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BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

New Series. Vol. IV.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFrFice, 79, DUKE STREET,

1897,

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New Series. | JANUARY, 1897. Vol. . RY,
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BULLETIN

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BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:

Soil Ferments important in Agriculture Pace 1
Directions for the care of young Grape Vines 7
Our Insect Pests ae 9
The Lotus of the New World - 15
Ferns-—Synoptical List XLUL — 17
Contributions to the Department - 18
Castleton Gardens - - 21

P RIC E—-Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Gordon Tewn P.O,

KINGSTON, JAMAICA:
GOVERNMENT Printing Orricz, 79 Duke Srrezgz,

1897.

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OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. IV.

SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE.
By Dr. W. H. Witry, Chief of the Division of Chemistry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, in Year Book of U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture for 1895.

( Continued ).

THE STORAGE OF NITRATES,

Attention has already been called to the fact that the activity of the
nitrifying ferments in a soil is, as a rule, greater than the needs of the
growing crop. For this reason the waters of drainage are found to be
more or less impregnated with nitrates. The sea is eventually the
great sorting ground into which all this waste material is poured. The
roller processes of nature, like the mills of the gods, grind exceedingly
slow and small, and the sea becomes the blotting cloth by which the
products of milling are separated and sorted out. Not only do the
drainage waters carry nitrates, but also potash, phosphoric acid, lime,
and other soluble materials of the soil. As soon as this waste material
is poured into the sea, the process of sifting at once begins. The
carbonate of lime becomes deposited in vast layers or by organic life is
transformed inte immense coral formations or into shells. Phosphoric
acid is likewise sifted out into phosphatic deposits or passes into the
erganic life of the sea. Even the potash, soluble as it is, becomes col-
lected into mineral aggregates or passes into marine animal or vege-
table growth.

All these valuable materials are thus conserved and put into a shape
in which they may be returned sooner or later to the use of man. i
the great cosmic economy there is no such thing as escape of any
valuable material from usefulness. The nitrates which are poured into
the sea are sooner or later absorbed by the seaweed or other marine
vegetation, or served for the nourishment ef the animal life of the
ocean. It is highly probable that the great deposits of nitrates found
in certain arid regions, notably in Chile, are due to the decomposition
of marine vegetation. There must be present in the sea vast fields of
vegetation which, growing in water largely impregnated with nitrates,
becomes highly charged with organic nitrogenous matter. In the
shanges of level to which the surface of the earth is constantly sub-
jected, the depths of the sea often becomes isolated lakes. In the

2

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‘evaporation of the water of these lakes, such as would take place ir
arid: régidns, imnmense deposits of marine vegetation and common salt
would occur: © In ‘thé oxidation and nitrification of this organic matter
due to fermentative action, the organic nitrogen would be changed into
the inorganic state. In the presence of calcareous rocks, the nitrate of
calcium would be formed, which, finally, by double decompositions,
would result in the formation of nitrate of soda, the form in which
these deposits now exist. [he fact that iodine is found in greater or
less quantity in these deposits of soda saltpetre, is a strong argument
in favour of the hypothesis that they are due to marine origin. Iodine
is found only in sea and never in terrestrial plants. Further than this,
attention should be called to the fact that these deposits of nitrate of
soda contain neither shells nor fossils, nor do they contain any phos-
phate of lime. It is hardly credible, therefore, that they are due to
animal origin. ‘The activity of ferments in these great deposits of
marine plants, although taking place perhaps millions of years ago,
has served to secure for the farmers of the present day vast deposits of
nitrate of soda, which prove of the utmost value in increasing the yield
of the field. To every quarter of the globe where scientific agriculture
is now practised these deposits are sent. They are of such vast extent
that it is not likely they will soon be exhausted, and the labours of the
agriculturist for many hundreds of years to come will continue to be
blessed by reason of the activity of the insignificant microscopic fer-
ments which plied their vocation in past geological epochs.

Because at the present time there are known deposits of marine vege-
tation undergoing nitrification, is no just reason for doubting the ac-
curacy of the above mentioned hypothesis. Our geologists are not ac-
quainted at present with any locality in which deposits of phosphate are
taking place, but the absence of the process can not be used as a just
argument against any of the theories which have been proposed to ac-
count for the immense deposits of this material which are found in
various parts of this and other countries. Another illustration of this
point may be found in the coal deposits. The environment which de-
termines the geologic conditions now is not favorable to the develop-
ment of large quantities of organic matter from which coal might be
produced by changes in the level of the earth’s surface In fact, all
the teachings of paleontology show beyond a doubt that life in the past
geological ages was on a far larger scale than at present. In those re-
mote times the mean temperature of the earth’s surface was very much
greater than it is at the present time. There are many indubitable
evidences of the fact that high equatorial temperatures prevailed even
at the poles, while the present tropic and temperate zones were pro-
bably too warm for any forms of life which now exist. The fossil re-
mains of animals and plants of those ages show the gigantic scale on
which all animal and vegetable life was formed. When crocodiles
were nearly 70 ft. in length and dragon flies 3 ft. long, it is not sur-
prising that both terrestrial and marine vegetation existed in a far
more exuberant form than at present. The dense terrestrial vegetation
which made the coal deposits possible were doubtless equaled by ma-
rine vegetable growth capable, by oxidation under favorable circum~
stances, of forming the vast deposits of nitrates which have been dis-
covered in various parts of the world. The depression of the surface

3

of the land which enabled the coal measures to be developed beneath
the surface of the sea, was doubtless compensated for by the elevation
of the marine forests into a position favouring the deposits of nitrates.
The wonderful conservative instincts of nature are thus demonstrated.
in a most remarkable manner in restoring to the fields the nitrates
leached therefrom in past ages.

GENESIS OF GUANO,

The fermentative action of germs in the production of nitrates on «
small scale and their storage to a limited extent are found going on in
many caves at the present time. In these localities large numbers of
bats formerly congregated, and the nitrogenous constituents of their
dejecta and remains, collecting on the floors of caves practically devoid
of water, have undergone nitrification and become converted into nitric’
acid. In a similar manner the deposits produced in rookeries, especially”
in former ages, have been converted into nitric acid and preserved for
the use of the farmer. The well known habits of birds in congregating
in rookeries during the nights and at certain seasons of the year tend to
bring into into acommon receptacle the nitrogenous matters which they
have gathered and which are deposited in their excrement and in the
decay of their bodies. The feathers of birds are particulary rich in ni-
trogen, and the nitrogenous content of their flesh is also high. The
remains of birds, especially if it take place in a locality practically ex-
cluded from the leaching action of water, serves to accumulate vast de-
posits of nitrogenous matter, which is at once attacked by the nitrifying
ferments. If the conditions in such deposits are particularly favourable
to the process of nitrification, the whole of the nitrogen, or at least the
la ger part of it which has been collected in these debris, becomes finally
converted into nitric acid, and is found combined with appropriate bases
as deposits of nitrates. The nitrates of the guano deposits and of the
deposits of caves, as has already been indicated, arise in this way. If
these deposits be subject to moderate leaching, the nitrates may become
infiltered into the sorrounding soil. The bottoms and surrounding soils
of caves are often found highly impregnated with nitrates,

IMPREGNATION OF SOILS WITH NITRATES.

W hen, on the other hand, these deposits take place in regions subjected
to heavy rains, the nitric acid which is formed is rapidly removed, to
be returned to the ocean and begin anew the circuit of life which will
finally restore it to the land. By reason of the accumulation of nitro-
genous matters in tropical regions, especially where there is a deficient
rainfall, it has been found that the soils of those regions contain a very
much larger percentage of nitrates than is found, for instance, in the
soils of the United States. These nitrated soils are very abundant,
especially in Central and South America, where they cover large sur-
faces. In these soils the nitric acid, as a rule, is found in combination
with lime, while in the purer deposits of nitric acid it is almost con-
stantly found in combination with soda. In some South American soils
as much as 30 per cent. of nitrate of lime has been found. Not only
birds serve thus to secure deposits of nitrogen, but large quantities of
guano rich in nitrates have their origin in the debris of insects, frag-
ments of elytra, scales of the wings of butterflies, and other animal
matters which are often brought together in quantities of millions of
cubic metres. The products of nitrification in these deposits may also be

+

absorbed by the surrounding soils. Some localities produce such great
quantities of nitrate of lime (which is a salt easily absorbing water) as
to convert the soil in their immediate neighbourhood into a plastic
paste. In all the deposits such as are described above are found large
quantities of phosphoric acid and sufficient remains of animal life to
show in a positive manner their origin. It is thus seen that there is a
very marked difference between the character of the deposits of nitric
acid due to terrestrial animal origin and those which have been derived
from a marine vegatable source. An economic observation of some im-
portance may be made here, viz.: To the effect that when in the future
the deposits of nitrate of soda due to marine origin are exhausted, it
may still be possible to keep up the supply.demanded for agricultural
use by leaching the highly impregnated soils above mentioned and thus
securing the nitric acid in a form sufficiently concentrated to make its
transportation profitable.
PROPERTIES OF NITRATE OF SODA

Practically the only form of oxidised nitrogen which is of commercial
importance from an agronomic point of view, is sodium nitrate, com-
monly known in commerce as Chile saltpetre. The nitrate of potash, a
nearly-related salt, is also of a high manurial value, but on account of
its.cost and the importance of its use in the manufacture of gunpowder,
it has not been very extensively applied as a fertilising material. When
Chile saltpetre is applied to a growing crop it becomes rapidly dissolved,
especially at the first fall of rain or by the moisture normally existing
in the soil. It carries thus to the rootlets of plants a supply of nitrogen
in the most highly available state. There is, perhaps, no other kind of
plant food which is offered to the living vegetable in a more completely
predigested state and none to which the growing plant will yield a
quicker response. By the very reason of its high availability, however,
it must be used with the greatest care. A too free use of such a stimu-
lating food may have, in the end, an injurious effect upon the crop, and
is quite certain to lead to a waste of a considerable portion of expensive
material. For this reason, Chile saltpetre should be applied with ex-
treme care in small quantities at a time, and only when it is needed by
the growing crop. It would be useless, for instance, to apply this ma-
terial in the autumn with the expectation of its benefiting the crop to a
maximum degree the following spring. If the application of the ma-
nure should be made just previous to a heavy rain, it is not difficult to
see that nearly the whole of it might be removed beyond the reach of
the absorbing organs of the plant.

DECOMPOSITION OF SODIUM NITRATE.

The molecule of sodium nitrate is decomposed in the p:ocess of ab-
sorption of the nitric acid. The plant presents a selective action to its
constituents, the nitrie acid entering the plant organism and the soda
being rejected. Soda, however, may not be without its uses, for doubt-
less being at some time in a practically nascent or hydrated state, it
may play a role of some considerable importance in decomposing parti-
cles of minerals containing phospheric acid. It is probable that the
decomposition of the sodium nitrate takes place in the cells of the ab-
sorbing plant. For it is difficult to understand how it could be accom-
plished externally except by a denitrifying ferment. While the soda
itself is, therefore, of little importance as a direct plant food, it can

5

hardly be dismissed as of no value wh:tever in the process of fertilisa-
tion.

Many of the salts of soda—as, for instance, common salt—are quite
hygroscopic, and serve to attract moisture from the air, aud thus be-
come carriers of water between the plant and the air in seasons of
drought.

The Chile saltpetre of commerce may reach the farmer in the lumpy
state in which it is shipped, or finely ground ready for application to
the fields Unless the farmer is provided with convenient means for
grinding the latter condition is much to be preferred. It permits of a
more even distribution of the salt and thus encourages economy in its use,

NEED DF SODIUM NITRATE.

The question of when the soil needs an application of Chile saltpetre
is often one of great importance, and the farmer would do well, before
applying a great deal of this expensive fertilizer, to consult the agricul-
tural experiment station of his locality, or should determine the actual
needs of his soil by experiments upon small plants. The quantity of
Chile saltpetre which should. be applied per acre varies with so many
different conditions as to mike any definite statement concerning it un-
reliable. On account of the great solubility of this salt no more should
be used than is necessary for the temporary nutrition of the crop. For
each 100 pounds of it used, from 14 to 15 pounds of oxidized nitrogen
would be added to the soil. Field crops, as a rule, require less of the
salt than garden crops. In the field crops there is an economic limit
to the aplication of the salt which should not be passed. As a rule,
250 pounds per acre should be a maximum dresssing. The character
of the crop must also be taken into consideration. Different amounts
are required for sugar beets, tobacco, wheat and other standard crops.
Cereal crops, especially, absorb a high percentage of the nitrogen in
Chile saltpetre judiciously applied. As a rule, Chile saltpetre should
be used as a temporary supply. Its presence diminishes to a certain
extent the necessity for the activity of the nitrifying ferments, and its
long continued use in sufficient quantities would evidently cause an
enfeeblement of those organisms.

CONSUMPTION OF SODIUM NITRATE.

The entire consumption of Chile saltpetre for manurial purposes
ghroughout the world at the present time is perhaps a little over a mil-
lion tons annually, of a total value, ’elivered to a farmer, of over
40,000,000 dols. The approxima'e amounts annually consumed in difs
ferent countries are as follows:

Tons.
Germany bes Sah 400,000
France bs is% 200,000
Belgium bat bile 125,000
England = ee 120,000
United States bor A 100,000
Holland ae a 60,000
Italy and Spain... Fer 5,000
Other countries... 6,000

VALUE OF CHILE SALTPETRE.
_ Chile saltpetre has a moderate value at the factories in Chile where
it is prepared for shipment. Its high cost at the ports where it is de-

6
livered for consumption ‘s due chiefly to the freights and the profits of
the syndicate controlling the business.

The factories where it is prepared for the market are at or near the
deposits, and the freights thence to the seacoast in Chile are very high.
The railroads which have been constructed to the high plateaux which
contain the deposits have been built at a very great cost, and the freights
charged are correspondingly high. There is also a tax of 1:20 dol.
levied by the Chilian government on each ton exported Deducting
all costs of transportation and export duties, the actual value of sodium
nitrate at the factory ready for shipment is about 16 dols. in gold a ton.

METHOD OF PRESERVING NITRATES IN THE SOIL.

It is not possible at all times to maintain an equilibrium between
the activity of the nitrifying organism and the needs of a growing crop.
There are times when the amount of nitric acid produced is greater
than the crop demands, while at other periods the needs of the crops
may be far in excess of the ability of the organisms to supply. In the
one casc there will be a necessary increase in the amount of nitrates in
the soil, while in the other the vigour of the growing crop will be at
least temporarily checked. There are many practical points connected
with this matter which must be of great interest to the farmer. Asa
rule, farming operations are carried on for profit and not for pleasure,
and for this reason the more practical the results of scientific study the
more useful they become to the great mass of agriculturists. The rich
man who farms for pleasure can easily afford expenses in the way of
fertilize's which the practical farmer must avoid. Happily, at those
seasons of the year when crops grow less vigorously the activity of the
nitrifying organisms is reduced to a minimum. For instance, the
amount of nitric acid which is produced during tho winter is a very
small quantity as compared with the production during the warm
months. In the natural order of things, therefore, there is a tendency
to conserve to the utmost the products of nitrification.

ABSORPTION OF NITRATES BY PI.ANTS.

Evidently the very best method of utilising the products of the ac-
tivity of tho soil ferments is to have them absorbed by a growing crop.
For this reason, os well as for others of an economical nature, the far-
mer should have as little waste land as possible. Every acre which he
possesses should either be devoted to forest, orchard, grass, pasturage,
or cultivated crops. By thus occupying the land he will reduce to a
minimum the losses which occur from the leaching of the soil by
water.

It is well known that all agricultural crops store immense quanti-
ties of organic nitrogen in their tissues. Asa rule the highest per-
centages of nitrogenous organic compounds are found in the seeds of
plants, but it must not be forgotten that certain grasses which are har-
vested for hay also contain large quantities of nitrogen. This is espe-
cially true of clover. It is easily seen from the above how wasteful is
the practice, now happily almost extinct, of burning the residue of
cereal crops—as, far instance, Indian cornstalks and the straw of wheat
—in order to prevent them from obstructing subsequent tillage. In this
wasteful process it is true that the phosphoric acid and potash are saved
and returned to the soil, but all the nitrogenous compounds are prac-
tically lost and dissipated in the air. The quantity of ammonia and

7

oxides of nitrogen which are produced in combustion is insignificant
when compared with total nitrogenous content of the refuse matters
mentioned above. It is far better that these residual matters be
chopped as finely as possible and turned under by the plough. Although
they may not decay with sufficient rapidity to be of much benefit to
the next crop, yet they will gradually become decomposed and serve a
most valuable end in contributing fresh stores of humus end nitrogen
to the arable soil. Combustion is the most wasteful and also the least
scientific method of disposing of the refuse of the field.
( To be continued. )

DIRECTIONS FOR CARE OF YOUNG GRAPE
VINKS. II,

By W. Crapwick, Superintendent of the Hope Gardens.
(Continued from June Bulletin, page 121.)

The young grape vines sent out from Hope Gardens last year should
be pruned during the last week in February or the first week in March.
This should be done by cutting the plant down to the strongest eye,
which is generally the lowest and about 3 inches from the surface of
the ground, as in figure 1.

8

When the grape vine commences to sprout again, only the strongest
shoot must be allowed to grow to form the permanent vine; all small
shoots must be cut off, see figure 2.

This shoot must be kept trained straight or if the vine gets incon-
veniently long it should be very gradually turned as a sharp bend in
a vine will check the flow of sap beyond the bend and over feed ,one
part of the plant to the detriment of the other.

As the vine grows, it will send out side branches, which should have
the points pinched out as soon as they have made two or three leaves
as shewn in figure 3, and as they shoot out afresh, the points should

be again removed. But on no account allow the point of the main
growth to be touched or interfered with in any way. Try to make the
vine grow as long as possible, it will get stout of its own accord. Cover
the roots over with rotten cow manure or stable manure a foot thick if
possible. Two weeks after pruning a thorough soaking of water must

9

be given, which should be repeated every fortnight up to the end of
August, provided that it is not done naturally by rain.

The wood that is cut from the vine, when pruning, can be used for
propagating young plants. To propagate the young plants, take the canes
which have been cut off, select all the wood which is not thinner than
one’s little finger and cut this up into lengths, as snown in figure 4.

This will give cuttings of two joints, as figure 5, but elose to the
buds and quite smoothly at both top and bottom of the cutting. In-
sert these, the right way up into a prepared bed, placing them three
inches apart with two-thirds of their length under ground,—one eye
will thus be under the ground and one above, as in figure 6

As soon as the cuttings have made a growth of four or five inches in
length, they should be lifted and potted, or planted into their perma-
uent positions and treated in the way advised for the young plants sent
out from Hope Gardeus last year.

OUR INSECT PESTS.—

THEIR STRUCTURE AND LIFE HISTORY.*
By J. E Durrpen, Curator of the Museum, Institute of Jamaica.

Perhaps one of the most marked faunal characteristics of the tropics
is the predominance and peculiarities of its insect life. Whether
during the day we remark the brightly coloured butterflies, the varied.
forms of the beetles, the wonderful activities of the ants and termites,
the lace-winged dragon-flies, the strange stick and leaf insects; or, at
dusk, the large and small moths which flutter round our lights, the
shrill note of the crickets accompanying the evening song of other
night-loving creatures, the flitting to and fro of the various fire-flies ;
or, still more, experience the tormenting mosquito, or on the trees in
our gardens remark the prevalence of strange looking scales and large
and gorgeously coloured caterpillars, do we realize the importance of
the group here, compared with temperate parts. The constant dweller

_. * Report of a Popular Lecture, illustrated by lantern slides delivered in Spa~
nish Town, November 23, 1896.

10

in the tropics, be he agriculturist or otherwise, has thus his attention
continually directed towards the six-legged winged creatures, either in
admiration of their form and beauty, or, perhaps more often, in execra-
tion at the petty annoyances to which they subject him and the more
serious damage to agriculture resulting from their activities.

Seeing that insects have such a constant influence and importance in
our daily lives we shall observe them with greater interest, may appre-
ciate more their presence, or be better able to deal with them as pests,
when we know somewhat of their organization and habits. Fortu-
nately there is a general plan of structure applicable to insects, which
is readily grasped, and which enables us easily to distinguish them from
allother animals. Other characters again ally them to creatures appear -
ing at first sight very distantly removed. Primarily we observe their bo-
dies to be made up of distinct rings or segments. This ringed body
they have in common with worms, centipedes, lobsters, scorpions, and
spiders. Their paired legs are likewise seen to be constructed of several
parts separated by joints, differing in form and purpose according to the
position in the body of the part weselect. In thisthey differ entirely from
the segmented worms, which have only hairs or bristles to aid them in
locomotion, but agree with the remaining groups mentioned, This com-
mon character of the appendages enables us to form a great group of
the animal kingdom, the Arthropoda, or jointed-footed animals. By
the number of these feet we can also separate the insects from most of the
other members of the Arthropoda. ‘The centipedes, lobsters, etc., have
a pair, of one shape or another, to every ring; scorpions and spiders
have four pairs restricted to the front segments, but insects are all
limited to three pairs of true walking legs in the middle division
of their body. Again, lobsters and spiders have the whole body
divisible into two main portions; insects have, with few excep-
tions, three distinct and separate regions—the head, thorax, and
abdomen. Finally, insects differ most advantageously from all other
arthropods in the possession of wings; usually two pairs fixed to the
two last rings of the thorax. These are to be regarded as outgrowths
from the body; perhaps, with their hollow veins, developed primarily
for respiratory purposes, but afterwards taking on the very important
function of aerial locomotion.

By their means insects alone, among the invertebrates, occupy an
exalted and active position in the air, such as is occupied by the birds
among the vertebrates. To the gift of wings must be attributed
the wonderful numerical success of insects in the struggie for existence,
as well as that of birds ; and, in a measure, their advance in activity and
intelligence. To sum up, insects are distinguished from all other ani-
mals by the following combination of characters: The division of the
body into three regions, head, thorax, and abdomen, the two first being
separated by a well defined neck; the possession of one pair of feelers
or antenne on the head; the thorax with only three segments, each
bearing a pair of jointed legs, and usually a pair of wings to the two last
rings; and, lastly, the abdomen with nine or ten segments.

The paired eyes on the head are generally fixed and differ much
in plan from the eyes of higher animals, each being a combination
somewhat equivalent to very numerous single eyes. Experiments seem

© point to the conclusion that insects cannot distinguish by their eyes
4

11

*the forms of objects. or at best, very poorly. The antennz or feelers
‘have imp rtant functions, probably connected with motion, touch,
hearing, taste, or smell.

The external covering of all insects, and indeed of all the Articulata
or segmented animals, is a substance, usually more or less hardened,
known as chitin. It is an excretion from the soft underlying
cellular layer, the epidermis. In the burrowing earthworms a pro-
tective covering is not much required, and the cuticle is very thin and
delicate. In crabs and lobsters it becomes impregnated with lime salts,
‘and consequently very hard and a most effectual protection. This
would, however, be too heavy for the air-disporting insects. It is to be
noticed that the chitinous case is not stiffened at the joints. so that
movement of one part of the body upon another is allowed. ‘The outer
skin becoming hard and inelastic soon after exposure, the necessity for
the creatures, while increasing in size, to be occasionally moulting their
skin as a whole is obvious.

The internal structure of insects can best be studied on such a form
as our common large cockroach. Although a very objectionable and
much despised creature the cockroach is worthy of our great respect
on account of its long ancestry. We occasionally give honour to indi-
viduals who can boast only of this as their recommendation, and it is
certainly one redeeming feature in the present case. Forms similar to
the cockroach are met with amongst the early fossiliferous rocks, and
extend, unquestionably without any signs of extinction, down to the
present day.

On pinning down a cockroach and cutting away the upper portion of
the body-wall the interior is seen almost filled with a white loose
substance, which is mainly fatty matter held together by the fine air-
tubes or tracheze. When this is cleared away a partially coiled tube is
seen extending the whole length of the body.. It is the food-canal of
the animal and is divisible into different parts, each with a separate
function in the complex process of digestion. Outgrowths from it occur
at different places ; two in front are known as salivary glands and pro-
duce a digestive fluid, and two other groups occur behind. The first,
consisting of short pouch- like tubes, secretes another digestive fluid, and
the second group of long slender tubes has an excretory function. The
dorsal heart and the blood vessels are not readily seen. Run: ing all the
length of the ventral surface of the body-cavity, which is not however
a true celome, is the double nerve-cord, with enlargments corresponding
somewhat with each segment and from which wre given off fine
branches to all parts of the body. The complex reproductive organs
are seen behind.

With some interesting exceptions, all insects develop from eggs.
‘The life of most may be divided into three stages: the Jarva, caterpillar,
or grub; the pupa or chrysalis; andthe imago or adult ; the change
from one to the other being spoken ofas a metamorphosis. The differences
between the various stages are however very diverse in the many groups ;
the obvious alterations being much more marked in some than in others.
Illustrative examples were given from slides showing the life-history
of the silk worm, Bombyx; the Water-beetle, Dytiscus; and the Hawk-
moths, Sphingide.

12

Tue Hawk-morus.

The Hawk-moths are among the large moths which, in the evenings,
often fly into rooms. They are stout, strong insects, with large hairy
bodies. The sucking tube or tongue is extended to a great length, so
that it may reach the sweet fluids at the bottom of flowers with a long
tubular coralla.

The caterpillars of the various species are large, stout, and smooth,
with very beautiful and striking colours. Theyare continually brought
into the Museum as remarkable objects. Those belonging to the family
may usually be readily distinguished by the possession of a hump or
horn on the eighth abdominal segment. The pupz are occasionally
met with in digging the ground. They are spindle-shaped, often with
along jug-like handle, which is really the case of the sucking tube.
The green caterpillar with oblique white lateral lines and a curved
hook towards the end of the body, and which lives mostly on the
leaves of the tomato, is a well known form.

PLAGUE OF CATERPILLARS.

Not far removed from the Hawk-moths are the insects which have
lately given rise in Jamaica to a plague of caterpillars.

A few weeks ago accounts appeared in the papers that the guinea-
grass covering extensive areas in different districts of the southern
portion of the island, and also around Kingston, was being destroyed
by caterpillars. Specimens of these were sent to the Museum and
were allowed to pupate and afterwards the moth was hatched. They
are closely allied to the well known ‘“‘army-worm” of America. The long
slender caterpillar lives mainly upon grass, but attacks also corn and
sugar-cane. It eats away practically all the young leaves, only the
dead stalks remaining In such numbers do they occur that a whole
district may be quickly devastated. The pupal stage in similar forms
elsewhere is passed through in the ground, but in the Jamaican species
the caterpillar makes for itself a kind of chamber by joining portions
of the leaves of grass and forming a thin lining by means of fine
threads. In this the small, brown, spindle-shaped pupa passes through
its metamorphosis, the result being a medium-sized moth. No further
accounts have been received from the country for two or three weeks, so-
that very probably our worst times are over. The excessive develop-
ment, at times, of different forms of caterpillars, as compared with
other times, is mostly dependent upon peculiarities in climatic con-
ditions.

Since this was first written I have heard from one of my correspondents
that the caterpillars which had disappeared seem to be now returning
in as great numbers, and are again destroying the grass. No doubt
these are derived from the batch of eggs laid by the moths result-
ing from the first caterpillars, and there seems no reason why we
should not look forward to a regular sequence of such visitations.

SCALE INSECTS.

The scale insects or bark-lice are well known to every observer in the
tropics, and to those concerned in conservatories elsewhere with plants
from warmer parts. In many respects they forma very peculiar
group, and a wonderful variety of species exists within the family,
Coccide, as it is termed. In appearance and habits they differ greatly

13

from other insects, and even the two sexes of the same species are
much unlike. The females pass the greater part of their life
entirely motionless on trees and shrubs; nothing in their exterior
would lead one to suppose them insects. When mature and ready for
laying eggs the scale appears rather as an excrescence of the tree.
The males at one stage are lively and active, but have then only a
single pair of wings, and no organs for procuring food. The mouth
parts disappear during the metamorphosis of the insect, and a second
pair of eyes appears in their place. The female is always sluggish and
wingless, and in the adult the body is generally scale- or gall-like, or
erub-like and clothed with wax. Though the body of the larval
female is ringed and bears legs, all trace of segmentation is usually
lost later. Among the Coccide are found many of the most serious
pests of the horticulturist and agriculturist ; scarcely any kind of fruit
tree is free from their attacks. The numerous species described from
Jamaica by one of the former Curators of the Museum, who made a
speciality of this group, is evidence of their great abundance in this
island, whilst almost daily specimens are still sent to the Museum for
examination. During recent years much attention has been paid, more
especially in America, to devising methods for destroying and check-
ing the pests ; the insecticides which are now most widely used being
alkaline washes and kerosene emulsions.

Perhaps the scale of greatest concern at present to us in Jamaica is
the Mussel-scale, Mytilaspis citricola, affecting the oranges ; more
particularly in the lower, drier parts of the island. It is not rare
around Kingston, and I have received oranges affected with it from St.
Ann; but, in the higher orange growing districts of the island, as at
Mandeville, it does not appear to be very prevalent. In its structure
and life-history it exhibits some most remarkable conditions and may
be taken as representative of the group.

The scale in the stage we are most familiar with is a minute brown
mussel-shaped body, about one-eighth of an inch long, flattened on
its adhering surface, but convex on the other; a slight margin of
lighter, less dense material is present. If turned over and exa-
mined with a lens it is seen to be either a dead hollow chamber with
a partial, membranous floor, or else to contain small eggs irregularly
arranged. ‘The manner in which this condition is brought about is
one of the most striking processes in insect life. For what follows we
are indebted mainly to the researches of the American entomologists.
Starting with the eggs laid by the mother we find that they undergo
development, producing minute creatures, mere specks, scarcely distin-
guishable to the untrained eye. The newly hatched scale insect is
oval in outline, much flattened, furnished with six legs, a pair of an-
tennz, and an apparatus for sucking the juice from plants. After
wandering about for a time, usually a few hours or even less, the
young insect settles on some part of a plant, inserts its beak, and
drawing nourishment from the tissues, commences its growth at the
expense of its host. In a short time there begins to exude from the
body of the larva fine threads of wax, which are cottony in appearance,
Sooner or later the larva begins to excrete a pellicle, which, although
very thin, is dense and firm in texture. The mass of cottony Apres
either melts or is blown away. After a period the larva sheds its

14

skin; in some species after the permanent scale begins to form, in
others before. In this latter case the larval scale is plainly visible,
either upon the surface of the scale, or at one extremity, as in Mytilas-
pis. The change which the larva undergoes in this first moult is a
very remarkable one ; with the skin are shed the legs and the antenna, .
and the young scale insect thus becomes a degraded grub-like creature,
with no organs of locomotion. The mouth parts remain and by them
the insect is firmly attached to the plant and continues to draw its
nourishment from it. From this stage the development of the two
sexes differs.

In the second and last moult of the female the second skin is joined
to the first and with it forms part of the scale which covers the body
of the insect, but generally it constitutes only a small proportion of
the ultimate scale, the greater part of which is excreted subsequently
to the second moult.

Soon after the second moult of the females, the adult males emerge
and impregnation is supposed to occur at once. The body of the fe-
male then increases in size, becoming distended with eggs; these are
deposited beneath the scale, the body of the mother gradually shrink-
ing to make room for them. Ultimately the parent dies, but the eggs
continue their development ; the dead body of the mother, with its
scale, serving as a chamber or cradle for their protection until hatched.
The male scale insect during the early part of its grub-life is indis-
tinguishable from the female. At the first moult, like the female, it
loses its legs and antenne ; the second moult agrees with that of the
female, but there the similarity in form between the two sexes ceases.
It is now in the pupa state, and has long antenne, and rudimentary
legs and wings. After a third casting of the skin the adult male ap-
pears with three pairs of legs, and a large pair of wings in front, by
means of which it can fly, but the mouth parts are replaced by sup-
plementary eyes, and it is unable to eat. In the particular genus, My-
tilaspis, to which the orange scale belongs, the scale proper of the fe-
male is elongated, and the exuvie or dead skins are seen at one ex-
tremity. The scale of the male is similar in form to that of the fe-
male, only smaller. Fortunately it does not appear that the scales in-
jure the trees or the oranges very seriously in Jamaica, but the un-
sightly appearance given to the fruit when the parasite adheres in con-
siderable numbers, renders it desirable that measures should be taken
to prevent the spread of the pest.

A WAX-PRODUCING SCALE.

In one group of scale insects forming the genus Ceroplastes, the
body in the adult condition is furnished with a thick covering of
waxy material, produeed as an excrescence of the animal. It does
not, however, adhere very closely to the insect. Quite recently an ex-
ample has been contributed to the Museum by Mr. Campbell, of the
Parade Gardens, which infests some of the trees in considerable num-
bers. Mr. Cockerell, to whom it has been forwarded, has described it
as a new species, Ceroplastes confluens, and notes that it may be well
to obtain all possible information respecting it, suggesting that the
wax may be of economic importance.

15
THE LOTUS OF THE NEW WORLD.

NeELUMBIUM LUTEUM, WILLD.

At Hope Gardens there is now flowering a very remarkable and beau--
tiful water lily—the Lotus of the New World.

It is a native of Jamaica and the United States, the only other spe-
cies of this genius (Nelumbium speciosum) the Sacred Lotus, being a
native of the tropics of the Old World.

Both species agree in the peculiar seed vessel, which was compared
by Herodotus to a wasp’s nest. It is formed by the ovary becoming:
very much enlarged after the fall of the petals; it is funnel-shaped but
solid. In the flat top of this receptacle there are numerous cavities
sunk, in each of which is a large bean or seed. ‘The seeds are loose and
rattle in their holes, but cannot fall out as the top of the cavity is
smaller than the seed itself.

The colour of the flower of the native species is a light yellow, that
of the Sacred Lotus being rose or white.

The leaves are somewhat saucer-shaped, with the stock coming from
the centre below, and do not float on the water but are carried up above
_the surface. The Hindoos have a proverb to the effect that ‘“ the good
and virtuous man is not enslaved by passion or polluted by vice; for
though he may be immersed in the waters of temptation, yet like a lo-
tus leaf he will rise uninjured by them.” The spiral fibres found in the
leaf stalks are used as wicks in the temples of India to burn before the
images of the gods. The leaves themselves are employed as plates on
which sacred offerings are placed.

The Sacred Lotus also obtained a place in the religious ceremonies of
the ancient Kgyptians. ‘Sculptured representations of it abound
among the ruins of the temples, and many other circumstances prove
the veneration paid to this plant by the votaries of Isis.”

The root-stocks and seeds of both species have been used as food, and
various parts medicinally.

Dr. Patrick Browne in his “ Civil and Natural History of Jamaica,’
published in A. D. 1756, says, “this plant is pretty common in the la-
goons beyond the Ferry; but I have not observed it in any of the deeper
waters. It seems to grow best in a loose, boggy ground, where the
leaves may stand in open air, while the roots, and lower part of the stem
are plentifully supplied with moisture.”

It does not seem to have been found by later botanists until the year
1847. Swartz, Bertero, McNab, Purdie and Macfadyen frequently visit-
ed the locality mentioned by Browne but failed to come across it. Dr.
Macfadyen however had it brought to him, as he states.in a pamphlet
printed (but not published) in 1847, “early in August, James Dundas,
Esq., (the manager of Taylor’s Caymanas Estate) in carrying out some
improvements connected with the draining of the land ot that property
in the vicinity of the lagoon, unexpectedly came upon this beautiful
plant, and as he had on former occasions assisted in the kindest manner
our searches for the plant he immediately concluded that he had at
length alighted on what he had been so long in search of. He collected
the specimens of the flowers and other parts of the plant, and brought
them to my residence in Kingston. I doubt not every cultivator of our -

16

‘fair science’ must sympathise in the pleasure with which I regarded
this beautiful plant. How much more delightful would be the surprise
to encounter it in its native solitudes, where the hand of Nature has
planted and reared it, amid the mangroves and the tall reeds, oversha-
dowing with its magnificent leaves and flowers the still waters of the la-
goon, recalling the description of Una in the Fairy Queen.
‘Her angel face
As the great eye of heaven shined bright
And made a sunshine in the shady place.’”
The present Director having seen it growing in all its beauty on an
island in the Mississippi in a wide stretch, 100 yards long by 50 broad,
made attempts but without success to trace it again 8 or 9 years ago in

the neighbourhood of Caymanas estate, the only spot from which it .

had been recorded. It was therefore with great pleasure that a seed-
vessel was received in 1890 from Mr. R. K. Tomlinson, who had found
it in swamps in St. Elizabeth.

It is only lately that it has been possible to provide a place for it at
Hope Gardens; where it is now flowering. Mr. Jenman, Superinten-
dent of the Botanic Gardens in British Guiuna, writes as follows :—

“Of the Nelumbium luteum seed you sent me in July, 1895, one plant
survived. After three or four months’ growth in a pot, ina tub of
water, it was planted out in a bay of one of the lakes. It now covers
from three to four hundred square yards surface, and is flowering as
freely as N. speciosum, whose stems form dense thickets in the trenches
and lakes here. I think I told you before that I have had the Florida
plant here for the past ten or eleven years, and though it has covered
a great area, it is not at all rampant as the Jamaica one has proved it-
self, and has never flowered. The only explanation is that the latter
is adapted to the climate here and the other is not.”

Mr. Jenman’s statement is remarkable, and it is is interesting
to compare with it the first record of its flowering in England,
given in the “ Botanical Magazine” by Mr. Sylvester:—Its flow-
ering, I believe, to have been the consequence of an accidental cireum-
stance, which I shall mention. I had hitherto treated it like the Red
or eastern species. from an impression that it was confined to the most
southern and warmest portion of North America; the pots of both
being plunged in a cistern of water, kept at a heat of about 86 degrees
and as the plants grew very vigorously and appeared to be in health, I
did not try any other situation. They had never shown any disposi-
tion to bloom until the present season, when in consequence of the gar-
dener having left a smaller opeuing than usual in the flue that passes
under the cistern, and which is entirely closed in the winter, the water
remained at about 70 or 75 degrees, and the house was altogether
cooler than in previous summers. Under these circumstances, while
the Red species threw up a number of flower buds, none of which came
to maturity, two out of the three plants of the yellow-blossomed sort
flowered and are ripening seeds. The house and the water have since
been warmer, and JV. speciosum is now, though laterin the season, coming
into bloom.

17

FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—XLIII

Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja-
maica. By G. S. Jenman, Superintendent Botanical Garden,
Demerara.

5. Nephrolepis biserrata, Schott.—Stipites strong, erect, tufted, 6-10
in. 1. polished, slightly fibrillose or furfuraceous ; fronds 2-4 ft. 1. 6-10
in. w., narrowed at the base; chartaceous or membranous, bright; often
pale, green; naked puberulous or slightly pubescent when young;
pinne numerous, spreading horizontally, linear-lanceolate and acumi-
nate, approximate or subdistant, 4-6 in. 1. $-} in. w., base substipitate,
truncate or rather rounded or the inferior subcordate, slghtly disposed
to be auricled on both sides; margins variable, even, serrulate or bi-
crenate-serrulate, rachis strong, glossy, channelled, deciduously furfu-
raceous ; veins twice forked; midrib strong, channelled ; sori intra-
marginal punctiform, sporangia yellowish when ripe ; involucres small,
naked or ciliate, ultimately cordate-orbicular. Pl. Fil. t. 112. NV. acuta,
Presl. and several other names. Aspidium punctulaum, Swartz.

Plentiful among bushes and on banks and trees among the lower
hills. A much larger plant than the preceding, of erect spreading or
pendent habit, growing more or less in masses. It varies much in size
and in the vestiture of the surface. There is a pubescent form with
pinne only 4-5 1. w., more deeply and uniformly serrulate, and often
furcate, the sori submarginal. The upper surface is papillose over the
sori.

Genus XXVIII. Oneanpra, Cav.

Sori round, dot-like, scattered, or in irregular transverse lines, on the
back of the veins, more plentifully toward the costz ; involucres supe-
rior cordate-orbicular, attached by the sinus, free around the edge
fronds entire, naked or ciliate, with a satiny gloss; stipites articulated
veins free, spreading at a wide angle ; root-stock long-repent.

This genus, like the preceding, depends upon the homology and dis-
tinct habit, and the common physiognomy of its members, in the ab-
sence of any distinguishing characters of fructification, to give it gene-
ric recognition. It contains a score or so of species or varieties which
inhabit rocks, prostrate trunks of decaying trees, the crowns of palms
and similar situations, and are scattered over the tropical and warm re-
gions of the world, reaching southward to Australia.

O. nodosa, Presl.—Rootstock repent, prostrate extending often seve-
ral feet long ; firm, cylindrical, not so thick asa quill, branched, clothed
with copious silky fine squarrose ferruginous scales ; stipites distant,
slender polished, dark-eoloured, 4-6 in. ]., the raised articulate joint 4-2
in. from the base; fronds oblong lanceolate, acuminate or cuspidate,
the point fine, 10-18 in. 1. 14-3 in. w. the base tapering or cuneate ;
margins often repand, entire ; cartilaginous-edged, chartaceous, pellucid ;
or bright-satiny green, naked or with a few deciduous scattered minute
scales along the costz beneath ; veins fine, very close, simple or once
forked from near the base, nearly horizontal ; sori copious, scattered but
most crowded near the dark, coloured, glossy costz, which is channelled
down the face ; involucres dark-brown, naked.—PIl, Fil. t. 136. Aspi-
dium, Willd.

18

Very common in shady. and, open places in coffee plantations and
forests trailing over rocks and decaying logs from 1,000-3,000 or 4,000
ft. alt. The fronds part at the articulation, ‘and drop; leaving the base
of the stipe adherent to the rootstock. In: this the rootstock is hori-
zontal in growth, while in the other American species, O. neriiformis,
Cay. it is erect with the joint of the petioles at the base, and with
smooth or hairy surfaces.

Genus XXIX. Fapyentra, Hook.

Fronds acaulose, entire, dimorphous, veins areolated; receptacles
oblong, on free included veinlets; sori large, deeper than broad, ob-
long-reniform, with a deep sinus and converging auricles ; involucres
ample, attached interiorly, the exterior edge free.

A monotypic genus, found only in Jamaica and Cuba. The sori
are several times largér than in any other genus of the Tribe, being
1$-2 1. 1. by 14 1. w., doubled in‘the form of a horse shoe, on an elon-
gated receptacle, the folded ends converging almost together at the
base. Occasionally the, veinlet extends beyong the sorus to the other
side of the mesh. ~ ; we.

F. prolifera, Hook.—Rootstock small, fibrous-rooted, fronds simple,
entire, cespitose with hardly any distinct stipites, fibrillose at the ta-
pering base; barren prostrate, narrowed both ways from the centre,
outwards into a much elongated tapering tail proliferous and rooting
at the summit. 3-1 in. w., 3-7 in. 1.; fertile erect, oblanceolate, rounded
at the summit, narrowed in the sterile lower half to the long-tapering
base, 4-6 in. 1-4-6 li. w.; both fronds naked, dark-green ; membrano-
chartaceous ; costal. areola large, exterior -smaller with free branches
along the margins; sori unserial between the midrib and edge, usually
confined to the costal meshes ; involucres persistent, at length shrivell-
ing. Sl. 't.25.f,1. Hook. & Grev. Ic. t. 96. Hook: Jen. t. 53. B.
Hook. Fil. Exot. t.36. Asplenium, Sw. Aspidium,' Mett.

Infrequent on the wet banks in the eastern parishes up to 2,000 ft.
altitude. -In the barren fronds it resembles As)idium rhiozphyllum.
The earlier fronds are oblanceolated; the next rather ovate-lancéeolate,
extending into a much-elongated winged tail a line or: less wide |
at the radicant summit. In the fertile this is reversed; they taper }
similarly, but inwards to the base, and’ 6:/ly the broader outer part is
fertile. Occasionally-an odd reduced sorus is produced in one of the
smaller outer meshes. Most of the Space between the midrib and
margin is taken up by the sori, which'run more or less parallel there-
with. = ee

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT.

Liprary.
Agricultural Ledger. Nos. 8, 22 & 24 of 1895. Nos. 2, 8,10, 13, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26}
27, 28, 29, 31, 34, 36 of 1896. [Supt. of Govt. Printing, India. ]}
Agri. Ledger. Nos. 10, 12, 18, 19,23 of 1895, 1, 3,12, 13, 24 of 1896. [Kew.,
Flora of British India by Sir J. D. Hooker. Pt. XXII. [Kew.]
Bulletin Royal Gardens, Kew. No. 119. Nov.,1896. App. III. 1896. I.
1897 and other papers. [Kew.]
Bulletin R. Botanic Gardens, Trinidad. I-III. January, 1897. [Supt.]
Bulletin Dept. of Agri. Brisbane. Nos, 11-14. Oct., 1896. [Dept. of Agri.]
Bulletin New York Botanical Garden. I. Jan., 1897. [Director.]

an

19
Bulletin New York Agri. Exp. Station. Nos. 109-111. Sopt.:Oct, 1896, [Director.]
Bulletin Central Experiment Farm, Ottawa. No. 26. Jan., 1897. [Dept. of

Agri., Canada. | attets:
Bulletin, Torrey Botanic Club. Noy., 1896 to January, 1897. [Editor.]
Bulletin University of Wisconsin. I. No.5, [University.]
Bulletin de l’Herbier Boissier. 10-12. IV. Oct.-Dec. 1896. [Conseryateur. |
Bulletin Colonial Museum, Haarlem. 1896. [Director.]
Bulletin Cornell University. Nos. 38, 57, 71, 72, 74, 77, 84, 85, 88, 99, 103, 116
ili (apa

Revue Agricole. No. 10. October, 1896. [Editor.]
Experiment Station Record. VIII. 1-3. [U.S. Dept. of Agri.]
Journal Board of Agriculture. Dec., 1896. [Secy. |
Journal Roy..Horti. Socy Vol. XX. Pt. 2. Nov:,,1896. . [Secy, }
Agri. Gazette of N.S. Wales. (ct. 1896. [Dept. of Agri.| ios ee
Agri. Journal Cape Colony. Oct.-Decr , 1896. [Dept. of Agri.]
British Trade Journal. Nos. 308-9. Dec. 1896 & January, 1897. [ Editor. ]
Produce World. Nov.-Dec.; 1896, Jan., 1897. [ Editor. |
Central African Planter. Sept.-Nov., 1896. [Editor. |
Hawaiian Planters’ Monthly. Dec., 1896. [Editor. }
The Forester. Dec , 1896. “Jan., 1897. [ Editor. ]
Science Gossip. Dec., 1896. Jan., 1897. [Kditor. ]
Sugar. Oct., 1896. Jan., 1897. [Editor.]
Sugar Cane. Dec., 1896 & Jan., 1897. [Hditor. ]
Sugar Journal. Oct.-Noy., 1896. [Editor.]
Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. Nov-Dec. 1896. [Editor.]
Chemist & Druggist. Nov.-Jan. [Editor.]
Montreal Pharmaceatical Journal. Dec., 1896. Jan.,1897, [Editor.]}
W. I & Com. Advertiser. Noy.-Dec., 1896 [ Editor. | Riis
W. I. Home Builder». Dec, 1896. & Jan., 1897. [Hditor.].' Au
Times of Ceylon. Oct.-Dec., 1896. [Editor. ] ‘
Botanical Gazette. Oct.-Dec., 1896. [Editor.]
Minnesota Bot. Studies. No.9. [State Botanist.]
Proc. of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Nov., 1896. ..[Secy.]
Proce Agri. Horti. Socy. of Madras. -July-Sept., 1896. [Secy. ] M25 G
Evidence of Mr. Win. Saunders re Agri. & Colonization. [U.S. Dept. of Agri.]
Evidence of Mr. Jas. Fletcher re Agri. & Colonization. [U.S. Dept. of Agri. ]
Report Prov. Govt. Crop. Nova Scotia. Nov., 1896. .[Secy. for Agri. ]
Reports Experimental Farms, Canada. 1895. [Dept. of Agri.}
Report Board of Park Commissioners, San Francisco. 1895-96. [Secy.|
Report Bot. Gardens, Qodeypore. 1895-96, [Supt. ]
A new Gymonogramme from Venezuela by B. D. Gilbert. [ Author. ]
Iritability and movement in Plants by Prof D. P. MacDougal. [Author. }
The Mechanism of Curvature of Tendrials by Prof. D. P. MacDougal. [Author. ]
The Physiology of Colour in Plants by Prof. D. P. MacDougal. [Author.]
Notice on Sugar Cane Diseases by Prof. F. A. C. Dent. [Author.]
New England Wild Flowers by W. W. Bailey. [Author.] {
New Commercial Plants & Drugs. No.12. by Thos. Christy. [Author.]

tr

)

PLANTS.
From Royal Gardens, Kew.—
Tubers of Tampico Jalap (Ipomza simulans) from Tlacolulam, from Tonayan, and
Vera Cruz. | ae

SEEDS.
From Royal:Gardens Kew.
Iris Robinsoniana
Cornus asperifolia
Persea indica Copernicia cerifera bo 0 unite ad
Pyrus irregularis Perak Lemon
Aesculus arguta Apocynum venetum

Pritchardia Thurstoni

20

From Messrs. Reasoner, Bros. Florida.
Chamzops humilis, var. farinosa
“

ss “hystrix
1 “ “ spinosa
ss Ss “ littoralis
Phoenix paludosa
cs sylvestris

Sabal Palmetto

Tlex ambigua
Raphiolepis ovata
Myrica cerifera
Viburnum obovatum

From Botanic Gardens, Bangalore.
Moringa pterygosperma

From Agri.-Hort., Society, Madras.
Acacia Sundra
Adenanthera pavonina
Azadirachta indica
Bombax malabaricum
Cassia Fistula

«* nodosa
Czesalpinia Sappan
Erythrina indica
Ficus indica

“¢ racemosa

“ religiosa
Gmelina arborea
Hibiscus collinus
Lagerstroemia Flos-reginz
Parkia biglandulosa
Pterocarpus Marsupium
Peltophorum ferrugineum
Sterculia foetida
Thespesia populnea
Terminalia sp.

