estimates, together with recommendations as to the best source and method of furnishing a supply, either singly or jointly with other municipalities, as in the judgment of the board was most expedient. Preferably, such recommendations would be made with reference to the supply of each municipality being an integral part of a comprehensive system of State water supply. The plan proposed could be submitted to a vote of the electors of the town or towns at such time and place as might be decided upon. If resulting favorably, the commission would proceed to construct the works and furnish the municipalities so accepting HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 525 the plans and provisions of the act, with a permanent water sup- ply from the State catchment. The amount to be paid per unit of water for such supply should be included in the report. No street distribution mains, or other apparatus constituting or directly pertaining to the internal distribution system of any municipality should be constructed by the State, but main con- duits only, terminating at the boundaries of towns. The main supply system would be under the control of the State water sup- ply and sewage disposal board. In case the electors of.any municipality should decline to ac- cept the plan proposed at the election, the municipality should be at liberty to renew its application at any time after a year, requesting the State board to present a different or modified plan, but it should be optional with the board whether to present such modified plan or present the one previously proposed. The State board should be empowered to issue bonds which may be denominated water and sewage disposal revenue bonds. The body of the bond should contain a declaration that the security therefor was the annual payment collectable from the municipality, together with the stipulation that a sinking fund of one per cent per annum should be invested and held in trust for the final redemption of the bonds. The bonds could have fifty years to run and should not bear more than 314 per cent interest. The annual payments of the several municipalities, to meet the interest on the bonds and provide the sinking fund, should be assessed by the State water supply and sewage disposal board each year in proportion to the quantity of water used by each municipality and the special expenditure incurred on account of such municipality. The moneys collected would be returned to the State Treasurer and by him deposited in the treasury as a pledge for the security of the bonds. Provision should also be included for the collection in case of a default by any municipality. | The act should provide for furnishing water to private com- panies which already hold franchises for supplying any city or town, but it should not be furnished to any such private company at a less price than to a public water supply. The tendency of such an act would be to uniformity in price of water to all mu- nicipalities accepting its provisions. 526 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In order that such a board might properly transact its business, provision should be included for the Comptroller to make ad- vances out of any money in the treasury not otherwise appro- priated, the total amount of such advancement to be limited to a certain sum, which should be repaid to the State treasury when properly assessed and collected from the municipalities. In this way, and also by-.virtue of the preceding suggestion as to bonds, the State may temporarily loan its credit to any municipality . requiring an upland water supply, but the cost of such must in the end be returned to the State. Finally, it is suggested that a commission of three is amply large, two of whom could be appointed by the Governor, and the third—who should be an hydraulic engineer—be elected by the two. These commissioners should devote their whole time to the work. THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER POWER IN NEW YORK Power employed in manufacturing. The Twelfth Census Report gives the steam power employed in manufacturing in 1900 in the State of New York as 677,219 horsepower, while the water power employed in manufacturing was 368,456 horsepower; in 1890, the steam power aggregated 537,447 horsepower; and the water power 233,795 horsepower; in 1880, the steam power amounted to 234,795 horsepower and the water power to 219,348 horsepower; in 1870, steam power was 126,107 horse- power and water power, 208,256 horsepower. These statistics show that in 1880 the two kinds of power were substantially equal—-steam power exceeded water power by only 15,447 horse- power; in 1870, water power exceeded steam power by 82,149 horsepower. According to the statement? of Dr Chas. E. Emery, the yearly cost of steam power, with coal at $3 per ton, will, for 365 days of 20 hours each vary, depending upon the kind of engine used, from $76.54 to $48.79. At the present time, with everything *Partly abstracted from paper, State Water Supply in New York, in Proc. Ninth An. Convention of Am. Soc. of Municipal Improvements, held at Rochester, ctober 7-9, 1902. 2Cost of Steam Power, by Chas. E. Hmery, Ph. D., in Trans. Am. Inst. Hlec. Engrs., Mareh, 1893. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 527 somewhat more expelsive than when this table was made, these figures may be taken at $85 and $53, although such costs imply small developments in units of not exceeding about 500 horse- power. In large units of from 3000 to 5000 horsepower, steam power may be developed considerably cheaper than this. Nevertheless it is still true that steam power will cost more than water power. We may profitably inquire then why, with so much undeveloped water power in the State, the more expensive steam power has developed to a greater extent relatively than water power. Steam power. Let us consider the following tabulation of steam power in the census years from 1900-1870, inclusive, in the States of Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and New York: 1900 1890 1880 1870 INO, obo. Ps No oft HP ~6No; of BP. No. of HP: Pomnecticut. 2... 178,708 98,038 57,027 25,979 Massachusetts ........ 579,110 355,226 171,397 78,502 mide Vsland.......... 115,876 85,327 41,335 23,546 Mew Work |. oS. Berto. 5a 447. 2384795. 126,107 Water power. ‘The following tabulation shows the development of water power in the census years 1900-1870, inclusive, in the four States : No, of HP. No. of H. P. No.of HP. No. of H. P. POUVMEEUEWL 00055. 5s) <, 71,414 64,655 61,205 54,395 Massachusetts ........ 187,848 159,787 138,362 105,854 Hhoderisland’. +.:./..< 0. - 29,035 27,258 22,240 18,481 ——— Mae pre hs) es 368,456 233,795 219,348 208,256 Percentage increase of steam power. The following tabula- tion shows the percentage of increase of steam power in the four States for the same period: 1890-1900 1880-1890 1870-1880 per cent per cent per cent Connectevins oa. seus ae ey Cree 82.3 (poe 11G5 mibaseachuserts CS 8. Peo o. 63 107.3 118.3 Pode Valends oo. eke 35.8 106.4 75.6 OU Ne eer aher ain ss def cove fe 5 26 128.9 86.1 528 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Percentage increase of water power. The following tabulation shows the percentage of increase of water power: a0 2 GmTTe CTC UE oss Sos easel ee oe ee 10.5 5.6 125 NEASSACHUBELES) <5 Ai Vil cs oh ee 17.6 15.5 BO mhode Wilandiocs woes ve cake eee 6.5 22.6 2023 aes We Or Rei k vin wie cee at eee ete a1 .6 6.6 The foregoing tabulations show that in all the States enumerated there has been great development of steam power in the last thirty years, but that in Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island there has been relatively less development of water power than of steam power. In New York State the development of water power in the last ten years is relatively double the development of steam power. In considering statistics, it is important to draw the right con- clusions—an error perpetuated, may falsify history and lead to the adoption of erroneous policies. Jet us examine, therefore, as to the real significance of these statistics. In the first place, they indicate that twenty to thirty years ago, in Connecticut, Massa- chusetts and Rhode Island, the most of the available water power had been developed, but that manufacturing as a whole had not” by any means reached a maximum. When we consider the his- tory of these States we find that every stream has a reservoir upon it and that the water power has been developed to its full capacity. The developments in these States in the last ten to twenty years have mostly been those that were not developed earlier because of greater cost. Probably some developments were overlooked, but still the general proposition is true, that in any manufacturing community expensive developments will not be entered upon until after the cheaper ones are fully utilized. Comparison of the development of water power in New York with the development in New England. It has been the custom to consider New York State as first in rank of population, manufac- tures, development of water power, etc. The writer, however, con- siders that Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island all out- rank New York State in these particulars. It ought to be well understood that a comparison without regard to area is not legiti- HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 529: mate—that the only way in which these states can be compared with New York is on equivalent areas. If, in comparing the States of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island with New York on this basis, we find that the aggregate wealth per unit of area is greater, we may be very sure not only that there is a good reason for it, but, as will be shown further on, that the real reason is largely due to mistaken views in New York as to the State’s attitude towards the developing of manufacturing. The main reasons why the development of water power versus steam power has been so different in the leading New England States from what it has been in New York are as follows: 5 Water power reservoirs in New England. In the New England . States, as well as in most of the southern and in several western States, there are a series of statutory enactments which are designed to encourage the erection of mills. Under their pro- visions parties desiring to flow the lands of others for the pur- pose of creating water power to propel mills may do so under condemnation proceedings analogous to those for acquiring lands and property for canals, railways and other public purposes. This peculiar extension of the principle of eminent domain has grown out of the original conditions of interdependence of the early colonists to whom mills for grinding grain were among the neces- sities of life. The first mill acts originated in Massachusetts and Virginia, from whence they have been adopted into the statutes of many of the other States. In order to show what may be accomplished in a comparatively small State by properly encouraging manufacturing, we will refer to conditions as existing in the State of Massachusetts. This State has always been mindful of the interest of manufacturing, and accordingly at the beginning of the eighteenth century a mill act was enacted, and while the original act was merely intended to encourage the erection of grain and flour mills, it has been gradually extended to include all kinds of manufacturing operated by water power on the ground that the Commonwealth was di- rectly concerned in the development of all such. The writer has no intention of discussing the mill acts of Massachusetts in detail, and wishes merely to point out that such acts have also been enacted in Maine, Wisconsin, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Con- 530 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM necticut, Vermont, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Ken- tucky, Mississippi, Alabama, Missouri, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, Michigan, Nebraska, Minnesota, Kansas, North Carolina, Ten- nessee, Georgia, Delaware, Arkansas, Florida and Oregon, or in twenty-eight States in all. In New York State we have been so wedded to the single idea of canals that we have never enacted a mill act. That this failure has been to the material disadvantage of the State may be easily shown. Special mill acts in New York. While no general mill act has ever been enacted in New York, nevertheless the legislature has in a number of cases, in effect, recognized the principle which they embody. As for instance in chapter 235, laws of 1854, an act for the improvement of the Saranac river and lakes; chapter 505, laws of 1865, an act for the improvement of the navigation of the Oswegatchie river, and of the hydraulic power thereon, and to check freshets therein ; and in chapter 289, laws of 1868, an act to provide for the improvement of the hydraulic power of the Great Chazy river and to check freshets therein. None of these acts has ever been subjected to the tests of the courts. By their terms commissioners are appointed who may erect dams, and, if possible to agree on terms with the owners, purchase the necessary lands, taking a conveyance thereof to themselves, their heirs and assigns forever. If they can not agree on the terms of purchase, then title may be acquired under the general condemnation laws of the State. Under the provisions of the act applying to the Raquette river, a dam was constructed a couple of miles below Raquette pond about 1872. This dam stored water over Raquette pond, Tupper lake and a number of smaller ponds in that vicinity. It was destroyed by the people of the vicinity, as the writer recollects, about 1875. Under the provisions of the act applying to the Oswegatchie river, a dam 1There are a considerable number of similar acts, of which, so far as known, the following is a complete list: Salmon river, chap. 268, laws of 1872; Raquette river, chap. 90, laws of 1869; Raquette river, chap. 432, laws of 1872; Raquette river, chap. 425, laws of 1873; Raquette river, chap. 269, laws of 1874; Raquette river, chap. 148, laws of 1877; Oswegatchie river, chap. 505, laws of 1865; Grasse river, chap. 83, laws of 1869; Saranae river, chap. 684, laws of 1871; Saranac river, chap. 685, laws of 1871; Moose river, chap. 94, laws of 1872; Great Chazy river, chap. 289, laws of 1868 ; and Chateaugay river, chap. 652, laws of 1874. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 531 was also built on the outlet of Cranberry lake, which is still stand- ing. This lake has a water area of 12.8 square miles. While it is true that these acts recognize the principle of the mill acts, still, if called upon to defend them, their originators would probably hold the improvement of navigation and the check- ing of freshets as the real matter of public utility. Although we have no general mill act in New York State, we nevertheless reap the benefit on the Hudson river of the mill act in the neighboring State of Massachusetts. Thanks to State lines. we receive this benefit without cost to anybody in the State of New York.? The greatest development of these waterpower reservoirs is probably in Rhode Island and Connecticut, although they are common in Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts. The absence of such legislation in this State is to be traced largely to the growth of the idea here that the navigation interests are paramount to those of manufacturing, whence it has resulted that the important streams of this State have been mostly re- served for the benefit of the internal navigation system, although the showing herein made, as to the value of the water of the Hudson river for waterpower in comparison with its value for the use of navigation, may well lead us to consider whether after all the manufacturing interests of this State are not quite as © worthy of consideration as those of the neighboring New England States. We ought not to forget that, aside from carrying grain for producers outside of this State, the chief business of the canals must come from fostering manufacturing interests within the State itself. State ownership of the Hudson river and its effect in restricting the development of waterpower. ‘Titles to lands bordering on and lying under the beds of large rivers like the Hudson have been somewhat complicated in this State by the peculiar circum- stances of its early settlement and history. Thus, all original titles in the lower and middle Hudson valley, as well as in the most of the Mohawk valley, are derived from the laws of Holland as they existed early in the seventeenth century. Under the Dutch law the riparian proprietors owned neither the beds nor banks *For account of reservoirs in Massachusetts see page 265. 532 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of streams, but both remained the property of the State. When the colony of New Netherlands passed into the hands of the En- glish government, the colonists were assured the peaceful enjoy- ment of all the rights they then possessed. The beds of large streams, never having been conveyed, became then vested in the English government as ungranted lands, to which as a conse- quence of the Revolution, the State of New York succeeded in due course. Throughout the Colonial as well as the early State period this right seems never to have been questioned; it was only after the beginning of the era of internal improvement that questions aris- ing under this head became leading ones in the jurisprudence of this State. The English common law, which became in force in the colony of New York after the English occupancy, differs from the civil law of Holland in affirming the right of the riparian proprietors, not only to the banks of non-navigable large streams, but also to the beds thereof and hence to a right to the flow of the water paramount to that of the State, which could only acquire rights therein by the exercise of eminent domain and the granting of just compensation. The principle of State ownership of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers was strongly asserted over one hundred years ago, in 1792, when on March 30. of that year an act passed the legislature in- corporating the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, havy- ing for its object the improvement of navigation of the Mohawk river from the navigable portion of the Hudson to Rome, and thence to Lake Ontario and Seneca lake, and the Northern Inland Lock Navigation Company, having for its object to open a like communication from the navigable part of the Hudson river to Lake Champlain. In an amendment to this act, passed Decem- ber 22, 1792, it is provided that all the land under the Mohawk and Hudson rivers which may be occupied by those corporations is vested in them during the continuance of the franchise “as a free gift from the people of this State,” saving and reserving to the people the right to all the lands under the water not so occupied as aforesaid, to be appropriated as the legislature might from time to time direct. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 533 Again, later on, in 1823, the State acquired by purchase all the rights in the Hudson and Mohawk rivers which these two com- panies were possessed of, which purchase has been taken as recon- firming the State’s absolute title to the beds and waters of these two streams. The following are some of the more important cases bearing upon the ownership of the Hudson river which have been passed upon by the courts of last resort in this State. The first important case is that of the Canal Appraisers vs. The People on the relation of George Tibbetts, determined in the Court of Errors in 1856. In this case it was held that if in the improvement of a navigable river the waters of a tributary stream are so much raised as to destroy a valuable mill site situate thereon, and if the tributary stream on which said. mill site is situate be generally navigable, although not so at the particular . locality of the mill site, the owner is not entitled to damages within the provisions of the canal laws, directing compensation to be made for private property taken for public use. In this case Tibbetts claimed damage for the destruction of a waterpower situate in the middle sprout of the Mohawk river by the erection of the Troy dam. The case was first tried in the Supreme Court in 1826, when the relator obtained a rule that the Oanal Appraisers should show cause why a mandamus should not be issued commanding them: to assess the damage. The Canal Appraisers had refused to allow damages, assigning as a reason that Tibbetts had no legal claim to the land under the water of the middle sprout because it belonged to the people of the State. After various proceedings, which need not be specially referred to here, the Court of Errors held as in the foregoing, thereby con- firming the position of the Canal Appraisers.t In the case of The People vs. Tibbetts, decided by the Court of Appeals in 1859, it was held that the State in its sovereign char- acter owns the beds of navigable streams to high-water mark, and that the right of a riparian owner is subservient to the power in the State to abridge or destroy it at pleasure, although the riparian owner may undoubtedly use the water passing his land so long as he does not impede the navigation, in the absence of 1The Canal Appraisers vs. The People, 17 Wendell, 576. 534 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM any counterclaim by the State as absolute proprietor. The court said: “It is beyond dispute that the State is the absolute owner of the navigable rivers within its borders, and that as such owner it can dispose of them to the exclusion of the riparian owners.” In the case of The People vs. The Canal Appraisers, decided in 1865, the following points are passed upon affirmatively : ’ 1) The Mohawk river is a navigable stream and the title to the bed of the river is in the people of the State. 2) Riparian owners along the stream are not entitled to dam- ages for any diversion or use of the waters of the Mohawk river by the Staves) 3) It seems the common law rules, determining what streams are navigable, are not applicable in this country. This was a proceeding by mandamus, decided by the Supreme Court and carried to the Court of Appeals, to compel the Canal Appraisers to assess and appraise the damages which one A. Loomis had sustained by the diversion of the Mohawk river at Little Falls for the purposes of the Erie canal. After a learned discussion of the several questions involved, the court held as in the foregoing 1), 2) and 3); the judgment of the Supreme Court was affirmed and the mandamus denied.” | Without discussing the question more elaborately, we may con- clude it is a well settled doctrine that the banks to high-water mark and the beds and waters of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers are the property of the State and may be disposed of as the legislature may see fit, and absolutely without reference to the rights of abutting proprietors. Acting on this view, the Erie and Cham- plain canals have taken water supplies from these two rivers and payments of damages have never been made to anybody. AS re- gards the Hudson river, the principle, so far as can be learned, has never been questioned since the legislature first saliently af- firmed it by the enactment of 1792. For one hundred and twelve years, the State’s right to absolute control of the Hudson river has been a fixed fact, alike recognized by the courts, canal officials and the owners of abutting lands. $$$ *The People vs. Tibbetts, 19 N. Y. 523. _ ?The People vs. The Canal Appraisers, 33 N. Y. 461. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 535 Although not specially germane to the subject, it may be re- marked in passing that this condition of absolute State ownership only applies to the Hudson and Mohawk rivers. The titles to lands bordering on the balance of the large rivers of the State have mostly originated since the English occupancy and the com- mon law rule governs. Lack of appreciation of this distinction on the part of the Canal Appraisers has led to a number of ex- tensive litigations. One of these is Kempshall vs. The Commis- sioners of the Canal Fund, decided in 1842, wherein it is expressly held that the banks and bed of the Genesee river belong to the riparian owners, and that even though the stream had been legis- latively declared a public highway, still such declaration only gave rights of navigation on the stream itself, and did not in any degree confer upon the State the right to divert its waters into another channel, as the Erie canal, without first obtaining such right by an exercise of eminent domain and the granting of just compensation under due process of law.! If, then, the State’s title to the water of the Hudson river is complete, there is still responsibility attached to such ownership. The conditions leading to this ownership were peculiar and excep- tional and at variance with the rules governing not only in the © balance of the ‘State of New York, but in most of the other states as well. When the legislature first affirmed this principle one hundred and twelve years ago, manufacturing, as any considerable element of our State and National wealth, was an unknown quan- tity. Its phenomenal development since then has created condi- . tions and needs so entirely different that if we attempt to decide the questions of today by the old standard we shall paralyze the ‘industries of a locality. As regards the paramount right of the State to the waters of these streams, it may be assumed that the only direction in which the State is likely to exercise this right is in the interests of navi- gation, and inasmuch as its exercise for this purpose on the tidal section can only be of benefit to the other interests on the stream, there is every reason why such an exercise of the right should be made. ‘ *Kempshall ys. Commissioners of the Canal Fund, 26. Wendell, 404. 536 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In any case the day has passed when the State in its sovereign capacity can, without loss of dignity, simply say: This stream is State property, to be held and even disposed of absolutely without -reference to the wants or wishes of the riparian proprietors.t The Seneca river controversy. By way of further illustrating the relations of the State to many of the important water powers, we will refer to the conditions existing on Seneca river.” In December, 1807, the State of New York by letters pisene conveyed to John McKinstry 640 acres of land situated in the township of Junius, Seneca county, and bounded on the south by ‘Seneca river. The northerly portion of the village of Waterloo now stands on this lot. Subsequently, McKinstry conveyed this lot to Elisha Williams who, some time between 1808 and 1814, erected a mill and constructed a raceway leading from the Seneca river to the same from a point near where the present Waterloo dam stands. Chapter 144 of the laws of 1813 incorporated the Seneca Lock & Navigation Company, giving to said company the authority to construct a canal between Cayuga and Seneca lakes. This act provided that any owner or occupant of any land adjoin- ing Seneca river or outlet may use the water for mills or other hydraulic works, but such use shall at no time impede the passage of boats or other water craft. That it shall be lawful for the owner or occupant of lands adjoining the said outlet or canal to make from the canal all necessary cuts, at his own expense, to conduct the water to his mills or other hydraulic works so, how- ever, aS not to impede the navigation or prevent the company from the use of so much water as at all times shall be necessary for the purposes of navigation. | About 1813 hydraulic privileges on Seneca river became valu- able. Elisha Williams, who owned the waterpower on the north side of the Seneca river at Waterloo, was also a stockholder in the Seneca Lock & Navigation Company, and drew the act incor- porating the same. *The two preceding chapters are partly abstracted from the Report on Upper Hudson Storage Surveys, dated December 31, 1895. *Report of Superintendent of Public Works, 1896. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 537 Pursuant to chapter 271 of the laws of 1825, the State of New York purchased all the right, title and interest of the Seneca Lock & Navigation Company. Elisha Williams died in 1833, at which time all the hydraulic privileges owned by him, estimated to be thirty rights, each equal to one run of stone, were sold. ; On the south side of the river the conditions were somewhat different. In the year 1799 Samuel Bear settled on the south shore of Seneca river, on land which is now included in that part | of the village of Waterloo which lies south of said river. In 1804 the State of New York conveyed to Bear one hundred acres of land lying along and south of the river, together with the water- power and privileges connected therewith. Bear then excavated a raceway and erected a mill on this land. The present Cayuga and Seneca canal was completed by the State in 1829, by which year water power on the Seneca river had become very valuable. The foregoing historical matter shows that the State only owns rights of navigation on Seneca river, and that the water power belongs to the riparian owners, as was fairly recognized in the original enactments. The Superintendent of Public Works states, however, that from 1829 to the present time the Seneca canal has been depleted of water for the use of the mills, frequently to such an extent that it has been extremely difficult to maintain naviga- tion continuously during the whole season. The canal has indeed been looked upon and treated by the mill owners as an hydraulic eanal to conduct water to their mills, rather than as a canal to be maintained for navigation. Following this line, the Superin- tendent of Public Works expresses the opinion that so long as the State holds out inducements to boatmen to expend their energy and capital in the business of carrying freight on the canals, and to merchants and traders to embark their goods thereon, the water supply provided for the purposes of navigation should be used therefor to the last drop, if necessary, before any other interest is subserved; hence, the Superintendent is of the opinion that a series of piers and tide bulkheads should be constructed, by which the water of Seneca river may be controlled for the purposes of navigation, and without reference to the rights of the riparian 5388 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM owners—although such rights have been guaranteed by legisla- tive enactment—except as there may be surplus water over and above the necessities of the canal. Referring to the tabulations of tonnage of the canals for the year 1896, as given in the same report of the Superintendent of Public Works, it appears that the total tonnage of Seneca canal for that year was 54,739 tons, of which 45,493 tons were anthra- cite and ‘bituminous coal, carried for Pennsylvania coal producers, and only 8,295 tons of domestic produce carried for shippers living within and doing business in the State of New York. At the best, the cost of transportation on these 54,739 tons could not have been over $25,000 less than it would have been if transported by rail. The manufacturing establishments on the Seneca river at the present time include the following firms: The Gould Manufacturing Company American Globe & School Supply Company Seneca Falls Manufacturing Company Shoemaker & Daniels National Advertising Company Seneca Woolen Mills Seneca EKlectric Company Gleason & Bailey Gleason Knitting Mills American Fire Engine Company Yawger Milling Company Harrison & Chamberlain Davis & Stevens Manufacturing Company Rumsey & Company, Limited W. J. Littlejohn H. ©. Silsby Roberts & Briggs The amount of capital employed and the annual product of these firms is unknown, but as several of them are very strong firms, employing large amounts of capital and a great number of hands, the total capital employed may be safely placed at not less than $2,500,000, and the total number of employees at probably exceeding 1500. In effect therefore, the proposition of the Super- 7 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 539 jintendent of Public Works amounts to this: That if necessary he would stop all these great manufacturing industries which are now owned and operated by citizens of the State of New York in order, chiefly, to transport 45,493 tons of coal for Pennsylvania mine owners. In justification of this position of the Superintendent of Public Works it may be pointed out that as the Executive Officer of the Canal Department he is charged with the maintenance of the _ canals and the execution of the canal laws generally. Officially, he can therefore take no other position than the one herein dis- cussed. The criticisms are therefore directed towards the policy and not towards the official who is doing his duty under existing law. } | Compensation in kind on Black river. Chapter 157 of the laws of 1836 provided for the construction of the Black river canal. _ One of the provisions of this law was that the feeder and canal Shall be so constructed as to pass as large a quantity of water” to the Erie canal as can reasonably be spared from Black river, and from the northern portion of the Black river canal. The Black river canal proper extends from Rome to the Black river at Lyon Falls, from whence to Carthage navigation is maintained on that river by means of jetties, locks and dams. In 1848 a dam -was built at Forestport, diverting the waters of Black river through a feeder ten miles in length, leading from Forestport to - Boonville, where it enters the summit level of Black river canal; thence its waters flow both southerly to Erie canal at Rome, and northerly through Black river canal to where that canal enters the river at Lyon Falls, at which place such portion of the water as flows northerly is restored to Black river. The feeder is estimated to carry 16,000 cubic feet per minute between Forestport and Boonville. Of this amount 5000 cubic feet per minute is returned to Black river at Lyon Falls, whence the diversion to Erie canal becomes, less the evaporation and per- colation losses, 11,000 cubic feet per minute. ' The Forestport feeder was opened regularly for use in July, 1849, and shortly thereafter claims were made by the owners of water power upon Black river for damages, but for several years the Canal Commissioners took the ground that the appropriation 540 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM was only temporary, and allowed damages on that basis between Forestport and Lyon Falls. In 1854, however, the auditor refused to pay one of the drafts presented in payment of such a claim, maintaining that the appropriation was permanent and that the commissioners had no authority to settle on the basis of tem- porary diversion. After litigation the Court of Appeals sustained the auditor. : Following this decision, sixty-two claims for permanent dam- age, aggregating $600,000, were presented to the Canal Appraisers. Hearings on these claims continued from July to December, 1858. The evidence showed that a large number of persons had made claims who were not users of the water power in 1849, and on this. basis the Canal Appraisers rejected forty of the claims, finally awarding on twenty-two of them the sum of $91,108. The claimants, however, appealed from these awards on the ground that the Appraisers in making their award of damages had not taken into account the full amount and flow of water to be supplied to the Black river by the construction and maintenance of the reservoirs designed to limit the use of water of said river by the State, as contemplated by the act of 1836, and which reser- voirs were in process of construction and would soon be completed So as to supply a quantity of water nearly adequate to the wants. of the State, as now completed, and thus return to the claimants the water of which they would otherwise have been deprived. In explanation of the foregoing statement of the Canal Commis- sioners, it may be remarked that in 1850 Daniel ©. Jenne, at that time Resident Engineer of the Eastern Division, acting under in- structions of the Canal Board, made a report on the Black river diversion, in which he said that unless an amount of water be re- turned to Black river equal to the quantity diverted heavy damages to water power would ensue, the amount of which would be almost | incalculable. Based upon this report the legislature, by chapter 181 of the laws of 1851, provided for the construction of reser- voirs on Black river of sufficient capacity to supply the Black river canal feeder with such quantity of water during the summer months as shall be necessary for the supply of the Black river and Erie canals, and shall give to Black river, as nearly as may be, as much water as ordinarily flows therein during the summer HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK HAL months. The act further provides that the waters from said reser- voirs shall be discharged so that the waters so reserved shall be let into Black river during the summer months in such manner and in such quantity as to give, as far as practicable, to the inhabi- tants residing on said river the benefit of said reserve waters when the same shall be required for use, and such supply shall not be less than the quantity which ordinarily flows in said river during the summer, provided the supply from said reservoirs will furnish such quantity after supplying the Black river and Erie canals with water. We have here a case, therefore, in which the legislature, by chapter 181 of the laws of 1851, provided for compensation in kind. So far as can be learned, this is the only case in New York where the principle of compensation in kind has been adopted on a large scale on account of hydraulic diversion. Usually when such questions have been litigated the courts have held that there must be money compensation. The construction of the reservoirs began in 1852, and proceeded, as legislative appropriations were made, from year to year, al- though in 1858, when the appraisers were considering the Black river claims, only the North branch reservoir had been completed. — Work had been begun on the South branch, Woodhull and Chub lake reservoirs, but stopped in 1857 for lack of funds. As already stated, the Canal Commissioners appealed from the awards of the Appraisers on the ground that the said Appraisers had not taken into account the full amount and flow of water to be obtained from the reservoir system. The Canal Board rendered its decision on this appeal in February, 1860. The position of the Canal Commissioners was sustained and the Canal Appraisers’ awards reduced pro rata 35 per cent—that is to say, the Canal Board took the ground that the construction of the reservoirs was to a considerable degree compensation for the diversion. Since 1860 a number of reservoirs have been built until the actual storage capacity on the headwaters of the Black river is considerably in excess of the full amount diverted to the Erie canal during the dry season, but for various reasons the construc- tion of these reservoirs has not supplied the water needed—or at any rate it is so claimed by the owners of mills on the Black river. 542 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The chief reasons why the large storage capacity of the various reservoirs has not been sufficient to provide a proper dry-weather flow are stated as: 1) The inaccessibility of several of these reservoirs. 2) The constant surreptitious use of the water by lumbermen for the purpose of floating logs down the streams, from which it results that the storage is drawn off in the spring, thus leaving the reservoirs empty when actually needed later in the season. The question may be very properly asked: Why, if the State had inaugurated by chapter 181 of the laws of 1851 a reservoir system on Black river, with a view of compensation for the — diverted water in kind, there should have been any payment of damages at all? The answer to this question is as follows: While the reservoirs were actually authorized in 1851, still in 1858-59, when these claims were under consideration, only one reservoir—that on the North branch—had been completed, work having been stopped on the South branch, Woodhull and Chub lake reservoirs in 1857 for lack of funds. The mill owners had therefore waited ten years without having received either money compensation for the damage or compensation in kind. ‘Com- menting on this situation the Canal.Appraisers in their discussion of difficulties in the way of estimating damages state in effect that owing to the uncertainties of legislative action no one can say when the reservoir system will actually be completed, but if the reservoirs were completed, and they had accomplished wholly or in any ascertained part the desired object of producing a larger summer flow in Black river, such fact would have an important bearing in reducing the amount of permanent injury to the water power. In view of the foregoing, the appraisers say: These claims can not receive as satisfactory decision as we should desire until the successful or unsuccessful working of the reservoirs, if completed, can be known, or the policy determined whether or not they are to be completed; and the appraisers have almost as little faith in the correctness of the conclusions which - they may reach as in the belief that those conclusions will satisfy either the claimants or the State. For the nearly four years that the present Board of Appraisers have held office, they have kept these claims in abeyance in the hope that the time would come when they could dispose of the claims in a manner which would, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 543 at least, be satisfactory to themselves; but the claimants have waited patiently nine years, trusting to the good faith of the State to make good their losses, and it is unreasonable to ask them to wait for an indefinite number of years more. The State has permanently appropriated this water and will use it, and has, by the act of appropriation, in the exercise of its sovereignty, the right to use and control it through all future time, and enough is known from the experience of the last nine years to show that considerable damage has already accrued, which no mere restora- tion of the water can atone for. Under the head of leading principles that would be recognized and followed in deciding these cases, the Canal Appraisers remark that in order to save the necessity of presenting general views in each case they will state certain leading principles to be recog- nized and followed in passing upon all these claims: 1) The State will be held liable for the damage sustained by the riparian owners in consequence of the diversion, on the prin- - ciple that fresh rivers to the middle of the stream belong to the owners of the adjacent banks; that they are entitled to the usufruct of the waters as pertinent to the fee, and for an inter- ruption in the enjoyment of their privileges in that respect in con- Sequence of public improvements made by the State, are entitled to compensation for damages sustained. 2) There can be allowanee made only to those who owned in 1849, or to the assignees of their claims. 3) Nor can any allowance be made, even to the owners of 1849, for any special damages from year to year since, except by way of interest on the sum that shall be determined as the real loss when the injury occurred. 4) The State can not be held to pay for mills or other struc- tures erected, or investments made, since that year, when every- body knew that the waters had been diverted; these erections or investments were at the risk of those who made them. 5) Nor can the appraisers take into consideration remote or contingent damages to property, separate and distinct from water power, and the property upon it alleged to have been depreciated in value by the diversion. 6) In estimating damages to a particular water power, addi- tional expenses incurred in putting in new machinery, etc. adapted to the new order of things will be considered, but only as bearing upon the extent of the damages of 1849, which required such expenditures to restore the power. 544 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 7) While we can not wholly ignore the fact that the State has had in contemplation the erection of the reservoirs and may yet complete them and the water be restored, we can only take these’ things into account in a qualified and limited sense. With the foregoing principles in view, the Board of Appraisers handed down their decisions on each individual claim, the aggre- gate being, as already stated, $91,108. Later on the State made additional appropriations, finally carrying out an extensive reservoir system on Black river. The reservoirs constructed to date, with their available capacities, are as follows: Available Name of reservoir cig ae re Sete WV age taker 000. ae we ame ce 296 5.0 64,000,000 PWD VAKGs. acces cers Rye eee oe 200 4.0 35,000,000 RS ele Oa. ose see ee Seng + ates eeu 306 15.0 200,000,000 - Wir dinahl Tales. ae ater euetes aes 1,118 18.0 438,000,000 BSD MAKOS Ss cc.. sient See sok eee eae wears o.0 40,000,000 Ganachagala lakes nc mek «-s 320 4.0 56,000,000 Worth takes 52205 A eee cee 277 28.0 676,000,000 OUCH AKG. 2oc0 en ee ae Bia er 350,000,000 Mya Ms PAKOS 5s oiaicra ese Sue 5 ee ar VTS 8.0 60,000,000 Min tencehain lakes. a < Q a ® 4 © os p ae 5 SI fo) £2 | sight | Ee Bee 23 SEF BS z Ee ta (BME uc Pec eae £2 5 ae = - a tS] hele — ang 5 o82 198 ae Bo 2 ae S 0}B1g JO OWRN feo | Be 8 | Bee Fee gS. Ae ES Ele ge | gee | Eas 5 a 8 5 g'3 Bie RB iQ Agy - on & oy) 5 ae} adler) aI20 eS [o) ie b: War a? | Life Be | ms ee 5 | ‘qaodey SnsteD) YJUSASTY YY WOAy USYe} Sv “YG TVOA OY OJ VIVP OWLS OY} SOALS WOL}R[NGe} SUIMOT[OF OL, TOL | 66¢ ML bh | WO 'PLT S6E | TLL “SB0 ‘860 °S | 006 ‘964 "GATS | 08S OTS “TCO “T | 768 '896°L | ieee ae "YIOX “WON Leh O&F %8' Sl | GL O8T Ph | P8E STE OGE | BLE FLO PST | LEC PSL SBT GEG ORs: tas sae "77" “pueysy epouy 108 OLE bh | PLO ‘P69 ELT | LES P60 LHS 'S | 686 861 'SE0 T | 48s POS 'ee8 | OPE GOSS | "7" ** *sqgesnqorsse yy ggcg gses AL ST | 0G0 LS "99B | SLE °LEL“O8PS | GOT PES “Sees | 9eL"969FIeB | OSF'806 [2° gnoTZoeuTO| SAS RTS sini eee fe as: 2 ice ere ea ec aie Re OO (6) (8) (1) (9) (@) (7) (g) (3) (T) = 2 7 ie A ie aie ial oe ata O peice vi ee eae | of | ag Boe, a one = S eo ee eao Ree OBER BY S58 2S = Selene) eh oeee a8 5 Eo : elas 4 ae =I a <4 o% = ot oes ee SI o7RIg JO oWBN zee | sle2 | cep | 2 ee ae a8 BI Ber) pet kc eee 6 oe ge alee Enis NESS a= 5 a) bs ao Sie 29 Tea Ba ae AL aa eb age hy oF Seat sl aes tee | | 562 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The preceding tabulations show that in New York the total capital invested in manufacturing in 1900 was $1,651,210,220, and the value of the annual manufactured product was $2,175,- 726,900. In Connecticut the total capital invested in manufacturing in 1900 was $314,696,736, and the value of the annual manufactured product was $352,824,106. If Connecticut had the same area as New York, with proportionate manufacturing, the value of the annual manufactured product in Connecticut would be over $3,500,000,000, or about one and one half times as great as that of New York. In Massachusetts the total capital invested in manufacturing in 1900 was $823,264,287, and the value of the annual manufac- tured product was $1,035,198,989. If Massachusetts had the Same area as New York, with proportionate manufacturing, the value of the annual manufactured product in Massachusetts would be over $6,000,000,000, or ae three times as great as that of New York. In Rhode Island the total capital invested in manufacturing in 1900 was $185,784,587, and the value of the annual manufactured product was $184,074,378. If Rhode Island had the same-area as New York, with proportionate manufacturing, the value of the annual manufactured product would be $7,362,975,120, or about three and one half times as great as that of New York. As to why this is so, as regards the State of Massachusetts the census report furnishes a decisive answer in the following language: The principal advantage which the State of Massachusetts possesses is its water power. * * * The power of the Con- necticut river at Holyoke and at Turners Falls, in the town of Montague, utilized by means of immense dams of the most per- manent construction, and by a system of canals, affords in each place a succession of mill sites along the entire water frontage. The Deerfield, Millers, Chicopee and Westfield rivers, tributaries of the Connecticut, are all noteworthy power-producing streams. At Lowell and Lawrence, upon the Merrimac, the possession of similar advantages led to the selection of these places for the installation of the factory system in the manufacture of textiles. At Fall River the power ‘furnished from Watuppa pond has been HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 563 an essential element in the development of that cotton manufac- turing center; while upon the Blackstone river, and many lesser streams throughout the State, the existence of sites naturally adapted to the erection of mills was influential in the expansion of the woolen and cotton industries in the early part of the cen- tury, thus laying the foundation of numerous thriving communi- ties. In Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island a liberal policy towards manufacturing has always been exercised. There is a system of reservoirs practically utilizing the water power of every stream, and even comparatively small brooks are in many ‘cases fully developed and are the source of wealth to the citizens. There is another significant fact to be mentioned in regard to the foregoing tabulations. In Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island not only was the annual manufactured product per capita greater than it was in New York in both 1900 and 1890, but the real estate per capita was also greater, although the difference was less in 1900 than in 1890. kelation of area to population. A further test of such statis- tics is as to the effect upon population. If we find population proportionately increased in Connecticut, Massachusetts and - Rhode Island, we may assume that a chief incentive has been the rational encouragement of manufacturing through the opera- tion of well-devised mill acts. According to the tabulations the population of New York in 1900 was 7,268,894; of Connecticut, 908,420; of Massachusetts, 2,805,346, and of Rhode Island, 428,556. Assuming that Con- necticut had the same area as New York, with a population propor- tionate to its present population, we would find a total population for Connecticut of 9,084,200; in Massachusetts, the actual popu- lation in 1900 was 2,805,346, but with the area of New York, the proportionate population would be 16,856,000; the population of Rhode Island is for an area of a little over 1053 square miles, 428,556; with an area forty-five times as great—the equivalent of the area of New York—the population of Rhode Island would be 19,285,000. We reach, therefore, the conclusion that in Con- necticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, on an actual area of a little less than 14,000 square miles, with a present population 564 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of about 5,150,000, if we take the area proportionate to that of New York, with the population proportionate to that of the States themselves, there would have been in these States in 1900 over 40,000,000 persons. Undoubtedly these figures would be modi- fied on as large an area as New York, but we should neverthe- _ less expect a considerably larger population in New York than actually exists. Relation of values of agricultural products to waterpower values. We may now consider the relation of values of agricul- tural products to waterpower values. The following tabulation from the Twelfth Census may be taken to show that in Massachu- . setts and Rhode Island the value of farms has increased in some proportion to the development of waterpower. The reason for this’ inay be found in considering that in a manufacturing community the demand is for the products of gardens rather than for grain, hay, ete. YORK NEW HYDROLOGY OF SIL F 606 ‘F Sh8 ‘F COS ‘F (8) oa eae Spcee il hebe gee Ho < BISEE 009 ‘OLB "SPE P98 SEE 9 PLE ‘866 ‘CP Sh6 ‘OLS ‘8ch sjonpoid wWaey jo onjea [e107 C68 ‘864, 690 ‘T 68I (686 196 POL ‘OF9 ‘GBI 08g" “G08 ‘S1I$ | Aysedoid wr1ey JO on[eA [BIOL 986 ‘66¢ ‘CT Poe LET C8166 1. GGG “F90 ‘T a 1D — SULIB] PoAOoIdUL JO aS¥OIO’ [BIOL GOT ‘8F9 “Bs G09 ‘GCP $90 ‘LPL ‘S €80 ‘10 *% (F) Jed se sults JO 95¥0.108 [B40T, qiodey snsuap 008 “9LF 08 | OGL ‘986 0&6 ‘&L9 86P ‘g 009 ‘SPI 'S | STL Le 008 ‘001 ‘8 | 869% (g) (Z) mes S £30 ate ® Sp ae Sue, a 28 g 83 5 oye ered ete. voles ells, Seip Min esha of CCC mon >| 61a, p elie 0) 618 6 elur ere *pue[st epo"gry awe, omeie ve. enelisrs * $}JOSNTORSSEYL Sienwse enece es Seles) sitare Cray) 6) 6 (ewnte te 4noryOeUMOr) 07819 JO sUIBN 566 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM We also note that the average value of farms in Massachu- setts is $4848 and in Rhode Island, $4909, while in New York it is $4718. Again, the total acreage of the State uf Connecticut is 3,100,- 800, while the acreage of improved farms in that State is 1,064,- 525. The improved farms are therefore about 34 per cent of the total area of the State. In Massachusetts the total acreage is 5,145,600, while the acre- age of improved farms is 1,292,132, or the acreage of improved farms is only about 25 per cent of the total area of the State. In Rhode Island the total acreage of the State is 673,920, while the acreage of improved farms is 187,854, or the acreage of im- proved farms is about 28 per cent of the total area of the State. In New York the total acreage based on area of the State is 30,476,800, while the acreage of improved farms is 15,599,986, or the acreage of improved farms is about 51 per cent of the total area of the State. These statistics show that in Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island there is very much more waste land than there is in New York. They also show that the aver- age farm in Massachusetts and Rhode Island is more valuable than it is in New York. There is another interesting fact brought out by the foregoing tabulation. The total value of farm products in Massachusetts in the census year of 1900 was $42,298,274, and in New York $245,270,600. Since the area of New York is about six times as great as that of Massachusetts, it follows that on 25 per cent of the total area of Massachusetts relatively as much agricultural value is produced as on 50 per cent of the area of New York. If, therefore, about 50 per cent of the area of Massachusetts was improved farms, the value of the agricultural products, computed on actual area, would be twice as much as in New York. The total value of farm products in New York in 1900 was $245,270,600, of which we may assume 7 per cent as profit; whence the total annual profit becomes $17,160,000. In the report on a water supply from the Adirondacks, made to the Merchants’ Association of New York city, im 1900, it is shown that on Hudson river the net annual profit on each net horsepower is $16.20. There is a possibility of a total of 1,500,000 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK | 567 gross horsepower being developed in this State, on which the net annual profit per gross horsepower would be, roundly, $12. The establishments on the Hudson river are mostly papermills, and without doubt in miscellaneous manufacturing the profit would be from three to five times as great as this, but we will assume it all over the State, for the purpose of the argument, at $12 per horsepower. At this rate 1,500,000 horsepower would pay an annual profit of $18,000,000, and represent at 4 per cent a capi- talized investment of $450,000,000. Waterpower therefore may be easily made equal to agriculture, the net annual profits of these two industries being very nearly the same. The proper remedy. There are a number of remedies which may be applied, but first of all we need a comprehensive act in this State which shall permit of developing water storage to its full capacity without any further grant of powers from the legis- lature than those granted in the general act. As to the form of such an act the writer is not specially insistent, although he may point out that the mill act of Massachusetts, by reason of long and successful application, is an excellent model. A copy of this act may be found in Angell on Watercourses. It is possible, how- ever, that a mill act on the Massachusetts lines may not be in accord with the trend of legislation in this State. There should be a permanent State commission specially charged with the control of the rivers. To this commission should be submitted everything relating to the rivers of the State. It should be given broad powers as regards the carrying out of projects for improvement, for preventing floods or for other pur- poses. Water-storage projects should be submitted to it for de- cision. The commission should have funds enough at its command to enable all necessary investigations to be made. The act authorizing this commission may be considered as applying to large water-storage projects where the interests of extended communities are to be unified. For smaller manufactur- ing projects there should also be a mill act permitting lands to be flowed after due process of law and just compensation with- out any further appeal to the legislature. The encouragement of manufacturing would then become the commercial policy of the State instead of as at present, by restrictive and contradictory laws tending to discourage it. 568 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM As to the drainage of swamps and lowlands where an improve- ment in the public health may be reasonably expected, the State should pay a portion of the cost. On rivers like the Hudson and Mohawk, where the State assumes to absolutely control the waters without regard to the rights or wishes of the riparian proprie- tors, the State should in consideration of such contro] make all necessary improvements at its own expense. On the rivers of the balance of the State, where a different rule prevails, the State may in consideration of the abatement of floods and improvement of the public health pay a portion of the cost. | Constitutional amendment. One difficulty in New York is such defects in the constitution as prevent thorough development of the natura] resources of the State by means of works serving to control water. This fact is the more extraordinary because a number of western States have embodied in their constitutions articles empowering the legislatures to apply a taking by right of eminent domain upon payment of just compensation for the necessary purposes of retaining, excluding or conveying water. The contradictory laws of New York may be sufficiently illus- — trated by stating that it was discovered a few years ago that under the amended charter of New York city the city had no right to secure an adequate water supply. The result of this was to throw the furnishing of water into the hands of a private company. Constitutional precedents for an act of the kind here proposed have been enacted in Missouri, Colorado, Illinois, California, Idaho, Montana, Washington and Wyoming. In Wyoming the provision reads as follows: Private property shall not be taken for private use unless by consent of the owner, except for private ways of necessity, and for reservoirs, drains, flumes or ditches on or across the lands of another for agricultural, mining, milling, domestic or sanitary purposes, nor in any case without due compensation. In New York the law on the subject of mill and flowage acts is, as already shown, in an unsettled state, and a constitutional amendment enabling proper legislation to be enacted is needed in order to develop hydraulic works as well as other natural re- sources of the State. It has been said that it is no more justifiable to take property for mills on the ground that their business is beneficial to the HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 569 | public than to take it for groceries or hotels, but the capacity to have groceries or hotels in many communities would have to be dependent on the exercise of the power of condemnation to make the cases parallel. In 1894 Clemens Herschel proposed the following amendment to the constitution of the State of New York. With the amend- ment made, section 7 would read as follows: Compensation for property taken. When private property shall be taken for any public use, the compensation to be made therefor, when such compensation is not made by the State, shall be ascertained by a jury, or by not less than three commissioners appointed by a court of record, as shall be prescribed by law. The necessary use of lands for the construction and operation of works serving to retain, exclude or convey water for agricultural, mining, milling, domestic or sanitary purposes is hereby declared to be a public use. Private roads may be opened in a manner to be prescribed by law; but in every case the necessity of the road, and the amount of all damage to be sustained by the opening thereof, shall be first determined by a jury of freeholders, and such amount, together with the expenses of the proceedings, shall be paid by the person to be benefited. Unfortunately, owing to the prevalence of a too conservative | spirit, as well as a lack of appreciation of the benefits to follow, this amendment did not pass, although the eight States previously cited have similar provisions, as well as most of the countries on the continent of Europe. The same year the writer was a member of a committee of the Rochester Chamber of Commerce appointed to consider some of the phases of this amendment as introduced by Nathaniel Foote, delegate to the Constitutional Convention from Rochester. The writer set forth the value of such an amendment, but the commit- tee considered that the Rochester Chamber of Commerce ought not to advocate the amendment because it was at that time endeavor- ing to secure the passage of an act whereby Genesee river storage would be constructed by the State. To this it was said that there was no probability of the State ever building Genesee river storage, but a too conservative spirit prevailed, and the sense of the committee was that such amendment ought not to pass. 1From circular letter addressed by Clemens Herschel to the delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1894. 570 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Waterpower by industries in 1900. The following tabulation, from the Twelfth Census, shows the number of water wheels and the power developed in New York in 1900: Number wheels PMA Ce eral am PleMeMEs” Artes ene oe ees 34 Boots and shoes 2:2 oi. ae. Pe see oe ere 8 ERODE Sie ioe mee ie a eeiors oar tr, ene: Pe race ee aCe oo Berek and tHe: o5 or aS te. fees ee Cee er it Carriages and Waeons. sy seer eoto. oot ee ol GHEESE OTC’. Oe PRE Tee eee ne lm aioe 35 CHOICE IS 2 cpt ste eee See ernie oo re 24 Cotton’ SO0d seh we Vie bea ee ee teen ene 45 Py yeim ea) Cle Take cc ee Me ane ec ae cae ee 6 Mleerrical apparels sue ae. mete eer noe Reser 2 Piourino malls? ete st 6. Sees ee ee ee ies. opel Rey WANE Taye saree ee ee ee a Poe ac ee ae ee 136 Burn GMre. 42, ME ae tle Secth Saree al eae al eat — 56 ERO STONY ot pe Cia Sal op eas whee ther ee Cr RR a slam 95 1 OSC OPEAIy PeRE AEC Merah EAMES NT Isat oe of a hems oar aE 1 teen and sieely se re Bia eae 3h ens ate, ae 8 WSOC S85 ysis aaa Eye ites Cee peas cane leks eeaneae 42 Lame -amdicements'?a.4 en. oe nae ne eee 38 Malt igre ssa Pe tee tae hee mae tae eee eo as 3 bambee SoC oe Sa ie Ge ae eR cee eee eS 15208 Flamin MUS ELE Ace eee ae so ee 86 Marble sand ShOmece owe eo wet ee a ee 2, Paper ai, Ulin etc. ee Seen a oi. 1,021 EPI EUE II) ge gene ued eee eee ans PO ois eee, atz pees 61 SIC | er eee Ne lays Nees ean ah LSE ie 15 Woolen crac eerie chan a ee elms etre ffl Worsted ss: igs. tis Sop ee nae teed Pee eae! 14 5,200 Ghihier. WSes. 200 SL BI 2ie sae eee ae ORI Nor. Re ame Estimated electric motors from water power.......... otal ir State ero Sena ear eye Ts Peete oat Net horse- power 1,691 590 920 50 1,002 709 114 8.524 440) 48 58,384 6,273 1,834 7,069 25 1,150 1,258 827 95 44.394 2,803 (om 191,117 406 852 4,101 3,310 330,991 30,465 368,456 81,544 450,000 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 5T1 In the preceding statement we see that there is 337,991 horse- power developed on 5200 wheels, whence the average power per wheel is 65 horsepower. There are also other uses to the amount of 30,465 horsepower which, however, are not specifically enumerated. The total quantity for the State, including electri- eal power, of which water power is the primary source, is taken at 450,000 horsepower. The census figures, however, only show a total of 368,456 horsepower, and the electrical power actually in use in 1900 is estimated at 81,544 horsepower. The state- ments of the several companies furnishing electrical horsepower would aggregate more than this, but probably 81,544 horse- power is a conservative estimate. Statements as to the sub- division of this power among the various industries can not be made. WATER STORAGE PROJECTS. In the last ten years a number of large projects for storing water for power and other purposes have been proposed in the State of New York. There are several of these of special im- portance with which the writer has been concerned, as on Gen- esee river, Salmon river, Black river, Hudson river, Schroon river, etc. There are also a number of projects of considerable importance which have been developed by others, and of which a brief description will be given here. On Genesee river an extensive development of water power has led to a demand for storage reservoirs on that stream. The State surveys indicated that a reservoir of 15,000,000,000 cubic feet capacity could have been constructed in 1896 at a cost of $2,600,000, or at the rate of about $173 per million cubic feet of water stored. In 1904, due to change in labor conditions and the considerable advance in prices generally, this reservoir would cost about 25 per cent more, or $3,250,000. | Chapter 605 of the laws of 1898 authorized a private company to construct this reservoir. The project has not thus far been carried out. The developed waterpower on the Genesee river has increased from a little over 6000 net horsepower in 1882 to about 20,000 net horsepower in 1904. In 1898 and 1899 there was worked up for the Board of Engi- neers on Deep Waterways a reservoir project on Salmon river, DIZ NEW- YORK STATE MUSEUM where it is feasible to develop a reservoir with capacity of 7,000,000,000 cubic feet. The object of this reservoir was to provide storage within reasonable distance of the main deep waterway, so that in case of temporary stoppage of the main feeder to the north, water could still be supplied to the canal. The hight of the main dam on Salmon river was about 56 feet. In addition to this there were three dykes, cutting off lateral valleys at different points of the reservoir. On Black river also a reservoir was surveyed for the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways for a main water supply for the proposed canal. When constructed this reservoir will be the largest in the State. The water surface at Carthage will be raised 48.5 feet and an area flooded at extreme high water of nearly 78 square miles, or roundly 50,000 acres. The cubic con- tent of the reservoir at high water will be nearly 70,000,000,000: cubic feet, and at spillway crest over 57,000,000,000 cubic feet. The area flooded at spillway crest will. be 73.2 square miles and 13.6 inches stored on the tributary catchment of 1812 square miles. Extended studies were also made in 1895-96 of the woaeibaae of water storage on the Hudson river, where the waterpower has increased from less than 13,000 horsepower in 1882 to something. like 50,000 horsepower at the beginning of 1898 and to about 80,000 horsepower in 1904. The Legislature failed to make an appropriation in 1897 and these studies have never been com- pleted, although considerable addition to the information has been made since that time. The studies so far as carried show that it is possible to create on the Hudson river a continuous per- manent power of about 175,000 horsepower, and undoubtedly when the studies are completed it will appear that considerably more than this can be developed at a cost which will be com- mercially feasible. Probably at least 210,000 horsepower can be commercially developed. In 1900, in a report to the Merchants’ Association of New York, a large reservoir on Schroon river, with capacity of 21,662,- 000,000 cubic feet, was proposed. This reservoir had been form- erly proposed as the Tumblehead reservoir of the Hudson sys- tem, but the original proposition was to make it of a storage capacity of 16,246,000,000 cubic feet. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 513 A large reservoir on the Wallkill river was also proposed in 1900 for the water supply of New York city. The detail of this reservoir may be found in the Report to the Merchants’ Associa- tion on the Water Supply of the City of New York, by Jas. H. Fuertes. The Wallkill reservoir is also described ina report by John R. Freeman, made in 1900. The available capacity of the Wallkill reservoir was about 22,000,000,000 cubic feet. The considerable storage projects in the Croton valley for the water supply of New York city will also be briefly considered. Reservoirs have also been proposed on Esopus, Schoharie, Catskill, Fishkill, Wappingers creek, Roeliff Jansen kill, etc. for the water supply of the City of New York, which will be discussed Somewhat in detail, not only because of their great size, but because they eaoly interesting features in reservoir construc- tion. The power developments on Niagara river at Niagara Falls, on St Lawrence river at Massena, on West Canada creek at Trenton Falls, on Raquette river at Hannawa Falls, and at several other places in New York are among the most significant industrial movements now taking place in the United States. The future © power of these several streams may be placed at nearly 1,000,000 horsepower. There are a number of other interesting developments through- out the State, but the foregoing are the more important. Storage Reservoir on Genesee River The following statements in regard to the Genesee river storage reservoir are partially condensed from the detailed reports in the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor. The portions not taken therefrom are from original manuscript thus far unpublished. A general description of this river has been given on page 210; its discharge measurements have been discussed on page 331: its flood-flows on page 441; and reference has been made on page 494 to the low-water flow, indicating that during the sum- mer the available supply is small. Notwithstanding this, develop- ‘ment of water power has proceeded rapidly. As shown by the reports on Water Power of the United States in the Tenth Census (1880), the total water power on Genesee river from Rochester tae os NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to Portage in 1882 was 6882 net horsepower. An examination of the amount in use on the same reach of river in 1896 showed that the total based on manufacturers’ rating of wheels, was 19,178 net horsepower, or based on the manufacturers’ statements of the quantity of wdter required to operate the wheels, and allowing 75 per cent efficiency of the water, the total power developed by the wheels in place in 1896 is found to have been 17,248 net horsepower, or about three times that in 1882. In 1904 this has increased to about 20,000 net horsepower, and at the same time the steam power in use at Rochester has increased several thou- sand horsepower. In comparison with these statements it should be noted that for several months during the summer and fall of 1895 the total power did not exceed 4000 to 5000 horsepower. The same condition has existed during the dry period of a number of years previous, but not so seriously as in the fall of 1895. In 1899 the river was lower than in 1895.1 Prelininary investigations. The increased demand for power, as well as the serious summer droughts, led to the formulation of a project for constructing a storage reservoir at some point on the headwaters of Genesee river for assisting the summer flow. The first project included the development of the basin of Honeoye lake to its full capacity, surveys having been made for that pur- pose in 1887 and 1888. It appeared, however, that the yield of this catchment area, which is only about 43.5 square miles, was hardly adequate for the results desired, the estimate showing that even when developed to its full capacity it could not be depended on to furnish, in a dry year, more than 75 cubic feet per second, while the exigencies of the case demanded at least several hun- dred cubic feet per second. This project of building a large stor- age reservoir on the upper Genesee river was then formulated by the Rochester Chamber of Commerce. In the meantime a number of breaks on the long level of the Lirie canal, which extends from the foot of the locks at Lockport io the eastern part of the city of Rochester, a distance of about 62.5 miles, had emphasized the importance of the State’s providing additional water for feeding the canal east of Rochester. For this purpose the construction of a large storage reservoir was "The statements of low waterpower are however kept on the original statement of 6727 gross horsepower. With 75 per cent efficiency, this is 5046 net horsepower. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 51D advocated by the Rochester Chamber of Commerce as a State work, with the result that under a resolution of the Senate dated merch 21,1889, the State Engineer and Surveyor was directed to make a general investigation in regard to the possibility of _ storing water on the upper Genesee. The report made under the authority of this resolution appears in the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the year 1890. In 1892, under - authority of a concurrent resolution dated March 15 of that year, Governor Flower appointed a commission consisting of Evan Thomas, Judge Charles McLouth, and John Bogart to investigate and report on the whole question of storage on the upper Genesee. This commission examined the site of the proposed reservoir and reported that it was entirely feasible to construct a large reser- voir on the upper Genesee river, the site especially considered by the commission being in the Genesee canyon or gorge, a short distance above Mount Morris. As the result of the recommendations of this commission, the sum of $10,000 was appropriated at the legislative session of 1893 for the purpose of studying in detail the several proposed sites for dams in the canyon of Genesee river, above Mount Morris. At that time the work was placed in charge of the writer.! At the legislative session of 1894 a bill to construct a dam in the canyon a short distance above Mount Morris passed the Senate, but failed in the Assembly. -At the session of 1895 a sim- ilar bill passed the Senate and Assembly, but was vetoed by Governor Morton, largely on the ground that the bill as passed made no provision for the owners of the water power and other interested parties bearing any portion of the expense. In his veto Governor Morton expressed the belief that if the State should determine to build a dam on Genesee river some provision should be made by which the city of Rochester—and possibly other locali- ties interested in the work—might contribute to the expense of construction. Governor Morton also pointed out that if the pro- posed canal enlargement be approved by the people public senti- ment might justify the construction of a storage dam on Genesee river for canal purposes. On the other hand, if the proposition to deepen the canal should not be approved the question would *The result of the studies in 1893 may be found in the Annual Reports of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal years ending September 30, 1893 and 1894. 576 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM still remain whether such a dam might not be desirable for the purpose of regulating the river and increasing the water power thereon. ; In order to complete the preliminary investigations relative to the proposed Genesee storage, Governor Morton, in 1896, approved an additional appropriation, which was expended during the summer of that year-in completing further surveys. To the present time the State has expended on preliminary investiga- tion of the Genesee storage project the following amounts: In 1890, $3000; in 1892, $7000; in 1893, $10,000; in 1896, $10,000; in all, $30,000. As a result of this expenditure complete plans and specifications have been prepared as shown in the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for 18964 Interests to be served. The following are the interests to be served by the construction of these extensive storage works on Genesee river : . 1) The flow of the river would be regulated, thus effectually preventing in the future the devastating floods which occurred in 1815, 1835, 1857, 1865, 1889, 1893, 1894, 1896 and 1902. ‘The floods 1By way of presenting a full list of the work on the Genesee storage, reference may be made to the special report of John Bogart, State Engineer and Surveyor in Appendix F of the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1890. The reports of Messrs Bailey and Kibbie, assistant engineers to Mr Bogart, are covered by the same reference. The report of Martin Schenck, State Engineer and - Surveyor, may be found at page 44 of the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1893. The report of E. Sweet, ex-State Engineer and Surveyor, as consulting engineer, may be found in Appendix H of the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1893. The report of the commissioners appointed in 1892 by Governor Flower may be found in Senate Doc. No. 23, 1893. The first report of the writer may be found in Appendix G of the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1893. The second report may be found in Appendix E of the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1894. The work done in 1896 is described at length in the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1896. See also a paper by the writer, Genesee River Storage and its Relations to the Erie Canal and the Manufacturing Interests of Western New York, pre- pared for the Rochester Chamber of Commerce. This paper contains a large amount of historical information not given in the official reports. Governor Morton’s veto may be found in the Governor’s State Papers for 1895. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK — 517 in the years just enumerated were specially severe, but floods not SO Severe, yet doing considerable damage, have occurred in several of the intervening years. 2) Water would be supplied for the enlarged Erie canal. According to Mr Bogart’s report of 1890, there should have been provided a storage on Genesee river of 1,500,000,000 cubic feet _ for the purpose of supplying Erie canal as it existed at that date. 3) The agricultural production of the broad level area in- cluded in the Genesee valley between Rochester, Mount Morris and Dansville, estimated at from 60 to 80 square miles, might be ‘greatly increased by moderate irrigation if the flood contingency was removed and the proper irrigation channels were constructed. 4) Considerable sanitary benefit would result from the increased flow during the low-water period through the proposed regu- lation. The entire sewage at Rochester, a city of 175,000 - inhabitants, now passes into Genesee river. The channel of this stream, beween the foot of the lower falls at Rochester and Lake Ontario, is so broad and deep that during the time of ex- treme low water in the summer and fall the current is scarcely perceptible. The sewage of the city therefore lodges in this sec- tion, producing a serious nuisance. The regulation of the river, | by preventing floods, would also improve the sanitary condition of the broad upper valley, where the annual overflow has been shown to cause more or less sickness. 5) The waterpower would be increased. Wheels are now set on the Genesee river capable of producing, at the manufacturers’ rating, about 20,000 net horsepower, while the low-water flow of the stream does not exceed about 5000 net horsepower. In summation of the preceding points it may be urged, in gen- eral, that in constructing the proposed Genesee storage dam, in addition to the private interests to be conserved, public service of an extended character would be performed. Mount Morris site. Referring to Mr Bogart’s report of 1890, it is learned that the investigations of that year were general in their character. The work was carried on more particularly with reference to a location in the Genesee river gorge, between Mount Morris and the foot of the Portage falls. No detailed surveys were made further than necessary to make a general estimate of the cost of a dam 58 feet in hight, which would store 1,500,000,000 578 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cubic feet, the amount considered necessary for canal purposes -alone. Such a dam, Mr Bogart estimates, could be erected for about $1,000,000. The work performed under the direction of the writer in 1893 was of an entirely different character. The report of 1890 having indicated the Mount Morris canyon as a desirable location, with a number of sites pointed out, of which general investigations had been made, it became desirable to investigate those sites in detail and to prepare close estimates of the cost of constructing dams at each. Detailed investigations were accordingly made of the three sites favorably reported upon in 1890, the results of Ase Ftc Leute ne remem) Ordinary WaiFer- Laced Fig. 39 Dam, 58 feet high, proposed for Genesee river near Mount Morris. “which may be found in the Annual Reports of the State Engineer ~ and Surveyor for 18938 and 1894, where estimates of the cost of the several dams are also given in detail. Referring to the esti- mates, it appears that at site No. 1, in Mount Morris canyon, a dam raising the water surface 130 feet would cost, if built of concrete alone, $2,450,000, but if built with sandstone faces throughout, except for the spillway, where granite is provided, the estimated cost would become $2,590,000. A dam of the same hight at site No. 2, if built throughout of concrete, would cost $2,600,000, but with sandstone faces and independent spillway the cost would be $2,720,500. In regard to the total storage to be obtained in Mount Morris canyon the following are the figures at sites Nos. 1 and 2, the two sites chiefly considered: At site No. 1 a dam of 130 feet in hight a en a ee ILYDROLOGY OF NEW YORIS 579 will store 7,700,000,000 cubic feet, and at site No. 2 a dam of the same hight will store 7,040,000,000 cubic feet. Since no con- clusion has been reached as to which of these sites to adopt, for the purposes of comparison a mean of 7 379,000,000 cubic feet has been taken as the approximate available storage, and the mean of $2,785,000 as the approximate total cost. On this basis the estimated cost of the storage becomes $377.88 per million cubic feet of water stored. These figures should be increased by 25 per cent in order to conform to conditions in 1904. Portage site. Investigations of the Genesee river storage project were finally completed in 1896. In that year detailed surveys were made of a new site known as Portage site, the pro- posed dam to be located at Portageville, about 1400 feet above the Erie railway bridge, at a point where the gorge presents extremely favorable conditions for the erection of a high dam. At this place solid rock exists immediately in the bed of the river, with only a couple of feet of water flowing over it, and also extends high up on the bluffs at either side, whereas at all of the sites in the gorge near Mount Morris the rock was only found at from 15 to 20 feet below the water surface and of such an open _ texture as to require cut-off trenches about 30 feet deep, or to a total depth of nearly 50 feet below the water. The proposed Portage dam is also 500 feet vertically above the previously men- tioned sites, thus rendering that additional number of feet avail- able for power purposes—a fact which places a. materially differ- ent aspect on the commercial side of the Genesee river storage project. A short distance above the proposed Portage site the upper Genesee valley broadens out to a width in places of from one to two miles, although the general width of the valley does not ex- ceed, for several miles in extent longitudinally, about one mile. It narrows in two or three places to a less width than this. The valley is now a good agricultural region, in a fair state of culti- vation, and presents, on the whole, as favorable conditions for farming as any similar valley in the State. The Pennsylvania railway passes through the middle of the valley on the line of the abandoned Genesee Valley canal. Along the line of this railway the villages of Portageville, Rossburg, Wiscoy and Fillmore are situated. The reservoir project includes the relaying of the rail- 580 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM way above the flow line on the west side of the valley, as well as the removal of the villages named. The total area below the flow line is 12.4 square miles, and the entire area proposed to be taken for reservoir purposes, including a strip 10 feet vertically above the flow line, is 13.7 square miles. The project also includes the removal of several cemeteries, the building of highway bridges across the reservoir, and the construction of a roadway entirely around the same. Without having made a detailed canvass, it is estimated that the present population of the proposed Portage reservoir site, in the villages and on the farms, is about 1200. In reference to dis- possessing this number of people of their homes for the purpose of creating a large storage reservoir, it may be said that such a proceeding is not only not uncommon in this State, but that the population to be removed in the case of the new Croton reservoir is far greater than at the Portage reservoir. According to maps furnished by the Croton Water Department, it appears that the new Croton reservoir includes the taking of either the whole or parts of something like three large villages and nine or ten ham- lets. The total population to be removed from the submerged area of the new Croton reservoir is not given, but actual inspection of maps of the proposed sites indicates that it must be several times larger than the number to be dispossessed at Portage. The vil- lages of Katonah, Purdy Station, and Croton Falls are much larger than any of the villages in the Portage reservoir site. The main line of the New York and Northern railroad passes for sev- eral miles through the valley and requires relocating above the flow line, the same as is proposed for the Pennsylvania railway along the Portage reservoir. It appears, therefore, that the City . of New York has recently done under State laws everything in the way of so-called radical change which it is proposed to do at Portage. In both cases the sufficient reason for these changes may be found in the better meeting of public necessities. The original estimated cost of the proposed Portage reservoir, including land damages, dam, reconstruction of railway, removal of cemeteries, the cutting of all timber within the catchment areas, the construction of highway bridges, etc. is $2,600,000, the storage to be provided by this expenditure amounting to 15,000,- HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 581 000,000 cubic feet; at this rate the cost per million cubic feet stored would be $173.35, but with 25 per cent added to the esti- mate to conform to conditions in 1904, the cost per million cubic feet stored is $216.67. 7 The main characteristics of the proposed reservoir are shown by table No. 83, condensed from pages 708-9 of the Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for 1896: TABLE No. 88—CAPACITY OF PROPOSED PORTAGE RESERVOIR of eee tae Area of water oe ee 3 ie ance wilds pe entiient 1,100.0 5052320 101,400,000 0-.044 1,105.0 0.5330 217,623,000 0.094 1,110.0 0.8340 335,900,000 0.148 PAIS 0 1.1850 450,100,000 0.194 1,120.0 1.43857 566,300,000 0.244 1125.0 2.0659 942,100,000 0.406 1,180.0 2.6692 1,318,000,000 0.567 £ 135-0 3. o20A4. 1,694,000,000 0.729 1,140.0 3.9566 2,070,000,000 0.891 1,145.0 4.5255 = 2,780,000,000 1.196 1,150.0 5.0944 - 3,490,000 ,000 1.502 1155.0 5.6633 4,200,000,000 1.808 1,160.0 6.2322 4,910,000,000 2.145 - 1,165.0 6.8293 - 5,945,000,000 2.559 L70.0 7.4264 6,980,000,000 3.004 1,172.0 7.6652 7,395,000,000 3.182 1,178.0 7.7846 7,602,000,000— 3.271 1,175.0 8.0235 8,016,000,000 ~~ 3.451 1,180.0 8.6206 9,051,000,000 3.896 1,185.0 9.4362 10,366,000,000 4.462 1,190.0 10.2518 11,681,500,000 5.016 1,195.0 11.3007 18,257,000,000 oh 61 0 6.458 1,200. 12.3495 15,000,000,000 Comparing the foregoing statements of cost with those made on the preceding page with reference to the cost of the proposed reservoir in Mount Morris canyon, it appears that at Portage a 582 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM storage of 15,000,000,000 cubic feet can be made for somewhat less than the cost of 7,300,000,000 cubic feet at Mount Morris; or, aS a general statement, we may say that a given expenditure at Portage produces double the storage that it will produce at Mount Morris. The Portage reservoir develops the full capacity of the catchment area for such a dry year as 1895. It is con- sidered that this full development is necessary in order to obtain the most satisfactory results in river regulation. As reasons in detail for preferring the Portage site to that at Mount Morris, the following may be mentioned: 1) The Portage site affords more water for a given expendi- ture. 2) The Portage site is considered safer than the Mount Mor- ris site. As shown in the Genesee Storage Reports of 1893-94, the shales at Mount Morris are open; and while it is, without doubt, possible to make a safe dam there, it would be at much greater cost than at Portage. 3) The material for the dam is nearly all on the ground at. Portage, while at Mount Morris it needs to be brought from a distance. : 4) The Portage site affords greater waterpower development. With the Genesee storage dam located at Mount Morris the total head on which the storage can be applied is 282 feet, while with a dam at Portage the total head on which the stored water | may be applied is 782 feet. . 5) On account of the great depth of the foundation at Mount Morris, it would be necessary to expend over $1,000,000 before the dam could be brought to the level of the present water surface. The proposed regulation of Genesee river at Portage has been computed on the basis of a minimum discharge of 300 cubic feet per second, in the case of a reservoir storing 7,500,000,000 cubic feet, and on a basis of a minimum of 457 cubic feet per second in the case of a reservoir storing 15,000,000,000 cubic feet. As to the reason for fixing upon these minimums, in river regula- tion the outflow from the storage reservoir should be so arranged as to make the benefit to all parts of the stream equal. Es- pecially is this proposition true when, as in the present case, there is waterpower distributed throughout the whole extent HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 583 of the stream below the storage point. Obviously the way to do this is to plan for an outflow proportional to the catchment area. In the present case we have a catchment area at Roches- ter of 2365 square miles, and one of 1000 square miles above Portage, or the area above Rochester is about 24 times the area above Portage. The minimum regulated flow at Rochester may be made 2.365 times the assumed minimum flow at Portage. In the foregoing, the statement is made that the outflow should be proportional to the catchment area. This is the theo- retical view purely, and provided reservoirs can be constructed at equally low cost in all parts of a catchment, it is the prefer- able principle to follow. But this can seldom be done because reservoirs will vary greatly in cost in different parts of a catch- ment—they may run all the way from $15 to $20 per million cubic feet stored to from $600 to $1000 per million cubic feet. This practical consideration will modify the theoretical con- clusion. Assuming 680 cubic feet per second as the flow below which the stream will never be allowed to fall at Rochester, we have for a reservoir storing 7,500,000,000 cubic feet a corresponding minimum outflow from the reservoir of 300 cubic feet per second, or for a storage of 15,000,000,000 cubic feet an outflow of 457 cubic feet per second, the latter figure being arrived at by assum- ing the maintenance of a minimum flow at Rochester of at least 1000 cubic feet per second. The computations of tables Nos. 84 and 85 are carried out on this basis. The regulated flows for the month of May are greater than for the other months. They are also greatest during the months of canal navigation, the addition being made in order to provide for the quantity of water to be taken for the enlarged Erie canal, which quantity has been fixed at 80 cubic feet per second for every month of the navigation season except May, and at 177 cubic feet per second for that month, the excess quantity for the month of May being required in order to provide for filling the canal at the beginning of the month. Table No. 84 shows the effect on the flow of Genesee river from June, 1894, to November, 1896, inclusive, as influenced by the storage at Portage of 15,000,000,000 cubic feet of water, provided 584 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM at least 457 cubic feet per second is allowed to flow continually at Portage and at least 1000 cubic feet per second is always flow- — ing at Rochester in addition to the amount required for canal purposes. The figures given in column (2) show the proposed minimum flow at Rochester, this being the 1000 cubic feet per second noted above, together with 80 cubic feet per second for the canal for the months from June to November, inclusive, and 177 cubic feet per second for the month of May. Columns (3) and (4) give the discharges at Rochester and Portage under natural conditions. Column (5) gives the difference between these, or the quantity of water entering the river below Portage. Column (6) gives the amount which goes to the canal while column (7) gives the ratio of amount to canal to actual flow. Column (8) gives the minimum amount to be added at Portage in order to maintain the proposed minimum flow at Rochester of 1000 cubic feet per second, not including the amount taken by the canal. The quantity available at Rochester for power purposes is shown in column (9). The actual outflow from the Portage - reservoir is given in column (10) in cubic feet per second, while column (12) gives the same thing in inches on the catchment area. Column (11) gives the surplus flowing over the spillway at the Portage reservoir. Table No. 85 exhibits the condition of the reservoir from month to month under the above conditions. The figures are given not | in cubic content but in equivalent depth in inches on the total tributary catchment of 1000 square miles. The reservoir is as- sumed to be full at the beginning of June 1894, the total storage of the reservoir being equivalent to 6.46 inches in depth on the catchment area. The total waste from June 1, 1894, to December 1, 1896, equals, under the conditions of this table, 2.11 inches on the catchment. : Similar tables have been computed showing the regulation of the river as affected by the storage at Portage of 7,500,000,000 cubic feet of water for the same period, with at least 300 cubic feet per second always flowing at Portage, and at least 600 cubic feet per second at Rochester, in addition to the amount required for the canal. The chief difference between these two tables is in the amount of water utilized. 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Ban ({[MJ TOArOsar Pues 10'S eee 88°0 Gg") 9SB104S [BIO] = soyou! 979) | “°° ** 69°F 08°0 ee Z0'T Bin ONG Bee el oe ee ae ut SULUUISEq 7B [[NJ IOAdesay | "0 979 oe 79°0 9¢°0 wt 10 ea es oD In So3ig Sisis SnxSeoesss Sssoosss CO 2 S ae tetas | ERE joww0d84a yo sssas 0 SyavUIayy pose |. ue F Anuoloyeq| sseoxy se ED AOU HLNOW MOALOSeL UI SS ee ou JUNLOULY | VIOAUASAY WOU ONLINO (UeTIY D189 aut UO Seoul UT) GHWOSSV SNOILLIGNOO HHL YHHANN WIOAMHSAY AYNVLIMOd WOW GNV OLNI MOTA—CS ON WIdvy, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK D87 the period from June, 1894, to November, 1896, inclusive, would there be any water wasted from the reservoir, the total for this period being 2.11 inches. In June, 1894, 521 cubic feet per second ; in April, 1895, 1058 cubic feet per second, and in April, 1896, 350 cubic feet per second. In no case would there be at Rochester less than 1000 cubic feet per second. In the case of a reservoir of 7,500,000,000 cubic feet capacity, there would have been wasted a total of 9.36 inches on the catch- ment during the same period. In June, 1894, 645 cubic feet per second; in November, 1894, 287 cubic feet per second; in. December, 1894, 216 cubic feet per second; in January, 1895, 260 cubic feet per second; in March, 1895, 1266 cubic feet per second ; in April, 1895, 1440 cubic feet per second; in March, 1896, 1145 cubic feet per second; in April, 1896, 2716 cubic feet per second, and in November, 1896, 269 cubic feet per second. The amount flowing at Rochester would not have been less than 600 cubic feet per second. Moreover had the enlarged canal been in operation in July, 1894, and taking the estimated quantity of 80 cubic feet of water per second from Genesee river, the amount of water going to the canal would have been 27.4 per cent of the total flow of the river | for that month; in August, 18.1 per cent; in May, 1895, 46 per cent; in June, 28.3 per cent; in July, 34.5 per cent; in August, 31.5 per cent; in September, 36.2 per cent, and in October, 34.8 per cent. In May, 1896, the canal would have taken 51.3 per cent of the total flow of the river for that month; in June, 12.2 per cent; in July, 15.9 per cent; in August, 19.2: per cent, and in September, 24.5 per cent. It appears, therefore, that the taking of 80 cubic feet per second from the Genesee river for canal purposes is a very serious matter to the waterpower of the stream and is unjustifiable, unless it be clearly shown that the addition to the wealth of the ‘State is greater than if the water were used for supplying power.. The actual damage resulting from taking at times 50 per cent of the unregulated flow of the stream is about as follows: As shown on a previous page, the minimum flow of the river is capable of producing 6727 gross horsepower, or, what is the same thing, assuming 75 per cent efficiency, 5046 net horse- power. One half of the low-water power may therefore be taken at 2523 net horsepower. 588 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM So long as the possibility exists of a draft upon the river equal ‘to one-half of its minimum flow, this 2523 net horsepower is prac- tically rendered useless to its owners by reason of the uncertainty as to the exact time of the draft, or if not rendered useless, is far less valuable than if it were absolutely permanent power. In enforcing this view it may be pointed out that Rochester is a manufacturing town, made up chiefly of establishments using com- paratively small quantities of power at each place, but that the power must still be continuous every day; that is to say, it must be permanent power. So long, therefore, as one-half the total minimum power of the stream is subject to stoppage during any month, the manufacturers will preferably use steam power, on account of its permanency, even at considerably greater expense. Bearing on this view it may be pointed out that the use of soft coal in Rochester for steam purposes is fully 500,000 tons a year, which, at an average price of $2.40 per ton, amounts to the sum of $1,200,000 annually. It may be considered settled, therefore, that waterpower is valuable at Rochester, and that anything which tends to reduce the permanent power 50 per cent is a serious matter to the manufacturers of the city.! Comparison of Mount Morris and Portage sites. ‘As a further point in the discussion of Genesee river storage, comparison will be made between the Mount Morris project, storing 7,37 0,000,000 cubic feet at a cost in 1904 of about $3,500,000, and the Portage project storing 15,000,090.000 cubic feet, at an estimated cost in 1904, of $3,250,000, for the purpose of determining the relative commercial advantages. With the reservoir at Mount Morris storing 7,370,000,000 cubic feet there is 282 feet fall, on which 7,370,000,000 cubic feet, less the quantity required for the canal, may be applied for power purposes. As already explained, the constant outflow from the reservoir would never be less than 300 cubic feet a second. Con- tinuous power development under this plan would, therefore, be © based on 300 cubic feet a second at Mount Morris, something more than this at Geneseo and York, and on 600 cubic feet a second at Rochester. On this basis of computation it appears that the total 1The new project for a barge canal does not contemplate taking water from the Genesee river. This part of the argument is however allowed to stand as an illustration of conditions existing in the State of New York. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORE 589 permanent, continuous power to be realized from a reservoir stor- ing 7,370,000,000 cubic feet and located in the Mount Morris gorge would be 18,327 gross horsepower. In regard to the increase in waterpower, the effective value of the storage will be the amount of permanent power above the low- water power of the stream. As already stated, the total per- manent power for the unregulated stream is 6727 gross horse- NANN NANI \S S R REC NANNNNNNNNN LAAN TEMA EIN SSN Sm. Fig. 40 Section of dam and gate-house as proposed for Genesee river at Portage. power. The gain due to the storage is, therefore, 11,600 gross horsepower. Assuming a price of $10 per gross horsepower, we reach an annual return from the increased power of $116,000; but the Mount Morris reservoir is estimated in 1904 to cost $8,500,000, although ten years ago it was estimated at $2,785,000. Using the figure of the estimate of ten years ago, and assuming thesproject carried out by a private company with money at 5 per cent, the annual interest on the investment is $139,250—a sum $23,250 in excess of the probable annual income when all the power created shall have been brought into use; but there should be a sinking, 590 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM maintenance and repair fund of at least $25,000 a year in order to repay the principal investment, which if taken into account increases the probable deficiency to $48,250 a year. It must be concluded, therefore, that with the present understanding as to the minimum runoff of the Genesee river the project of a storage reservoir in Mount Morris canyon, storing approximately 7,370,- 000,000 cubic feet of water at a cost of $2,785,000, is commercially impracticable, while at the estimated cost in 1904 of $3,500,000 it is even more impracticable. If we consider the Portage project in its financial aspects, where it is proposed to. construct a reservoir storing 15,000,000,000 cubic feet of water at a cost in 1904 of $3,250,000, we reach the following results: The total fall from just above the upper fall at Portage to the mean level of Lake Ontario is 833 feet, of which the greater por- tion is available for the development of waterpower. Without going into detail, we may place the permanent, continuous gross horsepower of the river, with a storage of 15,000,000,000 cubic feet at Portage, at the following figures: youre b Portage to: Mount Morrisvs: 4026-00 2 fe eee 25,924 Mount. MOrris ae eee ts rs oe ts 835 Geneseo arid “Yorkers a ce ee el 624 Rochester (oo S500 5 ae ee ae cer tos en 29,840 Maite. crar" 32 oo eet ee. nae cere ooo aeons ee 57,223. Deducting from 57,223 gross horsepower the present permanent power of 6727 gross horsepower, we have 50,496 gross horsepower as the net increase in the permanent waterpower of the stream due to the construction of the Portage reservoir. _At $10 per gross horsepower, as before, the annual income when the power is utilized amounts to $504,960. The estimated cost of producing this vast increase in power is $3,250,000 in 1904. Assuming an interest rate of five per cent, the annual interest is $172,500; add- ing to that amount $25,000 for sinking fund, maintenance and repairs, the total annual expense becomes $197,500. The differ- ence of $307,460 is the net annual income. — ere HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ; 591 As already shown, when interest is taken into account, the Mount Morris project becomes commercially impracticable. The Portage project, on the other hand, shows an annual income, above interest account, sinking fund, maintenance and repairs, of $307,- 460, which, capitalized at 5 per cent, represents $6,149,200. If we assume 4 per cent, the capitalization of the annual income may be expected ultimately to represent $7,686,500. Summary of Genesee river storage. The following summation © of the Genesee river storage projects is presented as embodying the main points involved. 1) Of the several available sites for reservoirs on Genesee river that at Portage is preferable to others, because it affords the largest storage at the smallest cost per unit volume. 2) Serious floods have occurred a number of times in the Gene- see river at Rochester, the most serious being that of March 1865. The floods in April 1896 and March 1902 were nearly as severe as the flood of March 1865, although, as the river channel was clear, very little damage ensued. 3) As the result of three years’ measurements of Genesee river, it is determined that the minimum flow of the stream may for the entire year be as low as 6.67 inches on the catchment area. Since 1896 the record of the flow of the stream has been extended with- out altering the conclusions of this paragraph. 4) A study of existing conditions shows that the Genesee river catchment area has been nearly denuded of forests, and hence that severe spring floods are likely to be frequent. For the same reason the summer flow of the stream is less than formerly. 5) As a tentative conclusion, based on the data at hand, it may be said that the deforestation of a catchment area may tend not only to increase floods somewhat, but to decrease materially the amount of the annual runoff. 6) A comparison of the conditions existing on the catchment area of the Genesee river with those of the upper Hudson, which is still largely in forest, shows less runoff under given conditions from the Genesee than from the Hudson, thus indicating the probable effect of the forest in increasing the runoff. The com- parative diagram shown in fig. 11 is pertinent as illustrating this point. 592 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM lend () As regards the upper Genesee catchment area, the forest has been removed by landowners who have commercially profited by such removal; the effect, however, has been to injure per- manently every riparian owner on the stream; hence it is proper that the State should spend money either in partially reforest- ing the area or in constructing river regulation works. The latter is preferable, because the benefits can be realized in a few years. If the State does not desire to construct such works, there should be no obstacles interposed to their construction by a private company. 8) The proposed Portage reservoir will impound 15,000,000,000 cubic feet of water at an estimated cost in 1904 of $3,250,000, or at a cost of $216.67 per million cubic feet stored. It will afford a permanent, continuous power above the present low-water flow of the stream of 50,496 gross horsepower, while the reser- voir at Mount Morris will afford only 11,600 horsepower above the present low-water power of the stream. 9) Based on manufacturers’ ratings, the present total devel- oped water power of Genesee river from Portage to Rochester, inclusive, is 19,178 net horsepower; or, basing the amount of water power on the manufacturers’ ratings of water required, and assuming 75 per cent efficiency on the wheels, the total power is 17,248 net horsepower, of which about 16,650 net horse- power is within the limits of the city of Rochester. These figures apply to conditions as existing in 1897. Early History Erie canal in its relations to Genesee river. In order to show why the State was originally asked to build a storage reservoir on Genesee river for the benefit of private parties, the following from the early history of the Erie canal in its relations to the Genesee river is given: The first mention of the Genesee river as a source of water supply for Erie canal is in the report of James Geddes, who was employed by Simeon DeWitt, the then Surveyor General of this State, to make the first examinations for the Erie canal. His report, which was submitted on January 20, 1809, may be found in the official history of the New York State canals (1825) page 18 and following. .a8t11I0Ogd 1B TAT aasotey eq} JO S[[BJ PFTPprm puv reddyQ ‘OT 94°%Id HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 593 Further mention of the Genesee river as a possible source of water supply of the Erie canal is given in a letter written by Mr Geddes to William Darby, under date of February 22, 1822, which may also be found in the official history of the State canals. Without giving these interesting historical documents in detail, it may be stated that Mr Geddes considered the Genesee river as an exceedingly important feeder of the Erie canal. We shall see, however, as we proceed how very materially this view was modified as more information was gained as to the dry weather flow, not only in the Genesee river, but in the other streams in western New York, until finally it became the settled policy of the canal authorities to derive | water supplies from the lakes rather than from rivers. The effect of this settled policy upon the present project for storage of the water of the Genesee river will also appear as we proceed. In order to exhibit the history of the Genesee feeder clearly, it will be necessary also to consider to some extent the general history of the New York State canals, and accordingly certain facts which are not set forth on a later page are given here. In 1810 a concurrent resolution was adopted, appointing Gouverneur Morris, Stephen Van Rensselaer, DeWitt Clinton, Simeon DeWitt, William North, Thomas Eddy and Peter B. Porter commissioners for exploring the whole route of the Erie canal, ete. Chapter 193, section 43, laws of 1810, appropriated $3000 for the use of this commission. The commissioners reported under date of March 2, 1811. They discussed questions relating to the Erie canal broadly and specially at considerable length the future water supply. The following extract from their report will show the conclu- sions to which their studies had brought them, and indicates they did not favor placing any special dependence upon a per- manent supply to the canal from the rivers. We shall see as we proceed that the principles announced in their report of 1811 were so far as possible followed in designing the permanent water supply of the Erie canal. The following is from the commissioners’ report : In the construction of canals, when recourse is had (as must generally be the case) to rivers for a supply of water, it is found 594 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM necessary to guard with scrupulous care, and, not unfrequently, at enormous expense, against those floods, which, pouring a tor- rent into a canal, and tearing down its banks, might at once destroy the navigation and inundate the country. Moreover, it is found that canals depending on rivers, fre- quently, like the rivers themselves, want water in the season when it is necessary. Indeed, to suppose the water in a river, when turned into a canal, will remain the same, would lead to serious - disappointment. Much must be allowed for evaporation, and, notwithstanding the utmost care, more will filter through the sides and bottom of a canal than those of a river, which are generally saturated. Thus, then, two prominent evils present themselves in feeding from rivers, viz., in Spring, they pour in too much water, and can afford none in autumn, when it is most needed. There is still another evil, which though not so imminent, becomes eventually of serious moment. When the country shall be cultivated, streams swollen by showers will bring down mixed with their waters a proportion of mud, and that, in the stillness of a level canal, will subside, and choke it up. It is also to be noted by those who shall construct canals in this country, that the true character of a river cannot now be known. Large tracts (for instance, west of the Genesee), which appear as swamps, and through which causeways of logs are laid for roads, will become dry fields, when no longer shaded ~ (as at present) by forests impervious to the sun. | In the progress of industry, swamps (the present reservoirs of permanent springs that burst out on a lower surface) will be drained, whereby many of those springs will be dried. Of such as remain, a part will be used to irrigate inclined planes. Moreover in every place tolerably convenient ponds will be collected for mills and other machinery, from whose surface, as well as from that of the soil, the sun will exhale an ample tribute of vapor. Thus the summer supply of rivers will be in part destroyed, and in part consumed, whereby their present autumnal penury must be further enhanced. But in the spring, the careful hus- bandman and miller will open every ditch and sluice to get rid of that water, which though at other times a kind friend and faith- ful servant, is then a dangerous enemy and imperious master. Of course, much of what is now withheld for many days, will then be suddenly poured out. The torrents must therefore rage with greater fury hereafter than they do in the present day. Considerations like these, while they cast a shade over many contemplated enterprises, give by contrast a glowing hue to that HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 595 which we now have to consider. The canal, from Lake Erie to the Hudson, may be fed by pure water from lakes, provided mounds and aqueducts be made over intervening valleys, or the canal be carried around them. In every case the attending cir- cumstances must decide. In June 1812, an act was passed authorizing the Canal Com- missioners to borrow five million dollars in order to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation of the State. The war of 1812 led to the suspension of the work, but in 1816 the project was revived; the act of 1812 was repealed and a new act passed appropriating twenty thousand dollars for additional Surveys. In the report of the Commissioners, 1817, under the last act ~ referred to, in speaking of the proposed route across the Genesee river, they say: Pursuing this route the canal never rises above the Lake Erie level. It would, therefore, derive its waters, till it descends to the Genesee level, and as much farther as may be necessary, from _ that never failing reservoir (Lake Erie). Finally, on April 15, 1817, an act was passed which actually led to the construction of the canal and which provides in detail | the method of procedure. : In 1819, the canal having been partially constructed in the eastern part of the State, active operations were begun in the . western part. During that year the Genesee river feeder was surveyed by Thomas Hutchinson, an engineer in the employ of the State. In 1820, in a communication from the Canal Com- missioners to the Canal Committee of the Assembly, it is stated ~ that: Whenever in its progress from Seneca river west, the canal reaches the Genesee river, that stream will afford an additional navigation connected with it, for a distance of nearly forty miles; that is, by making sixty-three miles of canal at about half the expense per mile at which the eastern section is estimated, the State will have the benefit of one hundred miles of interior naviga- tion through a country, at least as populous and productive as any other of equal extent in the State. The surplus productions of Ontario county alone have been reckoned as high in some sea- sons as six hundred thousand dollars. 596 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The preceding quotation is exceedingly important as indicating why the Genesee feeder was maintained after the canal had been completed to Lake Erie, and a permanent supply of water ob- tained from that source. During the year 1820 contracts for the construction of the canal immediately east and west of Rochester were let. In their report to the Legislature, under date of March 12, 1821, the Canal Commissioners discussed the practicability of two pro- posed routes for the canal from Rochester west, the northern of which would be below the level of Lake Erie, while the southern would rise above that level. The conclusion arrived at was that if the southern location were adopted there would probably be at times a serious shortage of water, in view of which, and other considerations, the Commissioners decided to adopt the present route from Lake Erie east, which does not at any point rise above the level of that lake, and which therefore admits of feeding the entire canal from that source. The Commissioners say : Having adopted that route for the canal, which, at every departure from the level of Lake Irie, in its progress eastward, will descend, till it reaches the Seneca river, we entertain no doubt of an abundant and permanent supply of water for every part of the canal. But, in order to provide against any possibility of danger on this subject, it is intended to construct the canal — through the dry region between the locks at the mountain ridge and the Genesee river, with a descent towards the east of one or two inches in every mile; the necessary effect of which will be to save the expense of at least one lock, and to induce a current of so much water from Lake rie towards the east as will leave but little to be required from the Genesee river; and this little may be still reduced, and if it shall ever become expedient, by a feeder from the Irondequoit creek, a copious and equable stream, which it was formerly supposed could not be drawn upon for the canal, but which, by the enterprising zeal of David S. Bates, Esq., one of our resident engineers, has been found capable of being taken into it at Pittsford, near the west end of the level, about thirteen miles in length. From this level eastward, there might be ob- tained a sufficient supply of water from the Canandaigua lake, Mud creek and several other sources, for all the demands of the canal if the Genesee river were annihilated. From the Commissioners’ report, submitted February 27, 1822, it is learned that contracts were signed for opening a feeder from HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 597 the Genesee river into Erie canal, June 6, 1821. The Commis- sioners complete their report by stating that after this feeder is completed, which will probably be in May, 1822, it is expected that with a little additional expense, a good navigation forty miles up the river will be available, in connection with the Erie canal. The canal was opened to Rochester in July, 1822, and the problem then was to obtain a sufficient supply of water from the Genesee river west until Lake Erie could be reached and its waters drawn upon. On the 26th day of October, 1825, water having been turned into the canal from the harbor at Black Rock the first boat ascended the locks at Lockport and passed through the deep cut at the mountain ridge and on to Lake Erie. In their report, sub- mitted to the Legislature, on March 25, 1826, the Canal Commis- sioners say: The first admission of a full head of water upon the dam and pier at Black Rock, and into the canal from Buffalo to Lockport, put to the test of actual experiment the strength and solidity of the works, the accuracy of the levels, and the practicability of carrying through the mountain ridge a supply of water, which would be adequate to the wants of the canal, during the dry season. The result of this experiment was entirely satisfactory. On the removal of the temporary dam which had been thrown across the narrowest part of the Black Rock basin, the water rose within a few inches of the level of the lake, and flowing into the canal below, gave a depth throughout its whole extent to Lock- port, of from five and a half to six feet above the bottom line of the canal as originally located by David Thomas. This volume of water drawn eastward by the declivity in the canal, of one inch in a mile, will be sufficient to supply the Rochester level, and probably the canal as far eastward as the Cayuga marshes, without any aid from the Genesee river. The event marked the completion of the original Erie canal, and further marked, in the opinion of the Canal Commissioners, the end of the use of the Genesee river as a source of water supply for the canal. We are now able to discern the real reasons for constructing the Genesee river feeder. As the result of long and exhaustive examinations the Canal Commissioners adopted the settled policy 598 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of not depending upon the waters of the intersecting streams in the western part of the State, but on the contrary considered (and the judgment of the present day justifies them in their conclusions) that it was far safer to depend upon the unfailing supply which could be derived from Lake Erie without, as stated in their reports, “ any injury to anybody.” It is clear, that the Genesee river was an important tem- porary source of supply during the period from 1822 to 1825, before Lake Erie was reached. Although it is evident, when one examines the documentary evidence in detail, that even during those years the canal could have been fully supplied with- out resort to the Genesee river. The question arises then, why, if the Canal Commissioners considered the use of the river as a feeder at an end in 1825, they did not close the channel which had been constructed from the canal to the Genesee river in order to take its waters. A decided answer to this question is found in the documents already cited, from which it appears that the one main object of constructing a canal feeder at Rochester was to open up a communication between the river and the canal, thereby extending, as we have seen the benefits of the State’s system of internal navigation to a large and fertile region. The reasons, therefore, why the Genesee feeder was originally constructed were 1) In order to furnish a temporary supply to the canal during the years 1823-24 and 1825, while the canal was pris con- structed from Rochester west to Lake Erie; and 2) In order to connect the canal system with nave on the upper Genesee river. On an examination of the legislative journals for the years 1823 to 1828 we find a number of petitions from citizens of the Genesee valley praying the legislature to improve the naviga- tion of the Genesee river to the south of Rochester. It has been generally assumed that the Genesee river was declared a public highway in order that the State might more thoroughly control its waters for canal purposes. The real object was merely to make the Genesee river a part of the in- ternal navigation system of the State. Such declaration did not in any degree give to the State the right to divert the water of the stream into an independent channel like the Erie canal. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 599 In the foregoing discussion it has been shown why the Genesee feeder was originally constructed and why after the completion of the canal it was still maintained as a part of the canal system for the purpose of assisting internal navigation purely. We will now proceed to show how this state of fact has been in later years made the basis of what amounts to a claim of the right to take the entire flow of the Genesee river for canal pur- poses without compensation to the riparian owners as well as without due process of law. In the years 1824-26 it appears from the records in the Canal Appraisers’ office that a large number of awards were made to : different parties at the then village of Rochester and vicinity for damages sustained in consequence of the construction and - opening of the Erie canal. ; The memorial of Jonathan Childs, George Ketchum and Richard Gorsline, which was presented to the Appraisers with their bills for damages, sets forth that their claim is specifically for damages during the years 1823, 1824 and 1825. They say: If we thought the evil of which we complain would be per- petual we should ask to be amply remunerated for the cost or value of our whole sawmill establishments, but we hope for a better state of things in relation to the extensive hydraulic works upon the Genesee river at Rochester, and we therefore, at present, only ask that these certain, specific and reasonable profits of our business of which we have been deprived by the act of the State, and which are set forth in our accounts, be paid to us. The accounts rendered to the Board of Appraisers by these gen- tlemen give in detail the damages which they sustained during the years indicated. Richard Gorsline, in his bill states that he has been damaged in 1824, by reason of no business done for want of water, 42 days; in 1825, 92 days. Childs & Ketchum also furnish a statement in detail, of the damage to their mill by reason of standing still for lack of water at the same time. From a study of the documents in detail it appears clear that Richard Gorsline and Childs & Ketchum had good reason to believe that the diversion of the waters of the Genesce river 600 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM for the use of the Erie canal was at an end in 1825. In con- sequence of that belief they only made out a bill for specific temporary damages sustained during the years while the Genesee river water was used as the sole or nearly sole source of ‘supply, which was during 1822 to 1825 before Lake Erie was reached. On bills rendered as stated in the foregoing, and on the under- . standing that the awards were for temporary diversion only, the Canal Appraisers, in 1826, awarded damages to the owners of water rights at Rochester, as follows: Childs 8 tKhete hain 2ts 5 kk, See eel eet bate ae ae ee $140 00 BIChArLa\GOrs hie cork. koe at ronsies iat han eee ZAT OU PTEryey SIE eS ee ce enters tee ON tee oh Rn are ee 700 00 ervey INV. a 2.3 NEW POM: -. ees bo ee ere ee eis a ee LT x ee HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK | 625 patless RPM ONO, es iy nd ee aca ee ats. D8 .D FUSES Es, Sy acl aie ener aaa 11.4 ERGs 8 SS ee ae 3.9 RSLS STODT Mecok tein ie 2 nn arene 4.9 MUIR Shee at ac tla ela ated ies wae eee ts ees 31.6 2 PUL es BSS OR Oe Gn ei eat ere ara 3.6 (| ELE USS ee Ne ar Oe Se nl Se ne ons oA ea ehiihs Breen 7 LELRDAUL L322 ed Ae eee er ere ea 8.3 SS LEU Sec RCA Bs ett! fe Reston = ea eae ee eee ee 38.7 OO EU TESL EOS DG Sete dee ere ae eee eee 6.7 eee aed Star nmekyMler roe Pee ewe ee eee ees 259 .2 ee en nr es ate oS ke cate nde aids wale od AT8.7 The area between Starbuckville and Tumblehead falls not available with the system of small reservoirs is 23.3 square miles. The total controllable area of the upper Hudson, with the system of smai: reservoirs in the Schroon valley, is as follows: ‘mae Sacandaga valley .......... tee: dee Se Deel Be AR edi COTE 190 anne es oA) ON EACH foe So Sena hes oh iced whee are b's eae awe 514 PC MEMOME MANO ces ae owe heen 8s ecg EE Aa a aa ee 479 TOC TEST Areas So rapt ie api are ce Amr Ag oe Par a aca 1,183 With one large reservoir in Schroon valley, the total catch- ment area is increased to 1206 square miles. The system of small reservoirs outlined in the foregoing is estimated to store 15,330,000,000 cubic feet, at a cost of $1,172,- 500; hence, the cost per million cubic feet stored becomes $76.48. These figures, however, do not take into account the actual cost of maintenance and operation, which may be placed at $30,000 per year and capitalized at 5 per cent, is equivalent to a perma- nent investment of $600,000. Adding $600,000 to $1,172,500: gives a total permanent investment of $1,772,500. 626 NEW, YORK STATE MUSEUM The foregoing estimates were made early in 1896 and due to change in conditions, they would be considerably increased in 1904. A general estimate of the cost of the single large reservoir in Schroon valley shows that with a dam at Tumblehead falls 59 feet in hight there would be impounded 15,925,000,000 cubic feet. The preliminary estimate indicates a total cost of $840,- 000, and a later survey indicates about $1,000,000. The final revision of the estimate on completion of the investigation may show a somewhat larger figure than this. Even if the cost were to be $1,100,000, it would still be exceedingly cheap storage, the cost for 15,925,000,000 cubic feet being on this basis only $69.14 per million cubic feet stored. In order to appreciate fully the low cost of these reservoirs, it may be mentioned that reservoirs for municipal water supplies frequently cost from $5000 to $10,000 per million cubic feet stored. In specially unfavorable cases the cost is even higher than this—it may be as high as $12,000 to $15,000 per million cubic feet stored. Small reservoirs sometimes cost from $6000 to $8000 per 1,000,000 gallons stored. The dam at Tumblehead falls would be located just below the outlet of Brant lake, the elevation of the water surface of which is 801 feet. The flow line of the proposed reservoir has been placed at an elevation of 840 feet, thus giving a depth of 39 feet over the surface of Brant lake, a depth of 33 feet over the sur- face of Schroon lake, and a depth of 20 feet over Paradox lake. With the reservoir full or nearly full, there would be continuous navigation from the head of Brant lake to the head of Paradox lake of about 35 miles. The villages of South Horicon, Barton- ville, Starbuckville, and parts of Pottersville and Chester are within the flow line of this reservoir. Indian lake is another large reservoir on the headwaters of Hudson river, that has been described on a preceding page. Piseco lake is another large reservoir which may be con- structed on the upper Hudson at low cost. It is estimated that a storage of 1,725,000,000 cubic feet may be made at an expendi- ture of $70,000, or at an average cost per million cubic feet stored of $40. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK | 627 Without going further into detail, the following may be given as the approximate storage of the upper Hudson system, worked out to 1904.1 Cubic feet Storage of Sacandaga and main Hudson river catchment areas, not including Boreas river reservoir, Boreas pond, Indian lake, and Piseco 28.2 oO ee Bee 14,364,000,000 Boreas river reservoir and Boreas pond.......... 1,111,000,000 DEEL Le. LEC MiSs Ses A SPR eae ae Re ee ae ae ee 4,468,000,000 IE Ee Sc he sat IP ey Saeed Bere 6 oe le 1,725,000,000 apes EDM NADL Yi 9 ec Bese Wow gg CU GR oe 15,925,000,000 UPON cee. a nin ns oes PR att Parte hr b oe 4,000,000,000 O2 DULUILISW Ve oe GO Ce ba a ae are 10,000,000.000 CTE" a Sar Bc is neg Bae 51,593,000,000 This storage is considered sufficient, in conjunction with the natural flow of the unregulated portion of the river, to maintain at Mechanicville a flow of at least 4,500 cubic feet per second during the entire year. The general investigations indicate that there is an oppor- tunity to make a large reservoir on Sacandaga river by the erec- tion of a dam at Conklinville. The available storage of such a reservoir is from 8,000,000,000 to 10,000,000,000 cubic feet. It is taken in the preceding tabulation at 10,000,000,000 cubic feet. There is also an opportunity to construct on the main Hudson at Hadley, just above the mouth of the Sacandaga, another reservoir of about 4,000,000,000 cubic feet capacity at a point where the natural conditions for constructing such a reservoir are good. At the site of the proposed dam the river shows a granitic rock bottom, with precipitous banks nearly forty feet in hight and about one hundred feet apart. The material for a *For full details, the reader is referred to the original Reports on the Upper Hudsvn Storage Surveys, in Annual Reports of State Engineer and Surveyor for the Years 1895 and 1896. Also, refer to Report to Merchants’ Ass. of New York, 1900. *The storage of this reservoir with the flashboards in place is taken at 5,000,000,000 cubic feet. 628 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM permanent stone dam exists in the vicinity, with an opportunity to construct a wasteway over natural rock at one side. Inasmuch as all the storage except that of the Sacandaga area would pass through the Hadley reservoir, its construction would simplify the management of the system very greatly. In the summer season, aS long as there is any storage above to be drawn upon, this reservoir could be kept nearly full and just the right quantity drawn out from day to day to keep the river at the assumed flow of 4500 cubic feet a second at Mechanicville. The Water Storage Commission made. surveys for several reservoirs on the Hudson river, but as there is nothing of inter- est about any of these, no special mention is made of them here. Effect of proposed storage on river flow. The foregoing quan- tities of storage have been fixed upon on the basis that the water yield of the year of minimum stream flow will furnish a storage of at least 12 inches, the flow line of the reservoirs themselves being located with reference to holding back 13.5 inches. If, however, one examines the tables of runoff of the Hudson at Mechanicville, and of precipitation in the catchment, it is seen that much greater yields can be expected in an average year. From this point of view, it may be asked, Why not make the reservoirs somewhat larger than merely sufficient for the wants of the year of minimum flow and carry some water over from one year to another, thus more nearly attaining an absolute regula- tion of the river—not for a single year, but for a series of years? . The chief objection to this method of procedure is that experi- ence with other large reservoir systems is against other than a moderate development on this line, it having been repeatedly found that however high the flow line, reservoirs are likely to be nearly empty at the beginning of the storage period of the mini- mum year. Experience indicates that the rainfall and stream flow move in cycles, there being in each cycle several successive years of flow above the average. The demands for water tend to increase during the years of plenty, until those in charge appar- ently forget there will ever be a deficiency. The best practice, therefore, is to locate the flow line with reference to about the minimum yield, thus forcing an economy in the use of water from the beginning. By proceeding in this way provision may ~~ Cae Plate 15. A. The dam at Mechanicville with flash boards in place. B. The present dam at Fort Hdward. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 629 be made for carrying over moderate quantities of water from the latter end of the year more effectually than in any other way. An exception has been made to this general proposition in the case of Schroon valley reservoir, discussed in detail on another page. TABLE No. 86—MEAN PRECIPITATION ON THE UPPER HUDSON CATCHMENT AREA (In inches) Mire} L 5 1 oO ' 1 1 Fa.) g s | 3 = fe 3 z 2) cat leit ely b | dh | ob bs ag MONTH Bele aes oe) aml of DER | fe lee laa! = S S > one Sees Ore | SiO | eo feo: jn TP a Sh PAE Ae Se) a sea 7 ee Cs 2 Ss | | 8 |e29| h Sai | I = = 3S = 2 | o |\ods| © Guitia a - e & cy < O M |e z= = 'é) ey = (1) _@) |_@) _ |_@ |_G) | ©) |_@_|_'8) |_(@)_| Go) | G1) | G2) | G3) December......... 2.71 | 3.19 | 2.75 | 3.01 | 4.31 | 3.57 | 2.14 | 2.91 | 2.36 | 2.78 | 2.48 | 2.92 ewuary ......... 2.75 | 3.16 | 3.60 | 3.03 | 3.36 | 3.88 | 2.35 | 3.30 | 3.36 | 2.69 | 2.08 | 2.99 February ......... 2.49 | 3.03 | 2.22 | 2.64 | 2.83 | 3.60 | 2.43 | 2.86 | 2.61 | 2.06 | 1.42 | 2.56 Marelli 2... ..- 2: 2.72 | 2.72 | 2.24 | 2.50 | 2.94 | 2.52 | 1.78 | 3.63 | 2.12 | 2.36 | 1.74] 2.48 oT ears ane 2.80 | 2.15 | 2.09 | 2.14 | 2.02 | 2.39 | 1.91 | 2.98 | 3.36 | 2.53 | 2.13} 2.43 2 ae 3.62 | 3.10 | 3.05 | 3.14 | 3.17 | 4.46 | 2.79 | 3.45 | 3.65 | 3.04 | 3.47 | 3.38 Storage period .|17.09 |17.35 15.35 |16.47 |18.63 |20.42 |13.40 {19.08 |17.46 |15.46 ]13.32 | 16.76 Bn se.” 4.07 | 2.83 | 2.89 | 2.99 | 3.24 | 3.88 | 3.42 | 4.20 | 4.66 | 4.29 | 3.21 | 3.67 Mig cece. 4.29 | 3.25 | 3.61 | 3.53 | 3.44 | 3.83 | 3.67 | 4.01 | 3.91 | 4.21 | 3.63 | 3.78 Maeust............ 3.96 | 4.17 | 4.21 | 4.20 | 3.91 | 5.07 | 2.85 | 3.14 | 3.98 | 3.66 | 2.97 | 3.79 Growing period|12.32 [10.25 |10.71 |10.75 |10.59 /12.78 | 9.94 [11.35 12.55 |12.16 | 9.81 | 11.25 September........ 3.43 | 2.96 | 3.00 | 3.13 | 3.51 | 3.57 | 2.84 | 2.87 | 3.27 | 3.08 | 2.67 | 3.12. Oetober........... 3.58 | 2.36 | 2.49 | 2.60 | 3.41 | 3.06 | 3.29 | 3.20 | 3.60 | 3.56 | 2.90 | 3.15 November........ 3.08 | 3.24 | 3.56 | 3.26 | 2.84 | 3.46 | 2.94 | 3.33 | 3.29 | 2.46 | 2.88] 3.11 Replenishing | period|i0.09 | 8.56 | 9.05 | 8.99 |.9.76 |10.09 | 9.07 | 9.49 |10.16 | 9.11 | 8.45 | 9.38 Yearly: total. .|39.50 [36.16 35.11 36.22 [38.98 |43.29 |32.41 |39.92 |40.17 [36.73 81.58 | 87.39 The figures in the above table are obtained by averaging the results obtained at Albany from 1825 to 1895; at Glens Falls, from 1879 to 1895; at Keene Valley, from 1879 to 1895 ; in western Massachusetts, from 1887 to 1895; in northern plateau, from 1889 to 1895; at Lowville academy, from 1827 to 1848; at Johnstown academy, from 1828 to 1845; at Cambridge academy, from 1827 to 1839; at Fairfield academy, from 1828 to 1849 ; at Granville academy, from 1835 to 1849; the mean of Albany, Glens Falls and Keene Valley, from 1879 to 1895. Although the foregoing figures are here given in detail, later studies indicate that the mean rainfall of the northern plateau as defined ey be State Meteorological Bureau is the best rainfall record to apply to the upper udson area. The proposed regulation of the Hudson river has been provi-. Sionally arranged on the basis of maintaining a flow of at least 4500 cubic feet per second at Mechanicville, where, as has been seen, the catchment area is 4500 square miles, such a regulation being equivalent to producing at Mechanicville a constant flow of 1 cubic foot per second per square mile. As regards the change in the regimen of the stream due to storage, it may be remarked that the reservoirs have been 630 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM designed on the basis of giving to the stream at least 0.5 inch on the catchment area per month.! With 0.45 cubic foot per second per square mile always flowing away from the controlled catchment area, the natural flow of the unregulated portion will usually furnish an additional amount sufficient to keep the river, during the storage period, up to nearly the assumed 4500 cubic feet per second at Mechanicville; or in case of extreme low water in winter other reservoirs may be relied upon to assist in the manner already pointed out. On the basis of 12 to 14 inches available storage, there may be, with 0.5 inch per month always going to the stream, a possible total requirement for the year of from 15 to 18 inches. Table No. 61 shows that the total flow for the year 1895 was only 17.46 inches, or in that year there might have been a shortage, if the reservoir system had been in operation, of perhaps 0.5 inch. Any such shortage would necessarily have been carried over from the year 1894, when, in November, there was a runoff of 1.58 inches. Allowing 0.5 inch to the stream from the November rainfall alone there would have been 1.08 inches remaining in the reservoirs to be carried over to 1895. Sunmary of Hudson river reservoirs. In conclusion, it may be said that it is entirely feasible to construct a system of reser- voirs in the upper Hudson valley, and such system may be designed with reference to the full capacity storage of at least 1300 square miles of area, or 47 per cent of the total area above Glens Falls. Such control would result in the material reduc- tion of floods at Glens Falls and other points. ! The proposed total storage of 45,593,000,000 cubic feet would maintain 4500 cubic feet per second fiow, as well as supply the other necessary demands, in the driest season of the gaging period. The discharge measurements show that whereas the minimum unregulated flow at Glens Falls is as low as 700 cubic feet per second for a monthly mean, with the storage carried out, © the probable monthly mean flow at Glens Falls will be at least 53000 to 3600 cubic feet per second. The minimum regulated flow of 4500 cubic feet per second at Mechanicville will increase the low-water depth in the Hudson river at Albany about 1.5 feet. 1This is the same basis as discussed on a preceding page for Salmon river reservoir. 0.5 inch per month is 0.45 cubic foot per second per square mile. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 631 The diversion of water for the use of Champlain canal is an injury to the waterpower at Glens Falls and lower points on the river. Since waterpower is much cheaper than steampower, the taking of the water of the river away from the manufac- turers is a serious matter. In the fourteen years from 1882 to 1895 the use of waterpower on Hudson river increased 237 per eent. The upper Hudson storage system is estimated to cost in 1904 from $80 to $100 per million cubic feet stored, a sum consider- ably less than the cost of many other systems. Storage Reservoirs on Schroon River In 1900 the writer reported to the Merchants’ Association of New York in regard to a reservoir for a water supply to that city to be located on Schroon river. The scope of this report was as follows: 1) The discussion of a project for supplying five hundred million (500,000,000) gallons daily (775 cubic feet per second) of pure water from a single large reservoir to be located on Schroon river. 2) The supplying of the same quantity from Lake George and Schroon river. 3) In addition to the storage reservoirs, from which the city supply of pure water would be drawn, these two projects further included compensating reservoirs large enough to compensate for amount of water abstracted for supply of Greater New York. 4) The discussion of a project for supplying a large quantity of stored water to Hudson river, in order to hold the point of upward flow of salt water through tidal action as far down stream as practicable. The following are the main points embodied in the report to the Merchants’ Association: Schroon river flows into Hudson river just above Thurman bridge and about fifteen miles north of Hadley. The catchment area at its mouth is 570 square miles. It issues from a region with a permanent pupulation of from 12 to 14 per square mile. The prevailing rocks are granitic, with large areas of fine sand; _ there are only limited swamp areas. $32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In order to show the approximate relative proportions of virgin forest, culled area, from which merchantable softwood timber has been removed, together with the cleared and water areas of Schroon river catchment, the following data have been compiled from several of the United States Geological Survey’s topographical sheets, including territory either Mee or partly within Schroon river catchment : Virgin Culled Cleared Water Total forest, area, area, area, area, square square square square square Topographic sheet miles miles miles miles miles Bolton er ae oe cee eee 153.00 43.55 19.85 216.4 Paradox fake... 80.5 cu Re ee 171.55 388.60 5.35 215.5 SeCHrOOMMaAKe Teo en 1.10 182.10 35.80 6.50 2155. POGAL Ga tess cc 1.10 506.65 117.95 31.70 647.4 The large water area of the Bolton sheet is due to the fact that this sheet includes a considerable portion of Lake George. Aside from this, the Bolton, Paradox lake and Schroon lake sheets, covering a total area of 647.4 square miles, are considered to be—as regards forestation—fairly illustrative of Schroon river catchment area. The figures show that the cleared area is only about 18 per cent of the whole. The northern part of Schroon river catchment area, which is included in Mount Marcy and Elizabethtown sheets, is substantially all in timber, and for the entire catchment area probably the cleared surface does not exceed about 15 per cent. The topography of Schroon river catchment area is rugged. The low-water surface elevation of Schroon lake is 807+ T. W., and the extreme northern tributaries issue from the base of the highest mountains of the State. : The foregoing brief statements in regard to physical character- istics of Schroon river catchment area show that it is an ideal region from whence to draw a municipal water supply. The forest covered granitic rocks and interspersed sand areas insure a water of extreme purity, and when we further take into ac- count the economy of reservoir construction which can here be attained we have a combination of favorable conditions only rarely excelled. | An approximate estimate made in 1895, before all the condi- tions were known, placed the cost of Schroon valley reservoir— Plate 16. B. Dam where gagings are made at Little Falls. ‘ . z ’ - ’ « i ; aie, wh f Aes: je ‘Wak, aoe Riad ea HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 633 when developed up to a storage of 13.5 inches on the catchment area—at $840,000. This was for a water storage reservoir purely, and did not include clearing and stripping of margins any further than that cutting and burning of standing timber was provided for. Investigations made in 1896 indicated more expense for foundation of dam at Tumblehead falls than assumed in 1895. Moreover, for a storage reservoir for regula- tion of stream flow purely, nothing was allowed for sanitary protection of catchment or for removal of pulgrige along or near new margins. The estimates herewith submitted take into account all these several items, as well as an allowance for present labor condi- tions and price of materials in the State of New York. In the first report on upper Hudson surveys (1895) the writer discussed extensively the question of proper hight of flow line for upper Hudson reservoir system, reaching the conclusion that for stream regulation 13.5 inches in depth on the catchment area was the approximate figure. This is about as large a storage -as can be ponded at the several upper Hudson sites. At Tumble- head falls, however, there is apparently no reason why the development may not be carried higher, and the present study for a pure-water reservoir has accordingly been based upon a development of storage up to 18 inches in depth on the tributary catchment area of 518 square miles. Such development gives a total storage of 21,662,000,000 cubic feet (162,248,380,000 gallons) and will utilize, during a series of years, substantially the entire flow of the stream. To accomplish this result the uniform catia from the reser- voir has been taken at 500,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours; or, for even figures, at 775 cubic feet per second. It is easy to furnish this quantity from a single reservoir, although it is necessary to fix the flow line higher than 13.5 inches. In order to show the effect of drawing 775 cubic feet per second continuously from such a reservoir in Schroon valley, table No. 87 has been prepared. The data are (1) the runoffs of Hudson river for the twelve years 1888-1899, inclusive; and (2) evaporation at Rochester. The computation has been made by years, beginning with an assumed depth of 4 inches on the catch- ment area in reservoir at the end of November 1887, and is ed °c OS Cy CHOON Cig OL CO NCN Dy |y Mee Cae sie eMaia: ‘ple’ e te Patients nd wisisiie Sener os 18) le aie ore te 18ST clots) ue. 09° Sz “o> -7eI109 PUB TROT 000 (000 O48 "eT | TL IT |'"requieaon | *° Ce chee unis eR ek oye Te eperipen y e "* 6681 000 000 FES "LT | Le PL | ‘tequieoeq | 9¢°¢g ee NeoPa eOnGiameeerna i Ve le-chugieige jar tS Sate 868T 000 000 '88'8 | 869 {°° Ateniqeg | cep LOGI a -6E-8 O00 Ve lee = OmoGe Ww 3 7 away oak LOST. 000 000'088'8 | 804 |" Atenrqag | PLT ca 688 8c’9 OOKO SR< 68" 16": | eOn eer at Sei Se pees 9681 Ce ec rnnas eo) Oalee oo Se, ieee o) OOO SOON Te Ie” | Spun ay Sea c68I 000 000 681 SI | 96°0T |°' tequieaonN | °°" Coa) BOG Ohaalcuereel =| O00 Ole PO ior ele nek Giese oe oa PEST | 000 000 COT ST CP eT ay " LOQUIOAO NN 96 °2 EF eT IL‘ &L cee 79°12 161 es eee CERT D 000000 '106 BT | SL'OL |°'‘tequteseq | 6F'¢ TL ST CO SOG 5 6S 1S, | 80 ee | tara ae gas 6681 I 000 000 666 Ka! GS OL °°’ doqureaon sees 0g°¢ ee OL Bh ST ee T £91 9¢'0g [totic 681 Pb 000000 S148 | FL | TequIeDeq | OTL ie CL SE | 89'S QOR0'" Ws 78. Te al) 6 1cn |e wae ane eee 068T = 000 000 86h:9 | OF |*""**4eqoq09 | °° ero | eg cL’ 00'0 | ¥8'Is PAR CMR hee eee en 688T ee 2000 C00 800.7 | 868s sc" qoreyl | SLT CL 00°F OOGOS YE GBF LS pO ee. a eee aa "**QgsT AH Mie wae |e meen ne ass SSeS Sani ae Se ee cae Se a (TT) (01) (6) (8) (1) (9) (g) (F) (g) (3) (T) M —s SS eS ——————_—_—_——|— SS wo & 5 = = Kd > b> s 4 Hi e ee 538 ga ae seer lawee qe S| oe oe es: © eo¢ BAS oe. fog | 225 Bees) eo aie ® = ae : ge z ee peg eo |) Meno! gee E oe pe ODO Se ee. Bao Bro est ate. ct 5 e eit es eee on 8 Ho alll a ll aay Be 5 Zoe Fo F, Se ag Age GEE | SES ge 378 = Be Bs UVaA ULV M to 8 on SRO 2 oe mals Boo iy © oye Sekt Phi Qe =} Oo 2 =] o = 09 ey A a taeda ete, 45 BS 5 3 °. UVaAA ONIYOAG Cree O04 2 ae sh a He HIOAMHSAU GTO NOIZIGNOO LSHMOT ° 5 of o ® Bo 5 ae Fb ct Fb 4 rt Ve go Wie) 30 (So]IW e1enbs gTg Jo JUeMIyIIvd AIejNqIA} WO SeyouT UT) MIOK MAIN YALVALD JO ATddAS WALVA AOI GNOOUS Add LATA O1MNO G)), JO NOISHTAIC V GNV SHHONI Q0'ST 10 AIOANASAU AHL FO ALIOVAVO ANVAOLS GAWASSV NV NO aasvg ‘HAISNTONI “668T-S88T SYVHX SALVA AHL YOA ALOAUASAY ATTIVA NOOUHOY NI ADVAOLS YALVM FO ALVIS ONIMOHS—')9 ‘ON @IAVI, 634 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK , 635 carried along through each water year, to the end of November 1899. , : This computation shows that for a storage of 18 inches on the catchment area and a uniform outflow of 775 cubic feet per second the total waste in the twelve-year period would have been only 13.81 inches. A similar computation has been made for a storage of 13.5 inches and uniform outflow of 650 cubic feet per second, in which the waste would have been 55.36 inches amounting to a mean waste per year of 4.61 inches. The distance from Hadley to proposed site of Schroon valley barrage at Tumblehead falls—measured along the thread of Hudson and Schroon valleys—is about 29 miles. Of this about 14 miles is in Schroon valley. The village of Warrensburg, with a population of about 1000 in 1900, lies on Schroon river, three miles above its mouth. At and in the vicinity of this place waterpower to the extent of 1627 net horsepower (2167 gross horsepower) has been developed on Schroon river. The largest block of power at a single point is at the dam of — the Schroon River Pulp Company, one and one half miles below Warrensburg, where 1086 net horsepower are in use. Owing to the equalizing effect of Schroon lake, these powers are all fairly permanent except at the pulp mill, which is sometimes short of water in late summer and fall months. rad The water-surface elevation of Schroon river at its mouth, near Thurman, is approximately 620+T.W. At Tumblehead falls the elevation is about 780+T. W. There is, therefore, a total fall of 160 feet between Tumblehead falls and mouth of stream. Of this 39 feet is included in the dams at Warrensburg village and the Schroon River Pulp Company’s power, leaving 121 feet still undeveloped. It seems very desirable, in case Schroon valley reservoir is constructed, that the waterpower possibilities of the stream be preserved. A uniform outflow of 775 cubic feet per second would yield, on 121 feet fall, 10,639 gross horsepower. In order to preserve present waterpowers and ultimately utilize the undeveloped fall, it would be necessary to let the water discharged from the reservoir at Tumblehead falls flow down the present channel of Schroon river to a diversion weir, to \ 636 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM be located just above the mouth, at which point a conduit of 775 cubic feet per second capacity would begin. This diversion weir would be sixteen miles above Hadley, but it is considered that the additional cost of extending the conduit this distance would be compensated for by the keeping of pure Schroon river water entirely separate from balance of Hudson river water. In proposing such separation it is not intended to imply that Hudson river water at Hadley is not suited for a public supply. In any case upper Hudson water is very pure, but due to relatively Somewhat more extensive swamp areas to north of mouth of Schroon river, Hudson river water at Hadley, as a whole, is not equal to that of Schroon river. The purifying effect of wind and sunlight on the extended water areas of Schroon, Brant and Para- dox lakes is taken into account in reaching this conclusion. Another important reason for extending conduit to diversion weir just above mouth of Schroon river may be found in consider- ing that much the cheapest way to reimburse waterpower owners on Hudson river for diversion of 775 cubic feet per second will be by constructing compensation reservoirs. Some of these would be located on Sacandaga river, which flows into Hudson river at Hadley, but nevertheless several would be on main North river above Thurman. If proposed additional water supply of Greater New York were taken at Hadley, then all compensating reservoirs should be thoroughly cleared and stripped, the same as is pro- posed for Schroon valley reservoir. Even after completion of such extensive work, the conditions at several reservoir sites to north of Thurman are not such as to yield an ideal water without filtration. There are extensive muck areas which now discolor the water and taint it with an offensive odor. Filtration would, of course, make any of these waters ideal, and probably for a thor- ough study of the project in all of its phases estimates should be worked out showing approximate cost of taking 775 cubic feet per second at Hadley, with all stripping of reservoirs omitted, but including the cost of a filtration plant capable of handling 775 cubic feet per second. As regards quality of the municipal supply, such treatment would place this project essentially on a par with the Vyrnwy supply for Liverpool, where the water of a sparsely populated mountainous area is filtered, largely to remove vegetable discoloration. ; HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK > 637 If Schroon river water is taken into conduit just above mouth of stream, the sewage of Warrensburg village and the manufac- turing establishments would be properly carried in a close conduit or pipe toa point below the diversion weir. The estimates for sanitary protection include the cost of the necessary special constructions for this purpose. There is considerable summer population about Schroon, Brant, Paradox and other lakes of Schroon area, and the estimates for sanitary protection further include cost of properly caring for waste products at hotels, cottages, etc. The following presents the main points of comparison for dams at Tumblehead falls, storing 13.5 and 18.0 inches on the catchment area, respectively : Storage ; Area of water surfaces. =) SSPE Storage, Elevation Hight of of full reservoir catchment in cubic feet - hor ine oie area : Acres Sq. miles (1) (2). (3) (4) (5) (6) 13.5 16, 246, 000, 000 840.6 60.0 14, 800 23.1 18.0 21, 662, 000, 000 850.5 70.0 16, 900 | 26.4 By reference to the United States Geological Survey’s topo- graphic sheets, the significance of these figures may be easily appreciated. | In order to insure thorough control of the margins, it is sug- gested that an area of 50 square miles should be taken. The estimate includes such taking. The following is the estimated cost of constructing Schroon valley pure water reservoir and diversion weir, with necessary gate houses, sanitary protection and other special constructions: OSI SES Me Rice RS Sa Se ar ac a a $1,000,000 oe NES TN Ti SS ay 0) 970 i 500,000 eaniaG Timblehead falis.n.. fee's os 6 ah ae eis elas we ae 600,000 ewer sim WON te hl as ao ds bate Seas oe 250,000 Sea REN COU COUNT ay es 55 a. as Gale bend ela dele Wb l es 300,000 OLIEICELE G31 11S RANE" Oo a a NN OO era oe 350,000 TIE TOTES Te ee ee ge LC LO are ae ae $3,000,000 638 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The data for the preceding estimate are not very complete, but it is believed that the sum of $3,000,000 is large enough to meet somewhat adverse conditions. The construction of Schroon valley reservoir as here proposed would submerge several villages, of which the cost is included in land damages. With a total storage of 21,662,000,000 cubic feet and total cost of $3,000,000, the cost per million cubic feet stored becomes roundly $138.50. In the same way the cost per million gallons stored becomes about $18.50. Schroon valley reservoir no injury to waterpower on Hudson river. The foregoing discussion of Schroon valley reservoir pro- ject shows that not only may all injury to existing waterpower in Schroon valley be obviated, but that 10,639 gross horsepower may be permanently created there. With Hadley dam: ulti- mately constructed, as proposed in the upper Hudson report of 1895, there would be stillwater in Hudson river from mouth of Schroon river to Hadley. Inasmuch as Hadley dam is intended as a.regulator of upper Hudson reservoir system, without any Special waterpower development connected therewith, no injury to waterpower above Hadley on account of diversion of 775 cubic feet per second would occur. But from the regulating dam down the Hudson river waterpowers would suffer, but not to the extent of the value of 775 cubic feet per second for the whole year. Broadly, the proposition takes this form: On account of large temporary storage on Schroon, Brant and Paradox lakes, the mean summer flow of Schroon river is higher than it would . otherwise be for the given catchment area. Taking into account this natural advantage, what injury can be done to Hudson river waterpowers from Hadley to Troy by the continuous diversion of 775 cubic feet per second, the quantity so diverted to be drawn, not from the natural flow of the river, but from a large storage reservoir substantially regulating the entire flow for a series of years? In answering this question we must take into account the character of the waterpower development on Hudson river. The most of it is 24-hour power used for pulp-grinding and paper- making. Pulp may be ground in high-water flow and stored for use in months of minimum flow. This circumstance has led to tege eee e *0 4rme *S'e —— Plate 17. Smee od Wee |e) Ly \ ¢ ten Na a ete Sca/e of Miles ' ° Catchment area of Schroon river. —_— T= HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 639 development of Hudson river waterpowers to far beyond the low-water flow of the stream. Without going into-an elaborate discussion at this time, it is considered that under existing conditions to substantially divert the entire flow of Schroon river would be fairly equivalent to taking from 500 to 600 cubic feet per second from all water- powers on the Hudson river from the George West paper mill at Hadley to Troy. This does not mean that 600 cubic feet per sec- ond would be taken away in the low-water months, but that for an average of all years the runoff of Schroon catchment area is equivalent to about 500 to 600 cubic feet continuously when applied to Hudson river waterpowers. As a provisional figure, accurate enough for present purposes, we may use 550 cubic feet per second. The following tabulation shows in column (4) the net power at 75 per cent efficiency of 550 cubic feet per second of water on the stated heads: Net power at ; Per Approximate P Designation of Dam ees ae eee zie es Or 5s Un ee _ wheels aad F899 | cubic feet per | (8) and (4) (1) On bre c(t) (5) George West, Hadley....| 18 Bsn || 845 505 Palmers Walls eo sis vec 83 14, 500 3,897 10, 608 Canal feeder dam....... 10 to 12 1, 450 515 935 Stems alls erie cits tee 16 to 38 7,931 1, 784 6, 147 20 ed 2 1) 1 ee 12 1, 298 564 729 awers Haliga oo eoc.. +. 58 3, 500 2, '724 776 EOE TOOWATO fos soso, 5» 18 6, 393 845 5,548 Porn Mriter. ioe... fe 10 1,485 469 1, 016 Saratoga dam ........... *18 3, 180 845 2, 285 UUMAVAhEL.. 2) cae ose te 6 514 282 232 Mechanicville ........... 16 3, 355 751 2, 604 Hudson River Power Co. 18 3, 000 845 2,155 2 Ty ae re Bi tare ts 7 1,345 329 1,016 Lua! STS ene ae mae Manta 314 49, 246 14, 695 34, 551 mbomson aid Dis sail is fom 8p so fock, OUD ® MM JS 4B eats at the The foregoing tabulation shows that on the assumed basis of 550 cubic feet per second the total decrease in waterpower would be 14,695 net horsepower, amounting to nearly 30 per cent of the whole. Let us now examine rapidly as to the approximate value of Hudson river waterpower. 640 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In the fall of 1898 the writer gathered the statistics of water- power on Black river, where a total of 55,360 net horsepower is in use in 93 manufacturing establishments of various sorts and kinds. Of these 36 are papermills using 46,587 net horse- power. The approximate total value of the annual product of the 36 paper mills was found to be $5,242,620, whence the aver- age value of the annual product per net horsepower becomes $112.50. Similar statistics have not been gathered for Hudson river, where the mills are fewer in number, but so much larger than on Black river that the annual product approximates $8,000,000 in value. Undoubtedly the cost of manufacturing in large, thoroughly equipped modern mills is less than in small mills, and the writer provisionally places the value of the annual product of Hudson river paper mills, per net horsepower actually used, at $135. On both Black and Hudson rivers the mills them- selves grind a large proportion of the pulp used, and when this is done the net profits of the paper business, over and above interest on invested capital and all other fixed charges, may be assumed to range from 10 to 15 per cent. We will take 12 per cent as an average. On this basis the net annual profit on each net horsepower in use at Hudson river papermills becomes $16.20, which at 5 per cent represents a capitalized value of $324. In the absence of more exact data, and for the pur- poses of this discussion, we will use this figure as representing the approximate value of a net horsepower on Hudson river.’ At this rate, the value of 14,695 horsepower becomes $4,761,180, which is the approximate damage to the Hudson river water- powers from Hadley to Troy to result from taking the mean quantity of 775 cubic feet per second from Schroon valley catch- ment area. | Compensating reservoirs on Hudson river. However, reservoirs capable of supplying 500 to 600 cubic feet per second compensa- tion could be constructed on headwaters of main North river and Sacandaga river for less than $4,761,180. At Troy there is a small amount of miscellaneous manufacturing to which a larger figure could be properly applied. On Black river, in eight machine shops, the average value oe the annual product per net horsepower is $1728; in nine flour and feed mills, $627.20, ete. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 641 Thus far the trend of legal decisions in the State of New York and in the United States generally has been against compensa- tion in kind in water diversion cases.1 Our courts have usually held that money compensation may be exacted in such cases. But on the Hudson river, where water rights are not only appreci- ating in value rapidly, but are furthermore mostly held by strong manufacturing corporations, it is possible that the principle of compensation in kind could be applied by simple agreement with the present owners. At any rate, we may assume for present purposes that this is true, and accordingly briefly discuss a sys- tem of compensating reservoirs large enough to supply 500 to 600 cubic feet per second, either continuously or so far as might appear necessary after a more thorough study of the regimen of the stream. With Hudson river runoff, the capacity of a reservoir capable of certainly furnishing 650 cubic feet per second continuously should be, roundly, 16,000,000,000 cubic feet. To furnish 550 cubic feet per second continuously about 12,000,000,000 cubic feet would answer. The location and approximate cost of a series of reservoirs for this purpose would be as.follows: ; Tribut Name of | Location, Grae catchment Estimated Reservoir | on what stream enielteek - ae Eas cost Conklinville....| Sacandaga river.| 10, 000,000,000 | . 900 $1, 400, 000 Lake Pleasant..} Sacandaga river.| 1, 400,000, 000 A5 110, 000 Piseco lake..... Sacandaga river.; 1,725,000, 000 55 100, 000 Arietta flow....| Sacandaga river.| 1,400,000, 000 40 80, 000 Wakely flow...| Cedar river...... 1, 819, 000, 000 58 150, 000 Boreas and Che- ney ponds....| Boreas river..... 1, 411, 000, 000 45 160, 000 cre els lh ss Emcee tcteba ereg okt ep, O00. 000 asses cone. $2, 000, 000 Taking into account the large catchment area tributary to the proposed Conklinville reservoir, it is considered that the fore- going total storage of 17,755,000,000 cubic feet would considerably more than compensate—on the basis already outlined—for the permanent diversion of 775 cubic feet per second.” See case of Black river cited on page 539. 2The stated tributary catchment area of 900 square miles above Conklin- ville is exclusive of Lake Pleasant, Piseco lake and Arietta flow catch- ments. The total, with these included, is 1040 square miles. 642 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The total estimated cost, as per the preceding, of $2,000,000 is based on present labor conditions, etc. in the State of New York. So far as the writer can determine with the data at hand, $2,000 000 will construct the compensating reservoirs proposed in the foregoing, Inasmuch as four of these reservoirs are located in Sacandaga river catchment, which stream is tributary to the Hudson river below proposed Hadley regulating reservoir, that reservoir is not included in present series. The following Shows the difference in cost peepee paying waterpower damages and Breas a system of compensating reservoirs : Waterpower damages 2.055 Flat pec oh ok es ee $4,761,180 Cost. of ‘COmMmpeusaiime TeseryOmrs'=.4 206 2a eee 2,000,000 Diterence Pi Settee ae ee ke ei + $2,761,180 With the system of compensating reservoirs the total estimated cost of reservoir system for supply of 775 cubic feet per second becomes $4,000,000. But if waterpower damages were to be paid in money, as per the foregoing, the approximate figure becomes $7,761,180. For even figures, we may take the latter at $8,000,000. If, however, we assume that, owing to legal difficulties, not only the principle of compensation in kind can not be applied, but that a partial taking of the properties is impracticable, it follows that the amount to be paid on account of the proposed diversion of 775 cubic feet per second—supplied from a single large reser- — voir substantially controlling the entire flow of Schroon. river— becomes considerably greater. The data are not at hand for accurately estimating the full value of the several properties affected, but from casual examination the provisional figure of from $12,000,000 to $15,000,000 may be assumed. In any case, if the entire properties were acquired by the City of New York, apparently the rational procedure would be to make such reserva- tions as might seem necessary in order to secure the city’s right to 775 cubic feet per second, or any other quantity fixed upon, and to then sell the properties subject to such reservation. By proceeding on this line the City of New York ought to be able to —— HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK : 643 acquire the right to draw 775 cubic feet of water per second at a cost not exceeding the sum of $4,761,180, previously found. As an alternative proposition, the city might build the compensation storage and realize the full value of the property when sold. Water supply for New York city from Lake George. About 1880 the New York and Hudson Valley Aqueduct Company was incorporated to construct a water supply from Lake George and upper Hudson for New York and other cities of lower Hudson valley. Reports on this project were made by Col. J. T. Fanning, chief engineer, under dates of December 1881, and November 1884. Colonel Fanning proposed to divert Hudson river above Glens Falls, utilizing the extended area of Lake George for storing flood-flows. In this way it was considered that a supply of 1,500,000,000 gallons per day could, if necessary, be obtained (2515 cubic feet per second). Since Colonel Fanning’s reports are readily obtainable, space will not be taken to give his con- clusions in detail. The following are the main elements of the Lake George project, as deduced from the topographic sheets of the United States Geological Survey : ‘Elevation of lake surface above tidewater.. 323.0 feet Catchment area, including water surface.. 229.0 square miles Eee OmM Aker SUTTACE. 6 oe ee ws 43.4 square miles ea Ole 0 CONPOUN 8. teh ke ee fee ee 49.2 square miles Storage between 323 + T. W. and 340..... 21,0438,308,540 cubic feet Lake George is surrounded by mountains rising to an altitude of from 1500 to 2700 feet above tidewater. ‘There is little special knowledge of the rainfall, but it can not be materially different from that of the Hudson river catchment area. The outlet is at the northern end of the lake, and has a fall in a distance of about a mile of 222 feet, which is largely utilized in paper making, infor- mation at hand indicating a total development of from 4000 to 5000 net horsepower. Taking the value of waterpower as pre- viously used the damage to Lake George outlet waterpowers may be computed at $1,458,000. But since the entire properties would be taken we may, in this case, estimate that the final damage would not be less than $2,000,000. | There are many large hotels and summer resorts about Lake George which would be mostly destroyed by raising the lake sur- 644. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM face from 17 to 20 feet. The taking of an additional strip, for it eae aA = sanitary protection, as in Schroon valley, would include nearly all of these, as well as the village of Caldwell. Basing the Lake George project on 775 cubic feet per second Supply, the same as for Schroon valley, it is found that from 300 to 350 cubic feet per second would come from the Lake George catchment area. The balance can be obtained from Schroon valley by a tunnel through the intervening ridge ait a point above Warrensburg, where the distance across is only 3.25 miles (17,160 linear feet). A diversion weir with proper regulating lead- works would be required on Schroon river. The elevation of Schroon; river at the point of diversion is about 670 feet. With Lake George taken; at 323 feet, the difference becomes 347 feet. For several months of each year the runoff of Schroon river exceeds 550 cubic feet per second, the mean runoff for four years being 1112 cubic feet per second. Hence, a mean of 550 cubic feet per second could be diverted into Lake George and still leave ! Hudson river waterpowers substantially unimpaired. The con- necting tunnel should therefore have a capacity of about 2600— to 2800 cubic feet per second in order to divert the full flood-flows. The following is an approximate estimatte of cost of Lake George storage with diversion tunnel from Schroon valley, etc.: Land damages, Lake George...............0.0 eee $1,500,000 Dam at foot of Lake George..............- eying 200,000 Water rights on Lake George outlet...... Si, a a oe 2,000,000 Sanitary protectiom. v2 5. ee a hi oe acres le 400,000 Clearing anid Strpppinitc 25 ini.osee ie. sey eee 300,000 Diversion weir and headworks on Schroon river.... 100,000 Diy er SO me ele bes ete eos nee ew a cov ee 1,500,000 Compensation PeS€rvoirsé..... 6.6... eee eee ee ees : 200,000 Miscel lameeiisc = Neer ees 6 Sie eee eee 500,000 d Wes ea, Prt are er cen Mette Grad a6 Mudie em aeeeee RR $6,700,000 —————————— A comparison of this estimate with the foregoing for Schroon valley project fairly leads to the conclusion that independent of lack of elevation at Lake George, the Schroon valley project is HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 645 preferable. The quality of Lake George water—the same as Schroon river—is unexceptionable. Reservoir system for rier regulation only. This project pro- poses the development of storage on headwaters of the Hudson river in order to hold low-water flow at as high a point as possible, thereby driving salt water further downstream and consequently permitting of taking a supply from the lower Hudson by pumping lower down than! would otherwise be possible. In the first report on the upper Hudson surveys it is shown that a reservoir system may be developed capable of maintaining a flow at Mechanicville of 4500 cubic feet per second. The following tabulaition gives the main elements-of such a system of reservoirs so far as worked out, together with the approximate cost of the same, all based on 13.5 inches on the catchment except Schroon valley, which is taken at 18 inches: Tributary . Estimated catchment Name of Reservoir ie Ss os capacity: = ae eerste miles (1) (2) Be (4) (5) Conklinville....... Sacandaga river. | 10,000, 9,000,000 | 900 $1, 400, 000 Lake Pleasant..... Sacandaga river..; 1, 400, 000, 000 45 110, 000 Piseco lake......... Sacandaga river. 1, 725, 000, 000 55 100, 000 Arietta flow....... Sacandaga river..| 1, 400, 000, 000 40 80, 000 Ridley. oe. &. 433: Main North river.| 4,000, 000, OOO Misc hw8. 750, 000 Thirteenth pond ...|Main North river. 439, 000, 000 14 160, 000 Chain lakes ....... Main North river.| 1,819, 000, 000 58 45, 000 wae lake oo... Main North river. 784. 000, 000 25 50, 000 Lakes Rich, Harris, Newcomb, etc...)/Main North river.| 2, 603, 000, 000 83 250, 000 Lake Henderson...|Main North river. 565, 000, 000 18 40, 000 Tahawus flow..... Main North river. 2,101, 000, 000 67 240, 000 Boreas river, etc...|Boreas river...... 1 411, 000, 000 A5 160, 000 Wakely flow...... Cedar river....... ‘i 819, 000, 000 58 150, 000 Tumblehead falls. .|Schroon river ....| 21,662, 000, 000 518 1, 700, 000 Mraeeeere eee a Ae ee 51, 728, 000, 000 | ee eee 2 $5, 235, 000 The capacity of Indian lake reservoir of about 5,000,000,000 cubic feet should be added to the foregoing total of 51,728,000,000 cubic feet, giving a final total of 56,728,000,000 cubic feet. Fur- ther examination will probably show that a somewhat greater storage can be obtained, but thus far the data for final con- clusions have not been gathered. A moderate amount of storage may also be constructed on headwaters of Mohawk river, but 646 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM only general statements can be made for lack of definite data. Probably enough storage can be made here to give a final storage on Hudson and Mohawk rivers of about 75,000,000,000 cubic feet: The foregoing estimates of cost also take into account present labor conditions, etc. in New York State. The approximate cost per million cubic feet of storage is found to be $101. The advantages of such a system of reservoirs to Hudson river Wwaterpowers have been so fully set forth in the preceding pages as to render further discussion under that head unnecessary in this place. Leaving for the present the possible storage of the upper Mohawk river out of account, and basing conclusions on 56,728,000,000 cubic feet storage on the upper Hudson, we may say, taking into account low-water flow of the Mohawk river and other tributaries of the Hudson river below Mechanicville, that the fresh water inflow of the lower Hudson river may be kept up to over 6000 cubic feet per second. At present it is occasionally somewhat less than 2000 cubic feet per second. The effect of flows of 5000 to 6000 cubic feet per second on the depth of water at Albany may be obtained from a series of diagrams of tidal fluctuations at Albany for the summer seasons of 1895-1898, inclusive. The first of these diagrams is plate VI of the first Upper Hudson Storage Report (1895), and the second, plate VII of the Report on Water Supply of Summit Levels to United States Board of Kngineers on Deep Waterways (1899). DEVELOPMENT OF WATERPOWERS Power Development at Niagara Falls The possibility of waterpower development at Niagara Falls has attracted attention for many years, the first utilization there having been made in 1725, when the French erected a sawmill -near the point where the Pittsburgh Reduction Company’s upper works now stand for the purpose of supplying lumber for Fort Niagara. Between 1725 and the early years of the present cen- tury little is known of the use made of Niagara Falls power further than that sawmills were in operation there during the whole period. In 1805, however, Augustus Porter built a sawmill on the rapids, and in 1807 Porter & Barton erected a eristmill. In 1817 John Witmer built another sawmill at Gill creek, and “KUvVduoH SUTANJOVJNULIY PUB LOMO OTNBAPATT S[[V VAVSVIN ot} JO [VU JO PvoTT JO MoTA ‘SI 94¥%Id HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 647 in 1822 Augustus Porter built a gristmill along the rapids above the falls. From that year to 1885, when the lands along the river were taken for a State park, a considerable amount of power was developed by a canal which took water out of the river near the head of the rapids and followed along the shore nearly parallel with the bank of the river. Mills were built between this canal and the river, and a part of the 50-foot fall between the head of the rapids and the brink of the American Falls was thus utilized. A papermill was built on Bath island at an early date. In 1842 Augustus Porter, one of the principal mill owners at Niagara Falls, proposed a considerable extension of the then existing system of canals and races, and in January, 1847, in connection with Peter Emslie, he published a formal plan which became the subject of negotiations with Walter Bryant and Caleb S. Woodhull. An agreement was finally reached by which they were to construct a canal and receive a plot of land at the head of the canal, having a frontage of 425 feet on Niagara river, together with a right of way 100 feet wide for the canal along its entire length of 4400 feet, and about 75 acres of land near the terminus, having a frontage on the river below the falls of nearly a mile. The canal constructed under this agreement passes through what is now the most thickly settled part of the city of Niagara Falls. Ground was broken by Messrs Bryant & Woodhull in 1853 and the work carried on for about sixteen months, when it was sus- pended for lack of funds. Nothing further was done until 1858, when Stephen Allen carried the work forward for a time; later, in 1861, Horace H. Day took up the matter and completed a canal 36 feet wide, 8 feet deep, and 4400 feet long, by which the water of the upper river was brought to a basin near the brink of the high bluff of the lower river and at an elevation of 214 feet above the lower river. Upon the margin of this basin various mills have been constructed, to the wheels of which water is conducted from the canal and discharged through the bluff into the river below. The first mill built on this hydraulic canal was a small gristmill, erected by Charles B. Gaskill in 1870 on the site of the present large flouring mill of the Cataract Milling Company. Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company. In 1877 the hydraulic canal and all its appurtenances were pur- 648 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM chased by Jacob F. Schoellkopf and A. Chesbrough, of Buffalo, who organized the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufac- turing Company. The following is a list of companies either sup- plied or to be supplied with power by the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company: POWER FURNISHED BY NIAGARA FALLS HYDRAULIC POWER AND MANUFAC- TURING COMPANY IN 1897 : Horse- Company Business monet : (a) Hydraulic power Central Malling: Cosy tac eee aa eee | Flouring mill... ..:2|, 0G Ni‘ Woad : Paper Co. ce ohn Seon eee eee Paper and pulp....... 500 Schoellkopf & Mathews................... Flouring mill toga 900 Pettebone Cataract Manufacturing Co..... Paperiand pulp= =. 2, 000 Cataract Milling Coast saya =) ee Flour, 23.55... 400 Niagara Falls Waterworks................ eres La 200 Thomas Ke’ MeGarigle ee) eee eet aa cee ; Machine shop......... 25 Clem ‘Paper, CO: 2s: 4 in see oo eke ete ee Paper and pulp....... 2, 500 POU ee a ek aie k tas oe ee ores beth ct eee | tug Peg OO (b) Electric power Pittsburg Reduction’ Co. 2). 440 se as Aluminum: (ees 3, 500 Niagara Falls-and Lewiston. R.OR. Coes ac sha. ccdcc oa oe ee . 400 Chit Paper Ch 2.20F 2 ec tetce ian oe eae eater Paper and pulp....... 300 Lewiston and: Youngstown R: RB. Con. solic 22 = se oo 200 Buffalo and Niagara Falls Electric Light); Light and power...... 600 and Power Co. Niagara Falls Brewing Cos ei ane loo bes Sars 150 Rodwell Manufacturing Co................ Silver plating, etc.... 75 Sundry small customers in Niagara Falls. .|..................00000- 100 Francis Elookand Bye Cor. ..cn cl. ee es Hooks and eyes....... 15 Kelly and McBean Aluminum Co.......... ASU... ee 15 The National Electrolytic:Co... <2 4s.0, bos. 0 | Svan se os eee 1; 000 Potala arm G7 2, Chases met Ne PRE Se ee Res law: Cae eh oot eee 6, 855 (c) Mechanical power furnished on shaft Oneida Community, Limited............... Silver-plated ware and 300 - chains Carter:Crum: (COs sree oh tee ote ss cain Check ‘books. >). 60 Total? cece sae es he Sota hee: 360 Grand total eae ie eae ee ~ 14,240 The contract made in 1852 between Augustus Porter, Walter Bryant, and Caleb S. Woodhull only conveyed lands to the edge of the high bank of Niagara river, but did not include the talus or slope between the edge of the high bank and the river, and only ‘Auvdwuoy) SULMIORINUL]Y PUR AMO] OT[NBAIPAT, S[[B] BIVSVIN 9} JO ssnoy-1loMOd = aaa ‘6L 94}¥Id HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 649 granted the right to excavate 100 feet down the face of the bank. In 1852, when this contract was made, the use of waterpower under higher heads than 100 feet was, so far as the United States was concerned, entirely unknown. Until recently the mills at Niagara Falls have not attempted to use more than 50 or 60 feet oT =\\0 a 10 O 10 SO 100 SCALE OF FEET SS Le maverocm fo I Te Yj 3 \saes % il -_x a were Fig. 41. General plan of development of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company. head ; hence it resulted that although the capacity of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company’s canal, as at first constructed, was sufficient, by development of the whole head, to produce about 15,000 horsepower, under the original agreements its capacity was exhausted when about 7000 horse- power was produced. In 1892 the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufac- turing-Company began an enlargement and improvement of its 650 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM canal. The plan adopted was to widen the original channel at one side to 70 feet, and make the new part 14 feet deep. This work is cut entirely through rock, below the water line. The enlargement of one side was completed in 1896. The canal as enlarged to date has a capacity of about 3000 cubic feet per _ second, giving under present conditions a total of from 40,000 to 50,000 horsepower, the cross-section being about 400 Square feet. In a letter from John Harper, engineer of the company, written under date of May 24, 1904, it is stated that the total present development of this company is 43,000 horsepower, and that work is now in progress on an additional 100,000-horsepower plant to be entirely located below the cliff. Of this quantity 10,000 horsepower is by water from the company’s waterway. This company has a grant from the State of the right to draw from Niagara river aS much water as can be taken through a canal 100 feet wide and 14 feet deep. To July 1, 1897, about 100,000 cubic yards of material had been taken out at a cost of $250,000, the average cuttings in the original canal from the surface of the ground to the surface of the water being about 8 feet. The development by this company is very interesting. A bulk- head is located at the top of the high bank with a forebay back of it connected with the main hydraulic canal by a shortbranch canal. From the forebay a large penstock leads vertically down the cliff to a powerhouse located directly on the shore of the lower river. In this power-house horizontal turbine water wheels are placed, with dynamos directly connected, the power therefrom being transmitted either to the mills on the bluff above or to establishments at a distance. Without taking into account the cost of water in the canal, the cost of the development of power in the way in which it is now being developed by this company may be placed at $35 per horsepower.t 1Wor further details of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manu- facturing Company, see (1) Power Development of Niagara Falls, other than that of the Niagara Falls Power Company, by W. C. Johnson: Trans. Engi- neers’ Society of Western New York, Vol. I, No. 6 (Feb. 3, 1896) ; (2) Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company’s New Work, by Orrin E. Dunlap: Electrical Engineer, Vol. XX (Dec. 4, 1895); (3) Old. Hydraulic Power Plant at Niagara Falls Transformed for Electrical Trans- “AUVATIOD SULIMIOVINUL]Y PUL TOMOT OT[NVAPAT S][VT VAVSVIN JO WONLIS JO AOLIO}UT JO AVOTA Meret » Pai. & GE a a a BARES Foes ia, ae eo Se cocaciangcae Maa s * er a =a WS ERE RT WRI IEE Wee pon ‘0G 94¥Id HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 651 Niagara Falls Power Company. The Niagara Falls Power Com- pany has developed an extensive plant on quite different lines from that of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufac- turing Company. In 1883 to 1885 Thomas Evershed, who was at that time division engineer of the western division of the New York State canals, was called on to survey Niagara Falls Park Reserva- tion, as provided for by act of the Legislature. This led Mr Ever- LYLE A GA eA. RIVE FF 1000 500 to] 1000 2000 SCALE QF FEET Fig. 42 Niagara Falls and vicinity, showing location of the great tunnel. Shed to spend considerable time at Niagara Falls, during which he conceived the project of constructing a tunnel to begin at the level of the lower river and extend under the city of Niagara Falls for a distance of about 24 miles. This tunnel was to be generally parallel to the Niagara river, but at some little distance from it. At its head and at various points along the river from above. Port Day it was proposed to construct branch canals connecting mission, by Orrin H. Dunlap: Western Hlectrician, Vol. XIX (Dee. 5, 1896) ; (4) Pulp Mill of the Cliff Paper Company of Niagara Falls, New York, by W. C. Johnson: Trans. Am. Soe. Civil Eng., Vol. XXXII (Aug., 1894). 652 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM with the river and through which water could be taken, to be discharged upon turbine wheels placed in vertical wheel pits and connected with the tunnel at various points. The Niagara River Hydraulic Tunnel, Power and Sewer Com- pany of Niagara Falls was incorporated in 1886 for the purpose of constructing and operating, in connection with Niagara river, _ a hydraulic tunnel or subterranean sewer for public use in the disposal of sewage and drainage and for furnishing hydraulic power for manufacturing purposes in the town of Niagara Falls. In consideration of the public service of sewerage and drainage, this company was authorized to acquire land by condemnation. The general plan of development is described by Mr Evershed in a report made July 1, 1886, in which he states that the main tunnel would begin at a point on the lower river immediately north of the State reservation, with its mouth as low as high water below the falls would permit. From this point to half a mile above Port Day it should have a rise of 1 foot in 100, or 52.8 feet per mile, and a section above Port Day equivalent to a circle 24 feet in diameter, the tunnel gradually diminishing in size in accordance with the number of mills emptying tail-water into it, until at the upper end it would have the same area of cross section as the connecting cross tunnels.* The matter remained in abeyance until 1889, when the Niagara Falls Power Company was organized to carry out, in effect, Mr Evershed’s plan. The actual work of construction was under- taken by the Cataract Construction Company, composed of William B. Rankine, Francis Lynde Stetson, Pierpont Morgan, Hamilton McK. Twombly, Edward A. Wickes, Morris K. Jesup, Darius Ogden Mills, Charles F. Clarke, Edward D. Adams, Charles Lanier, A. J. Forbes-Leith, Walter Howe, John Crosby Brown, Frederick W. Whirtridge, William K. Vanderbilt, George S. Bowdoin, Joseph Larocque, John Jacob Astor and Charles A. Sweet. This company has modified the original plans in some particulars, although the general scheme has been carried out. The plan finally determined on comprised a surface canal 250 feet in width at its mouth on the river, 114 miles above the falls, 1See pamphlet, Water Power at Niagara Falls, prospectus of the Niagara River Hydraulic Tunnel, Power and Sewer Company (1886). — ‘AUVACUOH JDMOT S[[V] BVAVSVIN OT} JO OSNOT-1toMOg ‘IS 94¥Id HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 653 extending inwardly 1700 feet, with an average depth of 12 feet, and computed to furnish water sufficient for the development of about 120,000 horsepower. The masonry walls of this canal are pierced at intervals with inlets, guarded by gates. Some of these are used to deliver water to tenants who construct their own wheel pits and set their own wheels, while 10 of them are ar- ranged on one side of the canal for the purpose of delivering water to the wheel pit of the Niagara Falls Power Company’s power station, where dynamos, placed at the top of turbine ver- tical shafts, generate electricity for transmission. The wheel pit at the power station is 178 feet in depth and connected with the main tunnel by a short cross tunnel. The main tunnel as carried out has a maximum hight of 21 feet and a width of 18.82 feet, making a net section of 386 square feet. The slope of this tunnel is 6 feet to 1000. The most careful consideration was given to the subject of the turbines to be used, as well as to the question of power trans- mission. In 1890 Edward D. Adams, who was then president of the company, established an International Niagara Commission, with power to offer $20,000 in prizes. This commission consisted of Sir William Thomson (now Lord Kelvin), Dr Coleman Sellers, Lieut. Col, Theodore Turretini, Prof. E. Mascart, and Prof. W. C. Unwin. Inquiries concerning the best-known methods of develop- ment and transmission of power in England, France, Switzerland and Italy were made, and competitive plans were received from twenty carefully selected engineers and manufacturers of power plants in England, Europe and America. These plans were sub- mitted to the commission, which awarded prizes to those con- ‘sidered worthy. The most important result was the selection of the designs of Faesch and Piccard, of Geneva, for turbines com- puted to yield 5000 horsepower each. Three wheels have been built from these designs and are now in place and regularly operated. ' Without going into details of the electrical work, it may be stated that the Niagara Falls Power Company adopted the two- phase alternating current system as best adapted to its work. In the dynamos employed the field magnet revolyes instead of the 654 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM armature. As advised by the company’s electrical engineer, Prof. George Forbes, of London, three such dynamos, of 5000 horse- power each, constructed by the Westinghouse Company, of Pitts- burg, have been installed. During the summer of 1896 a trans: mission line was constructed from Niagara Falls to Buffalo, and since November of that year some of the street railways in Buffalo have been operated electrically by power from Niagara Falls. According to a statement of William B. Rankine, secretary of the Cataract Construction Company, the power furnished or con- tracted for by the Niagara Falls Power Company July 1, 1897, “was as follows POWER FURNISHED BY THE NIAGARA FALLS POWER COMPANY IN 1897 é Horse- Company Business aOvoE (a) Hydraulic power Niagara Falls Paper Company.............. | Paper... ..8 oo ee LS =afp 200 (6) Electric power Pittsburg Reduction Company.. .......... Aluminiim:.2 3 5 3, 050 The Carborundum Companys s.r25.- 260 <2 Abrasives 2 eee ae 1,000 Acetylene Light, Heat and Power Company.| Calcium carbide..... 1,075 Buffalo and Niagara Falls Electric Light and Power: Company....2.5.0. 2.22.2 ..2..) Loealtiehtimeee aes 500 Walton “Hengusom fo. adapt cee ss eye Sen Chlorate of potash. . 500 Niagara Electro-Chemical Company........ Peroxide of sodium. . 400 Buffalo and Niagara Falls Electric Railway.| Local railway....... 300 Niagara Falls and Suspension Bridge Rail- WAY COMMPAN We cnet antes ae wer ee Local railway....... 250 Buffalo Street Railway Company........... 22-mile transmission. 1, 000 Acetylene Light, Heat and Power Company ?.| Calcium carbide..... 4,000 Mathieson Alkalit Works? 3. isons. eee Soda. -ash’,.\) eae 4,000 Buffalo Street Railway. Company i... 2-4. 2| os. - eee 1, 000 Buffalo General Electric Company #......... Lighting’, ace eee 3, 000 The Carborundum Company: 650.50... 9. .. Abrasives... 2 1,000 Niagara, Valls Water Works Company. 006.) . 06... 12.2 — 45 Power City Foundry and Machine Company.| .................-.-- 25 Atbrie ht: amd SW ilsonwe) ects ose g Mee Ses at Electro-chemicals ... 400 Total hydraulic power sold at Niagara Falls.| ..................... 7, 200 Total electric power sold at Niagara Falls...) ....:../........5meee 16, 545. Total electric power sold at Buffalo...) 00%...) 5. 2. so. ee 5, 000 Total, aR eS A, fe ea aoe etek eee 28, 745 1All from October 1, 1896. *From delivery, say, November 1, 1897. 3k'rom June 1, 1897. *From November 15, 1897. ‘From June 1, 1897. Auvdwu0g AMO S[[VA VAVSVIN oY} JO ssnoy-1aMod JO TOTIOJUT JO A\OT,\ : << SEERA Ie ib ticaitiik ‘aii ‘C6 248d HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 655 Recapitulation of the total power in use or furnished from Niagara Falls January 1, 1898, shows the following amounts: Hydraulic power: Horsepower Niagara Falls Power Company........ hE eee 7,200 Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing ._. LLL ELI SAR eS ES Daly: eS ey me ee a ea 7,525 Electric power: | Riaeara Malls Power Company... oe. ..5 sede oe 21,545 Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing OUDIDEY T50 0y teet stpegi Ae RN en Nee gS a ga 6,355 Mechanical power: Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing COTEEDE STUN? oa it lee a op AA gee gee oo 360 The officers of the Niagara Falls Power Company in 1904 are D. O. Mills, president; Edward A. Wickes, first vice-president; William B. Rankine, second vice-president and treasurer; E. L. Lovelace, secretary, and W. Paxton Little, assistant secretary and assistant treasurer. This company has largely extended its power-house within the last two or three years. In a letter from William B. Rankine, under date of March 21, 1904, it is stated that eleven dynamos in the new power-house are now in place so that the units in- stalled in both power-houses have a rated capacity of 110,500 horsepower, and that the company is delivering to its consumers at Niagara Falls, Buffalo and intermediate points a maximum of 75,000 horsepower. The 110,500 horsepower now developed represents the full capacity of the present tunnel. This company has secured the right of way for a second discharge tunnel, so that when the demand for power renders it necessary, the present plant may be duplicated, thus furnishing 200,000 horsepower. In addition to this large development on the American side, originally the Canadian Niagara Power Company, an allied corporation, held from the Canadian government an exclusive franchise granting 656 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to it the right to develop on the Canadian side at least 250,000 horsepower, but this has been modified and in 1904 additional developments are in process on the Canadian side by the Ontario Power Company and the Electrical Development Company of Ontario. The Canadian Niagara Power Company proposes to limit its development to 110,000 horsepower while the Ontario Power Company will develop 180,000 horsepower. The Develop- ment Company of Ontario has a capacity of 125,000 horsepower. The total possible power which may be developed in the future at Niagara Falls is about as follows :1 Horsepower Niagara Falls Power Company’s present tunnel........ 100,000 Niagara Falls Power Company’s second tunnel......... 100,000 Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power & Manufacturing Com- pany socamal Nici es eee eee te ee 150,000 Canadian Niagara Power Company’s tunnels.......... 110,000 Ontario Power-Company.:.¢2. 8h: fa. c2 oe oe 180,000 “Development Company-of Ontario. 2... 12 eee 125,000 Potala yes se ae ek Suni ahh oe oe 765,000 ———e The developments in progress at Niagara Falls are being car- ried out on very broad lines and probably furnish the best exam- ples of modern hydraulic work. They certainly lead so far as the United States and Canada are concerned. A complete account of the works, giving details of all the engineering features, would make a large-sized monograph.? *For an interesting discussion as to the effect of diverting large quantities ot water from Niagara river for power purposes, see report of Clemens Herschel, made December 12, 1895, on the Diversion of Water from the Niagara River for Power Purposes by the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company and by the Niagara Falls Power Company, and the Unimportant Effect of such Diversion upon the River. Mr. Her- schel bases his discussion on the data of the lake survey of an ordinary and usual flow of 265,000 cubic feet per second. Reasoning from this premise he concludes that even when 300,000 or 400,000 horsepower are in use the effect upon the depth of the river will be insignificant. It seems clear enough that this proposition is open to discussion. *The main facts in regard to the plant of Niagara Falls Power Company have been furnished by L. H. Groat, former secretary of the company. For more extended information the reader is referred to 1) Cassier’s Magazine, Plate 23. Power-house of the St Lawrence Power Company. ~ Sula ’ a * é f EH 2 : D : : x = f t + ; 7 3 Ye ‘ * oe - ; E ad t F ; ‘ i AL Sy . . ’ * 7 \ s -- * ve t " pi ‘ £ ~! i ’ ¢ e “ 4 iY | 2 * 35 ’ re - ‘ A 3 ze a ‘ \ : Y 4 ee , ‘ 1 = f s . ¥: 3 A 4 “ * q » 1 ” - 5 yr os d ‘ & ft ay , r Tas ‘ S ” 1 " tf Cie a or, + Ps = ‘ = 5 . z ¢ ~ t ‘ i : x . * eS - % bi + é * 6 . % ae * BS se * rae : $ i, ; * - é . ¢ i ~ Fc “ : ee F ‘ 2 3 t ey se > j ig oe Se “oe P x 7 ” * - - : eee ne me rad re |: lin ane 2 ‘ ot ae a ‘ ¢ bl st * AT, (A - , rt > 2 - . 4 fat ee Nag i Yi eee gr, ioe : exe Ss } yoitinte, Sigs ether te ian Eat Etter tare og eg lie ge ATE RA YS oes p 1 d 4 Plate 24. Interior of power-house of the St Lawrence Power Company. = able HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 657 Power Development on St Lawrence River The St Lawrence Power Company. Among the large power developments under construction in the State of New York is that of the St Lawrence Power Company at Massena, on St Law- rence and Grasse rivers. The plant includes the excavation of a canal leading from the St Lawrence river to Grasse river, a dis- tance of three miles, the building of a power-house, together with the installation of electric generators and the necessary equipment of turbine water wheels. The furnishing of the elec- tric apparatus was awarded to the Westinghouse Electrical & Manufacturing Company. The plan of development is to divert a portion of the water of St Lawrence river from its natural channel by means of a canal, carrying it 3 miles across to Grasse river, where, after operating - turbines, it will pass by way of Grasse river to the St Lawrence at a point lower down stream. Just below where the canal takes water from St Lawrence river are Long Sault rapids, which have a fall of about 50 feet. Grasse river runs nearly parallel to the St Lawrence for several miles, flowing into it a short distance below the foot of Long Sault rapids. To the south of the St Lawrence river, and between it and the valley of Grasse river, there is a comparatively level plateau. | The average width of Grasse river from its mouth to above where the power canal will intersect it is from 250 to 300 feet, and its water surface, for that portion, is substantially on a level with St Lawrence below the rapids; hence the surface of Grasse river at the point where the power canal strikes the stream is from 45 to 50 feet below the surface of the St Lawrence at the head of ithe canal. The power station will be located on the north bank of Grasse river, the tail-water dropping into that stream, which thus becomes, in effect, a tailrace for this power develop- Vol. VIII (July, 1895), where may be found an account of nearly every phase of the Niagara Falls Power Company’s development; 2) The Elec- trical World, Vol. XXX (Oct. 23, 1897), which may be consulted for a description of the extension of the wheel pit; 3) Niagara Falls publication of the Niagara Falls Chamber of Commerce, issued in 1897; 4) the various numbers for 1897 of Greater Buffalo, a monthly publication de- voted to promoting the prosperity of Buffalo and Niagara Falls. Engineer- ing News and other technical journals may also be consulted. | 658 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ment. Making some allowance for increased depth of water in Grasse river between the power stattion and its mouth, when receiving the tail-water, and also some allowance for inclination of the water surface of the head canal, it is considered that a per- manent power of about 40 feet will be obtained. The work of constructing the canal and preliminary work on the foundations of the power-house was started in 1897, at which time it was expected that the work would be completed in 1899. The St Lawrence Power Company, by whom the work has been done, was organized under the laws of New York with a capital stock of $6,000,000. 