From Walter Jekyll Esq., Robertsfield.
Alstroemeria chilensis

From Secretary Colonia Cosme, Paraguay
Tembo
Curupay Na;
Ybiripita
Mandioca

From Lt. Col. the Hon. C. Jy Ward, C.M.G.
Fruits of Citron

From Botanical Station British Honduras.
Dombeya molle
Ipomea sp.
Malvacea

From Messrs Dammann, & Co., Italy
Iris germanica
“ florentina
“ pallida

From Royal Botanic Gardens, Trinidad.
Trinidad Lime
Lignum Vite

21

CASTLETON GARDENS.

JANUARY.

In FLoweEr.

Acacia cyanophylla, Lindl.
(Blue-leaved Acacia: Australia.)
Amherstia nobilis, Wall,
(Amherstia: India and Malaca.)
Bauhinia variegata, Linn.
(Butterfly tree: India and China)
Broughtonia lilacina, Henfr.
(Jamaica, Cuba and Hayti)
Broughtonia sanguinea, R. Br.
(Jamaica, Cuba)
Cananga odorata, Hook. f. & Thoms.
(Cananga, Ilang: India)
Cassia glauca, Lam.
(Glaucous Cassia, Trop. Asia, Aus-
tralia, and Polynesia
Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Nees.
(Cinnamon: Ceylon)
Cocos botryophora, Mart.
(A Brazilian Palm)
Coffea liberica, Hiern.
(Liberian Coffee : W. Africa)
Cynometra americana, Vog.
(8. Domingo)
Erythrina umbrosa, H. B. & K.
(Bois Immortelle: S. America)
Fagrzea oboyata, Wall.
(E. Indies)
Hibiscus elatus, Sw.
(Blue Mahoe: W. Indies)
Hyophorbe Verschaffeltii, Wendl.
(Palm from Mauritius)
Jacaranda filicifolia, D. Don.
(Fern-leaved Jacaranda : Guiana)
Musa coccinea, Andr.
(A bright or red-flowering banana:
S. China)
Musa rosacea, Jacq.
(A reddish-lilac flowering banana,
E. Himalayas)
Napoleona imperialis, Beauv.
(Napoleona: W. Africa)
Norantea Guianensis, Aubl.
(Norantea: Guiana and Brazil)
Phaius grandifolius, Lour.
(Nun Orchid)
Pheenix acaulis, Buch.— Ham.
(Stemless Palm: Central India)
Rhodoleia Championi, Hook.
(Small tree from Hong Kong)
Tectona grandis, Linn, f.
(Teak: India.)

In Froit.

———————— eS

Artocarpus Lacoocha, Roxb.
(Indian Breadfruit : India and Ma-
laya)
Attalea Cohune, Mart.
(Cohune Palm ; Honduras to Guia-
na)
Averrhoa carambola, Linn.
(Carambola: E, Indies)
Barringtonia Butonica, Forst.
(Barringtonia: E. Indies)
Caryocar nuciferum, Linn.
(Souari or Butter Nut:
Coffea liberica, Hiern.
(Liberian Coffee : W. Africa)
Couroupita guianensis, Aubl.
(Cannon Ball Tree: Trop. Amer.)
Dillenia indica, Linn.
(Dillenia : E. Indies)
Diospyros discolor, Willd.
(Mabola Ebony: Philippines)
Dypsis madagascariensis, Hort.
(A Palm : Madagascar)
Garcinia Mangostana, Linn.
(Mangosteen : Malay Archipelago)
Lonchocarpus cyanescens, Benth.
(Yoruba Indigo: W. trop. Africa)
Manihot Glaziovii, Muell. Arg,
(Ceara Rubber : Brazil)
Myristica fragrans, Houtt.
(Nutmeg: E. Indies)
Noronhia emarginata, Thou.
(A Madagascar tree)
Oreodoxa regia, H. B. & K.
(Royal Palm: Cuba)
Pachira aquatica, Aubl.
(Pachira ; Panama)
Pandanus utilis, Bory.
(Screw Pine: Madagascar)
Semecarpus Anacardium, Linn.
(Marking Nut Tree; India)

wuiana)

—

29
Fiervary. ent)

T

In FLoweEr.

Awherstia nobilis, Wall,
(Amherstia: India and Malacca)
Arenga saccharifera, Labill.
(Sugar Palm: Burma and Malay
Archipalago)
Aspasia variegata, Lindl.

(A tropical 8S. American Orchid) |

Bignonia magnifica, Bull.
(Colombian Bignonia: Colombia)
Cocos botryophora, Mart.
(A Brazilian Palm)
Coelogyne ovalis, Lindl.
(A Himalayan Orchid)
Calliandra falcata, Benth.
(Cent. Amer.)

Cananga odorata, Hook. f. & Thoms)

(Cananga, Ilang : India);
Carludovica gracilis, Liebm.
(Ippi-appi: W. Indies)
Chrysobalanus Icaco, L.
(Coco-plum : VW est Indies)
Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Nees.
(Cinnamon: Ceylon)
Coftea liberica, Hiern.
(Liberian Coffea: W. Africa)
Cola acuminata, Schot. & Endl.
(Kola nut : W. tropical Africa)

Dictyosperma album, H. Wendl. &

Drude
(Piassava Palm: Madagascar)
Elettaria Cardamomum, Maton
(Cardamon : ina
Erythrina umbrosa, H. B. & K.
(Bois Immortelle : S, America)
Erythroxylon Ooca, Lam.

(Coca: Andes)
Eugenia caryophyllata, Thunb.
(Clove : Moluccas)

Faradaya splendida, F. Muell.

(An Australian Climber)
Garcinia indica, Choisy.

(Kokam Butter: India)
Hibiscus elatus, Sw.

(Blue Mahoe: W. Indies)
Jacaranda filicifolia, D. Don

(Fern-leaved Jacaranda : Guiana)
Landolphia florida, Benth.

(Rubber Vine: W. Africa)
Latania Verschaffeltii, Linn.

(A Palm from Rodriguez Island
Lonchocarpus violaceus, H. B. & K.

(A tropical American tree)
Mesus ferrea, Linn.

(Naghas Tree: India)
Michelia Champaca, Linn.

(Champac tree: India)
Musa textilis, Nee.

(Manilla hemp: Phillippines)

In Fruit.

Araucaria Bidwillii, Hook.
(Bunya-Bunya Pine: Queensland)
Areca Catechu, Linn.
(Betel Nut Palm : Malaya)
Attalea.Cohune, Mart. - © +
(Cohune: Palm: Honduras to
Guiana)
Barringtonia Butonica, Forst.
(Barringtonia: E. Indies)
Bauhinia variegata, Linn.. L
(Buttentfly : tree: Pndia and Qhina)
Bignonia magnifica, Bull
(Colombian Bignonia : Colombia)
Caryota urens, Linn.
(Wine: Palm : India and Ceylon)
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens, Meme
(A Mauritius:Palm)! ‘
Cocos flexuosa, Mart.
(A Brazilian Palm)
Coffea liberica, Hiern.
(Liberian Coffee: W. Africa)
Colvillea racemosa, Boj.
(A Madagascar tree)
Dictyosperma album, H. Wendl and
Drude
(Piassava Palm : Mindnisecks)
Dillenia indica, Linn.
(Dillenia : E. Indies)
Diospyros discolor, Willd.
(Mabola Ebony: Philippines)
Diplothemium caudescens; Mart.
(A Brazilian Palm)
Dipteryx odorata, Willd.
(Tonquin Bean : Cayenne)
Elettaria Cardamomum, Maton.
(Cardamoin : India)“ **><) _
Entada scandens, Benth.
(Cacoon: Tropics) ‘
Erythrina umbrosa; H.:B. & K.
(Bois Immortelle : 8. America)
Eugenia caryophyllata, Thunb.
(Clove : Molluccas)
Garcinia Mangostana, Linn.
(Mangosteen : Malay Archipelago)
Garcinia Morella, Desrouss.
(Gamboge tree: E. Indies.)
Hibiscus elatus, Sw.
(Blue Mahoe: W. Se
Livistona australis. -
(A Palm: Australia) «+
Livistona chinensis, R.: Br.
(Fan Palm: China; Japan)
Lonchocarpus eyanescens, Benth.
(Yoruba Indigo : W- Trop. Africa.)
Manihot Glaziovii, Muell. Arg.
(Ceara Rubber: Brazil)
Mimusops Elengi, Linn.
(Elengi: EH. Indies)

cere

. Cinnamomum Camphora, T. Nees &

Fesruary, contd.

In FLowERr.

Napoleona imperialis, Beauy.
(Napoleona : W. Africa)
Nephelium Lit-chi, Camb.
(Litchi tree ; $..China)
Pachita aquatica, Aubl.
(Pachira ; Panama) ,
Phaius aqrendifohiusy Lour.
(Nun Orchid)
Pterospermum acerifolium, Willd.
(Maple-leaved Pterospermum :
India)
Quassia amara, Linn.
(Quassia : Surinam)
Rhodoleia Championi, Hook.
(Small, tree from: Hong Kong)
Saraca indica, Linn.
(Ushoka: E. Indies)
Spathodea campanulata, Beauv.
\ “(Spathodea ; Tropical Africa)
Sterculia carthaginenpsis, Cav.
(“ Chica” : Trop. Amer. & Brazil)
Strychnos Nux-vornica, Linn.
(Nux-vomica ; E. Indies)
Tectona grandis, Linn. f.
(Teak ; India)

Marcu.

In FLoweEr,

hs De ‘ i

Acacia cyauophylla, Lindl.
(Blue-leaved Acacia : Australia)
Archontophcenix Cunninghamii, H.

Wendl. & Drude
(Cunningham’s Palm: Australia)!
Artocarpus Lakoocha, Roxb.
(Indian Breadfruit : India and
Malaya)
Aspasia yarlegata, Lindl,
(A trgpical,S. American Orchid)
Bignonia magnifica, Bull
(Colombian Bignonia ; Colombia)
Brownea Rosa-de-monte, Berg.
(Rosa-de-Monte: Trop. 8. Ame-
rica)
Cananga odorata, Hook. f. & Thoms,
(Cananga, Ilang: India)
Carludovica gracilis, Liebm.
(Ippi-appi: W. Indies)

Eberm.
(Camphor Laurel ;. China and

J apan) . Li

In FLoweEr.

—— ee

Musa textilis, Nee
(Manilla Hemp : Philippines)
Myristica fragrans, Houtt.
(Nutmeg :.. KE. Indies)
Oredoxa regia, H. B. & K.
(Royal Palm ; Cuba)
Pachira aquatica, Aubl.
(Pachira: Panama)
Pachyrhizus tuberosus, Spreng.
(Yam Bean: Trop. Asia)
Pandanus utillis, Bory
(Screw Pine: Madagascar)
Pithecolobium dulce, Benth.
(Guamuchil : Cent. Amer.)
Sapindus Saponaria, Linn.
(Soap-berry : W. Indies and trop.
Amer.)
Sapindus inzequalis
(Soap-berry : W. Indies and trop.
Amer.)
Sarcocephalus esculentus, Afzel.
(Sierra Leone Peach ; Upper Guinea
Semecarpus Anacardium, Linn, f.
(Marking Nut Tree ; India)
Strychnos Nux-vomica, Linn.
(Nux-Vomica: E. Indies)
Terminalia Arjuna, Bedd.
(Arjun tree : India and Ceylon)

In FrRvit.

Areca Catechu, Linn.
(Betel Nut Palm: Malaya)
Archontophcenix Cunninghamii, H.
Wendl. & Drude
(Cunningham’s Palm: Australia)
Araucaria Bidwillii, Hook.
(Bunya-bunya Pine ; Queensland)
Barringtonia Butonica, Forst.
(Barringtonia: E. Indies)
Bignonia magnifica, Bull
(Colombian Bignonia ;: Colombia)
Cananga, odorata, Hook. f. & Thoms.
(Cananga, lang: India) —
Cocos flexuosa, Mart.
(A Brazillian Palm)
Coffea liberica, Hiern.
(Liberian Coffee: W. Africa)
Caryota urens, Linn.
(Wine Palm: E. Indies)
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens, Wendl.
(A Mauritius Pali]
Colvillea racemosa, Boj.
(A Madagascar, tree)

24

Maren, contd.

In FLower. In FRort.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Nees Chrysobalanus Icaco, L.

(Cinnamon : Ceylon) (Coco-Plum : W. Indies)
Cocos australis, Mart. Dictyosperma album, H. Wendl &

(A 8. Brazilian Palm) Drude
Coffea liberica, Hiern (Piassava Palm : Madagascar)

(Liberian Coffee : W. Africa) Dillenia indica, Linn.
Dictyosperma album. H. Wendl, & (Dillenia: E. Indies)

Drude Diospyros discolor, Willd.

(Piassava Palm : Madagascar) (Mabola Ebony : Philippines)
Diospyros discolor, Willd. Diplothemium caudescens, Mart,

(Mabola Ebony : Philippines) (A Brazilian Palm)
Dypsis madagascariensis, Hort’ Dypsis madagascariensis, Hort.

(A Palm : Madagascar) (A Palm : Madagascar)
Eletaria Cardamomum, Maton Elettaria Cardamomum, Maton.

(Cardamon : India) (Cardamom : India)
Erythrina umbrosa, H. B. & K? Entada scandens, Benth.

(Bois Immortelle: S. America.) (Cacoon : Tropics)
Erythroxylon Coca, Lam. Erythrina umbrosa, H. B. & K.

(Coca: Andes) (Bois Immortelle : S. America)
Faradaya splendida, F. Muell. Hibiscus elatus Sw.

(An Australian climber) (Blue Mahoe: W. Indies)
Garcinia indica, Choisy Livistona australis, Mart.

(Kokam Butter : India) (A Palm: Australia)
Hevea brasiliensis, Muell. Arg. Livistona chinensis, R. Br.

(Para Rubber : Brazil) (Fan Palm: China & Japan)
Hibiscus elatus, Sw. Manihot Glaziovii, Muell, Arg.

(Blue Mahoe : W, Indies) (Ceara Rubber : Brazil)
Jacaranda filicifolia, D. Don | Mimusops Elengi, Linn.

(Fern-leaved Jacaranda: Guiana)| (Elengi : E. Indies)
Landolphia florida, Benth. Musa textilis, Nee

(Rubber Vine: W. Africa) (Manilla Hemp : ee
Mesua ferrea, Linn Oreodoxa regia, H. B. & K

(Naghas Tree : India) (Royal Palm : Cuba)
Michelia Champaea, Linn. Pandanus utilis, Bory,

(Champac Tree: India) (Screw Pine : Madagascar)
Mimusops Elengi, Linn. Pachyrhizus tuberosus, Spreng.

(Elengi: E. Indies) (Yam Bean: W. Indies)
Musa textilis, Nee Pachira aquatica, Aubl.

(Manilla Hemp: Philippines) (Pachira : Panama)
Napoleona imperialis, Beauv. Pterospermum acerifolium, Willd.

(Napoleona: W. Africa) (Maple-leaved Pterospermnm :
Pachira aquatica, Aubl. Tndia)

(Pachira ; Panama) Semecarpus Anacardium, Linn.
Pachira Barrigon, Linn. (Marking Nut Tree : India)

(Barrigon : Panama) Strychnos Nux-vomica, Linn,
Pithacolobium dulce, Benth. (Nux Vomica: E. Indies)

(Guamuchil: Cent. Amer.) |
Pterospermum acerifolium, Willd. |

(Maple-leaved Pterospermum :

India)

Quassia amara, Linn.
(Quassia : Surinam )
Stifftia chrysantha, Mixan
(Stifftia : Brazil)
Strychnos Nux-vomica, Linn.
(Nux Vomica ; Indies)
Tectona grandis, Linn. f

(Teak : India)

New Series. ] FEBRUARY, 1897. Vol. IV
Part 2.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

~— 2-2-2

EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:

Soil Ferments important in Agriculture Pack 25
The Spraying of Plan's s 30
Fungous Diseases of the Grape a 37
Fungicides - 39
Jute ~ 4
Ferns-—Synoptical List XLIY ~ 42
Contributions to the Department - 45
Castleton Gardens - ~ 46
Easy way of Binding the Bulletin - 48

P RIC E-Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Gordon Town P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA:
GOVERNMENT PrintTIne Orrics, 79 DuKe STREET.

1897.

JAMAICA.

paUely Vase El N

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

“Vol. IV.

New Series. | FEBRUARY, 1897. Para

SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE.
By Dr. W. H. Witey, Chief af ihe Division of Chemistry, U. 8.
Department of Agriculture, in Year Book of U. S. Dept. of

Agriculture for 1895,
(Continued ).

FALLOW FIELDS,

In former times it was a common practice among farmers to allow a
field to lie fallow for one season in order to increase its fertility. The
advisability of this process is extremely questionable. During a mo-
derately dry summer there is probably very little loss experienced by
ploughing a field after the spring rains and keeping its surface suffi-
ciently well cultivated during the summer to prevent the growth of
weeds. In the absence of heavy rainfall the stores of available nitrogen
in such a soil will undoubtedly be increased during the summer, inas-
much as the processes of nitrification will be continued and the stores
of nitrogen thus oxidized, in the absence of absorbing bodies, will re-
remain in the soil. Even in case of rainfalls which may carry the so-
luble plant food below the arable soil, there may not be ony notable
loss, especially if such a downpour be followed by dry weather. In the
latter case, by the evaporation from the surface and consequent capil-
lary movement of the soil moisture upward, the available plant food
carried beyond the reach of the rootlets of plants will be brought again
toward the surface and rendered available. But in case of heavy
rains, producing a thorough saturation and leaching of the soil, the
losses in a field lying fallow during the summer will be very great, and
it is not well at any time to take the risk. Especially is this state-
ment true of fields which have lain fallow during the summer and
which are afterwards exposed to the saturating rains of the autumn
and winter. In these cases the nitrogen will be thoroughly extracted,
and all the soluble matters which may have accumulated during the
summer will be lost. It is advisable, therefore, in all cases, instead of
allowing the fields to lie fallow, to seed them with a catch crop, such
as barley, rye, or peas, which may retain the products of nitrification.
When the time comes for seeding the field with the intended crop, the
catch can be turned under with the plough, and, in the proc»ss of decay,

26

furnish again the nitrogenous food in an available form. This practice
should never be neglected in fields which lie over during the winter in
preparation for planting during the following spring Of course, this
statement does not apply so particularly to fields which may be
ploughed late in the autumn, after the activity of the nitrifying fer-
ments is practically suspended for the winter. In a temperate climate
fields may be ploughed late in November or during the month of De-
cember, and the freshly turned soil be exposed to the action of the
weather during the winter without great danger ‘of loss

In many localities even an earlier period might be chosen for the
autumn ploughing, which should be deep or accompanied by sub-soiling,
The loosened soil should be brought into good tilth, and thus form an
absorbent which will hold large quantities of moisture, becoming avail-
able for the following season during the period of deficient rains.

THE SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIAL FOR THE ACTION OF FERMENTS.

A field is as poor as its most deficient fertilizing priuciple. A plant,
like an animal, demands a balanced ration. It can not live upon phos-
phoric acid alone. In order to secure the most economic method of fer-
tilizing, the peculiarities of each field must be carefully studied and its.
particular deticiency in plant food determined. In the case under con-
sideration it may happen that a field will have an abundant supply of
potash and phosphorus and be deficient only in nitrogen. In such a
case its pristine fertility will be restored by the application of nitrogen
alone, provided the other conditions in the composition of the soil are
favourable to the development and activity of the ferments which oxi-
dize nitrogen. Virgin soils as a rule are extremely rich in nitrogen.
This arises from several causes. In the first place, such soils usually
contain a large quantity of humus, and this humus is exceptionally rich
in its nitrogenous elements. In the second place, a virgin soil is apt
to be well protected frum leaching. ‘This is secured either by a forest
growth or, on prairie land, by the grass. In the third place, there is
a well-marked tendency in soils, especially those covered by grass, and
presumably those also protected by forest growth, to develop ferments
capable ot oxidizing the free nitrogen of the air. When virgin soils
are subjected to cultivation, it is found that their nitrogen content, as a
rule, diminishes most rapiuly as compared with that of the other lead-
ing plant foods. Hence, it becomes necessary sooner or later, if maxi-
mum crops are to be maintained, to supply nwrogenous food Atten-
tion has already been called to the use of the stores of nitrogen which
have already been oxidized for fertilization. It is evident, however,
that only a very small part of the nitrogenous needs of arable fields can
be supplied in this way. Further than this, it must not be forgotten
that in the use of a substance like Chili saltpetre, there is added to the
soil a material which can in no manner foster the growth and develop-
ment of nitrifying organism. ‘To feed a soil with a food of this kind
alone, therefore. would be to virtually produce a famme in respect to
the nitrifying ferments which it contains.

It is therefore highly important that additional methods of supplying
the nitrogenous foods of plants should be practised. Stall manures and
the refuse of cattle and poultry yards furnish considerable quantities of
nitrogenous materials suited to the needs of the soil ferments, and use-

27

ful sfter oxidation to the growing crop. In the growth of leguminous
plants, as has already been intimated, another important supply of
organic nitrogen may be secured, some of which, at least, is a clear,
gain from the atmosphere. Other important forms of nitrogenous
materials ure found in the pressed cakes left after the extraction of the
oil from oil-producing seeds, such as flax and cotton seed. These cakes
are exceptionally rich in nitrogenous matter which may be secured for
the field both by the direct application of the ground material to the
soil, or by first feeding it to animals, the part which escapes digestion
in the latter case being still a valuable fertilising material. In the case
of cotton-seed cake, moreover. it should not be forgotten that there is
some danger in feeding it, especially to young cattle, on account of the
poisonous nitrogenous bases (cholin and betain) which it contains.

These poisonous bases produce no deleterious effects whatever in the
soil, although it is doubtful whether they are attacked very readily by
the nitrifying ferments. Other sources of nitrogenous foods for the soil
ferments are found in the refuse of slaughter houses. Dried blood is
perhaps the richest in nitrogen of any organic substance that is known,
and is readily attacked by the soil ferments. The nitrogenous refuse of
slaughtered animals, after the extraction of the fat, is dried and ground
and sold under the name of tankage. It isa substance very rich in
nitrogenous matter. The bones of animals are not only valuable on
account of the phosphoric acid which they contain, but also havea large
percentage of nitrogenous material which renders them particularly well
suited for application to a soil deficient both in phosphoric acid and
nitrogen. For this reason, burning bones before grinding them for fer-
tilising purposes, which is done in some localities, is extremely wasteful.
For a similar reason, also, the composting of coarsely ground fresh bones
with wood ashes is not to be recommended, because of the tendency of
the alkali of the ashes to set free, in the form of ammonia, at leasi a part
ef the nitrogenous content of the bones.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE OCEAW

The farmer, happily, is not confined alone to the land for the sources of
organicnitrogen with which to supply the demands of the nitrifying fer-
ments of his field. The ocean is made to contribute to the stores of
nitrogenous matters to which the farmer has acccess. The vast quantities
of seaweed which are thrown up annually upon our shores are rich in
nitrogenous matters. The value of this material, however, is not
generally appreciated, but in some parts of the country it is carefully
gathered and utilised. The value of this product gathered annually upon
the shores of Rhode Island alone is nearly 100,000 dols. While seaweed,
for obvious reasons, can only be successfully applied in marine literal
agriculture, yet the extent of agricultural lands bordering on the sea is so
great as to render the commercial importance of the matter of the
highest degree of interest. Seaweed is not valuable for its nitrogenous
censtituents alone, but also carries large quantities of potash and phos-
phoric acid, and thus to a certain degree, it may be regarded as a com-
Bete fertiliser. But the seaweed which is thrown upon our shores is not

e only source of nitrogenous food which we receivefrom the ocean. In
the animal life of the ocean are gathered vast quantities of nitrogenous
materials. The quantity of albuminoid matter in the water-free sub-

28

atance of the flesh of fish is enormously high as compared with ordinary

foods. It may be said to be, approximately, 75 per cent. of the water-free
substance. Some varieties of fish are taken alone for their oil product
and agricultural value. This is especially true of the menhaden, vast
quantities of which are annually brought to land, and after being passed
through the oil factory are ground and distributed as fish scrap to the
manufacturers of fertilisers. The practice of using fish for fertilising pur-
poses is many centuries old ; but until recent years the farmers residing
along the coast were the only ones receiving any benefit therefrom. At
the present time the nitrogenous elements taken from the sea find their
way to the gardens, truck lands, and fields of the interior.

RELATION OF DIFFERENT CROPS TO FERMENTATIVE ACTIVITY.

It is a well-established principle of farming that there are certain crops
which cannot be grown continuously upon the same field, while in the
case of other crops almost an indefinite growth can be secured. Broadly,
it may be said that cereals can be grown upon the same field almost in-
definitely and without fertilisation. In such cases, the large crops of
cereals which are at first obtained rapidly diminish in quantity until they
reach a certain minimum limit, at which point they tend to remain, with
variations in yield due only to seasonal influences. On the other hand,
root crops of all kinds, and especially leguminous crops, do not continue
to flourish upon the some soil, even when liberally fertilised. The neces-
sity for rotution, therefore, is far greater in the latter class of crops than
with the cereals. It appears from the result of the s\ientific investiga-
tions attending this difference of behaviour that the relations of these two
classes of growing crops are different toward the soil ferments. In the
case of the cereals the{quantity of nitrogen which they require can be ob-
tained from humus, or other sources, with little effort. In the case of
the other class of crops, such as root crops and those of a leguminous
nature, it appears that the humus shouldbe partieularly rich in nitrogen,
and that when by the activity of the soil ferments the percentage of
nitrogen is reduced to a certain limit, there isno longer apossibility of a
sufficiently vigorous nitrification to meet the demands of the growing
vegetables. ‘There isthus a scientific basis, as well as practical reasons,
for a frequent rotation of crops. Even in the case of cereals, which, as
mentioned above, can be grown with considerable success without rota-
tion, experience has shown that a change from one crop to another is
always beneficial.

THE RELATION OF HUMUS TO SOIL FERMENTS.

The term humus is applied to those constituents of the soil which have
been derived chiefly from the decay of vegetable matter. In this decay
the original structure of the vegetable has been entirely lost, and the resi-
due, in the form of a vegetable mould of a black or brownish colour, is
left distributed in the soil. In the processes of decay, the organic mat-
ter of the vegetable is converted largely into acids of the humic series,
and the nitrogenous principles of the plant become changed from an al-
buminoid to amore inert form, in which it ismore readily preserved. It
is this practically inert form of nitrogen on which the soil ferments exer-
cise their activity in preparing it for the uses of the plant. It has been
a commonly accepted theory in the past, especially since the time of

29

Liebig, that the organic principles of humus of every description suffer
entire decomposition under the action of fermentative germs before being
absorbed as plant nutriment. Recent investigations, however, tend to
show that in some instances the organic elements of the humus itself
may serve as food for plants without undergoing entire decomposition.
Whether or not the nitrogenous principles of the humus can thus be em-
ployed has not been determined, but that the humus itself, or some con-
stituents thereof, can be absorbed by the plant I have myself often no-
ticed, especially in the case of sugar cane grown upon a rich vegetable
mould, The juices expressed from such canes contain the organic mat-
ter of the humus to a certain extent unchanged, and the sugar and mo-
lasses made therefrom are distinctly impregnated in the raw state with
this organic matter.

These facts have a tendency to raise again the question concerning
the mineral character of plant food, which for many years was considered
as definitely settled. Recent progress in synthetic chemistry has shown
that there is no impassable barrier between organic and inorganic classes
of compounds. By the union, for instance, of lime and carbon under the
influence of the electric arc, asubstence is obtained —calcium carbide—
which, when thrown upon water, evolves the gas, acetylene, which was
formerly supposed to be wholly of organic origin. In hundreds of other
instances the barriers between organic and inorganic substances have
been broken down in laboratory, and organic bodies as complicated in
their nature as sugars have been formed by pure synthesis. Lhe chemistry
of the vegetable organism is admittedly superior to that of the chemical
laboratory, and while there is no doubt of the fact that the vast prepon-
derance of vegetable food is of a mineral nature, it would not be safe to
deny to the vegetable the ability to absorb to a certain extent organic
compounds.

There is, however, at the present time but little evidence to show that
organic compounds of a nitrogenous nature are ever absorbed by plants,
and therefore, even in the case of humus, we must still contend, at least
for the present, that its nitrogenous constituents only become available
for plant food after having been fully oxidized by the action of the soil
ferments.

DETERMINATION OF THE ACTIVITY OF SOIL FERMENTS,

It is evident from the preceding pages that a study of the soil for agri-
cultural purposes is incomplete which does not include a determination of
the character and vigour of the ferments which it contains. This neces-
sarily introduces into the practice of soil analysis the processes of bacterio-
logicalexamination. Itis not the purpose at the present time to describe
these processes, but to give only to the general reader as clear an idea as
possible of the principles which underlie the analysis of soils for the
purpose of determining the activity of their nitrifying ferments.

30
THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS.

Mr. B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division of Vegetable Pathology,
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, says in a preface to a work on the above
heading by Mr. E. G. Lodeman :—“ In looking back over the past 10
or 12 years, it is difficult to realise the rapid advance made in com-
bating the insects and fungi which attack our cultivated plants. It is
not going too far to say that the discoveries made within this period
have worked almost a revolution in certain lines of agriculture.”

Mr. Lodeman’s treatise is a very valuable one, and the following
extracts are given to explain the importance of the subject :—

‘“‘ Man’s power over the organisms which injure cultivated plants
was never so great as it is at the present time. One by one these ene-
mies have been carefully studied, the history of their lives determined,
and their habits observed. Only by understanding them thoroughly
can proper steps be taken to check their ravages in the most e€conomi-
cal and efficient manner; yet it is within comparatively recent years
that this first step was taken to obtain the mastery over them. For-
merly, when a pest injured a plant, it was no uncommon practice to
apply any remedies or materials that c1ame to hand, regardless of their
probable efficiency. It was not generally the weakest point of the or-
ganism that was assai'ed In many cases, it was not even the proper
organ'sm which was held responsible for the injury. Nevertheless
many valuable discoveries came from these varied and desultory treat-
ments, and some of the remedies most highly prized to-day were dis-
covered merely by chance, net very many years ago.

“ Present knowledge and methods of investigation, largely founded
upon this experience, enable us to arrive at conclusions which, from
the outset, are founded upon a sound and logical basis. Tt is fortunate
that this is the case. The number of the enemies of cultivated plants
is either now more numerous than formerly, or the attacks are much
more energetic. It is undoubtedly true that the maladies of cultiva-
ted plants are much more widespread. This fact is mostly due to the
greater food supply, and to the greater ease with which most of the
injurious forms can pass from one part of the country to another, be-
cause the cultivated areas lie so close together. If a plant is grown
to any considerable extent, it is easy for its enemies to spread over the
entire region in which it is cultivated. Physial barriers are almost
without value in checking this sp:eading of disease. The ocean is
only a partial exception, since such close means of communication have
been established between all parts of the globe that this obstacle is
now of little avail. Some diseases have not yet been able to overpass
it, but as it has proved of little hindrance in so many cuses, it 1s pro-
bable that ultimately the enemies and diseases of plants will be as
widespread as are the plants upon which they flourish. Weedy plants,
insects, and possibly also fungi, are frequently more destructive ina
new country than in their old home. They are freed from the enemies
or conditions which formerly kept them in check, and in some cases
they are the cause of very serious disturbance, although originally
they may not have been markedly destructive.

“Farmers and fruit growers cannot fence out the many forms of insects
and fungi which live upon their crops, and which are as anxious fora

3l

harvest as the grower is. It isa fight between the grower and the
pest, and it must be admitted that the latter has generally had the
best of the battle. The farmer has not b:en properly equipped. He
has often had invisible foes to contend with, foes which he did not un-
derstand, and which he could not assail. It frequently occurred that
an entire crop was ruined in a day or two, and the causes remained un-
seen and unknown; and even if it was visible, almost the only remedy
upon which the grower could rely with certainty was mere force, first
catching the pest and then destroying it. As this could b> done with
profit only in rare cases, it was little b»tter than no remedy, and the
gener] result was that the insect or the fungus obtained an ample
supply of nourishment, and the grower took what was left. Indeed.
this method is still followed by many cultivators, but it is not the safest
nor is it the most profitable one.

“The best is generally the most profitabl> commodity, and the
poorest is the least so ; and the grower of to-day has it in his power
to produce the best. It rests entirely with him whether his apples
shall be wormy or not, whether his trees shall retain their foliage or
lose it from disease, There are few evils that affect his crops which
he cannot control, in miny cases almost absolutely. Only a few dis-
eases remain which still refuse to submit to treatment, but the number
is rapidly decreasing, and the time will come when these also will dis-
close some vulnerable point wnich will allow of their destruction.

«Foremost among the operations by means of which cultivated
plants are protected from their enemies is spraying. This consists in
throwing upon plants any fluids, or semi-fluids, in the form of a fine
rain or mist. It rests upon the general principle of covering the
‘plants, or the parts of plants to be protected, with a thin but uniform
layer of some material that is poisonous, caustic, or offensive to the or-
ganism which it is desired to destroy....

* Three points cannot be too strongly emphasized : —

“ First, be on time. Make an application when it will do the most
-good, and never allow time to passif it can possibly be avoided.
Every delay is of advantage tothe parasite, and it will be used so well
that in most cases the injury cannot be repaired. The destruction of
one insect may mean the destruction of hundreds, and one application
made at the right time may mean, an! generally does mean, the pro
tection of a plant against millions of spores and fungi which are en-
deavouring to gain a foothold. Be ready for action at a moment’s no-
tice, and when the moment comes, spray !

“Second, be thorough. When spraying a plant, spray it well. With
a little care, a complete success may be obtained instead of only a par-
tial one. When the work is finished, the grower should have the feel-
ing that it is well done, and then no fear as to the result need be en-
tertained. Spraying is not always pleasimt work, and the tempt tion
to slight it is often strong; but the operator will be rewarded just to
the extent to which he has been painstaking, and to that extent only.

Third, apply sprays intelligently. This is really the most impor-
tant factor in the work, although good crops can be obtained without it,
provided directions are followed. The first two points cannot be ne-
elected without injury to the crops but this one can be. The crop is
an need of the applications only, but the grower should know the reasons

32.

for them, and skould be in a position to modify his treatment so as to
make them conform with the character of the insect or the disease which
is being treated, and with the season. Every year and every day such
knowledge will be of value. So many things are still unknown, and
so many points still in dispute, that personal knowledge and judgment
about individual cases are not only desirable, but very essential. Di-
rections ccvering the majority of cases can be given, but now and then
one will come up which seems to differ from all others, and it is then
that this knowledge will prove most valuable. A few of the general
principles upon which this work rests are mentioned below.

Tux Action oF InsecricipEs AND FUNGICIDES.

“ The principal organisms against which the cultivator has to con~
tend are insects and fungi. They are widely different in their organ-
ization, and entirely different substances are 1equired for their destruc-
tion. Any substance which is used to destroy or repel insects may be
termed an insecticide; end any substance which destroys fungi, or
which prevents their injurious growth on vegetation, is a fungicide.

No substance, so far as known, will answer both purposes equally
well.

1. Uron Insects.

“Practically all the applications which are made to destroy insects
are designed to act in one of two ways. The substance may be des-
tined to enter the digestive system of the insect and thus cause death,
just as many poisons cause death when taken into the stomachs of
higher animals, This method is by far the cheapest, and when possi-
ble, it is advisable to make use of it.

“ The second method does not consist in putting poison on the food
of the insect, but the material is put directly upon the insect itself. It
then causes death either by stopping up the breathing pores, or it pen-
etrates the outer coverings and so enters the body directly. This
method cannot be used with success against all insects, as some have
very tough and dense coverings which are not readily penetrated by
any material that we can use for the purpose. JBeetles, for example,
can scarcely be destroyed in this manner. But all soft-bodied insects,
such as aphides, worms, and caterpillars, yield readily to the treatment
if sufficient material comes in contact with their bodies.

“ This method of killing insects by means of substances which cause
death merely by penetrating the creature’s body, is rather expensive,
and it is resorted to only when the pest cannot be treated by poisoning
its food. It thus comes that most worms and caterpillars are destroyed
by means of poisons which are eaten, though they yield to the other
treatment equally well.

“The food of many insects, however, cannot be poisoned, since they
feed upon the juice of plants and do not eat the exteinal coverings. It
is fortunate that most of these insects have soft bedies, so that they yield”
readily to treatment if the poison comes in contact with them. Their
mouth parts are formed for penetrating the external coverings of
plants to a depth sufficient to reach the sap; just as the mosquitoes’
bills are in the habit of penetrating human kind. All aphides belong
to this class, as well as the true bugs, these having mouth parts which.
are adapted to suck, but not to chew. The utter uselessness of cover-

33

ing a plant with poisons to protect it from these pests will readily be
seen. No matter how thick the poison may be, the insect’s beak will
penetrate this poisonous layer, and it will take no food until the beak
has passed the limit of the poison and is deeply buried in the tissues of
the plant.

“ From the above it will be seen that :

(a) To destroy chewing insects, such as the potato beetle, poison
must be evenly distributed over those parts upon which the insects
feed, and this may in some cases be done even before the insect is pre-
sent, or is visible. Only those poisons which cause death after being
eaten should be used.

(b) To destroy sucking insects, such as plant lice, the materials must
be distributed upon the insects as evenly as possible and it is useless
to make any application before theinsect has appeared. Only those poi-
son which kill by coming in contact with the insect’s body should be used.

“First determine what kind of a pest it is that needs treatment,
then select the proper material.

II. Uron Funat.

“* Among fungi we find many serious enemies. It is difficult to tell
just what a fungus is, but some of the principal characteristics may be
mentioned. A fungus is a plant; but unlike flowering plants, if
possesses no chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is the green-coloured protoplasm
found in flowering plants, and it is the only substance we know through
which plants change crude food to nutritive material. We must conclude,
therefore, that fungi do not prepare their own food, but feed upon
organic matter which is already adapted to their wants. They possess
no leaves, flowers, nor seeds, That part of any fungus which is of
most interest to the horticulturist is composed of long, fine threads,
either growing separately or in bundles; these threads are known as
hyphe, and collectively they form the mycelium or vegetative portion
of the fungus. The mycelium corresponds to the roots and stems
of flowering plants.

“Spores, which are organs performing the same office as the seeds
of flowering plants, are produced by this mycelium either directly, or
upon branches (sometimes called sporophores) which are thrown out.
These sporophores cause the white downy appearance seen upon grape
leaves affected with the downy mildew. A spore, strictly speaking, is
not a seed, for a seed contains a young plant, while a spore does not,
being usually composed of only one cell. If a spore finds the proper
conditions of heat and moisture it will germinate and send out a fine
filament, which, if nourished, grows on branches, and eventually a
plent like the original will be produced.

“Most fungi in the North produce two kinds of spores, known as the
summer and the winter spores. The summer spores are usually borne
upon the exterior of the host-plant, or the plant on which the fungus
grows. These spores ripen quickly and propagate the fungus rapidly.
But if they do not germinate soon after ripening they lose their vitality.

“The winter spores are usually produced within the tissues of the
host-plant, commonly in the leaves and fruit. They are the spores
which live through the winter; but in the spring, under favourable
circumstances, they germinate, and thus the fungus is again developed.

34

“Fungi may be divided into two general classes: those growing
upon dead and decaying matter, or saprophytes; those feeding upon
living tissue, or parasites. By far the larger portion possessing in-
terest to the horticulturist belong to the latter class, for in this are
included the fungi which do so much injnry to cultivated plants.

“Yet all parasitic fungi do not attack the host-plant in the same
manner. Some immediately penetrate into the interior tissue, and
there they flourish, being well protected from outer influences by the
exterior covering of the plant The fungi c:using all the more serious
diseases develope in this matter and in fact, the vast majority of plant
diseases are caused by such organisms. There are others, however, in
which the body of the fungus is almost entirely upon the surface of
“the host-plant, only a comparatively small number of threads penetrat-
ing the tissues in order to obtain nourishment These parasites can be
rubbed off, and unless the attack has been very severe, the green,
healthy tissue will be seen underneath. This class may for convenience
be termed “surface fungi;” to distinguish them from those which
grow within the host-plant ; it is represented by the common powdery
mildew of the grape, one mildew of the gooseberry, one of the straw-
berry, and a few others.

“The life histories of the various fungi must form the basis for any
methods of treatment which may be adopted. During certain stages
of their existence, parasitic fungi may be checked quite easily, and at
such times the remedies should be applied.

“Tt is evident that when a fungus has once become established in-
side the host-plant, it cannot be reached without destroying the tissue
of the host in the affected places, which is by no means desirable. The
fungus must be destroyed before it enters the host; in other words,
the spores must be killed as soon as they germinate or better they
must not be allowed to germinate. All applications must be preven-
tive, not curative, since a cure is practically impossible when the
fungus is once established, unless it grows upon the surface of the host.

“The line of treatment indicated is this: to cover the stems and
foliage of the cultivated plant with some substance that will destroy
the spores which may be present, as soon as they germinate, or with
one that will have the power of preventing this germination. If that
is done, the plant will remain healthy, so far as fungi are concerned ;
otherwise it will not, unless, indeed, no fungus attacks it. Several
substances which destroy these spores, as well as the surface fungi,
have already been found. They are easily applied, safe, and effective,
and any grower who suffers his fruit to be ruined by these parasites is,
asa rule, deserving of his loss, for means of destroying the pests are
at his command. It is largely the grower’s fault if his apples are scabby,
if his grapes are mildewed, and if his potatoes rot in the field. Spray-
‘ing is no longer an experiment, it is a necessity; and those who re-
cognize this fact are the ones who are reaping the rewards.

Spray MAcHrinery.

“The best spray nozzle, so far as efficiency, simplicity, and cheap-
ness are concerned, is the end of a hose and a man’s thumb. Unfortu-
nately the thumb gets sore and tired, and operations must be suspended
to wait for repairs. It is the nearest approach to the ideal nozzle yet
Aevised, if it were only more practicable. It will do all that a good

35

nozzle should do. It throws a fine mist-like spray, one that will ‘ float
in the air like a fog,” or the particles of water may instantly be made
coarser, and the water thus carried toa greater distance ; or still coarser
and the water leaves the hose in the form of a solid stream, These
changes all take -place instantly (after a little practiev), an! if makes
no difference whether the parts to be sprayed are a few inches or many
feet away. This nozzle never clogs, but is cleaned automatically, and
as quickly as the character of the spray is varied. In fact it possesses
all the desirable qualities of a spray nozzle, except durability, and for
this we must turn to the metals for aid.

“ All operators do not desire the same kind of spray even for the
same kind of work. It iscommonly said that the best spray is one which
most nearly resembles a fog That is true so far as the spray iscon,erned,
but the trouble comes in applying it. A fine spray cannot be , pplied
so advantageously as a coarser one, nor can it be applied so rap; dly for
the reason that the finer the spray the less liquid is thrown, and the
smaller the area treated. Whenever the wind blows, a fog-lke spray
will go wherever the wind carries it, and not where the operator
directs it. Sometimes this will be an advantage. It is especially so
when the wind is blowing in the right direction Yet when the other
side of the tree is being treated the wind will come from the wrong
direction, and much of the material is blown where it is not wanted.
In addition to this, the work is more slowly performed, and whether it
is more thoroughly done than when a coarser spray is well used is still
open to doubt. After having tried both kind of sprays, it appears to
the writer that if the parts to be treated are close by, a fine spray is to
be preferred, as then there is less waste and an even application may
be made. If the parts to be treated are more removed, being situated
from ten to twenty-five feet away, a coarser spray is wanted ;—the ~
more distant the object, the coarser the spray.. The work can thus
be done much more rapidly, just as effectively (with the exception of
some waste), and much more satisfactorily, than by the use of a fine
-spray. In cas: a fine spray is used, it is necessary to have a pole to
carry the nozzle to the different parts of the tree, and this is as tedious
as it is unpleasant. When a coarser spray is made, there is generally
formed enough of the finer spray to float in the air and protect parts
which are not directly reached by the operator.

“The finest sprays are produced by the eddy-chamber nozzles and
by those in which two streams of water strike each other at an angle.
With such nozzles, the spray can be made as fine as desired, the size
of the outlet orifice being the main controlling factor. For long-
distance work, when the liquid is to be carried ten feet or more, the best
spray is formed when the fluid is forced through two flat, parallel,
‘metal surfaces. The greater the pressure, the greater will be the
-amount of fine spray and the farther will it be thrown. Although the
ideal nozzle has not yet been made in metal, some of the forms now
-sold are approaching perfection.

“€ All good spray machinery is expensive, and only careless operators
will neglect the ordinary methods of preserving it as long as possible.
‘When the pump has been used in applying any of the preparations,
‘with the exception of clear water, it should be cleaned. No in-
secticide nor fungicide should be allowed to stand within the pump,

36

but clear water should be pumped through it before it is put away. It
is well to oil all the working parts occasionally, as a little oil at times
may prevent the metal from being cut, and the pump will be thus pre-
served much longer than otherwise. Nozzles are also benefited by the
same treatment. Oil can scarcely be used too freely on the inside of
such apparatus, and an occasional coat of paint on the outside will assist
materially in protecting the metal. The careless man pays dearly for
his neglect.”

Mr. B. T. Galloway in the Bushberg Catalogue Grape Manual
says :—

“Tt has been pointed out in various publications by the writer that
a sprayer to be effective requires first of all a good strong force pump.
Next in importance is a nozzle that will throw a mist-like spray and
will not clog when thick fluids are used. There are plenty of machines
on the market filling all these requirements. For convenience they
may be divided into three classes : (1) horse power automatic machines ;
(2) machines drawn by horse power, but operated by hand; and (3)
hand machines. All belonging to the first group are unnecessarily ex-
pensive and complicated, and will not do the work as thoroughly and
effectively as the machines belonging to the second and third groups.

Of the second group, in which the cheapest and most practical and
efficient example is found in a strong, light, double acting double-dis-
charge force pump, mounted on a barrel, it may be said that while
they cannot do the work as rapidly as the machines of the first class,
they are more effective, much cheaper, and far less wasteful of the
liquid used.

“To the third class belong the knapsack sprayers, which are
the only ones necessary to notice in this connection. There is no
question that for all moderately low-growing crops the knapsack
sprayer fills every requirement. In no other machine is the work so
absolutely at all times under control, it being possible to place nearly
every drop of the liquid exactly where it is needed. Knapsack pumps
are now used in many moderate sized vineyards, also in places where
the horse-power apparatus, owing to the nature of the land or the
manner of cultivation, cannot be utilised.

“Many firms throughout the United States are engaged in the
manufacture and sale of the various machines mentioned.

“For applying sulphur various devices are in use. Probably the
simplest is that employed by the grape growers of California, 7. e., a tin
can holding about a gallon, provided at the top with a strong, rigid
handle, and having the bottom punched full of small holes. Owing to
the manner in which the vines are trained, two rows can be treated at
atime by one man. A can containing sulphur is simply held in each
hand and given a slight twist over a vine in each row. This scatters the
sulphur over the entire plant and the operator then passes to the next
two vines. Of course this plan could not be followed in the East,
owing to the way in which the vines are trained. Various styles of
sulphuring bellows have been designed for the work.”

Spray machinery can be obtained from the United States through
various merchents.

The following articles on Fungicides, Fungous Diseases of the Grape,
are adapted from Messrs Galloway & Lodeman’s works :—

37
FUNGOUS DISEASES OF THE GRAPE.

ANTHRACNOSE.
(Sphaceloma Ampelinum, De Bary.)