7 For the present, work upon the canal was completed in 1903. It has an average depth of 18 feet and a surface width of 200 feet. It is constructed throughout its entire length in excava- tion and is approximately straight throughout. Ast the head of the canal there is a slight promontory, which protects it from ice and drift in the St Lawrence river. At the Massena end, with the foundations carried to rock, a power-house designed by John Bogart of New York and Messrs Kincaid, Waller and Manville of London, has been constructed. It will be nearly 700 feet long when completed, with a width of 150 feet. Victor turbines to the extent of 42,000 horsepower have been installed. The wheels are controlled by an electric governor in the power-house. The exciter wheels are 27 inches in diameter, two to each exciter, discharging through one draft-tube and operating at 275 revolutions per minute. The dynamos are of 6000 horsepower, 2200 volts, 3000 alter- nations, 3-phase revolving field type, with external armature. The speed is 150 revolutions per minute. The efficiency at full load 96 per cent. The heating at full load, continuous, 35 degrees rise. Weight of revolving element, 80,000 pounds, and total weight of the dynamos, 350,000 pounds. The switchboards for the alternating current machines and for the feeders are operated electro-pneumatically, and for the exciters a standard, direct current switchboard has been installed, with hand-operated switches. In a letter from Mr Bogart, consulting engineer to the com- pany, under date of March 28, 1904, it is stated that the Pitts- ‘SHIOM S AULAUIOZ) WOISSIMISURTT, TOMO JOATY UOSPNYT 9} 1V 19WVAN JO JooTH] GG PFPId ~ HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 659 burg Reduction Company have built on the banks-of the power canal a large establishment for the manufacture of aluminum and have arranged to take from the St Lawrence Power Company 10,000 horsepower. This power was sold upon the shaft of the turbines, the Pittsburg Reduction Company putting in their own generators, which are direct current and not alternating. At present there are seven sets or units of turbines installed, each of three pairs of Victor wheels, with an output of 6000 horsepower per unit. Two of these units are those referred to as equipped with direct-current generators for the Pittsburg Reduction Company; three other units have 5000-horsepower alternating current Westinghouse generators, fully installed, with all connections, bus-bars, switchboards and other appur- tenances; the two remaining turbines are not yet equipped with electric generators. The village of Massena is lighted by the Power Company and St Lawrence water is supplied from the canal under pressure. Aside from the Pittsburg Reduction Company, no other indus- tries are yet established. Power Development on Hudson River The Hudson River Power Transmission Company. Among the important developments on the Hudson river mention may be made of the plant of the Hudson River Power Transmission Company, two miles below Mechanicville. This plant is eleven miles from Troy, eighteen miles from Albany, and seventeen miles from Schenectady. The Hudson river is here divided by an island into two channels with a total width of about 1200 feet. The dam and power-house were constructed in 1897 and 1898. The western channel of the river is used for power head and tailrace. The dam is 15 feet high above the river, 8 feet thick a short distance below the crest and 16 feet through the face. The original length of the spillway, which was situated on the east side of the island, was 707 feet, but since the original construction an additional spillway, 143 feet long, has been added by removing the earth and rock from the river bank, one foot lower than the crest of the main dam. The power-house of concrete is at the west end of the dam and may be considered as a continuation thereof. The length of the 669 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM power-house is 257 feet and width 56 feet. The headworks are protected by piers, so placed in the river as to force ice and logs to follow the course of the main river over the dam. The elec- tricity generated is transmitted to Schenectady for use in the General Electric Company’s works. This plant is developed for 5000 horsepower, although in ex- treme low water it is not capable of supplying as much as this. There are auxiliary engines to supplement the lowwater power. FLEV.8 0.0. =I7. He i —— ————" -n¥j 7 re 44 4 URS N/ Wry Fig. 43. Section of overfall of Hudson River Water Power Company The Hudson River Water Power Company. This company be- © gan an extensive development at Spier Falls in 1900, which has involved the excavation of 270,000 cubic yards of rock and the building of 130,000 cubic yards of concrete and rubble masonry. The masonry has been laid at the rate of 8000 cubic yards per month. The location of this power is on the Hudson river, nine miles southwest of Glens Falls. The reservoir created by the dam is ' 5 miles long, 1-3 mile wide and with 80 feet head. Ten turbines, capable of developing 5000 horsepower each, drive dynamos whereby electricity can be supplied to Saratoga Springs, Sche- ‘SO6L Asnsny ut Auvduop) JaMog T9IVA\ TIALY WOSpNET JO SYIOM JO MOTA So See Sess sER SSS HHS ‘96 94¥Id eee OO ; EAS Sa ey FOGL [lady ur Auvdmop TaMOd TeIVA\ TAY WOSpN]T JO SYIOM JO AolA Ges “L6 948d eae Se Les HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 661 nectady, Glens Falls, Troy and Albany. The company states that at times of low water the minimum power development will be 20,000 horsepower. It is understood the company has in contemplation the con- struction of a large storage reservoir at Conklinville and at other points on Hudson river. , The power-house is divided into three sections—the wheel room, generator room and transformer and switchboard room. In the wheel room there are ten pairs of turbines, each with capacity of 5000 horsepower under 80 feet head. These wheels are set 12 feet above the level of tail-water, each pair outletting to one draft-tube. The generator room contains ten 3350-horse- power 3-phase 2000-volt, 40 cycle, direct connected General Electric Company’s generators, running at 240 revolutions per minute. ‘There will also be three 265-horsepower exciters, each direct connected to its own water wheel. In the transformer room there will be thirty 1000-horsepower high potential trans- formers, besides motors and blowers, and high and low potential switchboards. On the pole line five feeder circuits have a capacity of 50,000 horsepower, the longest one being 42 miles. The following statement of the financial resources of the Hudson River Water Power Company is taken from the com- pany’s prospectus: Contracts with General Electric Co.: No. 1 (5000 horsepower)......... $112,500 00. No. 2 (5000 horsepower): ........ 134,375 00 : —_—_———— _ $246,875 00 Coutract with Glens Falls Portland Cement Co.: 1000 horsepower guaranteed................. 22,500 00 Contract with United Traction Co., Albany (through the Hudson River Electric Co. and _ the Hudson River Power Trans- mission Co.) minimum estimate: Wot (4000 horsepower) 05.5.5 - $72,500 00 No. 2 (2000 horsepower) ........ 90,000 00 SF pas Se 162,500 00 662 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Contract with the Municipal Gas Co. of Albany, to be supplied imme- diately that gas company may secure necessary apparatus: Light, 4000 horsepower, at $60 net $240,000 00 Power, 2000 horsepower, at $63.40 TOI PC ese eats Gwe amma 126,800 00 Contract with the Troy Lighting Co., to be supplied immediately that lighting company may secure necessary apparatus: Light, 3000 horsepower, at $60 net $180,000 00 Power, 3000 horsepower, at $63.40 USI Ses cece bc acs 0) BEB, Peet eam ee ae 190,200 00 Net earnings of the Saratoga Gas, Electric Light eure “Ronyer 2 Orie ee one eet eee ota hey eae. adoee tees Gross receipts of Hudson River Water Power: Gor) o2%.. % ett Ss MNES are aes, eeiaae Annual operating expenses........ $100,000 00 Annual interest charge on $2,000,000 Hudson River Water Power Com- pamny's 5 percent bonds... 22. 100,000 00 Annual interest charge on $2,000,000 Hudson River Electric Company’s 5 per cent bonds outstanding.... 100,000 00 Annual interest charge on Hudson River Power Transmission Com- pany’s bonds and operating ex- “penses.of Company 7.4.5.5 / cee 56,000 00 Wet eurplus-ii245 2, oss ae EES eee $366,800 00 370,200 00 42.506 00 4,968 00 25,000 00 $1,241,349 00 356,000 00 $885,349 00 “MOTA [V.IoUNs STIBpP SUTMOTS ‘AuRdtIop TOMOg 91019 oardug 8G 978d ‘QOL SULOSINO SUTMOYS ‘AuvduoO,) J9MOg 37819 a11duUIny "6S 93%Id ILYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 663 Annual receipts from sales of 6297 additional horsepower actually applied for in the following cities: A ACG ar ae a gn eee ae $58,250 00 Crlens. Walkie) eee cvs 2 eee 45,717 00 PPaESeON SPLINES! 226) ee 20,000 00 MepeeeranCy POE Se oes we viele a et cule ial 25,000 00 Hains OiWar Os Fic. Se ie ad eh 15,000 00 $163,967 00 Net surplus earnings after meeting operating expenses and interest charges............ $1,049,316 00 This statement shows a net surplus of over $1,000,000 for — annual dividends on the stock and for further operations of the company. On the foregoing showing this is a good project and worthy of consideration by anybody desiring to invest in water power. , In addition to the Hudson River Water Power Company, asso- ciated companies are the Hudson River Electric Company, the _ Hudson River Power Transmission Company, the Saratoga Gas, Electric Light and Power Company, and the Ballston Springs Light and Power Company. Power Development on Schoharie Creek The Empire State Power Company. In 1899 the Empire State Power Company began the development of an extensive plant on Schoharie creek. The original project included the develop- ment of power plants at 1) Burtonville; 2) two miles below Burtonville; 3) Schoharie falls; 4) Mill Point, and 5) a short distance above Fort Hunter. Site No. 1. The plant at Burtonville, as originally proposed, was to have 85 feet fall. In order to create this power a masonry dam 47 feet high was to be constructed, with a power canal on the east side leading 6000 feet down the stream. As an alternative proposition, it has been proposed to make this development with only a short canal, placing the power station 664 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM just below the dam. It has also been proposed to construct a masonry dam at Burtonville village, which will be of sufficient hight to make up for the fall in the river of about 16 feet. In this case the canal would be located on the west side of the river. Site No. 2. At the time of examining this matter in 1900 bor- ings had not been made at site No. 2, and in the absence of definite information as to the depth of rock it was idle to specu- late. This plant included a short canal which could be easily constructed. Site No. 3. The Empire State Power Company constructed a plant at Schoharie falls in 1899 and 1900. This plant includes a masonry dam and head! canal 4000 feet in length, with the power station situated at the foot of said canal. In the origi- nal project, owing to erroneous conceptions as to the flow of Schoharie creek, the canal was designed for a maximum flow of 1500 cubic feet per second, although in carrying this amount, friction would consume about two feet of head. Later on it was concluded that 800 cubic feet per second would be perhaps a safer maximum. A cross-section of the dam is shown in figure No. 36. This dam is 12 feet in hight, and by carrying the canal 4000 feet down the stream 40 feet head is secured. Site No. 4. This plant is at Mill Point, 114 miles below Scho- harie falls. The site is now occupied by a gristmill and sawmill which are owned by the Empire State Power Company. ‘The dam is to be of timber and 8 feet in hight. Site No. 5. At this plant the dam is to be of timber and pre- sents no difficulties in development. It is situated about one mile above Fort Hunter and will realize practically the entire catch- ment area of ‘Schoharie creek. : 3 The object in developing these plants on Schoharie creek was to transmit the power electrically to Amsterdam, seven miles distant, where, on account of a large amount of manufacturing by steam power, there was an excellent market for electricity. It was also proposed to transmit 1000 horsepower to the Helder- berg Cement Company at Howe’s Cave, and pole lines were con- structed with reference to these transmissions. Assuming that storage enough is made to insure a permanent flow of 650 cubic feet per second, it is possible to develop on Plate 30. General view of Trenton Falls in time of high water. (West Canada creek.) ‘Jools VpvuBy 4SoA\ wo AuLdMOH dIA}o9IW puR SevH vo Jo wep aOMOg ‘TE 938d HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 665 Schoharie creek about 9000 horsepower. As to whether the power . is to be 10 hour, 12 hour or 24 hour power will also be taken into account. There is, however, some doubt as to whether it is possible to make a storage large enough to secure a flow of 650 cubic feet per second, and until thorough surveys are made this must be considered merely a possibility. In view of this uncer- tainty and doubt, it is considered safer to assume that not more than 5000 to 6000 permanent power can be developed within commercial limits. The dam at Schoharie falls is of masonry, backed with timber. It was originally constructed with crest 380 feet long, but in the spring of 1901, in a heavy flood, a portion of the dam and canal was carried away. Damage to the canal was due to inadequate wasteway arrangements—the wasteway origi- nally constructed being only 50 feet in length. Owing to financial difficulties this dam was not repaired until 1902, at which time the cost of repairing it and the raceway and the making of the necessary repairs to power station was estimated at $80,000—the actual cost was somewhat more than this. In the repairs, the dam was made 620 feet in length and the waste- way 100 feet in length. It is understood that in the fall of 1903 — the dam was again carried away by floods and that it has not yet been rebuilt. Owing to these unexpected expenditures the company is in financial difficulties and it is uncertain whether the dam is likely to be repaired. Power Development on West Canada Creek The Utica Gas & Electric Company. In 1901-2 a power plant was constructed at Trenton Falls by the Utica Gas & Electric Company. The following are some of the particulars of this plant, as derived from a letter from C. A. Greenidge, superintendent of the electrical department of that company, dated April 6, 1904: This plant includes a concrete dam, with hight above the bed of the stream of 60 feet and 55 feet thick at the base; 288 feet long and arched upstream on a radius of 800 feet. It is con- structed of concrete, partly faced with stone. In its center there is a spillway 100 feet wide and on the right, cut in the rock face of the gorge, another spillway 112 feet wide. At a depth of 40 feet below the surface of the pond there are four 60-inch supply 666 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM — pipes, only two of which are in use at present. These pipes are joined, by means of a cast iron Y, into a 7-foot penstock. The penstock is 3700 feet long, and for 2700 feet is constructed of — pine staves banded with 84-inch round steel bands. These bands are about 6 inches apart. The balance of the penstock of about 1000 feet is constructed of steel varying in thickness 34 inch to 5g inch; 250 feet from the end of the penstock there is a stand- pipe 180 feet high. When there is no load on the plant the water rises 150 feet high in this pipe, but falls from 10 to 15 feet as the load yaries. The penstock leads into a receiver from which are taken four 48-inch and two 12-inch pipes. Each of the 48-inch pipes supplies an 1800-horsepower outward flow reaction turbine, with vertical shaft. A 1000 kilowatt alternating current genera- tor, running at 360 revolutions per minute, is connected to this shaft. Each of the 12-inch pipes supplies a 110-horsepower turbine, with vertical shaft direct connected to the armature of a 75-kilowatt direct current generator, running at 750 revolutions per minute. The total head is 265 feet, and the maximum load carried during the winter of 1904 was 7600 horsepower. The cur- rent is transmitted at 22,000 volts to Utica, 1214 miles distant. The usual step-up and step-down transformers are included. This plant was designed by Wm. A. Brackenridge. Power Development on Raquette River Hannawa Falls Water Power Company. There is an im- portant power development at Hannawa Falls on Raquette river, where the catchment area is 967 square miles. This stream has a fall of nearly 300 feet in three miles of its course below the vil- lage of Colton, and a further fall of 85 feet in the next two miles. of its course. The land and water rights along this part of the river have been acquired by the Hannawa Falls Water Power Company, who have developed the lower 85-foot fall. A masonry dam has been built at the village of Hannawa Falls, forming a pond 214 miles long and covering 200 acres. From this pond the water is conducted by a canal 2700 feet long as a forebay, thence by penstocks to the: wheels. The tailrace extends 2000 feet from the power-house, being separated from the Raquette river by an embankment of earth and stone. At the point selected for the dam the bed of Plate 32. Power station of Utica Gas and Electric Company on West Canada creek. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 667 the river is Potsdam sandstone, the strata dipping at an angle of about 30 degrees downstream. The banks are of sandstone, nearly perpendicular, and about 375 feet apart up to a level of 10 feet below the crest of the dam. The material for the construction of the masonry work was obtained from quarries near-by. It is Potsdam sandstone which comes out from the quarry with nearly level beds, and no cutting LO ¢ Zo UG SELLLE: oie So ee GZ CLs eo bes Baie Uy ee oe Le Ge pee oe ZN Zap) Ge ae LEG) ae ae Ag ee LD We; Lp D> Ze Gane Pp aoe EES Fig. 44 Cross-section of dam at Hannawa Falls. was done except to level the crest of the dam after the stone was in place. For the downstream face of the dam stones from 12 to 18 inches in thickness, 2 to 4 feet wide and 3 to 4 feet long, were used, the beds being laid normal] to the surface. For the upstream face a rubble wall about 3 feet thick was laid of smaller stone. The space between was filled with large bowlders and irregular Shaped quarry stones, with concrete rammed in around and be- tween. This dam was completed in the fall of 1899 and has had 414 feet of water over its crest in two different seasons. The dam is perfectly water-tight. 668 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The canal is about 2700 feet long and 20 feet deep from the top of the banks, the bottom being 14 feet below the crest of the dam. The bottom width of the canal is 30 feet and the top width 110 feet. 7 The Hannawa Falls Water Power Company, in cooperation with other waterpower owners on the Raquette river, expect to construct reservoirs which will maintain a constant flow of 2500 cubic feet per second in the river. The power station is constructed of Potsdam sandstone and steel. The penstock pipes are of steel, ~s-inch and 32-inch in thickness. At present (1904) there is only one water-wheel set for the electrical equipment. This wheel is a 1250-horsepower horizontal water-wheel, built by James Leffel & Company. At each end of the horizontal shaft there is a direct connected 350- kilowatt three-phase 4400-volt generator. There is also an oppor- tunity to set three other similar wheels. The two 350-kilowatt generators are connected to the wheel shaft by plate couplings, having a movable plate between the faces. They are of the revolving field type, having 24 poles and deliver- ing three-phase current at a frequency of 60 periods per second and a pressure of 4400 volts. They run at 300 revolutions per minute and are excited by two belted exciters, each of sufficient capacity to supply both generators. The switchboard of Vermont marble consists of two generator panels with indicating instruments, one exciter panel with switches and instruments for both exciters, two 4400-volt feeder panels, with relay, circuit breakers, oil break switches, and watt- meters, one 220-volt panel with seven distributing switches, one transformer panel, and one 20,000-volt panel with three quick- break switches having marble barriers. The Hannawa Falls Water Power Company owns the electric lighting plant in the village of Potsdam, 44 miles from the sta- tion, with which village it is connected by a double line, which consists of three cables of seven strands each, of aluminum wire. This line was computed to transmit 375 kilowatts with a drop of 400 volts, delivering 4000 volts at Potsdam, where it would be stepped down for transmission to consumers. The 20,000-volt line “IOATI o}Jonbvy wo AuvduIOD TOMO TOVAA STV] VAVUUL]ET oy} Jo wep aoMog "$8 97°C paw; i HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 669 is intended to run to the village of Canton, 1014 miles from Han- nawa Falls, and finally to the city of Ogdensburg, 19 miles farther. 3 It is also intended to utilize a portion of the power to be de- veloped here for grinding wood-pulp, and accordingly a ground wood-pulp plant of 100 tons capacity per day is included. In the grinder room two pairs of 4000-horsepower water-wheels, built by the S. Morgan Smith Company, are placed on horizontal shafts and supplied with water from two independent 10-foot pen- stocks, discharging into a common tailrace.t From the foregoing it appears that in 1904 about 9000 horsepower is developed at this station, although the writer is unable to state whether or not the full capacity of the pulp-grinding machinery is utilized. These works were designed by W. C. Johnson. Waterpower of Erie canal When the Erie canal was first constructed the policy was adopted of leasing the so-called surplus water for power pur- poses. Under the terms of the act of 1825 leases were made during 1826 and subsequent years to a number of persons at Black Rock, Lockport and other localities. 3 Power at Black Rock. The granting of these leases and the resultant development of large manufacturing interests at several points have raised certain economic questions which will now be briefly discussed. The waterpower at Black Rock, for which Several leases were granted, will be first mentioned. This power is created by the difference in level between the water in the Erie canal and the Black Rock harbor and that in the Niagara river outside the harbor wall, this difference of water-level amounting to from 4 feet to 4.5 feet. As measured in the spring of 1896, at a point near the ship lock, it was about 4 feet. According to _the report of the Assembly Committee of 1870, there were formerly ten mills in operation at Black Rock, using 2744 second- feet of water. The power developed by these mills, and all operating at full capacity, is estimated at not exceeding 520 horsepower. Owing to the decline of the milling business in *Abstract from paper, Water Power Development at Hannawa Falls, by W. C. Johnson. Trans. Am. Soc. of Mech. Engrs., Vol. XXIII. 670 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM New York State a number of these mills have passed out of existence. The four mills still in existence require about 1200 cubic feet of water per second to operate them at the full capacity of the wheels now in place. The use of water by the Black Rock mills has always been a det- riment to navigation. When all were running the amount of water actually drawn through the canal and harbor for their supply, and for the supply of the canal to the east of Buffalo, was fully 3300 cubic feet per second. When all the Black Rock mills were in operation the great draft of water so obstructed the navigation that the Legislature finally authorized the construction of a division wall in Black Rock har- bor, by which it was expected that the water supply for the mills would be entirely taken from the harbor, leaving the channel of the canal pretty nearly free for the purposes of navigation; but after the greater part of the wall was completed it was ascer- tained that because of the silting of the upper harbor with sewage mud, as well as drifting sand from the lake, there would be diffi- culty in obtaining the full suppiy for the mills through the harbor, without extensive dredging. The division wall was, therefore, never completed, two gaps, amounting, in the aggregate, to several hundred feet, having been left below Terry street. There was thus an expenditure of about $350,000 for the benefit of the milling interests which is entirely without effect for lack of completion. Under the present conditions, however, of entire decline of the Black Rock milling interests, there is, of course, no reason why the wall should be completed, and the matter is discussed here merely for the purpose of bringing out clearly the struggle be- tween the navigation interests and the manufacturing interests, which has been in progress in New York State for the last seventy- five years. Power at Lockport. At Lockport the construction of the Erie. canal through the mountain ridge created a fall of 58 feet at a single point, and since the use of water for lockage purposes is 1The Assembly Committee of 1870 give the following figures as then applicable: Lower Black Rock mills, 1887 second-feet; upper Black Rock mills, 858 seeond-feet; for supply of canal, 583 second-feet; total, 3328 second-feet. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK pits Aa only a small part of the whole flow, the balance required to feed the canal to the east of Lockport is necessarily discharged around the locks into the lower canal by means of sluiceways. Under the laws of 1825 a public auction was held in the village of Lockport, in the fall of that year, and the right to use this sur- plus water sold to Messrs Richard Kennedy and James H. Hatch, whose successors at the present day constitute the Lockport Hydraulic Power Company. Lockport has usually been considered more purely a result of the canal development than any other point in western New York, for the reason that while nearly all other towns in the region had some growth before the Erie canal was located, it was only in 1821, after the present location for the canal had been definitely decided on, that the nucleus of a village was formed here by the contractors and their workmen employed on the canal. In 1820 there was no frame house or barn within 5 miles of Lockport, and there were less than 600 acres of cleared land in the 4 square miles, of which the city of Lockport is now the center. More- over, there are no natural advantages which would have naturally led to the growth of an important town at this point. When once started, however, under the impulse of the canal development, Lockport grew rapidly until, in 1829, with a popu- lation of 3000, it was incorporated as a village, and in 1865 as acity. The population in 1890 was 16,038; in 1904 it is estimated at over 17,000. The total investment in manufacturing plants at Lockport dependent on the Erie canal water supply amounts to $2,531,000. The total number of establishments is 33, employing 1880 opera- tives. The total power now in use on the Erie canal proper is 2625 net horsepower. A short distance to the east of the foot of the locks a small stream known as the west branch of Eighteenmile creek crosses under the canal. This stream, although having a catchment area of only 1 or 2 square miles to the south of the canal, has cut a deep valley with rapid fall for a considerable distance to the north of the canal. In order to provide for discharging the sur- plus waters from the canal, an overflow into Eighteenmile creek was constructed at an early day. A mill was also permitted to 672 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM take water from the lower level and discharge its tail-water into the creek. Finally the Jackson Lumber Company was permitted to construct a sluiceway on the tow-path side, through which it drew for many years about 600 cubic feet per second, and which was all discharged into Eighteenmile creek. Complaints having frequently been made that boats were drawn against this sluice on the tow-path side, the Superintendent of Public Works, in 1892, granted a formal permit to the Jackson Lumber Company to construct a sluice and subway under the canal bottom, by which this water is now drawn from the berme side. Under this permit a substantial masonry sluice was constructed in 1893. In the meantime the Jackson Lumber Company has gone out of exist- ence and this waterpower has passed into the hands of the Traders’ Paper Company, which now occupies the site with its pulp-mill No. 1. | The west branch of Eighteenmile creek descends about 175 feet within the limits of the city of Lockport, of which 148 feet have been. utilized for power during recent years. 3 The following are the companies now using power on this creek and the horsepower used by each: Horsepower Traders’ Paper Company. 5... 2.2. . ee. - os en te 1,060 Lockport Paper Company ...........-......0). +. rr Niagara Paper Company....-.........+.2+++-+sseseuues ge a Westermmun & Company ¢ 2.2. cs oe tae oe 320 Cascade: Pulp Oomipamy ..2. G02 xa pee epee oe ote ‘ee ee Cowles: Smeltine Company 00022 .3o.......6% 500.5 oe 1,185 OLA Sie o, aelie le eae Gide ek wr eau aa ae t 3,835 The output of the establishments on the west branch of Highteen- mile creek is about $2,000,000 a year; but this sum includes the output of the Indurated Fibre Company, which, while operating by steampower, depends largely for a supply of pulp on the Cascade Pulp Company. In any case the figures show the magni- tude of the manufacturing interests which have been fostered in the valley of the west branch of Kighteenmile creek by discharging into that stream about 300 second-feet of water from the Erie canal. sing ; as ag st Sih ina HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 673 With 2625 net horsepower in use on the canal proper, and 3835 on the west branch of Highteenmile creek, the total actually in use at Lockport, and dependent on Erie canal for its water supply, is 6460 net horsepower. No statements as to the value of the annual product of the manufacturing establishments on the raceways of the Lockport Hydraulic Power Company have been given. It is therefore im- possible to state accurately the value of the total annua! product at Lockport. As several of the establishments there are very extensive, including the Holly Manufacturing Company, it may be assumed that the annual output of this portion of the Lockport manufactories has a value, at least, of $1,000,000; hence we reach a total value of the annual product for the whole city of about $3,000,000. : The annual rental paid to the State, under the terms of the original lease, is only $200. At first sight it appears that there is here a most marked case of what could only be termed blunder- ing on the part of State officials, althouga on analyzing the matter it is found that this extreme view is hardly correct. In the first place it must be remembered that this lease was granted not only by authority of an act of Legislature, but was only granted after a public auction had been held, at which Messrs Kennedy and Hatch were the highest bidders. As already shown, had. not the special conditions created by the Erie canal existed at Lockport, there would, in all probability, have been no thriving city at that point, but the area on which Lockport now stands would have been farming land, with no more value than now attaches to farming lands in the adjoining township of Lockport. In, order to show the results of this lease, at $200 a year, a study has been made of the growth of Lockport from the year 1865, when Lockport became a city, to 1896. From such study it appears that the valuation of the city has increased from less than $3,000,000 to over $6,700,000, and that the total State tax collected up to and including the year 1896 has amounted to over half a million dollars. If this had remained a farming community the State tax would probably not have been more than 3 per cent of this amount. Using this tax return as a basis, it has been computed that there has been an actual increase of wealth 674 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to the people of the State by the existence of Lockport of over one and a half million dollars, not including in this the actual increased value of the city itself. The conclusion is drawn that the benefit to the State at large has been very great on account of this expenditure for internal improvement, irrespective of ques- tions of navigation. This question is also discussed on page 239. Power at Medina. The Oak Orchard feeder and the waterpower at Medina present somewhat different points for consideration from those at Lockport. About 1820 the Canal Commissioners caused a cut-off channel to be constructed through Tonawanda swamp between Tonawanda and Oak Orchard creeks, whereby the early summer flow of Tona- wanda creek is diverted into Oak Orchard creek. Oak Orchard creek passes under the Irie canal at Medina, and the original feeder channel at that place was an artificial channel leading from a dam thrown across the creek and entering the canal near the west branch of Oak Orchard creek at Medina. At some period sub- sequent to 1823 a raceway was constructed by private parties lead- ing from a second dam higher than the feeder dam and conducting water into the central part of the village, where, after it is used, it is finally allowed to pass into the canal. During the enlargement of 1836 to 1862 the water-surface level of the canal at Medina was raised, and inasmuch as this change necessitated raising the feeder dam somewhat, it was finally concluded to discontinue the feeder and depend entirely on the raceway for such supply as the canal might receive at this point. | Oak Orchard feeder has been considered as furnishing about 27 cubic feet of water per second to the canal, although measure- ments made in 1850 show about 387 cubic feet per second. Since then the clearing up of forests and the drainage of Oak Orchard and Tonawanda swamps have tended to reduce materially the low- water flow until it is probably less than 27 cubic feet per second. Moreover, for the future, the dry-weather yield from this catch- ment area may be expected to be somewhat less than in the past, because of the deepening of the channel of Oak Orchard creek and of the crosscut authorized by the laws of 1898. The act provided for deepening the channel of Oak Orchard creek from a point 24 miles below where the Tonawanda creek enters the Oak Orchard HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 675 and for the cleaning, improving, widening, and deepening of the channel of the east branch of Oak Orchard creek. This work has been done as a sanitary measure, and its effect will probably be to run the water out of the swamps more rapidly in the spring, thus materially decreasing the dry-weather flow. According to a statement furnished by Mr A. L. Swet, Presi- dent of the Business Men’s Association of Medina, the number of operatives employed in 1896 in manufacturing enterprises depen- dent on water power at Medina was 515; the amount of capital invested in establishments actually in operation was $371,000, while the value of the annual product of the same establishments was $575,000. These figures do not include the Medina Falls flouring mill, which was idle at the time these statements were made. The total developed waterpower at Medina, on the raceway and on the Oak Orchard creek, is estimated at 827 horsepower, which includes the wheels at the Medina Falls flouring mill. Deducting these wheels, amounting to 338 horsepower, the total actually in use in 1896 was 489 horsepower. The use of water at the establish- ments on the creek varies from 110 cubic feet per second to 49 cubic feet per second, the former quantity being due to the Medina Falls flouring mill, where the head is 33 feet. Relative to the fine power at Medina Falls, it may be stated that it is im- probable, considering the amount of power available at this loca- tion, that it will remain unutilized for any great length of time. ~The trouble at the Medina Falls flouring mill is the same as that affecting the large flour mills at Black Rock and other places in New York—the competition of cheap grain and transportation from western mills. Without going into the historical part of the subject, it may be said that the mill owners at Medina claim. that by reason of the eranting of a right of way for the cut-off between Tonawanda and Oak Orchard creeks, and the gift of 100,000 acres of land to the canal fund by their original grantor, the Holland Land Com- pany—a part of the consideration for which was an improvement of the water power of Oak Orchard creek—they have an equitable ior aed decont ne Oak Geena creek and its relations to the feeder, see Report of the Drainage of the Oak Orchard and Vicinity Streams, in the Fourth An. Rept of the State Board of Health (1883), p. 45-116. 676 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ‘ right to the use of the water of the feeder. If, therefore, the effect of the drainage authorized by the laws of 1893 has been to decrease the low-water flow of Oak Orchard creek, it is main- tained that the mill owners are entitled to enough water from the canal to make good the deficiency. There are a number of other points on the Erie canal where waterpowers have been fostered under the provisions of the laws of 1825, but lack of space precludes discussion of that phase of the subject. HISTORY OF NEW YORK WATER SUPPLY The first waterworks of the City of New York were constructed in 1774, when the population of the city was 22,000. In order to pay the expenses of the works the city issued paper money amount- ing to £2500, calling it “ waterworks money.” Bonds were also executed for lands and materials to the amount of £8850 more. A reservoir was constructed on the east line of Broadway between what is now Pearl and White streets and a well sunk in the vicinity of the pond called the Collect. The Revolutionary war began in 1775, and the occupation of New York by British troops caused the abandonment of the work. In 1799 the Manhattan Company was incorporated to supply the city with pure and wholesome water. This company sank a _ number of wells within the city limits. They constructed a well 25 feet in diameter and 380 feet deep in Centre street, between Reade and Duane streets, pumping the water to a tank on Chambers street, from which it was distributed through bored logs. In 1823 the population was 150,000 and the daily pumpage was 691,000 gallons. In 1880 the city constructed a well at Thirteenth street, near Broadway, 16 feet in diameter and 112 feet deep, 97 feet being through rock. At 100 feet below the surface two lateral galleries were tunneled out from the main well, each 75 feet long. This well furnished only 10,400 gallons per day of hard water. The Manhattan Company also sank a well at Broadway and Bleecker *Waterpower on the Erie canal is treated at considerable length in a Report on the Water Supply of the Western Division of the Erie Canal. An. Rept of State Engineer for 1896. Plate 34. i 0 5 10 20 Miles. ; i Ww Ao y Hillsdale W “ f < Y/p y J)” mmr Voce D, u 5) PineHiil ~ § “yy Sass r=) L re) yy Mii A Vimar, ich : = © Phoenicia U 5 Gi | Yj; | | F Ll ag ee Oe 1 « 5 7 ; ™ “i « z ” eu ae \ ‘ an vey ; ‘ i i Ay HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 683 The Ridgewood system comprises the works originally built to supply Brooklyn, and their tributary catchment embraces that portion of Queens county bounded on the north by the ridge forming the backbone of Long Island; on the east, approxi- mately by Suffolk county; on the south by the salt meadows bordering on Hempstead and Jamaica bays, and on the west by Kings county. The original catchment area is 66 square miles, while the new catchment is 89 square miles. The sources of supply on the old catchment, named in order from the Ridgewood engine house eastward, are as follows: Spring creek temporary driven-well station, Spring creek driven-well station, Baiseley’s driven-well station, Baiseley’s pond, Jameco driven-well station, Springfield pond, Forest Stream driven-well station, Simonson’s pond, Clear Stream pond, Clear Stream driven-well station, Watt’s pond and driven-well station, Valley Stream pond, Smith’s pond, Pine’s pond, Hemp- stead pond, Schodack brook and Hempstead storage reservoir. On the new catchment the sources of supply from the Mill- burn engine house eastward are: Millburn pond, Agawam driven-well station, East Meadow pond, Merrick driven-well station, Newbridge pond, Wantagh — pond and Massapekua pond. The supply frum the original catchment is collected by a brick eonduit, extending from Hempstead pond westerly to the old Ridgewood station, and having a grade of about six inches to the mile. On the new catchment the supply is collected and carried by gravity to the Millburn station through a brick conduit, seven and one-quarter miles long, and having a grade of one in ten thousand. The two driven-well stations on this catchment are located south of the conduit and discharge into it through cast- iron pipes. New stations will be similarly connected. In order to show the possibilities of a supply from the sand areas of Long Island, the following may be considered: Water yield of the Long Island sand areas. Wong Island is about 120 miles in length, with a varying width of from 10 to 20 miles. Its watershed line consists of a ridge of low hills running from New York bay to the eastern extremity of the 684 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM island. The highest points of this ridge are about 3850: to 390 feet above sea level. This ridge, whichis believed to be a part of the terminal moraine of the great glacier, consists mainly of compact drift and bowlders, running at times into clay and coarse gravel. The considerable number of small ponds along the ridge evidence the compactness of its surface material. The Slopes and spurs of the central ridge run into Long Island sound on the north, making an irregular shore line, broken into bays and low headlands. On the south side, the slopes lose themselves in a grassy plain sloping gently toward the coast. In its widest part it is called the Hempstead plains, and stretches for a distance of from 5 to 15 miles between the foot of the central ridge and the Atlantic shore, which is very regu- lar in its outer beach line; but an inner and more irregular beach exists, formed by the shallow waters of Jamaica and Hempstead bays. The Atlantic shore does not anywhere touch . the slope of the central ridge, but is separated from it by the wide gravelly plain. in 1900 Prof. W. O. Crosby reported in relation to the geology of Long Island and its relations to public water supplies, the main purpose of this study being to determine what light the present knowledge of the geologic structure of Long Island throws upon these problems. The main questions considered were: : | 1) Is it possible to obtain a copious supply of water from deep wells on Long Island, 200 feet or more in depth, passing through the blue clay into the gray gravel and the still deeper water-bearing strata of the cretaceous? A supply of quality suitable for domestic purposes and in quantity sufficient for a substantial addition to Brooklyn’s water supply, say 10,000,000 gallons, 25,000,000 gallons, 50,000,000 gallons, or more per day, or the equivalent of the yield of a catchment area of 10, 25, 50 or more square miles? a 2) What certainty or probability is there that wells 40 to 80 feet deep, sunk in the yellow gravel but not penetrating the blue clay, in the region east of Massapequa, can be made to yield water of suitable quality for domestic supply and in quan-— tity equal to the total average catch of rainfall on a catch- HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 685 ment of the area shown by the surface peer to be tribu- tary to the proposed point of taking? 3) Is there any geologic reason to expect that the yield of ground water available per square mile will be materially different in quality or in quantity from that in the region already developed west of Massapequa? 4) Is there any apparent advantage in one location over an- other for tapping the subterranean waters of the yellow gravel? The geologic structure of Long Island consists of the follow- ing formations, beginning with the lowest: (1) the primitive or crystalline rocks; (2) the cretaceous formation; (3) the tertiary formation; and (4) the terminal moraine of the continental glacier of northeastern North America. . The water-bearing horizons are limited to yellow gravel above the blue clay, gray gravel below it and certain layers of sand in the cretaceous formation. The yellow gravel, which receives and holds nearly the entire rainfall of the island, ranks first in im- portance, while the gray gravels and cretaceous gravels are second in importance. The supply from the gray and cretaceous gravels, if heavily drawn upon, is likely to become brackish, and is also likely to become stale or mineralized. Tn regard to deep wells, it is stated in Professor Crosby’s report that while here and there a deep well may tap a supply of good, potable water, sufficient for the supply of a small village or factory, the geologic formation gives no hope of finding any large, permanent deep-well supply sufficient in volume to form a substantial increase to the water resources of Brooklyn or add _ materially to the volume that can be obtained from shallow wells. Before the real facts in regard to tke geologic formation of Long Island were understood it was considered that probably a large volume of the fresh water found its way over to Long Island from the mainland by percolating through the deep, porous strata, but in the light of more extended information Professor Crosby ’ considers that whatever yield of fresh water comes from the deep wells must have its origin from rain. falling upon Long Island alone—there is no water coming to Long Island from the mainland. 3 686 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In regard to Long Island water supplies, they may therefore be considered in two lights: (1) There are numerous small brooks, originating on the south slopes of the central ridge, which deliver their waters to the Atlantic ocean; and (2) from the shallow wells extending into the yellow gravel, already discussed. As to the proper place for locating these wells, Professor Crosby con- siders that they should be on a line along the south shore far enough back from the sea to avoid the indratt of brackish sea- water. The inclination of the water-bearing yellow gravel, with its impervious floor of blue clay, is from the north towards the south. The surface supplies from the brooks are none of them very large. On the largest of them gristmills were established at an early date, with ponds of from 8 to 40 acres of water surface and from 5 to 9 feet depth of water. These ponds were the original water supply of Brooklyn. The fall at the dams rarely exceeds 8 feet. The original munic- ipal water supply of the city of Brooklyn, as constructed about 1856 to 1859, had its source in the Hempstead plains, several of the large brooks, flowing from the central ridge to the Atlantic being appropriated for this purpose. A distributing reservoir was established on the central ridge at an elevation of 170 feet above tide, with the water of the brooks forced thereto by pumping. These brooks were all mainly fed by springs delivering directly into their ponds and channels. The length of these watercourses from where the water was taken to the summer sources rarely exceeds 4 miles. In the original construction the waters of these ponds were conveyed by small branch conduits to a large main conduit extending from the most easterly pond or reservoir to the pump well at the engine house, which was located at the foot of the ridge on which the Ridgewood distributing reservoir was situated, not far from the east line of the city of Brooklyn. The main conduit was so located that the water flowed to the engine house by gravity. The following are the statistics of the six ponds originally taken for the Brooklyn city supply, the minimum deliveries here given being as ascertained by measurements dur- ing the months of September and October, 1856 and 1857. The figures represent the natural delivery of each stream at its lowest stage of water, and do not include any encroachment upon the stored water which each pond retained, when full. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 687 Minimum Elevation Area of flow (cubic of overflow surface feet in 24 above tide Pond (acres) hours) - (feet) PUCCIO A eT Lt becca EL bk ecale So ohot eS 40.00 419,315 4.90 2 ET DSS see Oe ee ee oe 265,098 15.40 emer SUP CAMICIe Oi. te ee Ba LOT 100,448 11.50 ReMley sired: is... 6 eS, Le. 78 320,291 12.80 Mama BONI SEN ONS occ k dees © 8.00 353,388 12.60 NeMmpRSNO A fs) 22 Ps ee a d2.02 1,054,718 10.60 The same streams were measured in October and November, 1851, and the aggregate result then was 3,137,500 cubic feet. With the exception of Clear stream, they were again measured in October, 1852, the result then being 2,606,300 cubic feet in 24 hours. According to a survey made by Theodore Weston in the fall and winter of 1859, the catchmenit area of the streams originally taken for the municipal supply of Brooklyn was found to measure 46.8 square miles, but subsequent measurements have placed it at 49.9, which is the figure now used. The drainage grounds lie mainly on the Hempstead plains, although a small portion may be considered as lying on the southern slope of the central ridge. The ridge slopes are com- posed of clay and alluvial earth, with little power of retaining water. Hempstead plain, on the other hand, consists of a very uniform deposit of sand and gravel with occasional thin veins of clay; hence Hempstead plain is largely receptive and retentive of water. The sand and gravel on this plain serves two purposes as regards the rainfall sinking into it: (1) It retains the water, only gradually delivering it to the surface in the valleys of the brooks or on or near the seashore in the form of springs; (2) it filters and purifies it, the gravel and sand performing the func- tion of a natural filter bed. It is considered that but a small portion of the ground water of this gravel plain has been derived from the rainfall of any single year. The greater portion of it is considered to have collected during a series of years. Borings and open wells show that this ground water has a nearly uniform inclination toward the south shore of about 12 feet per mile. 1As to the difficulty of determining just what the catchment area of any one of these streams actually is, see De Varona’s History and Description of the Brooklyn Water Works, 1896. 688 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Upon the low ridges lying between the several streams cross- ing Hempstead plain the inclination of the ground water varies with the width of the ridge, and is steeper in these parts than on the main slope toward the sea, the resistance of the retaining material there being proportionately less. So long as the slope ~ of the ground water is left undisturbed by pumping, as from a series of -wells, the permanent slope of the ground water is deter- mined by the resistance of the material through which it flows. As regards the minimum flow of the streams receiving these under- ground waters, the longer the time occupied by that portion of the rainfall which sinks into the ground in reaching the outlets the greater will be the minimum flow of the stream as compared with its total flow; on the other hand, the ‘shorter the time the smaller the minimum flow. In the case of Long Island streams the maximum flows are not very large, a fact which indicates that the permanent regimen of these streams is probably main- tained by the accession of the absorbed rainfalls of several years. It follows that so long as the basins are not drawn upon very greatly in excess of their flowage capacity the permanency of Long Island ground-water supplies is only moderately affected by variations in the yearly rainfall. . In his Report on the Future Extension of the Ww ater Supply of . Brooklyn, Mr De Varona gives the total monthly and average daily quantities of water pumped into the Ridgewood reservoir for the years 1860 to 1896, inclusive. ; Table No. 88 has been condensed from this report, giving in calendar years the total rainfall upon the catchment and the per cent of this utilized by pumping at Ridgewood. The average yield utilized is also expressed in cubic feet per second per square mile of catchment. This was originally 49.9 square miles, but was increased in 1872, being in subsequent years 52.3 square miles until 1883, when it was increased to 64.6 square miles, and in 1885 to 65.4 square miles. Considerable additions were made in 1891, and from that time on the area is given as 154.1 square miles. In 1860 the rainfall was 37.65 inches, and the total amount The foregoing statements relating to the water-yielding properties of the Long Island sands are mostly derived from Kirkwood’s History of the Brooklyn Water Works and Sewers, published in 1867. For a more recent, as well as more extended, discussion of the same subject see De Varona’s History and Description of the Brooklyn W aterworks. . HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 689 of water pumped was equivalent to a depth of 1.44 inches on the catchment, or 3.82 per cent of the total rainfall. In 1896 the total rainfall was 38.82 inches. The amount of water pumped during that year would cover the catchment to a depth of 11 inches, this being over 28 per cent of the total rainfall. The average yield as obtained by pumping was 0.81 cubic foot per second per square mile of catchment. TasLeE No. S8—ToOTAL ANNUAL RAINFALL, PER CENT UTILIZED, AND AVERAGE YIELD PER SQUARE MILE OF CATCHMENT OF BROOKLYN WATERWORKS | | oe / | pe - s eet per eet per YEAR eaten, ea. | eae || YEAR | Rainfall SE eas inches | utilized | square || inches utilized | | square mile || | mile eS ea ear Ss | eee en is ea (1) (2) (3) (Cae eae) ra (3) | (4) elie 5. an65.| 3.82 | 0.11 || 1879...... 39.61 | 33.40! 0.97 eee aes 392° |- 0:13 || 1880:. 22... | 10.76 30.23 | 0.90 i 383024° 5.731 016.1881... .. 39.53 | 29.42 0.86 oe ga 3 8680 | 0.20 || 18820... 39.83 | 30.73 0.90 1864-050... 32.-00°|. 10.53} 0.25. | 1883.2... 37.22 | 33.05 0.91 Gs. 46.14 | 8.39] 0.28 | 1684... 45.39 | 27.89 | 0.93 866 6200: Bi OB) OreBr | Oot |) 1685.6". 36.85 | 37.94; 1.08 2 pasG8 939.150 238. [21886 2.2... 51.38 | 28.32 | 1.07 ae 3856. | 17-291 .0.49, || 1887... | 45.66 | 32.59 1.10 ee 43.13 | 17.20 | 0.55 || 1888...... 48.45 | 33.19, 1.18 8... 39.95 | 19.82] 0.57 || 1889...... 56.54 | 29.54 | 1.98 _ Us gee at2G | 6°78) | 0.60. || 1890 2.2... 52.15 | 33.90} 1.30 a 3007528 AT | 0-67 =f] 1891s sc. 39.18 | 44.82) 1.29 ae. 47.99 | 20.88 | 0.74 || 1892...... 37.75 | 24.53} 0.68 eee 45.83°'| 21.49 | 0.73 |] 1898 ...... 39.62 | 26.27 | 0.77 Me 40.90 | 26.89 | 0.81 || 1894...... 36.88 | 26.33 | 0.72 oer Bane O71) (8c. (08s | 1895.6... 35.64 | 28.98] 0.76 . ieee 40.18 30.29) 0.90 || 1896...... 38.82 | 28.31 | 0.81 mae 48.66 | 25.15 | 0.90 || | | Generally the Brooklyn Water Works have not been so designed as to furnish records of the quantity drawn from these several different sources. There are also no records of the hights of the eround water at different points in the catchment area. If such were to be kept for a series of years, the records of the Brooklyn Water Works would possess a value not easily estimated. They would give a far more positive indication of the amount of water that can be drawn from such sandy areas than can now be gained from them. A few tests, however, of some of the driven-well plants have been made in the last few years. The Greater New York Water Supply Commission of 1903 has measured the hight 690 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of ground water in about fifteen hundred wells included in 1000 Square miles of territory. At a test of the old driven-well plant at Spring creek, made from October 22 to November 20, 1894, water was pumped at an average rate of 4,091,551 gallons in 24 hours. The elevation of the under- side of the discharge valve of the pump was 12.3 feet above datum. On October 22, at the beginning of the tests, the average elevation of the water in the wells was 4 feet below datum. The quantity pumped in 24 hours, on October 22, was 4,488,275 gallons. On November 20, the date of the conclusion of the test, the elevation of water in wells was 7.7 feet below datum, and the quantity pumped on that day in 24 hours was 4,112,663 gallons. The total quantity pumped during the entire period from October 22 to November 20 was 122,746,525 gallons. The taking of this quantity of water from the wells resulted, therefore, in lowering the ground water a total of 3.7 feet. A new driven-well plant at Watts pond was subjected to a test of capacity extending continuously from January 3 to February 2, inclusive. In 1895 a rather extended series of tests were made of a number of the wells of the Brooklyn water supply in order to determine the yield as well as the extent of the underground Supply. The following particulars of these tests have been derived from Mr De Varona’s report, as contained in the annual report of the commissioner of city works for the year 1895. The flowing wells at Jameco were tested from January 3 to 14, inclusive. During this period the wells were operated singly and in groups of 2, 8, and 4, in all possible combinations, and observa- tions were taken to determine the elevation of the ground water. Upon completion of the tests a series of observations was taken, extending to January 30, to determine the normal water level. It was shown that the average yield from one well alone was only 1,000,000 gallons daily, decreasing pro rata up to a total yield of 3,500,000 gallons daily when four wells were in operation. The lowering of the ground water was approxi- mately 5 feet when pumping 1,000,000 gallons, increasing up to approximately 10 feet when pumping at the full capacity developed of 3,500,000 gallons. In this connection it is stated that the water in these test wells is found to rise and fall directly with the tide, thus rendering it difficult to state with accuracy the full effect of pl HYDROLOGY. OF NEW YORK 691 the pumping on the lowering of the water. To determine this point fully, Mr De Varona states, would require a more prolonged series of observations than it was possible to make in 1895. Another test was made at Jameco from December 9 to 20, 1895, inclusive. Between this date and the end of the previous tests an additional well had been sunk at Jameco to the depth of 160 feet. The average daily yield shown during the second test was, approxi- mately, 1,000,000 gallons for a single well, with a proportionate increase for each well connected, the yield for five wells being, approximately, 5,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. The lowering oi the water during those tests amounted to slightly over 14 feet at Jameco while pumping the 5,000,000 gallons daily from the five wells. The total amount of water pumped during the test was 61,239,555 gallons. The greatest lowering of the underground water level occurred at test well No. 8, where it amounted to 15.23 feet. At that time, when the water at Jameco was at its lowest level, the fall between test well No. 8 and test well No. ree was 9.9 feet. The normal water level was not restored until twelve days after the tests had ceased. The results obtained early in 1895 from the test made at Jameco of supplies from deep wells seemed to warrant further investiga- tions as to the possibility of water from deep wells, and the report states that they have been carried on during the year. A series of test wells were driven, extending from the foot of the hill at Ridgewood reservoir to Forest stream pumping station, each well being carried to a depth sufficient to determine the possibility of obtaining a deep supply from that point. The number of those wells sunk during that year was twelve, and the records of the strata passed through are given in Bulletin No. 138, referred to in the footnote.t Returning to table No. 88, it may be stated that the tributary catchment area in 1875 was 52.3 square miles. The catchment area remained at this figure until January, 1881, in which month, by the bringing of the Springfield pumping station into use, it was increased to 59.4 square miles. In the water year of 1875, with a total rainfall of 41.6 inches, the water utilized amounted to *For the particulars of the geology of several of the Brooklyn Water Works wells, of which tests were made in 1895, see Artesian-Well Prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain Region, by N. H. Darton: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, 1896, p. 23-37 6922: NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 10.78 inches, or to an average of 513,165 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.79 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. In the water year of 1880, with a total rainfall of 40.04 inches, the water utilized amounted to 12.37 inches on the catchment, or to 087,568 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.91 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. In 1881, with a rainfall of 41.52 inches, the total utilization of water amounted to 11.64 inches on the catchment, or to 554,473 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.86 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. This drop in | the unit of utilization merely shows the effect of the increase in the area of the catchment. | The tributary catchments remained at 59.4 square miles until August, 1883, in which month the ‘Spring creek and Baisley’s driven-well stations were started. From this date the tributary catchment area is taken at 64.6 square miles. Spring creek and Baisley’s stations marked the beginning of the Brooklyn driven- well system. In the water year of 1884, with a total rainfall of 43.44 inches, the utilization was 12.53 inches, amounting to 594,992 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.92 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. | In May, 1885, the Forest stream and Clear stream driven-well stations were started, thereby increasing the tributary catch- ment area to 65.4 square miles. In the water year of 1886, with a total rainfall of 50.483 inches, the water utilized amounted to 14.40 inches, equivalent to 685,521 gallons per square mile per day, or to 1.06 cubic feet per second per square mile. The catchment area remained 65.4 square miles until June, 1890, when it was increased to 65.6 square miles by the addition of the Jameco park driven-well station. In the water year 1891, with a total rainfall of 40.34 inches, the water utilized amounted to 18.48 inches on the catchment, equivalent to 879,811 gallons per square mile per day, or to 1.85 cubic feet per second per Square mile. Large extensions of the works were made in 1890 and 1891, so that with the beginning of pumping at Millburn on December 17, 1891, the tributary catchment area may be considered as increased from 65.6 to 154.1 square miles, an increase of 88.5 square miles. In the calendar year 1892, with a rainfall of 37.75 inches, the water drawn from the original catchment of 65.6 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 693 square miles amounted to 16.81 inches on the catchment, equiva- lent to 800,191 gallons per square mile, or to 1.24 cubic feet per second per square mile. The water drawn from the new catch- ment of 88.5 square miles that year amounted to 3.67 inches equivalent to 174,776 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.27 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. In 1895, with a total rainfall of 35.64 inches, the original catchment of 65.6 square miles yielded 12.62 inches, equivalent to 600,723 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.93 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. The new catchment of 88.5 square miles fur- nished in that year 8.64 inches, equivalent to 411,558 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.64 of a cubic foot per second . per square mile. Summarizing the information in regard to the water yield of the sand plains of Long Island, it may be stated that the avail- able. data indicate a large yield. The streams of eastern New York can not be relied upon in their natural condition to yield more than about 0.15 to 0.25 of a cubic foot per second per Square mile, while with an ordinary development of storage, the limit may be usually placed at from 0.7 to 0.8 of a cubic foot per second per square mile, or at any rate at not much exceeding one cubic feot per second per square mile. The sand deposits of Long Island may therefore be considered as great natural reservoirs from which, with proper development, large water supplies may be drawn, the same as from reservoirs artificially created on the earth’s surface, these natural under- ground reservoirs possessing the advantage of furnishing a filtered water of high purity. This fact was recognized by the New York Water Supply Commission of 1903, who have recom- mended the further development of this supply. This commis- sion made extensive observations as to the hight of ground water, etc. Recent Projects for Water Supply of Greater New York The rapid growth of Greater New York has compelled a gen- eral extension of the water supply, and a number of able reports have been made, which will be briefly referred to. The first of these is in relation to the Ramapo Water Com- pany, which was organized in 1887 under an act which per- mitted companies organized under it to supply with water any 694 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM municipality in the State of New York. In 1890 the act was repealed and a general law enacted which surrounded with new safeguards contracts made with the companies organized under it, except that these safeguards did not apply to the already organized Ramapo company. A few years later, under chapter 985 of the laws: of 1895, an act to limit and define the powers of the Ramapo Water Company, the Legislature considerably extended the privileges granted to this company. This act gives the Ramapo company power to contract for supplying to any municipality, or to any corporation, public or private. ‘The act also gives to the company powers of condemnation, and they may select such route as they choose. At the same time the Legislature considerably restricted the power of New York to acquire an additional supply of water, as indicated by the following: In 1896 the Suffolk county act, preventing Brooklyn from using the underground waters of Suffolk county, was passed. This act was continued in force by the New York charter, which went into effect January 1, 1898. A clause was also inserted in the Greater New York charter preventing the city from taking water from a supply devoted in whole or in part to the supply of any other muni- cipality. In 1898-99 the Ramapo company proposed to supply New York with 200,000,000 gallons of water daily, for which the City of New York was to pay $70 per million gallons. The delivery of water was to begin in 1902. Very earnest discussion occurred in New York when the Ramapo proposition was understood. An extensive report was made by the Merchants’ Association and also by John R. Free- man to the Comptroller, showing that water could be furnished for very much less than the price proposed to be paid to the Ramapo company. An appeal was made to the Legislature and the legislation was modified, allowing the city to construct its own works. There are a number of available sources from which Greater New York may be supplied without any great engineering diffi- culties. These sources may be enumerated as: 1) On the east side of the Hudson river, where there are the following: the Housatonic and Ten Mile rivers, which are, how- ever, interstate streams; Fishkill creek, Wappingers creek and the Roeliff Jansen kill. — HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 695 On the west side of the Hudson river there are: 2) Wallkill river, which is also an interstate stream. 