Description.—This is a fungus which attacks all parts of the Grape
Vine, but most commonly the berries. The name, anthracnose, means
coal-disease, the disease is so-called from the dark colouration of the
affected parts.

When it first attacks the berries, circular brown spots are noticed,
with a somewhat sunken surface, gradually enlarging in size. If
there are several spots on the berry, they grow into one another, form-
ing alarge patch with an irregular line. As the disease progresses,
the skin of the centre spot may form a scab of a lighter colour—gray-
ish and sometimes with a band of vermilion colour outside the centre.

It will probably be first apparent on the shoots of the vine, on which
the spots extend lengthwise, giving them a speckled appearance
when abundant. :

It also attacks the leaves and especially the veins and stalks. The
stalks of the clusters are often affected too, and when completely
girdled, all the berries below the disease-ring remain green, and
shrivel up.

Treatment.—When it is known that a vinery is liable to be attacked
by this and other fungous diseases, spraying with Bordeaux mixture
should be commenced as soon as the first leaves have fully expanded.
The second application may be made after flowering, and the third
from 2 to 4 weeks later, according to whether the weather is favour-
able to the disease. The Bordeaux mixture may safely be used until
the berries are three-fourths their full size. After that the applica-
tion may leave a stain which would reduce their market value, and it
is better to use the ammonical carbonate of copper about every 10
days even after the fruit is fully formed, if the disease is rampant.

The clusters should be sprayed as well as the leaves, especially when
they are young. The reason for several applications is that the spores
of the fungus resist successfully every destructive agency, and it is
only when they have already germinated that they can be killed.
Everything depends upon the thoroughness of the spraying, and each
vine should receive about one quart of liquid at each application.

Besides the use of the Bordeax mixture, it is customary to treat the
vines in the winter months when they are bare of leaves and dormant,
with the sulphuric acid and sulphate of iron solution, applied by
means of a brush or a swab made of rags tied round the end of a stick.
The effect on the wood is to blacken it which is looked upon as a test
of the thoroughness of the work, and whenever the colour remains after
2 or 3 days, a second application should be made.

Buackx Ror,
(Loestadia Bidwellu, V. & R. ; Phoma uvicola, B. & C.)
The Black rot is even more destructive than the ‘‘ anthracnose,” and
besides causing the rotting of the fruit, attacks the leaves and shoots.
Description.—It is readily distinguished from anthracnose by the
centre of the dark disease spots having a number of minute pimples,

38

from which the sporos come, and are carried by the lightest breeze to
other berries and to other parts of the vine.

It does not attack the stalks of the clusters, as in anthracnose; and
on the leaves it is found o:iginating between the veins, not on them,
and has minute pimples in a band near the edge of the affected part.

Grapes are uearly or quite full grown when the disease appears.
The spots are first purplish-brown, the whole berry then becomes af-
fected and gradually turns black and the pimples make their appear-
ance. The grape at the same time shrivels, but does not fall off, and
the seeds are clearly seen under the skin which become drawn and
ridged.

Treatment.—Bordeaux mixture should be used, first before the buds
open, a second time when the leaves are one-third grown, a third time
just before flowering, a fourth time two weeks later. The fifth appli-
cation two weeks later should be the ammoniacal copper carbonate solu-
tion, and a sixth application of the same may be necessary. If the
weather is dry, the number of sprayings may be less. |

Downy Mitpew, Brown Ror.
(Peronospora viticola, De Bary.)

Description.—Although this downy mildew, attacks all parts of the
vine, the chief mischief is when the leaves are diseased, as then not
only the present, but next year’s crop is in danger.

The leaf first turns lighter green where diseased, then yellow, and
lastly brown, while if the under surface is examined when the upper
has begun to turn yellow, it will be found to be covered with minute
threads growing out from the substance of the leaf.

The grapes are usually attacked before they are half-grown, first
turning brown (brown rot), and afterwards grayish (downy mildew).

Treatment.—lf the downy mildew is feared the shoots should be
first sprayed with Bordeanx mixture when they are only from six to
ten inches long, and afterwards on flowering and at intervals of from
2 to 4 weeks.

Powpery MiLpew.
(Uncinula spiralis, B. & C.

Descri; tion.—This fungus spreads only on the outside surface of the
vine though it sends suckers into the cells immediately below, feeding
on their contents and changing the green colour into brown. The
fungus itself is of a grayish white colour, and easily rubs off the leaf,
shoot, or grape, when the destruction of the green colour is very no-
ticeable. It is generally found on the upper surface of the leaves,
which distinguishes it from the Downy Mildew. It develops best dur-
ing dry weather.

Treatment.—As this is only a surface fungus, not penetrating be-
yond the outer cells, it is not so dangerous as those previously men-
tioned, and the vines do not require treatment for it, until it has ac-
tually made its appearance.

Sulphur is applied either dry or mixed with water, but this remedy
is not considered so valuable as spraying with carbonate of copper dis-
solved in ammonia.

39

pee in Minpew.
(Oidium Tuckeri, Berkl.)

Description.—This mildew resembles the Powdery Mildew in gene-
ral appearance, and like it, is a surface mildew. When it attacks the
fruit, the skin of the grape is unable to expand, and bursts.

Treatment.—F lowers of sulphur dusted over the diseased parts ef-
fectually disposes of this fungus.

Rarries ; SHELLING.

Description —Just as the grapes are ripening, they begin to fall off,
and this takes place first at the extremities.

Treatment.—As the chief cause of this diseace is defective nutrition,.
manure should be applied, and especially potash.

Riex Ror.
(Gleosporium fructigenum, Berkl.)

Description.—The grapes are uttacked in the ripening stage. A red-
dish-brown spot first appears which gradually spreads over the whole
grape, then black pimples appear which are not so numerous as in
Black Rot, but they are broader.

The colour remains dark purplish brown, and the diseased grapes
fall to the ground; whilst in Black Rot, the colour is black, and the
grapes do not fall off.

Treatment.—lf there are only a few vines, the grapes affected may
be picked off and burnt, but where there are a large number, the same:
treatment should be adopted as for Black Rot.

FUNGICIDES.

BorpEaux Mixture.
Bordeaux Mixture is best made according to the following for-
mula :—

Copper Sulphute det 6 pounds
Unslacked Lime ee 4 pounds
Water 50 gallons

It requires careful mixiug, or the ingredients will not combine pro-
perly. Put 25 gallons of water into a barrel. Tie up 6 pounds of
copper sulphate in a piece of coarse sack, and hang this by a stick laid
across the top of the barrel so as to be just beneath the surface of the
water until it has slowly dissolved

In another barrel slack 4 pounds of lime very slowly and carefully,
at first only adding about a quart of water at a time, nntil a perfectly
smooth paste free from grit, is obtained. Add water to make the
whole 25 gallons, and wait until cool. Now pour both together into a
cask holding 50 gallons. The milk of lime should be thoroughly
stirred before pouring, and finally the mixture should be well stirred for
4 or 6 minutes with « wooden paddle.

If not perfect, the mixture is liable to injure the foliage and in order
to test this, put the blade of a penknife into the mixture and leave it
for 1 or 2 minutes. If there is any deposit of copper on the blade,
showing a brownish colour, it is not safe to use it, and more lime must.
be added until the knife is not discoloured.

40

AwmontacaL Copper CarsonatEe Sonvrron.

Penny has made a very careful study of the best method of prepar-
ing this solution, and the results of his work are here given in full :—

“The practical directions are these: To 1 volume of 26° Beaumé
ammonia (the strong ammonia of commerce) add from 7 to 8 volumes
of water. Then add copper carbonate, best in successive quantities,
until a large portion remains undissolyed. The mixture should be
vigourously agitated during the solution and finally allowed to subside
and the clear liquid poured off from the undissolved salt. A second
portion should then be made by treating the residue of the former lot
with more ammonia diluted as before, then with the addition of fresh
copper carbonate, in every case with vigorous stirring or agitation.
This method of making in successive lots will result in a richer solu-
‘tion of copper, at least, unless an unwarranted length of time be taken.
‘This soution may be made in avy suitable wooden or stoneware vessel.

“A still better way is to place in a large jar an inverted crock, or
other suitable shelf, and on this the eopper carbonate, so that it shall
be at the surface of the ammonia when it is poured in. After adding
the ammonia, diluted as above, the whole should be allowed to stand
covered some time, as over night, and then the undissolved copper salt
may be in great part easily lifted out of the solution. Instead of the
shelf a suitable receptacle may be used, as a fine wire sieve. The jar
will need nothing but a loose cover, as the loss of ammonia will be
slight at that degree of dilution.

“The clear solution thus obtained, containing from three to four per
cent. of ammonia gas, must be diluted as described above, in no case
less than 13 or 15 fold, better, for the safety of the plant, 20 fold or
more.

“Those directions which recommend so much ammonia, (whatever
it may be) to be used as may be necessary to dissolve the copper salt
and then to dilute to a given number of gallons, are not only not
economical, but absolutely dangerous, in as much as it is an uncertain-
ty just how much ammonia may be used in the first instance, and hence
uncertain what strength it may have after dilution, when applied to
the trees. It should be borne in mind always that if strong ammonia
is used it must be diluted from first to last at least 100 fold, and bet-
ter considerably more.

“The solubility of copper carbonate in ammonia carbonate has been
studied but not yet sufficiently for report.

After the copper carbonate has been dissolved in ammonia water, it’
should be used by taking as much of the fluid as contains 1 ounce of
dissolved copper carbonate, and this is then diluted with 9 gallons of
water. These proportions should be retained when either larger or
smaller quantities of the fungicide are desired.

The ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate possesses some decided
advantages. It is a clear solution entirely free from sediment, and ean
therefore be applied as readily as water. Another favourable point is
that it may be used quite freely upon maturing fruit, and also upon
flowering plants, without leaving any conspicuous stain. When cer-
tain plants require spraying with a fungicide shortly before the crop
is harvested, this preparation is an excellent one to use. In efficiency
it also ranks high, being clearly surpassed in this respect only by the

41

Bordeaux mixture. It is also cheap, and on the whole is one of our
most valuable remedies.

SurpuareE or Iron (Copperas oR GREEN VITRIOL.)

Against anthracnose of the grape the following application has
shown itself to be of great value, and it is regularly used by European
vineyardists.

Water, (hot), 100 parts
Tron Sulphate, as much as the water will dissolve.
Sulphuric acid, 1 part.

Great care should be exercised in using this preparation, as it is ex-
ceedingly caustic and will injure machinery, clothes, and nearly every-
thing with which it comes in contact. It is generally applied with a
swab made by tying rags about the end of a stick. Dormant vines
are uninjured by the treatment.

JUTE.

Whilst Jute will grow upon any kind jof soil, it is found in India
that it is only profitably cultivated on a loamy soil or rich clay and
sand in a hot damp climate in which the rainfall is not too heavy.

Jute has been tried in several parts of India, but without success
except in the northern and eastern part of Bengal and in Assam. In
Burma the only difficulty is the cost of labour.

The preparation of the soil is costly as it requires to be ploughed
from four to six times before sowing the seed. In about 34 months
from sowing, it flowers, and is then ready for reaping.

The average crop of fibre is 11 ewt., per acre, but the yield varies
enormously according to season and district, sometimes being as high
as 24 ewts., and again as low as 2 cwt. ‘The fibre is separated from
the stems by a process of retting in pools of stagnant water. In some
districts the bundles of jute stems are submerged in rivers, but the
common practice seems to be in favour of tanks or roadside stagnant
pools. The period of retting depends upon the nature of the water,
the kind of fibre, and condition of the atmosphere. It varies from
two to twenty-five days. The operator has therefore to visit the tank
daily, and ascertain, by means of his nail, if the fibre has begun to
separate from the stem. This period must not be exceeded, otherwise
the fibre becomes rotten and almost useless for commercial purposes.
The bundles are made to sink in the water by placing on the top of
them sods and mud, when the proper stage has been reached, the ret-
ting is rapidly completed. The cultivator standing up to the waist in
foetid water, proceeds to remove small portions of the bark from the
ends next the roots, and, grasping them together, he strips off the
whole with a little management from end to end without breaking
either stem or fibre. Having brought a certain quantity into this
half-prepared state, he next proceeds to wash off; this is done by tak-
ing a large handful, swinging it round his head he dashes it repeat-
edly against the surface of the water and draws it through towards him
so as to wash off the impurities; then with a dexterous throw, he
spreads it on the surface of the water anil carefully picks off all re-
maining black spots. It is now wrung out so as to remove as much

42

water as possible, and then hung up on lines prepared on the spot, to
dry in the sun”.—(Royle in Watts Dictionary.)

The price paid to the cultivator varies from 4 to 5 shillings per ewt.

Jute is obtained from Corchorus olitortus near Calcutta, and Cor-
chorus capsularis in other parts of Bengal.

The young shoots of Corchorus olitorius are used throughout India as
a pot-herb,and for the same purpose as “ Jews Mallow.” This species
is naturalised in Jamaica.

The native species are C. siliguosus, C. estuans, and C. hirsutus; the
first named being commonly called “ Broom-weed” from the use to
which it is put.

FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—XLI¥.
Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja-
maica. By G. 8. Jenman, Superintendent Botanical Garden,
Demerara.

Series II. Exinvolucrate.

(Sori devoid of involucres.)
TrisE XI. Polypodiez.

Sori round or oval, rarely linear or decumbent and confluent, usually
smaller than a pin’s head but often larger; receptacles the same shape,
on the back, or terminal on the veins: sporangia stipitate, compressed
arched by an incomplete jointed vertical band, which splits at length
transversely ; involucres none; veins free, united or variously anasto-
mosing, with or without free included branches in the meshes, fronds
few or many, varying from simple-entire to decompound; stipites arti-
culated or not, paced or tufted on a creeping or upright rootstock, the
variations or diversity in which areas wide as in the character of the fronds.

A very extensive group, comprising in its members great variety of
habit and form, but which as here regarded, constitutes but a single
composite genus, distinguished by the naked exposed, usually isolated
roundish sori, in all cases devoid in any degree, of an involucre.

Genus XXX. Polypodium Linn.

Only genus see characters of Tribe.

The largest genus of all in the order, spread over the tropical and
temperate zones of both hemispheres, most abundant at high eleva-
tions within the equatorial belt ; the majority epiphytal, affecting the
shady moist situations, of the cool higher mountain regions,

I. Veins free.

Fronds entire (or furcate)

1. P, Fawcettii, Baker.

2. P. dendricolum. Jenm.

3. P. gramineum, Swartz.

4. P. nigro-limbatum, Jenm.

5. P. marginellum, Swartz.
Fronds serrulate or lobate in the lower half, entire or serrato-entire

in the upper.

6. P. serrulatum, Mett.

7. P. Jamesonii, Jenm.

8. P. myosurioides, Swartz.

48

Fronds uniformly lobed, pinnatifid or pinnate.
Segments monosorous.
9. P. Sherringii, Baker.
10. P. nimbatum, Jenm.
11. P. exiguum, Grisb.
12. P. trichomanoides, Swartz.
13. P. basi-attenuatum, Jenm.
14. P. tenifolium, Jenm.
15. P. nutatum, Jenm.
16. P. Hartii, Jenm.
Segments polysorous.
Fronds tapering at the base, subsessile, or petioles not ex-
ceeding 1} in 1.
Fronds under 6-9 li. w.
17. P. moniliforme, Lag.
18. P. saxicolum, Baker.
19. P. albo-punctatum, Baker.
20. P. lubzforme, Kaulf.
Fronds from 4-1} in. w.
21. P. rigescens, Bory.
22. P. heterotrichum, Baker.
23. P. pendulum, Swartz.
24. P. lasiolepis, Mett.
Fronds from $-2 in. w. or over.
25. P. cultratum, Willd.
26. P. cappilare, Desv.
27. P. graveolens, Baker.
Fronds not, or little reduced at the base, petioles 1—several

in, 1.

Fronds 2-3 in. w.
28, P. curvatum, Swartz.
29. P. Otites, Swartz.
30. P. trifurcatum, Linn.
31. P. Eggersii, Baker.
32. P, suspensum, Linn.
33. P. asplenifolium, Linn.
34. P. brunneo-viride, Baker.
35. P. firmum, Klotzsch.
36, P. taxifolium, Linn,

Fronds 1-6 in. w.
37. P. Plumula shoe: KK:
38. P. pectinatum, Linn.
39. P. Paradisze, L. & F.
40. P. simile, Linn.
41. P. dissimile, Linn.

Fronds pinnate, petioles winged to the base.
42. P. microchasum, Baker.
Fronds not articulated at the base of the stipe ; pinnate or bipinnate*.
—Phegopteris, Fée.*
Fronds simply pinnate.
43. P. hastefolium, Swartz.
44, P. flavopunctatum, Kanlf,

45. P. pubescens, Radd.
46. P. gracilentum, Jenm.
47. P. ctenoides, Fée.

48. P. Thomsonii, Jenm.
49. P. decussatum, Linn.
50. P. caudatum, Kaulf.
Fronds decompound.
51. P. punctatum, Thunb.
52. P. rngulosum, Gabill.
II. Veins united.
Fronds not articulated at the base of the stipe. Goniopteris, Presl.

Fronds pinnate or bipinnatifid ; opposite veins uniting with

a branch running to the veins.
53. P. nigrescentium, Jenm,
54. P. obliteratum, Swartz.
55. P. crenatum, Swartz. .
56. P. tetragonum, Linn.
Fronds articulated at the base of the stipe, leaving a clean scar
at parting.
Fronds pinnatifid or pinnate.

Fronds coated with matted scales, veins areolate in 1-2 series,

with free exterior branches—Lepycistis, J. Sm.
57. P. incanum, Swartz.
58. P. thyssanolepis, R. Br.
59. P. squamatum, Linn.
60. P. lepidopteris, Kze.

Veins areolate, hexagonal, in one to several series, with
usually rather stronger primary veins running from the costz
to the margin, exterior branches free; sori terminal on free in-
cluded veinlets.—Goniophlebium, Blume.

61. P. loriceum, Linn.

62. P. Chnoodes, Spreng.
63. P. attenuatum, H. B. K.
64. P. neriifolium, Schk.
65. P. surrucuchense, Hook.

Veins forming copious narrow elongated angled areolz, with
or without stronger primary veins, costal series transverse to
the rest: sori terminal on simple or united included veinlets or
compital_—Phlebadium, R. Br.

66. P. aureum, Linn.
67. P. decumanum, Willd.
Areole 1-2 serial; pinne linear strict. Pleopeltis, Ham-
boldt.
68. P. retrafolium, Jenm.
Fronds simple entire.

Primary veins coste-form, raised, parallel, the intervening
areole fine and uniform ; sori compital, large, uniserial
between the primary veins.—Pleuridium, Fée, J. Sm.

69. P. crassifolium, Linn.

Primary veins generally asin Pleuridium but connected by
transverse, mostly arcuate slender veins, which together
form oblong areoles, in 2-seyeral series, containing usual-

45

ly 2 erect free soriferous branches, divided or not by a
slender intermediary veinlet.—Campyloneuron, Presl.
70. P. Phyllitidis, Linn.
71. P. costale, Kunze.
72. P. levigatum, Cav.
73. P. repens, Linn,
74. P. augustifolium, Swartz.
Areole copious, no distinctly costate veins, sori uniserial
various genera of authors.
Fronds scaly.
75. P. piloselloides, Linn.
Fronds glabrous.
76. P. vaccinifolium, F. & L.
77. P. lycopodioides, Linn
78. P. Swartzii, Baker.
Fronds scaly.
79. P. lanceolatum, Linn.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT.

—o

LIBRARY.
Catalogue of African Plants collected by Dr. Welwitsch. [British Museum.
Bulletin Royal Gardens, Kew. Jan., 1897. [Kew.]
Agri. Journal Cape Colony. Jan., 1897. [Dept. of Agri.]
Barbados Agri Gaz. and Planter’s Journ. Jan.,1897. [Secy. |
Sugar Journal. Dec., 1896. [Editor. ]
Sugar Cane. Feb., 1897. [Editor. }
Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. Feb.,1897. [Editor |
Bulletin de ’ Herbier Boissier. Jan., 1897. [Conservateur. }
Hawaiian Planters’ Monthly. Jan., 1897. [Editor.]
Report Dept. of Agri., Brisbane. 1895-96. (Dept. of Agri.]
Annual Exchange Catalogue, Field Col. Museum, Chicago. [Director. }

PLANTS.
From Mr, Henry Pfister, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Myriophyllum proserpinacoides, Gill.
SEEDS.
From Royal Botanic Gardens, Trinidad.
Sacoglottis amazonica
From Secretary Colonia “osme, Paraguay
Orange
“Grape Fruit’
From Dept. of Agri. Washington, D.C.
Citrus trifoliata
From Botanic Gardens, Bangalore.
Cryptostegia yrandiflora
From Prof. O. Comes, Portici.
Sumatra Tobacco
Shiraz Tobacco
Manilla Tabacco
Herzegovina Tabacco
Hungarian Tobacco
From Mr, A. Libert, Trinidad.
Ptychospernna Alexandre
Areca triandra
Stevensonia grandifolia
Pritchardia pacifica

46
CASTLETON GARDENS.

APRIL.

In FLower.

a

Baphia nitida, Lodd.

(Cam-wood ; W. Africa)
Brownea Rosa-de-monte, Berg.
Caryocar nuciferum, Linn.

(Souari, or Butter Nut; Guiana)
Cassia glauca, Lam. ~

(Glaucous Cassia; East & West

Indies)

Castilloa elastica, Cerv. |
(Central American Rubber ; Centr.
America)

Chrysalidocarpus lutescens,

Wendl.

(A Madagascar Palm)
Chrysobalanus Icaco, Linn.

(Coco-plum ; West Indies)
Cocos botryophora, Mart.

(Brazilian Palm)
Coccoloba uvifera, Linn.

(Seaside Grape; W. Indies and

Trop. America)

Coffea liberica, Hiern.

H}

(Liberian Coffee ; W. Africa)
Copernicia cerifera, Mart.
(Wax Palm; Brazil) |
Couroupita Guianensis, Aubl.
(Cannon Ball Tree ; Guiana)
Dalbergia Sissoo, Roxb.
(Sissoo ; India and Afghanistan) |
Dillenia indica, Lina. |
(Dillenia ; E. Indies)
Erythrina Crista-galli, Linn. |
(Scarlet Coral Tree ; Brazil) |
Eugenia caryophyllata, Thunb.
(Clove ; Moluccas)
Fagreea obovata, Wall.
(E. Indies)
Garcinia indica, Choisy.

(Kokam Butter; India)
Gynocardia odorata, R. Br.
(Chaulmugra ; Malay Peninsula)
Hevea brasiliensis, Muell, Arg.

(Para Rubber ; Brazil)
Hippomane Mancinella, Linn.
(Manchineal tree ; West Indies &
Trop. America)
Hydnocarpus venenata, Geertn.
(Makooloo ; India & Ceylon)
Mesua ferrea, Linn.
(Naghas Tree ; India)
Michelia Champaca, Linn.
(Champac tree ; India)

j

|

In Frotir.

Diospyros discolor, Willd.
(Mabola Ebony; Philippines)
Dillenia indica, Linn.
(Dillenia ; E. Indies)
Fagrza obovata, Wall,
Oreodoxa regia, H. B. & K,
(Royal Palm; Cuba)
Mpyristica fragrans, Houtt.
(Nutmeg; East Indies)

47

APRIL, contd.

In FLoweEr.

Pachira aquatica, Aubl.
(Pachira ; Trop. America)
Pachira Barrigon, Seem.
(Barrigon ; Panama)
Phyllanthus Emblica, Linn.
Posoqueria longiflora, Aubl.
Pterocarpus indicus, Willd.
(Rosewood ; HE. Indies & China)
Ravenala madagascariensis, J. F.
Gmel.
(Traveller’s Tree ; Madagascar)
Samadera indica, Geertn.
(Samadera; India and Ceylon)
Saraca indica, Linn,
Shorea robusta, Geertn.
(Sal Tree ; India)
Simaruba glauca, D.C.
(Bitter Dan ; West Indies)
Sterculia carthagensis, Cav.

In FLOWER.

ee ———

(Chica ; Trop. America)

In FLoweEr.

Awherstia nobilis, Wall,

(Amherstia ; India and Malacca) |
Arenga saccharifera, Labill,

(Sugar Palm ; Malay Archipe-

lago
Averrhoa Bilimbi, Linn.

(The Bilimbi; East Indies)
Baphia nitida, Lodd.

(Camwood; W, Africa)

Bassia latifolia, Roxb.

(Mahwah Tree; India)
Brownea Rosa-de-monte, Berg.
Cesalpinia Sappan, Linn.

(Sappan wood; East Indies) |
Castilloa elastica, Cerv. |

(Central America Rubber ; Centr.

America)
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens, H,
<a Wendl.

(A Madagascar Palm)

Couroupita Guianensis, Aubl.

(Cannon Ball Tree; Guiana)
Cratoxylon polyanthum, Korth.
Diospyros montana, Roxb.
Diplothemium caudescens, Mart.
Eugenia javanica, Lam.

(Wax Jambo; Malay Islands)

May.

In Fruit.

Astrocaryum vulgare, Mart.
(Tucum Palm ; Brazil)
Diospyros discolor, Willd.
(Mabola Ebony ; Phillipines)
Duranta Plumieri, Jacq.
Eugenia malaccensis, Linn.
(Malay Apple ; Malay Islands)
Garcinia Mangostana, Linn.
(Mangosteen ; Malay Archipelago)
Gmelina asiatica, Linn.
Hevea brasiliensis, Muell. Arg.
(Para Rubber ; Brazil)
Mimusops Elengi, Linn.
(Elengi ; India)
Michelia Champaca, Linn.
(Champac Tree ; India)
Musa coccinea, Andr,
Nephelium Lit-chi, Cambess
(Lit-chi Tree; South China)
Pachira aquatica, Aubl,
(Pachira ; Trop, America)
Pachira Barrigon, Seem.
(Barrigon ; Panama)
Pithecolobium Saman, Benth.
(Guango ; Tropical America)
Phoenix acaulis, Buch. —Ham.
(Stemless Palm ; Bengal to Burma)

Eugenia malaccensis, Linn.

(Malay Apple ; Malay Islands)

Samadera indica, Geertn.
(Samadera; India & Ceylon)

48

May, contd.
In FLower. In Fruit.
Garcinia Mangostana, Linn. Sapindus marginatus, Willd.
(Mangosteen ; Malay Archipelago) (Soap-berry Tree ; W. Indies and
Gmelina asiatica, Linn. Trop. Amer.)
Hydnocarpus venenata, Geertn. Shorea robusta, Geertn, f.
(Makooloo; India & Ceylon) (Sal tree ; India)
Lagerstrcemia Flos-regine, Retz. Spondias lutea, Linn.

(Queen’s Flower; Indiaand Bur- Vanilla planifolia, Andr.
ma (Vanilla ; Trop. America)
Landolphia Kirkii, Dyer
(Rubber Vine ; Africa)
Mesua ferrea, Linn.
(Naghas Tree ; India)
Mimusops Elengi, Linn.
(Elengi; E. Indies)
Musa rosacea, Jacq.
Nephelium Lit-chi, Cambess.
(Litchi tree ; South China)
Norantea Guianensis, Aubl.
(Norantea; Guiana and Brazil)
Pachira aquatica, Aubl.
(Pachira ; Trop. America)
Pachira Baarigon, Seem.
(Barrigon ; Panama)
Platymiscium polystachyum, Benth.
Vanilla planifolia, Andr.
(Vanilla; Trop. America)

EASY WAY OF BINDING THE BULLETIN,

o Get a strip of wood 4 inch thick, $ inch broad, 10 inches
ong, bore three + inch holes in it, one in the middle and
the others 2 inches from the ends.

oO Lay the strip of wood along the left hand edge of the

book, and with a pencil make a dot through each hole ;
then with a sail needle draw a bit of red tape, 10 inches
long, through at each mark, and tie it in a bow. As every
fresh number arrives, loosen the bows, one at a time, and

re) with a sail needle and marker add the new number. The
book thus made opens well.

O. B. in Agri. Jour. of Cape.

New Series. | MARCH, 1897. Vol. IV,

Part 3.
OF THE
r Al \
BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.
EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS.
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.
CONTENTS:
Manures and Oranges - — Pacer 49
Manures and Coffee = ~ ae
Report on Sugar Canes - - 58
Soil Ferments important in Agriculture — 60
Notes on Plants in Castleton Gardens = 64
Grass-Firing = - 65
Rules as to sale of Government Lands = 66
Collecting Juice of Papaw ~ 68
Ferns-—Synoptical List XLV ~ 68
Castleton Gardens = - 70
Contributions to the Department = Tey

P RIC E~Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
_ Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Gordon Town P.O,

ASUASCAS UALS CLI CAS CAS CAT CAI CAT Wi

KINGSTON, JAMAICA:
GOVERNMENT Printina Orrice, 79 DuKE Street.

1897.

ay

JAMAICA,

BULLETIN

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.
New Series. ] MARCH, 1897. =—_

MANURES AND ORANGES,

FERTILISATION OF THE Sor AS AFFECTING THE ORAncE IN Hearru
AND DISEASE.

By H. J. WEBBER.
Assistant in Division of Vegetable Pathology, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, in Yearbook of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture for 1894.

Probably the most important question which concerns the orange
grower is how to fertilise his trees. In Florida, where the orange soils
are mostly very sandy and sterile, and require to be fertilised regularly,
it is highly important to understand what elements should be used in
fertilisation and in what forms it is best to use them. No plant will
long withstand improper treatment. In case of slow-growing plants
like the orange, where proper treatment prolongs growth and produc-
tiveness for centuries, it becomes particularly necessary that correct
methods of manuring be used. The condition of tree reflects largely
the cumulative treatment of years; in crops which are replanted each
year, however the effect of improper fertilisation is probably less notice-
able, especially so far as the devolepment of disease is concerned.

In growing annual plants one can early notice results and may profit
by experience. A few seasons will suffice to determinre about the kind
and quantity of fertiliser necessary for them on a particular soil. In
the fertilisation of the orange, however, the matter is not so easily
determined ; only the observations of a series of years will give results
which can be depended upon. An orange grower may fetilise with
ne element one year and get good results, but this is no evidence that

he same element used the next year or year after year will prove bene-
ficial ;it may, indeed, in prolonged treatment, lead to deterioration
and disease. It is this difficulty in experimenting and drawing correct
conclusions that accounts for the present poor understanding of rational
methods of manuring the orange.

The orange appears to be very sensitive to methods of treatment and
fertilisation, and several of the most serious diseases are either caused
or aggravated by errors in these. The present paper is based largely
on the experiences of intelligent orange growers and upon such obser-
vations as the writer has been able to make in the course of investiga-

tions of orange diseases.

50

FERTILISING FOR GROWTH AND FRUIT.

Primarily the orange grower desires t» know how to fertilise so as to
stimulate either growth or fruit production. With oranges, as with
many other agricultural plants, one may fertilise in such a manner that
excessive growth is stimulated at the expense of fruit production. A
strong nitrogenous fertiliser results usually in much growth and little
fruit. This seems to be particularly true if the ammonia is added in an
organic form. While trees are young it is probably well to favour the
growth of wood principally, but at an age of seven or eight years from
the bud, the tree, if it has grown properly, will have attained sufficient.
size to begin toproduce a fair quantity of fruit. It should then be given
a slightly modified fertiliser, containing more potash and phosphoric acid
and less nitrogen, to stimulate fruit production as much as possible.
The so-called chemical manures appear to be much more active in
stimulating fruit production than organic manures.

EFFECT ON QUALITY OF FRUIT.

The experience of many orange growers indicates that the quality
of the fruit may be largely centrolled by fertilisation. As oranges are
purchased very largely on their appearance and quality, this becomes
an important consideration in manuring. Many intelligent growers
are coming to believe that the best results can be obtained by giving
the trees an application of that element only which seems to be lack-
ing, and not using, as the majority do, a complete fertiliser, in definite
proportions, regardless of whether all the elements are needed by the
plant or not. If it can be determined by the appearance of the tree and
fruit what element is lacking, this would seem to be the most rational
w-y to fertilise.

1t seems reasonable to suppose that by careful study pathological
characters induced hy starvation might be found, which would serve
to indicate clearly the lack of any particular element. Some growers
claim to be able to recognize these characters now, and are fertilizing
largely on this modified plan, taking advantage of what we might call
the sign language of the tree. Some of these characters will be men-
tioned below under the consideration of the different elements used

EFFECT ON SOIL MOISTURE.

In fertilisation at least two factors must usually be considered, the
element of plant food supplied and the effect of this upon the soil as
aiding it in supplying the plant with moisture. The heavy application,
in late fall or early spring, of an organie manure, like blood and bone,
which is extensively used in Florida, is liable to lead to injurious effects
during the spring drought, if the trees are on high and dry land. On
the other hand, such soils might be ameliorated by using substances
which attract water and increase the surface tension of soil moisture.
Nitrogen, for instance, used in the form of nitrate of soda, and potash,
in the form of kainit, would tend to draw up the subsoil moisture and
probably aid largely in supplying the necessary moisture during this
trying season. ‘The use of organic manures, on the contrary, would only
exaggerate the damage produced by drought. If groves are on very
moist land, as is frequently the case in Florida, where the necessity is
to lessen the moisture rather than to increase it, some form of organic
uianure, as muck or blood and bone, might be found of benefit.

51

EFFECT OF FERTILISERS ON THE ORANGE IN HEALTH.

The elements which need to be supplied in fertilisation to most
Florida orange groves are nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous; or
using the terms in which they are expressed in most analyses of ferti-
lisers, ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. ‘The application of lime
would also prove of benefit to many groves. Probably no element of
plant food used in the fertilisation of orange groves should be more
earefully considered, with respect both to form and quantity, than nitro-
gen. It is the most costly and at the same time the most dangerous
element to use, as excessive applications are liable to resist in extensive
dropping and splitting of the fruit or in the production of the serious
diseases known’ as die-back, which will be discussed below.

EFFECT OF NITROGEN.

A Grower may with considerable certainty determine by the appear-
ance of his trees the condition of his grove in respect to the supply of
nitrogen available in the soil. An abundance of nitrogen is indicated
by a dark green colour of the foliage and rank growth. ‘lhe fruit shows
the effect of an abundance of nitrogen by being, in general, large, with
a thick and comparatively rough rind. If the trees have a yellowish
foliage, with comparatively small leaves, and show little or no growth,
there is probably a lack of nitrogen. In this case there is but little
fruit formed, and that formed is small and usually colours early. If the
tree is starving from a lack of nitrogen, the foliage will become very
light yellow and sparse, and the small limbs will die, as will also the
large limbs in extreme cases. If the starvation is continued, no fer-
tiliser being added, the tree will finally die back nearly to the ground
and probably die out entirely. The extreme symptoms of general star-
vation from lack of elements are probably nearly the same. ihe
nitrogen used in fertilisation is commonly derived from mineral or
erganic sources. Of the former, sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of
soda are the forms most used; of the latter, muck, dried blood, blood
and bone, cotton-seed meal, tankage, fish scrap, stable manure, etc., are
the forms most commonly employed.

INJURIOUS ACTION OF MUCK.

Muck is very commonly app‘ied in considerable quantities either in a
raw state or composted with sulphate of potush, ete. Many growers
vather fanatically hold to what they term natural fertilisation. By this
is usually meant giving the tree nourishment in the form in which they
suppose it to be derived in nature. It is contended by many that muck
is principaliy decaying vegetable matter, and that as this is the form
of nourishment which the trees obtain in nature, it must be a good fer-
tiliser to use in cultivation. but it must be borne in mind that orange
trees as we cultivate them are decidedly not in a state of nature, except
that by the cultivation of centuries we have made cultivation and manur-
ing natural conditions which the plant demands. Trees in nature bear
fruits for seed to reproduce the species; on the contrary, we grow fruits
for market and favour a seedless variety. We want a smooth, thin-
skinned, tender, juicy fruit that will sink in water. Nature does not
pay particular attention to these characters, so we watch for freaks and
sports, abnormal plants, which have the characters we desire, and when
found we render these characters permanent by budding. Our aim in

52

cultivation is not to produce the fruit we find in the wild state, but to
modify that fruit to suitour purpose. One of the most efficient methods
of accomplishing this is to vary the ferti‘isation.

While it can not be denied that muck has in some cases given excel-
lent results, it must be conceded that its extensive use has usually been
of doubtful benefit and often has done positive injury. Groves which
have had liberal dressings of muck are frequently much diseased and
produce light crops; the oranges are usually coarse, thick-skinned, and
sour ; the productiveness is often lessened by extensive premature drop-
ping of the fruit ; the tendency seems to be to bring on die-back, a disease
which is of frequent occurrence in groves heavily fertilised with muck.
What has been said of muck applies to a greater or less extent to the
various forms of organic nitrogen used. ‘The tendency of all organic
manures rich in nitrogen is to produce a large growth which is weak
and sickly. Growth and not fruit is stimulated, an1 the fruit resulting

is usually of poor quality, inclined to be large and rough, with a thick
rind and abundant rag.!

STABLE MANURE OF DOUBTFUL UTILITY.

Barn manure is largely used by many growers, who still hold to the
tradition that chemical manures are injurious to the plants. The bene-
fits of barn manure in an orange grove are in serious question. The
fruits produced by nitrogen from this source are, as above stated, usually
large, coarse, thick-skinned, with abundant rag, and of inferior flavour.
If barn manure is used—and most growers have a limited quantity
and desire to use what they have—it should be spread over the grove
lightly, so that each tree receives ouly a small amount. Where such:
manure is depended upon as the main element of fertilisation, liberal
dressings of potash shouid be occasionally applied; this will tend to
correct the evils of an overbalanced nitrogenous fertiliser. What has
been said as to the effect of muck and barn nanure on the quality ot
the fruit applies equally to the effects prodaced by cotton-seed meal,
blood and bone, tankage, ete.

In general, organic fertilizers do not stimulate fruiting to the same
extent as the mineral fertilizers. It is probably better economy to
apply such fertilizers to annual crops, cereals, garden truck, ete.

MINERAL NITROGEN,

The mineral nitrogen manures, nitrate of soda and sulphate of
ammonia, apparently stimulate preduction of frnit more than organic
manures and yet promote a fair general growth. The fruit produced by
fertilisation with the salts, used in correct proportions with the other
elements which it is necessary to apply, is usually of good quality, being
solid, juicy, and rich, with thin skin and little rag. Sulphate of am-
monia has the effect, growers testify, of sweetening the fruit to a consi-
derable extent. There seems to be little doubt as to the correctness of
this view, but why it is s) remains in question. The sweetening is pro-
bably more marked if there is a slight deficiency of potash. The use of
very large quantities of either sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda may
result disastrously, acting as “chemical poison,” killing the trees out-

1 A term applied to the pithy axis of the orange fruss and the membranes
separating the seetions.

53

right and causing them to throw off their leaves. Here again the exact
action is not, to my knowledge, understood. The following may be the
explanation: It is well known that plants growing on the sea-coast, in
soil saturated with the salty sea water, are, in some respects, under
almost the same conditions as in deserts, having great difliculty in
obtaining sufficient water, though surrounded by water. The root hairs
have difficulty in extracting the water from the strong salty solutions.
The plants thus have various devices to prevent excessive evaporation
or transpiration of water from the leaves, similar to those developed by
desert plants. The injurious effect of the nitrogen salts may in this
case be caused by simply producing such a strong solution of the salt
in the vicinity of the plant that the roots are not able to absorb the
necessary moisture, and thus the plant is compelled to cut off its leaves
te prevent the transpiration of the water which can not be replenished
by further absorption.

Sulphate of ammonia has been very widely used among orange grow-
ers. Nitrate of soda has been but little used thus far, but is apparently
growing in favour. Its insecticide and water-attracting properties are
probably much greater than those of sulphate of ammonia.

POTASH FERTILISERS.

- In fertilizing the orange, potash is most frequently used either in the
form of the sulphate or of wood ashes’) While sulphate of potash has
been most widely used, there is apparently little evidence that it is in
any way superior, to other forms Muriate of potash, containing the
equivalent of about 50 per cent of actual potash, the form probably
most used in the apple and peach orchards of the North, has been little
used in orange groves. Apparently those who have used this form
have obtained uniformly good results. Kainit, or German potash salt,
which is a crude double salt of magnesium sulphate with calcium chlo-
ride, containing the equivalent of from 12 to 14 per cent of actual po-
tash, is a form much used in Northern orchards and is promising for use
in orange groves. Its very active effect in increasing the surface ten-
sion of the soil moisture and thus attracting water to the trees, might
make it an excellent form to add in early spring to aid the plant in
withstanding the spring drought, which is so frequently injurious to the
orange tree, and sametimes fatal to the fruit crop. Growers not sup-
plied with facilities for irrigation would, undoubtedly find it profit-
able to consider carefully points of this nature in fertilisation. The
noticeable effect of potash on the orange tree appears to be its aid
in completing and maturing the wood. Apparently an insufficient
amount of potash is shown by an excessive growth of weak, immature
wood, which does not harden up as winter approaches and is liable to
be injured by frost.

An abundance of potash, in the form of sulphate of potash or tobacco
stems, is said by many growers to produce excessively sour fruit.
That potash is very necessary in fruit production is shown by the fact
that the fruit contains a large percentage of this element. An average
of fifteen analyses of different varieties of Florida oranges shows 52.05
per cent to be about the usual amount of potash in the ash of the
orenge fruit. The ash in these fifteen analyses averaged 0.916 per cent,
or less than 1 per cent of the total weight of the fruit.

54

PHOSPHORIC ACID,

Phosphoric acid, which is a very necessary element of fertilisation on
Florida orange lands, is mostly used in the form of dissolved bone-
black, acidulated bone or phosphate rock, soft phosphate, raw bone,
guano, etc. The immediate effect of phosphoric acid on the orange tree
and fruit is little understood. Several intelligent growers claim to be
able to recognize the effect of phosphorous starvation by the appear-
ance of the new growth of leaves. If these, when they first push out
or while they are still young and tender, present a slightly variegated
appearance, mottled with light and dark green, it is claimed that they
are suffering from lack of phosphorus, and that if a liberal application
of some soluble phosphate is applied this appearance may be checked
If this can be shown to be true it will prove a valuable index to the
available quantity of phosphoric acid in the soil. A similar appear-
ance, may however, appear In light cases of the so-called ‘“ frenching,”
a disease, or probably more properly a symptom of disease, which is
not uncommon. Phosphorous starvation, it is true, may have some
effect in inducting this disease.

LIME.

Lime, it is usually supposed, is present in sufficient quantities in most
of our soils. It may be questioned, however, whether the common high
pine land and sciub land, and indeed much of the flat woods and ham-
mock of the interior of Florida, might not be benefited by dressings of
lime. From the superiority of oranges grown on soils which are known
to be rich in lime it would seem that this is probably a very desirable
and necessary element for the production of superior fruit. The fine,
smooth-skinned, and deliciously flavoured Indian and Halifax River
oranges, with their characteristic aroma, are grown largely on soils rich
in lime from shell mounds and coralline and coquina rock. The oranges
produced in the noted Orange Bend Hammock, which are of distinctive
quality, with delicate, rich aroma, and thin, smooth rind, are produced
on a soil underiaid by a marl rich in lime. Lime soils are in many orange
countries considered superior for orange growing. Dr. A. Stutzer, in
his work on the Fertilisation of Tropical Cultivated Plants, writes:
«The orange and citron fruits desire a deep, porous, dry soil, rich in lime.
If sufficient lime is not present the fruit will be thick-skinned and not
have a fine aroma.” It appears also that the effect of abundant lime
is to hasten to some extent the time of ripening. Fruits grown on soils
rich in lime appear to colour and become suitable for shipping some-
what earlier than those grown on soils containing but little lime. To
secure a good quality of fruit the regular application of lime may be
found very desirable in many groves.

FERTILISATION AS AFFECTING DISEASE,

Probably the most ceemmon cause of injury to orange trees is a lack
of fertilisation, yet itis not frequent for disease to be induced or
aggravated by excessive or improper fertilisation. 'This may, indeed,
be of much more importance than we are at present inclined to believe.
One of the forms of die-back, a common and destructive disease of the
orange, is quite evidently due to errors in fertilisation. In other cases
he disease appears to be caused by planting in improper soil.

5d

DIE-BACK,

Die-back manifests itself by a number of striking characters. The
foliage becomes very dark green, the vigorous growth remains angular
and immature and frequently becomes strongly recurved, and the tips
turn up slightly, forming S-shaped curves. In the spring trees affected
with this disease start out a very vigorous growth, which may con-
tinue for several mouths, Finally a reddish brown resinous substance
exudes on the twigs, forming the so called die-back stain, which is very
characteristic, and they begin to die back This death of tissues may
include the entire new growth or only a portion of it. Under the bark
of the young limbs gum pockets form and burst out, causing large,
unsightly eruptions on the twigs.

Larger gum pockets frequently form at the nodes, producing large
swellings. Ifa tree is badly affected no fruit is formed ; if moderately
-affected an abundance of fruit sets, but the larger portion of this
turns toa lemon-yellow colour before half grown, becomes stained by the
characteristic reddish exudations like that occurring on the branches,
and prematurely falls. Fruit which hangs on the tree till nearly ripe
is large and coarse and is frequently stained. It usually splits and
falls before thoroughly ripe. The fruit on a slightly affected tree is
very large and coarse, with very thick, rough rind. Much of it is ren-
dered unsalable by the reddish die-back stain. It is very prone to split
and fall before mature.

Frenching, or variegation of the foliage, frequently accompanies die-
back aud seems to be a symptom of the disease. The very dark green
colouration which some growers believe to be an indication of a healthy
grove, may, on the contrary, denote a condition verging on die-back.
A lighter green would probably indicate better general health.

DIE-BACK A DISEASE OF INDIGESTION.

Die-back appears to be a form of indigestion, due to an overfed con-
dition of the plant. It occurs apparently wherever excessive quantities
of nitrogenous manures from organic sources are applied or become avail-
able to the plant. Trees near closets or barns or in barnyards almost
invariably have die-back. When chickens roost ona tree for any length
of time, so that the droppings fall on the soil beneath, the disease usually
results. Many cases are known to the writer where it has apparently
‘been caused by excessive applications of cotton-seed meal, blood and
bone, barn manure, etc. Indeed, all organic manures in excessive quan-
tities appear to give rise to it. If organic fertilizers are used they must
therefore be applied with considerable caution to avoid an excess. No
safe rule can be given as to the amount of manure that can be used with
safety ; this depends upon the size and condition of the tree, previous
treatment, and soil conditions.

Whether the chemical manures, nitrate of soda and sulphate of am-
-‘monia, will produce the disease if used in excessive quantities, is ques-
tionable. We have not been able to learn of any instance where this has
occurred. Several cases are known where nitrate of soda was used of
sufficient strength to cause the leaves to fall without producing any sign
-of this disease. Frequently the method of cultivation has considerable
to do in causing die-back, excessive cultivation appearing to aggravate
it very greatly.

56

MAL: DI-GOMMA.

The much-dreaded disease of foot rot, or mal-di-gomma, is probably
not produced primarily by improper methods of fertilisation, but seems
to be considerably affected by the use of fertilisers and methods of cul-
tivation. Groves in which cow-penning® has been practiced to a consi-
derable extent are frequently affected with foot rot. This is so gene-
rally the case as to admit little doubt that this practice has considerable
to do in inducing the disease. The extensive application of organie
manures appears also to aggravate the malady to some extent, and their
use in infected groves should be discouraged.

INSECT DISEASES.

With regard to the effect of fertilisation upon insects which infests the
orange, it may be said that the question is little understood. A general
impression exists among the growers of the State that groves fertilised
with blood and bone or barn manure are more liable to be badly infested
with injurious insects than those fertilised exclusively with chemical
manures. ‘This appears to be especially true in the case of the six-spot-
ted mite (Tetranychus 6-maculatus) and the purple scale (Mytilaspis
gitricola) ; jndging from observations on many groves which have been
fertilised with chemical manures only, it certainly seems that this belief
is well founded. There is some evidence that the muriate of potash aids
to some extent in preventing the ravages of the rust mite. Dr. Smith
of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, has found nitrate
of soda and kainit to be very active insecticidal fertilisers. These have
not been used to any extent in fertilising orange groves in Florida, and.
no data have been obtained as to their effect on orange insects. It is
probable that they would prove more effective than sulphate of ammo-
nia or sulphate and muriate of potash, and they should be thoroughly
tested to determine their value as fertilisers for the orange.

SUMMARY.

Summarising, it may be said:

(1) By a proper combination of the various elements used in fertilisa-
on one can undoubtedly largely govern the quality and flavour of the
ruit.

(2) To obtain a fruit with thin rind, use nitrogen from inorganic
sources in moderate quantities, with considerable potash and lime.

(3) To sweeten the fruit, use sulphate of ammonia in considerable
abundance, decreasing the amount of potash.

(4) To render the fruit more acid, increase the amount of potash and
use nitrogen from organic sources.

(5) If it is desired to increase the size of the fruit, as issometimes the
case, apply a comparatively heavy dressing of nitrogen in some organic
form and slightly decrease the other elements. In the case of the tan-
gerine and mandarin, where a larger size is usually desired, a heavy
dressing of nitrogen fertilisers would favour this end, and is not objec-
tionable unless carried to excess.

(6) Fertilisation has an important bearing on diseases,

(7) Die-back, a serious malady, is in all probability the result of over-
feeding with nitrogenous manures from organic sources. These manures
if used at all should be applied with great caution.

* A term used to designate the practice of penning cattle in orange groves over
night, using a movable pen, the position of which is changed every few days.

57

(8) Foot rot, although not primarily due to improper methods of
fertilisation, is no doubt considerably influenced by this cause.

(9) Insect diseases are also apparently influenced by the use of ferti-
lisers, organic manures rendering the trees more liable to injury from
this source than chemical fertilisers.

MANURES AND:COFFEE.

SIR JOHN LAWES ON THE MANURING OF PLANTS.

The great English agricultural authority, Sir John Lawes, in answe
to some queries of ours regarding the manuring of coffee and tea, ha*®
given expression to opinions that will go far to convince the old styl®
of planters of the correctness of their long-established contempt of
chemical manure.

This is what he says :— ,

“Our investigations leave very little doubt in regard to the proper
manure for plants of the Graminaceous order, such as wheat, barley,
oats, maize, &c. That is to say, plants which ripen their seeds in the
course of a few months require their food in the most active condition ;
and by means of salts of ammonia, or nitrate of soda combined with phos-
phates, we have grown continuous crops of wheat and barley for more
than half a century without change. The same substances will pro-
duce sugar in the root crops such as mangolds, turnips, sugar beet, &c.
These manures do not give the same results when applied to plants of
the leguminous order, and we have still a great deal which is quite un-
explained in regard to the method by which these plants derive their
food, as is the case with the crops named above. We cannot grow our
leguminous crop continuously. Referring now to the subject of your
letter, I should say most decidedly that the active artificial manures
would not be suitable for the coffee tree, and I should be much more
disposed to trust to the indirect action of some leguminous plant. I
have not much faith in the loppings and leaves of leguminous trees. I
have several growing Acacias in my pasture, and I could never see that
the grass was better under them. I shonld select any annual legumi-
nous plant, pea, bean, or any one which grows most luxuriantly in the
district, and dig or plough them under the soil when they are most
luxuriant. These leguminous plants do not flourish well except in a
soil where there is plenty of lime and potash. I have a letter before
me from a gentleman in the Mauritius where they grow d’acharia
beans to plough inas amanure for the sugarcane. He sends me a sam-
ple of coral sand which he says has a wonde:ful effect upon the beans
when used with lime, when Jime alone will not act. It is the potash
in the sand which acts as a manure for the bean, and it is the nitrogen
‘which the beans collect, partly from the atmosphere and partly from
the subsoil, which manures the cane. Should you feel inclined to try
the effect of direct manures, I should use very finely ground bone dust
either alone or mixed with rape or other cake, or dried blood. But
avoid nitrates, salts of ammonia, and if you use phosphates, employ basic
slag in preference to superphosphate.”

The chief point of the above letter is without doubt the strong dis-
trust of evanescent chemicals as manures for perennials, such as coffee
or tea. The next in importance is the recognition of the value of le-

~-guminous plants, though perhaps Mr. Nelson may feel sore at the

vi

58

implied doubt on his ‘ Réve d’Or” system, a system, however, which
bids fair to effect a revolution in estate manuring in India at least,
Referring again to chemicals—this term must not be, as it so often is.
confused with organic “artificials’—our numerous manure factories
should indent for a supply of basic slag, which at home and on the
Continent is fast acquring a great reputation as a permanent manure.
—Planting Opinion.

REPORTS ON SUGAR-CANES.
By Artruur J. WEsB.

Lianrovery Estate, St. ANN.

2 ; a = |
ee ise acess
Name of Cane. | 2q Be $4 | #4 as Remarks,
oh peeiemeie Ween ies
6 1A = = ov
“ae tns. c. q. tns. e van |
No. 115 4,961 | 26° | 37 15 1/1016 0 | 5°85 | Arrowed partially.
87 3,690 | 26° | 2811 3| 814 1] 5°86{ “ heavily.
69 1,690 | 27° | 14 1 0} 7 8 2] 5°38 | No arrow.
275 2,541 | 25° | 27 4 2| 6 6 1) 4°10 | Few arrows.
269 —|3,751 | 25° | 3212 1| 914 2 | 5°13 | No arrow.
116 +3761 25° | 28 6 0 914 2| 5:91 Arrowed partially.
102 .-.|4,856 | 256° | 81 2 1} 812 3) 6:25 | No arrow.
74 ...]3,267 | 26°) 24 8 1} 715 2) 5:97 do.
99 ...|3,267 | 26° | 25 0 2| 7 6 1 | 5:62 | Very heavy arrow.
Caledonian Queen|1,754 | 24° | 1613 0! 6 6 1 | 4°82 | No arrow.
‘Norman see 25420) 2 24° ROG ON aie Slnosae do.
Bouranappa~.....| 1,452 | 26° | 1113 1] 6 1 O| 5.55 do.
Ropoappa 2-<((3,3889), 242e ez) eT] 812) 93516*20)| do. but lodged badly.
China ...|3,872 | 27° | 28 7 0| 711 1/ 6:01 | Heavy arrow & lodged badly.
Hilli see] L573 ||) -2bS Ls6) ea 73) 9215-07 | Novarrows
All the above can/es were plan ted on 4th|Feby., 1896, and cut on 20th Feb., 1897.
No. 81 .».|3,388 | 22° | 2810 1)14 9 2 | 5°30 | No arrow.
This Cane was pla ntedon 29th|March, 1896, and cut on 2\0th Feby., 1897, and was not
ripje at the time of cut ting.
Black and Trans- |3,872 | 26° | 32 8 1| 7 5 2/ 5°53 | Partly arrowed.
parent
‘These are the ordinary clanes in cultivation on the esta|te planted and cut under
similar conditions,

eee

59

REMARKS,

All the tops were planted in well-forked cane holes of 44 feet banks—
the tops being planted 3 ft. apart. The land was well manured with
atable dung and irrigated until 5th May when they took the bank.
The situation is about 40 feet above sea level and is much exposed to
the strong sea breeze and ‘‘ Northers.” There were two fine ripening
months before the date of cutting.

The great difference of the weight of cane per acre is perhaps due to
the tops received from the gardens, some varieties being much better
than others.

A good ratooning cane is essential for cultivation on the estates in
this part of the Parish of St. Ann, and it remains to be seen which of
the varieties will best stand the test of ratooning. I am inclined to
think that Nos. 116 and 102 will turn out the best—they appear to be
hardy and have a large percentage of juice. It is worth noticing that
the old canes, now being cultivated on the property and which are ex-
-eellent ratooners, compare very favourably as plants with the best of the

‘“new comers.”
Rainfall from 4th Feby., 1896, to 20th Feby., 1897, 58-34 inches.

Grown By Carr. L. SHIRLEY.

ETInepon.
No, No. Weight Weight Galls. | Density
No. of of of to) | Juice, of —
Roots. Canes. Canes. Trash, Liquor.
lbs. lbs.
95 ses) 150 323 457 152 - 22 27 60 o/e
74 see|| 00 245 331 126 ax Livi 21 62 o/0
115 cod} 2530) 318 880 371 48 | 22 58 0/0
Cal, Queen...| 24 116 200 60 10 22 70 oo
Hyver Hatt.
Cane—No. 95.
Weight of Cane Rs 300 lbs.
Weight of Trash aos 89 lbs.
Density of Liquor as 27.
Cane—No. 74.
Weight of Cane a 300 Ibs.
Weight of Trash th 90 lbs.
Density of Liquor sn 27.
Cane—No. 118.
Weight of Cane nue 300 Ibs.
Weight of Trash 5a 98 lbs.
Density of Liquor Sag 29.
Cane—‘ Caledonian Queen.”
Weight of Cane ae 236 Ibs.
Weight of Trash 50 lbs.

Density of Liquor es 26.

60
SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE.

By Dr. W. H. Witey, Chief of the Division of Chemistry, U. 8.
Department of Agriculture, in Year Book of U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture for 1898.

( Continued ).

PRECAUTIONS IN SAMPLING.

First of all, the method of sampling must be such as to secure for ex-
amination portions of soil which certainly contain no other organisms
than those locally fouud therein. The methods of securing the samples
are purely technical, and will be fully described in a special bulletin from
the Division of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture.

THE CULTURE SOLUTION.

Many readers of these pages who are not bacteriologists will be in-
terested in knowing the character of the solution which is used for testing
the nitrifying vitality of the ferments in the soil. A solution which we
have found very useful for this purpose is composed of the following con-
stituents ; Potassium phosphate, one gram; magnesium sulphate, half
agram; ammonium sulphate, two-tenth gram; ealcium chloride, a
trace, and calcium carbonate in excess of the amount which will be-neces-
sary to combine with all the nitric acid produced from the ammonium
sulphate present. The above quantities of materials are dissolved or
suspended in one litre (about one quart) of water, and one-tenth of this
volume is used for each culture solution. This quantity is placed in an
Erlenmeyer flask, which is then sterilised, after stoppering with cotton,
by being kept at the temperature of boiling water for an hour on three
successive days. The flask itself before using, should be thoronghly
sterilised by heating to 300 deg. F. for an hour.

The calcium carbonate employed in the above culture solution should
not be prepared by finely grinding marble or chalk, but in a chemical
way by precipitation. It is best thoroughly sterilised separately and then
added to the flask immediately before seeding. ‘The sterilized spoon
which is used for seeding, holds, approximately, half a gram of the soil.
This spoon is filled from the contents of one of the freshly opened sample
tubes, underneath a glass hood, the plug of cotten is lifted from the
sterilized flask, and the contents of the spoon quiekly introduced and the
plug of cotton replaced. While the above details are well known to the
bacteriologist, they are not appreciated, as a rule, by the general reader.
From the numerous inquiries concerning this process which have been
received at the department, it is believed that the above brief outline of
the method of procedure of securing samples of soil and seeding sterilized
solutions therewith will be useful.

NOTING THE PROGRESS OF NITRIFICATION.

It will be seen from the above description that the object of the tests
in question is to determine the activity and strength of the nitrous and
nitric organisms alone, inasmuch as the process begins with an am-
moniacal salt. At the end of five days from the time of the first seeding,
a portion of the solution is withdrawn in a sterilized pipette for the pur-
pose of determining whether or not the process of nitrification has com-
menced ; and if so, to what extent it has proceeded. This may be accom-
plished by either determining whether any ammonia has been destroyed

61

or whether any nitrous or nitric acids have been produced. These pro-
cesses are of a purely chemical, technical nature, and therefore would
not be properly described in this place In the case of an active and
fertile soil, the nitrifying process begins promptly, and, as a rule, con-
tinues with unabated vigour until the whole of the nitrogen present in the
ammonium salt is converted into nitric acid. In very favourable circum-
stances this object will be accomplished in about six weeks. When the
organisms in the sample are few in number or deficient in vitality, the
nitrification does not begin for a long time, and then goes on with great
slowness. By tracing the progress of the fermentation, as described
above, it is seen how easy it is to compare various samples of soils in
respect of nitrifying power. If after four or five weeks no trace of
nitrification has been found, the soils are regarded as being practically
deficient in nitrifying ferments. This often happens with samples taken
at a depth of three or more feet, or even in the case of surface soils or
others subjected to conditions inimical to fermentative life.

REPRESENTATION OF THE DATA OBTAINED.

In the actual work which has been done in this department to follow
the progress of nitrification in culture solutions it has been found con-
venient to determine the rate of the fermentative change by the deter-
mination of the nitrous and nitric acids produced. It is evident that in
the process of fermentation three cases may arise. In the first place, the
nitrous fermentation may occur first, and after its completion the nitric
may follow it. This is a condition which evidently would rarely arise,
and could only occur when the nitrous ferment was present in such a
predominating quantity asto subdue and restrain vitality of the
nitric ferment In the second place, the two fermentations could go on
synchronously, and in this case the solution when ‘tested would never
contain more than the merest trace of nitrous acid. This condition of
affairs would only occur when the two ferments were present in about
equal numbers and endowed with equal vitality. In the third place and
this is the one which commonly occurs the two fermentations go on syn-
chronously, but at first the nitrous fermentation is more vigorous, so that
there may be a considerable accumulation of nitrous acid in the solution.
After a few weeks the nitric fermentation begins to gain in vitality by
reason of the fact that the raw material on which the nitrous ferment
worked has become nearly exhausted. The quantity of nitrous acid,
therefore, which was at first formed would gradually begin to disappear,
and finally, if the examination be continued long enough, be reduced to
zero at or before the time when the total amount of nitrogen present would
be converted into nitric acid.

In order to represent the progress of the fermentation, it has been
found most convenient to use a graphic form’ of illustration. The
method of doing this is illustrated in achart showing the progress
of nitrification im a sample of soil taken a depth of 15 inches be-
low the surface, on the 27th of April, 1895, at the Canebrake station in
Alabama. The culture solution was seeded with a sample of this soil on
the 3rd of May, and the progress of nitrification is represented in the
chart. The figures in the perpendicular column on the left represents the
parts per million of nitrous or nitricacid. The continuous line represents
the sum of the nitrous and nitric acids. The dotted line represents the

62

nitrousacidin the solution. Atany given time the actual amount of nitrie
acid present can be found by taking the difference between the continuous
and dotted lines. Thus, at the end of the fifth week it is seen that there
were nearly four parts of nitric acid present per million The diagram
shows that no «ction took place during the first two weeks after seeding.
During the third week there was a vigorous evolution of nitrous acid, with
only a trace of nitric reid During the fourth week, attending a depres-
sion of temperature, the bacterial action was less active. During the
fifth week both the nitrous and nitric organisms were active, attending a
considerable rise of temperature. After the fifth week, the nitrous acid
began rapidly to disappear, being converted into nitric acid. The hori-
zontal position, however, of the continuous line shows that no additional
nitrons acid was formed from the ammonia during the sixth week. Dur-
ing the seventh week there was no activity either of the nitrous or the
nitric ferment. During the eight and ninth weeks both ferments were
again active, the nitrous acid being converted into nitric acid as soon as
formed.

The second diagram gives the variations in temperature of the
closet where nitrification took place during the whole time of observa-
tion. The upper line represents the maximum and the lower the mini-
mum temperatures at the time mentioned. It will be seen by comparing
the two diagrams that there is in general quite a marked agreement be-
tween the rate of nitrification and the degree of temperature This is
shown by the slow rate of nitrification during the third and fourth weeks
and the rapid rate during the fifth week.

It is evident that many conditions beyond the control of the operater
may serve to render the observations upon the rate of nitrification some-
what unreliable, but in general the data of nitrification properly ascer-
tained will give an unerring insight into the character of a soil as affect-
ing its ability to furnish nitrogen to the growing plant, and hence to that
extent to the degree of its fertility.

PREPARATION OF PURE CULTURES.

It is evident from an inspection of the processes mentioned above that:
the ferments which are obtained in the culture selution are not confined.
to the nitrous and nitric orgamisms. All the ferments which the sample
of soil may have contained of every description suited to grow in the
culture solution employed will be developed. ‘Lhe solution, therefore,
after the nitrification is complete, contains not only the nitrous and nitric
micro-organisms, but also all the other bacteria contained in the original
sample capable of growing in the environment provided. It is probable
that in different parts of the country and at different latitudes the species
of nitrifying ferment may vary, and, therefore, it is of great importance
to continue the examination of these bacteria until pure cultures are
obtained. The methods of securing these are so technical and of se
purely a bacteriological nature as to exelude them from description here.
Tt will be sufficient to say that these pure cultures are obtained by seed-
ing new cultures directly from the solutions obtained in the nitrifications
produced by the soils as described. This work is continued until all the
disturbing bacteria are eliminated, and there are left only those which
will produce under favourable circumstances the nitrous and nitric fer-

mentations alone.

83

SUMMARY.

1. Conclusions which are easily derived from the above data are that
the soil is not merely dead, inert matter, but, on the contrary, in the
highest degree aliving organism. It contains numerous ferments which
in their activity either favour or restrain the growth of crops. It is the
part of scientific agriculture to determine, in so far as possible, the laws
which govern the evolution of both of these forms of bacteria for the pur-
pose of securing the greatest activity of the beneficial organisms and the
least activity of the inimical ones.

2. The bacteria which provide niirogenous food for plants are of three
great classes. One of these exerts its activity only on organic nitrogen
contained in the humus of the soil. The second class is developed sym-
bietically with the growing plants, herding in colonies upon their
rootlets, and securing in their vital activity an oxidation of the free nitrogen
ef the atmosphere. The third class of organism and the one least known
appears to have the ability, ia an independent form of life and without
the aid of plant vitality, to secure the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen.
The first of the classes mentioned above is itself separated into three divi-
sions comprising the organisms which produce ammonia, nitrous and
nitric acids, respectively.

3. Many crops, such as the cereal, have no ability in themselves to
increase the stores of nitrogen in the soil. Such crops may be grown
for many years upon the same field, in which case the nitrogenous supply
of the field will at first be rapidly diminished, witha corresponding decrease
in the crop itself. Finally a time will come whena certain minimun
crop will be produced apparently for an indefinite time, varying only
under seasonal influences.

4. Other plants especially leguminous plants, favour the develop-
ment of the organisms which are capable of oxidising free nitrogen and
thereby tend to increase the supply of available nitrogenous matter.
These crops, however, together with certain root crops, cannot be grown
successfully without retation, and all crops are benefited by a judicious
succession.

5. Thesummerfallowing of land is highly injudicious, and especially if
the field be left barethrough the winter Thenitrates which are formed by
the activity of the nitrifying organism in such cases are easily washed out
by heavy rains and lost to agricultural uses perhaps for thousands of years.

6. Lateautumnal ploughing, after the activity of the nitrifying organ-
isms has practically ceased, may prove beneficial, especially to some crops,
by exposing the soil to the decomposing effects of the frosts of winter.

7. In past geological ages vast quantities of nitrogenous matters have
been oxidised and stored, in the form of nitrates, and these stores are now
available for the uses of agriculture.

Nitric acid, in the form of nitrates, should be employed only asa tem-
porary fertiliser in order to improve the fertility of the soil to such an
extent as to make profitable the growing leguminons crops. The con-
tinued use of nitrates for fertilising purposes deprives the nitrifying
organism of their functional activity, and hence tends to diminish the
numbers and to enfeeble their work. Nitrates should only be applied in
small quantities at a time, sufficient to meet the demands of the crop. It
is better to apply the dressing of nitrates at two or three different times
during the growth of the crop, rather than to use it all at once.

64

8. The use of sewage for fertilizing purposes is not to be commended,
because of the dangerof contaminating the s»il with pithogenic ferments
which may subsequently infect the health of man and beast. These fer-
ments may attach themselves to plants and thus ener the animal
organism, or they may remain with a suspended vitality for an indefinite
period in the soiland awaken to pernicious activity when a favourable
environment is secured.

9. The stud of the nitrifying organisms in the soil and their culture
and isolation will in the end prove of great benefit to practical agricul-
ture by showing the methodin which favouring organisms can be fostered
and the activity of the inimical organisms reduced to a minimum.

NOTES ON PLANTS IN CASTLETON GARDENS.

PreROSPERMUM ACERIFOLIUM, Willd.—A tall tree found in the sub-
Himalayan tract as far east as Burma, ‘The down on the leaves is used
by the hill-people in Sikkim to stop bleeding in wounds. In the
Konkan the flowers and birk, charred and mixed with Kamala powder,
are applied in suppurating small-pox. In Bombay and Bengal the
leaves are employed as plates, and for packing tobacco. The flowers
are used by Bengalis as a disinfectant and to keep insects away from
bed-clothes, etc. ; they are also said to render water gelatinous.

The wood is occasionally used for planking in Bengal, and it is said
to take a fine polish, and to be suitable, for making furniture.

Other species from India growing in the Gardens are Pterosper-
mum laneefolium and P. Heyneanum, ( Sterculiacee ).

Garcrnta 1nDicA, Chois.—A slender tree with drooping branches,
found on the Ghats of the Konkaw and Kandra. It bears a conspicuous
spherical purple fruit, the size of a small orange, which ripens about April.

Oil.—A valuable oil called “ Cocum” or “ Kokam butter,” ‘‘ Mangos-
teen oil,” or ‘‘ Brindonia tallow,” is obtained from the seeds of the
fruit to the extent of about 30 per cent. Kokan butter has been em-
ployed by the natives, of at least south-western India, since remote
times, but it does not appear to have attracted the notice of Europeans
till about the year 1830. It is considered demulcent, nutrient, and
emollient. One writer states, ‘‘ 1 have used it internally in my prac-
tice, and have found that its best medicinal properties are its usefulness
in phthisis pulmonalis and some scrofulous diseases, and in dysentry and
mucous diarrhea.”

The purple fruit has an agreeable flavour, and has long been esteemed
as an article of diet.—(Guttifere).

Mimusops Eienci Linn.— An evergreen tree, frequently cultivated in
India, wild in the Deccan and Malay Peninsulas. It is cultivated for
its ornamental appearance, and its fragrant flowers. The latter are
valued for making garlands, are sometimes used for stuffing pillows
and the atter distilled from them is esteemed as a perfume. From the
seeds a fixed oil is obtained by expression, which is used for culinary
purposes, for burning and for medicine.

The wood is close and even-grained, pinkish to reddish-brown in
colour, and takes a good polish. It is used in house-building, for cart
shafts and cabinet work, and is said to last for fifty years.—(Sapotaceag).

AverRHOA CarampBota, Linn.—The Carambola of the East Indies

65

is a small tree with leaflets whieh are slightly sensitive. It produces
an abudance of prettily shaped five-angled yellow fruits. The fruits are
acid, but make an agreable preserve, and are also used for making
pickles and curries; the juice removes iron-mould from linen. The
dried fruit is given in fevers, and is also an antiscorbutic.

A correspondent sends the following recipe for Carambola preserve :—

Four tablespoonfuls of refined sugar to one doz. of the fruit. Peel
the fruit and put them together with the sugar in a covered stewpan,
without any water, on a slow fire. | After a few minutes uncover the
pan and skim the fr th frequently. In about fifty minutes they will be
done, and ought to be of a bright amber colour. As a Tart, simply cut
across, and bake with crust.—( Geraniacee ).

SrrrrriA CHRYSANTHA.—This is a handsome Brazilian shrub,

It has lanceolate-acuminate leaves, and terminal heads of showy
orange-coloured flowers, issuing from amongst the long, coloured
pappus-hairs. The flowers somewhat resemble a painter’s brush in
shape.— (Composite).

GRASS-FIRING.

By mk. F. TURNER, F.L.S., in Australian Grasses,

I have been often asked whether I favour the annual burning off of
grasses. Except in three cases, I am decidedly against burning off,
for the followimg reasons:—1. It destroys millions of grass seeds
which occasional good seasons may have brought to maturity, thereby
destroying the only natural means for the reproduction of the grasses.
A fire also destroys many valuable salsolaceous and other plants.
2. After burning off, if favourable weather ensues, new growth is made
qnickly, and sheep turned into such pasturage eat greedily of it, which
often gives them what is commonly termed the scours or diarrhcea, which
sometimes become chronic, and of course has such a weakening effect
upon them that many die. Nor is this all, for in biting out the young
growth from the heart of the grass, much of the latter is often brought
with it, which of course partially destroys it. If a fire should take
place, sheep should never be turned into the pasture until it has made
considerable growth, though cattle may be turned in without any se-
rious damage being done, for they never eat grasses so low as sheep.
I may here mention the fact that sheep destroy the natural grasses and
herbage in much less time than horses, and the latter much sooner than
cattle.

I am in favour of burning off annually under such conditions as the
following :—-(1st) Where grasses and other herbage are much diseased
with parasitic fungi; (2nd) where there is a predominance of ‘ spear,’
‘corkscrew,’ ‘wire’ (stipa), and ‘three-armed spear’ grasses (avistida) ;
and (3rd) where rank growing grasses are abundant, which is generally
on wet or undrained land, for along with this coarse growth many
noxious plants and fungoid pests are destroyed (very rarely good pas-
ture plants, other than grasses, will grow in such situations). Bas
turage treated in this way becomes more healthy, the fire acting as a
disinfectant, and contagious diseases disappear. Grasses that grow in
low, damp situations are often a valuable stand-by for stock during
protracted droughts.

66

RULES AS TO SALE OF LANDS BY THE GOVERN-
MENT OF JAMAICA TO SMALL SETTLER §S.

(AMENDED.)

1. No more than 50 acres will be granted to one purchaser, nor less
than 5 acres.

2. The price at which the lands will be sold may be learnt at the
Office of the Surveyor General, or from the Bailiffs in charge of the
different parcels. The ruling price will be the same as that at which
lands in the neighbourh«od are put in the market.

3. The Surveyor General on receipt by him of an application in the
form endorsed hereon and on deposit of one-fifth of the price of the
lands shall cause a survey to be made of the quantity of land applied
for, the applicant receiving notic~ of the time when the survey is to be
made.

4, On the survey being made the applicant shall for: hwith be enti-
tled to possession of the land allotted to him on such survey.

5. If the applicant shall be dissatisfied with the situation, or configu
ration of the land allotted to him on such survey, and shzll within one
week after the survey, give writt«n notice thereof to the Surveyer Ge-
neral or to the Surveyor who made the survey, or to the Bailiff in
charge of the land, and shall deliver up possession of the land, he shall
be entitled to a refund of one-half of the amount deposited by him as
above and his application shall be deemed to be withdrawn.

6. If such notice shall not be given, or possession delivered, the ap-
plicant shall at the end of one week after the survey be deemed to be
the purchaser of and to be in possession of the land allotted to him on
such survey, and as soon thereafter as practicable a certificate shall be
delivered to him by the Surveyor General, who shall keep a duplicate
of such certificate in his office.

7. Such certificate shall be in the form following :—

SaLe oF GovyERNMENT Lanvs To SMALL SETTLERS.

Jamaica s.s. Office of Surveyor General, Kingston.
This is to certify that of the Parish of

Yeoman (hereinafter called the purchaser) did on the day of
189, pay the sum of £ , being one-fifth of the purchase money
) , in respect of acres of land part of
in the Parish of , and that the situation and configuration
of the said acres are as shown by survey thereof made by

on the day of 189 , which can be

seen on application at the Office of the Surveyor General in Kingston.

The land comprised in this certificate is held subject to the follow-

ing conditions :—

(1.)—The remaining four-fifths of the purchase money and £2 being
the cost of survey, together amounting to £ , are pay-
able in ten years by ten equal yearly instalments of # ;
each without interest, the first of such instalments being pay-
able on the day of 189, and the sub-
sequent instalments at intervals of one year thereafter. Pro-
vided that if within such period of ten years the purehaser
shall have brought one-fifth of his acreage into good bearing
in Kola, Coffee, Oranges, or other permanent crop-producing

67

plants, he shall be released from payment of, or be refunded
as the case may require, one-fifth of the purchase money.

(2)—Such paym-nts shall be made to the Collector of Taxes for the
said Parish of , and the receipt for each
payment must be endorsed on this certificate which must be
produced to the Collector of Taxes at the time of payment.

(3)—The balance of the purchase money and costs of survey may
however be paid in advance: at any time and the Collector of
Tuxes is authorised to receive such payments whenever ten-
dered

(4)—If the purchaser shall ut any time be six months in arrear in
respect of payment of any yearly instalment on account of
purchase money and costs of survey, the Surveyor General
on behalf of the Government may give a notice calling on
the purchaser or person in possession to pay the arrears due.

(5)—Such notice shall be served either by being delivered to the pur-
chaser or person in possession of the land, or by being affixed
to some tree, or posted on some other conspicuous part of the
land.

(6)—If at the expiration of one month from the service of such notice
the requirements of same have not been complied with, the
Surveyor General may by himself, or some person appointed
by him, enter into possession of the land and may either be-
fore or after such entry sell the same at public auction or
private contract as he may deem fit and either on conditions
similar to those contained in this certificate or otherwise. The
proceeds of such sale after payment of all expenses shall be
applied in paying to the Government the balance of purchase
money and costs of survey remaining unpaid at the time of
such sale, whether the same shall be in arrear or not, any
surplus when realised being payable to the purchaser or other
person entitled thereto.

(7)—On payment of the purchase money and costs of survey in full
the purchaser or other person entitled thereto will receive
from the Crown a conveyance or patent in fee simple in the
usual form and with the usual reservations, including a reser-
vation to the Government of the right to make new roads or
improve existing roads, the Government paying the cost of
any damage actually done to fruit trees, growing crops and
cultivated ground in making or improving such roads.

(8)—No transfer of, or dealing with the rights of the purchaser in
the land comprised in this certificate shall be effectual until
written notice thereof shall have been given to the Surveyor
General duly authenticated to his satisfaction.

Dated this day of 189
Surveyor General.

SALE oF GovERNMENT LANDs To SETTLERS,

Application.
T, of the Parish of do hereby
apply to become the purchaser of acres of land, part of

in the Parish of for the sum of £ . And I herewith

68

deposit with the Surveyor General the sum of £ , being one-fifth
of the price of the said land and agree to be bound by and to conform
to the within rules in respect of my purchase.

Dated this day of 189

COLLECTING JUICE OF PAPAW.

By F. B. Kitmer.

Cut an incision lengthwise of the fruit. The incision not to be over
an eight of an inch deep. If it is made much deeper, the milk is apt
to be carried into the fruit and not run outside. The milk will run
quite freely for a short tirae, but soon coagulates so tliat it will no
longer run. To catch the milk that drops and flows I place under the
tree, tin pans made in such a way as to surround the trunk of the tree
and catch the dripping milk.

I found it well to tap the fruit early in the morning before the sun
was very high as the sun quickly dries the milk and stops the flow. I
found that it was a good practice after the flow had ceased, to brush off
all of the coagulated milk into the pans and make a fresh incisi n, and
you would get another but a smaller yield. I make the scorings about
one-half inch apart all round the fruit. The time to tap the fruit is
before it is ripe and when it is green and full. The yield is much
larger just after a rain storm or a spell of wet weather. Siill you can
tap a green fruit at any time and get more or less of the white milk.

This milk must be dried the sume day that it comes from the tree
and must be dried in the sun. Artificial heat will not do. It can be
dried right away on the tin pans spread out thin, or spread cut on
sheets of glass. It will dry in an hour or so in the sun. Any amount
of exposure in the sun will not harm it in drying, but artificial heat
destroys it. Ifit should so be in gathering, that owing to stormy
weather it cannot be dried in the sun the day it is gathered, you can mix
it with some naptha or benzine so-called, turning it into a sort of milk.

FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—XLYV.

Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja-
maica. By G. 8. Jenman, Superintendent Botanical Garden,
Demerara.

1. Polypodium Fawcettii, Baker.—Stipites tufted from a slender up-
right villose rootstock, 4 rd. of an in. or less |. dark-coloured filiform
denselyvillose with spreading brown or reddish hairs ; fronds spreading
linear-ligulate 2-3} in. 1. 14-2 li. b. bluntish or rounded at the apex,
tapering and decurrent at the base, pale, yellowish-green, thin and flac-
cid, clothed with fine spreading scattered hairs, specially on the mid-
rib and margins, the latter slightly repand ; rachid filiform, purplish at
the base, enclosed above this ; veins fine, curved, not reaching the edge,
with a short anterior soriferous branch ; round, terminal, contiguous but
apart, forming a medial or subcostate row on each side of the midrib.

Infrequent at 4,000-6,000 ft. alt. in damp forests on the trunks and
branches of trees; distinguished by the simple, entire, soft-textured

N. B.—The Lists in January and February ought to have been numbered
XLHJI and X:LIV respectively.

69

fronds, which are often curved laterally falcate-form. It was first dis-
covered in 1875 at Morce’s Gap and on the slopes of John Crow Peak,
when it was referred to P. jungermaniodes, Klotzsch, and again in
1889 when it was named after Mr. Fawcett.

2. P. dendricolum, Jenm.— Rootstock very small, erect, finely fila-
mentose scaly; stipites 1-2 li. 1, densely tufted, erect, brown,
clothed with fine castaneous hair-like scales ; fronds simple, linear,
erect, 2-3 in. 1. 2 li. w. stiff, dark brown-green, underside paler, both
surfaces ciliate, the margins shallowly scalloped above the plain
narrowed base; midrib on both surfaces covered by parenchyma;
veins fine three-branched in each lobule, spreading, the interior fore-
shortened and fertile at the apex; sori one to each scallop, alternate,
round, medial apart, superficial, receptacles embossed, dark sub-oblong.
Gard Chron. Oct. 20th 1894.

Apparently very rare, only one plant having been found, on trees at
5,000 £. alt.. in the highest mountain ranges, It differs from the
previous species by its erect habit, stiff, thicker texture, scalloped
margins and three-branched spreading veins.

3. PL. gramineum, Swartz.—Rootstock 1-1} h. thick, short creeping,
densely clothed with light brown somewhat squarrose scales ; stipites
contiguous, several arising near together, slender, puberulous, $—1}
in. 1., stiff; fronds linear-accuminate 3-5 in. 1, 2-24 li. w., narrowed
and cuneate at the base, tapering and often attenuated at the apex usu-
ally more or less curved, stiff and subcoriaceous, grass-green, margin
at first slightly ciliate, the surfaces otherwise naked and glossy ; veins
oblique, evident on the upper side, forked, both branches reaching the
marginal thread ; rachis filiform, covered ; sori oval, rather large, medial
on the superior vein branch, sub-parallel with the margin.—Grammi-
_ tis, Sw.

Common on trees, often in large patches, from 4,000 ft. alt. upwards ;
marked from its allies, by the horizontal growth of the rootstock,
narrower, grass-like, fronds, with distinct petioles, medial sori, veins
excurrent to the marginal thread, which, with both veins and midrib, is
covered by the parenchyma.

4. P. nigro-limbatum, Jenm.—Rootstock small, fibrous, upright or
oblique, densely clothed with fine subulate castaneous scales, the roots
densely hairy ; stipites wiry, short, dark brown; fronds erect, stiff, co-
riaceous, acute or acuminate, long attenuated to the base, 4-10 in. 1.
14-3 li. w. naked, glossy, green, the plain or repand margin edged with
a black glossy thread; veins close, simple, straight, oblique, clavate,
not reaching the margin, the fertile with a spur near the anterior base
causing a slight decurvative of the outer two-thirds, both veins and
midribs covered by membrane ; sori oval, rather oblique, close forming
a double costal series in the upper part of the frond, but rarely reaching
the top. Grammitis nigro-limbata, Spruce, Ms. G. nimbata, Fee.

Frequent on the upper boughs of trees in damp forest along the
higher ridges and peaks from 5,000 or 6,000 ft. alt., alone in places,
in places, or scattered with the following and nearly as common. The
glabrous surface and taper-pointed fronds readily reveal its individuali-
ty without the examination of other characters. It has a very wide

Andean range in South America,
8. P. marginellum, Swartz.—Rootstock slender, elongated, erect,

70

densely clothed with loose subulate brown scales; stipites tufted, stel-
late-ciliate, under 4 in. 1, black, winged by the decurrent sides; fronds
spreading, 2-4 in. 1. 3-4 li. w., ligulate, gradually tapering at the base,
the apex obtuse, rounded, as wide or wider there than below, or some-
times narrower; firm but not coriaceous, ciliate, especially on the dis-
tinct black marginal thread, which in time separates from the mem-
brane; rachis covered; veins immersed, once or twice forked, the in-
ferior branch curved, and sometimes prolonged to join near the margin
the next inferior one above it, thus forming distinct areola that enclose
the sori, more often however free not reaching the margin; sori oval,
rather large, dark brown, oblique, situated on the shorter superior
veinlet or spur near the midrib. Grammitis, Sw.

Common on the upper branches of trees in forest at 5,000-7,000 ft.
alt.; marked from the previous species by the different shape of frond,
form of the venation and presence of vestiture. In both the marginal
thread is black and glossy, and not covered by the parenchyma as in
gramineum, separating eventually as the fronds decay, the veins not
entering it. Casually the branches of the same vein meet and form a
narrow mesh. I have not seen specimens of this from the mainland,
those referred to it belonging to the last.

CASTLETON GARDENS.

JUNE.

In FLOWER. | In Fruit.

— ——> —

Allamanda Hendersoni, Bull.
Averrhoa Carambola, Linn.
(Carambola; East Indies)
Baphia nitida, Lodd.
(Cam-wood; W. Africa)
Bassia latifolia, Roxb.
(Mahwah tree; India)
Bauhinia variegata, Linn.
(Butterfly tree ; India and China)
Brownea Rosa-de-monte, Berg.
Cananga odorata, Hook. f. & Thoms.
(Cananga, [lang ; India)
Caryocar nuciferum, Linn.
(Souari or Butter Nut ; Guiana)
Chrysalidvearpus lutescens, H.
Wendl.
(A Madagascar Palin)
Couroupita Guianensis, Aubl.
(Cannon Ball Tree ; Guiana)
Derris dalbergioides, Bak.
Dipteryx odorata, Willd.
(Tonquin Bean ; Cayenne)
Eugenia caryophyllata, Thunb.
(Clove Tre2 ; Moluccas)
Eugenia malaccensis, Linn.
(Malay Apple ; Malay Islands)
Fagreea obovata, Wall.
Garcinia Mongostana, Linn.
(Mangosteen ; Malay Archipelago)
Gardenia lucida, Roxb.

Amherstia nobilis, Wall.

(Amheistia ; India and Malacca.)
Cananga odorata, Hook. f. & Thoms.

(Cananga, Ilang ; India)
Castilloa elastica, Cery.

(Central American Rubber; Centr

America)
Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Nees.

(Cinnamon ; Ceylon)

Cordia Myxa, Linn.

(Sebesten Plum ; India)
Diospyros discolor, Willd.

(Mabola Ebony ; Philippines)
Eugenia javanica, Lam.

(Wax Jambo; Malay Islands)
Hevea brasiliensis, Muell. Arg.

(Para Rubber ; Brazil)
Imbricaria maxima, Poir.

Michelia Champaca, Linn.

(Champac tree ; India)
Mimusops Elengi, Linn.

(Elengi ; E. Indies)

Morinda citrifolia, Linn.
Myristica fragrans, Houtt.

(Nutmeg ; East Indies)
Omphalea triandra, Linn.

(Cob-nut; Jamaica, Guiana)
Posoqueria longiflora, Aubl.
Spathodea campanulata, Beauy.

(Spathodea ; Trop. Asia and Africa)

71

JuN«, contd.

In FLower. In Fruit.

me | ee

Gmelina asiatica, Linn.

Heritiera macrophylla, Wall.
(Looking-glass tree; India &

Africa)

Hevea brasiliensis, Muell. Arg.
(Para Rubber ; Brazil)

Lagerstrcemia Flos-reginz, Retz.
(Queen’s Flower; India &

Burma)

Lagerstrocemia indica, Linn.
(Crape Flower ; India)

Mesua ferrea, Linn.
(Naghas Tree ; India)

Michelia Champaca, Linn.
(Champac tree ; India)

Mimusops Elengi, Linn.
(Elengi ; E. Indies)

Musszenda frondosa, Linn.

Musszenda luteola, Delile

Norantea Guianensis, Aubl.
(Norantea ; Guiana & Brazil)

Omphalea triandra, Linn.
(Cob-nut ; Jamaica & Guiana)

Oncoba spinosa, Forsk,

Oreodoxa regia, Mart.
(Royal Palm ; Cuba)

Pachira aquatica, Aubl.
(Pachira ; Trop, America)

Plumeria rubra, Linn.

P. acutifolia, Poir.

Pterocarpus indicus, Willd.
(Rose-wood ; East Indies & China)

Stifftia chrysantha, Mikan.

Swartzia grandiflora, Willd.

Tabernzmontana longiflora, Benth.

3 Taberzemontana Wallichiana, Stud.
Tecoma stans, Juss.

72
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT.

LIBRARY.
Bulletin University of California. Nos.111- 115 Sep. - Dec. 1896. [Director.]
Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club. Feb. 1897. [Editor.
Agri. Ledger, 1895. No. 25. [Supt. of Govt. Printing, India. ]
Experiment Station VIII. 4. [U.S. Dept. of Agri.]
Agri. Gazette of N.S. Wales. Nov. 1896. [Dept. of Agri.]
Agri. Journal Cape Colony. Dec. 1896. [Dept. of Agri.]
Revue Agricole. Nov. & Dec. 1896. Jan. 1897. [ Editor. ]
British Trade Journ. Feb. 1897. [Editor.]
American Journal of Pharmacy. March, 1897 [Editor. |
Journ. Roy. Agri. & Com. Society of B. Guiana. Dec. 1896. [Socy.]
Sugar. Feb. 1897. [Editor.]
Central African Planter. Dec. 1896. [ Editor. |
Report on Culture of Hemp and Jute in the United States. [U.S. Dept. of Agri.]
Report Bot. Station, Lagos. June 1896 [Curator. ] ;
The Forester. March1897._ [Editor. |
W. I. & Com. Advertiser. Feb. 1897. [Editor.|
Produce World. Feb. 1897. [Editor.]
Chemist & Druggist. Jan. & Feb. 1-97. [Editor.]
Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. Feb. 1897. [Editor. ]
Times of Ceylon. Jan. 1897. [Editor.]
The proportions of Chlorine & of Nitrogen as Nitric Acid & as Ammonia in certain
tropical rain waters, by J. B. Harrisonand by J. Williams, [J. B. Harrison.

SEEDs.

From Royal Gardens, Kew.
Romneya Coulteri
Dendromecon rigidum
Dicentra chrysantha

From Messrs. Reasoner, Bros. Florida.
Melia azedarach, var. umbraculiformis
Zaria integrifolia
Cinnamomum Camphora
Hibiscus sp.

From Agri. Hort. Society of India.
Aristolochia indica

From Botanic Station, Barbadoes.
Furcrzea macrophylla

From Botame Gardens, Saharanpur.
Desmodium argenteum

“ sp.
Cedrela serrata
Dioscorea sp.
Rhamnus davuricus
Bosia Amherstiana
Milletia racemosa
Cornus oblonga
Berberis aristata
Barleria cristata
Rhus succedanea
Platanus orientalis
Salix Wallichiana
Aeschynomene indica.

New Series. } APRIL, MAY, JUNE, 1897. Vol. IV.
Parts 4, 5, 6.

BULLETIN |

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA,

ee a

EDITED LY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CPR Baek: S':

Satin Wood - — Pace 73
Pea-nut or Pindar-nut = _ 75
+ Oil Tree — ~ hie
Coneys and Nutmeg tree -— - 79
Notes on recent additions — _ 80
Reasons for cultivating the soil = 81
Commercial Fertilizers ~ = 88
Coccide, or Scale insects.—X. ~ 107
Note on Lecsnium tessellatum — 109
Ramie ~ - 110
Ferns-——Synoptical List. XLV - 112
Contributions to the Department - 142

P RIC H—Sixpence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident wm Jamaica, who will send Name end
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Gordon Town P.O.

BP CAL CAD VAI OI CED CAD CL OLE 2AM A

KINGSTON, JAMAICA:
GovERNMENT PRINTING OFrion, 79 Doxk Street.

1897.

JAMAICA.

1) (Oa at 0 i)

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

=S= ee

~ Vol. IV.
Parts 4, 5,6.

New Series. ] APRIL, MAY, JUNE, 1897.

SATIN WOOD.

FaGara FLAVA, Kr. & Urb.

For some long time attempts have been made through various
correspondents to obtain specimens of the flowers and seeds of Satin
Wood, in order to determine exactly what the commercial Satin Wood
of Jamaica is.

Satin Wood in squared logs of good quality is worth £6 to £7 a ton
in the London market, and numerous have been the enquiries from
all parts of the island about the appearance of the tree, and how the
wood may be recognised.

At last Mr. Cecil Isaacs, introduced Mr. E. G. Nixon, who was well
acquainted with the Satin Wood exported from Milk River. He very
kindly sent specimens of the wood, and of the seed-vessels attached to the
leafy branch. The flowers have not come to hand yet, but the material
was sufficient to identify the tree, with Fagara flava Kr. & Urb. It is
only mentioned by Grisebach in his ‘ Flora” as a native of Guadeloupe
under the name of Zanthorylum Sumach, but is described and
figured by Mr. O. S. Sargent, in his magnificent work, the “Silva of
N. America,” as a native of certain keys off the coast of Florida.

DxscRIPTION.

The Tree is said to be from 12 to 35 feet high, with a trunk 6 to
18 inches in diameter. It has no spines like most of the “yellow
woods.”

The Woop may be described as follows :—

Bark.— Of a light grey colour, surface somewhat smooth with longi-
tundinal furrows and transverse cracks.

Pith.—Searcely any.

Heart Wood.—No distinct heart wood, but the colour gradually
deepens from a light yellow at the bark inwards to a light orange at the
centre.

Medullary rays.—These lines in the cross section proceeding from the
pith towards the bark, are not continous from pith to bark, but gradually
die out in either direction, and are replaced by others. There are about
30 in a breath of } inch.

Annual rings.—Marked off by circles of denser tissue which are of

74

about the same general breadth and colour as the medullary rays. The
rings themselves vary very much in breadth.

Vessels.—Appearing in the cross section as minute dots, requiring a
lens to see them, numerous and evenly dispersed in the rings. I'he rays,
rings, circles of denser tissue and vessels are shown in the accompany-
ing illustration which is magnified from a portion of wood measuring”
about 4 inch long, and } to + inch broad.

Atdelele

papanedaes
Bavanao0d ab

DRgteaRER
OMAR MERE

Phi
‘0B

rebege es

Fig. I.
PORTION OF CROSS SECTION
OF WOOD, MAGNIFIED.

Grain.—Even-grained, of a satiny lustre in longitudinal sectiong
capable of receiving a beautiful polish.

Odour—Aromatic, like the true Satin-wood of the East Indies, when
first cut.

Weight.—Heavy. “ The specific gravity of the absolutely dry wood
is 0.9002, a cubic foot of the dry wood weighing 56.10 pounds,”.
(Sargent).

The Leaves are composed of 2 to 4 pairs of leaflets and a terminal
leaflet. The leaflets are ovate-lanceolate in outline. But the charac-
teristic which will enable any one to determine this species by the leaf
alone from other species in Jamaica, is that when the leaflet is held up
to the light, it is seen that itis very numerously dotted with pellucid

lands.
E The FLowers in terminal panicles are either staminate or pistillate
and these occur on separate trees. The petals are greenish-white and
are turned back over the minute calyx-lobes. (The details in the illus-
trations of the flowers and seeds are taken from Sargent.)

Staminate flowers.—The Stamens are 5 in nnmber, and there is a
rudimentary ovary. See Fig. LI.

Pistillate flowers.—The pistil is composed usually of 2 carpels with
short style and spreading entire stigma, each cell with 2 ovules side by
side. ‘There areno stamens. See Fig. IJ.

Seed-vessel.—Only one carpel, as a rule, ripens into fruit with a single
black lustrous seed. See Fig. IV.

This species is found in, Bahamas, St. Domingo, Porto Rico, Mont
serrat, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Lucia, and Florida besides Jamaica_

Fic. II. Sramiare Frowrrs

eRe eccuit

CHTWOL EL WAZ HAUS

s

a DEN

ECTS

és 2 ip ay Z Sil Z
Ay a Va Py b- d be iy i ,
7 (72 Ss *

PistinaTE FLow:rs.

iKire. Lit,

WS : :
NG ak
Y
He

J
Ye
=
SS

Fie. IV. Srep Vessezts.

75
PEA-NUT OR PINDAR-NUT.

(AracHis HypoGAErA, Linn).

Description —A prostrate annual herb, belonging to the Pea Famils
(Leguminose) with pinnate leaves and yellow flowers. When the pod
begins to form, the stalk curves over and buries the pod in the ground,
where it ripens. It is naturalised or wild in all tropical countries.
More than 100,000 acres are devoted to the cultivation of this plant in
India and immense tracts in West Africa.

Soil.—A sandy soil with certain quantity of lime makes the best
soil. Marl is one of the forms of lime which suits well, but there must
be sufficient sandy material to make the soil porous. Clayey land will
produce good crops, if it is thoroughly well dug up and cultivated, but
the pods are not of such good colour. It is well to choose land that is
thoroughly clean from previous cultivation.