3) The catchment of the Catskill mountains, including Esopus, Catskill, Schoharie and Rondout creeks. 4) Hudson river itself, either at a point near Poughkeepsie or by an aqueduct from the upper catchment area. The Housatonic river, Ten Mile river and Wallkill river catch- ment areas are, however, eliminated from consideration by reason of certain legal difficulties due to the first two streams being partly in New York and partly in Connecticut and the Wallkill being partly in New York and partly in New Jersey. ‘here seems to be no doubt that a lower riparian owner in either Con- necticut or New Jersey could by an injunction prevent the use of either of these catchment areas to supply the City of New York, and even though Connecticut and New Jersey should, by their legislatures, grant either to the City of New York or to a corpora- tion acting under its authority the right of condemnation, such acts would be unconstitutional. Moreover, it is doubtful in the case of New Jersey whether that State would even attempt to assist the City of New York, because recent legislation in New Jersey has indicated a policy to preserve for its own citizens the waters coming from the catchments in the northern part of the State. It is also considered that legal complications would arise even if a private corporation should attempt to furnish water from New Jersey. As regards the use of the Wallkill river as a water Supply for the City of New York, such use involves the building of a reservoir, the surface of which would be 422 feet above sea level. The Wallkill river, at the location of the proposed reser- voir, is about 380 feet above tidewater. The dam would flood an area of 60 square miles, of which one-fifth is in New Jersey. If New York can purchase the lands in New Jersey, it can of course flood them for the purpose of a reservoir intended to supply New York, but there is no way by which New York city can acquire title to these lands by condemnation. Subject, therefore, to this difficulty of purchase, there is no objection to the Wallkill river as a supply for New York.! *Abstracted from Report of Committee on Legislation, in Report of Merchants’ Association of New York. 696 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In the Merchants’ Association report it is stated that an additional water supply for New York city, adequate until its population shall increase to 18,000,000, can be obtained from the Hudson river above Poughkeepsie, at which point it is pro- posed to build pumping stations and filter beds on the east side of the river, together with an aqueduct to the northern limits of the city, where a xeservoir would be constructed. This plant should be capable of supplying 250,000,000 gallons daily, although it is not proposed to build a plant capable of delivering at first more than 100,000,000 gallons daily. In order to prevent the water above Poughkeepsie from becom- ing brackish, by reason of taking so large an amount of water from the river at this point, it is proposed to build in the Adiron- dacks a number of the reservoirs discussed on a preceding page, in which may be stored flood-flows during the spring months. This water is to be delivered into the river during the dry season, thus keeping the flow uniform throughout the year. As incidental benefits, the navigation of the Hudson from Troy down will be considerably improved, together with a prevention of floods at Albany and places in the vicinity, as well as pro- vision for a uniform flow for mill owners at various points higher up. ‘It is also suggested that water be taken from the Hudson at Hadley, as indicated in the discussion of the Schroon valley reservoir. The annual cost of taking water at Poughkeepsie, including operation and maintenance, will be $28.33 per million gallons for 250,000,000 gallons daily. The annual cost for the same amount from the Adirondacks, including interest, operation and maintenance, will be $30 per million gallons, while to furnish 500,000,000 gallons from the Adirondacks, the yearly cost after construction will become $29.25 per million gallons. : The Committee on Water Supply of the Merchants’ Association, however, considered that there are certain advantages in the Poughkeepsie plan over either the Catskill or Adirondack in that: . 1) The ultimate first cost of the Poughkeepsie plan would be less. | Se = : a A aes HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 697 - 2) A larger proportion of the ultimate first cost may be de- ferred by the Poughkeepsie plan than by either the Catskill or Adirondack plan. 3) The time necessary for construction is also less. Water from the Hudson at Poughkeepsie can be delivered in six years; from the Catskills, in seven years, and from the seg es in seven and one-half years. 4) The Adirondacks and the Hudson together would furnish 1,500,000,000 gallons per day, while the Catskill catchment can. not furnish more than 260,000,000 gallons, or, with Schoharie creek, 460,000,000 gallons per day. 5) The length of the aqueduct would be less from Pough- keepsie than from either the Adirondacks or the Catskills. From Poughkeepsie a high level aqueduct would be 60 miles in length; from the Adirondacks, 203 miles, and from the Catskills, 100 miles. The lesser length of the Poughkeepsie aqueduct is not only an important element in construction, but is quite as important in maintenance and protection. ‘Water taken at Poughkeepsie would require filtration, and in the modern view it would also require filtration from the | Adirondacks, although it may be very appropriately questioned whether a water supply from a seriously sewage-polluted stream is desirable so long as unpolluted sources are available without increasing the cost per unit.’ _ Reservoir on Wallkill river. Among other interesting reser- voirs which have been recently proposed for the supply of Greater New York, that on the Wallkill river may be described in detail. This reservoir was reported upon by James H. Fuertes, whose report appears in the Report of the Merchants’ Association of New York, made in 1900. Wallkill river rises in northern New Jersey, a few miles south of Sparta. It flows in a northeasterly direction, entering the State of New York about half way between Liberty. Corner and Unionville. It then flows through Orange and Ulster counties, joining Rondout creek, which empties into the Hudson river -at Kingston. *Report of Committee on Water Supply of Merchants’ Association of New York. 698 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Just before entering New York State the stream enters a broad,. flat valley, extending to Phillipsburg, and varying from one to five miles in width. The floor of this valley is flat, both longi- tudinally and transversely, with its slope in the direction of the river so slight that the valley is usually flooded during the spring, although later in the season the water drains from the flats through the river channel, as well as through several artificial drainage ditches. : The valley consists of high hills with steep sides. The hills on the west are slaty, slightly covered with soil, while the hills on the east are of granite, marble and limestone. The bottom of the valley is underlaid with calciferous sandstone, generally covered with a few feet of black soil on top of the detritus with which the valley is filled. The geologic structure indicates that there is very little underground flow above Phillipsburg, although ~ Mr Freeman in his report to the Comptroller, also made in 1900, expresses a different opinion. In his view there is a good deal of doubt whether the Wallkill reservoir can be made safe, because of the large leakage from the sides. The writer does not share Mr Freeman’s apprehensions, although in the absence of thorough examinations the question is an open one. About 25. per cent of the valley is wooded. The water of the reservoir on the Wallkill would be as soft and colorless as the Croton water. This conclusion is based on experi- ments and analyses and on a study of the ground and surface flow | of the streams. It is proposed to erect a dam at Phillipsburg which will im- pound the waters of the river and flood the valley from twenty to. thirty feet in depth. The general elevation is about 390 feet above sea level. If the water level be raised to 410, sufficient storage will be provided for a daily draft of 250,000,000 gallons by drawing the water in the reservoir down 5 feet. The area of the catchment above Phillipsburg is 465 square miles. The area submerged at elevation 405 is 49 square miles, and at elevation 410 it is 51 square miles. Hence, only about 5 per cent of the area would be exposed on drawing the reservoir, enough to give a yield of 250,- 000,000 gallons daily. The amount of water impounded would be approximately 200,000,000,000 gallons (26,700,000,000 cubic feet) of which 53,000,000,000 gallons (7,100,000,000 cubic feet) would HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 699 be available, equivalent to a daily yield of over 600,000 gallons of water per square mile of land surface, or 254,000,000 gallons per day. The writer, however, considers this allowance larger than is likely to be realized in the region—-probably 500,000 gallons per square mile per day would be a safer figure. There are two serious objections to a water supply reservoir at this. point. The first is the shallowness of the reservoir, which will certainly lead to extensive growths of algae around the edges, and the second is the objectionable bottom. The second objection can be overcome by covering the bottom with gravel which, however, would add very greatly to the expense.! The submerged land is sparsely populated, and with the excep- tion of Florida, Hamburg and Deckertown, there are no villages of any importance near the valley. The sewage of Goshen and Middletown, however, enter streams flowing into the Wallkill above the point where the dam would be located and would have to be taken below the dam by sewers. The sewage of Florida, Hamburg and Deckertown would require purification before dis- charging into streams tributary to the reservoir. A few other small hamlets of from three to a dozen houses could be taken care of by purchase. | Jt is proposed to filter the water from this reservoir. The esti- mates provide for the purchasing of 70 square miles of area, which includes a strip around the edge wide enough to afford protection from contamination. About 20 per cent of the land which it is proposed to submerge is either now or has been under cultivation. The balance is covered with water and rank growths of coarse grass, reeds and underbrush. The surrounding hills are dotted with dairy farms, and the Lehigh and New England railway and the Pine Island branch of the Irie railroad collect the milk, conveying it to market. These railroads would be relocated along the edges of the reservoir, with crossings, embankments and bridges as required. It would also be necessary to build crossroads over the lake, with bridges and roads along the margins. The expense has been included in the estimates. , *In reference to growths of algae, see paper On the Fresh Water Algae and their Relation to the Purity of Public Water Supplies. Trans. Am. mac. ©... Vol. XXI (1889). 700 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM There are several dams below Phillipsburg at which power is used for operating mills and factories, although the total power does not much exceed 1000 horsepower. In some in- stances the plants have a capacity in excess of that needed for the minimum flow of the stream. The principal developed power is at Walden. The population here is from 2500 to 3000 people, and its prosperity depends upon the waterpower which has been developed by two dams, amounting to 500 horsepower at minimum low water flow. To cripple this power would seri- ously affect the community depending upon it. In the estimates therefore very liberal figures have been used, which are con- sidered sufficiently high to cover any method of compensation which might be adopted. By increasing the hight of the dam at Phillipsburg to 422 feet above sea level, the flooded area would become 58 square miles and the available storage capacity of the reservoir, when drawn down to elevation 402, would be 219,000,000,000 gallons (29,300,000,000 cubic feet). With such a storage a minimum yield would be 417,000,000 gallons daily. The total amount of water impounded with full reservoir would be 387,000,000,000 gallons (51,700,000,000 cubic feet). It is stated in the report that this reservoir would be the largest artificial lake in the world, but a comparison with Black river reservoir will show that the latter is somewhat larger. Neither, however, is yet built, and New York State can only claim, by reason of its exceptionally favorable topography, to be the site of two of the largest reservoirs thus far proposed anywhere. Some of the legal objections to the Wallkill river reservoir have already been discussed. The estimated cost of construction of the Wallkill reservoir for a supply of 250,000,000 gallons daily, the water to be filtered and delivered into a new covered reservoir at New York 310 feet above sea level, is $42,421,000. The annual cost for opera- tion and maintenance is figured at $1,819,770, or at a cost per million gallons for the water filtered and delivered into a reser- voir at New York of $19.64. In these estimates labor is taken at $2 per day. For 460,000,000 gallons daily from the Wallkill river the esti- mate of cost on the basis of $2 per day for labor is $80,864,000, with an annual cost for operation and maintenance of $3,328,078, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK TOL or at the rate of $19.82 per million gallons filtered and delivered _ into covered reservoir at New York, 310 feet above sea level. The Wallkill river was also reported upon by Mr Freeman. In his report he states that these Drowned Lands appear to _ be the only adequate reservoir site on the Wallkill—that they _ were once the bottom of an ancient lake and are described by Dr Heinrich Ries, in his Report on the Geology of Orange _ County, as follows: These swamps occur not only in the limestone region, but also in many parts of the slate area and form perhaps the most important agricultural feature of the county. The rich black soil of the swampy tracts is enormously productive, and some of it is worth $300 an acre. The soil is generally planted with onions, and 700 bushels per acre is not an uncommon yield. Potatoes or corn are generally planted in alternative years to relieve the soil. There are about 40,000 acres of swamp land in Orange county. The largest of these areas is the Drowned Lands in Warwick, Greenville, Minnisink, Wawayanda and Goshen townships, and _ covers 17,000 acres. Until about sixty years ago the area was cov- ered by several feet of water held in by a dam of glacial drift at the north end. A canal cut through this dam has redeemed, the land. From the drowned lands there arise islands of lime- _ stone or drift, which are named Pine, Great, Pellets, Gardner’s, Merritts, Cranberry, Black W alnut, Fox aa Sicent islands. o- ~ Black soil underlies the surface to a depth of from five to fifty feet, and this, according to Mather, is in turn underlaid by marl. The Wallkill river follows a winding course along the _ western side of this area, and submerges it entirely during the _ spring floods. Mr Freeman states that the population of the catchment area is almost exclusively a farming one, with about thirty villages, Tanging in population from 100 to 300, by the census of 1900, _ together with many more centers of population with less than 100. The cities and towns which had more than 500 inhabi- tants in 1900, are as follows: Name of town Population RENE tee i se 14,522 EES re haf 5 rs is Sie Bye en yy 2.806 PII rr OSE os le es ak Soe eee. 1,735 Re a Ae AG eee Ae oa lle 600 *Report on Geology of Orange Couuty, 1895, by Dr. Heinrich Ries, Asst. Geologist. 702 . (Was NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The following figures for towns in New Jersey are as given by Mr Freeman: Name of town Population Eranklin Wurtace, ooo ci0080 cso ee te eee 913 DeckertOwn> 3) oc. cigs Oe Col eS ee 993 Ea aa Ue ee lee ahs eke tae eee ois | ee er 519 Odense ite FB. uk eb es Oa oreo ees ea a4 ave ae hoi) 2) Ges Rear tm oO pte fen iy Wo Dh e sa ahs ke Ree eee ta. The outside population on farms is estimated at about twenty to the square mile. Mr Freeman made some observations as to the quality of reservoir bottom. Samples of soils were collected in clean glass jars and sent to the analyst of the Metropolitan Water Board for examination by the ignition method. A sample from one foot depth showed 69 per cent organic matter; from 3 feet down, 85 per cent, and from 5 feet down, 89 per cent. Another sample from 6 inches in depth showed 49 per cent organic matter, with little or no irom present. Several other samples from 6 inches to 314 feet down showed from 78 per cent to 90 per cent organic matter. ‘These observations show at once the necessity, im case a reservoir for water supply purposes should be constructed at this point, for covering the bottom with gravel, as already suggested. : Reservoirs on Hsopus, Catskill and Schoharie creeks. Reser- voirs were considered by Mr Fuertes on Esopus, Catskill and Schoharie creeks. The lowest elevations considered in seeking reservoirs on these streams were for Catskill and Esopus creeks, 500 feet and on Schoharie creek, 1100 feet above sea level. These elevations were decided upon because lower elevations will not economically permit of the delivery of water at New York 300 feet above sea level. Catskill and Esopus creeks flow in a southeasterly direction, nearly parallel and about twenty-five miles apart. Catskill creek is on the northern side of the Catskill mountains and Esopus creek on the south side. Both streams empty into the Hudson river—Catskill creek at the village of Catskill and Esopus creek | at Saugerties. Schoharie creek lies between Catskill and Esopus creeks and flows in the opposite direction, bending HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 703 towards the north after leaving the mountains, and emptying into the Mohawk river near Amsterdam. The sources of Scho- harie creek are over 2000 feet above sea level and not more than ten miles from the Hudson river. The waters of Catskill and Esopus creeks can be delivered to New York through conduit lines from the reservoirs, but the waters of Schoharie creek can only be brought to the city by the construction of a tunnel from the lowest reservoir on the Scho- harie to the nearest point in the Esopus valley. Topographically, Catskill and Esopus creeks are similar in general characteristics. The tributary streams have steep slopes, offering no sites for storage reservoirs. The main streams, on the contrary, are flatter and afford opportunities for construct- ing dams. The conditions on Schoharie creek are different. At its head- waters there are three tributaries, Batavia kill, West kill and Kast kill, on all of which considerable storage may be secured. As stated in the discussion on the flow of streams, all of these are more or less flashy, rising quickly with heavy rains, with high flood-flows, and subsiding rapidly after rainfalls, with very low minimum fiows. The lowest dam site on Esopus creek is a short distance above the falls at the village of Olive. The creek here flows through a narrow gorge, affording an opportunity for the construction of a masonry dam, 60 feet high and 600 feet long. The area of the catchment above this dam is 245 square miles. The proposed reservoirs on Esopus creek have an available storage capacity of about 27,000,000,000 gallons (8,600,000,000 cubic feet), and are estimated to yield in minimum years about 150,000,000 gallons daily. This corresponds to an average yield of 625,000 gallons of water per square mile per day. The writer, however, considers the same as in the case of the Wallkill river, that this estimate is too large, and on Esopus creek it certainly should not be taken to exceed about 500,000 gallons per square mile per day. The proposed dams on Esopus creek are: At Olive; Cold Brook station; Lake Hill; one mile above Mount Pleasant station; one- half mile above Phoenicia; one and one-half miles above Phoe- nicia; one mile above Shandaken; and one-half mile below Big Indian. These dams would all be of earth, with spillways cut in the rock sides of the valley. 704 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The Ulster & Delaware railroad passes through the Esopus valley from one-half mile above the Olive dam to above Big In- dian reservoir site. The building of these reservoirs would require relocation of this railroad for its entire length. The construction of the reservoirs would also require the relocation of five villages. in the valley. There are also twelve villages which are not inter- fered with, but as they lie above the various reservoirs, the cost of providing them with sewerage and sewage purification works is — included in the estimates. There are a few water powers on the main stream at Olive, Boiceville, Allaben and Big Indian. None of these powers is very important, but the estimates have been made ample to cover the cost. ; Table No. 89 gives the particulars of the storage reservoirs on [Esopus creek. TABLE No. 89—PROPOSED STORAGE RESERVOIRS ON ESOPUS CREEK Sie SAG io. | oe a = ab ea So |fteg|Suas| 3 | 2" So, aes Name of Reservoir Fees Higie ue lbese Ce He Se gee og Pics Sein 3S ey OF oS Bo |KSob|RoOb| -.. | OB Paar gS8 aq |HeSeleess| 82 ang as BSS 2.7 Bb E's Bb E's mH | OF 2a Gio iy ... 16, 299, 400 | 89, 688, 623 7,630 | 105,995, 655 Pemecut ss... -.... 15.38 84.61 0.01 100 Ld gn “18, 686,000 | 88,809,259 | 18,243 | 107,514, 393 2 17.38 82.60 0.04. | 100 re "20, 934, 400 | 97,078,000 | 41,456 | 118, 053, 856 ST a 17.73 82.23 0.04 100 LS 31, 404, 650 | 62,314,800 | 224,172 | 93, 943, 622 et CeMb fk sees. cs: 83.48 66.35 0.24 100 mee total. el. 14, 612,700 | 54,289,835 | 63,831 | 68, 966, 366 2 Ee ee eae 21.13 81.33 0.92 | 100 ES 42,608,700 | 19,772,420 | 166,820 | 62,547, 440 EE ee 68.12 31.61 0. a7 | 100 736 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM By way of illustrating the growth and decline of the business of the New York State canals from about 1835-86 to the present time, the following statement of the total tonnage of all freight on the canals, ascending and descending, and the value of the same for certain years from 18357 to 1902, inclusive, is presented: TABLE NO. 93—ToOTAL TONNAGE AND VALUE OF CANAL FREIGHT, 1837 nO, £902 Tons Value LOS Ge rts a ere ore ae ates en Rec ea 1,171,296 - $55,809,288 LSA wee cee ee ee pe ie as oar ae 1,416,046 66,308,892 Soc a ee Sone crea ae ee eee 1,977,565 100,629,859 PSB Om §Oteg eee aee Seon eet ee 3,076,617 156,397,929 Ey yet ak Salt Bro Ee ee nn ae 4,022,617 204,390,147 SMOG hot xd, Sane ae Pout eee emeaee penser 4,650,214 170,849,198 PSG5uc2) eos. 1s Pag ae eee re SOREN 4,729,654 256,237,104 2 Ge epi RR Seer ate At 0) the! ener 6,173,769 231,836,176 HP SSeei tis. Sire po eniae Cceeek Wied OP OM le aceon ange» ame) 4,859,958 145,008,575 ES Sioa ok Cah sew tee eee Meee Ce 6,457,656 247,844,790 clot Sapien Ream Peon ss afin a 4,731,784 119,536,189 12°01 NavMan ape ara Pi Te CES a le 5,246,102 145,761,086 ft See RP ARNO Noo Pan aa RAS oul RIG he. 3,500,314 97,453,021 DSO G2: 6 EL oe ie Ue ale Mp 3,714,894 100,039,578 LSOT dg inte Se eee eee ees CN 3,617,804 96,063,338 PSOS.: 5h ee LAE Rl, Na acre oi a 3,360,063 88,122.35 4 1899 & 4. Ne ie eae acne Rare ae 3,686,051 92,786,712 1900). OMe ee ee ee $2 2h S34, Oda 84,123,772 ADO ot OR ee ee ee es ee 3,420,613 83,478,880 1902 oa ae ae ee ee eer 3,274,610 81,708,453 EE ——— Without analyzing the figures in detail, it is sufficient to point out that if it is true, as popularly supposed, that the Erie canal ought to be maintained as a medium of competition with the railways, the figures derived from the annual statements of the chief competitor of the Erie canal must be taken as conclusive that the competition ha, on the whole, been a failure. The railway, developed as a private enterprise, has not only been able to carry freight as cheaply as the canal, but has been able to charge for : HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK co. the same and do the work at a profit. In the year ending June 30, 1897, the New York Central & Hudson River Railway Com- pany paid a dividend on its stock of $4,000,000, besides carrying po1,866.80 to the surplus account, whereas the canal, although all tolls were removed in 1883, has still been unable to compete. Among the chief reasons for this result, lack of organization of canal transportation must be placed first. The perpetuation of the idea that one advantage of the canals was that they were common highways on which each man could carry his own products to market has tended largely to produce this unsatis- factory result. Thus far there has never been any systematic organization for obtaining business for the canal. The boats are owned by small proprietors, each operating from one to three or four boats. When cargoes in hand are discharged at either terminus, each owner solicits another cargo. The results are delays, half cargoes, and consequent loss. During the last few years it has been only by the most rigid economy that the Erie canal boatmen could live. On the other hand, the business of soliciting freight for the railways is compactly organized and every possible advantage taken of the situation. However unsatisfactory it may seem to the individual boat- man, the future of effective transportation on the Erie canal de- pends on the organization of large transportation companies which conduct the business of carrying freight by canal on the Same business basis as adopted by railways. As to the equity of the State furnishing and maintaining a waterway on which transportation may be conducted by such corporations at a profit the writer expresses no opinion further than to point out that the official discussion of such a proposition by the State Engineer and Surveyor in his annual report for the year ending September 50, 1896, may be taken to indicate that the day of the Erie canal as a State waterway has passed. Cost and revenues of the New York State canal system. Table no. 94 exhibits the total cost of construction, maintenance and operation, and the total revenues from all sources of the several canals of New York from their original inception to September 30, 1892; 738 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM TAPLE NO, 94—F IRST COST AND REVENUES FROM THE NEW YORK STATE CANALS Cost of Cost of : Revenue CANALS construc- We a rove from all Loss Gain tion operation sources (1) (2) (3) (4) 6) (6) (7) Erie and Champlain....... $57, 688, 676 $41, 582, 759/$99, 27) , 4385/$128, 191, 068]........... $28, 919, 633° OSWESOM RM donee ces chee 4, 648, 921| 3, 736, 675| 8,380,597) 3,715,567) $4, 665,030)........... Cayuga and Seneca........ 1, 886, 662; 1,157,754) 3,044,416) 1,055,016! 1,989,400]........... Blacks river anncscse cee 4,077, 882| 2,082,251} 6, 160, 133 305, 663 5, $04. 470| eee Oneida river improvement 233, 962 41, 236 275, 198 214, 428 60,070" Fo eee Oneida lake. 3.25 5.4 ccs assis 513, 439 144, 060 657, 499 65, 180 592, PSUS rae eetalres, ish Baldwinsville (so called).. 31, 000 18, 039 49, 039 iss 261) AT TIS Seneca river towing path. 1, 602 20 1, 622 Ty (82) «te are oiecola 6, 160 Cayuea inlets. sesso 2, 020 948 2, 968 7,004. Siam sees 4, 566 Crooked lake (abandoned) 395, 092 424, 658 819, 750 45, 490 774, 260) 3.55 oe Chenango (abandoned).. 4, 807,952) 2,105,217) 6,913, 169 144, 0200 6; 169, 142! . 2,511,992 00 Champlain canal, engineers’ estimates........... 871,000 00 Gt thal (OOS. cas oa ersket eet ate BAS me eyecare ee eee 1,746,062 00 Black river, engineers’ estimates................ 1,068,437 00 eta GONE. es eat neces ates Gee «cae eee 3,157,296 00 Hoosic tunnel, engineers’ estimates.............. 1,948,557 00 RCIA” GOSUSS A. 255 NoDae F Soe te eee eee ee ee ee 20,241,842 31 Manchester ship canal, engineers’ estimates...... 26,000,000 00 PCL COS t20 2 creek bee emer elec s fares toae i 67,351,105 00 Chicago drainage canal, engineers’ estimates..... 12,000,000 00 Already expended) (1898) 2.5 2.25. fa) 0. 22 ae eee 27,308,216 00 Hstimate to completes .04. 5 ie02 ss. ee ee ee 10,358,486 94 Hudson river improvement, pte estimate, United States army engineers.......... Pee 2,000,000 00 Estimate to complete after $2,000,000 had been expended! vi.) Soares Wien Vol Ay eae oie 2,600,000 00 State. eapitol Albany, (estimate. i. 25 G28. ee 4,000,000 00 State capitate Albany a Gus 2204) 22). Pete eee 24,000,000 00 Theodore Roosevelt succeeded Frank S. Black as Governor January 1, 1899, and on January 25th of that year he appointed Austin G. Fox and Wallace McFarlane as special counsel to assist the Attorney-General in the prosecution and trial of any criminal proceedings which should be instituted against Camp- bell W. Adams or George W. Aldridge, or against any other person concerned, as a result of the Canal Investigating Commis- . sion, appointed under chapter 15 of the laws of 1898. The documents furnished to Messrs Fox and McFarlane were copies HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 743 of the testimony taken before the commission in 1898, together with their report and with the report of E. Countryman to Governor Black, as well as the statements of Messrs Adams and Aldridge. Also the report of the consulting and advisory engi- neers and the large number of documents relating to the matters which had been made the subject of the inquiry. The instructions were to examine this testimony, reports and documents and to make such further examinations as might be deemed advisable in order to determine whether or not the evi- dence warranted the institution of criminal proceedings, and in case it was decided to institute such proceedings, to take charge of the preparation and prosecution of them under the general direction of the Attorney-General. In their report Messrs Fox and McFarlane say they have decided not to institute criminal proceedings, the evidence on the whole not justifying such action, an opinion directly opposed to that of Mr Countryman submitted a few months before. On receipt of this report the whole matter was dropped and most of the people of the State hardly remember in 1904 that such an investigation was held. The New York Commerce Commission. It has been shown in the preceding pages that the commerce of New York has been relatively declining for a number of years. This decline is largely from natural causes which it would be very difficult to prevent, although the view is quite general throughout New York that _ the State’s failure to keep the canals in a state of efficiency has 1The following reports are referred to in the preceding: (1) Report of the Canal Investigating Commission, appointed by the Governor pursuant to chapter 15 of the laws of 1898 and amended by chapter 327 of the laws of 1898, transmitted to the legislature February 28, 1899; (2) Report of the special counsel, E. Countryman, designated to examine the report and testimony transmitted to the Governor by the Canal Investigating Commis- sion; (3) Protest and Defense of Campbell W. Adams, State Engineer and Surveyor. to Frank S. Black, Governor, in Ap. No. 1, in An. Rept of State Engr. for the year 1898, p. 277-364, inclusive; (4) Statement made in reply to criticisms passed by the Canal Investigating Commission upon the Department of Public Works in connection with the improvement of the canals under the $9,000,000 improvement.fund, by the Superintendent of Public Works, George W. Aldridge; (5) Report of counsel, Austin G. Fox and Wallace McFarlane, appointed by the Governor to prosecute certain State officials for alleged criminal practices in carrying out the canal im- provement under chapter 79 of the laws of 1895 and 794, laws of 1896. 744 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM . been the chief cause of the decline. Indeed, in summing up the whole matter, the Canal Improvement Committee of 1903 states that year after year the port of New York has been steadily losing its proper share of the export and import traffic of the country, and this committee further states that New York’s growth in manufacturing and industrial enterprises has not kept pace with sister states in proportion to natural advantages. In regard to this latter proposition, the statistics cited on the preceding pages of this report show that irrational and non-pro- gressive laws are the chief causes of the failure of New York State to increase in manufacturing and industrial enterprises in the same ratio as sister states. Moreover, the proposition that the foreign commerce of New York is falling away may also be open to question, and the following from the Report of the Bureau of Statistics for 1908 may serve to show the contrary. In the fiscal year ended June 30, 1903, exports from New York amounted to $505,000,000, an increase of $158,000,000 over 1893. A compari- son of seven Atlantic and Gulf seaports stands as follows: | Hxports in 1893 Exports in 1903 Increase New York. i) 0% $347,000,000 $505,000,000 158,000,000 Boston. o 2c eee 85,000,000 88,000,000 3,000,000 Philadelphia ...... 49,000,000 73,000,000 24,000,000 Baltimore) ........ 71,000,000 81,000,000 10,000,000 Savannah . |. 01 20,000,000 54,000,000 34,000,000 New Orleans ..... 77,000,000 149,000,000 72,000,000 Galveston ........ 37,000,000 104,000,000 67,000,000 In regard to the increase of the two southern ports, New Orleans and Galveston, it is very largely due to the high price of cotton in 1903. It is evident that this staple, which is exten- sively grown in Texas and Louisiana, will naturally go to nearby ports and will not in any case come to New York. Moreover, New York is ahead in imports. In 1903 her trade amounted to $618,000,000, while the imports at all the other Atlantic ports combined was only $203,000,000, an excess at New York of $415,000,000 over all the other ports. This matter of the decline of New York’s commerce having become the subject of considerable discussion, the Legislature passed an act, chapter 644 of the laws of 1898, authorizing the oe age er at — rag eS A HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 745 4 appointment of a commission to consider the whole question. The report of this commission, which is known as the New York Commerce Commission, was transmitted to the Legislature Jan- uary 25, 1900, by Governor Roosevelt. In his letter accompany- ing the report he states that the thanks of the State are due to the commission for the marked ability and untiring industry shown throughout their labors. The New York Commerce Commission was appointed to con- sider the whole problem of New York’s loss of commerce, in- quiring into the causes and seeking to discover remedies. In their report they state that the main cause of the damage to New York’s commerce is the way in which the railroads of New York discriminate against her in the interests of competing ports. . The report submitted by the commission shows that this rail- road discrimination, imposed by what is known as the differential agreement between the trunk line railroads to the Atlantic Seaports, results in overcoming the advantage which New York would have under natural conditions as the cheapest route to foreign markets for the products of the west. It is claimed that this differential agreement gives preference in railroad rates not only to the cities of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk and Newport News, but Montreal and the Gulf ports are bene- fited by it to the injury of New York to as full an extent as if they were parties to the agreement. The differential agreement also provides the same rate for Boston as for New York, and permits the Boston roads to allow free insurance and free stor- age to such an extent as amounts to a substantial discrimination against New York. The differential agreement was signed on April 5, 1877, by William H. Vanderbilt, H. J. Jewett, Thomas A. Scott and John W. Garrett, representing the New York Central, the Erie, the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore & Ohio railroad companies. It established a system of freight rates governing all traffic, both eastbound and westbound, bounded on the south by the Ohio river, on the west by the Mississippi river and on the east by an imaginary line, drawn through Toronto, Buffalo, Pittsburg and Parkersburg. Traffic destined to, or originating in, territory 746 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ‘ west of the Mississippi, was also subject to this agreement, and it has since been extended to other trunk lines and to seaports like Newport News and Norfolk, which have since become im- portant. It has continued, with some modifications, substan- tially unchanged, until today. It governs the rate on all classes of freight and commodities, and regulates the movement of all grain and grain products in the United States, except those moving to the Gulf ports or the Pacific coast.t In order to partially control the situation, the New York Commerce Commission considered that the canal question was really the central point around which hinged all other questions concerned with benefiting the commercial development of New York. $$TTheir report is very extensive, including 2200 octavo pages. It is accompanied by evidence taken by the commission at its several hearings. The following summary of the con- clusions of this commission is taken from the report: 1) The decline in New York’s commerce has been steady and continuous for many years; it has been more pronounced during recent years, and has now reached serious proportions in an actual loss of exports. This loss has been largely in exports of grain and flour. While New York has been steadily losing, Montreal, Boston, Baltimore, Newport News and the Gulf ports of New Orleans and Galveston have made substantial gains. 2) The loss to New York is due in great measure to a discrimi- nation against New York in railroad rates imposed by an agree- ment, known as the differential agreement, between the trunk line railroads of the American Atlantic seaports, including the New York railroads. 3) While this differential agreement, by its terms, gives pref- erence in railroad rates only to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk and Newport News, the port of Montreal and the Gulf ports are benefited to the injury of New York to as full an extent as if they were parties to the agreement, in view of the fact that in the competition with the Gulf ports and with Montreal the differen- tial agreement alone prevents the New York roads from giving New York as low a rate as is recorded by the agreement to Balti- more and to Newport News; and the same differential agreement, while providing the same rate for Boston as for New York, per- mits the Boston road to allow free insurance and free storage to an extent that amounts to as substantial a discrimination against 1F'rom paper, Railway Discrimination Against New York and the Remedy, by Abel E. Blackmar. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLVI, p. 182-200. ee aad HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK T47 New York as is imposed by the discrimination in the rail rate in favor of Philadelphia, Baltimore and Newport News. -_ 4) As a result of this situation, in which New York is pre- vented from receiving the benefit of her natural advantages in competition with these other ports, each of the ports named has made gains while New York has continued to lose. 5) While there are port charges in New York that can and _ should be reduced, it will be impracticable to assure to New York any benefit from such reductions so long as the railroads are per- mitted to offset the saving in expense thus secured by correspond- ingly increasing the differential against New York. That such is the principle of the differential agreement and the policy of the New York roads, as well as the roads to the southern Atlantic ports, was conceded by the officials of the New York roads when they appeared before the commission. 6) The theory of such discrimination is that, under natural competitive conditions, New York would maintain its preeminent position in the export as well as in the import trade of the coun- try—New York under such natural conditions being the cheapest route to the foreign markets for the products of the west. To the extent that this differential agreement requires the New York roads to charge a higher rate than otherwise would be imposed upon the export products of the west it is, in effect, an export tax upon such products. . . 7) To abolish the differential, therefore, would not only result in New York regaining the commerce now diverted to other ports, but it would also benefit the producers and exporters of the west when competing in the foreign markets. This is explanatory of the fact that the western exporters express themselves as equally concerned with New York regarding this railroad discrimination against New York. 8) The principle of the differential agreement is inequitable and unjust in theory and in practice. New York has suffered much therefrom, and should use every means within her power not only to have it abolished, but also to render it impracticable of restoration. The differential rate applies not only on products destined for export, but also destined for local consumption by the people of New York city. 9) The fact that the New York Central & Hudson River Railway Company has received exceptional benefits from the State of New York makes that corporation exceptionally culpable for participating in the discrimination to the serious injury of New -York. 10) This railroad discrimination against New York would be impossible without the participation of the New York Central and 748 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Hudson River Railroad Company, and the demand that it with- draw irrevocably from the differential agreement is now made understandingly. 11) The State has it within its power, through an adequate improvement of the Irie canal, not only to apply the remedy that will secure it against further loss of its commerce, but that will — secure to it as well the restoration oi that which has already been diverted. 12) This result may be achieved through the completion of the improvement of the State canals contemplated by chapter 79 of the laws of 1895 at an expenditure not exceeding $15,000,000. To receive full benefit from the completion of such improvement _ canal terminals should be provided ‘by the State, both at Buffalo and at New York, for the receipt, safeguarding and delivery of package freight transported or destined for transportation over the Erie canal. 13) While thus providing for competition with rail rates suf- ficient to render difficult if not impossible a discrimination against New York, certain high charges at the port of New York should be reduced, including the charge for elevating grain, and also including the excessive ‘rentals imposed for the use of poe MOElES. As stated in the eleventh conclusion, this commission was strongly of the opinion that the State has it within its power, by an adequate improvement of Erie canal, to remedy the deficiencies at present existing, and they accordingly recom- mended that an act should be passed providing for the earliest possible completion of the improvement of canals contemplated by chapter 79 of the laws of 1895, and providing for issuing bonds to the sum of $15,000,000 to pay for such improvement. The commission also considered that there should be an amendment of chapter 494 of the laws of 1899 authorizing the designation for canal terminals of public piers in the City of New York, together with suitable locations upon the Erie canal Jands at Buffalo, and providing that certain piers should be set apart exclusively for canal terminals. The commission also considered that chapter 585 of the laws of 1888, entitled, An act to regulate the fees and charges for elevating, trimming, receiving and discharging grain by means of floating and stationary elevators and warehouses within this State, should be so amended as to make it more difficult of Ley ay HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK (49 evasion and to provide for a maximum rate of one-half cent per bushel for such service. They also considered that the Transportation Corporation Law should be amended in such manner as to allow companies to be organized with a capital stock exceeding $50,000. The commission considered that the provision of the charter of New York city relating to the canal piers in that city should Ee eae 7, a a a a CAPACITY /000 AUSHELS oF WHEAT ||| | 30 TONS B+ Fig. 49 Original boat used on Erie canal. 1817 ~ (830 be so amended as to limit the use of canal piers to barges on the Hudson river north of Castleton. They also considered that an act should be passed prohibiting the conveyance in perpetuity of any land under water in New York now owned by the State or city and providing that leases of such land may be made. : They considered that the legislature should confer annually _ such authorization to the City of New York as would enable it~ PE XE x BL DFT 1830 ~/B90 | (eabaciTy i050 BUSHETS OF WHEAT | 75 TONS a aay Fig. 50 Boat used at beginning of enlargement. to carry out plans for the construction of piers and the improve- ment of dock facilities whenever required. They finally considered that such additional authority should be conferred upon the City of New York within the constitutional limits as would enable the Dock Board to enter promptly into the possession of lands necessary to be acquired for the improvement between Gansevoort and Twenty-third streets. The reasons for these several recommendations are included in the commission’s personal report, pages 7-141, of volume I of their report. 750 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The New York Commerce Commission consisted of Chas. A. — Schieren, Andrew H. Green, C. C. Shayne, Hugh Kelly and Alex- ander R. Smith. Description of the Canals Now in Operation and Their Water Supply Following are some of the main facts in regard to the principal canals—Hrie, Champlain, Oswego, and Black river—now in opera- tion in the State of New York. Similar facts for Oneida lake canal, Oneida river improvement, the Cayuga and Seneca canal and others, may be obtained by reference to the annual reports of the Superintendent of Public Works. In order to save space, in a few cases, immaterial facts have been omitted. LENGTH, CAPACITY, AND COST OF NEW YORK STATE CANALS Erie canal Original canal Enlarged canal BENS UH, sii TAPES sate ee ce 363.00 aoL.78 Hockwee, im feel: kag ech esas ee ae ‘ 675.50 645.80 Average burden of boats, in tons.... 70.00 210.00 Maximum burden of boats, in tons... 76.00 240.00 Construction authorized............ Apr. 15,1817. May 11, 18385 Construction completed............ Oct., 1836 Sept., 1862 Actual cost of construction......... $7,143,789 $44,465,414 SSS SS SS SSS Champlain canal : Length-of canalan males oo = ee eee 66 Length ‘of seeder, vanemilles 2 oom eo (een ee 7 Length of pomdein mulesiya ten ee pene 5 Total, sim siaibesiecascset tics cs schs eet, wise ee eee eee 78 Average burden of boats, im tons,..2:..-.2..) 520.2% 85 Construction authorized::4. ie bee eee eee Apr. 15, 1817 Glens Falls feeder authorized. ...........-.0.:0..% Apr., 1822 Estimated cost of canal....... wait Bans tole wads cteoneeeteie Ee $871,000 Total cost of canal and feeder to 1868.............. 2,378,910 Total cost, including improvements and enlarge- ments, to 187.0. 2o ve) ited es eee eee 4,044,000 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Tot Oswego canal Original canal Enlarged canal Mews TI MNCS 5. a's ee eas eal 38.00 38.00 Speke IM TECL. . 2... ees we eles 154.85 154.85 Average burden of boats, in tons..... 62.00 210.00 Construction authorized ........... Apr., 1825 Apr., 1854 Construction completed ............ Dec., 1828 Sept., 1862 Actual cost of construction......... $565,473 $4,427,589 pj 3 Rae i ee eee eee Black River canal Length of canal, Rome to Lyon Falls, in miles....... 35.00 Length of improved river to Carthage, in miles...... 42.00 iheneth of navigable feeder, in miles....:.......... 10.50 Deckace, im feet........ Se een ee 1,082.25 Average burden of boats, in toms.................. 70.00 Couseruction authorized... 2.2 5.......-- Pooks tte: Apr., 1836 OMSPLUCTION .COMpleled: oo... 2 ele cee eels ets whee 1849 PeeualCCOSt OF CONSLLUCLION. . 2.6. ce ele es $3,581,954 a Eastern division of Erie canal. Erie canal is divided into three divisions, known as the eastern, the middle, and the western. The eastern division embraces the portion of the canal, with its feeders and side cuts, extending from the Hudson river at Albany to the dividing line between the counties of Herkimer and Oneida, and the whole of the Champlain canal, with its feeders, ponds, and side cuts. The entire mileage of canals, feeders, and river improvements on the eastern division is as follows: Erie canal, Albany to east line of Oneida county........ 106.24 Fort Schuyler and West Troy side cuts................ 0.35 PEM TERNS NR Se eet Peres, sida us nice Sia! Suet wens! 4b wnaiar nga nee te 0.77 Champlain canal, including Waterford side cut......... 66.00 Bavicamie-river above Troy dam...» ../. sce oe te ste ss we 3.00 CGPS DE HCAS 22.5 (5 Se DN A a ea eae are eae 7.00 Navigable river above Glens Falls feeder dam........... 5.00 (52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM MILEAGE OF UNNAVIGABLE FEEDERS OF THE EASTERN DIVISION OF ERIE CANAL Miles. Mohawk river at.Rextord Flats: .. 32. 22-532. 6 eee 0.39 Mohawk river at torky rifts: 553 LIL Es FE 2S r RRS Ei a eas in age eee oa ae 600 MMMM eae eel ecw ate | es Ss ain Wasi be ah 600 we EPS ec Ee NR OT en ee 600 | SE trmMIIa ee ite ee a 553 (SEE BID the Sc RRS Se Se ae Mae er eee ar 510 November ..... SA ARO ER Wy re Sea a ae OE ae gh a gs ne et a 495 With the leakage of the Glens Falls feeder done away with, the foregoing figures may be reduced about 200 cubic feet per second for each month. For the section of the Champlain canal from GS X/718 x6 OFT 66269 EES a a CAPACITY. 8.000 BUSHELS OF WHEAT 240 TONS a Fig. 52 Boat used after enlargement was completed in 1862. Northumberland to Cohoes we may assume the water supply of the enlarged canal at about 255 cubic feet per second in May, ‘October, and November, and at about 280 to 290 cubic feet per ‘second in June, July, August and September. Middle division of Erie canal. This division comprises that portion of the Erie canal lying between the east line of Oneida ‘county and the east line of Wayne county, as well as the Oswego canal from Syracuse to Oswego, the Baldwinsville side cut, the Cayuga and Seneca canal, the Black River canal, and other short 756 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM stretches as indicated in detail below. The following are the lengths in miles of the several sections: : Erie canal from east line of Oneida county to east line ae Ol WV aye COUMLY. 4.5.2) wane says apes oe cee Ce 97.02 Osweeo ama: ic ohh. eS os oe eee 37.08 Side cuts and ‘slips at Salina... 2.5.2.6 eee 2.02 Sips ab Liverpool sie occa ¢-scice ys eee ce 0.25 Baldwinsville side @Wts.c. ye ceie in oot ee 0.59 Cayuga and Seneca camels, 2.05. 25.6 . dcnuasio. nn eee 22.99 Blaek River canals oo. v2 ee.. ee oes ee ee ee . 385.52 Old;Oneida take Canali... fs 7 gees Sates ee 1.05 Chenango sSliprss eews tis ees eee re 0.05 Chemune canal, original lake level * 22:22 33) ee ace 2.53 Gta eet 27.2, SES eel ae. cote ert ope cae a cree eek 199.80 ————— MILEAGE OF RIVER IMPROVEMENTS PERTAINING TO THE MIDDLE DIVISION OF ERI CANAL Miles Bleclo win er: Voit ans ea Ak eekeeeet igh seks eee | 42.50 Onondagacoutlet «sit ho 3.8 bts ee Side ow eee 0.75 Ome da ariyer a ais elas oe sane, Mietace aeae O e 20.00 Seneca iver: COW Meals oi weet eeie Sine A ecient Cee ee 5.83 SenGCd HIVE, amr aws cree} ham aria a cstacomect eae ee ee Not used eh aca imlek pio ee eek ie eae enuaeat c amienh tee eee 2.05 Seneca: Oumtletin. de fawn: ee een A ee ta eee Total: 2555 Ss ie Boies Wee sete aes cs Ens een er ec » (dow MILEAGE OF NAVIGABLE FEEDERS OF THE MIDDLE DIVISION OF ERIE See Miles Limestone .creekich S238 eat, ae ee 0.83 Butternut. creek... 3.32435 ee ae eee .6¢ Camis oo. Ses ets ee ere eae of Ja ee eee 1.04 Wea oS Ge ee ee et Beers pry) Black river 050) oe at Si ee i a ee fio HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK T57 The total length of canal, river improvement, and navigable feeders on the middle division is thus found to be 287.33 miles. The following feeders of the middle division are not navigable: Miles Srewaneo canal summit level.o oo... ek be ec nw 5.0L te) RICO. NOITICL CP ae FE Ne en fa deena ae aed eae 0.31 BVMISOM DPOOK 22. see ee a ete ee Ly Oc eee Den ie a Ze UGS IDTESN INE De dy 250 OURS GO aI ATER ee hs ne ea ae oe oe 5.83 Rete OK ye ee Lele a eda ot wane Giats Aletala 3s oocka is wiecahh 0.67 MMHG enh 3 ee get, mt SR OS EM oa sie'e 0.28 Mare Oa 8, or ee dca e Rese TaN Te aaa ale Ges Gaeta bie wh ks LE Sie bist etre BNO COKEL brid. Sahar pene AN Neen RIO Soar waar e acie mS 0.53 Migitteeder at Rome...) Soc... 0+ -soc leven eei cla. 0.08 “DE EL UUEL CIBER eI Se a eee ie Ion A cr en a ea eae neg Zeon tte IaomeGCel ig bite pea ey. tos es eR eA tg oa ie baa 8 0.40 MICHIE ORChCCle ws .. ee io ite eee ee ea 0.28 SERIO EY IGT (oP 05 1 2 ara cole a a ipa a a 0.51 a oree EMO SoTL VICI! hoses keh see re sed alisha wee a a 1.00 Pe penthy ier TeseryGie OUUIET 225. bs ee edt) cee te. 0.12 Mises. Poe ees es Pale eased sehen Lee Ce Make deg 0.55 PamiMous( UNUAVISADIG POrtION)...... 0 t.26. ee. ee eae os 0.65 RIMM SIe OO Nahr. Senate ae Ne ha he ae oe Gk weet 0.18 Rei lesen el ea 0.09 Rema Mate) Ole sp te hae ek ek oh yoke Ein tps goede a’ Dee 0.20 “SS TLELGIE DOING SALSA es 5 BNR See ener a 0.18 iis eRe Cetra tania a parade v ona Exes ve ae oe siosbaa'le @ aie deacons 2.10 Mancino Kall... 5 <. Rr aceuee EF ee Aa ea ee 1.80 TTC Gel 3108 a gry Pao ree Ee wah Kee fu rage te) Scant Atal ak aoe 0.14 OFmT Ole oe Tee eC 0 (2) ee eee ee ee re ee 0.16 iL tne eee eRe as NE ate ae he ot cn gue 4 alae ae ws 29 .04 Rome level, which is a summit level, extends from lock No. 46 to lock No. 47, a distance of 55.96 miles. The following is the estimated water supply of this level before the beginning of the enlargement of 1895. 758 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Leland pond, Madison Brook reservoir, Eaton Brook reservoir, Bradley Brook reservoir, Hatch lake, Kings- ley Brook reservoir, and Oriskany creek feed through the Chenango canal, Oriskany creek, and Oriskany creek feeder into the Rome level, 6 miles west of lock Noa Gee xe sae a tia wn ees ee eee ee ig ara a Mohawk river, Black river, Forestport pond, Forestport reservoir, White Lake reservoir, Chub lake, Sand lake, First, Second and Third Bisby lakes, Woodhull reser- voir, Twin lakes, South Branch reservoir, North Branch reservoir and Canachagala lake feed through the Rome feeder and Black River canal into the Rome level at Rome, 14 miles west of lock No. 46........... Oneida creek enters the canal through feeder 30 miles west Of lock NO. 46e: 2.05 See ee ee eo ko Cowaselon creek enters the canal through feeder 31.5 miles west/of lock No. 46% ox 2.2... cn Se Cazenovia Lake reservoir, Erieville reservoir and Chit- Cubic feet — per second * 100 = 2 tenango creek enter the canal through Chittenango — creek feeder, 41.5 miles west of lock No. 46; average for nayigation season about.) o2. 22.25.5550. 2 eee eee De Ruyter reservoir enters the canal through Limestone creek (Fayetteville) feeder, 50 miles west of lock No. 46; average for the navigation season about.......... Limestone creek (natural flow) also enters the canal through Limestone creek. (Fayetteville) feeder, 50 miles west of lock No. 46........ folder anes PS aoc Jamesville reservoir enters the canal through the Orr- ville feeder, 52 miles west of lock No. 46; average for Navigation SeasOm.5.0 50 eae ae Butternut creek (natural flow) enters the canal through the Orrville feeder, 52 miles west of lock No. 46....... Oe 0) SO Kee O50) 1018.8! 6 “e © eXe' (ws ‘eye im (6). ere) fee) 16) e608 16. 6 ee) fe) (6) ete) eae 47 32 443 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 759 The following detail in regard to the preceding feeders and reservoirs is condensed from the Barge Canal Report. Oriskany feeder. This feeder has a catchment area above the diversion dam at Oriskany of 234 square miles, which includes 87 square miles of the catchment of Chenango river, therefore leav- ing 147 square miles tributary to Oriskany creek. On the Che- nango river catchment there are a number of reservoirs, a list of which has been given on page 417. Mohawk feeder. ‘A short distance east of the Black River canal a portion of the Mohawk river is diverted by the Mohawk feeder into the Erie canal. The catchment area of the river above the point of diversion is 156 square miles. It is thus without water storage. The minimum flow of the Mohawk river at Ridge Mills, as shown on a preceding page, is rather large, although it should not be overlooked that it receives the waste and leakage of twenty-five miles of the Black River canal. For the present it may be taken at 0.2 cubic foot per second per square mile. (25% 1? }2 x B OFT $5SOTUNS Fig. 53 Boat suggested by Canal Committee for Erie canal improvement. Black river canal feeder. The Erie canal is supplied with 183 cubic feet per second of water from the Black river canal, which unites therewith at Rome. The summit level of the Black river canal is supplied from Black river at Forestport by means of a navigable feeder about 10.5 miles in length. The distance from Boonville to Rome is about twenty-five miles. The pond at the head of the Forestport feeder is formed by a diversion dam across Black river, a short distance below Wood- hull creek. ‘The catchment area at the diversion dam is 267 square miles. The Forestport reservoir is on Black river about 1.5 miles above the diversion dam. ‘This reservoir has an area of 760 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 793 acres and an average depth of 7 feet. Its storage capacity is 212,444,000 cubic feet. The catchment area is 147 square miles. There are also a number of lakes, ponds and reservoirs in the upper portion of the catchment area of Black river which are utilized but which are not specifically mentioned here because they are tabulated on page 544. Wood creek feeder. This stream flows into Erie canal in the western part of Rome. Its catchment area is 7 square miles, and since the amount of water furnished by this catchment is so small as to be inappreciable, it is not taken into account in the pre- ceding tabulation. The minimum flow amounts to about 0.3 cubic foot per second. Z Oneida feeder. Oneida feeder enters Erie canal at Durham-- ville. A portion of the water of Oneida creek is diverted into Oneida feeder at Oneida. The catchment area of the creek above the diversion dam is 73 square miles. There are no storage reser- voirs upon Oneida creek. ; Cowaselon feeder. This feeder empties into the Erie canal 2.5 miles west of Durhamville. The catchment area above the feeder is 28 square miles. There are no storage reservoirs upon this stream. Chittenango feeder. The Chittenango creek unites with the outlet of Cazenovia lake at Cazenovia and is diverted into the Chit- tenango feeder at Chittenango. The Erieville reservoir is situated in the extreme south- eastern portion of the catchment on one of the smaller branches of Chittenango creek. The tributary catchment is 5.4 square miles and its storage capacity 318,424,000 cubic feet. The water surface is 340 acres and the average depth is 21.5 feet. The outlet of Cazenovia lake unites with Chittenango creek 9.4 miles above the feeder. The catchment area of the lake is 8.7 Square miles, and according to recent determinations the water surface is 1.7 square miles, although in the reports of the Canal Department it is stated at 2.8 square miles. The outlet is also stated to be so controlled as to afford a storage of 348,523,000 cubic feet by drawing off a depth of 4.5 feet. This depth on an area of 1.7 square miles gives a storage of only 206,997,000 cubic feet. The area of the catchment above the diversion dam HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 761 is 77.1 square miles. That of Erieville reservoir and Cazenovia lake combined is 14.1 square miles. Fayetteville feeder. A portion of the water of Limestone creek is diverted into the Fayetteville feeder at Fayetteville. This feeder is 1.2 miles long and is navigable for 0.83 of a mile. Near Delphi, Limestone creek divides into two branches. De Ruyter reser- voir is located at the head of the branch from the south. This reservoir is formed by an earth dam 70 feet high, and has a storage capacity of 504,468,000 cubic feet, with an average area of 626 acres and depth of 18.5 feet. It impounds water from 150x25x/0 DFT CAPACI DS ISS DOSIHLLS OF WITLAT /000 TONS Fig. 54 Boat recommended by Canal Committee for Barge canal. 18.2 square miles of the catchment of Tioughnioga river. Its location is 15 miles southeasterly from the head of the diver- sion dam at Fayetteville, and the intermediate catchment is 77.1 square miles. The total catchment above Fayetteville is 95.2 square miles; below this village the feeder intercepts Bishops brook, with a catchment of 8.3 square miles. The total catchment area tributary to the Fayetteville feeder is therefore 103.5 square miles. | | The storage capacity of De Ruyter reservoir is at the rate of 27,800,000 cubic feet per square mile of tributary catchment, as figured on the basis of 18.2 square miles of catchment area. Orrville feeder. At a point 2.2 miles south of the canal at De Witt the water of Butternut creek is diverted through the Orrville feeder into the canal. Jamesville reservoir, 2.4 miles above the head of the feeder, is formed by a dam across the creek. The area of the reservoir formed is 252 acres; average 762 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM depth, 16.5 feet, and storage capacity, 170,000,000 cubic feet. The catchment area of the creek above the head of the feeder is 52 square miles, and the catchment area above the reservoir is 46.2 square miles. . The storage of the Jamesville reservoir is at the rate of 3,680,000 cubic feet per square mile of catchment tributary to the reser- voir. In order to make the entire yield of the area available, a much larger storage capacity than this is required. Jordan level, which is also a summit level, extends from lock No. 50 to lock No. 51 and is 14,903 miles in length. The follow- ing feeders are tributary to this level: ; Cubic | moe Otisco lake reservoir fed through Camillus feeder into the : canal, 4 miles west of lock No. 50..2.......+ 4.9 eee 86 Ninemile creek (natural flow) also fed into canal through Camillus feeder <2 25) -lyeee = 2. >>) say Bis QED rEYYSES » => 2, GLA PELL hy Vile! HES \ZZz Mine ey Ne ee 7 RO 74 e/a LE —S Fig. 60 Rock cross-section of proposed Barge canal. occurs from September to November, when navigation is the most active. In order to maintain the level the discharge must be so controlled that it will always be approximately equal to the dif- ference between the water supply and the evaporation of Lake Erie. This can be accomplished by establishing regulating works at Buffalo. They must be so arranged that they will not only maintain the level of the lake at or near the fixed stage adopted, but will also produce no injurious effect upon the lakes and water- ways from which the supply is derived, or upon those receiving the discharge. This problem was investigated by the Board of Engineers, and they concluded that the best location for the regu- lating works would be at the foot of the lake, just below Buffalo harbor. The board also concluded that the level of the lake could be maintained during the season of navigation within about 0.6 . foot below the level adopted for regulation, under all the condi- tions of supply. Variations of level, due to violent winds, will HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 781 occasionally happen, but it was not considered that they would seriously interfere with the regulation of the lake level. The effect on the Niagara river, Lake Ontario and the St Law- rence river will not be objectionable, while the depth of water will be increased about 3 feet in Lake Erie, 2 feet in Lake St Clair and 1 foot in Lake Huron. | Niagara ship canal. The project for a waterway from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic tidewaters suitable for transporting the commerce of the upper lakes has attracted public attention for nearly a century, during which time the people of New York have maintained that such a canal must be built directly across the State in order to aid in building up the financial and commercial supremacy of New York city, while the people of the western states have considered that the canal should be constructed on the route best adapted for transporting the commerce of the country tributary to the Great Lakes; that is to say, everybody except the people of New York have considered that the prefer- able route was by a Niagara ship canal into Lake Ontario at the most convenient point, and from thence through Lake Ontario to Oswego. Even in 1812, before the construction of the Erie canal, _ the authorities of the territory of Michigan resolved unanimously that in their opinion the canal contemplated by the Commission- ers of Internal Navigation of the State of New York would not be so desirable as a canal around Niagara. To this the New York Commissioners replied that they had too much respect for the authorities of Michigan to suppose they had given such opinion without information and consideration, and therefore the New York Commissioners inferred that the information received was either not founded in fact, or that not having turned their atten- tion to the subject of canals, the authorities of Michigan were not well qualified to judge. It is certain that the St Lawrenée river is the natural outlet and the line of least resistance for a waterway from the Great Lakes to tidewater. A waterway large enough to transport the tonnage of the lakes can be constructed by way of Lake Ontario for less cost than by any other route. Moreover, a steamer will traverse it in about a ee eee a a a ee *New York Canals, Vol. 1, p. 74. 