Analysis—The percentage analysis of the ash of the Pea-nut is given
by Prof. Cornwall as follows :—

Silica ae 1.06
Potash aaa 44.73
Soda hs 14.60
Lime sah W771
Magnesia we 12.65
Phosphoric Acid 43; 17.64
Sulphuric Acid es 2.53
Chlorine SAD 0.15

95.07

Seed.—It is necessary to sow good seed, and in order to test it, a hun-
dred seeds should be picked out at random and sown. From the num-
ber that germinate, it can be calculated what is the probable percentage
of good seed.

In breaking open the pods, care must be taken not to bruise the ker-
nel, and all shrivelled and dark-coloured kernels should be rejected.
After shelling, the seed should be kept for sowing in small parcels only,
as large quantities together ferment and lose their power of germin-
ation. A bushel to a bushel and a half of pea-nuts in pod are sufficieng
to plant one acre.

Planting.—The time for planting is before the rainy season. In
west Africa where it is grown on a large scale sowing takes place in
October ; the first crop of nuts for eating green is ready about April,
but they are not ripe till 9 months after sowing, or about July or
August. In the southern United States, planting takes place in April.

The land should be ploughed and harrowed, more than once if necessary,
until a fine mellow seed bed is prepared ; but cultivated on a small scale,
it is frequently only hoed.

In the United States it generally follows some such crop as corn, cot-
ton, or tobacco, so as to get a soil that has been well hoed, andis quite
clean without roots, stones, bush, or any rubbish.

The seed should be sown a foot or 15 inches apart, in rows 8 feet
asunder, in hills slightly raised above the surface. One inch deep for
the seed is enough in moist soil, one and a half inches in dry soil.

76

Lime is necessary, and may advantageously be applied in the form
of marl.

* Cultivation —When the plants are about two weeks old it will pro-
bably be quite time to hoe the weeds, and loosen the soil round the
plants, and this must constantly be attended to—the object being to keep
the soil mellow and loose, and clear of all weeds. Hoeing and weeding
should only cease when the pea-nut vines have almost met from row to row.

Harvestivg.—tIn Virginia the practice is to use a plough “witha
point having a long narrow wing and a small mould-board, so that the
vines will be loosened without haying any earth thrown upon them.
The plough passes along on both sides of the row, just near enough for
the wing to fairly reach the tap root, which it severs. Care is taken to put
the plough deep enough to pass under the pods without severing them
from the vines.” ‘The vines are then raised with a fork, and after the
earth is shaken off, they are laid down in the sun to cure.

Sorting.—The brightest and soundest pods should be kept separate.
The dark and immature pods are kept together, and empty pods are re-
jected with the vines to make hay.

Os1.—A bushel of pea-nuts (twenty-two pounds in the hull) put under
the hydraulic press will yield one gallon of oil, more limpid than olive
oil, and resembling it. It is largely used to adulterate olive oil and as
a substitute for it both medicinally and for alimentary purposes. The
best sells in Germany for from 2s. 6d. to 4s. per gallon. It is also
employed in the manufacture of soap.

Vield.—The yield is stated to be 50 bushels per acre and from 1 ton
to 2 tons of excellent hay.

Food.—After the expression of oil, the residue may be made into
meal which is richer than peas, and even lentils, in flesh-forming con-
stituents, and contains more fat and phosphoric acid. The cake is also
recommended for cattle feeding.

The value of the pea-nut is indicated by the following percentage
analysis :—

Food constituents sn different parts in water—free substance.

| :

| al
AG g S | Nitro-
t — | Ash, |Protein.| Fibre. 50 Fat. | gen.

ao
— = | a | ee

per ct. | per ct. | per ct. | per ct. | per ct. | per ct.
Kernels By br | 29.47] 4.29 | 14.27 | 49.20 | 4.67
Vines (with leaves) .) 10.64 | 12.63 | 22.32 | 48.34 | 6.07 | 2.02
Meal .| 5.48 | 52.49 | 6.98 | 27.26 | 8.84 8.40

In the United States the nuts are pounded up in a mortar, and are
said to make an agreeable chocolate.

Roasted in the shell the nuts can be used at dessert.

The leaves and branches are excellent fodder, and the hay increases
the milk of cows. Those who intend to take up the cultivation on a
large scale should consult “The Peanut Plant,” by B. W. Jones, pub-
lished by Orange Judd Co., New York.

77
OIL TREE.

PRIORIA COPAIFERA, Griseb.

Grisebach, in his Flora of the British West Indies, describes this tree
as a new genus, naming it after Dr. Alexander Prior. who possessed a
very large private herbarium of Jamaica plants, constantly referred to
in the Flora.

The specimen from which the genus was described, was supplied by
Mr. Nathaniel Wilson, Island Botanist, who found it growing at Bachelor’s
Hall near Bath.

Mr. Wm. Harris in a collecting tour which he made sometime ago
round the east end of the Island, found it at Mansfield, the property of
Mr. A. H. Groves, and in his report thus describes it :—

“ At Mansfield, near Bath we found large trees Préoria copaifera.
“The trees were in flower at the time of our visit, and to procure spe-
‘“cimens a monster over 80 feet high with a girth measurement of
“‘ about 20 feet near the base had to be felled. ‘This tree proved to be
‘“ hollow for a good way up the trunk. Itis known as the “ oil tree”
“in the Bath district. When tapped at certain seasons of the year, it
* is said to yield a copious supply of an oleo-resinous inflammable juice,
“which was formerly used by the negroes for burning in lamps, but
“it emitsa very disagreeable odour.”

Mr. Groves was kind enough get some of the “oil” for me which
was sent to Prof. Trimble, and the following preliminary report on it
has been received :—

Report oN AN EXuUDATION FROM PRIORIA COPAIFERA, GRISEB.,
By Henry Trimpxx, Philadelphia.

The sample as received from Mr. Fawcett, was a thick, adhesive
liquid resembling copaiba in appearance. Upon standing it separated
into two layers; when thoroughly mixed it became turbid on account of
a greenish substance which it held in suspension ; on the subsidence of
this greenish substance, the upper layer, which constituted by far the
greater part of the sample, became clear and ofa brownish yellow
solour.

The material had no pronounced odour, but it imparted a fatty taste
at first, which gradually became acid. It did not behave like a gum
resin when masticated. In thin layers it was transparent with a pale
straw-yellow colour. On exposure to air it dried superficially with a
decrease of adhesiveness.

On carefully igniting a portion of the sample it yielded 0.075 per
cent. of ash, consisting of calcium carbonate and sulphate with traces of
the corresponding magnesium and potassium salts. Thecombustion was
attended with the production of a very sooty flame.

The original material was found to be readily soluble in absolute
alcohol, ether, chloroform, carbon disulphide, petroleum ether. amyl ac-
etate, ethyl acetate, methyl acetate amyl alcohol, benzol, toluol, ni-
trobenzol, aniline, acetone, phenol, oil of turpentine, cotton seed oil '
(therefore probably fixed oils in general), glacial acetic acid and oil of
camphor. Alcohol of specific gravity 0.820 did not completely dissolve
it. The portion left undissolved appeared to be the substance causing
the turbidity of the sample. Absolute alcohol and choroform
dissolve this residue. The solution in alcohol sp. gr. 0.820, had a

78

brownish-green fluorescence. Water, glycerin, 36 per cent. acetic acid,
and 85 per cent. phosphoric acid failed to dissolve the original material.

Aqueous solutions of sodium and potassium hydrates and ammonia
water produced white insoluble mixtures. Potassium hydrate in alcohol
dissolved it with the exception of a few white flakes. Magnesium oxide
and water formed a solid mass. as did also potassium hydrate when it
was fused and the material added to it; the resulting mass showed
no tendency to liquefy by further heating, nor would it dissolve in
water.

The original material appeared to be separated from this mass by
treating with diluted acid in excess, shaking with ether; separating and
evaporating the ethereal layer.

About 60 grammes of the original material were mixed with water
ina flask, the latter attached to a condenser and heat applied ; the water
distilled over, leaving the material in the flask apparently unchanged.
No oily layer separated from the distillate, thereby indicating the ab-
sence of volatile oil, and determining at once the important distinction
of this substance from copabia balsam. The distillate was practically
clear and colourless, neutral to litmus paper and gave nocolour with fer-
ric chloride. An aromatic odour was exhaled during the distillation,
and was to a less degree noticeable in the distillate. The water remain-
ing in the flask with the material had the same properties as the dis-
tillate, and had dissolved nothing. Heat was then further applied to the
flask and its contents until all the water was removed, the temperature
was then increased and the material, by a decomposition similar to that
known as “cracking” in the distillation of petroleum, distilled until
about 90 per cent. had passed into the receiver. ‘The residue then be-
gan to “coke” and emit smoky vapors. The black tarry residue solid-
fied on cooling. The last portion of the distillate had a reddish
colour and a strong fluorescence similar to that seen in paraffin oils ;
the odour of this portion was distinctly that of petroleum. The first
portions of the distillate were yellow and and had an aromatic odour;
these were mixed and redistilled. Distillation began at about 150° C.
about three-fourths of the mixture passed over between that tempera-
tnre and 360° C. When this point was reached the residue in the flask
had a reddish colour, a petroleum-like odour and fluorescence like the
previously described fraction. Both processes were evidently accom-
panied by destructive distillation.

The specific gravity of the original material was slightly higher than
water, although it floated on the latter liquid, owing, no doubt, to
occluded air. No nitrogen was found to be present. The substance
is either a resinous body very poor in oxygen or else a hydrocarbon, or
a mixture of several of them. Its physical properties no doubt sug-
gested a resemblance to copaiba, and therefore the specific name of
the tree but in composition and other chemical properties it bears no re-
lation to either copaiba balsam or gurjun balsam. Its behaviour under
high temperature indicated some relationship to the fixed oils (see
Sadtler on the Destructive Distillation of Linseed Oil, 4m. Jour. Pharm.
1896 page 485). It is probably medicinally inert.

Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, April, 1897.

EE

79
CONEYS AND NUTMEG TREES.

A correspondent in the east of the island complains of the bark of his
Nutmeg trees being stripped off apparently by the native coney. The
following from an American agricultural publication is suggestive :—

Our correspondence indicates that mice and rabbits are often serious
pests. Banking up the trunks in the fall from 12 to 15 inches with
earth soas to form a mound with steep sides is a good safeguard against
mice. This is easily done and also protects the roots on young trees.
The mound should be leveled in the spring. To guard against rabbits
it is a good practice to wash the stem in the fall with whitewash,
thickened with copperas and sulphur. This wash should be renewed as
often as necessary, if washed off by heavy rains. These two methods
have long been used by many orchadists in the Northwest. The last few
years, however, wire cloths such as is used for screen doors, has come
into favour in several large orchards. The wire cloth is cut so as to
lap over and allow for several years’ growth; the sheath is set into
the ground about one inch, extends up the full width of the wire screen-
ing, and is fastened near top and bottom with wire. This guards
against both mice and rabbits and has proven inexpensive and effective.
The whitewash can be used if necessary above the wire screening on the
stem and main limbs. G. A. Tracey, of Watertown, writes in the Da-
kota Farmer :

“For rabbits I have for the past twelve years used liver, either hog
or beef. I take a piece and go through the orchard, rub it on some of
the limbs and bodies of the trees, but do not put it nearer than two or three
feet of the ground, for fear of the mice, for they will eat it and the
bark with it if it is near the ground. I have failed yet to find a single
instance where a rabbit has been nearer than four or five feet of a tree so
protected. I use tar paper around the trees, or a little earth banked up
around them to protect from mice In using tar paper on small trees I
put a stick on the south side to hold the paper a little away from the
bark, I have used other remedies, but none suit me so well or is as
quickly done as the above”

The use of tar paper in orchards is very generally condemned by
fruit growers as it often proves very destructive to the bark, especially
on young trees.

Commenting on the above, A. J. Phillips, West Salem, Wis.,
Secretary of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society writes; “I am in-
clined to give you the benefit of my experience for the past fifteen
years, which, if followed, will be useful to many of your readers.
Liver, tar paper, white wash, carbolic acid and Paris green, all fade into
insignificance when compared with a good protector made of eight lath
woven together with common broom wire, and placed around the trunk
of the tree. The length of the lath is to be guaged by the height of the
limbs of the tree. This protects against sunscald, rabbits, mice and
sheep; plenty of air goes in between the lath. After seven to ten
years the tree will fill it full and the bark will be smooth and green
under the same, and I never yet have found a borer in a well protected
tree of this kind. Banking the earth is a delusion nine times out of ten,
as the grower fails to remove it and it remains and sods over with June

80

grass, which soon takes away from the tree all the moisture that fall so
that the feeding roots never find it. Piotection of this kind is always on
and costs half a cent per year. And a tree, when half a cent would
save it, I ask, who is willing to lose it ?”

If the laths have a tendency to rub the berk they may be kept m
place by a bunch of hay stuffed in at the top.

NOTES ON RECENT ADDITIONS.

Irvineia Barrert, Hook. f—This is the *‘ Wild Mango” of the
natives of Sierra Lecne. ‘The fruit is about 24 inches in diameter, and
is said to be edible. ‘The stem contains a seed from which an oily pre~
paraticn can be extracted, semething like Cocoa butter. The tree is from
30 to 60 ft. high with small yellow flowers, and belongs to the samo
family as Bitter wood and Mountain Pride (Simarubeg).

It was first collected by Mr. Charles Parter, attached to the Niger
Expedition of 1857-59, ard the species was named after him.

Seeds presented by Director, R. Gardens, Kew.

Kicxxia AFRICANA, BentH.—1 his is one of the African 1ubker trees
widely distributed frcm Sierra Leone to the Gold Coast and beyond the
mouths of the Niger to the Bight of Biafra. The native name of the
tree is Ire, Ireh, or Ereh. It is said to be one of the most beautiful
trees in the forest, and ficm the ground it grows evenly in bulk and
smoothly to the height of 60 to 70 feet.

In the rainy season when the trees are full of milk, a tree well tapped
is capable of producing from 10 to 15lbs of rubber, which is worth 1/
per lb., on the spot if preperly prepared, and 2/, to 2/4 in English
markets if made into biscuit.

This valuable rubber tree belongs to the same family as the Jamaica
Milk Wythe (Apocynace.) Seeds presented by Director, R. Gardens,
Kew, and Mr. Hartley of the Legos Botanical Station.

Acacia mollissima Willd.—This is the Black Wattle.—By cutting
out the branches in Wattle-plantations the needful thinning is obtained.
The bark of this tree is rich in tannin, the average proportion of
mimosa-tannic acid in absolutely dry bark is 30.08. For full informa-
tion on Wattles and Wattle-barks see Bulletin for September, 1890.
Seeds presented by Director, Botanic Gardens Sydney, N.S. W.

81

REASONS FOR CULTIVATING THE SOIL.
By Mirron Wuirney.
Chief of the Division of Agricultural Soils, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.
From Year Book for 1895.
HOW WATER ENTERS THE SOIL.

Water is the most abundant substance found in living crops. Not
only does it form by far the largest proportion of all fresh vegetable
substance, but, on account of loss through evaporation from the leaves
of growing plants and the necessity of replacing this loss, thirty or
forty times more water is needed during the growing period of a crop
than is contamed in the crop when harvested. Plants require a large
amount of water for their life and growth, and it is necessary that the
supply should be abundant at all times. If the evaporation from the
plant grately exceeds the amount taken in through the roots, the leaves
wilt and the plant suffers.

Therefore one of the most important functions of the soil in its
relation to crop production is the maintenance of a proper supply of
water. Rain falls, on .an average, in the humid portion of the United
States for two or three days in succession, and is then followed by
an interval of eight or ten days of fair weather. As plants are fixed
in their relative positions in the earth, the soil, in order to supply them
with water during the fair-weather period, has to offer such a resistance
to the percolation of the rain than an adequate supply shall be held back.
On account of this resistance, due to the friction which the rain encoun-
ters in the minute spaces between the soil grains through which it has
to pass, the movement is very slow and only part of the water sinks
below the reach of plants before the next rainfall occurs.

The resistance which soils, owing to their difference in texture, offer
to the percolation of the rain varies greatly. Light, sandy soils main-
tain comparatively little moisture, because the spaces between the grains
are comparatively large and there is relatively but little resistance to the
flow of water, so that the rainfall moves down quite rapidly until there
is only 5 or 10 per cent of moisture present in the soil. Strong clay
soils, on the other hand, have very minute spaces for the water to move
through, and consequently offer a very great resistence to the percolation
of the rain. These soils maintain, as a rule, from 15 to 20 per cent of
their weight of water.

Different plants grow best with different amounts of water. For
instance, the pasture grasses thrive on a soil which is too moist for
Indian corn, or even for the largest and surest yield of wheat. Some
classes of tobacco thrive well on soils whieh are very retentive of mois-
ture, while other classes can only be grown with success on drier soils.
We are not concerned in this article with the amount of moisture which
different soils maintain or with the amount of moisture required by
different kinds of plants. We must recognize, however, that it is not
possible nor desirable to maintain the same amount of water in all soils,
for if this were done there would not be the opportunity for diversity
in agriculture which we have under existing conditions.

While water is maintained for a time in the soil, as already explained,
it is liable to be lost to the growing crop by evaporation from the sur-

82

face of the ground or by being used up by weeds. The end sought in
ploughing and cultivation is to control the water supply by removing
weeds and leaving the surface of the soil covered with a loose, dry
mulch to retard evaporation. Many of our crops require no subsequent
cultivation after they are put into the ground. Wheat, oats, rye, clover,
grass, forest trees, and, in general, such crops as cover and shade the
ground are not, as a rule, cultivated during their period of growth. On
the other hand, such crops as corn, tobacco, cotton, potatoes, and fruit
trees require cultivation during their early growing period, although
even with these crops cultivation ceases after they have attained consi-
derable size, and is rarely practiced during the ripening period.

The principal object of ploughing is to loosen up the soil, for four
purposes: (1) To enable the soil to absorb the rainfall more quickly and
more freely than it would in its undisturbed condition ; (2) to maintain
more of the rainfall near the roots of plants; (3) to admit fresh air to
the roots of plants; (4) to enable the roots of the young or quickly
growing plants to penetrate the soil more easily.

The principal objects of subsequent cultivation, whether with plough,
-cultivator, cotton sweep, harrow, hoe, or rake, are (1) to prevent loss of
water by weeds and grass, which use up great quantities; (2) to keep
the surface covered with a loose, dry mulch in order to prevent, so far
as possible, loss of water by evaporation. Water is thus conserved for
the use of crops, and the supply is more abundant and more uniform
than it would have been without the cultivation.

A soil with a compact surface quickly dries out, and the water supply
fluctuates rapidly and excessively, to the detriment of most crops
during their growing period. Weeds and grass are generally to be ex-
cluded from the crop because they transpire great quantities of water
which would otherwise have been at the disposal of the crop. Weeds
are, however, occasionally of advantage to the crops, especially during the
ripening period, because they help to dry out the soil and thus hasten
the maturity of the crop.

Some of our crops, therefore, do not require cultivation, because
they shade the ground and prevent evaporation and prevent grass
and weeds from springing up and diminishing their supply of water,
or because they are deeply rooted and can bring water up from con-
siderable depths. Other crops can not protect their water supply
in this way, and it must be artificially controlled by methods of
cultivation.

PRINCIPLES OF PLOUGHING.

The common plough is essentially awedge-shaped instrument, which
is forced through the soil to loosen it. The topsoil is forced aside
thrown up, and usually turned over. This action loosens the soil by
separating the soil grains. The loose soil occupies more space than the
compact soil did, and a cubic foot of the former, therefore contains
more space for water to enter. Each separate space, however, is also
larger and has less capillary action anda smaller power of drawing
water to the surface. If the soil, by reason of its fine texture or wet
condition, is lumpy after the ploughing, the spaces in the soil will be of
very uneven size, and it frequently happens that the surface of the
ground is not left in a suitable condition to draw water up from below

83

Jf small seeds are sown on such a rough surface, they are liable to
suffer for lack of moisture. It is customary, therefore, and very advis-
able in such cases, to harrow and roll the seed bed until all the larger
lumps are broken down and the surface is left smooth and even, in
order to insure a supply of moisture to the seed during the germinating
period. However, soil which has thus been rolled will lose more water
by evaporation than soil which has been simply harrowed. ‘The evapo-
ration of this moisture is an incident which it is not always possible
or desirable to prevent. With some crops the surface may be har-
rowed after the seed has germinated. This is desirable when it can be
done without injury to the crop, as it tends to retard evaporation.

There is one serious defect in the principle of the common plough
which, upon some soils and with certain kinds of ploughing, is lable to
have very serious effects. Ifa field is ploughed for many successive
years to a depth of 6 or 8 inches the tendency each time is to com-
pact the subsoil immediately below the plough, thus rendering it more
impervious to water ; that is, the plough in being dragged along plasters
the subsoil just as a mason with his trowel would smooth out a layer
of cement to make it as close and impervous to water as possible.
This is undoubtedly an advantage to some soils, but, on the other
hand, it is very injurious to many.

The injurious effect of this compact layer formed by the ploughing is
twofold. It makes it more difficult for the rainfall to be absorbed as
rapidly as it falls, and increases the danger of loss of water and injury
to the soil by surface washing. Soils ploughed at a depth of 3 or 4
inches, which is quite common in many parts of the country, would
have a thin layer of loose material on the surface, with a compact
subsoil below, into which water would descend rather slowly. With
arapid and excessive fall of rain, the light, loose topsoil is liable to
be washed away by the excess of water, which can not descend into
the subsoil as rapidly as it falls. This washing of the surface and
erosion of fields i to gullies occasion the abandonment of thousands
of acres of land. The fi-ld willnot wash so badly if it is not ploughed,
and, on the other hand, it will hardly wash at all if the cultivation is
deeper and the subsoil left in a loose and absorbent condition. The
deeper the cultivation, the greater the proportion of rainfall stored
away and the less danger of the erosion of the surface soil and the
less serious the defect of our common method of ploughing. While
there is less danger from washing, however, with deep cultivation,
there is still a tendency towards the formation of a hardpan at what-
ever depth the land is ploughed. No simple modification of the ordi-
nary plough or of the subsoil plough will overcome this defect. It will
require a change inthe very principle of theimplement. The plough
should not cut through the soil, but break it apart so as neither to
compact nor puddle it by being dragged along over the subsoil.

While all other farm implements and machinery have been im-
proved, especially within the last fifty years, so that we are able
now to harvest more crops than ever before and to handle our
crops to better advantage, our common plough has not been essen-
tially improved or modified in any important particular, except as
to mechanical construction, since the davs of the early Greeks and
Romans. It would seem only necessary to call attention to this, the

84

fundamental and simplest principle of agriculture, to have some new
method devised of stirring the soil without compacting the subsoil.

‘the highest art of cultivation which has ever been practiced is.
that of trenching, so extensively employed in England and so ear-
nestly advocated by the early English writers on agriculture. With a
large class of lands there is no implement so effective for loosening
and impreving the soil conditions as the spade. The spade does not
eut the soil from the subsoil as the plough does, but breaks it off, and
there is little or no disturbance and no compacting whatever below
that point. Every one is familiar with the difference in the tilth of
a garden which has been thoroughly spaded and of a field ploughed
in the ordinary way. This old method of trenching with a spade
can not, of course, be used in the extensive systems of cultivation
practiced in this country, and it is now used in England much less
than it was years ago, but if this principle could be worked into a
practical method of cultivation it would be of great benefit to agri-
culture.

PRINCIPLES OF SUBSOILING.

At the present time little is known definitely about the practical
value of subsoiling. In certain localities it has or has not been
found to be beneficial to crops. There is a wide diffierence of opinion
upon this fundamental point. Fifteen or twenty years ago it was
very generally advocated throughout the Hast by all of the agricul-
tural journals. It was tried ina great variety of soils and under
many conditions, and there is no doubt that in perhaps a majority
of cases it showed no beneficial effects. This might have been
expected, for no one method of cultivation can be equally valuable
under the various conditions of soil, climate, and crops such as
prevail over such a great extent of country. At the present the subject
is being prominently agitated in some of the Western States, particu-
larly in the semiarid regions, and very favorable results are being
reported through the local agricultural papers.

A few general principles only may be laid down for guidance in
this matter. Subsoiling is rarely necessary in light, porous, sandy
soils or in a climate where they are frequent light showers. It is not
beneficial in heavy, wet soils, unless they are previously thoroughly
underdrained. It is likely to be injurious if in the operation much
of the subsoil is brought to the surface and incorporated in the sur-
face soil, especially if the subsoil itself is in an unhealthy condition
as regards drainage aad contains poisonous matters which would be
deleterious to plant growth. Poisonous matters frequently occur in
subsoils as a result of improper aeration and the growth of certain
minute organisms.

Subsoiling when properly done consists merely of breaking up the
subsoil without bringing it to the surface or in any way incorporating
it with the upper layer of the soil. In this respect it differs from
deep ploughing. The ideal subsoil plough consists merely of a tongue
fashioned much like a common pick and hardly larger in its demen-
sions—slightly smaller at the point than in the rear, but as small in
all its parts as is consistent with perfect rigidity and with the nature
of the soil through which it is to be drawn. This usually follows an
ordinary plough. It should be run at as great a depth as possible, the

.

85

endeavour being to get it at least 16 or 18 inches below the surface. It
is often advisable by this means to break up a hardpan formed, per-
haps, by long-continued ploughing at a uniform depth or existing asa
natural formation below the surface.

Subsoiling is likely to be beneficial, under the prevailing climatic
conditions east of the Mississippi River, in any soils of medium or of

heavy texture, provided the land has fairly good drainage. In the

semiarid region of the West it is likely to be very beneficial upon
many classes of soils, especially where the rainfall occurs in heavy
and infrequent showers and where it is necessary to increase the
capacity of the soils to absorb water readily and rapidly.

Subsoiling, to be efficient, should be done a sufficient length of time
before the crops are planted to insnre to the soil a thorough soaking
with rain; otherwise it may injure rather than improve the soil con-
ditions for the first year. Subsoiling, by stirring the land to an
unusual depth, favours the drying out of the soil, so that if it is not
supplemented by a soaking rain before the seed is put in, the ground
is drier than if the work had not been done.

There are few places in the West where this practice has been carried
on long enough and under conditions necessary for beneficial effect.
One such place, however, is at Geneva, Nebr., where subsoiling has
been intelligently carried on for a number of years under nusery
stock. The records of soil moisture which have been made at that
place by this division through the present season show that on the
average, through the menths of June, July, and August, there was 10
per cent of moisture in the soil to a depth of 12 inches where ordinary
methods of cultivation had been used, and 15 per cent where the land
had been previously subsoiled No crops were growing on the soils
from which the record were kept in either case. This difference of
5 per cent inthe amount of water, or 50 per cent increase over that
in the uncultivated soil,isa very large amount and would doubtless
have a very important effect upon the crop yield. This is confirmed
by the actual yields on the two soils, as reported by Younger & Co.,
on whose farm the observations were made.

Further work will be done along these lines by this division, to

establish these general principles. In the meantime great care and

judgment should be exercised in deciding upon whether it is advisable
to adopt this practice in every case.

CULTIVATION.

Cultivation as here used means the actual stirring of the surface
after the crop is planted, either with a plough, cotten sweep cultivator,
harrow, hoe, or other implement The object of cultivation is two-
fold—to destroy weeds and thus prevent the great drain which they
make upon the soil moisture, and to loosen and pulverize the surface,
leaving it as a fine mulch, the object of which is to prevent evaporo-
tion. The first of these objects needs no further comment here. As
regards the second object of cultivation, the result to be attained is
to have the surface covered with a fine, dry mulch before the dry spell
sets in, so as to conserve the water in the soil during dry periods.

Cultivation is usually most effective in the early stages of the
growth of crops especially during the growth of the vegetative parts

86

of the plant. It is usual to stir the surface after each rain. If another
rain follows within a short time, this cultivation may do little or no
good ; but if a dry season follows, the cultivation may save the crop
by its having diminished the evaporation While cultivation does
not add water to the soil, as some claim, it prevents excessive loss, and
ri maintains more water in the soil, which means about the same
thing.

The kind of treatment adapted to the cultivation of different soils
depends upon local conditions, climate, and the kind of crop. The
object sought is the same in all cases but the means of attaining it
must be adapted to the local circumstances. As a rule, cultivation
should be shaliow, for two reasons, namely, to avoid disturbing the
roots of the growing plants, and to avoid losing any more of the soil
moisture than possible. A single cultivation after each rain is not
necessarily enough, especially if a dry season is expected. lhe sur-
face must be kept loove and dry, and this may require more than one
cultivation, even if there has been no subsequent rain.

Few of our agricultural crops require cultivation after they have
attained their vegetative growth, and a crop is frequently injured
when cultivation is continued too long, because the soil is thus kept too
wet, and the plants are not inclined to ripen as early as they should or
to mature as large a yield of fruit or grain Most of our grain crops
will mature more seed if the ground is moderately dry during their
ripening period.

UNDERDRAINAGE.,

A soil containing too much water during the whole or a considerable
part of the season should be underdrained to draw off the excessive
amount of moisture. Most of our agricultural crops do better in a soil
containing from 30 to 60 per cent of the amount of water which
the soil would contain if saturated. With less water, crops suffer;
with more, they suffer from lack of air around their roots. Wheat may
be grown very successfully, and will attain a perfectly normal
development in water culture with its roots entirely immersed in a
nutritive solution, provided the water is supplied with air at frequent
intervals, but it will not grow in stagnant, saturated soil, not because
there is too much water, but because there is too little air. A soil,
therefore, which contains too much water contains too little air, and
part of the water should be drawu off through ditches or tile drains.

Centuries ago the Romans used to overcome this trouble by plant-
ing the crop on very high ridges or beds, often 8 or 10 feet high and
fully as wide In this way alleys were provided at frequent intervals
to carry off the surface water, and the greatest extent of surface was
presented for the drying out of the soil, while the roots were kept at a
considerable distunce from the saturated subsoil. Storer states that
some of these ridges are still to be found in localities in Europe.
They are used to-day in a modified form in the cultivation of the sea-
island cotton off the coast of South Carolina, but are being gradually
given up as the practice of underdrainage is introduced, which is cheaper
in the end and more effective.

Tile drainage is usually most effective in stiff clay soils and in low
bottom lands, but it is occasionally beneficial in medium grades of

87

loam or even in light sandy soils. [t is practiced to a considerable:
extent in the light sandy soil of the truck area of the Atlantic Sea-
board, where the question of a few days in the time of ripening of the
crop is an important factor.

IRRIGATION.

If the climatic conditions are such that it is impossible, with the
most improved methods of ploughing, subsoiling, and subsequent culti-
vation, to maintain a sufficient amount of moisture in the soil for the
use of crops, it is then necessary to resort to irrigation or the artificial
application of water to the soil. It is not the purpose here to enter
into a discussion of the best methods of irrigation but simply to discuss
briefly the general principles of irrigation as practiced in maintaining
proper conditions in the soil.

Our ideas of irrigation should not be confined to the arid regions.
To be sure, irrigation is much more important there than elsewhere,
for without artificial application of water, crops could not be produced
in many localities. In the humid portion of the United States, even
in localities in Florida where they have from 60 to 70 inches of annual
rainfall, irrigation is used successfully as a means of insuring the
crop against drought due to the uneven distribution of the rainfall. It
has been pointed out in several publications of this division that where
the supply of water in different soils reaches a certain point, which
differs according to the texture of the soil, crop suffer for lack of it.
In the truck soils of the Atlantic Coast this minimum is approximately
4 per cent, while in the heavy limestone grass lands of Kentucky the
pasture begins to dry up when the soils contain as much as 15 per cent
of water.

Under our present modes of cultivation the farmer can do little for
the crop during the time of actual drought. Ordinary cultivation is of
comparatively little benefit during a prolonged dry season. Its most
effective work is before the dry spell sets in. No matter what the
value of the crop, and no matter how much this value is concentrated
on small areas of land, there is practically but little to be done to
save the crop. Irrigation should be used as an insurance against the
loss of crops. A small pond fed by a wind mill would often save a
garden or a small area of a valuable crop from destruction or great
injury during a dry season. A small portable farm engine, which
would be available at other times for cutting feed, thrashing grain,
and other farm purposes, could be used to drive an irrigation pump
during the dry seasons. This would be particularly valuable for
tobacco, truck, and other crops which are grown under a very intensive
system of cultivation.

The object of all cultivation, in its broadest aspect, is to maintain,
under existing climatic conditions, a uniform and adequate supply of
water and air in soils, adapted to different classes of plants. This is the
object alike of ploughing, subsoiling, cultivation, underdrainage, and
irrigation ; they are all processes to be usod in maintaining suitable
moisture conditions for the growth of crops.

88

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS:
COMPOSITION AND USE.

BY
EDWARD B. VOORHESS, M.A.,
Director of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Stations and Professor of
Agriculture in Rutgers College.
Published under the Supervision of the Office of Experiment Stations,
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

There is, perhaps, no question of greater importance to the practical
farmer than that of soil fertility. To produce profitable crops and at
the same time to maintain and even to increase the productive capacity
of the soil may rightly be termed “ good farming.” Many farmers are
able to do this, and the knowledge of how to do it has been largely ac-
quired through years of experience, during which the character of the
soil, its adaptability for crops, and the methods of its management and
manuring have been made the subjects of careful study, without, how-
ever, any definite and accurate knowledge concerning manures and their
functions in relation to soils and crops. Experience is an excellent
teacher ; still, a definite knowledge of first principles may be substi-
tuted for years of experience in the successful use of manures.

THE NEED OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.

The fertility of the soil would remain practically unchanged if all the
ingredients removed in the various farm products were restored to the
land. This is toalarge extent accomplished by feeding the crops grown
on the farm to animals, carefully saving the manure and returning it to
the soil, and if it is practicable to pursue a system of stock feeding in
which those products of the farm which are comparatively poor in fer-
tilizing constituents are exchanged in the market for feeding stuffs of
high fertilizing value, the loss of soil fertility may be reduced to a mini-
mum or there may be an actual gain in fertility.

The following table, showing the amounts of fertilizing constituents
in 1 ton of different agricultural products, indicates directions in which
such an exchange may be effected with advantage :

Manurial constituents contained in 1 ton of various farm products.

|

| Phosphoric
Nitrogen.| Acid. | Potash.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Meadow hay css occ 20.42 | 8.2 26.4
Clover hay <03 act 40.16 11.2 36.6
Potatoes tc ate ie O1n} 33574 11.4
Wheat bran oes ~ 49.15 | 54.6 28.6
Linseed meal ee Bes OD Aa 32.2 24.8
Cotton-seed meal eee asc) BEA 56.2 29.2
Wheat aon aos 37.53 | 15.8 10.6
Oats Kee ace 36.42 | 12.4 8.8
Corn ase <0 23.06 11.8 7.4 -
Barley wee su 39.65 | 15.4 | 9.0
Milk Soe soc 10.20 3:4 | 3.0
Cheese eae ae 90.60 | 23.0 | 5.0
Live cattle ues on 53.20 | 37.2 | 3.4

89

The exchange of 1 ton of corn for 1 ton of wheat bran, for instance,
with result in a gain of 16 pounds of nitrogen, 43 of phospheric acid,
and 21 of potash. With an exchange of milk or potatoes for the con-
centrated feeding stuffs the gain is still more striking.

A careful study of the present condition of farming in the United
States indicates, however, that as a rule the manure produced on the
farm is not sufficient to maintain its fertility and that the need for arti-
ficial supplies is real, though the amount required may be considerably
reduced by careful management.

In the system of so-called “ grain-farming” which has obtained over
large areas of this country for a long time, and is still practiced in the
Eastern, Middle, and Central Western States, the live stock kept is often
limited to a number sufficient only to the needs of the farm for labour
and food; the grainis sold, andthe manure is make up chiefly of the
natural wastes, or unsalable material, such as straw, stalks, etc. The
grain contains proportionately greater amounts of nitrogen and mineral
constituents than these wastes; hence the practice continued for a long
time results not only in a deficiency in the soil of organic substances
containing nitrogen, but also in an exhaustion of the mineral substances.
The original character of the soil and its treatment measure the rate of
exhaustion. The less fertile soils of the East and South are rapidly de-
pleted, while the rich prairie and river bottoms maintain their fertility
for a longer period.

Special crop farming, as for example the continuous cotton and
tobacco growing of the South and the wheat growing of the West, is
even more exhaustive, since here the demands upon the soil are not
changed—year after year the same crop is grown and the same kind
and ‘proportion of constituents are required, while even less returns are
made in the way of manure than in the system of farming above de-
scribed. Moreover, thejland is left bare for a large part of the year and
loss of fertility from this cause is very large. The crops are less abun-
dant each year, not because the soil is entirely exhausted, but because
it is so far exhausted of those constituents essential to the special crop
grown that its production is no longer profitable.

Changed conditions of farming, which have an important bearing, on
this point, may be observed in two directions—(1) in the increased cost
of labour and in the lower prices of grain, cotton, and tobacco; and (2)
in the increasing demand for market garden products and fruit. For
example, in growing wheat, the labour of preparing the soil, of cultiva-
tion, and of harvesting is practically the same whether the yield is 10
bushels per acre or 30 bushels. The same is true of a number of other
crops ; hence in the larger yield the cost of labour per bushel is mate-
rially reduced ; meagre crops of a relatively low value can not be pro-
duced profitably with high-priced labour. Soils of a high degree of
fertility are required in order to produce large yields of these crops.
The return to the soil of only the wastes of the farm results sooner or
later in a decrease in fertility, however good the management may be;
hence the need of supplies of plant food from sources outside the farm
in order that maximum crops may be produced.

In the case of market garden crops, it has been proven that even very
fertile soils contain too little available food to insure a maximum pro-
duction ; this is especially true where rapidity of growth, earliness, and

90

high quality of produce are important factors. The areas now neces-
sarily devoted to these crops are so great that the amount of farm ma-
nures available is much too small; besides, the constituents contained
in such manures, being slowly available, are less useful than the more
active forms contained in commercial fertilizing materials. They are
in a sense artificial crops and, as a rule, need artificial supplies of plant
food.

Fruit culture, an industry of growing importance, is profitable, par-
ticularly on the poorer soils near the Eastern markets, largely in pro-
portion to the supply of the mineral elements in excess of those contained
in soils otherwise well adapted to the crops. A sufficiency of food not
only enables the trees to resist unfavourable conditions, but improves
the quality of the fruit and extends the bearing period of the orchards
and vineyards.

It will thus be seen that it is either to make up the deficiencies of
farm manures or in specialized intensive farming that commercial fer-
tilizers can be most advantageously used. The latter should supple-
ment and not entirely replace the manurial resources of the farm. They
give best results as a rule on soils well stocked with organic matter
(humus), a material which can be maintained in soil only by the regular
application of the bulky farm manures (including green manures).

FERTILIZER REQUIREMENTS OF DIFFERENT SOILS AND CROPS.

Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are the constituents most likely
to be deficient in soils or most quickly exhausted by the production and
removal of crops. These are known as “essential” fertilizing consti-
tuents, and the value of a commercial fertilizer is determined almost
exclusively by the amount and form of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
and potash which it contains. It does not follow, however, that all soils
or crops will respond equally to applications of materials containing these
elements, because the needs of soils and the requirements of crops vary.

Soils differ in respect to their needs for specific elements, owing either
to their method of formation or to their management and cropping.
sandy soil is usually deficient in all the essential plant-food constituents—
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash—while a clayey soil usually
contains the mineral elements in abundance, particularly potash. On
the other hand, a soil very rich in vegetable matter is frequently de-
ficient in mineral matter, while a limestone soil is likely to contain
considerable proportions of phosphoric acid. These are the indications
in a general way, and they explain why it is that different kinds of
soil that have not been cropped differ in respect to their needs in re-
ference to the different fertilizing constituents.

Methods of management and cropping also exert an influence; for
example, soils of equal natural fertility may not respond equally to
uniform methods of fertilization, because in the one case a single crop,
requiring for its growth proportionately more of one of the essential
elements than of another, is grown year after year, and it may be that
the element required is the one that exists in the soil in least quantity.
On the other hand, crops may be grown that demand but minimum
amounts of the element in question; hence its application to the soil
for the one crop may be followed by largely increased returns, while
for the other but little if any increase in crop is apparent.

91

In the matter of management, too, a considerable variation may be
observed. One soil may losea large portion of its essential constituents,
because no pains are taken to retain for the use of the crop the consti-
tuents annually rendered available through the natural agencies of sun,
air, and water; while in another, by means of carefnl cultivation and
the use of absorbents and catch crops, the constituents made available
are largely retained

Crops differ in respect to their power of acquiring food.—The legumes,
a class of plants which includes the various clovers, peas, beans,
vetches, etc., differ from other plants in being able, under proper con-
ditions, to acquire their nitrogen from the air, and can therefore make
perfect growth without depending upon soil nitrogen. On the other
hand, the various grasses and grains are not only dependent upon soil
nitrogen, but they must have an abundance during their most rapid

eriod of growth in order to attain their maximum development. For
the latter class of plants favourable results are secured from the proper
use of nitrogenous manures, while for the former class the application
of nitrogenous manures simply results in supplying an element which
could have been secured quite as well by the plant itself, without
expense. Illustrations could be multiplied, though perhaps less strik-
ing than this, showing that the variations in crops in respect to their
ower of acquiring food are really very great, and a right knowledge
of this fact has a most important bearing upon the economical use of
commercial manures.

“The most satisfactory, and, indeed, usually the only method” says

Armsby, “by which we can at present determine the needs of a soil is
to ask the question of the soil itself by growing a crop upon it with
different kinds of fertilizers and noting the result. Such soil tests with
fertilizers have in many cases given results of much immediate prac-
tical value for the locality in which they were undertaken. As a rule,
however, farmers have looked upon such experiments as something too
costly and complicated for them to undertake, and consequently they
have perforce been content to use fertilizers in a more or less hap-
hazard manner, and in many cases, no doubt at a great financial dis-
advantage.”
While such tests are not so difficultor expensive asis often sup-
posed it is recommended that before the farmer undertakes them for
the first time he seek the advice of some one familiar with the details of
such work.

FORMS, SOURCES, AND COMPOSITION OF FERTILIZING MATERIALS.

The term “form” as applied to a fertilizing constituent has reference
to its combination or association with other constituents, which may be
useful, though not necessarily so. The form of the constituent, too, has
an important bearing upon its availability, and hence upon its useful-
ness as plant food. Many materials containing the essential elements
are practically worthless as sources of plant food because the form is not
right; the plants are unable to extract them from their combinations ;
they are “unavailable.” In many of these materials the forms are
changed by proper treatment, in which case they become valuable not
because the element itself is changed, but because it then exists in such
form as readily to feed the plant.

ee

EE ANG Sy te eis EO At LT a Nxt oe ela Tigi tna

le tenet ne see Dt aac taint we ti

92

NITROGEN.

Nitrogen is the most expensive of the three essential fertilizing ele-
ments. It exists in three distinct forms, viz., as organic matter, as
ammonia, and as nitrate.

Organic nitrogen exists in combination with other elements either
as vegetable or animal matter. In fact all plants,and animals contain
nitrogen in this form, and the relative value of the various substances
as sources of nitrogen depends upon their content of it and upon the
character of the substance and its treatment. All materials containing
organic nitrogen are valuable in proportion to their rapidity of decay
or change, because decay and change of form must take place before the
nitrogen can serve as food. In some cases the decay is longer delayed
than in others. The material may be hard and dense, or it may have
been treated for the express purpose of preventing decay, or it may be
associated with other substances that resist the agents which effect
decay. Thus organic nitrogen differs in availability not only according
to the kind of material which supplies it, but upon the treatment it
receives.

The most abundant supplies of nitrogen occur in organic forms. The
most valuable sources of organic nitrogen, from the standpoints of uni-
formity in composition, richness in the constituent, and availability, are
dried blood, dried meat, or azotine, and concentrated tankage, which
are produced in large quantities in slaughterhouses and rendering
establishments; dried fish, refuse from fish-oil and canning establish-
ments; and cotton-seed meal, the residue of the cotton seed after the
oil has been extracted. These vary somewhat in composition, but
within comparatively narrow limits (see table, p. 106). They are all
rich in nitrogen, and decay rapidly when the conditions are favourable,
and are very useful in cases were rapid and continuous feeding of the
plant with nitrogen is desirable.

These products, while valued principally as sources of nitrogen, also
furnish more or less phosphoric acid, the dried blood and meat showing
the least and the fish the greatest amount. Other nitrogenous mate-
rials which are less desirable are leather meal, horn and hoof meal,
wool waste, felt waste, and similar products. These contain, as a rale,
a high content of nitrogen, but they are so very slow to decay that it is
doubtful whether their use in their original form is advisable when
forms of known value are available at reasonable prices. Where the
object is gradually to increase the fertility of the soil rather than to
secure immediate returns, they may become useful. Farmers fre-
quently have access to local supplies at a slight cost, the chief expense
being the labour of carting and distributing, in which case they are
worth considering.

Nitrogen as ammonia exists in commercial manure products in the
form of sulphate of ammonia, chloride of ammonia, etc., and is more
readily available than organic forms. It is one of the first products
that results from the decay of organic substances.

Nitrogen in the form of ammonia is obtained almost entirely from
sulphate of ammonia, which is one of the most concentrated materials
from which nitrogen is obtained for fertilizing purposes, the commercial
product containing on the average 20 per cent. of nitrogen. As already
indicated, ammonia is one of the first products in the decay of organic

93

substances, and this, together with the fact of its concentration, makes
fhe sulphate an extremely valuable form of nitrogen. While it is
extremely soluble in water, if is not readily removed from the soil by
leaching, except in the absence of growing plants, since it is readily
absorbed by organic and other compounds of the soil.

Nitrogen as nitrate exists in commercial products as nitrate of soda,
nitrate of potash, ete. These, like the ammonia compounds, are ex-
tremely soluble, and the nitrogen contained in them is readily avail-
able as food for plants. The nitrogen in this form is directly and imme-
diately available, no further changes being necessary.

The chief source of nitrogen as nitrate is nitrate of soda. This salt
is rich in nitrogen, showing on the average 16 per cent, and is quite
uniform in composition. It is completely soluble in water, diffuses
readily throughout the soil, and differs from the ammonia compounds
in forming no insoluble compounds with soil constituents. It is, there-
fore, liable to be washed out of the soil if applied in too large quanti-
ties or when there is an absence of vegetation. Plants that derive
their nitrogen from the soil secure it chiefly in the form of a nitrate ;
hence nitrate of soda is one of the most directly useful of the nitroge-
nous materials.

As already explained, nitrogen in organic forms is changed into
ammonia by the decay or rotting of the substance. Ammonia, while it
may nourish plants directly, is usually changed into a nitrate, in which
form it is taken up by the plant. An application of nitrogen as nitrates
may be completely used by the plant in a very short time; as ammonia
or organic matter it may be partially or wholly used in the course of a
season, depending upon whether the conditions are favorable for caus-
ing the changes that must take place.

PHOSPHORIC ACID.

Phosphoric acid is derived from materials called phosphates, in which it
may exist in combination with lime, iron, or alumina as phosphates of lime,
iron, or alumina. Phosphate of lime, however, is the form most largely
used as a source of phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid occurs in fertilizers
in three forms : That soluble in water and readily taken up by plants ; that
insoluble in water but still readily used by plants, also known as “rever-
ted; ” and that soluble only in strong acids and consequently very slowly
used by the plant. The soluble and “reverted” together constitute the
“available phosphoric acid. The phosphoric acid in natural or untreated
phosphates isinsoluble in water and not readily available to plants ; that is,
the rate of availability depends largely upon the rapidity with which
the substance rots or decays, and the rate of decay again depends upon
the character of the substance with which the phosphate is associated.
If it is combined with organic substance, as in animal bone, the rate of
decay is more rapid than if with purely mineral substances. The inso-
Inble phosphates are converted into soluble forms by treatment with
strong acids, as explained later. Such products are known as acid phos-
phates or superphosphates.

Bone, in its various forms, is the only one of the insoluble phosphates
that is now used directly upon the soil, or without other change than is
accomplished by mechanical action or grinding. The terms used to ins
dicate the character of the bone have reference rather to their mechani-

cal form than to the relative availability of the phosphoric acid contain-

nih hi

94 a

ed in them. The terms “raw bone,” “fine bone,” “boiled”and steamed
bone,” etc., are used to indicate methodsfof preparation, and inasmuch
as bone is a material which is useful largely im proportion to its rate of
decay, its fineness has an important bearing upon availability, since the
finer the bone the more surface is exposed for the action of those forces
which cause decay or solution, and the quicker will the constituents be-
come available. In the process of boiling or steaming, not only is bone
made finer, but its physical character in other respects is also changed,
the particles, whether fine or course, being made soft and crumbly rather
than dense or hard; hence it is more likely to act quickly than if the
same degree of fineness be obtained by simple grinding. ‘The phos-
phoric acid in fine steamed bone may all become available in one or two
years, while the coarser fatty raw bone sometimes resists final decay for
three or four years, or even longer. one, however, contains consider-
able nitrogen, a fact which should be remembered in its use, particularly
if used im comparison with other phosphatic materials which do not con-
tain this element.