782 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM three quarters of the time required on a direct waterway from Lake Erie to the Mohawk. The matter therefore takes this form: If it iy desired to develop a waterway best subserving the inter- ests of the lake commerce, the route should be through Lake Ontario and a ship canal from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario would be an essential part of it. Five surveys have been made for a canal on the American side from Lake Erie to Ontario, in most of which only two routes have been considered—one from Niagara river above the falls at Lasalle to below the falls at Lewiston, thence by the Niagara river to Lake Ontario; and the other from Tonawanda to Lake Ontario at Olcott. These surveys contemplated the use of the Niagara river from Lake Erie to the entrance of the canal as part of the route. The Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways studied two routes for the Niagara ship canal. Both of these begin at deep water in Lake Erie and, running through Black Rock harbor to near the head of Squaw island, lock down to the river level and then follow the general course of the river to Tonawanda and Cayuga island, just off the village of Lasalle, at which points the two waterways leave the river. Lasalle-Lewiston route. The Lasalle-Lewiston route continues from Lasalle to within half a mile of the foot of lock No. 2, above Lewiston. The route then passes down the bluff to the Niagara below the falls half a mile below Lewiston, with six double locks, each of 40 feet lift and two locks each of 39.4 feet lift. The estimated cost of the 30-foot channel, with Lake Erie regulated, is $73,435,000. Estimating with reference to standard low water, the estimated cost for a 30-foot channel is $75,084,000. The estimate for a 21-foot channel with Lake Erie regulated is $42,393,000 and for a 21-foot channel with Standard low water the estimated cost is $43,214,000. Tonawanda-Olcott route. This route leaves the Niagara river at Tonawanda and continues at the level of the river to just west of Lockport, from which point it descends to Eighteenmile creek, one mile from Lake Ontario, following the valley of that creek to Lake Ontario. The descent is accomplished by two single and three double locks of 40 feet lift each; one single HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 783 lock of 30.5 feet lift, and three double locks, of 30 feet lift, each. The proposed harbor at Olcott is a widening of Eighteenmile creek to the width of 400 feet from the last lock to the lake, the entrance being protected by breakwaters. The estimated cost of the Tonawanda-Olcott route for a 30-foot channel, with Lake Erie regulated, is $75,572,000, and with standard low water the estimated cost of a 30-foot channel is $77,221,000. The estimate for a 21-foot channel, with Lake Erie regulated, is $48,454,000, and with standard low water the estimated cost for a 21-foot channel is $49,275,000. As to the relative value of these two routes, it is stated that a steamship of 19 feet draft in the 21-foot channel would con- Sume one hour and nine minutes more time between Buffalo and a point common to the two routes in Lake Ontario in tray- Fig. 61 Earth section of proposed 1500-ton Barge canal. ersing the Tonawanda-Olcott route than in Lasalle-Lewiston route, and that in a 30-foot channel a steamship of 27 feet draft would be one hour and forty-three minutes longer by the Tona- wanda-Olcott route. The cost of maintenance of the Lasgalle- Lewiston route would be less than for the Tonawanda-Olcott route. It is therefore evident that economy in original con- struction, transportation and time of passage for ships deter- mine the Lasalle-Lewiston route as preferable. Oswego-Mohawk route. From Lewiston vessels pass through the deep lower Niagara river to the mouth at Queenstown, from whence the route is by open water of Lake Ontario to Oswego, 112 miles, at which place the line leaves Lake Ontario from an artificial harbor to be constructed about one mile west of Oswe- go river. It then passes through the westerly limits of the city of Oswego to a dam above Minetto, where the deep water- way joins the river, 85.6 feet above Lake Ontario. This differ- e 784 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ence in level will be overcome by four locks of 21.4 feet lift each. From Minetto the line follows the river to the northern edge of the village of Fulton, where it enters the valley of a small creek, and continues across swamp and sand reaches to Oneida lake. Two different projects for connecting waterways from Oswego — river to the Mohawk have been examined—the first of these with the summit level 416 feet above tide, with a water supply to be furnished through a feeder from reservoirs on the Black and Salmon rivers, and the second, with a summit level the same as that of Oneida lake, 379 feet above tide. For a water- way having a high summit level across the divide between Oneida lake and the Mohawk river, it is proposed to establish the Fig. 62 Barth section of Barge canal recommended by Canal Committee. Width of bottom of canal 75 feet. low-water level of the lake at 376+T. W., while for the project having the lake for the summit level, low water will be estab- lished at 379 feet+T.W. For the project having a high summit level it is proposed to overcome the 45-foot rise from the Oswego river at Fulton to Oneida lake by two locks with 22.5 feet lift each, while for the latter project there will be two locks of 18 feet lift each, and one with varying lift from 12 to 19 feet, according to the stage of Oneida lake. In regard to the high-level project, the summit of the divide near Rome is about 4380 feet+T. W. The deep waterway would cross this summit with a water surface elevation of 416 feet. The summit level would be nearly 14 miles long and receive a water supply from the Black river feeder at or near its western end, three miles west of Rome, from which point the line would follow in a direct course to Oneida lake, at the mouth of Fish creek. ‘The eastern end of the summit level is about one mile east of the mouth of Oriskany creek. | oe ee HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 85 -In the low level project it is proposed to convert Oneida lake into a storage reservoir, and by cutting a channel through the Rome divide, navigation at lake level could be extended to the Mohawk river at Frankfort, a distance of seventy-two miles from the lock at the western end of the level, 2.5 miles east of Fulton. From Frankfort to the Hudson the route is practically a rectification of the Mohawk river to Rotterdam Junction, thence for three miles along the south side of the Mohawk valley and across the divide to the head of the Normans kill, which stream enters the Hudson a short distance below Albany. The water supply of the high level project, including evapora- tion, leakage, waterpower, waste, etc. is taken at 1600 cubic feet per second for a 30-foot channel and at 1400 cubic feet per second for a 21-foot channel. In order to provide this quantity, a reser- voir was located in the valley of Black river, with surface area, when full, of 73 square miles and an impounding capacity of 57,000,000,000 cubic feet, and one in Salmon river valley of 8.5 Square miles area and a storage capacity of over 7,000,000,000 cubic feet. The storage of the Black river reservoir would be suffi- cient to maintain a supply except in periods of low precipitation, when additional supply might be needed from the Salmon river reservoir. The Black river reservoir also provided for maintain- 7 ing the waterpower on Black river below the reservoir. A study was also made of an alternative tunnel project as a substitute for the feeder line, which has sufficient merit to warrant further investigation. This tunnel would leave the south end of the Black river reservoir at Lyon Falls and open into the wpper Mohawk at the yillage of North Western, a distance of 20.5 miles from the reservoir, and thence discharge from the channel of the Mohawk into the waterway near Rome. It is considered that the tunnel plan would be preferable because the amount of waste and cost of maintenance would be much less than for the open feeder. The danger of accident would be reduced to a minimum. The costs of the two systems, as estimated, are approximately the same. The estimated cost for a 30-foot channel on the high level pro- ject is $195,870,000. For the low level project, the estimated cost of a 30-foot channel is $199,926,000. i 786 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM For the high level project, the estimated cost of a 21-foot chan- nel is $151,165,000. For the low level project, the estimated cost for a 21-foot chan- nel is $152,843,000. | St Lawrence-Champlain route. This route extends from the foot of Lake Ontario to the lower end of the Oswego-Mohawk route, at the mouth of the Normans kill, following the St Law- rence river from Lake Ontario to Lake St Francis; from Lake St Francis to Lake Champlain; from Lake Champlain across the divide between that lake and the Hudson river, and along the Hud- | = | SZ a Se 7S SE : + oe. —— ae -\ilee~ : Wi EX ae ; LL. p= a 2 | ey WIC Dies ih ease a iS 2 ys Le RAPA CLL he ZN LT LEEZZNWN\ : *s = — (MESA ALIGN Z2.W ¢ Rock section. iis Harth section. Fig. 63 Major Symons’s proposed Ship canal, Lake Erie to Hudson river. son river to the junction with the Oswego-Mohawk route below Albany. The estimated cost for a 30-foot channel is $208,448,000, while for a 21-foot channel the estimated cost is $142,075,000. The tidal portion of the Hudson river from the mouth of the Normans kill to tidewater at New York would require some work to be done, although for a 21-foot channel the river is mostly deep enough. The work on this section below the Normans kill, for a 30-foot channel, is estimated at $10,383,000 and for a 21-foot channel at $4,160,000. ; The Board of Engineers also considered the intermediate chan- nels of the lakes, as at the head of Lake Erie, at Lake St Clair and the St Clair flats, between Lakes Huron and Michigan, etc. _— pa Son HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 787 These several improvements, while necessary for a complete sys- tem of navigation of the Great lakes do not otherwise specially apply to the State of New York, and are therefore not given here. They may be found in detail in the report of the board. The utilization of natural waterways. Probably the particular feature which most deserves attention in the deep waterways sur- veys is that they are a utilization of natural waterways and not in any sense artificial channels. Of the total distance from Buf- falo to New York (477 miles) only 102 miles are in standard canal section, and 98 miles are in canalized rivers from 250 to 1000 feet in width. The remaining 277 miles are in open lakes and rivers, where a vessel can make nearly or quite as good time as She can on the open waters of Lake Erie or Lake Huron. On the Barge canal about 200 miles, or nearly double the distance, is in artificial channel. This, taken in connection with the liberal size adopted for the canal section, will enable vessels to make a very high speed on this route. The estimates have been worked out with care, from the known time occupied by vessels in passing the Sault lock and the St Clair canal, checking them by the most thorough investigation of all available data of the speed of vessels in existing ship canals. The result shows that a vessel of 11,700 tons displace- ment and 8600 tons of cargo capacity would take 64 hours to make the passage from Buffalo to New York city, 477 miles. About 7 hours are required for the passage from Buffalo through the Niagara river and down the flight of locks to Lake Ontario; 11 hours more through the open waters of Lake Ontario bring the vessel to Oswego. About 17 hours are then required for the pas- sage up the Oswego valley and through the long canal section to the pools of the Mohawk river (of which about two hours are spent in traversing the open waters of Lake Oneida). Then 91% hours are required for the passage down the Mohawk valley; 8 hours for the passage from there to the Hudson, and 12 hours for the run down the Hudson to New York. The preferable route. The following in regard to comparison of the waterways is taken from the Report of the Board of Engineers: | 1 Abstract from editorial in Engineering News. 788 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The investigation of the routes for a waterway between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario indicates that the Lasalle-Lewiston line can be constructed at less cost than the others, and can be tra- versed by a type carrier between points common to all the routes in less time than by the other routes. The natural harbor at the mouth of the Niagara river and the © comparatively small amount of restricted channel on the Lewiston line make it a better location on which to construct a waterway than the route from Tonawanda to Olcott. The route from Lake Ontario to New York is 208 miles farther by the St Lawrence, Lake Champlain and the Hudson river than by the Oswego, Mohawk and Hudson rivers, but has 292 feet less lockage than the Mohawk low level and 366 feet less lockage than the Mohawk high level routes. The length of standard canal prism is practically the same by each route, the difference in distance being almost entirely in the open lake and river portions of the waterway. The sailing time for a type carrier is twelve hours longer by the Champlain route than by the Mohawk route, which difference is due to the greater time required to sail 208 miles farther by the former than to make eighteen more lockages on the latter. The comparative values of the two routes depend largely upon the cost to construct and maintain the respective channels, the annual traffic capacity of each, and the time required for type carriers to make round trips. The estimated cost of the 21-foot waterway and the sailing times between terminals are based on locks 600 feet long and 60 feet wide. If the locks should be made 80 feet wide for the pur- pose of passing large ships from the lake shipyards to the Atlantic, the estimated cost of the Mohawk route would be increased $4,221,000 and the Champlain route $2,560,000, the annual ca- pacity of the routes.slightly diminished, and the time required for making round trips increased. Summit level water supply. The following in regard to summit level water supply for a 30-foot channel is from the report to the Board of Engineers: The proposed summit level of the Oswego-Mohawk route, with water-surface elevation of 416 feet above tide, extends a distance HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK | 789 of 71,900 feet (13.62 miles). The water surface for a 30-foot channel in earth is 334 feet wide, and for a 21-foot channel 310 feet. The area of cross-section of a 30-foot channel is 8000 square feet and for a 21-foot channel 5500 square feet. The tributary streams may be relied upon to keep the main channel full during the winter season, even under the most ad- verse conditions of winter drought. Filling in the spring may be therefore left out of the account, and the problem is accord- ingly simplified to a determination of. the quantity required to supply lockages, evaporation, percolation, gate-and-sluice-leakage losses and wastage. The locks at the ends of the summit level are to be 740 feet in length by 80 feet wide, with lifts of 20 feet. Also, at Little Falls, 129,460 feet (24.52 miles) east of the east end of the summit level, there are to be duplicate sets of tandem locks, with total lift of 48 feet, the lock chambers being 740 feet long by 60 feet in width. _ West Canada creek, which has a catchment area above its mouth of 569 square miles, flows into the Mohawk river at Her- kimer. The several small streams known as Crane creek, Reels creek, Knapp brook, Budlong creek, Sterling creek, Bridenbacker creek and adjacent territory lying on the north side of the Mohawk river and between Herkimer and the east boundary of Ninemile creek area have a catchment area of 86 square miles. To the east of Herkimer, on the north side of the Mohawk river, Beaver ‘brook and adjacent territory have 15 square miles, while on the south side, between Utica and Little Falls, Ballou creek, Factory creek, Ferguson creek, Meyer creek, Steele creek, Fulmer creek and adjacent territory have a catchment area of 139 square miles. The total catchment area tributary to the main deep waterway between Little Falls and the east end of the summit level is therefore (569 + 86 +15 +1389) 809 square miles. This area may be expected to yield from 150 to 200 cubic feet of water per second in a dry time, which will, it is believed, be ample for the various losses and small additional lockage re- quirement on the reach of canal between the east end of the summit level and the double locks at Little Falls. According to data furnished by the Board of Engineers, the annual traffic is assumed at 25,000,000 tons, with an assumed tonnage per lockage for a 30-foot channel of 3000 tons and for a 21-foot channel a tonnage per lockage of 2500 tons. The question of water supply of canals has been so fully dis- cussed elsewhere as to make it impossible to add very much 790 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM thereto at this time. So far as the United States is concerned, experience on the Erie canal in New York State is the most ex- tensive of any.! From the foregoing data of annual traffic and tonnage per lock- age we have a total lockage per year of 8333, and adding the usual 50 per cent for two ends of summit level, tT we have a total number of lockfuls of water of 12,500. Assuming 222 days of navigation, we have the following: Volume of one lockful (740 x 80 x 20)— 1,184,000 cubic feet. For mean water supply per second, we have: 12,500 x 1,184,000 292 x 24 x 8,600 == 772 cubic feet or, for even figures, we may place the lockage requirement at 800 cubic feet per second. The foregoing quantity of 800 cubic feet per second expenditure of water for lockage is based upon absolutely uniform distribution of vessels, both as to direction and season. As a modifying factor we should take into account these elements: 1) Since the feeder has no storage in the vicinity of the main canal a draft in excess of the mean quantity must be drawn from the main channel itself. 2) There will be a tendency to more lockage in daylight than at night. 3) In the spring of the year, on account of the preponderance of the grain trade, the larger proportion of movement will prob- ably be, for a fore from west to east. At other seasons there are likely to be times when the traffic will be in excess in one direction. ‘The estimate of one and one half lockfuls of water for each vessel passing the summit is based on uniform distri- bution of the traffic, otherwise two lockfuls per vessel passing is required. The proper addition to the lockage requirement on account of such irregularity can not be definitely determined until one has statistics of the actual movement covering a series of years. In the absence of such the foregoing may be pointed out as a reason why the lockage requirement should be properly placed somewhat larger than the theoretical figure. *For these data reference may be made to the section on Loss of Water from Artificial Channels in this report. There are a number of other refer- ences, as Water Supply of Western Division of Erie Canal, etc. The Barge Canal Report contains a resumé of the preceding, together with the Euro- pean data, etc. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 791 The table of evaporation from a water surface, as observed at the Mount Hope reservoir of the Rochester Waterworks, shows that for the navigation months, April to November inclusive, evaporation ranges from 1.33 inches in November 1897, to 6.85 inches in July 1898. 'The water surface of the proposed summit level is so small as to make evaporation, even in the maximum month, hardly worth taking into account. At 6.85 inches for the month the evaporation on the summit level becomes, roundly, 5 cubic feet per second. In order to give evaporation some value in the estimate of total water supply we will take it at from 5 to 10 cubic feet per second. There is no rational method of estimating percolation loss for a canal under the conditions which exist in the Mohawk valley. The drainage is all towards the valley, and at first thought it might appear that percolation was a negligible quantity. However, if we consider that the total water supply, as estimated for the summit level, takes into account the entire yield of the catchment area tributary to the main channel, and further consider that the channel, as located, has its water surface for a considerable dis- tance several feet above the ordinary water plane of the Mohawk river and Wood creek in their natural condition, we may conclude that percolation ought not to be entirely neglected, more specially because the soils in the Mohawk bottom are open and porous, and without some method of consolidation of the natural soils, which does not now occur to the writer, can be devised, there is likely — to be considerable loss from percolation. By way of showing the relation of water surface of the summit level to ordinary water levels in the Mohawk river and Wood creek the following data are cited : At a distance of 17,000 feet east of Rome the ordinary water surface of the Mohawk river is at an elevation of 415, or the same as water surface of the summit level ; 24,000 feet east of Rome it is 413; 32,000 feet east it is 408; 41,000 feet east, 404, and 47,000 feet east, 401. ) At 17,500 feet west of Rome the ordinary: water surface of Wood creek is at 414, or one foot lower than the summit level; at 21,500 feet west of Rome it is 408, and at 25,500 feet west, 398. The writer has no way of demonstrating the proposition, although it seems clear enough to him that with an open, porous soil the percolation from the canal at points where the summit level is raised somewhat above the ordinary water level of the Mohawk river and Wood creek .will be considerable. The porous soils of these valleys will take up water like a sponge, making 792 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM considerable areas from which, due to a luxuriant vegetation, the summer evaporation may be as much as 60 inches over the actual ground area affected. ‘The land damage on these areas will be considerable and should be taken into account in the estimate. In dry years, with a total rainfall from June to November inclu- sive of from 8 to 12-inches, the amount required to keep up this great evaporation must come by percolation from a deep water- way channel. If we assume an area of 10 square miles as affected, the amount of water required to keep up constant evaporation on the basis of 60 inches for the navigation season would be nearly 80 cubic feet per second, or, even if we consider the area affected as not exceeding 5 square miles and take into account the loss into the old-water channels, it seems rational to allow percolation from summit level of 75 to 100 cubic feet per second. ‘Leakage at gates and structures is a very uncertain element. Under ordinary conditions the gates ought to be worked without very much leakage. The data furnished indicate a probable loss from this source of perhaps 60 to 80 cubic feet per second. A considerable amount of power will be required at each lock for operating gates and for electric light at night. A conserva- tive allowance for this purpose seems to be from 20 to 25 cubic feet per second at each end of summit level, or a total of 40 to 50 cubic feet per second. On the Erie canal considerable time is saved by flushing boats out of the locks on to the lower levels by letting water through the gates from above. The writer does not understand, however, that this practice is specially applicable to locks passing boats carry- ing their own power. In order to accommodate local traffic it is probable, even though deep waterways should be constructed on Substantially the line under consideration, that the Erie canal would be maintained on its present line from near Rome to Buf- falo. Independent of other considerations, this would lead to con- siderable traffic on deep waterways in the way of barges, timber rafts and fleets of canal boats, the handling of which will probably be more or less expedited by a reasonable use of water for flushing out on to the lower levels. As a matter of judgment purely, this item has been placed at from 50 to 60 cubic feet per second, al- though by the use of mechanical arrangements for doing this work the quantity of water could be materially reduced, flushing being in any case an uneconomical method of applying power. In order to pass the large flood flows of the upper Mohawk with- out great fluctuation of the water, surface, it will be necessary to provide from 2000 to 2500 linear feet of spillway at each end of the summit level, and over which, whenever there is any interrup- HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 793 tion of uniform distribution of lockages, there must necessarily be considerable waste. Taking into account the actual water-surface area of the summit level of (71,900 x 334) = 24,014,600 square feet, and assuming an inflow of 1300 cubic feet per second, without any outflow, the increase in depth per hour becomes 0.19 foot, or in three hours the increase in depth would become 0.58 foot. How- eyer, if there were no lockages for three hours, the depth would not increase as rapidly as this because of the leakage at gates and sluices and wastage on the spillways. In order to illustrate this matter we may consider the following tabulation, in which the heads are given in inches and feet. The coefficient used for the computation, as derived from Bazin’s experiments, is applicable to a flat-crested, or nearly flat-crested, weir from 6 to 7 feet wide. The quantity of discharge, Q, in cubic feet per second, is given per linear foot of crest and also for 2590 feet of crest. Q poet linear zoe Q for 2500 feet (0) est, 1 of crest, in : HEAD cubic feet pee cubic feet Inches Feet Coefficient second per second Wh es kag 0.083 2.20 0.053 133 - 26 0.167 2.20 0.150: 315 co Ao eres 0.250 ees, 0.294 (35 2 See 0.330 2.42 0.459 1,148 2.47 0.665 1,663 2 U2 eee 0.417 ———, It appears from the foregoing that when the water rises to a depth of only one inch on such a crest, the discharge over 2500 linear feet would become 133 cubic feet per second, while for two inches depth it becomes 375 cubic feet per second, and for three inches depth, 735 cubic feet per second, and so on up to 1663 cubic feet per second for a depth of five inches. However, the wastage would be less than these figures indicate, because of the outflow from leakage and the wastage over the crest. Under the existing conditions of the proposed deep waterways summit level, whenever there is an interval of two or three hours without lockages the wastage over the long spillways at the ends of the level will amount to several hundred cubic feet per second. This quantity may probably be reduced somewhat by the use of flashboards, to be set in place and taken off as neces- sary, although, in view of the sudden flood rises of- the Mohawk river and consequent necessity for removing the flashboards fre- quently, the writer considers that such remedy would be some- what unsatisfactory. The safer way, without doubt, is to provide a liberal wastage requirement. On this basis, from 150 to 250 794 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cubic feet per second has been assumed. Bringing these several items of summit water supply together we have the following: Cubic feet per second TDLOCkaees A. 8? eco e nak aenk age 3 buen eee ee 800 800 2) Myaporation 2h. firs oe act tact: oc et ee eee 5 to 10 3): Percolation, Wire 22 opto eica nee ane 75 to 100 Ay ealkage: al Aves, CLC t .% cere opeaps oie oe eae 60 to 80 5) Power ang electric Vebis. 2. ee ee ee 40 to 50 6) Flushing out canal boats, barges and timber PALES Oe 6 Ses ee Gia eae es Sea ete ae 50 to 60 tf) Wastame atcspill Ways...) oe pee eee 150 to 250 Ayo 9 Raia arrcprrenamsen Sar, Parr Sochh ie lees nN bee 1,180 to 1,350 8) Feeder lOSSES... (ce. St oe ae ee ee 300 to 600. Pinal otal i epee ee ee 1,480 to 1,950 Proceeding on similar lines of discussion for water supply of summit level for a 21-foot channel, it is concluded that from 1215 to 1600 cubic feet per second would be required—or as a mean, the quantity may be fixed upon as 1400 cubic feet per second, including feeder losses. The water supply for a low-level ship canal may be fixed at from 1000 to 1100 cubic feet per second, which could be furnished from storage of Oneida lake. The deep waterways surveys were executed in 1898-99. The Canadian canals. In discussing canal projects as applying to the State of New York it ought not to be overlooked that there is now a waterway 14 feet in depth through Canada, by way of the Welland canal, connecting Lake Erie with Lake Ontario and the several canals around the rapids of the St Lawrence river, to tidewater at Quebec. These canals have been in exist- ence a number of years, but they have never been in any sense competitors of the New York canals, largely because the river and Gulf of St Lawrence are a region of fogs, which necessarily will always make the St Lawrence route an objectionable one. The river St Lawrence must be thoroughly marked by light- houses and buoys, and even after this is done there will remain a thousand miles of difficult navigation from Montreal to the open ocean. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 795 The present Canadian canals are, as stated, only 14 feet in depth, although two projects for 21-foot canals are considerably talked of at the present time. The first of these is the Georgian bay canal through Lake Simcoe to Lake Ontario near Toronto. This proposed canal is only about one hundred miles in length, from Georgian bay to Lake Ontario, of which fifteen miles are in Lake Simcoe, leaving about eighty-five miles of actual canal construction. The eleva- tion of Lake Simcoe is 714 feet above tide, or 184 feet above Georgian bay. ‘The mean elevation of Lake Ontario may be taken at 247 feet, or it is 467 feet below Lake Simcoe. The total lockage on this canal, therefore, is roundly 600 feet. There is a very heavy cut through ridges both at the west and east of Lake Simcoe. The cut to the west is ninety feet in depth and seven miles long. The cut to the east is 200 feet in depth, and about eleven miles long. The quantities in these two cuts are about double those of the Culebra cut on the Panama canal. The difficulties of taking out this cut are known to everybody, although it is conceded that difficulties due to climate would not tend to delay the work in Canada, as they have on the Isthmus of Panama. The flight of locks from Lake Simcoe to Lake Ontario would be perhaps twelve in number, with a lift at each lock of a little less than forty feet, while from Lake Simcoe to Georgian bay there would be four locks, or sixteen in all. So far as known, no estimate of the cost of this canal has been made, but it can not fail to be exceedingly expensive. The second Canadian project to which attention is directed is that known as the Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian bay canal, by way of French river, Lake Nipissing, Matawan and Ottawa rivers, connecting Georgian bay with the St Lawrence, near Montreal. It is proposed to canalize these streams. The dis- tance from Georgian bay to the St Lawrence, at Montreal, is 425 miles, and there would be twenty-nine locks, as proposed. Lake Nipissing, the summit level, is forty-six feet above Georgian bay and 640 feet above the St Lawrence river, at Montreal. The estimated cost of this canal is $80,000,000. A company has been formed to construct it, and it is stated that they have been merely waiting to see what turn the barge canal project would 796 ~ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM take in the State of New York. It is understood now that they are preparing to build! this canal. When the Welland canal was opened it would accommodate most of the lake vessels of that day, but since then the size of lake vessels has greatly increased—the cost of running larger vessels being less in proportion—so that there is now a con- siderable fleet shut in between Buffalo and Port Colborne. The barge canal having carried in New York, the Canadians are now contemplating a radical improvement to the Welland canal, and preliminary thereto are spending $2,000,000 at Port Colborne, the Lake Erie end of Welland canal, in harbor improvements, the intention being to deepen the harbor to accommodate boats drawing 20 feet of water. The project ig also being actively agitated to reconstruct Welland canal, making it deep enough to take boats of 20 feet | draft. The fall from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario is 326 feet, which is now made by twenty-five locks. It is proposed to re- construct these, making seven or eight locks instead, each lock to be 650 feet by 65 feet and 22 feet on the sills. It is estimated. that such an enlargement can be completed in four years at a cost not exceeding about $25,000,000. This project is advocated by the Dominion Marine Association and by the St Catherine and Thorold Boards of Trade. In case the Welland canal is enlarged as proposed, the deepening of the St Lawrence route to 20 feet would then be a. comparatively small matter. Recent Canal Projects in New York. Report of the Committee on Canals of New York. On March 8, 1899, Governor Roosevelt appointed Francis V. Greene, George E. Green, John W. Scatcherd, Thomas W. Symons, Frank S. With- erbee, Edward A. Bond and John N. Partridge a committee on canals to consider the whole question and to advise the State of New York as to what policy should be followed with reference to the canals. In the letter of appointment it is. stated that the opinion. of a body of experts was required who should include not merely high-class engineers, but men of business, who knew the relative advantages and disadvantages of ship canals, barge canals HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 797 and ordinary shallow canals and who were acquainted with the history of canal transportation as affected by the competition of railways and who had the knowledge that would enable us to profit by the experience of other countries in these matters. This committee, which was known as the Canal Committee, reported, under date of January 15, 1900, in favor of enlarging the canal enough to take a barge of 1000 tons capacity. In order to Fig. 64 Earth section of original Erie canal. Width of bottom of canal 26 feet. ; accomplish this, a canal 12 feet deep is required, 75 feet wide at the bottom and 123 feet wide at water surface. Seymour plan for enlargement of Erie canal. The canal im- provement of 1895 was formulated by State Engineer and Sur- veyor, Horatio Seymour, Jr., in 1878. The Canal Committee considered the Seymour plan and re- ported that the cost of completing it would be $12,925,639. This estimate includes the work required to deepen the prism of the canal to 9 feet and to give not less than 8 feet across aqueducts, Fig. 65 Earth section of enlargement of Erie canal of 1862. Width of bottom of canal 52 feet. mitre sills, culverts and other permanent structures, and for lengthening and improving locks remaining to be lengthened. The estimates are considered large enough to cover the increased cost due to the eight-hour law and the increase in cost of labor and materials and for engineering and inspection. The Seymour-—Adams plan. In his report for 1896 State Engi- neer Adams proposed an extension or modification of the original project authorized for the Erie canal under the “ $9,000,000 act.” His proposition was to obtain a depth of 9 feet throughout the 798 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM canal, over aqueducts, structures, etc., as well as in the canal reaches, and to lengthen the locks by changing the gates so as to allow their use by boats 115 feet long, of the present width, and drawing 8 feet of water. This follows the present route of the canal. This would enable ordinary boats to carry 400 tons of freight, and a four-boat steam fleet would carry 1500 tons of freight, or about 50,000 bushels of wheat. So far as known no. definite estimate was made by Mr Adams of the cost of the additional work proposed. The estimated cost, however, of this plan, as made by the Canal Committee, was $15,068,048. This includes new quadrant buffer steel gates, with the necessary masonry at each lengthened lock, and the unlengthened locks to be improved to correspond, and all structures to be given such depth as will admit their use by boats drawing 8 feet of water. According to an estimate given in the Report of the Canal Committee the cost per ton for carrying freight on this canal from Buffalo to New York would be 504 cents; the cost per bushel would be 1.51 cents, and the cost per ton mile would be 1 mill. New Erie canal proposed by Canal Committee. In considering — the enlargement of ithe Erie canal to 9 feet, the Canal Committee proposed that the principal features of the Erie canal should be as follows: 1) The prism of the canal to be left at its present width generally, but to be deepened to 9 feet throughout, at aqueducts and structures as well as in the canal levels, and to be put into condition for use by boats of the present width and drawing 8 feet. ; 2) Three important changes in the route of the canal to be adopted. The first and greatest change is to deflect the canal from a point just east of Clyde into the Seneca river, follow down the river to its junction with the Oneida river, thence follow up the Oneida river to Oneida lake, through Oneida lake, and thence by canal up the valley of Wood creek and to the present Erie canal near New London, making several river cut-offs to shorten distance and give better alignment. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 799 The second change is to do away with the two aqueducts across the Mohawk river and the portion of the canal in Saratoga county. This is to be done by throwing the canal into the Mohawk at Rexford Flats, and following down the river to the vicinity of the great falls of the Mohawk at Cohoes. The third change is at the West Troy side-cut where, instead of the awkward right angle turn requiring even small boats to uncouple, a diagonal deflection is made which will enable fleets to pass directly and conveniently into the Hudson without breaking up. 3) Pneumatic or other mechanical locks or appliances for the passage of boats to be provided at Cohoes and Lockport, and possibly at Newark. All other locks (one of each pair) to be lengthened and enlarged to take in two boats of 125 feet length, Fig. 66 Earth section of improvement of Erie canal suggested by Canal Committee. Width of bottom of canal 49 feet. 8 feet draft, and of the present width. The locks to be provided with water-power generating apparatus wherever necessary, with steel quick-acting quadrant gates, equipped with spring buffers, or other gates equally good, with power capstans at each end of the lock for pulling the boats in and out, and generally with every- thing of the most modern and up-to-date character. The other small lock of each pair of locks to be lengthened to take in one boat 125 feet long. On a canal by this plan the cost per ton for carrying freight from Buffalo to New York would be 44 cents; the cost per bushel, - 1.82 cents, and the cost per ton mile, 0.88 mill. The enlarged canal. After giving due consideration to the vari- ous features of the problem, the Canal Committee decided that if the canal were to be materially enlarged its new dimensions should be such as would fit it for use by barges of 150 feet length, 25 feet width, and 10 feet draft of water, with all locks arranged to take in two boats coupled together tandem. S00 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The route deemed most desirable for such a canal from Lake Erie to the Hudson river is to follow the present line of the Erie canal with minor diversions from Buffalo to just east of Clyde, then to deflect into the Seneca river, and follow down this river and up Oneida river through Oneida lake, and by the valley of Wood creek to the line of the rie canal near New London. The two aqueducts across the Mohawk would also be done away with and the canal thrown into the river, and at West Troy side-cut the location would be changed to better the debouchment into the Hudson. This canal would require the rebuilding of all the locks on the portion of the Erie canal retained, substituting at Cohoes, Lockport and possibly at Newark, pneumatic or other mechanical] locks for those now existing, building new locks on the Seneca- ——_————" : : S > Niagara River Sy RN Fig. 67 Earth section of Erie canal from Black Rock to Tonawanda. ‘Oneida and lower Mohawk portions of the route, and deepening - and widening the prism of the canal to give a waterway of not less than 1000 square feet cross-section. By such a canal the cost per ton of carrying freight from Buffalo to New York would be 26 cents; the cost per bushel, 0.8 cent, and the cost per ton mile, 0.52 mill. The number of trips which can be made annually is estimated at nine for the Seymour-Adams plan, and at ten for the new Erie canal as well as for the enlarged canal. The Canal Committee also reported that the work on the Oswego canal at Phoenix and Oswego, undertaken in 1896, should be com- pleted. The cost of completing the Oswego canal was estimated at $818,000. The Canal Committee recommended that the Champlain canal Should be improved to the full extent authorized by chapter 79 of the laws of 1895, at an estimated expense of $1,824,000. The estimated cost of enlarging the Erie canal to a barge canal was $58,895,000, or making a total for the Erie, Oswego and Cham- plain canals of $61,537,000. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK SOL Study of continuously descending canal from Lake Erie to the Hudson river. ‘Ever since the publication of the paper by the late Elnathan Sweet in 1884 in regard to a radical enlargement of the artificial waterway between the lakes and the Hudson river, the opinion has extensively prevailed that it was preferable to relocate the Erie canal in such manner as to eliminate the depression between Newark and Syracuse, thus making a canal with a continuous fall all the way from Lake Erie to the Hudson. In his report for 1883 State Engineer and Surveyor Silas Sey- mour remarks that an examination of the Erie canal profile will show that by raising Montezuma level 36.4 feet and the intervening portions of the canal to the same elevation, Rome level would be extended to a corresponding level west of the valley of the Seneca river, and the lockage discharges of the entire Erie canal would all be to the eastward, thus making Lake Erie the principal source of water supply for the whole canal. He concludes his discussion by suggesting that if a ship canal should ever be seriously contem- plated, the practicability of this improvement should be carefully considered.! ‘So far as known, the foregoing is the first reference in canal literature of this State to a continuously descending high level canal from Newark to the west end of Rome level. In the early days of inland navigation in the State of New York effort was entirely directed towards the improvement of the natural watercourses, artificial channels being only considered when necessary to connect such.2? There were no engineers in the State at that time, and the difficulties of meeting flood con- ditions seemed to our ancestors insuperable. The result was that when the Erie canal was finally projected from about 1808 to 1817, as a waterway independent of the streams, it was made an artificial channel, although for the greater portion of its dis- tance it paralleled waterways which could easily have been canalized, producing much greater depth of water than was con- templated in the canal. There is little doubt but that the mis- take of making the artificial channel has retarded the develop- ment of New York State in many ways; and it is accordingly in- *Report State Engineer and Surveyor for 1883, p. 16-17. *Refer to description of works of Western Inland Lock Navigation Com- pany on page 724, 802 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM teresting to note that the recent projects have returned to the canalization of streams. 3 Among the changes proposed by Mr Sweet, in his paper in 1884, were the following: One essential change in profile consists in extending the Rome level westward to lock 57, between Newark and Lyons, in Wayne county, throwing out the locks 47 to 56, inclusive. This change in profile can be effected by swinging the route to the southward, near Newark, crossing the Canandaigua outlet and occupying ground of the proper elevation along the south side of the Clyde river, and crossing the Seneca river aa the narrowest part of its valley, which is near its junction with the outlet of Cayuga lake, from whence it should gradually approach the present route of the canal and connect with or cross it just east of the city of Syracuse. Fig. 68 Cross-section of Hrie canal below Lockport. Mr Sweet states that the only serious difficulty encountered on this 10ute is the crossing of the Seneca-river, where the water surface of the canal must be nearly 50 feet above that of the river, and for nearly two miles over 40 feet above the surface upon which its embankment must be built. This change of route, to secure a continuously descending pro- file from the lake to the Hudson river, is the only deviation from the route of the old canal that is absolutely necessary, but it is believed that the construction would be simplified and cheapened, and the best possible waterway secured by the adoption of an entirely new route from Syracuse eastward. Lower ground can be obtained for the Rome level, except at the summit itself, by moving the line northward; thus by lower- ing the elevation of this level throughout, lessening the difficul- ties of the Seneca river crossing, and from a point a little west of Utica eastward to the Hudson, the Mohawk river should be canalized by the erection of locks and movable dams at suitable points in its course, and the deepening and rectification of its channel. a From the mouth of the Mohawk, at Troy, to the deep water of the - Hudson river, below Coxsackie, the latter river must be improved by narrowing and deepening its channel, or a canal must be con- structed along its shore. The former method of construction affords the simplest and most useful means of securing the de- sired result. The plan may therefore be summarized as the widening, deepening and necessary rectification of the worst curvatures of the present canal, from Buffalo to Newark (about 180 miles); the construction of a new canal from Newark to Utica (about 115 miles); the canalization of the Mohawk river from Utica to Troy (about 100 miles), and the improvement of the Hudson river from Troy to Four Mile Point, in Coxsackie (a distance of about 30 miles). The elevation of the western level of the canal being governed by the surface of Lake Erie, it must secure the required depth wholly by deepening, while the profiles of the levels from Lock- port east can be adjusted to meet the economical requirements that will be disclosed by detailed surveys. The first level from Buffalo to Lockport will be 32 miles long. Descending from this level at Lockport, by two locks, each of about 25 feet lift, the second level of the canal will be reached. This level, 64 miles in length, will extend to Brighton, where, descending by two locks of about 24 feet lift, we reach the third level of the canal, extending from Brighton to Macedon, 20 miles, there descending by a lock of about 20 feet lift we reach the fourth level, extending from Macedon to Newark, 12 mules; where, by a lock of about 20 feet lift, is reached the level of the proposed new canal, to extend from Newark to Utica, about 115 miles, which will be the fifth and longest level of the new canal. From that point the Mohawk river (except at Little Falls and Cohoes, where combined locks will be required) can best be canalized through locks of 10 or 12 feet lift, making pools hav- ing an average length of about 5 miles each. The change in profile between Newark and the west end of the Rome level, in the eastern suburbs of Syracuse, was considered a very important one by the Canal Committee, and they accord- 6804 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM : eis ingly early arranged to have this matter thoroughly examined. The writer examined the several routes in detail. The following are the elevations and distances on the levels from Rome level westward to the upper level at Newark: Elevation above . Designation of level iene ee ee co Rome level occc3 tetas hese ee ee 429.7 Short level, from lock 47 to lock 48.......... Ub) 419.5 Lével, lock:-48, to lock 40) ot ce ee eee 0.7% 409.0 Syracuse level, lock 49 to lock 50............ 5.0L 402.0 Jordan level, lock 50: todock-biy (2.2 ee 14.90 409.9 Port Byron level, lock 51 to lock 52.......... C9 404.3 Montezuma level, lock 52 to lock 58......... 17.69 392.9 Level, lock 53 to lock o4.02)02 5 1. ee 3.15 397 .6 bevel, lock-54 tolock, Saco" iy ake eo 3.35 405.0 Level, lock 55:t0-l0€k 56 2 ae Se on ee 1 ae 411.2 Level lock:56t0 dock OT. eerie Be 3.22 421.1 Level lock*57 toc lockoO8i is create ss eee 0.18 429.1 Level, lock 58 to locktag ees fa. i gee Peon ee 0.16 437.1 Total distamee @ i944 meet ee eee 58.06 Level above lock 59 (Newark-Palmyra level).......... 445.6* The southern route. In view of the persistency with which the proposed high level continuously descending rectification from Newark to the west end of the Rome level has gotten into the Erie canal improvement literature, it seems proper, by way of clarify- ing the matter, to discuss it at length, even though the studies made in 1899 have shown that this proposed high-level rectification is not applicable to present conditions. The objections to the southern route are three in number: (1) Seneca river crossing; (2) right of way in Syracuse; and (3) difficult construction of canal on sand and gravel areas. The Seneca river crossing would be about 1.9 miles in length, with the — *The foregoing elevations refer to mean tide at New York and differ somewhat from the Erie canal datum which is mean tide at Albany. The difference is about 1.3 feet. Pt 3 oo . aa HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 805 | water level 48 feet above the level of Montezuma marsh. Hard bot- tom is found at a depth of 20 to 60 feet below the marsh level— probably 30 feet is a fair average for the whole distance across. For the first twenty feet in depth the marsh is in many places composed of nearly pure marl, below which is found either firm soil, gravel or hardpan. No rock indications have ever been determined in this portion of Montezuma marsh. The next objectionable feature of the southern high-level route is found in the city of Syracuse, where the effect of changing the present location would be merely to. take the canal out of the business part of the town, where dockage and business arrange- ments are now established, placing it instead in a residence dis- trict, where new arrangements for transacting canal business Fig. 69 Cross-section of Erie canal, 214 miles above Lockport. would have to be made. Aside from an expensive right of way, this change would be exceedingly undesirable. As to the third difficulty, the region through which the southern line would be laid is largely sand and gravel, requiring expensive puddling in order to insure water-tightness. The location is largely on a side hill, where the conditions for water-tight work are unfavorable. The estimated cost of right of way on this route was $4,666,000 and the total cost $29,000,000, or for 57.8 miles, the average cost per mile was $501,730. : | The northern route. The southern high-level route having turned out to be so expensive, a route on the north side of the | Seneca river was then examined between Newark and the west end of the Rome level. The chief difficulties of this route are: (1) Seneca river crossing, and (2) difficult construction on account of lack of water on surface, aS well as extensive sand and gravel areas. ' 806 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM As to the crossing of the Seneca river, while the river is only about 400 feet in width, the depth is 30 feet with soft bottom. A few hundred feet north soundings indicate a depth of water of 46 feet. Probably foundations of the aqueduct would have to be carried considerably deeper than this. The most serious objection to the northern high- ee route was found in the considerable areas of sand and gravel which, _ on the north side of the Seneca river, are even more extensive than on the south side. For the whole distance there is very little water upon the surface, and during the fall of 1899 the farmers of the region were hauling water for domestic use several miles. Not only this region, but that along the proposed southern route, is entirely destitute of stone—for miles only an occasional bowlder is seen. Fig. 70 Harth section of Erie canal from Pendleton to 21% miles above Lockport. The length of the canal by this route is the same as by the southern route. The estimated cost was $22,400,000, which for a total length of 57.8 miles is $387,540 per mile. Extension of Syracuse level. It has also been proposed that a rectification could be made more cheaply and safely by extend- ing the Syracuse level westward near the present canal location and eastward through the flat country south of Oneida lake, cutting down the Rome summit to correspond. In order to under- stand this possible change, it may be mentioned that the Syracuse level locks up at both ends. To the east it rises by three locks to the Rome level, and to the west by one lock to the Jordan level. The elevation of the Syracuse level is 402+. W.; of the Rome level, 430+ T. W., and of the Jordan level, 410+7T. W. There are also long stretches of marl near Jordan. This rectifica- tion was examined into with the result that it is shown to present great difficulties. The estimated cost for 113 miles amounts to $32,500,000. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK S07 The Seneca-Oneida route. The southern and northern routes from Newark to the west line of Syracuse having turned out so unsatisfactory, the writer then proposed to the Canal Committee to entirely modify their plan. Instead of building the continu- ously descending canal, it was suggested that a canal dropping down to the level of the Seneca river be constructed, thence through that river to Three Rivers Point, thence through the Oneida river to and through Oneida lake, with an artificial chan- nel from Oneida lake, finally joining the Rome level of the Erie canal at a point about halfway between Stacey Basin and New London, a few miles west of Rome. One main object of the proposed high level continuously de- scending canal is to deliver Lake Erie water to the Rome level and thence into the Mohawk river, thereby obviating difficulties of 18 aa = Sf Fig. 71 Earth section of Erie canal east of Rochester. water supplies from reservoirs along the line of the canal. Another point to be gained by the high-level route was to eliminate lock- ages, thereby saving time. If, however, as much time can be gained by a broad, deep river and lake navigation as by eliminat- ing lockages, then lockage objection is not very important. Taking everything into account, the writer reported to the Canal Committee that under the existing conditions a route by Seneca- Oneida rivers would, due to breadth and depth of channel, permit of navigation in less time than by a proposed high-level canal. The argument is therefore in favor of the Seneca-Oneida route, specially since it can be built at much less cost. It seems to the writer an extraordinary fact that the possibil- ities of the Seneca-Oneida route, extending as it does for over ninety miles through the center of the State, have not long since been thoroughly exploited. Considering the relatively small cost of making effective navigation on this line, and looking at the question from the point of view of today, one would suppose 808 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM that this route would have long ago received careful attention. Probably there are two reasons for this neglect: 1) The early reclamation projects, through which it was expected to reclaim Seneca river marshes. - 2) Difficulty of constructing a towpath along a marshy river. The estimated cost of the Seneca-Oneida route was $6,000,000, which, for a total length, by way of certain cutoffs on Oneida river which reduce the length somewhat, of 81.6 miles, gives an average cost per mile of, roundly, $73,530. The following correspondence explains in detail why this change was made. In his letter of August 3, 1899, to the writer, Gen. . F. V. Greene says: Gerorce W. Rarrer, Esq., Rochester, N. Y.: Dear 'Sir.—In nev ondence with a resolution of this committee authorizing the chairman to employ an engineer for the purpose of giving technical advice upon certain points connected with our investigation and report on the canal question, I desire to obtain your services to such an extent as may be necessary during the next four months for the purpose of reporting to us on the follow- ing questions: First. What will be the approximate cost of constructing a new canal from the vicinity of Newark to the Rome level, joining the latter at a point just east of the city of Syracuse, the said canal to have a continuous descent to the eastward and to have a prism sufficient to carry a boat 25 feet in width and 10 feet draft, with a waterway not less than four TL the immersed section of the boat? * % * % * % * * Very respectfully, for the Committee, (Signed) F. V. GREENE, Chairman. © The foregoing instructions apparently limit the investigation to a canal continuously descending, but after making an exami- nation the writer, under date of September 16, 1899, wrote to John A. Fairley, Secretary of the Commission, as follows: Mr Joun A. Fatriey, Secretary, New York, N. Y.: Dear Sir.— * * * . * x % * * In regard to the proposed rectification between Newark and Syracuse, two lines have been examined—one to south of present insite canal and one to north. The line to north appears to be the bet- ad HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 809 ter, although both are very expensive and violate the modern view that canals should be located in the thread of valleys rather than along side hills and on high ground. One result of my study of this matter so far as it has proceeded is to indicate another solu- tion, which, however, is apparently barred out by the committee’s instructions to investigate a canal with a continuous descent from Newark to west end of Rome level. The solution referred to will take about the following form: Leave the present canal where it crosses under the New York Central and Hudson River railway a few miles east of Clyde and continue to Seneca river just north of where New York Central railway crosses that stream. Thence along Seneca and Oneida rivers and through Oneida lake, building a new stretch of canal from east end of Oneida lake to Rome. This does not avoid the lockage but gives the advantage of a broad, deep navigation for about sixty-five to seventy miles. My studies on deep waterways project indicate that an ample water supply for the Rome summit can be obtained from the two Fish creeks and Salmon river. | _ As regards carrying a water supply from Lake Erie east of Seneca river, I may state that the high level, with continuous descent from Newark to Rome level, will necessarily be laid on open porous soils from which the percolation losses will be large; and while I am not prepared to give a final opinion at this time, the indications are that Seneca river is about the eastern limit of effective feeding from Lake Erie. If this view is right, then the alternative line for an enlarged canal via Seneca and Oneida rivers and Oneida lake is the only solution. In making this latter statement I take into account that there are extensive mar] de- posits along line of present canal between Ninemile creek and Seneca river, which make a radical enlargement along the present canal a very serious proposition. J mention these various points in order that you may appreciate the broad scope of the study on which I am engaged. In view of the possible outcome of the study of a continuously descending high-level canal from Newark to Rome level, I would be glad to know whether the committee’s instructions were in- tended to exclude study of such an alternative line as I have here outlined. If so, then I will not devote any time to it. Otherwise, I should feel impelled to give it attention. There are one or two other alternative propositions which should be looked into, but explanations of which J can not well go into in a letter for lack of space. j ; In regard to lines other than a continuously descending high- level canal from Newark to Rome level, I may point out that the advantages to be gained are not necessarily to eliminate lockages 810 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM per se, but to gain time. If, then, the time can be gained and lockages retained, there could apparently be no objection to the Seneca-Oneida-rivers-Oneida-lake-line, where by reason of broad, deep channel greater speed can be obtained. Especially would this be true if the river line can be built at less cost. * * %* * + * % * Very truly yours, (Signed ) Gro. W. RAFTER. In the meantime the proposed change of plan was suggested in a conversation with Major Symons on September 18, 1899. September 22 General Greene answered the letter of September 16, in the following terms: Grorce W. Rarter, Esq., Consulting Engineer, Rochester, N. Y.: Dear Sir.—Yours of September 16 arrived a few days since, but owing to my absence in Philadelphia I have not until now had an opportunity to answer it. I am also in receipt of a letter from Major Symons telling me of his conversation with you, and that he said the committee would undoubtedly like to have you make the study of the northern route through the Oneida river and lake, and I write to confirm Major Symons’ statement. ¥ % % * * * ¥ * Yours very truly, (Signed ) F. V. GREENE. Conclusions of Canal Committee. The Canal Committee, as the result of its examination, states: The committee is unanimously of the opinion that there are only three projects for consideration. The first of these is the completion of the project authorized by the law of 1895, with the following modifications: The deepens of the prism to 9 feet throughout, ane the lengthening of the locks on one tier, so as to pass two boats, each 125 feet in length, 1714 feet in width and 8 feet draft, with a cargo ~ capacity of 450 tons; and the lengthening of the locks on the other tier so as to pass a Single boat of the same size. The use of pneumatic locks, or other mechanical lifts, at Cohoes, Lockport, and possibly Newark and Little Falls. The construction of a new canal from near Clyde to near New London, about 81 miles in length, giving a wide waterway through the Seneca and Oneida rivers and Oneida lake, and avoiding Mon- tezuma marshes. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 811 The abolition of the two aqueducts across the Mohawk river, and the substitution of the river for the canal from Rexford Flats to Cohoes. | The construction of a new canal from the foot of the falls of the Mohawk, near Cohoes, to the Hudson river, near the West Troy side-cut. The second project is for a canal to accommodate boats of the Same dimensions as above given, but which shall follow the route of the present Erie canal, except from Albany to lock 18, in place of which the diversion by a mechanical lift over the Cohoes falls and a canal from the foot of the falls to the Hudson river at West Troy side-cut shall be substituted. The third project is for a canal following the same route as the first project, but of sufficient size to carry boats 150 feet in length, 25 feet in width and 10 feet draft, with a cargo capacity of approximately 1000 tons each, with locks capable of passing two boats at one time. The estimated cost of the barge canal, including the improving of Oswego and Champlain canals, was, in round figures, $62,000,- 000. In regard to this estimate of the Canal Committee, it may be stated that they made no surveys, although the writer in esti- mating upon the southern and northern routes between Newark and just east of Syracuse, as well as on the estimate for the Syra- cuse level extended, and on the Seneca-Oneida route, availed him- self of the field sheets of the United States Geological Survey at a scale of zs-o00- With these sheets in hand the several routes were traversed, a distance of about 320 miles in all. Subsequently, profiles were platted from the locations decided upon in this way, quantities taken out and an estimate made. These estimates, therefore, may be considered as in the nature of preliminary— they could hardly be classified as final estimates. On other portions of the canal the maps prepared in connection with the improvement of 1895 were used. Attention may be called to the maps which were prepared of these surveys in 1899. They present the topography for a con- siderable distance each side of the proposed lines and enable anybody with the requisite training to determine whether or not the best lines have been selected. They accompany the Report of the State Engineer for 1900. 812 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The Barge canal survey. The report of the Canal Committee was presented to Governor Roosevelt under date of January 15, 1900, and chapter 411 of the laws of 1900 directed the State Engineer and Surveyor to cause surveys, plans and estimates to be made for improving the Erie canal, the Champlain canal and the Oswego canal, appropriating $200,000 therefor. The route to be surveyed is defined in this act, and follows the recom- mendations of the Canal Committee already given. It is also provided in section 8 of this act that the surveys, plans and estimates for the construction and improvement of the Erie canal shall be of such dimensions as will allow said canal to carry and lock through boats 150 feet in length, 25 feet in width and of 10 feet draft, with a cargo capacity of 1000 tons each. The prism of Erie canal was to have a depth of water of not less than 12 feet, with 11 feet in the locks and over structures. The locks were to be 310 feet long and 28 feet wide and 11 feet deep. The State Engineer was required by the act to complete the survey and hand his report to the Governor on or before January 1, 1901. The Governor was to submit the same, with his own recommendations relating thereto, to the Legislature on or be- fore January 15, 1901. Chapter 411, became a law April 12, 1900. : This act required the completion of the survey in about eight ? months, and while there was a large amount of data available, which had been gathered two years previously by the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, nevertheless it is difficult to suppose that very complete surveys could have been made in so short a time as this. The State Engineer conducted the sur- vey ably, and it is intended to merely point out that from limita; tion of time alone the survey was necessarily somewhat approxi- mative. The estimates are, generally speaking, as reliable as could be expected for the amount of time put upon them. The total cost of the improvement on the present line of the Erie canal through- out the whole extent, and including the Oswego and Champlain canals, is estimated at about $87,000,000, while the total cost on the most desirable route, via Mohawk and Seneca rivers, is about $77,000,000. There are certain additions to this which HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 813 will increase it to about $82,000,000. This estimate provides for a canal 12 feet deep via the Mohawk and Seneca rivers, as well as by the interior route, through Syracuse, Clyde, Lyons, Newark, Palmyra, Rochester and Lockport to Buffalo. | During’ the legislative session of 1903, some question having arisen as to the adequacy of the estimates made, they were again gone over and finally revised. In a communication to the Legislature under date of March 2, 1903, the State Engineer says: I have no hesitation, therefore, in asserting that the estimates of cost given in the barge canal report were as complete and accurate as any estimates ever prepared within the time allotted for a work of such magnitude, and that they were reliable esti- mates of the cost at that time for the improvement covered by the report, with the one possible exception of the allowance for un- foreseen contingencies and expenses. | It is an undisputed fact that during the past few years the prosperity of our country has resulted in an increase in the con- struction of public works of all descriptions, and in the develop- ment of native resources by private capital, creating such a de- mand for labor and materials that both have advanced in price within the past two years; furthermore, the fact of the State enlisting in an enterprise of this magnitude would have a tendency to increase the price of labor and materials entering into its _ construction. The State Engineer then answers several questions in detail, finally ending with the conclusion that in 1903 the barge canal would cost roundly $101,000,000. He states that water supply is based on a business of 10,000,000 tons of freight per canal season, and that if the business of the enlarged canals should increase to double this quantity, or to 20,000,000 tons per canal season, there should be added to the estimate $1,330,000. The original water supply included a feeder from Fish creek to near Fort Bull, together with the construction of the Salmon river reservoir, already described. The water from this reser- voir may be turned into Mad river, a tributary of Fish creek, without serious expense. On this plan the total cost of the water Supply for a traffic of 10,000,000 tons per year would not exceed $3,000,000. Aside from the supply to the present Erie canal from Butternut, Limestone, Chittenango, Cowaselon creeks, etc. the additional supply was to be obtained from a single large 814 NEW YORK STATE -MUSEUM reservoir, advantage being taken of the fact that a large reser- voir can be constructed for less cost per unit of volume than a number of small reservoirs. In the barge canal report it was assumed that it was important to construct a number of small reservoirs along the line of the canal with the result that the cost of a water supply for the canal route, with traffic of 10,- 000,000 tons per year, is estimated at $5,555,000. For the river route, with traffic of 10,000,000 tons per year, the estimated cost is $4,469,000. Origin of barge canal. The question has arisen in the State of New York as to who originated the barge canal idea. The fol- lowing statement is given as bearing on this point: We have already seen that Silas Seymour, in his report for 1883, referred to a continuously descending high-level canal from Newark to the west end of the Rome level. The next detailed reference appears in the report of Martin - Schenck, State Engineer and Surveyor, for the year 1893. Mr Schenck says: | In my report of last year I briefly outlined a proposed enlarged canal capable of bearing barges 250 feet in length by 25 feet breadth of beam, with 10 feet draft of water and of the lowest possible hight above water so that the greater part of the bridges crossing it could be fixed structures instead of movable ones. This canal would have a general width of 100 feet at the water line, a depth of 12 feet (except at such points as over aqueducts or other expensive structures where economy would suggest the reduction of a foot in depth) and have vertical or battered side walls except in localities of existing wide waters where economy of width would be a minor consideration. The general width proposed might be materially reduced for short distances through the cities and towns along its route, over aqueducts, through ex- pensive rock cuts, ete., and since no towing-path would be re- quired, there are many miles of cuttings where the removal of that alone would give nearly the entire width required. The route proposed for this canal would generally follow the present alignment of Erie canal except for short distances, where it would be wise to make detours in order to obtain economy of construc- tion and better alignment. The vessels designed for use might be built, for convenience in handling, in two sections and be towed in fleets by means of similar boats fitted with twin screws and *Refer to page 801. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK . 815 propelled by steam or electric power. Vessels of such Size as those described could navigate the proposed canal with the great- _ est degree of economy, would have a carrying capacity of.at least - 50,000 bushels, and could carry wheat at a profit from Buffalo to New York for two cents per bushel. When grain can be carried -through our canals at a profit from Lake Erie to the metropolis at the foregoing rate, all questions relative to the commercial supremacy of the Empire State will be set at rest. Without a careful survey it is impossible to determine the exact route of the proposed canal, but it may be approximately stated to be as follows: Beginning at the port of Buffalo, the alignment would follow very closely the present line of the canal, the depth to be secured to Lockport by excavating from the bottom of the canal. Through the deep rock cut near Lockport the only widening re- quired for the present would be that obtained by cutting out the present towing-path. At Lockport a pair of hydraulic lifts or two pairs of high-lift locks would be substituted for the five com- bined locks now there. From Lockport eastward to Rochester the present alignment would be quite closely followed except that considerable detours would probably be made to avoid those rather bold but unnecessary bits of engineering known as the high banks at several points west of this last-named place and that east of it at Irondequoit: Continuing eastward from Roch- ester, making a slight change of alignment near Newark, sub- stituting two locks for the three now there, no special engineering difficulties would be encountered until the Montezuma aqueduct over the Seneca river is reached, where one of two plans must be adopted, viz, either to construct at a very large expense an en- larged aqueduct or drop down by means of a single lock to the level of the Seneca river, crossing at the river level and locking up to the proper elevation on the opposite side, meanwhile retain- ing the present aqueduct as a feeder to carry water to the remain- der of the level eastward. As the present aqueduct was constructed over a bed of peat upon sunken cribs of only sufficient bearing capacity to sustain with safety its present weight, it is exceedingly doubtful if any great increase of weight such as would be necessary in making the required enlargement could be had without endangering the stability of the whole structure. The waste of water caused by locking boats down to the river level and up again while con- siderable, would not be a serious matter since this is the last level fed from the westward. The cost of the two locks required would be a trifle compared to that of a new aqueduct, but it goes without saying that the building of a new aqueduct is by far the better plan and the one that would eventually be adopted. 816 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM From Port Byron to Jordan the present line of the canal would be followed quite closely, but it is probable that it would be better to make a detour at the Jordan level so as to drop it down to the elevation of that at Port Byron. The rather limited water supply on the Jordan level makes it extremely desirable that the pro- posed change be made so that the reliable water supply of the western slopes of the Adirondacks can pass unimpeded to meet the waters of Lake Erie on the Montezuma level. From Syracuse eastward to Rotterdam the present alignment would be quite closely adhered to, with the probable substitution of a hydraulic lift or one lock for the three upper locks at Little Falls. From Rotterdam eastward we have presented to us the choice of two routes, the one following the present line of canal, the other cross- ing the Mohawk on a new aqueduct to be built at that place and making a short cut across country, striking the present canal line at the eastern terminus of the upper Mohawk aqueduct. i — re SE RUST ZEIT PAK Er ENGEL ol AM SI Porro tore ear nae (OOF aoe ie ae = Fig. 72 Tarth section of Welland and Soulanges canals. This report was followed by that of Major Symons, dated June 23, 1897, who proposed a boat of a capacity of 1500 tons burden, the same as proposed by Mr Schenck. Neither made any estimate, although Mr Schenck considered that his canal could be built for $25,000,000, while Major Symons considered that $50,000,000 would be sufficient. The Committee on Canals considered that $63,000,000 was sufficient to build the canal; the barge canal survey of 1900 placed the cost at from $77,000,000 to $87,000,000, depending upon the route, while in 1903 the State Engineer placed it at $101,000,000. Increase in size of boat in comparison with cross-section of canal. In order to show the progressive changes which have taken place in our ideas of canals, the cross-section of the original Erie canal and of the various enlargements, together with the cross- section of the recent proposed canals, will be cited in comparison with the size of boat for navigating each section. Kh HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 817 The original Erie canal, completed in 1825, carried 4 feet in depth of water and was 26 feet wide on the bottom and 40 feet at the surface. The sectional area was 132 square feet. The boats navigating the original Erie canal were 61 feet long, 7 feet wide by 314 feet draft,and with a capacity of 30 tons. An enlarge- ment of the Erie canal was authorized in 1835, which, however, was not fully completed until 1862. The size of boats in the mean- time had increased during this enlargement to 75 and 100 tons. The enlargement completed in 1862 made the canal 7 feet deep, 52 feet wide on the bottom, 70 feet water surface, and gave a sectional area of 427 square feet. After the completion of this enlargement the boats were 98 feet long, 1714 feet wide and with 6 feet draft. Their capacity was 240 tons, which size boat is still used on the Erie canal. The improvement suggested by State Engineer Adams and seconded by the Canal Committee is 9 feet deep, 49 feet wide on the bottom, with 73 feet width of water surface. The sectional area is 549 square feet. For this improvement, the boats would be 125 feet long, 1714 feet wide, with 8 feet draft. Their capacity would be 450 tons. The barge canal recommended by the Canal Committee has 12 feet in depth of water, is 75 feet wide on the bottom and 122 feet water surface. The sectional area is 1182 square feet. For the barge canal recommended by the Canal Committee boats are proposed 150 feet long, 25 feet wide and 10 feet draft. Their capacity is to be 1000 tons. : The canal suggested by Mr Schenck in his report as State Engineer for 1893 was to have 12 feet in depth of water, carry- ing a boat 25 feet wide and 250 feet long, with capacity of 1500 tons. Major Symons proposed a canal carrying boats with width of 30 feet, length of about 190 feet and a draft of 10 feet, the capacity to be 1500 tons. Major Symons also proposed a ship canal from Lake Erie to the Hudson on the line of the present Erie canal, 24 feet in depth, bottom width of 138 feet and water sur- face of 210 feet. The sectional area of such a canal would be 4176 square feet. The boat was to be 50 feet in width and with draft of 20 feet. As we have seen, the Committee on Canals _ 818 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM adopted a boat 25 feet wide, 150 feet long and drawing 10 feet of water. The 21-foot channel proposed by the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways would have a bottom width of 215 feet and a Sectional area of 5497 square feet. The section proposed for a 30-foot canal would have a bottom width of 203 feet and a sec- tional area of 7990 square feet. The foregoing widths are for channels in earth cutting—in rock sections, widths are somewhat different. The Board of Engineers proposed for a 21-foot canal a boat 52 feet wide, 480 feet long, with 19 feet draft and a net carrying capacity of 8600 tons. _ We see, therefore, that from 1825 to 1904—seventy-nine years— the capacity of boats has increased from 30 tons to a proposed LW LLY Li LBL EGE NON TES MESSE) ; Zee Niyegs ew PTB EMG Zk IX zy eSNG UAE ree pam SSS SSS = rite Fig. 73 Earth section of Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian Bay canal. capacity of over 8000 tons. This fact is cited as showing that inasmuch as there is actually still in use a boat carrying 240 tons, canal development is not yet commensurate with the devel- opments of commerce. Chapter 147 of the laws of 1903. Chapter 147 of the laws of 1903, an act making provision for issuing bonds to the amount of $101,000,000 for the improvement.of Erie canal, Oswego canal and Champlain canal, and providing for submitting the same to the approval of the people, became a law April 7, 1908, with the approval of the Governor. This act was voted upon at the general election held November 38, 1903, and was approved by a majority of over 245,000. New York county gave 253,000 for and 29,000 against; Kings county gave 62,000 for and 21,000 against; Erie county, 39,000 for and 8000 against. The balance of the State, with few exceptions, was against. It appears, therefore, HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 819 that the support which this project received was from the two terminals of ihe canal. . This act provides that the route of the Erie, Oswego and Cham- plain canals, as improved, shall be as follows: _ Beginning at Congress street, Troy, and passing up the Hudson river to Waterford; thence to the westward through the branch north of Peoble’s island and by a new canal and locks reach the Mohawk river above Cohoes falls; thence in the Mohawk river eanalized to Little Falls; thence generally by the existing line of the Erie canal to Herkimer; thence in the valley of Mohawk river, following the thread of the stream as much as practicable to a point about six miles east of Rome; thence over to and down the valley of Wood creek to Oneida lake; thence through Oneida lake to Oneida river; thence down Oneida river, cutting out the bends thereof, where desirable, to Three Rivers Point; thence up ss = BSOOOTON . FREIGHTER | SSS —— j [ESSN VEN Nee Fe, ei (EAWS\ 7: ; Zi) f ZU GBI eS = ANS SR SUSE ENG WES 5 Fig. 74 Barth section of 22-foot canal carrying vessel of 8,000 tons capacity. to Seneca river, to the outlet of Onondaga lake; thence still up Seneca river to and through the State ditch at Jack’s Reefs; thence westerly generally following said river to the mouth of Crusoe creek; thence substantially paralleling the New York Cen- tral railroad and to the north of it to a junction with the present Erie canal about 1.8 miles east of Clyde;- thence following substantially the present route of the canal with necessary changes near Lyons and Newark to Fairport; thence curving to the south and west on a new location, joining the present canal about one-half mile west of the crossing of Irondequoit; thence following the old canal to a point about one and one-fourth miles west of Pittsford; thence following the existing line of the canal for nearly a mile; thence running across the country south of Rochester to the Genesee river near South park, here crossing the river in a pool formed by a dam; thence running to the west of the outskirts of Rochester and joining the present canal about one mile east of South Greece; thence following substantially the route of the present Erie canal, with the necessary change in 820 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM alignment near Medina to a junction with Niagara river at Tona- wanda; thence by Niagara river and Black Rock harbor to Buffalo and Lake Erie. The existing Erie canal from Tonawanda creek to Main street, Buffalo, shall be retained for feeder and harbor purposes. The route of the Oswego canal as improved shall be as follows: Beginning at the junction of the Oswego, Seneca and Oneida rivers, it shall run northward to a junction with Lake Ontario at Oswego, following Oswego river, canalized, and present Oswego canal. The route of the Champlain canal as improved — shall be as follows: Beginning in the Hudson river at Water- ford; thence up Hudson river canalized to near Fort Edward; thence via the present route of Champlain canal to Lake Cham- plain near Whitehall. This act also provides for the appointment of an advisory board of five engineers, whose duties shall be to advise the State Engi- neer and Superintendent of Public Works, to follow the progress of the work, and from time to time to report to the Governor, State Engineer and Superintendent as they may require, or as the board may deem proper and advisable. A special deputy and special resident engineers are also provided for by the act. The following have been appointed members of the advisory board: Edward A. Bond, Thomas W. Symons, Elmer L. Corthell, Wm. A. Brackenridge and Alfred B. Frye. Power canal along line of Erie canal. In a discussion before the American Society of Civil Engineers several years ago, Edward P. North of New York City proposed a power canal along the line of the Erie canal, and J. Y. McClintock of Rochester has also extensively advocated such a canal. Mr McClintock: proposes that deep waterways be constructed along this line of sufficient dimensions to carry water enough to develop 800,000 horsepower. This water would be taken from Niagara river and the power developed at Lockport, Gasport, Middleport, Medina, Albion, Holley, Brockport, Spencerport, Rochester, Pittsford, Macedon, Palmyra, Newark, Lyons and at points on the Seneca river, as well as at other points where inter- secting streams furnish convenient points for developing power. There is no objection to such a project and possibly it may be~ ultimately carried out, although at present there is no probability because the streams of New York will furnish several hundred HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ‘821 thousand horsepower at less cost per unit than can be furnished by this power canal. Mr John Patten, in a paper read before the National Irrigation Congress held at Ogden, Utah, in 1902 proposed a canal along this line which very much exceeds in size that proposed by either Mr North or Mr McClintock. The name of the canal proposed by Mr Patten is to.be “The Great Eastern Canal.” The water supply will be taken from Niagara river at Tonawanda and conveyed through a canal to Rochester, where a dam 54 feet high across the Genesee river will continue it to the hills south of Rochester, effecting a natural embankment. The Great Eastern canal will continue in an easterly direction near the line of the Erie canal and the - Seneca river to Syracuse, passing through the edge of Syracuse and continuing on to the Mohawk valley near Utica. After en- tering the Mohawk valley, the canal continues along the river as far as Schenectady, at which point there will be a dam across the Mohawk diverting the waters southeast along the slope of the Catskill mountains to the valleys of Esopus and Rondout creeks, where there is to be a large dam intercepting the flow of these creeks. This dam is high enough to flood the Wallkill val- ley, so that the course of the canal is up the Wallkill river into New Jersey, where it empties into Walnut valley and from thence into the Delaware as far as Easton, forming a natural waterway from Kingston to Easton over a hundred miles in length. After damming the Delaware at Easton the course of ‘the canal will continue up the Lehigh river, and southerly to within about five miles of Reading, where a dam across the Schuylkill river continues the water in the depression of the valley southerly. The canal is to be continued south from this point, embracing the Susquehanna, Potomac and James rivers. The plan calls for submerging Ellentown, Bethlehem and a few other towns, which Mr Patten states will make it a very expensive project. There will be waterways from New York, Washington, Balti- more, Richmond, Philadelphia, Trenton and other cities extending to the canal. New York has exceptional advantages, inasmuch as fully 500 feet fall is obtained, with a natural outlet to the 822 ~ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Hudson. Power-houses along the banks of the Hudson will fur- nish New York, Brooklyn, Hoboken, Jersey City, Passaic, Pat- erson, Newark, Elizabethtown, the Oranges and other cities within a radius of fifty to one hundred miles with electricity, heat, power for manufacturing, etc. The construction of the Great Eastern waterpower canal is estimated to develop 15,000,000 twenty-four-hour horsepower or 30,000,000 twelve-hour horsepower, the value of which, the author states, would be when fully utilized $750,000,000 per year. If only one-half the power is utilized, the saving to the country in one hundred years would amount, according to the author, to more than the value of all the property in the United States. The construction involves such items as embankments 1000 feet high and from ten to twenty miles in length. The estimated cost is not given, but can hardly be less than $15,000,000,000 or $20,000,000,000, or about as much as the present total value of property in the United States. The writer concludes, therefore, that this scheme, while involving magnificent possibilities, is not likely to be carried out at once. PRIVATE COMPANIES ORGANIZED TO BUILD CANALS In order to show how far the people of the State of New York became possessed with the idea that canal navigation was essential to their commercial prosperity, the following list of private companies which had been organized before 1860, for constructing canals and extending navigation in the State, is herewith included. The last of these was the Allegheny River Slack Water Navigation Company, organized in April, 1857, to improve Allegheny river below Olean.t 1Gazetteer of the State of New York, by J. H. French. a — . 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The original Erie canal was constructed with the water sur- face 40 feet wide, the bottom width 28 feet, and the depth 4 feet. In 1824 measurements of the loss from filtration and evaporation were made by John B. Jervis on the eastern division and by David S. Bates on the western division. Mr Jervis states that his measurements were made in the original Erie canal, between the first locks below the village of Amsterdam and the aqueduct below Schenectady, a distance of 18 miles. This section was con- structed mainly through an alluvial soil, containing a large por- tion of vegetable matter. In some places this soil was very leaky, owing probably to the decay of roots, although the greater portion retained water very well. There was a considerable quantity of gravel and slaty soils. He states that the quantity of water lost in this 18-mile section was very uniform, and averaged 2.10 cubic feet per second per mile.’ Mr Bates states that his measurements in 1824 showed that a mile of new canal, such as the Erie canal then was between Brockport and Ninemile creek, would require 1.7 cubic feet of water per second per mile in order to supply the losses from filtration, leakage and evaporation.2, The following are some of the details of Mr Bates’s measurements in 1824: On 79 miles of the canal and feeder, comprising 20 miles of canal from Rochester to Brockport, 57 miles from Rochester to Cayuga, and 2 miles of feeder, the supply was 133 cubic feet per second, or 1.69 cubic feet per second per mile. The months are not stated, although it may be inferred that these observa- tions are averages of the navigation season. Mr Bates further states that in August, 1824, he found a total use for the 20 miles from Rochester to Brockport of 35 cubic *Report of John B. Jervis to the Canal Commissioners, on the Chenango canal. An. Rept Canal Com. (1834). Ass. Doc. No. 55, p. 54. Report of David S. Bates to the Canal Commissioners, on the Chenango canal (1830). Ass. Doc. No. 47, p. 31. 826 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM feet per second, equal to 1.75 cubic feet per second per mile. This section of the original Erie canal was considered to be en- tirely free from leakage at the structures, and the measured losses are therefore taken as those due only to percolation, ab- sorption and evaporation.! In August, 1839, Henry Tracy and S. Talcott, acting under in- structions from W. H. Talcott, Resident Engineer of the Fourth Division of the Genesee valley canal, made a series of observa- tions along the line of Chenango canal, with a view of determin- ing the evaporation, filtration and leakage at the mechanical structures, and whatever else might be useful in the designing of the water supply of the summit level of the Genesee valley canal. For the purposes of the measurements they selected a portion of the canal extending from the north end of the summit level to Erie canal, 22 miles in length, on which the total supply on August 31 was found to be 39 cubic feet per second. The leak- age and waste at aqueducts, waste-weirs, and at lock No. lat the northern end were found to be 15 cubic feet per second, thus leaving the evaporation and filtration on 22 miles at 24 cubic feet per second, equivalent to 1.09 cubic feet per second per mile. It may be observed, however, that a measurement made at the end of August would probably not show a maximum of either evaporation or absorption by vegetation. Estimating these ele- ments at the maximum, we may assume from 1.33 to 1.67 cubic feet per second per mile as a more reliable quantity than the 1.09 cubic feet per second per mile here actually observed. Messrs Tracy and Talcott also measured the leakage and waste at the various mechanical structures, etc. which were as follows: Leakage at structures, 3.67 cubic feet per second; waste at waste-weirs, 3.40 cubic feet per second; leakage at lock No. 1, at the north end of the section, 7.98 cubic feet per second. This amount, Mr Talcott remarks, was so much greater than at any “See report of F. C. Mills in relation to the Genesee Valley canal (1840). Ass. Doc. No. 26, p. 26. See also report of W. H. Talcott in the same docu- ment. These two reports contain a summary of all that had been done in the way of measurements of the various losses now under discussion up to that time, as well as a number of references to foreign data. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 827 other lock on the canal as to induce the belief that the gates were not properly closed at the time of measurement. At lock No. 69 on the same canal, the leakage was 6.37 cubic feet per second from an 8-foot lift. Mr Talcott’s report is very able, and presents forcibly all the data at hand at that time. It may be said that the data which he gave fixed the following quantities as fairly covering the various losses to which artificial waterways of the dimensions of the original canals of this: State are subject.t 1) Loss by filtration, absorption and evaporation, 1.67 cubic feet per second per mile. With retentive soils this could be re- duced to from 1.00 to 1.20 cubic feet per second per mile. Mr Tal- cott fixed on 1.10 cubic feet per second per mile for the Genesee valley canal, which was largely built through heavy soils, but this was subsequently found too small. 2) Leakage at mechanical structures; for locks of 11 feet lift, 8.33 cubic feet per second; for leakage and waste at each waste- weir, 0.50 cubic foot per second; for a wooden-trunk aqueduct, an amount depending on the length of the structure, but as an average, 0.058 of a cubic foot per second for each linear foot of trunk may be taken. In response to a resolution of the Canal Commissioners of April 12, 1841, O. W. Childs, then Chief Engineer of the Erie canal, prepared a report on the water supply of the western division with reference to the enlargement then in progress. In this paper Mr Childs gives the results of measurements made by himself in 1841 of losses from filtration, absorption, evapora- tion, and leakage on the original Erie canal between Wayneport, in Wayne county, and Pit lock, which corresponded to lock 53, near Clyde, of the present canal. He also gave the result of measurements made by Alfred Barrett between Pittsford and Lockport. 1The quantities here given apply to canals 40 feet by 28 and 4 feet deep, and with locks 90 feet in length and 15 feet in width and 8 to 10 feet lift. See Supply of Water Required for the Canal Between Lockport and the Seneca River, by O. W. Childs: An. Rept Canal Com. (1848). Ass. Doe. No. 16, p. 141-175. 828 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Mr Child’s measurements were for a section of the canal 36.02 miles in length. On the Palmyra level, for a distance of 8.34 miles, where the soil is open and porous, the measurements showed a loss of 1.81 cubic feet per second per mile. On the Clyde level with a more retentive soil the losses from filtration, absorption, and evaporation were, for a distance of 27.68 miles, Guly 0.59 cubic foot per second per mile. The entire loss, includ- ing leakage, was, for the whole distance, 1.40 cubic feet per second per mile. These measurements were made for a term of thirty-three days, from July 30 to August 31, inclusive. Meas- urements were also made in June, early in, July, and in the fol- lowing October, from which thes conclusion was derived that demands were greater and the supply less for the time during which the foregoing observations were taken than during any other portion of the season. Mr Barrett’s measurements were made at various points on the original canal between Pittsford and Lockport, and repeated each day from July 17 to September 380, inclusive. They showed an average loss for the whole period of 1.22 cubic feet per second per mile. Assuming the same ratio of loss between Pittsford and Wayneport, there resulted, for the entire distance of 122 miles from Lockport to Pit lock, an average loss of 1.12 eubic feet per second per mile. Mr Childs states that an addition to the foregoing quantity should be made as an allowance for springs and several small streams entering the canal which could not be measured. Making such additions he concludes that 1.42 cubic feet per second per mile should be taken as the total quantity consumed on the 122 miles of canal under con- sideration, which is equivalent to a total of 173 cubic feet per second. It is stated in the original reports that the supply of water was ample for all the purposes of navigation during these measurements. Comparing Mr Childs’s measurements of 1841 with those made by Messrs Jervis and Bates in 1824, one point of great practical utility is strongly brought out, namely, as to the excess of loss of water in new canals over those some time in use; thus Mr Bates HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 829 found in 1824, on the same reach of canal as was measured by Mr Childs in 1841, a total loss of from 1.68 to 1.75 cubic feet per second per mile. It may be assumed that the springs and streams allowed for by Mr Childs were delivering into the canal in 1824 the same as in 1841, at least 0.17 to 0.25 cubic foot per second per mile. We have, then, as the total supply in 1824 from 1.92 to 2.00 cubic feet per second per mile. Adopting the latter figure as a maximum to compare with Mr Childs’s figure of 1.42 cubic feet per second per mile, as found in 1841, the con- clusion is reached that the decrease in the loss by filtration—due presumably to the gradual silting up of the bottom—is some- thing like 0.58 cubic foot per second per mile. This conclusion could be applied to the conditions of the Erie canal improvement of 1895 in which it was proposed to excavate one foot from the bottom of many of the levels. The effect of this would. be to remove the silt accumulations of many years, thus -placing the bottom of the-canal, as regards porousness and conse- quent percolation and filtration loss, in the same condition as when first constructed. This consideration alone indicated the necessity of making the water supply of the enlarged canal liberal.in order to answer the demands of the first few years while the bottom was again attaining a fixed condition. _ The experience of over eighty years in the operation of the New York State canals has thoroughly shown the futility of any attempt at excessive economy in water supply. In the absence of systematic information as to yield of streams, the general tendency has been to overrate the summer flow, with the result of shortage frequently at points where the supply was believed to be ample. The chief sources of such shortage may be enumerated as follows: 1) The great variation in the yield of catchment areas from year to year, by reason of differences in the rainfall, humidity, and temperature. 2) The cutting off of forests, which has increased somewhat the spring-flood flows and decreased the summer flow. 3) The systematic drainage of large areas, which has also tended to increase the flood flows and decrease the summer flows. 830 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 4) The growth of aquatic plants on long levels and the forma- tion of sand bars in the canal, which have tended to decrease the amount passing. | Among minor sources of loss, evaporation and absorption by growing plants may be mentioned, both of which vary somewhat in different years, although neither can be considered a serious source of loss. A study of all the measurements in detail shows that in an artificial channel of the dimensions of the original Erie canal, there should be provided at least 1.33 to 1.67 cubic feet. per second per mile, exclusive of water for filling and for lockages. Using the data of the measurements of 1841, Mr Childs arrived at the water supply of the enlarged canal of that day in the fol- lowing manner: It was assumed that the loss by filtration through the bottom and sides of the canal would be as the square root of the pressure or depth of the water, and as the area of the surface pressed. Proceeding on this assumption, he computed the quantity required to supply the losses from filtration, leakage, and evaporation (in the enlarged canal, 1840 to 1860), at 3.17 cubic feet per second per mile. This figure was subsequently substantially adopted for the entire enlarged canal, and, with the exception of a few special cases is still in use. Adding the amount required for lockages at lock 53, Mr Childs placed the entire supply for the western division, from Lockport to the east end, at 3.48 cubic feet per second per mile, or at a total of 424 cubic feet per second for 122 miles of canal. The canal enlargement of 1895 contemplated an increase in depth from 7 to 9 feet. Taking into account the results of the measurements on the original Erie canal, as well as those made by Mr Childs on the enlarged canal of 1840 to 1860, it has been concluded that the proper figure for water supply on the western division, to which the studies thus far specially refer, should be taken at from 4.17 to 4.50 cubic feet per second per mile.t The foregoing statements in regard to measurements of water supply of Iirie canal are abstracted from Report on the Water Supply of the Western Division of the Hrie Canal, by the writer, and are to be found in Appenidx I to the An. Rept of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1896. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 831 The consumption of water from a navigable canal may be taken to include the following items: 1) For filling the prism, in case it is emptied for any reason. 2) Quantity required for lockages. 3) The supply for replacing water lost by evaporation. This head may be also taken to include the loss by percolation and absorption by subsoil and aquatic plants. 4) Loss by leakage as at aqueducts, culverts, lock gates, valves, etc. 5) Loss by wastage at spillways. 6) Water required for power to operate lock gates and for flushing out boats, barges and timber rafts, as well as for power to operate electric lights at the locks during the nights. 7) Quantity required for industrial and agricultural use. 8) Losses by evaporation, percolation, etc. along the feeder. This latter quantity, if the feeder is of considerable length, may be large and can not be safely neglected in an estimate as to water supply. There is no specific rule for determining water supplies for canals. One chief source of loss is percolation, the determination of which, in any particular case, is a matter of judgment, based © on experience. In any case we may assume much less loss with good construction than with poor. The safest way to proceed is to apply information derived from well attested experiments. Table No. 96 gives measurements and estimates of loss of water from canals in New York State by evaporation, percola- tion, waste, etc. Many of these measurements have been re- ferred to in the preceding. In connection with the barge canal work, a number of gagings were made at various points along the Erie canal, as at Lock- port, Boonville, Glens Falls and Rochester. Current meter and - rod observations were also made at Cornell University. It is stated in the barge canal report: Much time was spent in attempting to find a number of fair comparisons in the results of the canal gagings made last sum- mer (1900), but unfortunately the geological and topographical conditions of the levels, or sections, were not sufficiently similar to justify the acceptance of any expressions deduced therefrom. 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(OT) (6) (8) DSS MESS GSI oC) (8) (1) Aep aed | SUN 10d. a a 2 ugdop ut) Pad (Seu UT] wadodt | onog | oouang S poyzodea woy Ag 499F S100! go von BOK AVTROOT pur TeuRO = ge ares teen ra 8 2 Poe a ae Tater IVNVO dO SNOISNEWI(T & (q10doey [vuBO os1Bg WO0.1,7) (papnjouod) “OLH “ALSVA ‘NOILVIOOUNd ‘NOILVUOUVAR AM STIVNVO MUOK MA N WOU UALVM JO SSOT FHL AO SHLVWILSH ANV SINEWAUASVIW—96 ‘ON WIV 834 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM SELLING. PRICE OF WATERPOWER The original places in New York State at which hydraulic developments have been made for the purpose of selling power are Oswego, Cohoes, Lockport and Niagara Falls. At Oswego the power on the east side of the river is owned by the Oswego Canal Company, the development being by a canal 4000 feet long, with an average surface width of 60 feet and a depth of 6 feet. The water from this canal is dropped into the Oswego river at the level of Lake Ontario. The working head is from 18 to 20 feet, although with high water in the canal and low water in Lake Ontario, the working head becomes somewhat greater. The State controls the first right to the flow of the Oswego river in order to maintain slack-water navigation in the pool above the dam at the head of the Oswego Canal Company’s race- way; all water not needed for canal purposes being equally divided between the Oswego Canal Company’s race on the east side and the Varick canal on the west side. The Oswego Canal Company gives a 999-year lease of water, but without land for location of buildings. A water right on this canal is called a run, meaning, probably, the amount of water required to drive a run of stone, a run of water being taken at 11.75 cubic feet. per second which, under the ordinary working head of 20 feet, will, at 75 per cent efficiency, produce 20 horsepower. There are assumed to be 32 first-class runs, the rental for which is $350 a year for each run. At this price the cost of a horse power a year, with 75 per cent efficiency, becomes $17.48, or the cost of a gross horsepower a year becomes $13.11. There are also 32 second-class runs, of which the rental varies from $250 to $300 a year for each run. Further, there are surplus runs which are rented at a little over one-half of the rental charged for first-class runs. In case of a shortage of water the surplus runs are shut down successively, beginning with the most recent leases; after this the second-class runs Share equally with one another in reduction; and finally, in case of extreme shortage, the first-class runs are similarly cut down. The Varick canal on the west side of the river controls one- half of all the water not needed for navigation purposes, the same as the Oswego Canal Company’s canal on the east side. In ea HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 835 order that the water may be divided equally between these two canals both have the same aggregate waterway at the head gates, and by gages on both sides, which are examined whenever necessary, it can be seen whether one canal is drawn below the other, and the gates changed accordingly. On this canal there are recognized 50 first-class runs, 17 second-class, and an un- limited number of third-class. For first-class runs the rental is from $250 to $300 per annum; for second and third class it ranges from $125 to $150. By a decree of the Supreme Court, dated August 21, 1875, a run of water on the Varick canal ranges between 28 cubic feet per second, under a head of 12 feet, and 25 cubic feet per second, under a head of 13 feet. The actual working head is, however, ordinarily only about 10 feet, so that on the foregoing basis a run of water may be taken as 33.3 cubic feet per second. At the price of first-class runs of from $250 to $300, and with 75 per cent efficiency, the cost per horsepower per annum varies from $8.80 to $10.56, a run on the Varick canal being equal to 33.3 cubic feet per second on 10 feet head, an amount of water which yields 37.9 horsepower under that head. As to the difference in cost of water on these two canals at Oswego, it may be pointed out that the Oswego Canal Company’s race has a substantial advantage over the Varick race, in that it extends to the harbor, enabling vessels to come directly along- side of the mills. Moreover, the division of water rights is such that a first-class run of water can always be depended on along the Oswego Canal Company’s race, but can not on Varick canal. At Cohoes we have the great power development built up by the Cohoes Company, which has, by careful management of the waterpower, built up at this place a fine manufacturing city of 24,000 inhabitants. The Cohoes Company not only owns all of the hydraulic canals, but also the land adjoining the canals. It gives to manufac- turers a perpetual lease of land and water, the entire property leased remaining subject to a rental of $200 per year per mil! power. On this basis the land is regarded as donated and the rental applies only to the waterpower. Formerly, the standard 1for additional detail of the water power at Oswego, see Report of Water Power of the United States, Tenth Census, Vol. I, p. 24-27. S36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM for measuring water was 100 square inches, to be measured through an aperture in thin plate 50 inches wide, 2 inches deep, and under a head of 3 feet from the surface of the water to the center of the aperture; but in 1859 a series of measurements were carefully made under the direction of the late James B. - Francis, using an old canal lock as a measuring chamber. These measurements showed that the old standard corresponded to about 5.9 cubic feet of water per second. Asa result 6.0 cubic feet of water per second, under 20 feet head, was taken as a new standard constituting a mill power. On this basis a mill power is equivalent to 13.68 gross horsepower, which, at $200 per mill power per annum, costs $14.67 per gross horsepower per annum. At 75 per cent efficiency the annual rental for water per net horsepower becomes $19.57. In regard to just what is paid for by the annual rental, both at Oswego and Cohoes, it may be remarked that the foregoing prices are for water in the raceway, the company maintaining the dams, headworks, and main race- ways, the lessee taking the water at the face of the raceway and maintaining his own head gates, flumes, bulkheads, wheels, and any other appliances necessary for utilizing the water in the production of power. The waterpower at Lockport. owned by the Lockport Hy- draulic Company, is formed by the drop of the surplus water of the Erie canal through a distance of 58 feet. A run of water at Lockport does not appear to be very well defined, but the rental charge ranges from $12.50 to $16.67 per effective horsepower. So far as known to the writer, just what constitutes an effective horsepower has not been defined. | At Niagara Falls the rental price of undeveloped hydraulic power has been fixed at from $8 to $10 per gross horsepower per annum, the party renting the power taking the water at the face of the head race and making its own connection with the dis- charge tunnel. Electric power by a two-phase alternating cur- rent as it comes from the generator is sold in blocks of 2000 or 3000 horsepower, at $20 per net horsepower per annum, the pur- chasers furnishing transformers, motors and all other electric. appliances. In small blocks the price has been fixed somewhat higher. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 837 A small amount of power has also been sold at different times at Rochester, but since the power at this place is nearly all held q by manufacturers who use it at first hand, nothing like a uniform price has been made at Rochester. Generally, power rented has ~ been in small quantities and in connection with floor space, the rental price being really for floor space with small power fur- -nished. Reckoning on this basis, small powers have frequently been rented at Rochester at as high a price as $100 per horse- power per year, this being for power on the shaft, all expenses of maintaining wheels, transmission shafts, etc., being borne by the owner. , The electric companies at Rochester furnish electric power in small blocks at 3 cents per electric horsepower per hour, which, on the basis of ten hours a day and three hundred and ten days: a year, becomes $93 per electric horsepower per annum. FUTURE USE OF WATERPOWER IN NEW YORK In the foregoing pages we have seen that the Erie canal was a development from the necessities of commerce, not only for the State of New York, but, as a means of connecting the Atlantic ocean with the waters of the Great Lakes, for accelerating the industrial development of the northwestern States. However, in the nineteenth century events move rapidly, and what was true of the Erie canal thirty to fifty years ago is not necessarily true today. Railway systems have now developed to such complete- ness as to compete successfully with water transportation by a channel of the size of the Erie canal. During the pericd covered by the rise and decline of the Erie canal as the important factor in through transportation between the east and a large portion of the west the economic conditions of the interior portion of New York have entirely changed. Cheap transportation, by way of the Erie canal and the Great Lakes, has led to a phenomenal development of agriculture on the broad plains of Minnesota and the Dakotas, where,. by the use of mod- — ern agricultural machinery, grain can be raised at a profit at such ] ' q prices as to drive the New York grain grower from the market. ‘The cheap transportation afforded by the Erie canal has, there- fore, to a considerable degree, led to the passing of supremacy 838 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM from the hands of the eastern farmer, a loss which can only be regained by the development to the fullest extent of the manufac- turing industries of New York, thus making a home market for — farm products that can not be transported a long distance, such as garden truck and small fruits. The people of the State of New York can purchase the western breadstuffs as cheaply as they can be produced at home, and this condition is likely to continue indefinitely. The long supremacy of the navigation interests has led to the incorporation in the law, jurisprudence, and public policy of this State of certain rules of action as to the right to use the water of inland streams, which have tended to discourage the full devel- opment of manufacturing interests which now appears desirable, although the writer views with satisfaction the rapid change of public sentiment now taking place on these questions. That manufacturing industries by waterpower are rapidly increasing in the State is made sufficiently clear by the following statistics: According to the United States censuses of 1870 and 1880 the total developed waterpower of the State of New York was, in 1870, 208,256 horsepower; in 1880, 219,348 horsepower; increase in the ten years, 11,092 horsepower. The increase in ten years of 11,092 horsepower is equivalent to an increase of 5.4 per cent. The United States census of 1890 did not include any statistics of waterpower, and it is impossible therefore to state definitely the horsepower in that year; according to the returns of the Twelfth Census (1900) there was over 368,000 horsepower in the State of New York1 The manufacture of mechanical wood pulp alone consumes nearly 125,000 eross horsepower. These figures, while very suggestive as to the future, are nevertheless rendered more pertinent by considering that with full development of the water- storage possibilities of the State, as well as the possibilities of power development on the Niagara and St Lawrence rivers, we may hope ultimately to reach a waterpower development in New York something like the following: Gross horse- power Streams tributary to hake Hries. | ° < S) Z | Z (1) (2) (Syd (4) (9) (6) | (7) (8) | (9) Maruary.....-:.... 9.875] 6.875 8.500] 0.0010] 0.0092| 0.2200) Trace| None February ......... 9 .500{ 5.875! 3.625) 0.0010] 0.0081 0.2200) « z re 9.500) 6.000 3.500) 0.0010) 0.0087 0.2175) « eé a 9.125) 5.750| 3.375) 0.0010] 0.0087| 0.2200, « . _ ire res | 9.125) 6.000) 3.125] 0.0010] 0.0091! 0.2225] « ce i | 9.875) 5.875, 4.000} 0.0010) 0.0091) 0.2275) « : eigen... 10.666 6.666) 4.000] 0.0010] 0.0091) 0.2200) « ee Mezast 2.6... | 10.125, 6.437] 3.687] 0.0011 0.0090, 0.2200) «: Z September ........ | 9.750 6.250, 3.500} 0.0010] 0.0090! 0.2150) « ee Geieher........... | 9.125| 5.375] 8.750] 0.0011] 0.0086] 0.21501 << z November......... 9.125] 6.125] 3:000} 0.0010] 0.0086) 0.21751 « - December ........ 9.250, 5.875] 3.375) 0.0020 0.0088, 0.2175, « ce Average ....1902) 9.586) 6.050) 3.536 0.0011] 0.0088) 0.217 “....1901} 9.833) 6.239) 3.594 DE Se RAs J Hardness is not ordinarily determined because it does not vary much, being nearly constant from year to year. The following by Mr Hilinger shows the small variation: Total hardness, parts per 100,000 (0 | BLUES De oe res ree Area orice 6.70 December 21, 1895........... OT I Rais Raph SOM ROE yar 6.70 matvaty 1s, 1696............ te arate PERE PES to Baers 6.20 REE yg be POO ee ce oe Faw he vee nyeietere eens 6.80 Pepe PU IST es ete SL cathst seale < Sader apace ahtyegetste eek wets 6.20 (Tei is (ORES ee Ra A eT Pe EAT Ae Ra Moe 6.80 Sn LS oi SPO aaa ae nape GRE ct mare Re pica 7.30 i eae ce 60 no 5 & nets n toe oe whee sb 0) ate bene® 6.86 a 0 Re ee eared ae pe gree Oe ee 6.70 844. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The following shows the more important results of the weekly biological examinations of Hemlock lake water which have taken place from 1896-1902, inclusive. These determinations have been made by Prof. Charles Wright Dodge, of the University of Roch- ester, using for the plant and animal organisms, exclusive of bac- teria, amount of amorphous matter, average number of moulds, etc. the Sedgwick-Rafter method.!. The determinations of bac- teria have been made by standard bacteriological methods. _ | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899 | 1900 | 1901 | 1902 @) | ® |.@) 1 OU @ 1s (1) a) Average number of plant and animal organisms (exclusive of bacteria) per cubic centimeter of unfiltered water, 1. €., water as it comes from the tap...| 185.95 | 88.26 | 62.82 | 74.94 | 56.88 | 88.07 | 141.69 Average amount of amorphous matter, 1. é€., iron rust from the pipes, earthy matter, etc., in standard units per t ' cubic centimeter of unfiltered water..| 74.41 | 48.84 | 48.0 | 41.37 | 37.71 | 38.59 | 41.87 Average number of bacteria per cubic centimeter of unfiltered water........ 3834.0 | 101.0 | 94.0 | 51.0 | 52.2 | 108.75 | 102.70 Average number of moulds per cubic - centimeter of unfiltered water........ 38.8] 10.6 | 14.4 8.4 8.9 16.0 | 16.45 Average number of genera of organisms PeCMeXaMINAatlOMn.csne.ceaainec ae oe 9.4 8.2 6.6 "4 5) 5.6 6.1 5.14 | The following eighteen sources were considered: Gates bored well; driven or bored wells in the bottom lands. south of Mount Hope reservoir; Irondequoit creek and its tributaries; Red creek ; Little Black creek; springs and well at Coldwater; Snow springs; Hubbard springs; Black creek; Oatka creek; Caledonia springs; Mendon ponds; pond near Bushnell Basin; Ironde- quoit bay; Lake Ontario; Erie canal; Honeoye creek at Hast Rush, and Genesee river. The following is a brief description of these several sources as mostly taken from the reports of the Executive Board of Rochester. The Gates well. This well is situated about one mile west of the Rochester city line. The surface of the ground at the well is 27.5 feet above the Erie canal aqueduct, or 96.5 feet below the nor- mal water surface in Mount Hope reservoir. :... .. eee ate cea es ee 6.21 6.30 Carbonate of magnesia ..... Gig. pitas 2.58 2.32 The Brie canal. It was also suggested that a temporary sup- ply be taken from the Erie canal at either the eastern or the western wide waters. The possibility of a failure of the canal banks and the fact that the water is entirely withdrawn from the prism every winter or spring for some weeks for the purpose of making repairs interfered greatly with the usefulness of this —_ HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 855 source; and the further fact that the water is badly polluted with sewage from Buffalo, Lockport and a number of villages along the route to Rochester made it unfit for domestic use without filtration. It was also doubtful whether the canal authorities would permit any such abstraction of the water, but if the necessary consent were obtained the water could have been filtered and pumped directly into the large distributing main at Smith street at less expense than was entailed by any other plan for securing a temporary additional supply, which has yet been mentioned. The risk of failing to get water at times was considerable, although when this occurred a temporary draught could have been made upon the storage of the Rush reservoir. Honeoye creek. Atthe village of East Rush, this creek is about 1.53 miles south of the Rush reservoir and 215 feet below the level of the same. Water therefrom would require filtration before being fit for domestic use. The estimated cost of the necessary works, including $24,000 for the purchase of a filtering plant, was about $58,000, the water to be delivered into the Rush _ reservoir through a 12-inch main with a pumping engine of a capacity of 2,000,000 gallons per day. The principal objection to this plan was that the water was not delivered directly into the Mount Hope reservoir, where it was most needed. The following are analyses of water of Honeoye creek as made by Professor Lattimore. (1) was taken from the creek at a point south of North Bloomfield; (2) just below Honeoye Falls, and (3) at East Rush: 7 (Parts per 100,000) (1) (2) (3) SOD IT SS eae a 13.50 12.50 19.00 Miveed fesidue......2......... ee eh 7.00 12.50 See PHIION: . sek 5.00 5.50 6.50 Bema Chloride... 256s ei. es 0.31 0.30 0.33 ReOUEMOOTIA, TFCC ss ee ee we 0.002 0.002 0.008 Ammonia, albuminoid............ 0.006 0.006 0.006 I ote ks sors oa we 6 Be ace none none none Ditirates ....... RM ae Cea as ee none none none MR as Patan 8.60 9.70 856 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genesee river. In considering the Genesee river as a source for a temporary supply for Rochester, the intake might be located either in the vicinity of the south end of the Erie railway bridge or at Elmwood avenue. The former location is nearer to Mount Hope reservoir, but the proximity of the oil works and a storm outlet for a new sewer on the west side makes the Elmwood avenue site somewhat more desirable. The latter is about 1.63 miles from the reservoir, and the usual low-water surface of the river is about 128 feet below the same. To render the water fit for domestic use it would need to be filtered, and in this respect it stands on practically the same scale as the water of all the other streams previously mentioned and that of the Erie canal. The principal advantage of this site was that the pumping station would become available for supplying water to South Park as soon as its use for supplementing the flow from Hemlock lake ceased; also the force main would serve as a future distributing pipe for the southern districts of the city on both sides of the river. All of the plant except the filters would thus have had a permanent value for two city departments. The estimated cost of the works with a 12-inch force main and including filters was — about $51,000, but if the force main were increased to 16 inches in diameter, the cost was estimated at $60,000. With the filter plant rented for a few years the costs would be about $15,000 less than the amounts named. | : The following is an analysis of Genesee river water as made by Professor Lattimore in 1890: (Parts per 100,000) Total solidsivt 2s Stee ses ei. ee ee ee eee 37.50 Mixed -residuee. tence. eee eee isd che 23 .50 LOSs:-On: ISNIGORA Ae eee. bc bee es ie eee ee 14.00 Sodium chloride: yg e252 Sa ee oe eee 6.27 AMMONIA, Tree-lit4 cae eee ee eee ee ee Vee SOE Ammonia, albuminoid:s.5 02... .ee oki ope eee 0.002 INSET IGES «6 3c SiS ER 2 EG, 0 ee bea ee none INIEPAEOS oko Sacb. Sa cee Site ce Osean eames ee ee none - HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 857 The following series of analyses of Genesee river water was made by Fred R. Hilinger, of the Rochester Health Department, in 1902. The first column of table No. 98 gives the flow of the river in cubic feet per second on the date of each analysis: TABLE No. 98—ANALYSES OF GENESEE RIVER WATER, TOGETHER WITH THE FLOW, FOR CERTAIN DAYS IN 1902 (Parts per 100,000) —— | 55 = o © Z g 29 3 oe = S =| = g DATE 2 E Sears S pa | #2 | 8 68 2 = S J z a e 59 = 5 o 5 Ss 2 = Betis le elves seine = = Xs) ZB B = cy = (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) | (9) 1902 eS mene: 18.5... .. 1,325 | 22.00 5.00 | 22.40 2.20 999-3 971/08 “ST 850 | 39.00 | 17.00; 4.80 8.58 | 11.57 716 | 19.338 Mer oe se se 3,975 | 25.00 | 11.00 | 36.25 3.96 8.39 4.42 | 12.81 a ~ ee ae 18, '750 | 26.00 | 8.00 | 34.10 1.82 | 10.08 5.30 | 15.38 a | re 2,850 | 30.00 | 14.00 | 12.00 3.63 | 13.438 4.63 | 18.06 6 7 11,450 | 24.00 | 11.00 |182.60 2.85 | 11.42 2.66 | 14.08 Bee ees ore te". 8,510 | 25.00 | 10.00 6.30 2:97 | 14.938 3.52 | 18.45 a 1,750 | 25.00 | 11.00 | 40.00 4..29 | 11.80 5.15 |} 16.95 “a eee ee 1,175 | 35.00 | 15.00 | 26.00 6.60 | 18.50 5.92 | 19.42 ok | eee 910 | 36.00 | 19.00 | 18.00 8.91 6.85 6.95 | 13.80 Ly eee 850 | 46.00 | 24.00 2.80 9 57. | -15.77°).-10.04-| 20-81 BOP O2...%.. 810 | 49.00 | 25.00 1.20 | 18.20-| 15.64 8.92 | 24.56 oe OS e, 740 | 54.00 | 21.00 = 11.88 ; 17.02 | 15.01 | 32.08 era fave ete. 440 , 75.00 | 88.00 * 19.24 | 18.54 | 16.30 | 34.84 “Te: 830 | 60.00 | 26.00 | 2.00 ! 14.52 | 17.16 | 14.33 | 31.49 eee re 1,020 | 35.00 | 14.00 | 2.40 7.59 | 12.81 7.85 | 20.66 ce Sass. 1,020 | 45.00 ; 22 00 2.00 | 20.46 | 12.58 6.70 | 19.28 ‘ie eee 850 | 38.00 | 16.00 2.00 8. 9t-|* 48. 0b- ION 223 05 ees fees 1,275 | 28.00 | 12.00 '| 22.00 6.60 | 10.56 5.63 | 16.19 “OSES. aa 820 | 89.00 | 19.00 1.40 | 10.56 | 12.85 | 8.80 | 21.65 Mow. D...5... 730 | 40.00 | 18.60 1.00 8.25 | 13.09 | 10.21 | 23.30 Been eo .-. 575 | 45.00 | 21.00 0.80 | 18.20 | 14.56 9.82 | 24.38 Bee PS es: 590 | 56.00 | 28.00 0.40 | 14.19 | 14.27 | 18.77 | 28.04 Os re 715 | 46.00 | 22.00 0.50 | 13.387) 14.40 9.18 | 23.58 a 850 | 88.00 | 16.00 1.00 7.26 | 12.92 8.49 | 21.41 ~~ Baas eae 590 | 38.00 | 16.00 2.50 8.91) |, 11.22 |. 7-60-18 -82 Sn (ae 750 | 39.00 | 17.00 0.50 9.24 | 18.61 9.82 | 23.43 “Se 2 8,300 | 22.00 8.00 | 35.80 4 29 8.74 4.75 | 13.46 858 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM sight, Erie canal was doubtless the most economical, and follow- ing that, Genesee river. Moreover, both these plans could have been carried out in a short time. Serious objections to. their adoption, however, were raised, not only on the ground that fil- tration is inadequate to render the water safe for drinking, but also that the owners of waterpower on the various races would prevent any abstraction of water from the Genesee river. The objection to the use of the river water by the mill owners rested principally on the ground that their waterpower would be damaged by the abstraction of the proposed quantity. On March 20, 1891, a committee of owners of the Johnson and Sey- mour race, the Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhugh race, the Hy- draulic Power Company’s race and the Rochester and Brush Electric Light Companies, reported that the majority of such owners would permit the city to take 2,000,000 gallons per day from the river on the payment of an annual rental of $14,600; and on the same day the mill owners on Brown’s race resolved that they would oppose with all reasonable persistency any prop- osition to draw any further supply from the Genesee river or its tributaries. Par Lake Erie In May, 1895, the writer examined Lake Erie somewhat care- fully as a source of water supply for the manufacturing town of Lorain on the south shore, twenty miles west of Cleveland. The results of that study are given in a paper, Lake Erie as a Source of Water Supply for the Towns of its Borders, and little addi- tional reference will be made to the matter in this place, except to state that there are a considerable number of chemical analyses given in said paper. Table No. 99 gives monthly chemical, microscopical and bac- teriological analyses of Lake Erie water at Buffalo from April, 1902, to March, 1903, inclusive. Only one chemical analysis was made per month, but there were several determinations of bac- teria. The chemical analyses are by Prof. Herbert M. Hill, while the bacteriological determinations are by Dr. Wm. G. Bissell. In order to fully understand the indications of these latter, one needs to study them in detail as given in the monthly bulletins of the Health Department. = 859 HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK "YJUOUL UL pUNO; LOQUINU VWINWIUTUT pus WINUIIXB Ay (000‘00T tod 831Rq) WAISOIONI ‘G06, ‘HOUVIN OL ‘ZOBL “IIa y Wow ‘OIVIING LV WALVM AMY AMVT AO SHSATVNV IVOINO'TIOINALOVA GNV 'IVOICOOSOUOIN “TVOIWHHO ATHINO|(—66 OGL OF OOT | OFS OF O9T | OF9 OF OFT | 006 99 00% | 008‘ OF 08 | 00S‘S 04 OF4 : PR tie = AES een ie IN oe teat "* erLoqorg quosoid qu0sead qu0sead qtrese.ad qu0se.1d quesead RN AUER: Se SURO Ee eR ee a feat wy sea ‘en =i atin Br sete eae) ace nat RCS con ene ose etS goneaatyy —OOB IY ououU ouOoUW euouU euo U Caen tl oor ee ee oo ee we ewe wm wwe CeONS 6S. bhi eeelsuake eee ose eee eee SOFLTYIN, P00. 900°0 900°0 8100 1100 9T0'0 i Veet OCMC har wird Ok lace tery rue). prlourmanqye ‘eluoulu W &00'0 1000 00'°0 F100'0 &00'0 G00’ 0 Ce ee Ty "90m ‘etu“oulUul wy Pb 20r &° 86 9° 6 BLOT 6101 8°66 rit **moreimges Jo yueo ted ‘wesfxo poalossiq $80 98°0 680 98°0 e9°0 960 Cele ale O78 (¢7e O64 8/6) 16) cso w! oe wie wie vin aalenane nnn mu0oSsAxo poayossiq, 6900 1F0'0 @P0'0 TS0'0 9F0'0 SOC LOmmrelecto eS id "*" "Sdnoy ANOF UL poqsosqe weskxO 8100 600°0 110°0 610'0 110'0 SHO OR a astern: “soqNUTU 1904 JT UI poqtosqe WosAXO 69'0 L1G’ 0 CL, 0 91,0 96'0 LL'O xe oo .et etie! ore! @* era) e ete») af ee eel ev ele uce ee se) ace le else ee 8 europa) 99°9 61°F 06h 9),'8 1G°S 9), 2, ee BERK On a et ees celtw is tale e, SNe wap i elamecucenel eeeysnete enpIiser OlUes1I9 6% ‘OT iy) ° 6 GG F }, ip 6 rail F OT 96° IZ Revi neriel ser eieks ef wtuAchetatghusanetsielshevetesiny TWOTPLUST Ioqye onpisey CT LT 99° FT CL PT e¢ ST 69'S VE OG ime. toes} "*" "Oy OOOT YB ONPISEL [eIOT, OP OL Oe'L I@*y 62 ‘OL | 90° TT Boron: . |euekee ees «tarehefahe Colatetakalonefuretasatere rane ssouprey [eqOT, 68°24 Cl P Pa P 68° | 06°F | OL'P . ome eee eee eC ce ey *"* *ssouprey quouRrUuldtod LG'S O'S LL'& 00°¢ 98°9 C19 acolereetaanatiaahaavtiet ata wieireke on 6 be 6s 8 a we ‘ssouparey Axerodwuey, (4) (9) (q) (p) (g) (3) (T) ‘og aoquioydeg| ‘eg ssuiny 6g Aine ‘eg one ‘96 AU ‘ee THEY CHNINUGLAC SONAWATH ‘ON WAV —_ MUSEUM NEW YORK STATE 860 "Y{UOU Ul PUNOT JOQUINU WINUITUTU PUB WANUIIXBW x | 0%9 04 ONT | OVS‘T OF OLS | 0NS‘T 07 0GS | 00G 92 OOT | 008 94 00% | O9L‘T OF Ost queseid quoesoid qu0sei1d quesoid quese.1d fe Se eu0u 90R.14 e0e1} euouU eu0ou co0'0 90R.14 euoUu 901} eu0ou eu0u euoUu 1100 €10°0 800°0 600 °0 cT0'0 9600 1000 6600 0 100 0 600 0 €100 0 9600 0 T GOL G VOT 8°66 PROT ee ta 6 10 ol I aL IL GES Tot i tae 160 cr0 0 GLO 0 860 0 POLO 690 0 €80°0 1600 80 0 870 0 vo0 0 680 0 610 0 $4 0) 780 68 0 c9 0 9¢°0 98°0 68 G 69 °9 0g P 08 7 699 08 TP 97 OL cc $8 TT 67 TE 668 84, ST 82, GT VG Pl repeat O)HE 66 9T T9 GT 89°06 Ger teers 8L°6 oP 6 86 OT 8°" OT GL §& OGG cy gs CPG Tg Gc 678 re8 60 2 889 16 °9 49° G 60 °G (FT) (eT) (81) (TL) (OT) (6) €06T S061 €06T cO6T 6O6L cO6L ‘eg YOIBIN ‘2 YOIBI ‘Tg Arenuve | ‘ez tequieceq | ‘9g JeqUIeAON | “GT 19Q0400 oe ee eee weet eee eee rere sro seseeseeesereseens * yBI1oqyoVg e ee ee eee eee ens oVsl[V eee ere ees eee es Bee wee ee eee ee twee es were eens $09B.14IN eee ee ee wees en ee Buaidilwce! 