Pure raw bone contains on an average 22 per cent. of phosphoric acid
and 4 per cent. of nitrogen. By steaming or boiling, a portion of the
organic substance containing nitrogen is extracted, which has the effect
of proportionately increasing the phosphoric acid in the product ; hence
a steamed bone may contain as high as 28 per cent of phosphoric acid
and as low as 1 per cent. of nitrogen. Steamed bone is usually, there-
fore, much richer in phosphoric acid than raw bone.

Tankage is a bone product which, as a rule, contains more nitrogen
than bone proper. It is also more variable in its composition, depend-
ing upon the proportions of bone and meat used in its preparation. It
is not so largely used as a direct fertilizer as bone.

Other phosphates derived from bone, as boneblack, bone ash, ete., are
but little used directly as sources of phosphoric acid; for while they are
derived from organic sources, the treatment which they have received,
besides depriving them of their nitrogen, causes them to be a much less
valuable source of phosphoric acid than the various forms of bone already
discussed. In both cases the organic substances which show the greater
tendency to decay have been removed—in the case of boneblack by heating
the bone in air-tight vessels, and in bone ash by burning in the open air.

The mineral phosphates differ from what may be termed “ organi¢
phosphates” in that they contain no organic or animal matter, and that
they are more compact and dense in their nature. The chief sources of
these phosphates are the river and land phosphates of South Carolina,
the “soft,” “ pebble,” and “rock” or “bowlder” phosphates of Florida,
the “apatites” of Canada, the phosphate mines of Tennessee, and phos-
phatic slag,! a waste product from the manufacture of steel from phos-
phatic iron ores. With the exception of the latter, which is not an
abundant product in this country, these phosphates are not yet used to
any considerable extent, even when very finely ground? without having
been treated with acid. They are however, the chief raw materials from
which superphosphates are made.

sew EE EE) a 2) ee
1 Also known as Thomas Phosphate Powder, Thomas slag, and Odorless Phos-'

phate.
2 Finely ground mineral phosphate known as “ floats’? has been used to @,

limited extend in some localities.

95

Superphosphates, or soluble phosphates, are derived from the insolu-
ble materials already described by first grinding to a powder and then
mixing with sulphuric acid, which changes the insoluble phosphoric acid
to the soluble form. The soluble phosphoric acid thus obtained is a de-
finite chemical compound, and is identical in composition whatever may
have been the material from which it was derived. The term super-
phosphates is, therefore, applied to any material containing soluble phos-
phoric acid as its chief constituent. In superphosphates there is nearly
always present, however, in addition to the soluble, the reverted form,
which is probable quite as useful as the soluble form. The superphos-
phates made from boneblack and bone ash differ from the mineral super-
phosphates mainly in showing a higher content of “available” phospho-
ric acid, an average of 16 per cent., which is practically all soluble.
Mineral superphosphates contain on the average 14 per cent. of available
which may include from 1 to 3 per cent. of reverted, besides more or less
of the insoluble. Superphosphates made from animal bone differ from
those made from the other materials mentioned in containing nitrogen
in addition to phosphoric acid. They are, however, sometimes called
“ammoniated superphosphates” or “ dissolved ammoniated bone.”

In the use of phosphoric acid, therefore, it must be remembered
that the source has an important bearing in determining whe-
ther it is used as a phosphate or as a superphosphate. As regards the
untreated phosphates, it must be remembered that those derived from
organic substances, such as bone, are the more valuable because of their
greater tendency to decay and greater ease of solution, and that this
tendency to decay is promoted by such means as will increase the fine-~
ness of division. In the case of superphosphates, those which contain
the greatest proportion of soluble phosphoric acid are relatively the
most valuable, because the soluble phosphoric acid readily distributes it-
self in the soil and goes to the roots of plants, while the reverted re-
mains where it is placed and the roots of the plants must come to it. In
the next place, it should be remembered that phosphoric acid is not
washed from the soil, though in a soluble form, since it is finally “ fixed”
by coming in contact with lime, iron, and other mineral substances
usually present in good soils.

POTASH.

Potash may exist in a number of forms, though chiefly as chlorids, or
muriates, in which case the potash is combined with chlorin; and as
sulphates in which the potash is combined with sulphuric acid. With
potash, however, the form does not exert so great an influence upon
availability as is the case with nitrogen and phosphoric acid. All forms
are freely soluble in water, and are believed to be nearly if not quite
equally available as food. The form of the potash has, however, an im-
portant influence upon the quality of certain crops, due rather to the
constituents with which the potash is associated than to the potash itself.
For example, it has been demonstrated that the quality of tobacco,
potatoes, and certain other crops is unfavourably influenced by the use
of muriate of potash, while the same crops show a superior quality if
materials free from chlorids have been used as the source of potash
applied.

The chief sources of potash salts at the present time are the Stass-
furt mines of Germany, and the products of these mines, which are

———

7

now readily obtainable in this country are kainit, sylvinit, muriate of
potash, high-grade sulphate of potash, and double sulphate of potash
and magnesia, or double manure salts. The kainit and sylvinit are
crude products of the mines, and contain, in addition to potash, a num-
ber of other salts, chiefly ordinary salt (sodium chlorid) and magnesium
sulphate. The potash in kainit, though in the form of a sulphate, pro-
duces an effect quite similar to that derived from the use of muriate,
because of the large quantities of chlorids mixed with it. It contains
on the average about 123 per cent of actual potash. Sylvinit differs
from kainit in containing a slightly higher per cent of potash, which
exists both in the form of a sulphate and of a chlorid, and a lower con-
tent of the magnesia and other salts. The other potash products men-
tioned are manufactured from the crude forms, and are much more con-
centrated. The muriate and sulphate contain on the average about 50
per cent of actual potash. The chief impurity in the case of the mu-
riate is common salt. The double sulphate of potash and magnesia con-
tains about 26 per cent of actual potash, though much lower grades of
this material are found.

Materials that do not show a wide variation in composition, and in
which the constituents are practically uniform in their action, may be
regarded as standard in the sense that they can be depended upon to
furnish practically the same amount and form of the constituents wher-
ever secured. For example, a ton of nitrate of soda or boneblack super-
phosphates (dissolved boneblack) will on the average furnish 320 pounds
of nitrogen or of phosphoric acid, the nitrogen all in the form of a ni-
trate and the phosphoric acid practically all soluble ; whereas a ton of tank-
age, for instance, will vary widely both in the content and in the avail-
. ability of its nitrogen and phosphoric acid, depending upon the method
by which it has been derived. Hence, nitrate of soda, sulphate of am-

monia, dried blood, and superphosphates and potash salts are standard
! products, because they can be depended upon both in respect to the con-
tent and form of their constituents.

96

|

RR a Sa ae we ae

— eS eee

AGRICULTURAL V. COMMERCIAL VALUE OF FERTILIZERS.
The agricultural value of any of the fertilizing constituents is mea-
sured by the value of the increase of the crop produced by its use, and
is, of course, a variable factor, depending upon (1) the availability of
the constituent, and (2) the value of the crop produced. For example,
in the first case, the agricultural value of a pound of soluble phosphoric
acid is likely to be greater than that of a pound of insoluble when ap-
plied under the same conditions as to soil and crop, because in the one
case the element is in its most available form, while in the other it is
least availsble. In the second place, the soluble phosphoric acid may
exert its full effect and cause a greatly increased yield on a certain crop,
and still not cause an increase in value sufficient to pay the cost of the
application, while for another crop the application may result in a very
great increase in value. The character or form of the materials used
must, therefore, be carefully considered in the use of manures. Slow-
acting materials cannot be expected to give profitable returns, particu-
larly upon quick- growing crops, nor expensive materials such profitable
returns when used for crops of relativ ely low value as for crops of rela-
tively high value.
This agricultural value is, however, separate and distinct from what

97

is termed “commercial value,” or cost in market. This value is deter-
mined by market and trade conditions, as cost of production of the
crude materials, methods of manipulation required, ete. Since there
is no strict relation between agricultural and commercial or market
value, it frequently happens that an element in its most available form,
and under ordinary conditions of high agricultural value, costs less in
market than the same element in less available forms and of a lower
agricultural value. The cost of production in the one case is lower
than in the other, though the returns in the field are far superior.

The commercial value has reference to the material as an article of
commerce, hence commercial ratings of various fertilizers have refer-
ence to their relative cost and are used largely as a means by which the
different materials may be compared.

VARIATIONS IN THE COMPOSITIONS OF MANUFACTURED FERTILIZERS.

All manufactured products or brands of fertilizers are made up of a
mixture of the various kinds and forms of the fertilizing materials just
described, and the differences that exist in the brands of different
manufacturers are due both to differences in the character and to varia-
tions in the proportions of the materials used to form the different
brands ; that is, while all manufacturers must go to the sources of sup-
ply indicated, they may select either good or poor products and may
vary the proportions of the different materials used.

The difference between a good brand of fertilizer and a poor one lies
not so much in differences that may exist in the total amount of plant
food contained in it as in the quality of the materials of which it is
made. For instance, in one brand the nitrogen may have been derived
entirely from insoluble organic materials and the phosphoric acid from
untreated phosphates rather than superphosphates; while in another
the nitrogen may have been derived from. the three sources of nitrogen,
viz., nitrates, ammonia salts, and organic matter, and the phosphoric
acid entirely from superphosphates. In the first brand the total food
contained may be quite as great asin the other, yet the immediate results
obtained from its use would be less satisfactory than that obtained from
the one containing the more active forms of fertilizing constituents.

The differences that exist between good and poor fertilizers are quite
clearly shown by the chemical analyses made by the various experiment
stations, provided the analysis is carried far enough to show both the
amount and form of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. For in-
stance, an analysis which shows that a considerable proportion of the
nitrogen exists as nitrates or as ammonia is positive evidence that good
nitrogenous materials have been used; if it shows that the phosphoric
acid is largely in a soluble form, the consumer knows that superphos-
phates have been used. On the other hand, if all the nitrogen is shown
to be in the form of organic matter, and that a large proportion of the
phosphoric acid is insoluble, it is evident that materials containing less
active forms of plant food have been used. In the next place, it is the
quality and amount of plant food that is contained in a fertilizer which
determines its value rather than the relative proportion of the various
constituents, though under certain well-known conditions the latter is
_of very considerable importance. Special crop brands are particularly
useful only when an abundance of all the plant-food constituents are
present in the soil.

98

THE PURCHASE OF FERTILIZERS.

As a rule, farmers are inclined to purchase fertilizers on the ton ba-
sis, without sufficient regard to the content or form of the constituents
contained in them. The direct value of a fertilizer is determined by
the percentage of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash which it con-
tains. Hence, ihe buying of a fertilizer is virtually the buying of one
or more of these constituents. The more concen rated the material or
the richer it is in plant food the less will be the expense of handling
the constituent desired.

The following are illustrations of the methods by which brands may
be made up, the differences that may exist in the content of actual fer-
tilizing constituents, and the causes of variation in ton prices :

Formula No. 1.

Nitrate Of SOdA...s.c.s.0-c00s 500lbs., furnishing nitrogen......... 80lbs., or 4 p. ct.
Boneblack superphosphate 1,100lbs., furnishing phosphoric acid 180lbs, or 9 p. ct.
Muriate of potash............ 400lbs., furnishing potash............ 200\bs., or 10 p. ct.

_—- -—— —

Total...........0.6. 2,000lbs., furnishing total plant food 460lbs.

Formula No. 2.

Nitrate of soda............... 250lbs., furnishing nitrogen....... -. 40lbs., or 2 p. ct.
Boneblack superphosphate 1,000Ibs., furnishing phosphoric acid 160lbs., or 8 p. cts
Muriate of potash............ 80lbs., furnishing potash...........- 40lbs., or 2 p. ct:
Make- weight.......... sneesees 670lbs.

Motalyc.sccs seesoace 2,000lbs., furnishing total plant food 240!bs.

Formula No. 1 shows a high-grade product, both in respect to quality
of plant food and concentration, while No. 2 is high-grade only in res-
pect to quality. In order that the plant food may be contained in L
ton it is necessary to add what is called “make-weight,” or a diluent,
usually consisting of substances that contain no direct fertilizing value.

“ High-grade mixtures cannot be made from low-grade materials.
Low-grade mixtures cannot be made from high-grade materials with-
out adding ‘make-weight” The advantages of high-grade products are
concentration and high quality of plant food.” !

It will be observed that formula No. 1 contains nearly twice as much
plant food as No. 2; or, in other words, it will require about 2 tons of
a fertilizer made according to formula No. 2 to secure the same total
amount of plant food as is contained in | ton of No. 1. Now, the ma-
terial in No. 2 other than the actual plant food is of no direct ferti-
lizing value, but the actual cost of the constituents is considerably m-
creased, because the expenses of handling, bagging, shipping, and sel-
ling are just double what they would be for No. 1.

It has been shown by continued studies at the New Jersey Experi-
ment Station that the charges of the manufacturers and dealers for
mixing, bagging, shipping, and other expenses are, on the average,
$8.50 per ton; and also that the average manufactured fertilizer con-
tains about 300 pounds of actual fertilizing constituents per ton. A
careful study of the fertilizer trade indicates that these conditions are
also practically true for other States in which large quantities of com-
mercial fertilizers are used.

Formula No. 1 would contain 460 pounds of actual available fertiliz-

(1) First Principles of Agriculture, E. B. Voorhees, p. 109.

99

ing constituents per ton—160 pounds, or over 50 per cent, more than is
contained in the average manufactured brand. That is, a farmer pur-
chasing a brand similar to formula No. 1 would secure in 2 tons as much
plant food as would be contained in 38 tons of the average manuafactured
brand. Assuming that the charges per pound of plant food at the fac-
tory, and that the expense charges are the same in each case, and also
that the quality of plant food in the one is as good as in the other, the
consumer would save $8.50 by purchasing 2 tons of the former instead
of 3 tons of the latter. Ina few States the consumption of fertilizers
ranges from 150,000 to over 300,000 tons annually, while in many it is
from 25,000 to 50,000 tons.

Thus is shown the very great saving that may be effected in the mat-
ter of the purchase of fertilizers from the standpoint of concentration
alone, or, in other words, the importance of a definite knowledge of
what constitutes value in a fertilizer. This saving may be accom-
plished, too, without any detriment to the manufacturer, since the fdi-
ference to him between making high-grade or low-grade goods, in re-
ference to concentration, is largely a matter of unskilled labour. The
manufacturers are in the business to cater tothe demands of the trade ;
if consumers are intelligent, high-grade rather than low-grade goods
will be provided by the manufacturers. Furthermore, as already indi-
cated, high-grade in the matter of concentration means high-grade in
eae for high-grade mixtures can not be made from low-grade pro-

ucts. ;

In many cases, too, it is desirable to purchase the unmixed fertilizing
materials, either for use singly or to be mixed at home. Here, too, a
great saving may be effected—(1) in the cost per pound of the consti-
tuents , (2) in freight rates, and (3) in having the mixing performed by
the ordinary labour of the farm at times when it does not interfere with
regular out-door work. The advantages to be derived from this method
are, however, fully realized only when it is possible to purchase in large
quantities for cash.

As an illustration of the saving that may be effected, it is but neces-
sary to cite the experience of a farmers’ organizaiion in New Jersey,
which now purchases annually some 500 or 600 tons of unmixed goods.
The cost per pound of the ingredients is to them over 40 per cent less
than the average cost to those who buy the average mixture in small
quantities “‘on time” from their local dealers.

_ It has been shown, too, by the studies of many of the experiment sta-
tions of both the East and South that the materials can be evenly
mixed on the farm; besides, samples carefully taken show as good a
mechanical condition as those made by the leading manufacturers.

This method of purchasing also possesses the further advantage of
enabling the farmer to apply just the kind and form of ingredient that
he has found by experience or experiment to be best adapted to his soil
and crop. Besides, he knows positively, particularly in case of the ele-
ment nitrogen, whether it is in the form of nitrate, ammonia, or organic
matter, and whether the organic nitrogen is contained in substances
that are likely to decay quickly, as blood, cotton-seed meal, etc., or in
such insoluble and slow-acting substances as ground leather, horn, ete.

In mixtures the kind of organic nitrogenous substances used can not
be definitely shown by a chemical analysis.

i

100

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH FERTILIZERS MAY BE PROFITABLY USED.

With a more or less complete knowledge of the need of artificial sup-
plies of fertilizer, the character, composition, and usefulness of the va-
xyious materials, and the best method of purchase, the practical question
arises, Will it pay to use them? Many of our most successful farmers
are by their practice answering this question in the affirmative. It is,
however, not entirely a question of plant food with them, and one
phase of it may be illustrated by the following typical case: Mr. A
applies fertilizer, his crop is doubled or tripled, and a reasonable
profit is secured. Mr. B applies the same amount and kind under simi-
lar natural conditions of soil and receives no benefit. The diffierence
in results is due not to the fertilizer, but to the farmer himself. In
one case the natural agencies—sun, air, and water—were assisted and
enabled to do their maximnm work, because care was taken to make
the conditions other than the supply of plant food as perfect as possi-
ble, while in the other they were prevented from exercising their full
influence because physical conditions of soil were imperfect, due to care-
less plowing, seeding, cultivation, and cropping.

In other words, the profit from the use of fertilizers is measured to
a large degree by the perfection of soil conditions which are entirely
within the power of the farmer to control. The production possible
from a definite amount of plant food can be secured only when the
conditions are such as to permit its proper solution, distribution, and
retention by the soil.

The fact that fertilizers may now be easily secured and are easily
applied has encouraged careless use rather than a thoughtful expend-
iture or perhaps an equivalent amount of money or energy in the
proper preparation of the soil for them. Of course it does not follow
that no returns are secured from plant food applied under unfavorable
conditions, but it needs to be emphasized that full returns can not be
obtained under such circumstances either with or without fertilizers.
Good plant food is wasted and the profit possible to be derived is
largely reduced. Moreover, farming in its strict sense is the conver-
sion of three essential elements into salable products, and therefore
the use of plant food must be governed largely by its cost, and the
kind of crop upon which it is applied.

The very high prices paid by many for fertilizers—though admittedly
due to their lack of knowledge concerning what constitutes value in
a fertilizer and to irrational methods of buying—renders it impossible
to secure a reasonable profit by their unsystematic use upon such sta-
ple products as wheat, corn, oats, cotton, and tobacco, because these
erops absorb relatively large amounts of the manurial constituents, and
are at the present time products of relatively low value. :

The bushel or pound of crop contains a high content relatively of
the fertilizing constituents while the selling price is low, thus leaving
but a narrow margin between the cost of the constituent and the price
received for it in the product.

The growth of such crops as potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes
forage crops for the dairy, and vegetable crops for the market or can-
nery by the use of high-priced plant food is more often attended with,
profit, because they are usually crops of high market value and are

}

101

proportionately less exhaustive. This does not mean that the former
crops shall be abandoned, but rather that our systems of practice shall
be changed so as to include in the rotation some high-priced crop to
which shall be applied such an abundance of plant food as to insure a
yield, limited only by the season, and climate, which will, under average
conditions of soil and season, yield a profit, besides leaving a residue
of plant food for the cereals, grasses, or catch crops that follow. These
being capable of extracting their mineral food from relatively insoluble
scources will yield a large increase of crop without a direct outlay for
fertilizers. arming will thus be more successful, because profitable
crops are secured, while at the same time fertility is increased.

THE KIND OF FERTILIZER TO USE,

The kind of fertilizer tc use should be considered (1) in reference
to whether it shall be nitrogenous, phosphatic, or potassic in its char-
acter, and not to whose brand shall be used; and (2) as to the form
in which the fertilizing constituents exist, whether quickly or slowly
available. A proper understanding of these points requires that we
shall consider briefly the various classes of farm crops and their power
of acquiring food.

The cereals, Indian corn excepted (see p. 103), and grasses are quite

similar in their habits of growth, and may be regarded as a class,

distinguished by extensive root systems and long periods of growth
which enable them to extract the mineral food necessary from rela-
tively insoluble sources, and because of their very rapid development
of leaf and stem during a short season just before maturity are unable
to make normal growth during this period without an abundance of
nitrogen in immediateley available forms. This period usually precedes
the time of rapid nitrification ; hence on soils of good natural fertility
the application of nitrogen at the right time and in the form of a nitrate
results in a largely increased crop. The fact here stated has led cer-
tain eminent scientists to regard nitrogen as a dominant or ruling
element for this class of plants, and it is true if the limitations are
properly understood.

The leguminous crops.—clover, peas, beans, vetches, etc.—should also
be regarded as a distinct class. They possess powers of acquiring food
which, as far as we know now, are not common to any other class of
plants. They do not depend altogether upon soil sources for their
nitrogen, but draw this element partly from the air, and they make
almost ravenous use of the mineral constituents, particularly potash
andlime. A knowledge of-these facts is not only useful in indicating
what kind of manures to use, viz., an abundance of the mineral consti-
tuents only, but suggests that the growth of these crops must result in
the enrichment of soils in the expensive element, nitrogen, so essential
for crops whose exclusive source of supply is the soil.

Root and tuber crops may also be regarded as a class which, because
of their habits of growth, are unable to make ready use of the insolu-
ble mineral constituents of the soil, and hence for full development
require an abundance of all the fertilizing constituents in readily avail-
able forms. Of the three classes of fertilizing constituents, the nitro-
gen is especially useful for the slow-growing beets and mangels ; soluble

phosphates are required in abundance for the turnip ; and potatoes,

102

-white and sweet, respond favorably to liberal dressings of potash.
‘That is, while the fertilizers should contain all three elements, certain

of the crops, because of their peculiarities of growth, require certain of
them in greater relative amounts and in immediately available forms.

The objoct of the growth, too, whether for the immature produce or
for the fully developed plant, is a matter worthy of careful considera-
tion. In other words, Shall the fertilizing be of such a character as to
stimulate and force an unnatural and artificial growth, or such as
assists in the natural development of the plant? That the specific
function of nitroganous manures is to encourage and even force leaf
development is a fact not disputed by the highest authority ; hence
their use in stimulating unusual growth is of the greatest importance
in growing market-garden crops, in order that the tenderness and suc-
culence, which is the measure of quality in most of those products, may
be secured.

Fruit Trees are slow-growing plants and therefore do not need quick-
acting fertilizers as a rule. ‘hey appropriate plant food very slowly
and highly soluble manures, such as nitrate of soda, are liable to be
washed out of the soil without being utilized. For this reason the use
of nitrate of soda is not advised except where the growth of nursery
stock is to be forced or where bearing trees exhibit a lack of luxuri-
ance in foliage. The old and still common practice of fertilizing fruit
trees every few years with slowly decomp»sing manures, such as barn-
yard manure, leather waste, horn refuse, wool waste, leaf mold, tobacco
stems, etc., is thus seen to have more or less of a scientific basis.
Frequently, however, it is desirable to stimulate the growth and
fruitfulness of the trees, and for this purpose more active fertilizing
materials than the above are needed. In selecting and mixing the
latter the fact that fruits are “potash feeders” should be taken into
consideration.

Probably there is no better fertilizer for fruit tres than a mixture of
muriate of potash and ground bone (1 part of the former to 1} parts,
of the latter). A good practice is to apply this mixture to clover or
some other leguminous crop which is turned under as a green manure,
and in addition, where tobacco stems can be obtained cheaply, to apply
these about the trees. Wood ashes or cotton-hull ashes may be sub-
stituted for muriate of potash if these products can be obtained at
reasonable prices.

The fertiliser requirements of small fruits are similar to those of or-
chard fruits, but being as a rule more rapid growers they can utilize
to advantage heavier applications of soluble fertilizing materials and
do not derive the same benefit as orchard fruits from slowly decompos-
ing manures.

In deciding upon the kind of manure to use the character of the soil
must, of course, be taken into account. Crops grown on soils poor in
decaying vegetable matter (humus) are as a rule benefited by appli-
cations of nitrogenous manures, while those grown upon soils well
supplied with this substance are more benefited by phosphates and
potash. Upon heavy soils phosphates are likely to be more beneficial
than nitrogen, while the reverse is the case on light drysoil. All sandy
soils are as a rule deficient in potash, while clayey soils contain this
element in larger quantities.

103

In this discussion the barest outlines have been drawn. There are
many exceptions to the general rules. The farmer, with the general
principles well in mind, must use his intelligence in applying them to
his conditions.

FERTILIZERS SHOULD BE APPLIED SYSTEMATICALLY.

The suggestions already given lead to another of great importance,
viz, that the use of fertilizers should be systematic. In order that this
may be accomplished, a definite system of cropping should be adopted
and a definite scheme of manuring worked out that shall meet the con-
ditions of crop, season, and climate, and enable the farmer to utilize to
the best advantage home and local supplies of manure. While it is
impossible to give more than the merest outline of such methods, the
following suggestions are offered :

In the first place, in nearly every State or even locality some one
system of cropping is better adapted to the conditions than another.

- It may be the extensive system, which includes large areas, and the
crops, grain cotton, tobacco, or sugar cane; or the “ intensive system,”
with smaller areas and crops of quicker growth and higher value. For
the former a method of manuring should be adopted which is not too
expensive, but which provides for increased crops and gradual gain in
fertility. It would be impracticable in extensive farming, for example,
to attempt to increase the yield of a wheat crop from 12 to 30 bushels
per acre by the addition of fertilizers only, for. as already pointed out,
plant food is but one of the conditions of fertility, and if it were prac-
ticable from the standpoint of yield, it would be folly from the stand-
point of profit.

A study of the following common four-year rotations—Indian corn,
potatoes, wheat, and hay—will illustrate what is meant by rational and
systematic methods of manuring. On soils of medium fertility spread
the farm manure during the fall and winter, and after the land
is ploughed apply broadcast and harrow in, or harrow first and then drill
in, 400 pounds per acre of a mixture made of 100 pounds each of cotton-
seed meal, ground bone, acid phosphate, and muriate of potash, or
their equivalent in kind and form of other fertilizing constituents.

This mixture would have approximately the following composition :
Nitrogen 2.5 per cent, phosphoric acid 10 per cent, and potash 12.5
per cent. Ifthe land has not been previvusly manured, or if it is of
a light sandy character, the proportion of nitrogenous matter should
be increased and the application be heavier, say, from 600 to 800
pounds.

Corn makes its most rapid growth and development during the hot
season, which is very favourable for rapid decay and consequent nitrifi-
cation of organic substances in the soil. The nitrogenous manures,
therefore, may be less in amount than for crops which develop rapidly
earlier in the season, and for the same reason may consist of organic
forms. The mineral constituents, particularly the phosphates, which
the crop acquires less rapidly, because of its comparatively short season
of growth, are applied in such forms and in such amountsas to provide
for a largely increased crop, even though the seasonal conditions are
not perfect.

104

For the potatoes, as a minimum application 650 pounds per acre of
the following mixture may be used:

Fertilizer for potatoes.

Pounds.
INDErIAbS OL NSOURs.cvcccscercsccesecees Cnec82H0000 SO SDOSOTOOA sanoOICCe: Feccocoascueca ily
Cotton-seed meal..........ee.cees seseaneaaes easecestess eoctecsasessees eeeeciseascues 150
Ground bone........ cawecees ssocscssesassacaeos SCOCUASIISIQHCOO eavessousevesecescooess 100
Acid phosphatece..ccoccsscasesscesecece cm SOOO SCOCCEOCDUCOSCEORODOCCOS ApeCRCOOTIOS 200
Muriate or sulphatojof Potash<s.cccessscercsssscssecs-soesessscnserecseiecccvass 150

This mixture contains—nitrogen 3 per cent. phosphoric acid 8 per
cent. and potash 12 percent. In this application we are guided by
certain other well-defined principles, chief of which are: This is usually
the money crop of the rotation; we can therefore afford a more expen-
sive manuring. Since it grows and matures in a comparatively short
time, we need to furnish a reasonable excess of plant foodin order that
the crop may be abundantly supplied even though unfavourable condi-
tions occur. It is a crop which is particularly benefited by potash, and’
we must therefore provide that element in largest proportion; and as’
it is not an exhaustive crop, we may expect considerable increase in soil
fertility due to the unused residue.

After the potatoes are removed the land, on account of the frequent
cultivation of the potato crop, is in fine mechanical condition essential
for the rapid germination and early growth of wheat. It is also well
supplied with plant food because of the manure applied to the previous.
crops in excess of their needs.

For the wheat, therefore, such home supplies of manure as are ayail-
able may be applied after ploughing and well worked into the surface
soil with the addition at time of seeding of 200 pounds per acre of dis-
solved bone, or a mixture of 100 pounds each of ground bone and acid
phosphate. In spring, if the crop does not show a vigorous condition,
sow broadcast 100 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda.

By this method the manuring is accomplished ata minimum expense,.
and the phosphates which are so essential for the proper development
of the grain are provided, partly in an immediately available form
partly in a form that will gradually decay and feed the crop at later
stages of growth. The nitrogen is applied when the plant has greatest
need for it and in a form immediately available, while for potash the
plant depends entirely upon the accumulated soil supplies. The hay
crop which follows, if it consists of clover, will be able to make normal
growth with added supplies of phosphoric acid and potash only, which
may consist of a mixture of equal parts of acid phosphate and muriate
of potash at the minimum rate of 300 pounds per acre.

This method of fertilizing should not be changed from year to year
but followed in the succeeding rotation courses, and it will enable the
farmer to secure an increased yield and improvement in soil at a mini-
mum expense.

The principles involved may also be applied in other lines of farming »
modified by character of soil, climate, and kind of crop. In market
gardening the amounts applied should be proportionately increased,

105

and a larger proportion of the more active forms used, because in this
case quick-growing crops which belong to the high-value class are pro-
duced. For fruit trees, which feed slowly and continuously, the mine-—
ral elements, as already explained, should be applied in greater
amounts, and may be derived from the cheaper and more slowly avyail-
able forms.

SUMMARY.

(1) Commercial fertilizers are mainly valuable because they furnish
the elements—nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash—which serve as
food, not as stimulants.

(2) The kind of farming in the past and the demands for special
products in the present make their use necessary in profitable farming.

(3) In order to use them profitably the farmer should know—

(a) That nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are the essential
manurial constituents ;

(6) That the agricultural value of these constituents depends
largely upon their chemical form ;

(c) That these forms are contained in specific products of a well-
defined character and composition, and may be purchased as such
from dealers and manufacturers and may be mixed successfully on
the farm.

(4) The agricultural value of a fertilizer bears no strict relation to
the commercial value ; the one is determined by soil, crop, and climatic
conditions, the other by market conditions.

(5) The variations in the composition and value of manufactured
fertilizers which contain the three essential constituents are due to
variations in the character and in the proportion of the materials used.

(6) The ton basis alone is not a safe guide in the purchase of these
commercial fertilizers. Low ton prices mean either low content of
good forms of plant food or the use of poorer forms. Fertilizers, high-
grade both in quality and quantity of plant food, can not be purchased
at a low price per ton.

(7) The best fertilizers can not exert their full effect on soils that are
too dry or too wet, too compact or too porous. They can furnish but
one of the conditions of fertility.

(8) The kind and amount to use should be determined by the value
of the crop grown and its power of acquiring food.

(9) A definite system or plan should be adopted in their use ; “ hit or
miss” methods are seldom satisfactory, and frequently very expensive.

106

Composition of the principal commercial fertilizing materials.

——H—_—— —SSeSeeSSSeeeeeeSSSSFSSSSMSSSSSSMMMMSSSSsMMsMHFeeFr

Availa-| Ingolu- Total
piel ee phospho-| Potash. | Chlorin.

acid. | acid, | Te acid.

Nitrogen.

ew

—_——

4, Supplying nitrogen : Per cent, | Per cent.|Per cent.| Per cent,| Per cent | Per cent.

Nitrate of soda 15. 5 tol6 one £4 aoe
Sulphateofammonia ...|19 to 20.5| ... sO soe ae aes
Dried blood (high grade) |12 to 14 ees one one Bere bar
Dried blood Vow grade) ....10 to 11 3 to 5
Concentrated tankage ‘LL to19.6 1 to 2
Tankage (bone) 5 to 6 1] to 14 i
Dried fish scrap 7 to 9 6 to 8 -
Cotton-seed meal 6.5 to 7-5 ; 1.5 to 2 2to 3 =
Castor pomace 5 to 6 1 to 1.5 | 1t0o 1.6 .
2. Supplying phosphoric acid:
South Carolina rock Bie -- |26to 28) 26 to 28 -
phate
South Carolina rock super-
phosphate (dissolved
South Carolina rock
hosphate) a 12to15| 1 to 313 to 16 2
Bion: e land rock phos-
pha wee «- |33 to 35/33 to 35 -
aNorae pebble phosphate. aes w-- {26 to 32/26 to 32 :
Florida superphosphate
(dissolved Florida phos-
phate) wee 14 to 16] 1 to 4116 to 20 ae x
Eariehlack . {82 to 36/32 to 36 ae
Boneblack superphosphate
(dissolved en igezaeo at on 15 to 17| 1 to 2/17 to 18
Ground bone -| 2.5t0 4.5| 5to 8 {15 to 17/20 to 26 ste
Steamed bone -| 1.56 to 2.5] 6 to 9 {16 to 20/22 to 29 706
Dissolved bone | 2 to3 /13t015|2to 3/165 to 17 as ay
Thomas slag (1) ies cas 11,4to 23 Ate aes
3. Supplying potash :
Muriate of potash 50 |45 to 48
Sulphate of potash (high
rade aoe awe aes s00 48to 52 | 5.to 15
Sulphate of potash and
magnesia eee oo soe 26 to 30| 15to 2.&
Kainit sae aoe ose 12 to 12.5/30 to 32
Sylvinit eee = 16 to 20 42 to 46
Gestanzhull ashes (2)... aon 7 to 9 (|20 to 30 oce
Wood ashes (unleached) 2 wae 1 to 2 2 to 8 see
Wood ashes (leached) Oh - nee 1.to) 1.5)|4hsto: 2
Tobacco stems to 3 a0 3 to 5 5 to 8

Se
(1) In good Thomas slag at least 80 per cent of the phosphoric acid should be soluble
jn ammonium citrate, ie., available.
(2) Cotton-hull ashes contains about 10 per cent of lime, unleached wood ashes 30 to
35 per cent, and leached wood ashes 35 to 40 per cent.

107
COCCID, OR SCALE INSECTS.—X.

By T. D. A. Cockerett, Entomologist of the New Mexico Agricultural
Experiment Station.

(Continued from Bulletin, Nov., 1896.)

Genus Aulacaspis.

(61.) Aulacaspis boisduvalti, Signoret. (Boisduval’s Scale.)

Diagnosis—Female scale small, circular or nearly so, with the exuviz
nearly central. The scale is white or greyish-white, rather trans-
lucent, the exuvie practically the same colour as the scale. Male
scale white, linear, tricarinate, with straw-coloured exuyiz at one
end. The young larve are pale yellow.

Distribution—Common in Kingston, Jamaica; also found by Dr. Sin-
clair near Montego Bay. In Barbadoes, on coconut ; also in Trini-
dad, and recorded by Newstead from British Guiana. Found by
Townsend at Alta Mira, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Also on hothouse
and garden plants in Europe, the United States, New Zealand,
South Australia and the Sandwich Is.

Food-plants.— Various palms and orchids, and sometimes other plants.
It has been recorded specifically from coconut palm (Jamaica, Bar-
bados), Acacta (New Zealand), Livistona, Ravenala madagascarien-
sis, Bromelia pingutn (Mexico) Latania commersoni (Trinidad).
Dr. Henderson found it in Kingston, Jamaica, on Oncidium tetra-
petalum and Broughtonia sanguinea, in both cases associated with
Asterolecanium oncidii. There used to be, and probably still is
plenty of it on a coconut palm in the yard of the Institute of Ja-
maica.

Destructiveness.—Not a particularly destructive species, but sometimes
it becomes abundant enough to call for remedial measures.

Note.—Mr. Morgan separated the form on coconut from near Montego
Bay as a distinct species, A. tentaculatus, but Ido not know any
satisfactory character by which it can be distinguished. There is,
however, a distinct species found on pineapples and Bilbergia in
European and American hothouses, which is likely to turn up at
any time in the West Indies. This is the A. bromelie ; it may be
known by the light yellow exuvize being very much to the side of
the scale, instead of in the middle.

Genus Parlatoria.

The female scales of this genus have the second skin of the exuvia
very large. Microscopic examination of the insect shows a pecu-
har abdominal fringe, not seen in any other West Indian genus,
though it occurs in the Huropean Leucaspis and Syngenaspis.

(62.) Parlatoria pergandit var. crotonis Ckll. (‘The Croton Parlatoria.)

Diagnosis.—Small chaff-like scales on leaves of croton, white or brown-
ish, the second skin pale reddish-brown, suffused with black in
the middle. Male scale elongate, not carinate.

—— call

eS ak Saye

Se et

~_<—me —

i ME SS

108

Distribution.—Discovered in the garden of the Museum at Kingston,
Jamaica, in 1891. Since found by Dr. Freeland in Antigua, and
by Dr. Berlese in the Botanic Garden at Padova, Italy.

Food-plants.—Only found on the ornamental varieties of croton; it
occurs crowded near the midrib on the upper side of the leaf.

Destructiveness.—It may become troublesome if not attended to.

Note.—This is very probably a distinct species The typical P. per-
gandit, Comstock, infests orange trees in the Southern United
States.

(63.) Parlatoria proteus, Curtis. (The Common Parlatoria.)

Diagnosis.—Similar to the last, pale grey-brown or brown, first skin
more or less blackish, second a rather reddish brown varying to
yellow, not suffused with black.

Distribution.—Found in Jamaica on a palm at Mr. Gardner’s restaurant
in Kingston, Feb. 22, 1892. It occurs also in other parts of the
town. On various cultivated plants in Europe, and also in a hot-
house in Washington City, U.S.A.; also, according to Maskell, on
Apple in Queensland.

Food-plants.—Quite various, including palms, apple, Microsamia, Se-
lenipedium and Vanda.

Destructiveness.—Its ability to live on very different plants makes it
difficult to deal with, but it is not ns abundant enough to
attract attention.

Genus Prattariatiset
In this genus the female scales might be taken for some Aspidiotus
or Diaspis, while the male scales are something like female scales of

Pariatoria, being oval in outline.

(64.) Pseudoparlatorta ostreata, Ckll. (Acalypha Scale.)
Diagnosts.—Small pale grey scales, covering the branches of Acalypha
overlaping, looking under a lens like minute oyster-shells. Male
scales on the leaves, along the mid-rib and principal veins.
Distribution —As yet only known from Kingston, Jamaica, where it is
common.
Food-plants—Found especially on Acalypha in gardens, but also on
Solanum, &ce.
Destructiveness.—Very destructive to Acalypha, killing the branches it
attacks.

Genus Mytilaspis. (The Mussel Scales.)
(65.) Mytilapsis citracola, Packard. (The Citrus Mussel Seale.)

Diagnosis—A small brown scale shaped like a mussel shell, pointed at
one end, rounded at the other,

Distribution Common in Jamaica ; also found in Antigua, Montserrat,
Bermuda, Trinidad, Florida, Louisiana, California, Tahiti, Sand-
wich Is., Fiji Is., Southern Europe, Ceylon, New Zealand, New
South Wales, Queensland, South Australia (in hot houses), Victoria
and in a hot house in Russia.

i

109

Food-plants.—The species of Citrus, and also Murraya. On June 25,
1892, Mr. C. B. Taylor brought me a twig of Murraya gathered
in Kingston, with MW. citracola and Aspidiotus articulatus upon it.
Mr. Maskell reports it also from Croton and Banksia integrifolia.
Green records it from Cocculus indicus, but probably the record re-
lates to a distinct species, which he has since named MM. coecult.
Mr. A. C. F. Morgan has expressed the opinion that Mytilaspis
pinnaeformis of Bouché, found on Cymbidium, is identical with H.
citricola, but the identity is very doubtful.

Destructiveness.—Quite injurious when abundant,

Parasites.—It is attacked by an undetermined hymenopterous parasite
in Antigna. In Florida it has three parasites, Aphycus flavus,
Howard, Prospalta amantii, Howard, and Signiphora flavopalitata,
Ashmead.

Note.—Mytilaspis gloveri is another scale of Citrus trees found in
Southern Europe, the Southern United States, &e.; it is known at
once by its very narrow scale. It is curious that it does not occur
in the West Indies; while at Tampico, Mexico, Prof. Townsend
found it abundant, but no Jf. citricola.

(66.) Mytilaspts crotonis, Ckll.—(The croton Mussel scale.)

Diagnosis.—Small curled mussel-shaped scales on twigs of croton, so
exactly the colour of the bark that they are very hard to detect,
even when abundant. ,

Distribution—Only known from Kingston, Jamaica, where it was dis-
covered by Mr. J. J. Bowrey.

Food-plant.—A variegated croton with narrow leaves.

Destructiveness—It must be quite injurious, but it seems to be little
distributed at present.

Parasites.—It has an undetermined parasite; a bright orange mite is
also found praying upon the larve.

(67.) Mytilaspis alba, Ckll.—(The White Mussel scale.)

Diagnosis.—This differs from the other West Indian species of the
genus by its white scale-—It could be taken for a Chtonaspis, but
the male scale is not keeled; it is linear, greyish-white, with the
orange larval skin at one end.

Distribution.—Found in Kingston, Jamaica; a variety (var. concolor)
is found in the Mesilla Valley, New Mexico.

Food-plants.—The typical form on a malvaceous weed with yellow
flowers; the var. concolor on Atriplex canescens.

Destructiveness.—1t is not known to attack any cultivated plant.

NOTE ON LECANIUM TESSELLATUM.

A study of material from other localities has brought out the fact
that the form found in Jamaica on lignumvite attributed to L. tessel-
latum, is a distinct variety perhaps species. It is larger than the true
tessellatum, and differs in various small details, for an account of which
see Trans, American Entomological Society, Vol. XX. (1898) p. 51. I
propose to call this lignumyitz form var. swainsone, after Mrs. Swain-
son of Bath, who first collected it—T. D. A. Cockerell.

110

RAMIE.

The Committee appointed by the Jamaica Agricultural Society to
report upon the McDonald-Boyle machine and process for treating ramie
stems presented the following report on the 17th July :—

- Gentlemen.—At your last meeting you appointed a committee, con-
sisting of Mr. T. H. Sharp and the Director of Public Gardens to wit-
ness a trial of the McDonald-Boyle machine and process for treating
ramie stems. We attended atrial on 17th June, which lasted from 11.30
a.m. to 3.30 p.m.

Mr. Bernstein, the representative of the McDonald-Boyle Company
was present and gave us the fullest information and every assistance in
our task. .

The machine is of very simple construction, consisting essentially of
a revolving drum, armed outwards with transverse flanges, which strike
the ramie stems against the lip of the feeding plate. A boy feeds three
or four stems into the machine to about two-thirds of their length, and
then reverses. ‘The back action is required to finish the cleaning.

The power required to drive the machine is not great, and the inven-
tors state that a six-horse power engine is all that 1s necessary for 40 of
these machines. It worked as well with dry stalks as with green, and
even when the stalks of different lengths and sizes were put through,
the work was perfectly performed, though more slowly. There was no
wood left on the ribbons, there was no fibre wasted, and the epidermis
was so broken that it was completely cleaned off in the degumming
process.

One boy fed the machine from a table where the ramie stems were
placed and hung the ribbons on a railon the other side. The fibre came
out untangled and unbruised.

The following were the tests made: (1) 384lbs. of stems. These
were ripe stalks which had been cut between 3 and 5 p.m. by Mr.
Moxsy, near Chapelton, on the 15th inst., so that they were dry.
The bundle was said to have weighed 50lbs. when freshly cut. The
stems were run through in 22 minutes and the wet ribbons weighed
8ilbs. 15 ozs. of the wet ribbo:s were then taken and submitted to
the degumming process. They were boiled in a chemical solution
for an hour and a quarter, and for the next half hour were passed
successfully through three baths of different chemicals, yielding 44
ozs. of wet filasse. It was in a condition ready for combing and spin-
ning and there was no loss in lustre or strength.

(2.) 4lbs. of mixed stems were put through the machine, 2lbs. being
six weeks old, and 2lbs. 3 months old. They were supplied from
Hope Gardens, and passed through in 2 minutes 50 seconds. The
object of this test was to see how the machine would act if stems
of different lengths and various ages were used mixed together. The
work done was satisfactory, but it was evident that the best work
is obtained if stems of the same age and thickness are used at the
same time, especially as the machine con be adjusted to suit vari- |
ous thicknesses. Such adjustment would rarely in practice have to
be made, and when necessary can quickly and easily be effected.

iit

(3.) 12lbs. 140zs. of stems from Hope Gardens, barely a quarter of
an inch thick, were decorticated in 12 minutes, and yielded 2lbs. 4ozs.
of ribbons. These had been grown in shade.

(4.) 28lbs. of ripe stems from Hope Gardens were passed through in
27 minutes and gave 4lbs. of ribbons.

(5.) 204]bs. of stems yielded 341bs. of ribbons in 20 minutes.

The summary of these tests is : --

Test. Weight of Time in Weight of
Stems. Minutes. Ribbons, Wet.
Ibs. oz. lbs. oz.
il 388 8 22 8 4
3. 12 14 12 2 4
4, 28 0 27 4 0
5. 20 8 20 3 8
Total 99 14 81 18 0

At a later test we were not present, but the Secretary and Assis-
tant Secretary of the Society were in attendance, and 50lbs. of green
stems yielded 12lbs of wet ribbons, which were degummed and gave
Lb. Llozs. of dry filasse.

In the earlier tests many of the stems tapered to points less than
a quarter of an inch; these were not completely cleaned and had
to be removed. ‘These points should be. removed with the leaves
in the field, a practice which would simplify the work of the labourers,
give a better percentage in the yield of the machine and a better
class of filasse.

As there is nothing to get out of order in this simple machine
and no possibility of clogging, we do not see why the results on a large
scale should not be quite as satisfactory as the tests to which we have
submitted the machine.

We believe we can safely commend the machine to the earnest
consideration of planters in Jamaica, but at the same time we think
the whole process can only be operated successfully on a large scale by
the central factory system.

W. Fawcett.
T. H. Suarp.

112

FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—XLVI.

Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja-
maica. By G. S. Jenman, Superintendent Botanical Garden,
Demerara.

6. Polypodium serrulatum, Mett.—Rootstock slender, capillary with
small, appressed pale linear scales stipites slender close or apart, 3 li. 1.
narrowly winged ; fronds linear, stiff bright-green, naked, 4-1 li. w., 1-3
in. |. the lower part deeply serrated with open or subdistant sharp teeth,
the upper entire, with the sides eventually reflexed or folded together ;
veins simple, spur-like, stiff, immersed, but prominent as are the slen-
der filiform midribs; sori on the decurrent base of the veins of the up-
per part of the fronds, oblong or at length quite confluent, forming a
linear costal band. Grammitis, Sw. Xiphopteris, Kaulf. Hook. Gard,
Ferns. t. 44.

Common on decaying logsin coffee plantations and on trees in forest
from the lower altitudes to the heighest peaks. The linear costal sori,
which it ultimately presents, suggests affinity with pleurogramme, and
to justify its generic separation, but the two following allied species
clearly connect it with Polypodium. The slender filiform erect root~
stock reaches 3 in. 1. is often branched, and throws down prop-like wiry
roots to the supporting surface. Casually an odd vein is forked. The
pagina is often so little as to merely form a covering to the central rib
and the spur-like veins along its sides.

7. P. Jamesonii, Jenm.—Stipites tufted from a slender shortly-elon-
gated scaly rootstock, a line to $ in 1. dark coloured and slightly ciliate ;
fronds 14-3in. 1. 14 li. w., stiff, bright green, glabrescent, puberulous
on the midrib beneath ; the apex pointed, the base tapering and decur-
rent, the upper ¢ or $d subentire—serrulate, the lower part pinnati-
fid, with blunt oblong-deltoid open teeth, all ultimately deciduous
leaving the naked filiform dark rachis; veins conspicuous, rigid close,
simple, hardly reaching the edge, decurved at the base; sori short, ba-
sal on the veins, early confluent and covering the rachis.—Xtphopteris
Hook. 2nd Cent. Ferns, t. 14.

Frequent on trees in forests at 6,000-7,000 ft. alt. but much less
common than the preceding, with a rootstock similar in character, but
stouter, shorter, and not uniformly vertical, and fronds two or three
times as wide, the fertile entire portion usually remaining flat. The
sori are at first oval, and quite distinct, but at length form a confluent
band down the centre, but not reaching the margins.

8. P. myosuroides, Swartz.—Rootstock shortly ascending, clothed
with small acuminate reticulated scales; stipites tufted, varying from
hardly any clear to $ in. 1, puberulous or slightly ciliate ; fronds 2-41n.
1, 14-2 1. w., tapering at the base, as also, but less, to the apex, stiff
dark green, glabrescent; pinnatifid throughout, but less deeply in the
upper fertile portion ; segments nearly deltoid, bluntish, adnate-decur~
rent, a line or less deep and half or two-thirds as w., reduced below to
mere teeth, rachis dark coloured, slightly ciliate beneath ; veins simple,
not reaching the edge; sori oval, one to each lobe near the midrib,
the upper 4 or 4rds of the fronds, ultimately partially confluent. P.
retosum, Mett. Grammitis, Sw. Xiphopteris, Kf.

113

Frequent on trees in forests on the highest ridges and peaks through
the Blue Mountain range; hardly found below 6,000 ft. altitude. This
has distinctly oval sori, which though partially confluent at last, never
lose altogether their distinctness. The fronds are less deeply cut in
the upper fertile portion, and the sori are borne at the base of the con-
nected segments, not out in the lobe. This species shows the com-
pleted transition from characteristic Xiphopteris with its ducurrent
sori into normal grammitis with separate oval sori.

9, P. Sherringii, Baker—Stipites densely tufted, short if any clear
of the decurrent wings of the fronds, filiform, wiry and blackish ;
fronds 14-24 in. 1., 2-24 li. b., the apex blunt and terminated in a lobe,
narrowed at the base; rather pale green, clothed with stiff scattered
spreading brown hairs, opaque, stiff; cut nearly to the midrib into
rounded, broadish decurrent lobes with an open oblique sinus between,
showing a clear wing to the filiform flexuose rachis which is concealed
in the pagina ; sori solitary, terminal on the spur near the base of the
short veins. Rare at 4,000—5,000 ft. altitude in the Port Royal moun-
tains in the Newton district, on boughs of forest trees. This resem-
bles basi-attenuatum in the entire rounded lobes, decurrent and dwin-
dling at the base of the fronds, but is more densely tufted, with short
stiff coriaceous fronds, which are much less ciliate. The fronds are
erect or erecto-spreading and are so stiff that in course of time the pagina
decays, leaving the rigid black midribs standing mixed with the growing
fronds. The rootstock in the specimen before me forms an upright
tuft of matted fibres nearly finger thick,

10. P. nimbatum, Jenm.—Stipites densely tufted, short or hardly any
clear; fronds erect or erecto-spreading, 2 - 3 in. 1. if -2 l. b.,
linear, narrowed at the base, the apex bluntish pointed, deeply pinna-
tifid ; segments close, rounded, entire, ? - nearly 1 li. d. and b., broadly
adnate and confluent at the base, opaque, coriaceous; a dull brownish
green, villose with spreading hairs; rachis stiff, filiform, black, con-
cealed in the pagina, which eventually drops from it; sori solitary at
the base of the lobes on the spur of the short dark veins, the lurid
brown hairs of the receptacles protruding.—Journ. Bot. 1886. p. 271.

Infrequent above 5,000 ft. alt. on trees in forests; most resembling
trichomanotdes. but smaller stiffer and more densely tufted, with close
entire rounded shorter segments which are not lobulate, and villose,
instead of scaly rootstock. The vestiture of young fronds has a lurid
reddish tinge, and are yellowish green.

11. P.exiguum, Griseb. (not Heward).—Rootstock slender, erect, fibrous
and scaly ; stipites tufted, blackish, filiform, very short ; fronds #-2 in.
1, 1-14 li. b., narrowed and decurrent at the base, the apex terminating
in a small lobe, naked, membranous, pellucid, clear green, cut deeply
throughout into blunt or pointed, ovate-oblong alternate segments,
which are fully adnate and decurrent at the base, up-curved on the un~
derside, with a small lobe or crenature within the hallow on the upper,
4-$ li. d. less b.; rachis stiff, but filiform, black, very flexuose, stiff ;
veins simple in the barren, but with a short spur in the fertile segments,
not reaching the edge, blackish ; sori solitary terminal on the anterior
branch, near the base of both lobe and segment.

Abundant on the highest ridges and peaks, to which it is confined,
clothing in large masses the trunks of trees. A very pretty, distinct

114

little plant, with a thread-like flexuose rachis, the hollows in the sin-
uosities of which form the open sinuses between the lobes. The barren
segments have no crenatures, and the vein is simple and falls unusually
much short of the margin. Though decurrent, the segments are not
confluent, so that the fronds are fully pinnate. Heward’s plant of this
name is a small state of P. serpens, Swartz, which is common in the
district of Manchester parish where he collected.

12. P.trichomanoides, Swartz.—Rootstock erect, 1-2 li thick, densely
coated with bright pale scales; stipites tufted, very short, furnished
with a few spreading hairs; fronds linear, 3-6 in. 1. 2-34 li w., light
green, sparingly villose with long soft dark brown or reddish hairs ;
firm, stiffish, tapering usually to both ends; cut almost to the filiform
immersed rachis into spreading blunt oblong segments, which are 1-14
li. 1 and 4-? li. w., decurrent at the base, with an oblique rounded or
acute sinus, and a space their own width, or less, between them, the
upperside in the soriferous fronds expanded near the base into a distinct
crenature or lobule, lower ones dwindling to mere teeth almost or quite
to the base of the stipites, veins obscure, one to each segment, not reach-
ing the edge, forked or producing a spur in the basal lobule which
bears the sorus.

Common from 5,009 ft. to the highest alts., growing chiefly on trees.
The habit is erect and strict in short plants, but spreading shuttlecock-
like inthe taller ones ; the segments are half as long again as wide, oblong
in some cases, in others almost quarter oval, and open between. From
the species near it, the lobule on the upper side of the segments uni-
formly and clearly distinguishes it.

13. P. basi-attenuatum, Jenm. n. sp. Stipites tufted from a small erect
scaly and fibrous rootstock, shortif any clear of the attenuated decur-
rent wings of the fronds, slender, and freely villose; fronds spreading
or subpendent, soft pale coloured, and clothed with copious long, soft,
spreading silky reddish brown hairs, 3-6 in, |. 2-4 li. w., the apex blunt
and almost to the slender immersed rachis into oblong entire
rounded oblique segments, which are close in the greater part, but at
the much tapering base lax or subdistant, 1-2 li. 1. ?-1 h. b, adnate,
decurrent and confluent at the base; veins not reaching the edge, bear-
ing solitary sori near the base on the short anterior branch.

Common above 5,000 ft. altitude on the branches of trees; a much
softer plant than any of its allies from which it is further distinguish-
ed by its weaker habit, characteristically attenuated base of the fronds,
the oblong broadly rounded, unlobed segments, lying obliquely side by
side, so close that the base of each is not expanded; the longer softer
surface-hairs, which glisten in sunlight with a beautiful reddish ful-
vous hue and the usually larger sori. Hitherto ascribed to the main-
land P. truncicola, Klotzsch, a stiffly erect species with deltoid seg-
ments, set horizontally like the teeth of a saw, but possessing the same
beautiful soft silky vestiture.

14. P. tenifolium,Jenm. n.sp.—Rootstock fibrous, erect, stipites tufted,
several, 1-4 in L., pilose with spreading dark brown hairs; fronds firm
in substance, strict, pellucid, dark green linear, 4-7 in 1. 2-3 li. w.,
gradually reduced at the base pinnatifid to the slender black thread-
like rachis; surfaces especially the margins clothed with spreading
dark brown hairs; segments oblong rounder, 4—$ li. 1, 4 li. w. close,

115

horizontal and connected by the adnate bases, even-margined and quite
or nearly equilateral ; veins pellucidly clavate, not excurrent, and with
a short fertile spur at the base which bears the round solitary sori
forming a line on each side of the rachis; the sporangia mixed with
dark brown hairs.

This is intermediate between trichomanoides and rigescens. It is
a stiffer plant than the former, darker in colour, though the substance
is pellucid shewing the veins clearly. The segments, of which there
are 70-100 to a side, are close, quite horizontal, rounded, and not
dilated or lobuled on the upper margin. On the upper surface there is
a dark spot over the end of both the main vein and the soriferous spur.
The sori are dark as is also the spreading vestiture of hairs. Found
by Mr. Syme some years ago at or near Mt. Moses, St. Andrew, 2,000-
3,000 ft. alt.

15. P. nutatum, Jenm.—Rootstock very small and short, clothed with
rather squarrose reticulated scales ; stipites tufted, filiform, erect, dark,
slightly ciliate or naked, 4—} in. 1.; fronds erect, linear, tapering both
to the apex and base, naked, or the margins and rachis beneath
slightly ciliate, dark or brownish green, paler beneath ; 3-5 in. 1. 14-2
li. w., pinnatifid almost to the stiffish filiform immersed rachis; seg-
ments obliquely deltoid-oblong, close but shortly decurrent, $—1 hi. 1.
less w. blunt; veins simple in the lobes, not reaching the point; sori
solitary, oblong or rather elongate oblong, depressed ; receptacles sunk,
causing a superficial ridge on the upper surface.—Journ. Bot. 1886.
272.

Rare in forests on trees at 6,000 ft. alt. A very slender species,
marked by its simple veins, obliquely oblong-deltoid, rather decurrent,
segments, immersed grammitoid sori and narrow tapering form of the
fronds. It is a narrower species than the next, both being very close
allies. Of late years they have both been gathered on other of the
West India Islands.

16. P. Harti, Jenm.—Rootstock very short and small, clothed with
dark brown reticulated scales, stipites tufted, few, slender, from hardly
any clear to 4 li. 1.; fronds erect, linear, tapering both to apex and
base, stiff and coriaceous, slightly ciliate on the margins, or naked, dark
green, paler beneath, 3-5 in. |. 2-3 li. w., cut almost to the membrane-
covered dark filiform rachis into close, round-ended oblong, obliquely
adnate segments 4-} li. w. 1-14 li. 1, basal one deltoid; a simple vein
in each not reaching the apex ; bearing elongated solitary sori sunk in
a cavity which forms a ridge on the upperside of the segments, the
sides of which are reflexed.—Journ Bot. 1886. 272.

Rare in forests at 6,000 ft. alt. on trees. The fronds are stiff and

erect, though very slender, very much tapered at the top, the segments

very numerous, oblong or rather linear-oblong and of equal width from
the very little decurrent base to the rounded end. ‘The veins are quite
simple, and the sori decurrent along them in the central part, equally
short of both apex and base, sunk in a cavity that forms a keel on the
upperside ; the margins reflexed and convergent.

17. P. moniliforme, Lag.—Rootstock free-creeping, forming broad
interlaced patches, thick as strong cord, densely coated with rather
loose reticulated dark scales; stipites close or scattered, numerous,
wiry, naked, slightly scabrous, dark brown, scariose margined above,

116

14-2 in. 1.; fronds 3-6 in. 1. 24-34 li. w., subcoriaceous, naked, glossy,
the upperside dark green, the under pale or glaucous; the apex entire,
the lower part slightly narrowed, cut throughout to the slender black
rachis into wide shallow alternate rounded lobes which are close and
fully adnate at the base, 2 li. w. and 1-1} li. d.; veins 2-4, simple,
hardly reaching the margin; sori 2-4 to each segment, dorsal on the
veins.

P. subecrenatum, Hook. Icon. Fil. t. 719. P. flabelliforme, Swartz,
Jamesonia adnata, Kze.

Abundant on boughs of trees on Blue Mountain and all the peaks
above 6,000 ft. altitude. Well marked by the very free creeping root-
stock, which interlaces so much that the scattered fronds form a well
furnished mass, and the broad shallow segments, wider than deep,
nearly half-round in shape, and that form a zigzag line from one side
to the other of the frond intersected by the slightly flexuose wiry rachis.
The absence of vestiture and the dorsal situation of the sori are also
characteristic features.

18. P. saxicolum, Baker.—Stipites few, tufted from a black, shortly~
elongated, slender rootstock, erect, wiry, 4-1 in. l., dark puberulous and
clothed sparsely, with short spreading hairs, narrowly margined above ;
fronds erect, 24-34 in. 1. 3-5 |. b. subcoriaceous and stiff; dark green
on the upper side, pale beneath; ciliate, chiefly on the thin sub-reflexed
margins and the rachis; gradually narrowed both ways, pinnatifid vir~
tually to the black thread-like rachis ; segments alternate, entire, hori-
zontal, oblong, or the lower and upper ones sub-deltoid, rounded, the
base broad and fully adnate, barely confluent, 14-24 li. 1. 1-14 li. b.;
veins obscure, simple, short, 2-4 to a segment, reaching hardly more
than half way to the edge; sori terminal, also 2-4, densely bristling
with stiff dark brown hairs that are mixed with the sporangia.—Journ.
Bot. 1877. p. 264.

Frequent in the moister parts of the forest on the slopes of the ridges
and peaks at 6,000-7,000 ft. alt. generally growing on rocks, scattered
in beds of moss, a plant here and there; less frequent on the branches
of trees. When growing, the fronds have a blueish tinge on the upper~
side. Mostly it is found with one or two perfect fronds and two or
three broken ones. Its nearest affinity is with moniliforme, but in this
the pinnzare deeper than broad, just the reverse of the rule in that, and
their rootstocks are quite different, separating them remotely. The
roots spread horizontally through the mossy surroundings and throw
up young plants from them. The densely setiferous condition of the
sori is a good distinguishing character. Gathered also at the same ele~
vation in Guiana.

19. P. albopunctatum, Baker.—Stipites tufted from a slender shortly
elongated black rootstock, 4-4 in. L, filiform, dark ciliate; fronds ligu-
late, membranous, pellucid ; thinly ciliate, chiefly beneath and on the
rachis and margins, pallid green; 2-5 in. 1. 4-4 in. b., reduced at the
base; cut to the filiform black flexuose rachis into close horizontal ob-
long or rarely roundish segments, which are 14-3 li. |. 1-14 li. b., ad-
nate-decurrent at the base, often slightly constructed on the upper side
and rounded at the point; margins even or serrulate-repand; veins
simple, much short of the margin, often only spur-like, with the dark
brown sori terminal upon them, 1-3 to a side, the midveins often alse

|

:

117

with a terminal sorus, upperside sprinkled with crustaceous dots situat-
ed over the sorii—Journ. Bot. 1877. P. 265.

Frequent and plentiful on trees above 6,000 ft. altitude along the
higher ridges, forming large patches on the trunks of trees. The pinnze
are deciduous, leaving the hair-like rachises, which are persistent and
durable and freely interlaced, on the plants. This feature and the white
silvery dots on the upper surface, are good characters to recognise the
species by.— Endemic.

20. P. Jubaforme, Kaulf.—Rootstock slender short erect, clothed
with a few acuminate, minute, reticulated scales; stipites tufted, very
short or hardly any clearofthe decurrent membrane; fronds 4-9 in.1.4-4w
firm but moderately thin and pellucid, naked, light green ; tapering both
ways, fully pinnate. Segments close, 1 li. w. 2-3 li. b. entire or the
fertile slightly sinuate, linear-oblong, blunt or acute, adnate-decurrent
at the base, with a close oblique sinus between them ; rachis black, fili-
form, nearly or quite naked; veins simple, evident, falling short of the
edge. Sori terminal confined to the outer half or two-thirds of the
lobes, immersed, the opposite side papillose.

Gathered by Swartz whose spicimen is in the British Museum ; but
collectors since have not rediscovered it. Griesbach united it with
pendulum, which it somewhat resembles, but is much smaller. . The
narrow-tapering character of the fronds, with no distinct terminal lobe ;
firm but thin texture naked surfaces, sori confined to the outer part of
the segments, where it becomes confluent, and the skeletonised scales of
the rookstock, sufficiently distinguished it. A very common tropical
American species. P. parvulum seems to be the Swartzian name, and
if so has priority, though applied since by Blume to an East Indian
species.

Pal. P. rigescens, Bory.—Rootstock elongated, short-creeping or sub-
erect the scales linear-acuminate, dark, reticulated ; stipites tufted or
apart, stiff, blackish, 1-14 in. 1. hispid-pilose with black spreading
hairs ; fronds 6-10 in. 1. 4-$ in. w. linear-lanceolate, rigid, erect but
usually curved, dark brownish-black, green above, paler beneath, taper-
ing equally to apex and base, terminating above with a caudate entire
point ; coriaceous and opaque; naked except among the capsules and on
the rigid black rachis, which latter is clothed like the stipites but least in
degree or at length naked above ; cut almost or quite to the rachis into
close oblong round-ended segments which are 4-4 in. |. and 1-14 li. w.,
straight, entire the base obliquely or subequally adnate and little di-
lated, lower ones dwindling to less than a line deep, but not separated,
and more rounded than deltoid; veins obscure, simple, reaching the
margin, capsules mixed with bristling dark hispid hairs; sori dorsal,
medial, 4-6 to a side, reaching from the bottom to the top of the seg-
ment, the lower third of the frond barren.—Hook. & Grey. Icon. Fil.
t, 216.

Frequent on the branches of trees above 5000 ft. altitude; among
the most rigid of all this miscellaneous group of species ; uniformly found
growing on the branches of trees of the high ridges to which the dis-
tribution is confined, not on the trunks as most of the other
similar species do. As in some other species, the specimens stain the
mounting paper a deep green, leaving a distinct impressson perma-
manent when dry. The margins are reflexed, and there are casually

118

a few scattered hairs on the midribs. Eventually the segments are de-
ciduous leaving the stiff slender rachises

22. P. heterotrichum, Baker.—Rootstock small fibrous; stipites
tufted, very numerous, less than an in. 1. slender, wiry clothed with
long soft spreading hairs ; fronds pendent and over-lapping, flaccid, dull
gray-or rusty-green ; 3-8 ins, l. $-fin. b. ligulate, or oblong-ligulate,.
little reduced at the base, quite pinnate; segments numerous close,
spreading, obliquely, adnate or decurrent at the base, linear-oblong,
blunt or pointed, 1 li. w. 4-4 in.1 entire or rarely serrulato-dentate,
the upper margin often with a slight curve; rachis filiform, black, and
with both surfaces puberulous-glandulose, and rusty-ciliate with soft
spreading hairs ; veins short, simple, oblique, reaching halfway or
more to the margin ; sori copious, dorsal or terminal, close, in two con-
tiguous rows near the midrib, 4-7 to a side.—Journ. Bot. 1879 p. 262.

Frequent on trees in forest about the highest peaks at 7,000 ft. alt. 5.
gathered on Blue Mountain and John Crow peaks ; intermediate between
cultratum and capillare. From the latter its hairy surtace at sight
distinguishes it, and from the former, the smaller size, close narrow
pointed segments, which are fully adnate, though sometimes a little-
narrowed and not rounded or auricled at the base on the upperside, and
the copious close brown sori. In the mature fronds the pinnz of the
lower half or third are usually dead and dry.

23. P. pendulum, Swartz.—Root-stock small or shortly repent
and elongated, clothed with reticulated conspicuously ciliated scales ;
stipite tufted, very short, if any clear of the decurrent wings, black
and gray with stellate puberule ; fronds pendant, $-1 ft; 1. $-lin. w.,
subcoriaceous, copiously pellucid-dotted. glabrous, bright, pale, brown-
green, glossy tapering to the attenuated base and less so to the short
entire pointed apex, pinnatifid nearly to the rachis ; segments spreading
entire 4-} in. 1. 142 ..b., obtuse-acute pointed, dilated and broadly adnate
and confluent at the base, withan open rounded sinus between that is once
or twice their own width, the reduced lower ones triangular ; rachis
filiform, black beneath, above covered by the pagina, rather flexuose ;
veins and ribs raised on the upperside, the former short, not reaching
the margin, the apices thickened and glandulose above; sori 2-6 toa
side, close to the midvein, on a very short basal spur, sunk the opposite
surface papillose just within the glands of the veinlets.

Infrequent on trunks of trees in forest at 6,000 ft. altitude. In the
the larger stat-s which sometimes reach 14 ft. long, the segments are di-
lated nearly though not quite equally at the base on both sides, and
are therefore only hardly more decurrent than surcurrent. The species
is well marked by the freely ciliated light-coloured scales of the rootstock,
papillose glandulose surface, and sori lateral near the base of the veins.
It varies in colour from dark to rather yellowish-green, and is always
clear and bright. Some creature seems to teed on the fronds, for out
of possibly, a hundred, gathered over aseries of years, only one is.
entire.

24. P. lasiolepis, Malt.—Rootstock shortly-repent 2-31 thick, densely
clothed with dark-brown reticulated and ciliate scales ; stipites sub-
tufted, cilate with spreading hair strong, dark coloured, from hardly
any to | in. 1. ; fronds 6-9 in. 1. }-Zths in. w. firm, ciliate, especially
on the rachis and margins dark or light clear brown-green ; pinnatifid

1

119

nearly to the rachis, passing at the apex rather abruptly into a sub-
entire point, gradually reduced at the base through rather deltoid to
rounded broud and shallow scallop-shaped lobes which are connected
and form a wing to the stipites; segments oblong, obtuse-pointed,
broadened to the base where they are close, obliquely adnate and con-
nected, 4-6 li. l. 14-2 li. b.; rachis thread-lke, bnt rather strong, a
little flexuose or not, veins simple, reaching halfway to the margin,
with the sori terminal upon them

Infrequent at 4,000-5,000 ft alt. on trees in forest gathered at Vine-
gar Hill and elsewhere. This comes nearest perhaps to pendulum, from
which it differs by the stronger rootstock, close more decurrently ad-
nate segments hairy surface, terminal superficial sori, and absence of
glands, and different apex and base. It is also erect in growth, and
the veins and midribs of the pinne are not raised on the upperside.

25. P. cultratum, Willd.—Stipites numerous, tufted, slender 4-1 in-
1. or rather more clothed with long soft reddish or rusty silky hairs as
is also the small fibrous rootstock: fronds pendent, flaccid, 4-1 ft. 1. by
8-14 in. w., rusty with copious soft spreading hairs, membranous, pel-
lucid; fully pinnate, shortly reduced at both base and apex ; pinnz
very nmerous, horizontal, close or somewhat apart, lanceolate-oblong,
4-3 in. 1. 14-2 li.w. the end rounded, both the upper and under sides
of the fully adnate base slightly decurved, margins entire and even;
rachis black, filiform, villose ; veins simple, short reaching about half-
way to the margins, 6-8 to a side, with the round sori, which are not
very close, terminal on their ends forminga medial series ; midveins
flexuose, often or usually fertile at their extremity ; sporangia copiously
mixed with rusty hairs.—PI. Fil. t. 88 (much too large).

var. a. elasticum.— Fronds linear-ligulate nearly or quite sessile,
shortly or at considerable length reduced at the base, often little, if at
all so at the the top, uniform or variable in width throughout, 4rd.-14
ft. 1.4to 1 in. w., segments close fully adnate at the base, 2-6 li. 1 1-2 11
w., the upper murgin curved or decurved, even; veins 2-6 to a side ;
texture delicately thin: sori usually 3-6, on the outer veins.—P.elas-
ticum, Bory.

var. 6. brachyphyllum, G@r—Fronds 4-12 in. 1. 2 to over 1 in. w.
segments oblong ovate or lanceolate oblong, varying from close to
nearly their own width apart, 4-2 rds. in. 1. 14-2 lh. b. rounded or
subauricled on the upperside of “the base and more or less free there,
margins even or crenate; veins sori and texture as in the type.

var. ¢. heterophyllum.Segments lanceolate-oblong, crenate or lobate,
often transformed into pinnate pinne, which resemble the normal
fronds.

Abundant, draping the trunks of trees, in forests above 4,000 or
5,000 ft. altitude; one of the commonest of the epiphytal species of
the great forest region, well distinguished by its soft flaccid membrano-
elastic texture and soft copious vestiture of reddish or fulvous hairs,
In nearly all the forms there is more or less of a distinct curvature of
the upper margin from the base outwards. The type is marked by the
segments being fully adnate at the base, the upperside not at all auri-
cled or partially free. A is mostly though not uninformly a smaller
delicate-textured state, of narrower width sometimes much attenuated
at the base, with shorter segments, which are often fertile only in

120

outer half. B is the commonest of all and very variable. It is
best recognised by its usually more open segments which show a ten-
dency more or less developed to form an auricle and become free of the
rachis on the upper (and sometimes the under) side. They resemble
in shape those of Asplenium parvulum. C is a variety of the last in
which the pinne are lobed, or changed entirely into frond-like
branches from 1 to 4 in. 1, $-2 rd. in. w. making the fronds as broad
as long. :

26. P. capsilare, Desv.—Stipites tufted from an erect fibrous ciliate
scaly and villose rootstock, winged to the base or nearly so by the de-
current sides of the fronds, deciduously villose, wiry and dark coloured ;
fronds prostrate or pendent, 3-10 in. 1. 4-1 or 3 in. w., shortly reduced
at the base, nearly or quite pinnate throughout chartaceous, pellucid,
naked or slightly puberulous-glandulose, pale green and rather glossy
onthe upperside ; segments close linear, adnate-decurrent, the point acute
4-1 or 2 in. 1. about 1 li. more or less w. with an oblique open or acute
sinus between ; margins more or less conspicuously sinuate, rarely dis-
tinctly toothed; rachis black, filiform; veins simple (rarely forked)
very oblique, not reaching the margin, midveins flexuose; sori ter-
minal, separate, slightly sunk or superficial. P. decipiens, Hook. Sp.
Fil. vol. 4. t. 279. B.

Frequent on trees in the forests round the summits of the highest
peaks at 7,000 ft. altitude. It varies a good deal in size and the
larger and smaller states look very different. It is best distinguished
from graveolens by the more distinctly sinuate pinne, the margin be-
ing expanded where the sori occur and contracted between, which in
the smaller plants gives quite a crinkled aspect. It is also destitute
of the strong scent of that species, and occupies a higher elevation.
The pinne sometimes are transformed into elongated pinnate frond-
like branches, 2-3 in. 1. as in cultratum.

27. P. graveolens, Baker.—Rootstock fibrous, densely clothed with
small brown ciliate scales and soft reddish spreading tomentum, up-
right, nearly pencil-thick; stipites densely tufted, wiry, clothed like
the rootstock, 4-2 in.1.; fronds prostrate or pendent, 4-1 ft. 1. 1-2 or
3 in. w., little or hardly reduced at the base, the apex often terminat-
ing in a long linear sinuate or lobate caudate segment, fully pinnate
throughout or nearly so to the thread-like rachis, chartaceous, pellucid,
puberulous, often with granular dust beneath, pale green, glossy above ;
pinne linear, acute or obtuse, faintly crenulate-repand, spreading or
erecto-spreading 1-14 or 2 in. 1. about 1 li. more or less w., equal or
unequal in length, adnate-decurrent at the base with an oblique rounded
sinus and open space 1-4 times their own width between; veins very
oblique, simple or forked, not reaching the edge; sori terminal, about
an 4th in. apart alternate or subopposite in contiguous rows.—Journ.
Bot. 1877. P. 265.

Abundant on trees in the forest clothing the ridges at 5,000-6,000 ft.
altitude. Less variable in size than captilare, more constantly uniform
in habit, the pinne more even in the margins, and much more open
between, and the rootstock more densely villose, the bright coloured
scales being concealed thinly. Most strongly scented with a perfume
that apparently loses none of its fragrance with lapse of time. The
‘veins are so oblique as to run nearly parallel with the midrib.

"3

121

28. P. curvatum, Swartz.—Stipites tufted from a fibrous finely scaly
erect rootstock, short, flattish, winged to the base; fronds pendent,
9-18, or more in 1. 14-4 in. w. coriaceous and brittle; glabrescent, or
puberulous with white granular dust. pale or dark green above, gray-
ish beneath ; reduced at the base, pinnatifid nearly to the flat com-
pletely immersed rachis ; pinnie spreading, linear usually rather un-
equal in length, 1-2 in 1. 2-3 li. w. at the dilated obliquely adnate con-
fluent base, tapering outwards to the usually obtuse pomt, with an
acute or rather open sinus between ; margins entire or slightly sinuate-
repand, thin ; veins usually forked, both branches a little short of the
margins; sor) round or oval, terminal on the anterior limb, about 4th
in. apart in a long marginal row on each side —P inequale, Fée, Fil.
Ant. t. 12.

A Fronds $ in. w. linear, uniform in width throughout, 4-14 ft. 1,
segments oblong, blunt, close, with the sori usually in the outer part.

Common in the forest above 5,000 ft altitude on trees. A pecu-
liar species, showing no close affinity with any local species, of a gray
leathery appearance, very brittle, and the whole vascular ramification,
including stipe and rachis, concealed under the parenchyma, as in
some of the smaller species. A is found in Coffee fields on decaying
logs at 2,500 ft. altitude : gathered at Murray’s flat Mt. Moses. The
fronds are uniformly linear reaching 14 ft. or more long, the inner
half or more being dead and brown in the longer ones. ‘This is near
P. Pearei, Baker.

29. P. Ottites. Swartz.—Rootstock fleshy, repent, as thick as a quill
or less, densely clothed with bright reticul.ted scales, which are mixed
with tomentum ; stipites erect, serial, apart, but often contiguous, 1-24
in. l., dark, slightly ciliate or naked, faintly margined above; fronds
erect, 4-9 in. l. $-14 in. b, little or hardly reduced at the very base,
the apex terminating in a sinuate subentire segment, pinnute, elastico-
membranaceous glabrescent, dark or brownish-green, pinne sp:eading
or erecto-spreading, 4-1 in. 1. 1-14 li. b., entire or crenate-sinate,
linear-oblong, obtusely pointed, adnate decurrent to the slender, dark,
stiffish, ciliate or glabrescent rachis, with a clear space once or twice
their own width between, or narrowly confluent by a rounded oblique
more or less open sinus; veins oblique, simple, or rarely furcate at the
apices, terminating much short of the margin, midvein flexuose; sori
terminal, (on the anterior branch when the vein is forked), medial
nearly $ in. apart. Plum. Fil. t. 85. P. tenuifolium, H. B. K.

Infrequent on wet rocks in forests of Portland at about 2,000 ft. alt.;
resembles graveolens and capillare somewhat in the pinnae, but the
texture is thinner and more elastical, and the rootstock quite different,
with few stiff straight petioles and fronds. Only the basal pair of
pinne are usually reduced.

30. P. trifurcatum, Linn.—Rootstock short-creeping, 2 or 3 1. thick,
densely clothed with bright slightly ciliate-edged scales ; stipites wiry,
tufted, 3-5 in. ]., dark, clothed thinly with spreading aureous hairs ;
fronds linear-lanceolate, densely pellucid-dotted, chartaceous, dark
green, naked or slightly villose, especially on the margins, 5-10 in. 1.
#-]1 in. w. or over, the base shortly cuneate, the apex obtuse and sub-
entire, obliquely lobed 4rd or rather more to the slender flexuose co-
vered rachis ; lobes entire about } in. w. and as much or less d., close,

122

rounded ; veins pinnate in the lobes, the branches curved not reaching
the margin, the opposite basal ones casually uniting; sori copious,

nearly medial on each side of the flexuose primary veins, costal ones
usually oblong and dorsal or terminal on the veinlets, those above
these rounded and situated on a lateral spur.—Plum. Fil. t. 138.

meer and Grev. Icon. Fil. t. 54. P. scolopendriotdes, Hook and
rev.

Infrequent on trees and rocks at 2,000-3,000 ft. alt. in the forests
of Portland. The casualiy uniting veins might remove this to the
other primary division, and the subentire state that some of the fronds
are found in the first section of this, but it has obviously most rela-
tionship here, distinct and isolated though the type is from any of its
allies. Confusion must be guarded against from the genus Entero-
sora which is exactly of the same size and form. Plumier’s figure is a
very good one but all the fronds are made trifurcate at the top.

31. P. Eygersii, Baker.--Rootstock short, rather slender, repent or
erect ; stipites tufted or subtufted, wiry, dark brown, erect, thickly
clothed with spreading hairs; fronds 3-7 in. 1. $rd-1 in. w. thin and
elastic, pellucid, thinly ciliate, especially on the rachis and edges, and
bright metallic green; terminated or not by a distinct segment, some-
what reduced at the base, pinnatifid throughout almost to the black
thread-like rachis, which is not immersed; segments close, obliquely
adnate, oblong rather rounded at the point, even-margined, 5-6 li. L
14-2 li. w., with a sharp sinus between ; veins few, simple or forked ;
sori nearer the midrib than margins on a short spur.—Hook. Icon. t.
1671.

Rare on trees in forest near Mt. Moses, 2,000-3,000 ft. alt., resem-
bling in habit and size most Jastolepis. It has the texture of suspen-
sum and cultratum, but is rather firmer, and in form is intermediate
between the former and brunneo-viride, with the rather upright
growth of the latter and metallic tinge in colour.

32. P. suspensum, Linn.—Rootstock creeping, elongated, densely
coated with bright, rather soft, ciliated small scales ; stipites 4-8 in. L
subtufted or apart, erecto-curving, slender, dark or blackish ; varying
from almost naked to pilose with soft rusty spreading hairs; fronds
pendent, linear-lanceolate, 4-i4 ft, 1. 14-1} im. w., flaccid, membrano-
papyraceous, both surfaces and specially the margins more or less
clothed with soft rusty spreading hairs, cut to the thread-lke, black-
ish, often flexuose, rusty-ciliate rachis into close horizontal segments,
4-nearly 1 in. 1. 2-24 li. w. which are oblong-lanceolate, and gradually
narrowed outwards to an acute or bluntish point, the broadly adnate,
equilateral, base sometimes dilated; veins simple not reaching the en-
tire margin, sori dorsal, or terminal on a rudimentary lateral spur pro-
duced below the middle of the vein, the rows contiguous, nearer the
midvein than margins,—PI. Fil. t. 87. (dubious).

Common on trees above 5,000 ft. alt in the eastern parishes and at
2,000 ft. in the woods of the western ; larger in the latter. The stipites
are erect but curved at the neck, so that the fronds, which are occasion-
ally narrowed there, one or two pairs of the segments being reduced,
hang pendent, over each other tapering by imperceptible graduation to
the outer end.

128

33. P. asplenifolium, Linn.—Rootstock short, densely clothed with
ciliated brown acuminated scales, stipites curved, more or less tufted,
6-8 in. l. wiry strict, dark brown, pilose villose with spreading brown
hairs; fronds elastico-chartaceous fuscous-green, pubescent chiefly be-
neath and on the margins, pendent, }-14 ft. 1, 2-3 in. b. the base re-
duced, cut to the dark, exposed, pilose rachis into close horizontal seg-
ments, which are broadest at the sub-equilateral and fully adnate base,
tapering thence to the rather bluntish point, 1-1} in, 1. $ in. w. even
edged or faintly serrulate within; veins oblique, close ; sori on a short
anterior spur, round, contiguous, forming a medial row on each side
the slender veinlike midrib of each segment.—PI. Fil. t. 102. D.

A large and much stronger plant than suspensum, with close hori-
zontal tapering pinne which are broadly adnate and widest at the base,
with two rows of rather large circular medial sori. First gathered b
Swartz My desoription is taken from the specimens collected by Mr.
Syme at Jones’ Gap, which are quite identical with those from other
countries in the Kew Herbarium. The segments are both shortly
surcurrent and decurrent at the base, and with an open but sharply
acute sinus, asin the larger states of swspensum, from which it is
hardly distinct. ;

34. P. brunneo-viride, Baker.—Rootstock short or elongated, erect
or decumbent, densely clothed with subulate dark brown ciliated
scales; stipites tufted, 3-5 in. 1., few, stiffly erect, dark castaneous or
blackish, glossy, nearly or quite naked ; fronds suberect, oblong-lanceo-
late, 4-9 in. |. 1-2 in. w., subcoriaceous, pellucid and dotted, naked or
with a few inconspicuous hairs on the margins, dark-green above, pale
beneath and tinged metallic brown, base truncate and not reduced, very
gradually narrowed upwards to the subentire-pointed apex; cut al-
most to the black thread-like puberulous or slightly scurfy rachis into
close oblong-lanceolate, spreading pointed obliquely adnate confluent
entire even-margined segments which are 4-1 in. 1. and 1-3 li. b. at
the base, from which they taper gradually to the point ; veins forked,
not reaching the edge sori copious, terminal on the shorter ante-
rior branch, medial, a line or less apart to the rows:—Journ. Bot.
1877, p. 265.

Infrequent on trees ia forest at 6,000-7,000 ft. alt. along the highest
ridges. The lowest vein on the inferior side generally springs from
the rachis, and the sori are often rather oblong or oval at first. It is
perhaps, of local species, nearest swspensum, from which it is distin-
guished by its stiff subulate scales of the rootstock, bright peculiar, lu-
rid colour, stiff erect habit, oblique pionce, forked veins and naked
surfaces. It is one of the most beautiful of the high mountain tree
Polypods.

35. P. firmum, Klotasch. —Rootstock erect or suberect, often elonga-
ted, clothed with dark brown acuminate reticulated scales; stipites
tufted1-14 in. |, stiff dark coloured puberulous and dark ciliate down
the face, at length naked beneath, scariose or cartilaginous-marg ned ;
fronds lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, stiff, erect, 5-8 in. 1. 14-2 in. b.
pinnate, reduced about equally to both ends, with a caudate, 1-2 in. 1,
subentire segment at the apex, toward which the lateral ones gradually
dwindle, rigid, coriaceous, opaque, very dark green above, the reverse
paler, naked except on the ribs beneath, and on both sides of the stiff

124

black hispid rachis; segments entire, even and revolute edged, stiff,
linear, acute-pointed, spreading but rather up curved 4-1 in. |. 1-14 li.
b. fully adnate at the base and rather dilated more so on the upper tham
the inferior side, leaving an open space equal to their own width
between the outer parts of the segments, the reduced basal ones small
and deltoid; midveins distinct black and threadlike; the laterals ob-
scure, simple, reaching the margins; sori dorsal, medial, 6-12 or more
to a side; capsules not mixed with hairs. ;

In frequent on the branches of trees above reach from the ground
at 6,000-7,000 ft. alt. in forests; this is intermediate between rigescens
and apiculatum, resembling both but partaking more of the rigid habit
of the former, from which it may be distinguished at sight by the
broader fronds, linear open pinnez which are only about half as many
in number, the black midvein not concealed in the pagina, and the ab-
sence of hairs among the sporangia. It may be regarded as first of
those pectinate species in which the midrib of the pinne is exposed.

36. P. taxifolium.—Linn.,—Rootstock creeping, short, or elongated
and fasciculate, strong, clothed with dark brown linear acuminate
scales; stipites tufted or sub-tufted, strong 3-6 in. |. and with
rachis dark deciduously villous with spreading long tawny hairs
which ultimately turn blackish; fronds lanceolate or oblong lanceo-
late, acuminate, 4-1} ft. 1. 14-3 in. w, reduced both ways, pinnate,
subcoriaceous, pellucid ; naked or with a few marginal hairs, the upper
side glossy dark-green, the under pale and nearly glaucous; pinne
linear, entire, even-edged, very numerous end close, spreading hori-
zontally, straight, obtuse-pointed, 1-14 in. 1, 14-2 li. b. adnate and
equilateral at the base, the lower ones gradually reduced and shortly
separated, dilated and (in the larger fronds) slightly auricled on each
side ; veins straight, oblique, conspicuous dark and raised beneath as is
the threadlike midrib simple, not reaching the margins; sori submar-
ginal, terminal, reaching from the base to the apex of the pinne, with
frequently a crustaceous scale, one each on the upper side. P. L’ Her-
miniert Kee Fil. Ant. t. 12.

Frequent on trees at 7000 ft. alt. on the highest ridges and peaks,
plentiiul on the higher slopes of Blue Mountain and other peaks ; of
the several species of the pectinatum group this is distinguished by its
stiff texture, simple veins, andsubmarginal sori. The plant described
by Grisebach under this name with ‘‘most veinlets 2-fid,” seems to be
the next species.

37. P. Plumula, H. B. K.—Rootstock strong, short-creeping, dense-
ly clothed with dark very fine scales ; stipites sub-tufted, strong, erect,
dark or ebeneous and rather glossy, 2-6 in. l., puberulous or naked,
with faint marginal lines ; fronds 4-1} ft. 1. 14-3 in. w., erecto-spread-
ing oblong-lanceolate, acuminate somewhat reduced or not at the base,
pinnate, pinne horizontal but often rather up-curved, very numerous
and close, linear, acute or obtuse, rather dilated and fully adnate at the
equal-sided or more often shortly surcurrent base, 1-14 in. 1. 14 lu w.,
the lower ones hardly, if any, more open than the rest, elastico-papy-
raceous, naked or glandulose-puberulous, with a few minute fugacious
scales on the even margins and the ribs, dark green; rachis strong,
dark or ebeneous and subglossy, glandulose and rusty-puberulous above
afew minute deciduous scales beneath; veins obscure, immersed,

125

forked ; sori copious, terminal on the short anterior branch, contiguous”
in two long bright yellow rows that occupy nearly all the space between
the dark thread-like midrib and margins :— P. elasticum, Rich, Eat,
Ferns N. Am. p. 63. P. Pulchrum, M, & G, P. Schkuhri, Raddi.

Common on open rocks and banks at nearly all elevations up to
§,000ft , alt. variable insize but well marked from itsallies by its copious
horizontal close and very narrow pinne, and long rows of conspicuous
yellow sori. The substance is so elastical that in dry weather the
fronds curl up, expanding again with rain. The sori do not reach
quite to the rachis, so that there is a naked band down the centre of
the frond, which in many cases gradually broadens toward the base.
Pl. Fil. t. 89 (P. Plumula, Willd.) is either this or taxtfolium.

38. P. pectinatum, Linn.—Rootstock strong, short-creeping, densely
elothed with small dark-brown subulate scales; stipites contiguous and
subtufted, or apart. strong or slender, usually dark coloured, puberu-
lous or slightly ciliate, often slightly margined, rarely a span long;
fronds 1-2 ft. 1. 2-5 in. w. oblong-lanceolate, pinnatifid almost to the
dark-coloured puberulous, naked or slightly ciliate rachis, elastico-
chartaceous dull green nearly or quite naked, gradually or more or
less abruptly reduced at the base ; pinne horizontal, straight very nu-
merous, linear-ligulate, acute or bluntish at the end, close, but broad-
ening to and rather dilated at the base the sinus sharp or rounded ad-
nate confluent and nearly equilateral 1-24 in. 1. 24-4 li. w., the inferior
reduced and decurrent through deltoid to broad shallow scallop-shaped
lobes 1-4 in. w. and less than a line deep which form a wing to at least
the upper part of the stipites ; veins once or twice forked, midrib slen-
der, black, wavy toward the end; sori medial, round, terminal on the
lowest anterior veinlet, 1-14 li. apart in the rows :—PI. Fil t. 83., Hat.
Ferns N. Am. Pl. 42.

a. var. caespttosum :—Rootstock erect, or obliqus, stipites tufted,
1-3 in. 1. dark; fronds erect, few, 14-14 ft. 1 2.24 in. w,, blunt or
rounded, rachis and ribs puberulous ; veins once-forked, short of the
edge, the anterior fertile conspicuously shorter.

b. var. Wagnerii rootstock more decidedly woody, 4 in thick, scales
fine and very dark ; fronds 1-14 ft. 1. 2-3 in. w.; stipitesand rachises
slender but stiff; pinnz blunt or rounded, about 2 li. w. texture mem-
branous and elastical, surfaces more decidedly glabrous; veins usually
once forked, the outer branch much curved along the margin to the
next one, where it is free or united to a short spur; sori medial on the
shorter anterior branch.—P. Wagnerii, Mett.

Common at all elevations on open or shady wayside banks, rocks and
trees up to 5,000 or 6,000 ft. alt., variable, including three or four
distinct forms. It is best marked by its almost or quite naked surface,
elastic texture, lower pinne suddenly or not reduced to auricles and
sometimes into a scalloped wing along the stipites, and medial rather
small yellow circular sori. The rootstock is repent with the fronds
usually contiguous and erecto-drooping. @ grows on stones under shade
at Old England, at 4,000 ft. altitude. Its roostock is upright or oblique
with the fronds tufted at the summit, shuttlecock-like in form; the
rachis freely puberulous, a pellucid plait running from the sinuses to
the rachis. This I have gathered also plentifully in Guiana. 6 is a
slender but stiff plant, with longer wiry stipites and fronds more abrupt-

126

ly reduced at the base. The veins are usually once forked, but the outer
branch curves forward by the margin so much that it occasionally
unites with the next, and so formsan areola with an included sorus
asin Gontophiebium but no internal veinlets.

39. P. Paradisew, Langsd & Fisch.—Rootstock strong, stout, short-
creeping, clothed with slender brown linear smali scales; stipites sub-
tufted or contiguous, strong, erect, 4-1 ft. 1., dark-brown, viscid-puberu-
lous or slightly ciliate; fronds 14-34 ft. 1. 4-10 in. w. elastico-chartaceous ;
slightly viscid-puberulous at length naked, dull grayish or brownish-
green ; pinnatifid almost to the strong, dark-brown or blackish viscid-
puberulous, and rather rusty tomentose rachis ; pinne very numerous,
close, horizontal, ligulate, 2-5 in, 1. 38-5 1. w., obtuse or rounded at: the
apex, dilated at the base, more usually on the upper side, adnate and
confluent, the sinuses acute in the upper part of the frond, gradually
widening to broadly V—shaped at the bottom with curved sides, the
lower pinne more or less suddenly reduced through broad much dilated
shallow segments; veins fine, oblique, twice forked, the lowest shorter
anterior branch fertile at the end, all usually free, but casually the
outer curved ones united; sori suboval, in a medial row between the
raised dark midrib and margins, pale yellow; receptacle elongated.—
Langsd. and Fisch, p. II. t. IT.

Common on open banks and rocks from 3,000-6,000 ft. alt. ; a much
stronger and more robust plant than the preceding, but with the same
texture, differing by the larger size, sub-oval sori, and glanduloso~
puberulous or ciliate end rusty surfaces. The lower segments are
dwarfed to mere uneven membranous margins on the upper part of the
stipites,

40. P. simile, Linn.—Stipites 3-14 ft. 1, rather slender, naked
fronds 2-84 ft. 1. 4-6 in. w., pendent, elastico-chartaceous, naked, green
fully pinnate at the truncate base, sbove this deeply pinnatifid to the
strong, channelled, dark coloured, naked rachis; pinne spreading
apart, the lower ones subdistant, broadly adnate by the expanded base ;
the upper ones connected by a narrow membrane and in. w. open round~
ed sinus, linear-ligulate, 2-3 in, 1. 4-2rd. in. w. even margined ; veins
free, 2-3 times forked ; sori uniserial, terminal on the lower anterior
veinlet.—Sloane Cat. p. 16. Hist. p. 77; tab. 32; plts. p. d1.

This has only only been collected by Sloane [on Mt. Diabolo] It
presents a different aspect from any of the other members of the pecti-
natum group I have seen. From the other large species it is marked
by its glabrous surface, uniformly broadly open pinnation, more often
branched venation, and long pendent habit. Sloane describes it as five
feet long having a a petiole 14 ft. long. His specimen from which I
have taken the foregoing description is 8 ft. long in the frond and 16
inches in the petiole.

41. P dissimile, Linn,—Rootstock fleshy, creeping, stoutish, densely
clothed with bright-coloured much acuminated scales ; stipites apart,
4-8 in. 1., grayish, scaly at the very base; fronds oblong-lanceolate,
14-21 ft. 1. 4-6 in. w., pinnate, the upper part deeply pinnatifid ending
in a pointed subentire segment, membrano-chartaceous, pellucid, naked
or the ribs puberulous above; pale or dark green; pinne spreading
oblong-lanceolate, acuminate or acute, even-edged or crenulate-repand,
all, or the lower ones at least, apart, but not distant, 24-34 in. 1. 4-1

127

in. w., contiguous and narrowly confluent in the upper part, below
this more or less adnate, chiefly in the upper base, the lower ones
almost or quite free, and usually narrowed or rounded, often auricled
er lobed on the inferior base, rachis rather slender, grayish or dark
brown, puberulous or naked, with slight marginal lines; veins two or
three times forked, the thickened apices not reaching the margins, the
lowest anterior branch fertile at the end; sori yellow, oblong or oval
the rows nearer the pale raised midrib than the margins; receptacles
elongated.—P. sororium, Kth.

Frequent on rocks and trees, chiefly the former, in very moist woods
among the lower hills, ascending to 2,000 ft. alt.; well distinguished
by the alternately branched little oblique, veins, thin texture, adnate
pinne, and bright aureate oval sori. The lower veins, near the base of
the pinne usually unite, the branches of the same group often connec-
ting. In some fronds the auricle or lobe at the base of the pinnz is
not shown, while in others all the unconnected ones have it 4-4 in. deep.