6) eters) ree SOULTJIN, ‘-"* ploulmimay]e “etuowuly eerjy “BTUOWULY eeces eevee at eye “TOTPINGVS JO 4ULe0 ied ‘ueskxO peafOssig, ce ee ee muoeskxo POATOSSIC, ‘SInoY INO} UL peqiosqe weskxXO Set ee SoNUTUL WSe}JY Ul peqiosqe wesAXO ees eect ee ee eUuLLO[YD eeoees eee eee ee ES Soe oety i eae ae OR LS ear OIUvSIO CC eo eee eer eee ener UOTIIUGLI 104je onpIsey paaritgs eee O o00T #8 ONpIset [BIOL **"ssouprey [eqO], ‘ssoupiey JUSULULIOg eevee eee eee eee eee eree ese eer eevee ssoupirey Are1oduray, GHNINYALAC SLNGWA Ta Cee ed ee ee eee ee ee ee a Eee (000°00T 10d S418) (papnjouod) BWAISOTIONI ‘G06, “HOUVI OL ‘ZObT “Wudy Wows ‘O1VdING LY ULVM AIM AMVI AO SHSAIVNV ‘IVOINOIOIMMLOVE GNV TVOICOOSOMOIN “IVOINHHO A TIHINOW—66 ON WIdvE ‘pjogeotetq ye Auvduoy sodvq [vuotVudezuy oy} JO [THN ‘6S 948d : ea tow ne. a HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 861 As further illustrating the quality as well as the quantity of water obtainable for municipal water supplies in western New York, the villages of Brockport and Holley have for a number of years had insufficient supplies from dug wells—the same thing is true of the village of Albion. The village of Medina is stated to be supplied from the Erie canal, although some pretence is made of taking the supply from a well, and the city of Lockport has never had any supply except from the Erie canal. At all these places the supply of pure, potable water is scanty and of high value—the same thing is true generally throughout western New York. The study at Rochester can be duplicated almost anywhere in the region from Seneca lake to the western limits of the State. Quality of Water in the Vicinity of Medina In order to show some facts in regard to the quality of water near Medina, the following analyses are herewith included. (1) is from a disused shallow well, one mile south of Shelby Center; (2) is from a bored well not far from the preceding, taken after a few days pumping. These two analyses were made by Prof. Herbert M. Hill, of Buffalo; (8) is also from a bored well, in the same locality, and (4) is from the Oak Orchard creek, a mile south of Shelby Center. The two latter were made by Fred R. Hilinger, chemist of the Rochester Health Department: (Parts per 100,000) Gls De tS Oe Residue after ignition........ o0.50.. 28.82 “21°00"7 38-08 _ Organic and volatile residue.. 18.86 4.70 12.00 12.50 Total residue dried at 100°C.. 49.3 33.52 33.00 48.50 IR as a ees Ss fro 0.83 0.90 1.50 anna, (TCC... 552... 2. trace 0.00 0.002 0.001 Ammonia, albuminoid ....... 0.003 0.003 0.006 0.019 | ESS trace none none +‘ none LL AES ea a ra a trace 0.10 0.10 0.04 Temporary hardness ......... 3.50 5.40 418.00 18-00 Permanent hardness ......... 6.35 9.00 £2005. 27.00 @otal hardness .........:...- 9.85 14.40 22.00 35.00 862 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The well from which (3) was taken is about 1500 feet from Oak Orchard creek, with the ground surface only a few feet above the water level in the creek. The elevation of water in Oak Orchard creek directly opposite is substantially the same as in the well, and when pumping from the well the water is drawn to about 5 feet below the level of the water in the creek. Neverthe- less, analyses (3) and (4) show that the quality of water in the well is quite different from that in the creek. In the case of the water from the well, permanent hardness is only 4°, while the water from the creek shows 17°, although it is difficult to under- stand, under the conditions, how the source of water in the well can be other than that from the creek—the more specially since the underlying rock is open. In regard to the permanent hard- ness of the creek water, as shown by analysis (4), it is probably due to Oak Orchard creek flowing over a bed of gypsum near Oakfield. Quality of Water in the Vicinity of Batavia In order to still further illustrate water supplies in western New York, the following analyses from the vicinity of Batavia, as made by Mr Eilinger, are of interest; (1) is from Devil’s lake, a small body of water ten or twelve miles west of Batavia; (2) is from Mill springs, five miles north of Batavia; (3) is from Ham- ilton springs, two miles south of Batavia; and (4) is from Horse- shoe lake, two and one-half miles east of Batavia. Mill springs, the analysis of which contains the most total hardness, are at the foot of a ridge from 100 to 150 feet in hight and probably is not far from the gypsum belt, as the permanent hardness in this water is difficult to account for on any other basis. Both Hamilton springs and Horseshoe lake are above that belt, and accordingly permanent hardness is not very serious in either of them. (Parts per 100,000) (1) (2) (3) (4) Total residue dried at 100°C.. 24.00 116.00 31.00 28.00 Fixed residue at low red heat. 11.00 88.00 18.00 16.50 Volatile at low red heat...... 13.00 ©28.00. 137007 aan PTAMONIA, LCC... 2-5 eee 0.06 0.003 0.001” O2002 Ammonia, albuminoid ....... 0.044 0.003 0.003 0.002 Chlorine in chlorides......... 0.16 0). 24 0.30 0.80 ‘as.100y) ayvy je Auvduop todvq [vVuUol,vudse}U] 9G} JO [ITN te RT POET TPT ET CL iL CCC ACE LEAT NE OE COICO OLE TT NOC A a Vera ni st ST[BA SUSTD Jv AuBdtmOH Jedvq [vuoT}VUIEIUT 9q} JO GOSn\t ‘TH 81d HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK $63 (1) (2) (3) (4) Equivalent to sodium chloride 0.26 0.40 0.50 1.32 MINES tc 0 ans 3 2e uepeeus none none. none none 8g aa ite ie a oe none 0.01 -Q: 20> ;-0:20 Memporary hardness ......... 5 Ze O08 ss A sath 2000) Permanent hardness......... a 50.00 2.50 4.50 Met! hardness .......2...-.. i 72.00 “2000 27 24-50 There are a number of other springs in the vicinity of Batavia, although none of them has a very large flow. The following is a list of the various springs, with an estimate as to their probable minimum yield: Gallons REE en akGe. + 6 ra ne Oe 1,000,000 RPM ISIAV Scents terres tice eS aici c ged ne diets bbe sala a Sa 450,000 Biaikley springs ........ Ce co SUCRE beh = Re eas a 200,000 RSMO SUTURE se a ae bela pin chee ds) sidiaiy a eve 4) ee oe 500,000 Serer AG aM OM STINGS. ioe ee ee ele oe he es _ 150,000 MEL TIRR ITO SS ra sera ee kee eee eS ihe ht ee ese et 200,000 MMEPMISETIAC ETN OS) oon niet a sae a earache Pa ee ws ee pe 100,000 RMIT Aree rte te NOR a teas ahi c sme stakes os Soo Soke 100,000 7) LL TELE ST ESM SRS GE ool ea tat cy ae ee i 500,000 LTTE By AAAs aes eRe al ces a eS ae ie oS en 3,300,000 Probably all of these springs may be taken for a safe minimum yield at 3,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours, although this is an estimate merely, based on experience, no weir measurements having been made. At Williamsville, near Buffalo, there is a spring flowing at the rate of 2,000,000 or 3,000,000 gallons per day, which probably issues from the horizon of the gypsum. At a number of other places in western New York springs appear, specially along the ridge at the foot of which is the gypsum belt, but the waters issuing are so hard as to render it undesirable to use them. A marked case of this character is near Akron, where an excavation developed a flow of 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 gallons per day, but of which the permanent hardness was equal to one part in a thousand. *Not determined. S64 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM THE DRAINAGE OF SWAMP AREAS IN NEW YORK There are a large number of swamp areas in New York State, the major portion of which is situated in the western part of the State, in Chautauqua, Cattaraugus, Hrie, Niagara, Orleans, Gen- esee, Ontario, Yates, Wayne, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga and Oswego counties. There are also extensive Swamp areas in the northern part, aS well as in the southern part of the State. The following are the approximate areas of some of the more im- portant of these swamps: Acres Conewango Swamp .............. 12,000 Ponaw andar. ae 52a eater eee 20,000 Oak Orchards. oe nose eee 25,000 Mion tezuinial <2. bei ee een eee ee 26,000 hint ereelo ss: a Se eee ie 3,600 Weedsporto...5.95 2 sc notes 7,500 Cicero (26/8 ee eee 16,000. Wallkill ‘valley: tx Varco eee 26,000 In addition, there are in various parts of the State small swamps ageregating at least............ 107,000 | otal: . 2 certs ee eee 243,100 acres = 380 sq. miles The Water Storage Commission received urgent requests to drain some of the larger of these swamps, and since such work was clearly in line with the work of this commission, particular attention was paid to such improvement. Some attempt was made to drain Montezuma marsh in previous years, but owing to neglect of the fundamental principles, comparatively little im- provement has resulted. As regards Montezuma swamp, its drainage will be effected as incidental to the construction of the barge canal, but the drainage of the numerous other swamp areas, such as Conewango, Tonawanda, Oak Orchard, Cicero, Flint Creek, etc. can only be effected by works specially designed for each local case. In order to give some idea of the value of draining these Swamps, it is understood that swamp lands now sell at from $2 "PARADA WO Je Auvdmo0HD J9deg [vuotjeuse}Ul 9} ‘eb VIE JO TITIN = i re ggg “y we i . i] ‘ * i ; : ‘ : hy i a b : + \ . F : 3 = F: ’ a ‘ * 4 : 4 t * » ’ 8 ee a Pt Al Ss ae” See CU HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 865 to $4 per acre. If such lands were effectually drained, so that they could be cultivated every year, they would be the most val- uable in the State, and worth at least $60 per acre. But in order to make them of this value, even after the drainage is accom- plished, they must be cleared and put in shape for cultivation, which will require a large amount of labor in addition to the drainage. Assuming them to cost, with some of the adjacent low flatlands, an average of $5 per acre, the net gain would be $55 per acre, amounting for 380 square miles to $13,370,500. It is difficult to say what the cost of the drainage would be, although it is doubtful if it would cost, including fitting them for cultivation, more than $50 per acre, or for the entire area, the total cost may possibly be $7,293,000, leaving a net profit on the transaction of $6,077,500. This expense should be borne partly by the land owners and partly by the State, the proportion to be fixed on further consideration. There is no good reason why the State should not inaugurate an improvement like this. THE PAPER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK In view of the fact that the paper industry in this State is almost entirely dependent upon waterpower for its profitable operation, the following chapter is included. According to the Twelfth Census (1900) out of a total capital invested in the paper industry in the United States of $167,507,- 713, there was invested in the State of New York $37,349,390, or about 225 per cent of the total capital invested in the whole country. The total cost of materials used in this industry in New York in 1900 was $14,563,222, of which there were 225,327 cords of domestic spruce used for ground pulp, which cost $1,260,593, or at the average rate of $5.60 per cord. Domestic spruce for sul- phite and soda fiber was used to the extent of 138,098 cords, costing $724,822. Canadian spruce was used for ground pulp to the extent of 54,923 cords, while for sulphite and soda fiber there were 86,606 cords of Canadian spruce used. In addition to the preceding, 51,208 cords of Canadian poplar wood and other woods were used. The total use of wood, there- fore, was 556,162 cords. 866 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Rags were used to the extent of 17,899 tons, which cost $420,- 870, or at the rate of $23.51 per ton; 37,244 tons of old waste paper were used, costing $428,531, and 13,947 tons of Manila stock, including jute, bagging, rope, waste, thread, etc. which cost $646,776; 17,644 tons of straw were used. In addition, 93,- 749 tons of ground wood pulp were purchased at a cost of $1,485,176, or at the rate of $15.81 per ton; 20,447 tons of soda ~ wood fiber were purchased and 66,769 tons of sulphite wood fiber. In addition, other chemical fiber was purchased to the extent of 8,554 tons. The total value at the point of manufacture of the paper prod- uct in New York in 1900 was $26,715,628, of which newspaper amounted to 162,153 tons, valued at $5,405,452, or at the rate of $33.33 per ton. There were 27,611 tons of bookpaper made, worth $1,706,565, or at the rate of $61.81 per ton. In addition, a considerable quantity of lithographic plate paper, cardboard, bristolboard, fine writing paper, etc. was made. The number of establishments making paper in New York in 1900 was 179, of which 39 were owned by individuals, 44 by firms and limited partnerships and 96 by incorporated companies. In 1890 the total value of the exports of paper from the United States amounted to $1,226,686, while in 1900 this had in- creased to $6,215,833. These figures do not include the value of 82,441 tons of wood pulp. In order to show relative figures, we will briefly compare New York with Massachusetts. The total number of paper estab- lishments in Massachusetts in 1900 was 93, of which 13 were owned by individuals, 13 by firms and limited partnerships and 67 by incorporated companies. The total capital invested in Massachusetts was $26,692,922. The total cost of materials used was $11,918,802, while in New York it was $14,563,222. We learn, therefore, that in New York the total cost of materials used was $2,644,420 more than in Massachusetts, and that the total value of the product in Massachusetts was $22,141,461 as against $26,715,628 in New York, or the value of the product in New York was $4,574,167 more than in Massachusetts. A reason for these differences is found in the fact that there are more mills in Massachusetts than in New York which ‘aTTIASPRO ye Auvduoph iedvq [VuUoT}VUAeIUT 9m JO [ITIW "SP 948Id HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 867 make fine paper. The use of rags, including cotton, flax, waste and Sweepings in that State amounts to 86,715 tons, while in _ New York there are only 17,899 tons used. Book papers are made in Massachusetts to the value of $3,120,867 as against $1,706,565 in New York. Lithographic papers, cardboard, bris- < tolboard, etc. amounts in Massachusetts to $2,013,920 as against 7 $200,315 in New York. There is an annual product in Massachu- ” setts of fine writing paper of $8,751,566 as against $70,115 in New _ York, while other fine papers are valued in Massachusetts at $2,547,072 as against $66,844 in New York. _ If Massachusetts had the same area as New York, with the i paper industry proportionately developed over the whole State, i the total capital invested in Massachusetts would amount to, - roundly, $160,0900,000. Since paper making is the one great in- i dustry depending upon waterpower, the reason for this may be _ again placed very largely in rational State laws and thorough - development of waterpower. _ In order to illustrate the foregoing proposition, it may be _ mentioned that the total power derived from steam, water and _ other kinds of power used in paper making in New York in 1900 _ was 228,478 horsepower, while in Massachusetts it was 82,893 horsepower. Of this 191,117 horsepower was from water in New ' York and 44,935 was from -water in Massachusetts, leaving _ 37,361 horsepower derived from steam and other motive power 'in New York and 37,958 horsepower derived from the same _ sources in Massachusetts. _ The yearly capacity in tons of paper in New York is given at - 611,179 and of pulv 495,668. In Massachusetts the yearly capacity _ of the mills is 283,576 tons of paper, and of pulp 31,920 tons. 4 These figures show the great difference in the quality of the ' business in the two States. In New York a large amount of pulp is ground, whereas in Massachusetts there is only about one- sixteenth as much. The mills there are producing high-grade ' papers, for which steam power is less objectionable than for a _ lower grade. It is common to run the paper machines proper . ' by steam, as steam power is preferable for this purpose, because of yielding more uniform power, but for making ground pulp *These figures are as given in the Census Report, Vol. IX, p. 1035. 868 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM waterpower is indispensable. At least 65 horsepower per twenty- four hours is required to produce a ton of mechanical pulp. In 1900 New York ranked first not only in the number of establishments and in the amount of capital invested, but also in the number of wage-earners and the wages paid, as well as in the cost of materials and in the value of the product. Massachu- setts was second and Maine third, although as we have seen if we make the comparison on unit areas, Massachusetts was first. As to the different classes of products, New York was first in wood pulp, newspaper, wrapping paper and other products not specially designated, while Massachusetts was first in the pro- duction of bookpaper and fine writing paper. The principal wood from which paper is made is spruce. ° It forms 76 per cent of all the wood used in the United States for both mechanical pulp and chemical fiber. Gray pine, white pine, white fir, balsam, hemlock and larch are also used for the pro- duction of mechanical pulp and occasionally for chemical pulp. The wood chiefly used for the soda process is poplar, although aspin, cottonwood and sweet-gum are sometimes used. Cypress and several of the preceding timbers are also used for sulphite pulp. Beech, silver maple, basswood, white birch and paper birch — are sometimes used. The chief processes of reduction to pulp are three in number— the mechanical, the soda process and the sulphite process. The mechanical process consists in grinding the wood on a grind- stone after removing the bark. All the sound wood of the tree is used, provided it is free from knots. A cord of spruce wood will produce about one ton of pulp. The soda process is based on the solvent action of alkali at high temperature. Poplar is the wood chiefly used in the soda process, although considerable quantities of pine, spruce and hemlock are consumed, while maple, cottonwood, white birch - and basswood frequently replace poplar. About two cords of wood are required to produce one ton of soda pulp. The sulphite process consists in treating vegetable substances ’ with a solution of sulphurous acid, heated in a closed vessel under a sufficient pressure to retain the acid gas until the inter- cellular matter is dissolved. Any coniferous wood, which is not ‘olrAdpep ie Auvduog tedeg [BuO] Vuse}UT 9Y} Jo ouNy puv wed ‘bb 248d SS SSS ne — ne An 4 mee = Siieen en. —— ss Se a 4 y r naan e - HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ' 869 a 7 too resinous, may be used, although-the woods chiefly used are e spruce, hemlock and balsam. About two cords of wood are % required for one ton of the sulphite pulp. : ; Newspaper and common wrapping papers consist chiefly of mechanical pulp, with from 10 per cent to 25 per cent of sulphite = pulp added to hold the stock together. One class of strong wrap- ‘ ping paper is made entirely of sulphite pulp. q Soda fibre is used as soft stock in book and writing papers. | It came into use earlier than sulphite fiber, but owing to the : greater cheapness of the sulphite process, and the superior _ strength of the fiber, the use of the latter has increased more F rapidly than the soda. b In order to show the comparatively recent development of the : paper industry, it may be mentioned that mechanical pulp was invented in Germany in 1844, but was not made in this country until 1867. It, however, reached no commercial importance any- where until considerably later than 1867. There were in the _ United States, in 1900, 168 mills in operation, of which 81 were : in New York. _ The soda process was introduced into this country from _ Europe in 1854. The number of mills in the United States in _ 1900 was 36, of which 2 were in New York. The sulphite process is an American invention, used at Prov- idence in 1884. The number of mills in operation in the United States in 1900 was 69, of which 17 were in New York. Modern paper making began with the introduction early in the nineteenth century of the Fourdrinier machine, which was a _ development of an invention made by Louis Roberts, of Essonne, - _ France, about 1798. Paper was made mostly from rags, which - continued to be the materials used until past the middle of the : nineteenth century, when wood fibre was introduced. The use of rags for making newspaper has been largely superseded by wood. _ Paper making, however, is an ancient art, probably originat- _ ing in China as early as 150 A. D. Several centuries later, the _ Arabs learned the art of paper making from the Chinese, who ‘in turn introduced the art into western Europe. Paper was 870 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM made in France in 1189 A. D., and in England about two hundred years later. | Until one hundred years ago the method of paper making had been the same as originally practiced by the Chinese—fibrous materials being beaten into a pulp, mixed with water and molded into sheets by manual labor. Among the interesting industrial developments of the present day, the International Paper Company, incorporated under the laws of New York State in January, 1898, may be mentioned. This company acquired at the time of its incorporation nearly all the larger mills manufacturing newspaper in the eastern States and later on has acquired several additional paper and pulp mills, timber lands, waterpowers and other properties. Its manufacturing plants, waterpowers and timber lands are located in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, Michigan and Canada. In New York the Inter- national Paper Company owns the following mills: Glens Falls, Fort Edward, Palmers Falls, Niagara Falls, Lake George, Ontario (near Watertown), Piercefield, Herkimer, Lyon Falls, Cadyville, Watertown (at Watertown), Woods Falls (near Water- — town) Underwood and Harrisville. The capital stock of this company is $25,000,000 preferred, of which $22,406,700 had been issued June 30, 1903, and $20,000,000 common, of which $17,442,800 had been issued at the same date; $10,000,000 of first consolidated mortgage gold bonds have been authorized, bearing interest at the rate of 6 per cent per annum, payable semiannually, February 1 and August 1. The plants of - the company were valued in 19038 at $41.925,446. The gross income for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, was $20,142,771. The cost of raw materials and manufacturing, including ex- penses of administration, sales, and cost of selling, was for the same year $16,529,310. : The International Paper Company has been of considerable value not only in this State, but in the other states where it operates, in that it has modified the conditions prevailing before it came into existence. Competition was so severe as to have blinded many manufacturers to the fact that there was any future to be considered. As soon as the company was formed ; . 2 ™ jw nk eee. ‘SI[VA S,doupvg jv Auvdmog ssdeg [vuOMVUIeIUT oy) JO [ITN “GY 93%Id a boa 4 ’ s ; £ 4 : HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 871 its officers realized that the investment in the plants was so large that one of the first steps was to guarantee their perma- nency by providing for a future supply of raw materials. This led to an extensive acquisition of timber lands by this company, as well as by a number of independent companies. At the present time, in 1904, the most of the large companies operating in this State own their timber lands, from which by a rational system of forestry they produce their own timber. The company has given attention to forest fires and has made considerable outlays for preventing and extinguishing the same. It has also supported such legislation in this State as will provide for a patrol system, and has in various ways tried to interest the public in this subject in Maine and other states. Thus far its work in this connection has been largely missionary, but prac- tical good will undoubtedly follow. The first great benefit, therefore, which has resulted from the formation of the International Paper Company is its effect upon forestry. This company has also advocated a rational system of water storage in New York and other states where water storage is applicable. Indeed, the whole subject has been quickened by this company, as has forestry. The powerful influence of the International Paper Company has made water storage a live subject in New York, and the attention of the paper industry generally has been specially directed to this consideration. One value of such an aggregation of capital is the amount of in- fluence it may bring to bear upon subjects like this, where indi- viduals acting independently could accomplish little or nothing because of their inability to act together. The second work accomplished by this company, therefore, is of very material assistance in the inauguration of water storage. The company has also spent large sums of money improving its plants, balancing its pulp and paper producing capacity, and bringing its mills to a higher state of efficiency, the fundamental idea being to give stability and permanency to the industry. Not only have foreign markets been sought, but it has intro- duced improvements in organization and administration of its mills and affairs. It has also introduced scientific methods, as 872 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM shown by the establishment of a bureau of tests for making experiments, both physical and chemical. Before the establishment of the International Paper Com- pany very great and wasteful abuses had grown up in the use of paper by the various newspapers. It has very largely succeeded in reforming these. In the general account, therefore, there may be placed to the credit of the International Paper Company the introduction of rational forestry, and material assistance to water storage, the introduction of scientific methods of manufacture, and finally a reformation of abuses in the paper trade. These improvements have already been of benefit to the paper trade as a whole and done much to enhance the value of the industry to this State. We will now discuss another phase of the subject. There is great exaggeration in the public mind as to the effect of the pulp industry upon the streams of the State. There is a popular im- pression that the wood-pulp industry is responsible for the denuding of forest areas, although anybody who visits the forested portions of the State understands that this cannot be true. At the present time nine-tenths of all the timber cut in New York for pulp is spruce, and very rarely is the spruce more than one quarter of the total stand of timber. Usually the spruce is not cut to below eight to ten inches in diameter. The — effect of taking out the spruce from a timber area has been discussed on a previous page and will not be referred to here any further than to say that, while the effect is slightly apparent, it can be held responsible in only a slight degree for fluctuation in stream flow. ; Moreover, the paper and pulp industry is not responsible for all the timber cut in this State, as may be shown by considering the following figures for the year 1900, from the Seventh Report of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New York. From these figures it appears that the total cut of lumber and pulp wood from the Adirondack and Catskill forests amounted to 651,135,308 feet B. M. Adding to this 349,000,000 feet B. M. cut for firewood, we have a total cut of, roundly, 1,000,000,000 feet B. M. The cut of spruce for pulp mills was 230,649,292 feet ———— HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 873 B. M. The cut of spruce, therefore, amounted to only about 23 per cent of the whole. It seems to the writer that many people in New York have taken unsound ground on this question of the relation of the State to great manufacturing enterprises. Paper has been justly stated to be the index of a people’s civilization, but if popular clamor were considered, one might suppose it was an index of exactly - the opposite. The manufacturers are not to blame for a continual increased use of this product, and so long as paper can be pro- duced from wood pulp at considerably less cost than from other raw material, it is idle to expect that anything else will be used. THE PROPER FUTURE COMMERCIAL POLICY OF NEW YORK In the foregoing pages we have seen that by virtue of its position, New York is naturally so situated as to be the principal manufac- turing area of the United States, but that because of developing on narrow lines it has realized only a portion of the manufac- turing naturally its due. After the Revolutionary war, the United States was an agricultural region purely—aside from agricultural products, substantially everything used was manu- factured abroad. i About ninety years ago Erie canal was inaugurated for the © purpose: largely of carrying agricultural productions—grain, lumber, etc,—to market. It was not realized that the natural destiny of the State of New York was for manufacturing rather than for internal commerce. The result of this was that the natural flow of streams throughout the central part of the State was mostly appropriated for the use of the Erie canal, and restrictive laws enacted which have discouraged the development of manu- facturing. Hence the New England States, where an opposite policy prevailed, have developed far more manufacturing per unit area than New York, although farther away from the centers of trade and commerce. - Now that we realize the great mistake made, the first thing to be done is to remove restrictions as to the use of water of every sort and kind. We need to enact a constitutional amendment substantially on the lines laid down by Mr Herschel in 1894, and also we need such further legislation as will permit of develop- 874 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ment of the water storage capacity of New York streams to its fullest degree. Another mistake in New York has been in largely confining the agriculture to the production of grain and dairy products. Had manufacturing been the general policy of the State for the last hundred years, the population would easily be anywhere from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000 greater than it is under present conditions and a much larger proportion of the agriculture would be garden truck, fruits and berries than it now is. These products yield very much better profit to the producer than grain, cattle, dairy products, etc. The result of this policy would have been that the aggregate wealth of New York farmers would be much higher than it is, and the same thing is true of all other classes. The construction of the 1000-ton barge canal is expected to greatly increase the manufacturing possibilities of the State by bringing into it the raw material for the manufacture of iron and steel. These industries have clustered around Lake Erie, at Lorain, Cleveland, Ashtabula, ete. but the industry at these points is burdened by the necessity of bringing coal and limestone for flux by railway transportation from a ‘considerable distance. The barge canal will permit of the development of iron and steel © manufacturing at points very near the coal and flux. This manu- facturing ought to develop extensively along the line of the canal between Rochester and Utica. Another difficulty has been, until within a year or two, the great cost of incorporating companies in this State. Previous to 1902 the State tax required from corporations was one-eighth ~ of one per cent. The result was that nearly all large corpora- tions were incorporated in New Jersey, but in 1902 this was so far modified that the fee now is merely nominal. At the legislative session of 1904, an act was passed authorizing the appointment of a permanent River Improvement Commission, and while this act is hardly all that can be desired, nevertheless it makes a beginning towards the rational improvement of the streams of the State to their fullest extent. We still need a mill act which will permit of constructing dams on the smaller streams without any further grant of powers from the Legislature than those granted in the general act. We also need to repeal all acts : : ‘ ——— HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK - . 875 in any way inconsistent with the provisions of either the river improvement act or the proposed mill act. With these and other improvements in legislation we may hope to inaugurate a com- mercial policy which will make New York in a larger degree the Empire State. In a word, therefore, the proper future commercial policy of New York should be such as to permit of bringing into the State the largest possible amount of raw material to be manufactured there, together with the removal of restrictions of every sort and kind which in any way tend to hamper the free development of internal commerce. LIST OF WORKS REFERRED TO IN PREPARING REPORT ON THE HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK In the following list the works which have been referred to in the preparation of this report are arranged alphabetically : Adirondack and Catskill Parks—A Plea for. An argument for the re- sumption by the State of New York of the policy of acquiring lands for public benefit within the limits of the Forest Preserve. 8vo. 1903. Adirondacks and Forest Preservation—Report of Special Committee of the Senate on the Future Policy of the State in Relation thereto. S8vo. 1904. Adirondack Committee—Report of, to the Assembly of 1902. 8vo. 1903. Adirondack Park, The—A sketch of the origin, the romantic charms and . the practical uses of the Adirondack Park and some of the reasons for the acquisition of lands and reforestation by the State of New York. 8vo. 1903. Albany—Reports of the Board of Water Commissioners to the Common Council for 1889, 1891, 1892, 1893 and 1899. 8vo. Albany—Reports of the Bureau of Water. First, Second and Third Reports, 1900-1902, inclusive. S8vo. Albany Special Water Supply Commission—Report of, presented to the Common Council of the city of Albany, March 10, 1891. 8vyo. Aldridge, George W.—Statement made in reply to criticisms passed by the Canal Investigating Commission upon the Department of Public Works in connection with the improvement of canals under the $9,000,000 improve- ment fund. 8vo. 1898. Babcock, Stephen H.—Municipal Acquirement of Private Water Company’s Plant by the City of Syracuse. Proc. Am. Water Works Assn. 1893. ‘ Babcock, Stephen H.—Report on the Taking of the Waters of Skaneateles Lake by the City of Syracuse for a Water Supply. S8vo. 1889. Babcock, Stephen E.—Skaneateles Lake Water Supply for the City of Syracuse. S8vo. 1889. Barge Canal of New York—Report on, from Hudson River to the Great Lakes, In two parts. 8vo, 1901, 876 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Bartlett, John R.—Outline of the Plan for Furnishing an Abundant Supply of Water for the City of New York from a Source Independent of the Croton Watershed. 4to. 1888. Bien, Julius—Atlas of the State of New York. 1895. : Blackmar, Abel E.—Railroad Discrimination Against New York and the Remedy. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLVI, pp. 182-250. (Dee., 1901.) Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways—Report of, between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Tide Waters. In two parts, with Atlas. 56th Con- gress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives, Document No. 149. (1900). Board of Health of New York State—Annual Reports of, 1st to 22nd. These reports contain various papers relating to The Hydrology of the State of New York. 8vo. Brooklyn—Annual Reports of the Department of Public Works for 1895, 1896 and 1897. S8vo. Brooklyn, Department of City Works—Investigations to Determine the Causes Affecting the Quality of the Water Supply During the Summer of S96. “Sv0.* 1S9Te: . Brooklyn—History and Description of the Water Supply. Prepared and printed by order of the Commissioner of City Works. 4to. 1896. Brooklyn—Report on Future Extension of the Water Supply. 4to. 1896. Brooklyn Water Works and Sewers—A Descriptive Memoir prepared by order of the Board of Water Commissioners. 4to. 1867. Buffalo Chamber of Commerce—Reports of, 1895-1903, inclusive. S8vo. Canadian Canals—Memorandum on the Growth of Traffic of the Great Lakes and the Proposed Ottawa Ship Navigation. 4to. 1901. Canadian Canals—Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal. Twenty- foot navigation from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic. S8vo. 1902. Canal Committee of New York State—Report of, appointed by the Governor pursuant to Chapter 15 of the Laws of 1898. 8vo. 1899. Canal Improvement Text-Book—New York’s Canal System and Proposed 1,000-ton Barge Enlargement. Issued by Canal Improvement State Com- mittee. S8vo. 1903. Canal System of New York State—Published by the Canal Improvement State Committee. 8vo. 1908. Census of the United States—T'welfth. In ten volumes. 4to. 1902. Chandler, Charles F'.—Report on the Waters of the Hudson River, to- gether with an Analysis of the Same. Made to the Water Commissioners of the City of Albany, January, 1885. 8&vo. Chief of Engineers, United States Army—Annual Reports of. 8vo. Chittenden, Hiram M.—Reservoir System of the Great Lakes of the St. Lawrence Basin; Its Relations to the Problems of Improving the Naviga- tion of these Bodies of Water and their Connecting Channels. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XL, pp. 355-448. (Dec., 1898.) Church, B. S.—Report of, in Regard to Quaker Bridge Dam. : Also, con- tains reports of Board of Experts, ete. 4to. 1889. Clarke, John M. and Charles Schuchert—The Nomenclature of the New York Series of Geological Formations. Reprinted from Science, for Dec. 15, 1899. Clarke, Thomas C.—Effect of Depth Upon Artificial Waterwaoea Trans. Am. Soe. C. E., Vol. XXXYV, Dp. 1-40 (July, 1896). ! i =. HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK St7 Colden, Cadwallader D.—Memoir prepared at the request of a Com-- mittee of the Common Council of the City of New York and presented to the Mayor of the City at the Celebration of the Completion of the New York Canals. S8vo. 1825. Colles, Christopher—Proposals for the Speedy Settlement of the Waste and Unappropriated Lands on the Western Frontier of the State of New York and for the Improvement of the Inland Navigation between Albany and Oswego. S8vo. 1785. Collingwood, Francis—Report on the Protection of the City of Elmira Against Floods. 8vo. 1890. Colvin, Verplanck—Reports on the Topographic Survey of the Adirondack Region. Six reports, from 1873 to 1896. 8vo. Commerce Commission of New York—Report of. In two volumes. 8vo. 1900. Committee on Canals of New York State—Circular letter of May 1, 1899, answers thereto, etc. Svo. 1899. Committee on Canals of New York State—Report of. 8vo. 1900. Comstock, Geo. F.—Argument by, in the matter of the application of the City of Syracuse for permission to divert the waters of Skaneateles Lake. 8vo. 1889. 5 Countryman, E.—Report of Special Counsel Designated to Examine the Report and Testimony transmitted to the Governor by the Canal Investigat- ing Commission. S8vo. 1899. Croes, J. J. R.—Report on the Hxtension of the First Works to be Con- structed for Supplying Water to Syracuse from SkaneateleS Lake. 8vo. 1889. 7 Croes, J. J. R.—Report on the Skaneateles Lake Water Supply. 8vo. 1889. Croton Aqueduct—A Memoir on the Cost, Construction and Capacity, by Chas. King. 4to. 1843. Croton Aqueduct—Illustrations of. 4to. 1848. Darton, N. H.—Artesian Well Prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain Region. Bulletin No. 188 of the United States Geological Survey. 8vo. 1896. Darton, N. H.—Preliminary Test of Deep Borings in the U.S. 8vo. 1902. Deeper Waterways from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic—Reports of the Canadian Members of the International Commission. S8vo. 1897. Deep Waterways Commission of the United States—Report of. Pre- pared by Commissioners Jas. B. Angell, John H. Russell and Lyman E. Cooley. 54th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives, Document No. 192. 8vo. 1897. Hngineering News—Volumes I to L, inclusive. Engineering Record—Volumes 1 to 48, inclusive. Erie Canal—Facts and Observations in Relation to the Origin and Com- pletion of. S8vo. 1825. Hrie Canal Jeopardized—Report of a Citizens’ Committee of Skaneateles, N. Y., in regard to the taking of Skaneateles Lake by the City of Syracuse. 8yo. 1889. | _ Executive Board of the City of Rochester—Annual Reports of. 1876 to 1902. 8vo. 878": NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Experiment Station—Annual Reports of New York Agricultural. 1882 to 1900. S8vo. Fanning, J. T.—Report on a Water Supply for New York and Other Cities of the Hudson Valley. First Report, Dec. 1881. Report No. 2, Nov., 1884. Forest Commission of New York—Annual Reports of, 1885-1895. 8vo. Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New ee Reports of, First to Seventh, inclusive. 4to. Forest Preserve Board of New York—First to Fourth Reports of. 8vo. Forest Quarterly, The—Vol. I and II. Fox, Austin G. and Wallace Macfarlane—Report of Counsel appointed by the Governor to Prosecute Certain State Officials, ete. Svo. 1899. Fox, William F.—A History of the Lumber Industry in the State of New York. Bulletin No. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agricul- ture. 8vo. 1902. Freeman, John R.—Digest of the Report on New York’s Water Supply. 8vo. 1900. Freeman, John R.—Report Upon New York’s Water Supply, with par- ticular reference to the needs of procuring additional sources and their probable cost with works constructed under municipal ownership. §8vo. 1900. i French, J. H.—Gazetteer of the State of New York. S8vo. 1860. Gannett, Henry—Dictionary of Altitudes. S8vo. 1899. Geddes, George—Origin and History of the Measures that Led to the Construction of the Erie Canal. S8vo. 1866. Geological Department of the State of New York—Reports, Bulletins and maps of. Hawley, Merwin S.—Origin of the Erie Canal, embracing a Synopsis of the Essays of Hon. Jesse Hawley, published in 1807. A paper read before the Buffalo Historical Club in February, 1866. Hawley, Merwin S.—The Erie Canal. Its Origin, its Success and its Necessity. A paper read before the Buffalo Historical Club, se = 1868. Henshaw, Geo. H.—Frazil Ice: On its Nature and Prevention of its Action in Causing Floods. Trans. Can. Soc. C. E., Vol. I, Part I, (June, 1887). Henry, Alfred J.—Wind Velocity and Fluctuations of Water Level on Lake Erie. Bulletin J, Weather Bureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1902. Herschel, Clemens—Memorandum of Constitutional Amendment sent to delegates to Constitutional Convention of 1894. Herschel, Clemens—Report Concerning the Diversion of Water from Niagara River for Power Purposes and the Effect of Such Diversion upon the River. 8vo. 1895. Hill, William R.—Modifications of the Plan of New Croton Dam. Paper read before the American Water Works Association, at St. Louis, Mo., June 8, 1904. Hough, F. B.—Gazetteer of the State of New York. 8vo. 1871. Hudson River Water Power Company—Its Works at Spier Falls, with associated works at Gays Falls, Ashley Falls, Mechaniecville, Saratoga Springs and Ballston. S8vo. 1908. TT. a a = HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK — 879 International Deep Waterways Association—Proc. of the First Annual Convention. 8vo. 1895. International Paper Company—A Descriptive and Historical Account of. 1901. Johnson, W. C.—Water Power Development at Hannawa Falls. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., Vol. XXIII, (Dee., 1901). King, Charles—A Memoir on the Cost, Construction and Capacity of the Croton Aqueduct. 4to. 1843. Landreth, William B.—The Improvement of ‘a Portion of the Jordan Level of Erie Canal. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLIII, pp. 566-602, June, 1900). Landreth, William B.—Recent Stadia Topographic Surveys; Notes Relat- ing to Methods and Costs. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLIV, pp. 92-118, (Dec., 1900). Lake Hrie, Regulation of the Level of—By the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. 56th Congress, 1st Session, House of Rep- resentatives, Document No. 200. 8vo. 1900. Lakes and Atlantic Waterway—A Memorandum in regard to certain Profiles designed to exhibit the Ruling Points. Compiled by the Publica- tion Committee of the Western Society of Engineers from records of the Sanitary District of Chicago. Jour. West. Soc. of Engrs., Vol. I, No. 1, {Jan., 1896). Lyman, Chester W.—The Paper Industry and Forests. The Forester, Vol. VI, No. 6 (June, 1900). Marshall, John—The Life of George Washington. In two volumes. 8vo. 1850. Mayer, Joseph—Canals between the Lakes and New York. Trans. Am. Soc. C. H., Vol. XLV, pp. 207-228, inclusive. (June, 1901.) Mayer, Joseph—Heonomie Depth for Canals of Large Traffic. Trans. Am. Soe. C. E., Vol. XX XIX, pp. 273-322. (June, 1898.) Merrill, F. J. H.—Geologic map of New York. 1901. Montreal Flood Commission—Reports of, with special reference to the formation of frazil or anchor ice. 8vo. 1890. Montreal Harbor Commissioners—Annual Reports of, 1885-1887. An in- _ quiry into the formation of ice, etc. S8vo. New York Chamber of Commerce—Annual Reports of, 1896-1902. S8vo. New York City—Report to the Aqueduct Commissioners. A review of the work of the Aqueduct Commission to January 1, 1887. 4to. 1887. New York City—Report to the Aqueduct Commissioners for the period, 1887-1895. 4to. 1895. New York Water Supply.—An Inquiry into the Conditions Relating to, _ by the Merchants’ Association. 8vo. 1900. New York Produce Exchange—Reports of, for 1896-1900. Svo. New York—Water Supply of. Bulletins are also found with the annual reports of the museum as follows: Bulletin Report Bulletin Report Bulletin Report Bulletin Report Gt 48, V.I Pa 1 54, V.I En 7-9 53, Val Ar 3 52, V.I 2 Bly Vek 2,3 " V.3 10 54) V.2 4 54, Vet 3 52, Vel 4 V.4 Ir ee eS 5 V.3 4 54, V-4 5,6 55, Ver 12, 13 V.4 6 5S, Va F 56, V.I 7-9 56, V.2 14 Boy Vek 7 56, V.4 Eg 5,6 48, v.1 Z 3 Bae Vink 5-18 56, V.3 Ms 1, 2 V.4 7 50, V.I 4 541 V-2 Bo 3 52, V.1 8 Bay Wu 5-7 V.3 4 53, V.r Memoir 9 54, V.2 8 55, Ver 5 55) Vel 2 49, V.3 10 Nes 9 56, V.3 6 56, V.4 3.4 53) V.2 II 56, V.I En 3 48, V.I Aer 50, V.I 2 VRE 4-6 52, V.I 2 Bary Avett _ The figures in parenthesis indicate the bulletin’s number as a New York State Museum bulletin. Geology. G1 (14) Kemp, J. F. Geology of Moriah and Westport Town- ships, Essex Co. N. Y., with notes on the iron mines. 38p. 7pl. 2 maps. Sep. 1895. 0c. ie G2 (19) Merrill, F: J. H. Guide to the Study of the Geological Collections of the New York State Museum. 162p. 119pl. map. Nov. 1898. [5oc] G3 (21) Kemp, J. F. Geology of the Lake Placid Region. 24p. 1pl. map. Sep. 1898. 5c. G4 (48) Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene Geology of Nassau County and _ Borough of Queens. 58p. il. opl. map. Dec. 1901. 25c. G5 (56) Merrill, F: J. H. Description of the State Geologic Map of 1901. 42p. 2 maps, tab. Oct. 1902. Joc. G6 (77) Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Vicinity of Little Falls, Herkimer Co. o8p. il. 15pl. 2 maps. Jan. 1905. 30c. Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene Geology of the Mooers Quadrangle. In press. Ancient Water Levels of the Champlain and Hudson Valleys. In press. Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Northeast Adirondack Region. In press. Ogilvie, I. H. Geology of the Paradox Lake Quadrangle. In press. Economic geology. Egl (3) Smock, J: C. Building Stone in the State of New York. 152p. Mar. 1888. Out of print. Eg2 (7) First Report on the Iron Mines and Iron Ore Districts in the State of New York. 6+7op. map. June 1889. Out of print. Eg3 (10) Building Stone in New York. 2I0p. map, tab. Sep. 1860. 40c. Eg4 (11) Merrill, F: J. H. Salt and Gypsum Industries of New York. 92p. 12pl. 2 maps, 11 tab. Ap. 1893. [5oc] fe Eg5 (12) Ries, Heinrich. Clay Industries of New York. 174p. 2pl. map. Mar. 1895. __30¢. : Eg6 (15) Merrill, F: J. H. Mineral Resources of New York. 224p. 2 maps. Sep. 18905. [5oc] Eg? (17) —— Road Materials and Road Building in New York. 52p. ra4pl. 2 maps 34x45, 68x92 cm. Oct. 1897. 15¢. Maps separate zoc each, two for I5¢. Egs (80) Orton, Edward. Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York. 136p. as maps. Nov. 1899. 15¢. Eg9 (35) Ries, Heinrich. Clays of New York; their Properties and Uses. eee 140pl. map. June 1900. $1, cloth. Egi0 (44) —_ Lime and Cement Industries of New York: Eckel, E. C. ‘eee on the Cement Industry. 332p. 1orpl. 2 maps. Dec. 190I. c, cloth. Egil (61) Dickinson, H. T. Quarries of Bluestone and other Sandstones in New York. 108p. 18pl. 2 maps. Mar. 1903. 35¢. Egi2 (85) Rafter, G: W. Hydrology of New York State. oozp. il. 44pl. 5 maps. May 1905. $1.50, cloth. ; Job ie Ne eee 14 epeiah? es tans elesl Mandl oD Lie. « aint A Se le ees es —————————Saeeee OE ee NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Mineralogy. M1 (4) Nason, F. L. Some New York Merals and their Localities. z2op. ipl. Aug. 1888. [zoc] M2 (58) Whitlock, H. P. Guide to the Mineralogic Collections of the New York State Museum. 150p. il. 39pl. 11 models. Sep. 1902. 400. M3 (70) —— New York Mineral Localities. I1op. Sep. 1903. 20¢. Paleontology. Pal (34) Cumings, E. R. Lower Silurian System of East- ern Montgomery County; Prosser, C: S. Notes on the Stratigraphy of Mohawk Valley and Saratoga County, N. Y. 74p. topl. map. May 1g00. I5¢€. : Pa2 (39) Clarke, J: M.; Simpson, G: B. & Loomis, F: B. Paleontologic Papers I. 72p. il. 16pl. Oct. 1900. I5c. Contents: Clarke, J: M. A Remarkable Occurrence of Orthoceras in the Oneonta Beds of the Chenango Valley, N ——Paropsonema cryptophya; a Peculiar Echinoderm from the Intumescens-zone (Portage Beds) of Western New York. — Dictyonine Hexactinellid Sponges from the Upper Devonic of New York. —The Water Biscuit of Squaw Island, Canandaigua Lake, N. Y. Simpson, G: B. Preliminary Descriptions of New Genera of Paleozoic Rugose Corals. Loomis, F: B. Siluric Fungi from Western New York. Pa3 (42) Ruedemann, Rudolf. Hudson River Beds near Albany and their Taxonomic Equivalents. 114p. 2pl. map. Ap. I90I. 25¢c. Pa4 (45) Grabau, A. W. Geology and Paleontology of Niagara Falls and Vicinity. 286p. il. 18pl. map. Ap. 1901. 65c; cloth, 90c. Pa5 (49) Ruedemann, Rudolf; Clarke, J: M. & Wood, Elvira. Paleon- tologic Papers 2. 240p> 13pl. Dec. 1901. 40¢. Contents: ee, Rudolf. Trenton Conglomerate of Rysedorph Hill, Clarke, J: M. Limestones of Central and Western New York Interbedded with Bituminous Shales of the Marcellus Stage. Wood, Elvira. Marcellus iamestones of Lancaster, Erie Co. N. Y. Clarke, J: M. New Agelacrinites. ~ —Value of Amnigenia as an Indicator of Fresh-water Deposits during the Devonic of New York, Ireland and the Rhineland. Pa6 (52) Clarke, J: M. Report of the State Paleontologist 1901. 28op. il. gpl. ee I tab. July 1902. 40¢. Pav —— Stratigraphy of Canandaigua and Naples Quadrangles. map. June 1904. 25c. : Pas 8) —— Catalogue of Type Specimens of Paleozoic Fossils in the New York State Museum. 848p. May 1903. $1.20, cloth. . Pa9 (69) —— Report of the State Paleontologist 1902. 464p. 52pl. 8 maps. ; Nov. 1903. $1, cloth. : Pal0 (80) —— Report of the State Paleontologist 1903. 3096p. 2opl. map. Feb. 1905. . 85c, cloth. Pall See ——— & Luther, D. D. Watkins and Elmira Quadrangles. 32p. map. Mar. 1905. 25c. Pal2 (82) —— Geologic Map of the Tully Quadrangle. 4op. map. Ap. 1905. 206. Grabau, A. W. Guide to the Geology and Paleontology of the Schoharie Region. In press. Ruedemann, Rudolf. Cephalopoda of Beekmantown and Chazy Formations of Champlain Basin. In preparation. Zoology. Z1 (1) Marshall, W: B. Preliminary List of New York Unioni- dae. 20p. Mar. 1892. Sc. Z2 oe Beaks of Unionidae Inhabiting the Vicinity of Albany, N. Y. Ipl. Aug. 1890. oc. Z3 @8) Milles, G. G. S. jr. Preliminary List of New York Mammals. 124p. et ik ; Z4 (33) Farr, M. S. Check List of New York Birds. 224p. Ap. 1900. 25c. Z5 (38) Miller, G. S. jr. Key to the Land Mammals of Northeastern North America. To6p. Oct. 1900: 5c. Z6 (40) Simpson, G: B. Anatomy and Physiology of Polygyra albolabris and Limax-. Sas and Embryology of Limax maximus. 82p. 28pl. Oct. 1901. 27 (43) Kellogg, 5. L. Clam and Scallop Industries of New York. 36p. 2pl. m Ap. I9goI. 0c. Z8 (51) Eckel, E. C. & Paulmier, F.C. Catalogue of Reptiles and Batrach- ians of New York. 64p. il. Ipl. Ap. 1902. 5c. Eckel, E. C. Serpents of Northeastern United States. Paulmier, F.C. Lizards, Tortoises and Batrachians of New York. MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS Z9 (60) Bean, T. H. Catalogue of the Fishes of New York. 784p. Feb. 1903. $1, cloth. Z10 (71) Kellogg, J. L. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus mercenaria. S30p. e4pl. Sep. 903) 706. Letson, Elizabeth J. Catalogue of New York Mollusca. In press. Paulmier, F. C. Higher Crustacea of New York City. In press. Eaton, E. H. Birds of New York. In preparation. Entomology. Enl (5) Lintner, J. A. White Grub of the May Beetle. 32p. il. Nov. 1888. Joc. En2 (6) —— Cut-worms. 36p. il. Nov. 1888. Joc. En3 (138) —— San José Scale and Some Destructive Insects of New York State. 54p. 7pl. Ap. 1805. 5c. En4 (20) Felt, E. P. Elm-leaf Beetle in New York State. 46p. il. spl. June 18908. 5c. See Enrs. En5 (23) —— 14th Report of the State Entomologist 1898. 150p. il. gpl. Dec. 1898. 20¢. En6 (24) —— Memorial of the Life and Entomologic Work of J. A. Lint- ner Ph.D. .State Entomologist 1874-98; Index to Entomologist’s Re- ports I-13. 316p. Ipl. Oct. 18909. 35c. Supplement to 14th report of the state entomologist. En? (26) Collection, Preservation and Distribution of New York In- sects. 36p. il.’ “Ap. 1809. 5c. En8 (27) —— Shade Tree Pests in New York State. 26p. il. spl. May 1899. 5c. En9 ey +— 15th Report of the State Entomologist 1899. 128p. June 5C. En10 (36) —— 16th Report of the State Entomologist 1900. 118p. 16pl. Mar. 1901. 25¢. Enll (37) —— Catalogue of Some of the More Important Injurious and Beneficial Insects of New York State. 54p. il. Sep. 1900. Joc. Enl2 (46) —— Scale Insects of Importance and a List of the Species in New York State. 24D. il. r5pl. June 1901. 25c. En13 (47) Needham, J. G. & Betten, Cornelius. Aquatic Insects in the Adirondacks. 234p. il. 36pl. Sep. 1901. 45c. Enl4 (53) Felt, E. P. 17th Report of the State Entomologist 19ot. 232p.. il. 6pl. Aug. 1902. 30C. Enl5 (57) —— Elm Leaf Beetle in New York State. 46p. il 8pl. Aug. 1902. I5C. This isa revision of En4 containing the more essential facts observed since that was prepared. Enl6 (59) Grapevine Root Worm. 4op. 6pl. Dec. 1902. 15c. See Enzo. En1” ee —— 18th Report of the State Entomologist 1902. -“rrop. 6pl. 206. Ents (es) eed J. G. & others. Aquatic Insects in New York. 322p. Aug. 1903. §8oc, cloth. En13- i) Felt, E. P. Grapevine Root Worm. 58p. 13pl. Nov. 1903. 20¢. This is a revision of Enx6 containing the more essential facts observed since that was prepared. En20 (74) & Joutel, L. H. Monograph of the Genus Saperda. 88p. 14pl. June 1904. 25c. En21 ae Felt, E. P. roth Report of the State Entomologist 1903. 150p. 4pl. TSC. En22. (79) 1904. 40. Needham, J. G. & others. May Flies and Midges of New York. In press. Felt, E. P. 20th Report of the State Entomologist 1904. In press. Botany. Bol (2) Peck, C: H. Contributions to the Botany of the State of New York. 66p. apl. May 1887. Out of print. Bo2 (8) —— Boleti of the United States. o6p. Sep. 1889. [50c ] Bo3 (25) —— Report of the State Botanist 1808. 76p. spl. Oct. 1890. Out of print. Mosquitos or Culicidae of New York. 164p. il. 57pl. Oct. ie Ce «ee enpecviianmmmmaia NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Bo4 (28) —— Plants of North Elba. 206p. map. June 1899. 20¢. Bo5 (54) —— Report of the State Botanist 1901. 58p. 7pl. Nov. 1902. 40¢. - Bo6 (67) —— Report of the State Botanist 1902. 196p. 5pl. May 1903. oc. Bo? (75) Report of the State Botanist 1903. 7op. 4pl. 1904. 4o0¢. —— Report of the State Botanist 1904. In press. Archeology. ~“Arl (16) Beauchamp, W: M. Aboriginal Chipped Stone Im- plements of New York. 86p. 23pl. Oct. 1897. 25¢. Ar2 (18) —— Polished Stone Articles used by the New York Aborigines. 1o4p. 35pl. Nov. 1897. 25¢. ree Ar3 (22) —— Earthenware of the New York Aborigines. 78p. 33pl. Oct. 1898. 25c. Ar4 (32) —— Aboriginal Occupation of New York. 1gop. 16pl. 2 maps. Mar. 1900. 30C. ; Ar5 (41) —— Wampum and Shell Articles used by New York Indians. 166p. 28pl. Mar. 1901. 30¢. : Ar6 (50) Horn and Bone Implements of the New York Indians. 112p. 43pl. Mar. 1902. 20¢. . Ar7 (55) Metallic Implements of the New York Indians. 94p. 38pl. June 1902. 25¢. Ars (73) Metallic Ornaments of the New York Indians. 122p. 37pl. Dec. 1903. 30c. Ar9 (78) —— History of the New York Iroquois. 340p. 17pl. map. Feb. 1905. 75c, cloth. Arl0 (87) Perch Lake Mounds. 84p. 12pl. Ap. 1905. 200. —— Aboriginal Use of Wood in New York. Jn press. Miscellaneous. Ms1 (62) Merrill, F: J. H. Directory of Natural History Museums in United States and Canada. 236p. Ap. 1903. 3o¢. Ms2 (66) Ellis) Mary. Index to Publications of the New York State Nat- ural History Survey and New York State Museum 1837-1902. 418p. June 1903. 75c, cloth. Museum memoirs 188o-date. Q. 1 Beecher, C: E. & Clarke, J: M. Development of some Silurian Brachi- — opoda. o6p. 8pl. Oct. 1880. Out of print. 2 Hall, James & Clarke, J: M. Paleozoic Reticulate Sponges. 35op. il. 7opl. 1898. $1, cloth. 3 Clarke, J: M. The Oriskany Fauna of Becraft Mountain, Columbia Co. Be Y=. 12Sp. opl. . Oct.. 1900. 80c. 4 Peck, C: H. N. Y. Edible Fungi, 1895-99. 106p. 25pl. Nov. 1900. 75. This includes revised descriptions and illustrations of fungi reported in the agth, srst and sed reports of the state botanist. 5 Clarke, J: M. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Guelph Formation and Fauna of New York State. 1096p. 2tIpl. July 1903. $1.50, cloth. 6 —— Naples Fauna in Western New York. 268p. 26pl. map. $2, cloth. 7 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Graptolites of New York. Pt 1 Graptolites of the Lower Beds. 350p. 17pl. Feb. 1905. $1.50, cloth. Felt, E. P. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. Jn press. Clarke, J: M. Early Devonic of Eastern New York. In preparation. Natural history of New York. 3ov. il. pl. maps.. Q. Albany 1842-94. DIVISION I ZOOLOGY. De Kay, James E. Zoology of New York; or, The New York Fauna; comprising detailed descriptions of all the animals hitherto observed within the State of New York with brief notices of those occasionally found near its borders, and accompanied by appropri- ate illustrations. 5v. il. pl. maps. sq. Q. Albany 1842-44. Out of print. Historical introduction to the series by Gov. W: H. Seward. 1978p. v.1 ptr Mammalia. 13+146p. 33pl. 1842. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. v.2 pt2 Birds. 12+380p. 141pl. 1844. Colored plates. v.3 pt3 Reptiles and Amphibia. 7+o8p. ptq4 Fishes. 15+41r5p. 1842. pt3-4 bound together. MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS v. 4 Plates to accompany v. 3. Reptiles and Amphibia 23pl. Fishes 7opl. . 1842. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. v.5 pt5S Mollusca. 4+271p. gopl. pt6 Crustacea. 7op. 13pl. 1a Hand-colored plates: pts5-6 bound together. DIVISION 2 BOTANY. Torrey, John. Flora of the State of New York; com- prising full descriptions of all the indigenous and naturalized plants hith- erto discovered in the State, with remarks on their economical and med- ical properties. av. il. pl. sq. Q. Albany 1843. Out of print. v.1 Flora of the State of New York. 12+484p. 72pl. 1843. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. v.2 Flora of the State of New York. 572p. 89pl. 1843. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. DIVISION 3 MINERALOGY. Beck, Lewis C. Mineralogy of New York; com- prising detailed descriptions of the minerals hitherto found in the State of New York, and notices of their uses in the arts and agriculture. il. pl. sq. QO. Albany 1842. Out of print. v.1 aS Economical Mineralogy. pt2 Descriptive Mineralogy. 24+536p. 1842. 8 plates additional to those printed as part of the text, DIVISION 4 GEOLOGY. Mather, W: W.; Emmons, Ebenezer; Vanuxem, Lard- ner & Hall, James. Geology of New York. 4v. il. pl. sq. QO. Albany 1842-43. Out of print. v.1 ptr Mather, W: W. First Geological District. 37+653p. 46pl. 1843. v. 07 Emmons, Ebenezer. Second Geological District. 10+437p. 17pl. 1842. _Vv.3 pt3 Vanuxem, Lardner. Third Geological District. 306p. 1842. v. 4, Dt Hall, James. Fourth Geological District. 22+683p. topl. map. 1043. . DIVISION 5 AGRICULTURE. Emmons, Ebenezer. Agriculture of New York; comprising an account of the classification, composition and distribution of the soils and rocks and the natural waters of the different geological formations, together with a condensed view of the meteorology and agri- Paes productions of the State. 5v. il. pl. sq. Q. Albany 1846-54. Out of print. v. ee of the State, their Composition and Distribution. 11+371p. 21pl. 1846. v. 2 Analysis of Soils, Plants, Cereals, etc. 8+343+46p. 42pl. 1840. With hand-colored plates. v.3 Fruits, etc. 8+340p.. 1851. v. 4 Plates to accompany v. 3. 95pl. 851. and-colored. v.5 Insects Injurious to Agriculture. 8+272p. 5opl. 1854. With hand-colored plates. DIVISION 6 PALEONTOLOGY. Hall, James. Palaeontology of New York. 8v. il. pl. sq. O. Albany 1847-94. Bound in cloth. v.1 Organic Remains of the Lower Division of the New York System. 23+338p. oopl. 1847. Out of print. v.2 Organic Remains of Lower Middle Division of the New York System. — 8+362p. 104pl. 1852. Out of print. v.3 Organic Remains of the Lower plesnerbene Group and the Oriskany Sandstone. pti, text. 12+532p. 1859. [$3.50] —— pt2, 143pl. 1861. [$2.50] v.4 Fossil Brachiopoda of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung Groups. 11+1+428p. oopl. 1867. $2.50. v.5 ptr Lamellibranchiata 1. Monomyaria of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton and Chemung Groups. 18+268p. 45pl. 1884. $2.50. —— —— Lamellibranchiata 2. Dimyaria of the Upper Helderberg, Ham- ilton, Portage and Chemung Groups. 62+293p. 5ipl. 1885. $2.50. — pt2 Gasteropoda, Pteropoda and Cephalopoda of the Upper Helder- berg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung Groups. 2v. 1879. v. I, ‘text. 15+492p. v. 2, 120pI. $2.50 for 2 v. Sl Cipla ally et wre almitiags toa ete ve eae a ee a ee ee een MEF ire S y) 6b abi... - Sh ee ETL RR HO Oe my ~~ may" eNO EERE Ey pect nee ‘s nye! oe NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT _y.6 Corals and Bryozoa of the Lower and Upper Helderberg and Hamil- oot Groups. 24+208p. 67pl. 1887. $2.50. Trilobites and other Crustacea of ae Oriskany, Upper Helderberg, Ss calcon, Portage, Chemung and Catskill Groups. 64+236p. 46pl. 1888 Cont. supplement to v. 5, pt2. Pteropoda, Cephalopoda and Annelida. 42p. 18pl. 1888. $2.50. v.8 ptr Introduction to the Study of the Genera of the Paleozoic Brachi- opoda. 16+367p. 44pl. 1892. $2.50. — pt2 Paleozoic Brachiopoda. 16+394p. 84pl. 1894. $2.50. _ Catalogue of the Cabinet of Natural History of the State of New York and of the Historical and Antiquarian Collection annexedthereto. 242p. O. 1853. Handbooks 1843-date. 714x12% cm. In quantities, x cent for each 16 pages or less. Single copies postpaid as below. H5 New York State Museum. 52p. il. 4c. Outlines history and work of the museum with list of staff rgoz. H13 Paleontology. 12p. 2c. Brief outline of State Museum work in paleontology under heads: Definition; Relation to biology; Relation to stratigraphy; History of paleontology in New York. H15 Guide to Excursions in the Fossiliferous Rocks of New York. 124p. 8c. Itineraries of 32 trips covering nearly the entire series of Paleozoic rocks, prepared specially for the use of teachers and students desiring to acquaint themselves more intimately with the classic rocks of this State. H16 Entomology. 16p. 2c. H17 Economic Geology. 44p. 4c. H18 Insecticides and Fungicides. 20p. 3c. H19 Classification of New York Series of Geologic Formations. 32p. 3¢. Maps. Merrill, F: J. H. Economic and Geologic Map of the State of New York; issued as part of Museum bulletin 15 and the 48th Museum Report, v. I. 59x67 cm. 1894. Scale 14 miles to I inch. I5c. — Geologic Map of New York. tgo1. Scale 5 miles to rinch. In atlas form $3; mounted on rollers $5. Lower Hudson sheet 6oc. The lower Hudson sheet, geologically colored, comprises Rockland, Orange, Dutchess, Putnam, Westchester, New York, Richmond, Kings, Queens and Nassau counties, and parts of Sullivan, Ulster and Suffolk counties; also northeastern New Jersey and part of western Connecticut. Map of New York showing the Surface Configuration and Water Sheds. t1901. Scale 12 miles to I inch. 15¢. Geologic maps on the United States Geological Survey topographic base; scale I in. =1 m. Those marked with an asterisk have also been pub- lished separately. *Albany county. Mus. rep’t 40, v. 2. 1808. Soc. Area around Lake Placid. Mus. bul. 21. 1808. Vicinity of Frankfort Hill [parts of Herkimer and Oneida counties]. Mus. rep’t 51, v. I. 1890. Rockland county. State geol. rep’t 18. 1890. Amsterdam quadrangle. Mus. bul. 34. 1900. *Parts of Albany and Rensselaer counties. Mus. bul. 42. 1901. oc. *Niagara River. Mus. bul. 45. 10901. 25¢. Part of Clinton county. State geol. rep’t 19. 1901. Oyster Bay and Hempstead quadrangles on Long Island. Mus. bul. 48. IQOI. Portions of Clinton and Essex counties. Mus. bul. 52. 1902. Part of town of Northumberland, Saratoga co. State geol. rep’t 21. 1903. Union Springs, Cayuga county and vicinity. Mus. bul. 69. 1903. *Olean quadrangle. Mus. bul. 60. 1903. IOC. *Becraft Mt with 2 sheets of sections. (Scale 1 in.= %m.) Mus. bul. 60. 1903. .20¢. *Canandaigua-Naples quadrangles. Mus. bul. 63. 1904. 200. *Little Falls quadrangle. Mus. bul. 77. 10905. 1r5c. *Watkins-Elmira quadrangle. Mus. bul. 81. 1905. 200. *Tully quadrangle. Mus. bul. 82. 1905. Joc. *Salamanca quadrangle. Mus. bul. 80. 1905. roc. iggy re SPREE AES | BENENSON | OMA E te Feeney OEM mS are es ” ee % 2) ra w S gam = * 5 Wy 2 Z 4 fs WN > \, a Ye yp, = 4 2 (AM) 5 “uw 2 224; 9 = Cc a O | WO" 2 “i a 2) MINLILSNI 2S INSTI Z 0 = 7; 2 oa me a n _ = | ei - Oo < “5, dene = ee = ee be c 3 é eae 5 : 2 so . & NI NVINOSHLIWS S31¥ = Ko) tS z . 3 See | o = He a8 = ; meaoee Ea: ‘ F eee Bos _ g 3 Sweat im A 3 ‘ aS mo ee | DILALILSNI 3s BF i . SMITHS NST < a) a, iz = a 3 a 83 E =z WS Cae 5 s iE a nes |g ONY F a Sy 2 = ‘ : sf a £ S 4 a ae Ww) Oo Se NVINOSHLIWS BRARIES Cade ke i , : Rey oe 1a Ge 2 uy Boe nee WO = : Y= Pee Be AN cx Ss Ee 35 a Nai ~ sz ed MANLILSNI “bos a _, SMITHSONIAN” INSTI 3 * y=! bs a Ea : : S B 2 Y w > Se oes 5 GY: | ane § Oo 1 2 i} ar Pa ig. Ve, fe — | bes (3) ” m a ae — — wn BRARIES oh 8 E) || NVINOSHLINS S31 uy} ¥ f P Wi w x Me * a i BRARIES_ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S31 4u! z é z — ll lc O ie S - S i a b “y L =m 2 5 | 5 : -~ > FE — = = os "ts WY) rr Ww na a? FEA Py? Ph 4 Ee i, > pee FS i Sg a reel co ; Bronigh a. oe a i ¥ : SCRE N Aye Marge J *, BOeATZION Seer es ee + eee ee ee a se Ee z EDUCATION DEPARTMENT UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM MAP OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK SHOWING THE SURFACE CONFIGURATION AND CATCHMENTS By FREDERICK J, H. MERRILL, wit RESERVATIONS FOR STATE WATER SUPPLY As Propowd by GEO. W. RAFTER 1905 SCALE, 12 MILPS=1 INCH 9 LOOP Reston S SS =, STATUTE MILES KILOMETERS = 7 LC H © to ‘- » 0 so 10 fe » 40 » - 5 : eae === —— - | ee CG A A 4 NN | eeag Hamilton / \ Trayhtrons ~ >) Dunkirk ola f S 55g) ali | | EXPLANATIONS OCATCHMENT ARBAS NOTE congo 8 2 2 eee ara, ISLAND SOUND Bridgeportoy (| New Mayen nO. saat Iegion, where contours for 100 feet AT. 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