42. P. microchasmum, Baker:—Rootstock shortly repent, rather
slender, clothed with bright brown scales ; stipites apart, erect 14-2 in.
1, pale brown or stramineous, slender, glabrous; winged to the base,
where there are a few scales like those of the rootstock ; fronds oblong
lanceolate, 5-8 in. 1., 14-2 in. w., pinnatifid to the narrowly winged
rachis, or fully pinnate below, with an entire terminal segment ; light
green, darker beneath, the surfaces naked except on the slender rachis
beneath, which is clothed with deciduous dark brown minute and very
acuminate scattered scales; pinne spreading obliquely, fully adnate
and all but the lowest contiguous, 4-1 in. 1. 2 li. b. rounded at the end,
and open with a more or less rounded oblique sinus between, the mar-
gins slightly notched at intervals; veins obscure, slender, simple or
forked, terminating within the margin in pellucid clavate apices; sori
circular, medial between the midrib and margin, terminal on the ante-
rior branch of the veins, somewhat immersed.—Journ. Bot , 1887, p. 44,

Gathered at Tweedside by Mrs. Barrington Baker; differs only from
P. vulgare of the north temperate zone by its more slender rootstock,
and winged petioles. The only fronds [ have seen are the size described.
The lower pinnae are most open between with a deep well rounded
sinus ; in the upper ones the sinus is acute. The notches of the other-
wise even and straight margin are shallow, but regular and distinct.
On the upper side there is a cavity over the very pellucid and thickened
apex of each vein. The sori, too, are slightly depressed. Including
the wings, the petioles are 1 li. w.

43. P. hastefolium, Swartz.—Rootstock small, upright, with strong
wiry descending roots, the crown clothed with small brown scales; stipites
densely czespitose 1-2 in. 1., grayish, clothed with scattered deciduous
scales like those of the rootstock; fronds erecto-spreading, lanceolate,
5-10 in. 1. 1-24 in. w. the apex terminating in a lobato-entire point,
gradually dwindling tonothing at the base, charactaceous or subcoriaceous,
naked, dark-green above, paler beneath ; pinnz numerous, usually con-
tiguous nearly or quite horizontal, #-14 in 1. 14-24 1. b., linear-oblong
or ligulate, the point blunt, the base quite free and dilated equally on
each side into a pair of sharp auricles, lower segments minute triangular
with sharp angles, margins even or faintly crenulate, rachis and ribs
puberulous, the former grayish and channelled; veins forked, but sim-

128

‘ple in the outer part ; sori dorsal near the forking, single or double, the

rows rather nearer the midrib than margin.—Icon. Fil. t. 203. Aspi-
dum, Gr.

Common on wet rocks and banks among the lower hills and ascend-
ing to ’,000 ft. alt., well marked by its small size and densely tufted
habit with the hastate pinne. The rootstock is often 2-3 in. 1. com-
posed mainly of strong wiry compact descending roots which spread
only when they reach the surface of the rock on which the plant is
growing. ‘The sori are as often double as single, one being borne near
the base of each limb of the veins, so close together that they appear
single. Grisebach must have detected trace of an involucre, as he re-
moved the species to Aspidium.

44. P. fiavopunctatum Kaulf.—Rootstock stout, decumbont, stipites
strong, erect, dark brown, deciduously scaly below, channelled 14-2 ft.
].; fronds ample, 2-3 ft. 1. 1-14 or 2 ft. w., pinnate, the upper part
pinnatifid, truncate and not reduced at the base, membrano-chartaceous
and freely pellucid dotted, naked, dark green above, paler beneath,
rachis strong, channelled, subangular, slightly fibrillose beneath; pin-
ne numerous, spreading, 8-10 in. 1. 1 in. or more or less w,, serrato-
acuminate. sessile, the upper ones adherent on the inferior base and
decurrent, free on the upper, which is the deeper side, and developed
into an enlarged lobe, lower ones quite free shortly stipitate and rather
rounded, cut !—4rd to the coste into shallow rounded oblique lobes,
which are 14-2 li w. and slightly crenate; veins pinnate, about 4-5 to
a side, simple, the basal ones not uniting but falling suddenly short
within the margin ; sori medial, dark when dry.—Aspidium rotundatum,
Willd. Pl. Fil. t. 38.

A very fine species, marked by the basal veins not uniting but curi-
ously, falling short in the middle of the integument, the pellucid dots
scattered over the surface, and the upper pinnz adherent at the base
on the lower side and decurrent on the rachis while free and enlarged
on the upper side it resembles very much some forms of Nephrodium
serrulatum, Mett. which species is sometimes confounded with it, but
from which the free veins clearly distinguish it. It is ascribed to Ja-
maica by Hooker, on the authority of Wilson, n. 516, no locality men-
tioned. .

45. P. pubescens, Radd.—Rootstock upright, the crown clothed with
few pale-brown scales; stipites ceespitose, erect rather slender a few to
several inches long, channelled, gray-pubescent ; fronds chartaceous,
light green, pellucid, pale pubescent, chiefly on the slender channelled
rachis coste and ribs, 14-24 ft. 1. 3-6 in. w. bipinnatifid; pinne nu-
merous, contiguous or apart, alternate or opposite, spreading obliquely
or horizontally, reduced gradually to the acuminate pinnatifid apex of
the frond, and below, finally, to minute distant trilobed segments, cen-
tral ones 2-34 in. 1. rd—3 in. w. as wide or wider at the quite sessile
base, acuminate with a serrate-entire point, within this pinnatifid nearly
to the coste; segments horizontal or oblique, 3-1} li. w. $4 in. L
acute, close, the narrow sinus acute, the margins even or faintly cre-
nate, often alittle reflexed; veins simple, slightly oblique, 5-9 to a side
all fertile; sori nearer the edge, often apparently amorphus when ma-
ture——Radd. Piante Bras. t. 34.

Common in forest and on banks by waysides and streams, above

129

3,000 ft. altitude. Resembles in general aspect the following, with
‘which it is often associated, but it is of more compact habit, softer
densely pubescent substance, pale green colour, and more copious sori.
The habit is very erect, but the parts slender and rather fragile. In
plants growing in the open, the sori gradually conceal the entire under-
surface, passing from yellowish-green to dark blackish-brown at ma-
turity.:

46. P. gracilentum, Jenm. n. sp.—Rootstock upright, fribrous, an
inch or so thick, stipites slender, czespitose, erect, gray-green, channelled,
4-1 ft. |., naked or puberulous, a few dark scales at the base; fronds
erect-spreading shuttle-cock form, bipinnatifid, 14-3 ft. 1. 5-8 in. w.,
weakly, dark green, paler beneath, naked except on the slender chan-
nelled, rachis costae and ribs which are finely puberulous-pubescent,
oblong-lanceolate, tapering both up and down, gradually to the apex
into the lobed, serrulato-entire point; pinnz distant, the inferior
dwindling to remote segments ligulate, spreading nearly horizontally, 3-
41 in. 1. 3-8 L. w., opposite or sub-opposite, sessile, the acuminate point
evenly entire, pinnatifid nearly to the slender slightly flexuose coste ;
segment 3-5 li. 1. 1-14 li. w. blunt or subacute, open, slightly dilated’ at
the fully adnate base, the basal pair slightly enlarged, the margins even
or faintly crenulate and slightly reflexed ; veins simple, oblique, 6-8 to
a side, that on the inferior base sometimes forked, raised on the upper
surface; sori nearly medial occupying usually all the veins, superficial
or slightly sunk.

Common from 3,500-5,000 ft. alt. in grass by the sides of open shal-
low streams and in similar wet exposed places; of a dark green colour,
and pale brown, fragile, very slender vascular parts, the upper surface
in some cases appearing as if crinkled from the raised venation and
slightly impressed fructification. From the very apex of the fronds the
pinne steadily widen apart downwards to 1—3 in. in the small lobate
segments to which the inferior are reduced. There is a variety occupy-
ing the same situations, possessing the some general aspect, but with
narrower quite horizontal pinne, and close straight horizontal seg-
ments and less obvious venation. I have both also from Cuba. For
many years this was referred to Neph. conterminum, Desv.—a species of
particularly well marked identity but regarding which there is great
confusion.

47. P. ctenoides, Feé.—Stipites cespitose from a strong upright
rootstock, 1-14 ft. 1, strong, densely rusty pubescent; fronds erect, 2-
2% ft. 1. 8-12 in. w., chartaceous, stiff, dark green and glossy above,
paler beneath, slightly ciliate or naked, glandulose ~-puberulous beneath,
the costz hispid-pubescent as is also very densely the rachis, which is
grayish or rusty and channelled; pinne spreading contiguous, sessile,
with a projecting gland at the base beneath, 4-6 in. 1. $-Zth in. w, very
acuminate, passing through serratures to the sharp entire point, deeply
pinnatifid to within a line of the cost, the lower ones suddenly re-
duced to very minute segments which, at intervals, descend the stipites ;
segments close, nearly straight, oblong, obtuse-acute, 4-5 1.1. 141. b.
hardly dilated at the confluent base, the basal pair, except in the upper
part of the fronds, reduced; margins slightly reflexed; veins simple,
rather oblique, pellucid while fresh, 12-15 to a side; sori medial, soon
dispersed. Phegopteris, Feé. Fil. Ant. t. 14. fig. 2.

130

Common between 4,000 and 6,000 ft. altitude in open or shady moist
situations ; abundant in parts of the Government Cinchona Plantations ;
near to, if not identical, with P. rude, Kze. Colour very dark green,
texture stiffish and hard, surface densely rusty-gray hispid, on petiole
rachis and ribs, with a general harsh feel, and slightly ciliate or not on
the veins and margins. A much stronger plant than P. gracilentum
but of similar general resemblance.

48. P. Thomsonii, Jenm.—Rootstock stout, upright, often a few
inches high ; stipites czespitose, erect, 1-2 ft. 1. brown, clothed down-
wards with membranaceous brown scales, and mucous when young ;
fronds membrano-chartaceous, pellucid, nearly naked, slightly glandu-
lose beneath puberulous or ciliate on the costee and ribs, pale but vivid
green, 2-4 ft. 1. -14 ft. w. oblong or ovate lanceolate, acuminate, some-~
what shortly reduced at the base, rachis channelled, grayish puberulous
or pubescent, and pale coloured; pinnz spreading, numerous, contigu-
ous zbove, sub-distant below, sessile with a subulate gland at the base,
6-8 in. 1. 1-14 in. w., oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, with a serrate entire
point, the 2-3 lower ones reduced half or more, and often deflexed, pin-
natifid to half a line of the coste; segments numerous, close straight,
oblong and round-ended, confluent but not dilated at the equal-sided
base, 6-7 li. |. 14-2 li. w., flat with entire margins ; veins simple, slighty
oblique, pellucid while fresh, 12-15 to a side, sori medial, or nearest the
midrib, brown, constantly distinct, at length dispersed —Journ. Bot.
1886, p. 272.

Infrequent in forest or shady places at 6,000 feet altitude; gathered
in the hollow at Newhaven Gap at the top of the Cinchona Planta-
tion. Resembling most the next species, but much smaller, and flaccid
with a general pale colour, distinct never confluent sori, relatively few
veins, and absence of the murications of stem and rachis, and pubescent
and nearly stramineous rachis. It is named after Mr. Robert Thomson,
the founder of the Government Cinchona Plantation.

49. P. decussatum, Linn.—Rootstock very stout, decumbent ; stipites
cxspitose, stout, erect, not channelled, dark or purple-brown, 2-4 ft. L,
membranous scaly throughout, and coated with glutinous mucous,
biserially muricate down the sides; fronds erect, 4—6 ft. 1.. 1$-2} ft.
w., subcoriaceous, stiff when dry, naked except on the ribs; pinnz
numerous, close, spreading horizontally, sessile, with a lanceolate, brown,
4inl., conspicuous gland at the base 10-15 in. 1, about 13 in w.,
acuminate, with a serrate-entire point, pinnatifid nearly to the costa ;
segments very numerous, close, even edged, horizontal, linear-oblong,
rounded at the end, adnate and confluent at the equal-sided base, $ in.
L, 1} li. w.. rachis very strong rather rounded, not channelled, naked,
purple, muricate along the sides like the stipes; costa puberulous be-
neath, pubescent above; veins simple, slightly oblique, pellucid, very
close 24-8 dozen toa side; sori medial or nearer the midrib, copious,
purplish, ultimately confluent.—Pl. Fil. t. 24. Glavhyropteris. Presl.

Common in moist forests, especially near streams, at 2,500—4,000 ft.
alt. A fine plant of striking aspect, and some peculiar features.
The strong purple rachis and petiole, muricate along the sides, long
horizontal pectinate pinne, and claret coloured confluent sori distinctly
mark it. P

50. P. caudatum, Kaulf.—Rootstock stout, erect, scaly ; stipites caespi-

131

tose, strong, erect, channelled, paleaceous throughout but densely so
below, 2-3 ft. 1.; fronds 2-34 ft. 1. 1-14 ft. w. bipinnatifid, sub-char-
taceous, pellucid, with scattered pale dots, naked, only a few small scales
on the coste and ribs, pale-green on both sides; rachis light coloured,
deciduously paleaceous and fibrillose, but less so than the stipites ;
pinne spreading, the lower ones horizontally and not, or hardly, re-
duced, opposite, or contiguously alternate, close above and sessile apart,
below and stipitate 6-10 in. 1, 1-2 in w., the lowest 1-2 pair rather
deeper on the inferior side, the point finely serrate-acuminate, within
this pinnatifid to the narrowly winged costz, segments spreading but
rather oblique, 4-1 in. 1, or over, 2-3 or 4 1. w., linear-oblong, shortly
acute or bluntish, rather dilated and confluent at the base, with a close
or open sinus between; margins faintly or deeply toothed throughout,
sometimes lobate in the bottom pinne, the teeth bluntish ; lowest seg-
ment on the upper-side usually largest and the opposite on the inferior
smaller or in the lowest or lower pinne often absent; veins simple or
forked, pellucid, 6-10 or 12 toa side; sori confined to the outer $ or
4rd of the pinnule, nearer the midrid than margin.

Common in damp forests near streams, principally in the mid region
of the great mountain range. In the largest fronds the inferior pinnze
are fully pinnate toward the base on the underside. Where the veins
are forked, the longest branch terminates in the tooth, with a thickened
summit, and the shorter near the sinus. The species is marked by its
general pale colour, diffused, paleaceous vestiture, scattered yellow
pellucid dots, toothed segments, and sori on the outer part, though this
last character is not absolutely constant. As mentioned under that
species, this and the common form of Aspleniwm conchatum have exactly
the same cutting, barren fronds of each being hardly distinguishable one
from the other.

51. P. punctatum, Thunb.—Rootstoek wide-creeping, rather slender,
scurfy with fine rusty scales that ascend the base of the stipites ;
stipites erect, distant, naked, channelled, castaneous and glossy, 3-5 ft.
1.; fronds subdeltoid in outline, 4—6 ft. 1. 3-4 ft. w , chartaceous, naked,
or slightly puberulous viscid beneath and pale dark-green above and
glossy, triquadripinnatifid; pinne petioled, in distant spreading pairs,
decreasing from the base of the fronds upwards, the lower ones 14-3 ft.
1. 9-12 in. w., ovate-acuminate, the upper oblong-acuminate; pinnulze
also distant, similar in shape to the pinnew and petiolate, those on the
inferior side usually a little larger, the costulz flattish or narrowly
margined ; tertiary segments distant, oblong, usually quite sessile, the
outer rounded and merely crenate, the inner bluntish or acuminate,
lobed or deeply pinnatifid, larger ones 1—? in 1. }-4 in. w.; ultimate
lobes 1-14 li. b, rounded and crenate; rachis and coste bright and
castaneous, or the latter varying to stramineous; veins pinnate the
branches simple or forked in the final lobes; sori copious, terminal,
round or oval, rather large, submarginal, one within each partially re-
flexed crenature.

Frequent but not common at 4,000-6,000 ft. altitude on the skirts of
forests, open banks, and waysides. This is quite identical in habit.
and cutting with Hypolepis repens, differing only in its naked
glossy surface, the absence of the pale involucral marginal scales, and
the sori at first more or less clearly within the margin, dorsal

132

-or terminal on the veins. The rootstock branches and spreads widely

under the surface of the ground, and the bright colouring of all parts of
the surface and sori gives the ample fronds a very attractive aspect.

52. P. rugulosum, Labill.—Rootstock slender, widely repent, stipites
apart, erect, dark brown, channelled, freely paleaceous and slightly as-
perous, 1-3 ft. 1.; fronds 14-34 ft. 1. 14-3 ft. w erect, tripinnate, del-

¢oid-oblong, thinly chartaceous, viscid, fibrous. pellucid, rachis, costze

and ribs, densely clothed with appressed imbricating glossy bright brown
scales, and faintly asperous; pinnz spreading nearly horizontally, dis-
tant in opposite or sub-opposite pairs, 1-14 ft. 1. 3-6 in w., the upper
sessile, the lower petiolate ; pinnulz oblong, acute, fully pinnate only

at the sessile base, 2-34 in. 1. 1 in w ; segments }-# in. 1. 2-3 li. w.,

oblong, adnate, decurrent, upper base decurved, lobed, dentate or crenate,
the end rounded and even; veins once or twice forked in the teeth or
lobules ; sori copious, dorsal on the anterior veinlet, near above the fur-
eation, bright fulvous

Infrequent in the higher mountain regions on banks skirting bye-
ways and forests and other half open places; easily mistaken for
Hypolepis repens and H. Purdieana with which it conforms in habit
and cutting, differing by the dorsal, medial sori too distant to be covered
by marginal crenatures. This and punctatum and the local species of
Hypolepis in their final cutting resemble the more compound species
of Lastrea, such as villosum, amplum, Grisebachii and nemorosum.

53. P. nigrescentium, Jenm.—Rootstock strong, stout decumbent or
oblique, shortly repent, dark, scurfy, clothed with a few minute dark-
brown scales; stipites more or less tufted, erect, 3-7 in. L, slightly
channelled, puberulous, a few minute dark brown scales at the base;
fronds erect, pinnate, subcoriaceous, dark green, glossy, pellucid,
glabrous, the rachis brown puberulous, 3-5 in 1. 2-4 br. composed of
3-7 spreading sessile oblong lanceolate acuminate pinne and a similar
terminal one, which are 14-3 in. 1. 4rd-} in. w., the upper ones trun-
eate, the lower rounded or sub-cuneate and not reduced, repand, the
margins slightly lobed or serrulate-crenate; veins 4—5 to a side, the
opposite ones connecting at an angle with an intermediary that runs to
the sinus and is very pellucid at the top; sori copious, occupying all but
the exterior veins, and covering most of the surface.—Gard. Chron. Jan.
26, 1895.

Among the lower hills; St. Mary parish. Intermediate between
erenutum and ob/iteratum in its general characters. Its characteristic
features are the relatively strong rootstock, small densely grouped
fronds, repand and crinkled very slightly cut pinne and copious
sori.

Asa rule the terminal segment is shortened, which gives the fronds
an oblong or quadrariform aspect that is very characteristic. As in all
these species, in the very early stage of the sori a rudimentary trace, of,
hardly more substance than a film, of an involucre can be detected with
a lens.

54. P. obliteratum, Swartz.—Rootstock subterranean, strong short
ereeping ; stipites sub-tufted, 14-3 ft. 1. erect, grayish or dark coloured
with a few deciduous purplish scales at the base, subangular, hardly
channelled ; fronds erect, ovate oblong, 14-1 ft. 1. }-14 ft. w., sub-
coriaceous, naked, or glabrescent beneath, dark green, pinnate, not

133

reduced at the base; pinn apart or sub-distant, spreading or erecto-
spreading, 6-9 to a side with a similar free terminal one, 5-8 in. 1. }-t
in., or rather over, w., those of the barren fronds being the wider, the
base sub-entire cuneate and shortly stipitate, the upper ones more
rounded and often slightly adnate, the apex acuminate, rather long-
pointed, and entire, the margins within this very shallowly cut into
broad appressed or oblique rounded lobes, which are 2-3 li. b. and less.
than a li. d.; veins pinnate, branches simple, 6—9 to a side, most con-
nected with the casually interrupted veins that run to the sinus; sori
purple, copious, dorsal ; biserial extending from the costa to the mar-
gins, and to the acuminate points of the pianz.—Hook. Icon. Plt.
Third series, Pl. 1669.

Common in woods and stony half open ground among the lower hills,
up to 2,000 or 3,000 ft. altitude. In the early stage of growth trace of
a rudimentary involucre is observable, which however soon disappears.
Intermediate between crenatum and tetragonum, and distinguished by
its stiff texture, very slightly incised pinne, with generally appressed flat
lobes, naked surfaces, dark colour and purple sori. G‘oniopteris hastata,
Fée. (Nephrodium, Jenm.) and G. Rivoirei, Fée Fil. Ant. t. 18 are near
this, if not the same.

55. P. erenatum, Swartz.—Stipites subtufted, erect from a creeping
under-ground rootstock, 1-2 ft. 1. strong, light coloured, glabrescent,
subangular, channelled ; fronds erect |-14 ft. 1. and nearly as w., at first
flaccid, at length thinly chartaceous, pubescent, mostly on the ribs and
veins, dark dull green, composed of 3-6 pairs of spreading or erecto-
spreading lateral pinnz and a free similar large terminal one, pinnz
6-9 in, 1. 1$-2 in. b., short!y acuminate, the lower ones subcuneate, at
the base, the upper rounded, lowest pair as large or larger, the upper-
most one often shortly adnate to the pubescent or naked subangular
rachis; margins subentire or cut into very shallow rounded or rather
appressed lobes which are a } in. w. and hardly more than $l. d.;
veins pinnate, the branches simple, nearly all connected with the vein
running to the rims, the latter casually interrupted ; sori copious, round
or oblong, dorsal, the lines reaching from the midrib to the margin.—
Piebolert. Lk

Common in woods and shady places among the lower hills ; very well
marked by the few large slightly cut pinne, thin texture, and pube-
scence. ‘The pinnz are sometimes bulbiferous near the base on the up-
perside, and the terminal one is not more lobed than the lateral. I have
a Jamaica specimen every sorus covered completely by a much ciliated
involucre. Its nearest alliance is with the next species.

56. P. tetragonum, Linn.—Stipites erect, few, subtufted from a strong
short-creeping epigeous rootstock, 1-2 ft. 1., subangular, glabrescent or
puberulous, stramineous; fronds firm, pellucid, bright clear green, naked,
or slightly ciliate on ribs and margins, 1-1} ft. 1. 7-10 in. w., pinnate,
not reduced at the base; pinne apart or distant, 8-10 to a side, spread~-
ing, often horizontally, with a rather larger pinnatifid free terminal one,
only the lower 1-2 pair shortly narrowed at the base, 4-6 in. 1. 4-1 in.
w., the barren wider, acuminate with an entire point, within this uni-
formly lobed to $ the depth to the cost; lobes close, oblique, rounded,
1-2 li. w. entire ; veins pinnate, about eight to a side, simple, 2-4 lower
pair united with the branch to the sinus, which is often interrupted ;

134

sori copious, dorsal, biserial near the midyeins, extending from the base
to the apex of the lobes.— PI. Fil. t. 16.

var. a. megalodus.—Fronds much larger, pinne 6-9 in. b, 14-14 in.
w.; lobes + in. w. P. megalodus, Sehk. Pl. Fil. t. 21.

var. b.—Pinneze relatively fewer and longer, 6 in. 1, 3 in. w. lobed 4rd
deep or more ; colour dark gray green, the under surface microscopically
blistered, and cost and veins densely gray stellate-puberulous; sori
with a gray rudimentary involucre.— Goniopteris quadrangularis, Fée,
Fil. Ant. t. 16. fig. 3.

var. c.—Fronds much smaller; pinnz 2 in. 1. 4-4 or 4 in. w., often
passing gradually into the pinnatifid apex.

var. d.—Fronds small, with a terminal rather larger pinne as in the
type, lateral ones about 14 in. 1. 4 in. w. or less; colour dark; only the
basal pair of veins united.

var. e—Stipites tufted, slender; fronds relatively small; pinne re-
latively broad ; 14-3 in. 1. 4-2 in. b. costze and ribs ciliate beneath, tex-
ture thin and very pellucid, colour light or yellowish green; sori often
not reaching the base of the inferior pinne. |

Very common below 2,000 or 3,000 ft. altitude, growing in grassy
and open or half open and little shaded places. The sterile fronds
spread on shorter stipites, with fewer broader pinn; the much taller
fertile erect. A, regarded by Mittenius and Grisebach as distinct, only
differs by its uniformly much larger size, Mephrodiwm brachyodon, Hk.
is often mistaken for this. c,d and e are reduced varieties. Fée de-
scribes five varieties, which apparently only vary within the limits of
what, taking the variation of aspect due to wide range and other condi-
tions, may be regarded as the type. Rudimentary involucres are detec-
table in young specimens, more often in some varieties than in others.

57. P. incanum, Swartz.—ootstock wide-creeping, as thick as cord,
densely coated with subulate dark-centred pale ciliate-edged scales; sti-
pites scattered, 3-4 in. 1., coated with appressed scales; fronds 3-8 in. 1.
14-24 in. w. elastic-coriaceous, opaque, oblong-lanceolate, as broad or
broadest at the base; cut nearly or quite to the rachis into horizontal
linear-oblong rounded pinnz, which are ?-1+ in. |. 2-3 li, b. dilated at
the base, with a rounded sinus and 1-3 times their own width between,
densely coated and gray beneath with appressed imbricating peltate dark-
centred fimbricate scales, those of the rachis different, upperside sparsely
scaly, or at length naked and dark green; veins concealed ; sori unise-
rial nearer the margin, protruding through the felt-like vestiture. SI.
Herb. P. 60. Acrostichum polypodioides, Linn. Hat. Ferns N.
Am. Pl. 26.—Polypodium minus, Pl. Fil t. 77.

Common on rocks and trees in open situations and forest of light
shade, ascending from the lowlands to 5,000 ft. altitude. In dry wea-
ther the very elastical fronds involutely curl, and appear as if dead, ex-
panding again with rain. This is the smallest species of the group,
with scales less acuminate, and clearly distinguished by its very wide-
creeping rootstock, which branches and intercrosses freely forming a
network on whatever surface it is growing.

58. P. thyssanolepis, RK. Br. —Rootstock creeping, clothed with nar-
row acuminate pale-edged fimbriate scales; stipites erect, usually con-
tiguous, 6-9 in. 1., and with the rachis freely scaly ; fronds 5-8 in. l.
24-34 in. w., much the broadest in the lower part; pinne spreading,

135

8-12 to a side, with a similar terminal one, linear-oblong, 14-2 in. 1. 3-4
li. b., bluntish, mostly contracted and then dilated at the barely conflu-
ent bases, subdistant, subcoriaceous; upper surface dark green, and
slightly scaly, under densely felted and grayish with larger pale acumi-
nate fimbriate scales; veins obscure, costie row of areolze not large, with
smaller internal ones; sori uniserial, near the midrib, immersed in the
scaly vestiture.—Goniophlebium rhagadiolepis, Fée. Mem. Fil. t. 19,
fig. 3.

Frequent on rocky banks at 4,090-5,000 ft. altitude ; common near
the Government Cinchona Plantations; distinguished by its short broad
fronds, few pinnze, small copious areolw, and stiffer habit in growth.
There is often a line of crustaceous dots around the margins of the pinnz
on the upperside. This and the preceding are quite truncate at the
base, the two following are not.

59. P. squamatum, Linn.—Rootstock creeping, densely clothed with
fimbriate pale-edged dark very acuminate scales; stipites contiguous,
4-8 in. 1, scaly or at length naked; fronds lanceolate —oblong, 10-15
in. 1. 24-34 in. b. usually a little reduced at the base, elastical-coriaceous,
the under surface densely matted with acuminate dark-centred, pale-
edged fimbriate scales, the upper slightly so and dark green; pinnz
very numcrous, spreading nearly horizontally, with their own width or
more between them linear ligulate, 14-2 in. 1. 2-24 h. b., bluntish or
acute, the base equally dilated, the lower ones, disconnected the upper
confluent by a very narrow margin; veins obscure, forming a costal line
of areolx ; sori immersed in the felt-like vestiture, uniserial, medial or
nearer the costae. Pl. Fil. t. 79.

Frequent on rocks, banks and trees from the lowlands, where it is
general through the country, up to 5,000 ft. alt where it is more abun-
dant. The scales of the rootstock have a light rather reddish tinge when
old The rachis is strong, end the scales that clothe it much attenuated,
and the fronds have a distinct terminal pinna. The lower pinne are
1-4 in. apart. These are often barren, but on the others the sori are
very abundant reaching from the base to the apex.

60. P. lepidopteris, Kze.—Rootstock creeping as thick as a quill,
densely coated with narrow-fringed scales having a ferruginous tinge ;
stipites approximate, 2-6 in.1., scaly; fronds #1} ft.1 3-4 in. b.
gradually tape:ing to the apex, the base reduced more or less abruptly
to mere deltoid small segments, subcoriaceous and rather elastical,
freely coated, but most densely beneath, with peltate-caudate pale-
fringed, appressed scales; pinne very numerous, horizontal, linear-
ligulate, acute, 2 in. 1. 24 li. b., dilated equally at the base and nar-
rowly confluent by an open rounded sinus, or the lower ones unconnec-
ted, with about twice their own width between them, those above
the middle somewhat narrowed above the expanded base; sori unserial
near the midrib, immersed in the felt-like coating; veins forming a
single line of costal areolz on eachside.

Infrequent on rocks banks and in strong places at 4,000-5000 ft
altitude. Very near sgwamatum which it closely resembles in the shape
but differing in the more flaccid texture while growing, more copious
and paler silky vestiture, and the form of the dwarfed basal segments.
My specimens taper gradually to the apex which terminates ina

136

small lobe, while in all the other species the passage is more or less
abrupt into the terminal segment, which in these is much larger. Up:
to maturity the fronds have a most beautiful silky lanate appearance ;
when older, tawmy.

61. P. loriceum, Linn.—Rootstock as thick as a quill, firm, wide-creep-
ing or trailing, variegated with appressed, scarious and pale-margined
brown scales, stipites distant brownish, naked, 6-12 in. 1.; fronds lan-
ceolate, ovate lanceolate or ovate, 1-14 ft. 1. 5-10 in. w. chartaceous,
quite naked, brownish green, not or very little reduced at the base,
with a narrow acuminate subentire apex, pinnatifid to the narrowly
margined rachis; pinne numerous, horizontal or subfalcate, the basal
ones deflexed or not, ligulate, acute, acuminate, or often attenuated, en-
tire crenate or serrulate-repand, 3-6in 1. 4-4 in w. contiguous, dilated
and surcurrent at the fully adnate and barely confluent base, the sinuses
upcurved, the lower ones most open ; veins evident, very pellucid, areolz
in 1-2 rows, free exterior veinlets thickened at the summit and entering
or not to the pellucid edged margin; sori yellowish, 1-2 serial—PI.
Fil. t. 78.

Most abundant trailing over the forest floor and on banks and the
butts of trees in moist regions from 2000-6000 ft altitude; variable im
the stipe of the frond and pinnz and in texture venation and sori, but
well distinguished by the very long slender cylintric rootstook, the
peculiar scales, the pinne surcurrent at the base, and the veiny looking
surface. Usually it has only a single row of areole and s ri against
the midrib, and the margins of the pmne are even. The rachis is
straw coloured in the upper part or throughout. Occasionally a frond
is found with the lowest or other pinnz forked and a form in which the
pinne are broadened above the base, and deeply pinnatifid with nume-
rous linear segments, bearing exactly the same relation to the type
that the variety cambricum does to P. vulgare, L.

62. P. chnoodes, Spreng.—Rootstock 4 in. thick, fleshy, creeping,
densely clothed with blackish hairlike attenuated and reticulated scales ;
stipites apart, slender, arching, 4-1 ft. 1, stramineous and grayish-
puberulous ; fronds pendent, flaccid, ultimately chartaceous, pubescent,
grayish-green, 14-3 ft. 1. 5-10 in. w, pinnatifid in the upper part, pin-
nate in the lower; pinne 3-6 in 1. 4-2 in w., ligulate and generally
acuminate, horizontal or subfalcate, or the lower ones defiexed and re-
curved with the inferior side at the base free and auricled, the superior
partly or fully adnate on both sides, slightly dilated or shortly surcur-
rent avd narrowly confluent, all more or less separated, most so to-
wards the base, margins entire; the rachis slender, puberulous and
straw coloured; veins fine, areole 2-4 serial, reaching nearly to the
margin ; sori 2-4-serial, small.

Common on trees and banks in open or shady places from 1000-4500
ft. altitude. Very distinct; characterized by the fleshy rootstock and_
fine reticulated scales, pendent habit of the fronds, gray vestiture, soft
texture, copious areole and small sori. The pinne are mostly opposite,
and the 1-2 bottom pair a little reduced and narrowed at the base, on
the underside.

63. P. attenuatum, H.B.K.—Rootstock creeping, the advancing part
fleshy, 4-4 in. thick, densely clothed with imbricating ovate-acuminate-
bright brown scales; stipites erect, 4-1 ft. 1 naked, dark or light

137

brown. rather glossy; fronds subcoriaceous, naked brown-green, glossy,
erect, ovate-oblong or ovate, }-14 ft. 1. 4-} ft. w., with a stiff brown
glossy rachis and a terminal pinne, usually not free, and about a dozen
oblique lateral ones, which are 4-6 in. |. and 4$rd-$ths of an in. w.,
straight or curved, narrowed to the base, the lower ones most so, and
adnate, with an open space between them, acute or acuminate, entire ;
veins evident, the main ones oblique, areole 2-3-serial ; sori 1-2 serial,
brown.

Very common in the mid-region of the great mountain range, grow-
ing in coffee plantations and on wayside banks. Generally the pinnz
are narrowed to the base, a little at the top of the frond, gradually in-
creasing to much at the bottom, and all are adnate to the rachis.
There is however a form in which, except the two or three upper ones,
they are all free, and not narrowed, but rounded, the lower ones cun-
eate, the lowest of all stipitate, and in which the venation is not raised
beneath, and the second row of sori is close to the margin.

64. P. nertifolium, Schk.—Rootstock creeping, often freely, 4-} in.
thick, fleshy in the growing part, densely clothed with bright broadish
acuminate scales having a pale scariose margin; stipites 1-14 ft. L,
strong, brown or castaneous, naked and rather glossy ; fronds subeoria-
ceous, quite naked, dull dark green, pendent, 24-34 ft. 1. 1-14 ft. w.,
not, or hardly, reduced at the base, pinnate; pinnz subdistant, spread-
ing, rather upcurved in the outer part, 8-10 in. 1. 14 in. w., 12-20 to a
side with a similar terminal one, acuminate, the upper ones more or
less adnate to the glossy dark brown rachis, those below gradually less
so and becoming cuneate, the basal ones stipitate and almost free, the
margins entire or crenate-repand ; venation conspicuous, areow 4-serial ;
sori rather large, slightly impressed, in 1 or more rows, the inner are
always complete.— Goniophlebium meniscifolium, Fée.

Infrequent among the lower hills on shady banks. Distinguished
mainly from attenwatum by the much larger size, pendent habit and
darker colour. The stout rootstock often extends a foot or two long
and interlaces, lifting from the ground in a large mass.

65. P. surrucuchense, Hook.—Rootstock short-creeping, fleshy in the
younger part, densely coated with ovate, or lanceolate acuminate, reticu-
lated castaneous scales ; stipites erect or suberect, naked, browish, 6-12
in. 1. ; fronds 9-18 in. 1. 6-12 in. w. subcoriaceous, pellucid, deep green,
often with a metallic tinge beneath, quite naked, not reduced, truncate
at the base, fully pinnate throughout, the rachis rather slender, stiff,
glossy, brownish ; pinnz oblique or the lower ones horizontal, 4-1 in.
apart, nearly or quite opposite, ligulate-acuminate and attenuated, 4-7
in |. 3-5 li. w., 6-12 or more to a side, and a similar long terminal one
which has usually 1-2 pairs of short rounded basal lobes, the lower ones
unequally subcordate or obliquely rounded at the base, the lowest
shortly stipitate, the upper slightly adnate, entire or repand in the
outer attenuated part; veins pellucid, forming a single row on each
side of costal areoli ; sori bright aureate, uniserial, nearly a line in dia-
meter.— Hook. Icon. t. 69.

Infrequent on trees and logs in forests and coffee plantations from
3,000-6000 ft. alt. By its vivid deep green clear colour and ruddy
sori this a most attractive species. In the terminal segment, which is
rather broader than the lateral, an attempt is occasionally shown to

138

form a second row of sori. It is very near P. remotwn, Baker, of
New Granada and British Guiana, which has thinner texture, ciliate
surface, repand margins, and peculiarly long scales to the rootstock.

66. P. aureum, Linn —-Rootstock an in. or less thick, branched and
free creeping, very densely clothed with long soft reddish narrow at-
tenuated scales ; stipites scattered, strong, glossy, with a tuft of scales
at the base like those of the rootstock, 1-2 ft. 1; fronds pendant, or
arched, 2-34 ft. 1. 14-1? ft. w., cut down to within a in. of the re-
pandly winged strong glossy rachis into numerous spreading sub-
drooping pinnz with open rounded sinuses their own width, less or
more, between and with asimilar more or less developed terminal
pinne ; chartaceous or subcoriaceous, naked, dark or light green pinnz
ligulate, 6-10 in. 1., 4-14 in. w., gradually tapering outwards to the
narrow acuminate point, or often contracted just above the dilated
base, lowest ones not reduced, repand cartilaginous-edged, entire, or
with faint, broad, appressed dentations; veins very slightly raised,
without stronger primary ones, areolz copious; sori ruddy, in a sin-
gle or double usually medial series, sunk, the upper surface more
or less distinctly papilose.—P1 Fil. t’s. 76 and 8v. Eat. Ferns N. Am.
PIStG:

a. var. reductum.—Fronds much smaller, but pendant, and conform
in colour; pinne 1-3 in. w., with an open rounded sinus between ; vena-
tion rather more prominent; sori copious, ina single medial series
reaching down to the stramineous rachis; margins not (or very little)
repand.

A var. areolatum, H. B. K.—Fronds smaller, stiff and often erect,
surfaces glaucous ; stipites and rachises usually dark coloured and polish-
ed; pinne closer, not contracted near the base, }-? in. w.; venation
stronger and more prominent ; sori larger, 1 serial, on simple or united
veinlets ; margins less repand.

c. var. pulvinatum, Link.—Fronds large. 2 or more ft. 1. 1} ft. or
more w.; pinne closer, contiguous in the upper part, broad, acute-
pointed, 14 in, w.; surfaces rather glaucous; stipites and rachises dark-
brown, polished; venation prominent, with stronger primary veins
running to the margins, areole often containing free sterile veinlets ;
sori in two or three series on each side the midrib.

Common at low elevations and among the lower hills and mountains,
growing on banks and the stems of palms, and branches of cotton and
other very high trees, where it luxuriates among wild pines. It pre-
sents considerable variety in size, width of pinne, sori, habit &c. a isa
pendant variety, large, but much smaller than the type, with pinne
only 4-4 iuch wide. 6 is very abundant in the midregion of the great
mountain range between 2,000-4,000ft. alt., growing on trees and de-
caying logs on waysides and in coffee fields, and is much stiffer than
any of the rest, being generally erect or sub-erectin growth. It is pe-
culiarly glaucous. There are reduced states of this, hardly larger than
one’s hand, with few short close pinnz, more or less fertile. ¢ approaches
the type in size but the pinne are close and the sori constantly multise-.
rial. It is found on rocky banks at 2,000-4,000 ft. alt.

67. P. decumanum, Willd.— Rootstock creeping, an inch ormore thick,
fleshy, densely clothed with long soft linear subulate reddish or fulvous
undulate ciliate-edged scales ; stipites 14-24 ft. L., strong naked, glossy ;

139

fronds chartaceous, naked, green on both sides, 2-4 ft. 1. 1-2 ft. w.
with a long terminal acuminate pinna and several erecto-spreading
lateral ones, that are about a foot long and 2-23 in. w. the margin even
or repand-dentate, decurrent and connected at the base by a narrow
wing to the rachis ; sinuses oblique, rounded and open by the narrowing
of the base of the pinne, rachis and cost slender, dark polish-
ed; main veins distinct in parallel lines to the margin, areole re-
gular sori impressed, small, multiserial, occupying all the space be
tween the midrib and the margin. Vide Baker Kew Ferns, 1874-91,
. 88.

4 This very fine and very distinct plant is distinguished not only by
its larger size and green colour from any of the forms of aurewm, but
by its distinct and regular primary venation as compared to theirs,
and the much more plentiful sori, of which there are 4-6 series between
the costa and margin and which are often cretaceous dotted on the up-
per side of the fronds.

68. P. petrafolium, Jenm.—Rootstock strong, short-creeping, scaly ;
stipites few, contiguous. suberect, stiff but slender and wiry, 3-8 in. 1.
dark-brown, naked ; fronds coriaceous rigid, naked or nearly so, grayish-
brown 3-1 ft. 1 4-6 in. w. deeply pinnatifid, rachis and midribs con-
cealed under the pagina, the wings of the former together about as
broad as the pinne; pinne 6-10 or 12 to a side, erecto-spreading, often
unequal, 2-3 li. w. 3-6 in. |., uniform in width or tapering toa bluntish
point, dilated and both sur-and decurrent at the base, with broad oblique
rounded sinuses}- 4 in. w., terminal pinna similar, longer or shorter not
wider, the margins even or slightly sinuate; veins immersed, obscure,
forming narrow angular areolz ; sori large uniserial but interrupted and
irregular, occupying the whole width from the midrib to the margins.—
Drynaria elastica, Fée, Fil. Ant. t. 20. fig. 2.

Rare at 2,000-3,000 ft. altitude, growing on decaying logs in coffee
plantations, and on trees; gathered at Murray’s Flat, Mt. Moses, St.
Andrew, where a single plant was found. It is well marked by its
narrow rigid pinne and relatively large sori. It differs from P. angus-
tum, Mett, with which it is united at Kew, by the different form of the
frond, and entire absence of the peltate scales which clothe the surface of
that species. As in P. curvatum, the entire vascular ramification of the
frond is concealed in the pagina. In my specimens the pinne are 6-8
to aside, and the lowest pair shortly decurrent or not on the stipites
Fée’s name is inadmissable, it having been given to several species in
the genus.

69. P. crassifolium, Linn.—Rootstock woody, short-creeping, clothed
with largish dark brown ovate-acuminate, reticulated scales; stipites
strong erect, 2-4 in. 1, naked or with a few deciduous scales below,
castaneous; fronds simple, erect, thickly coriaceous, opaque, naked,
glossy, dark green. the underside paler, 2-3 ft. | 24-5 in. w, tapering
at the base and decurrent on the stipites, the apex usually acute, en-
tire, cartilaginous-edged ; rachis prominent on both sides, light or dark
brown, naked or with a few deciduous scales down the back; primary
veins oblique, 2-3 li apart not reaching the edge, slightly flexuose,
areolz immersed, many with free included veinlets; sori copious, large.
embossed, 1-2 in, diameter parallel lines reaching from the rachis
nearly to the margins, usually confined tothe upper half or two-thirds

140

of the frond, the opposite surface pitted and often with dot-like white
scales. Pl. Fil. tabs. 123 and 142,

Common on rocks, banks and trees, in shady or open places, up to
6,000 ft. altitude, infrequent in the lower regions, and abundant
in the higher ; dispersed throughout the colony. It is readily distin-
guishable from the next species by its thicker texture and, especially,
by the single line of large sori between the main veins. The sori are
compital, inserted at the junction of the meshes, not on the free vein-
lets. I have seen a narrow variety, 1 inch wide, ascribed to Jamaica
but amount certain of its authenticity.

70. BP. Phyliitidis, Linn —Rootstock strong, ligneous, short-creeping
more or less scaly; stipites strong, erect few or many, usually sub-
tufted and crowded, margined and varying from hardly any distinct,
from the decurrent sides of the fronds to 6 in. |. stramineous or castan-
eous, glossy ; fronds stiff, erect tapering both ways but more so below,
1-3 ft. 1. 14-3 in., w., generally subcoriaceous, naked, glossy, bright
pale or dark-green, entire, the edge thin and cartilaginous ; the rachis
strong, 4-gonal below, prominently raised beneath, straw or chest-
nut coloured, glossy, primary veins raised, distinct, oblique, inter-
mediary immersed, areole 6—12 serial, all fertile; sori copious, aureo-
fulvous, biserial between the main veins, dorsal or terminal, superfi-
cial.— Pl. Fil. ts. 1380 & 131. Sl. Herb. p.41. Eat. Ferns N. Am. pl. 42
Campyloneuron, Presl.
1a. war. latum.—Fronds larger, 3-4 ft. 1. 3-4 in. w. chartaceous ;
margins repand, Campyloneurum latum, Moore. Common on trees,
banks and rocks in open and shady situations, chiefly in the lower re-
gions but ascending to 3,000 or 4,000 ft. altitude. Very variable in
size &c. The smaller and larger states seem to run one into the other
differmg by the individual conditions of growth. There is a form
figured in Plumier, t. 131, gathered by Mr. Sherring at Jericho, Ja-
maica, and previously by Purdie, in which the top of the frond is re-
peatedly branched and divaricated in the form of a stag’s horn. Ano-
ther is deeply lacerated or pinnatifid along both margins between the
primary veins comb-like. A third is coriaceous, with ovate-lanceolate
fronds rounded at the top, 6-8 in. l., the main veins more prominent
and the colour dark. The rootstock of the typical plants often forms
large masses of fibre, which, for growing orchids and epiph tal ferns
in suspended baskets or pots is a very durable substance, and an excel-
lent substitute for peat. All the plants of this group are very closely
allied.

71. P. costale, Kenze.—Rootstock short, repent, clothed with small
brown scales at the end; stipites erect, usually few, subtufted, 2-5 or
6 in. l. brown or stramineous, margined, the tops marked by a slight
dilation of the marginal wing where it passes into the frond; fronds
coriaceous, $-14 or 14 ft. 1. 14-24 in w., the apex finely acuminate or
cuspidate, the base correspondingly tapered, the margins even, cartila-
ginous edged, thin, slightly repand, the rachis slender, usually stra-
mineous; primary veins slender, immersed, as are also the interme-
diary ; sori minute, dorsal below the clavate summit of the vein, fuga-
cious.— Campyloneuron immersum. J. Smith. Seem. Bot. Herald.

Frequent on trees over-hanging rivers among the hills of the easterm
parishes ; well marked from the last by the slender immersed main

. 141

veins, very small fugacious sori, thicker but quite pellucid texture,
relatively longer stipites, and the slight dilation of the wings at the
base of the frond. This, too, is occasionally furcate.

72. P. levigatum, Cav.—Rootstock slender, free-creeping, the bases
of the stipites raised ina single linear series along the upper side,
scales dark, ovate—acuminate, reticulated ; stipites 2-4 in. 1., slender,
naked, or with a few deciduous pale reticulated scales, stramineous ;
fronds 4-1 ft. 1.. $-14 in. w., generally finely acuminate, the base at-
tenuated and decurrent on the stipites, chartaceous, naked, light or
dark green, glossy, the margin entire usually repand, thin-edged, the
rachis slender, stramineous ; primary veins slender, but slightly raised
and distinct, oblique, rather flexuose, areole immersed, 2-4 serial, con-
taining mostly two free soriferous veinlets each, the intermediary capil-
lary branch usually absent ; sori small, dorsal or terminal, occupying
most of the areole.—PIl. Fil. t. 127 B.

Frequent on wet rocks in river beds among the lower hills ascending
to 2,000 ft. altitude, chiefly inshade. The rootstock is prostrate, about
as thick as strong cord, dark coloured, reaching a foot or more long.
The fronds are borne about a + in. apart in a uniform line and leave at
the articulate bases when they fall away peculiar truncate socket-like
elevations, which are permanent.

73. P. repens, Linn. —Rootstock free, or wide-creeping, as thick as
strong cord or a quill, clothed with deciduous dark or pale brown acu-
minate scales; stipites scattered, deciduously scaly at the base, slender,
usually stramineous, 1-6 in. |.; fronds chartaceous, pellucid, glossy,
dark or light green, oblong-lanceolate, 1-2 ft. 1, 14-24 in. w., shortly
tapering at the base, the apex mostly acuminate, and often attenuate,
rachis stramineous or brown, prominent and rounded beneath, the mar-
gins usually uneven and repand cartilaginous-edged; primary veins
distinct on both sides, oblique, flexuose, transverse branches also slightly
raised, areolz 6-8 serial, wider than deep, not divided by an interme-
diary capillary branch; sori pale 2-serial between the main veins, ter-
minal or dorsal.—Pl. Fil. t. 184.

Common in moist forests below 4,000 ft. altitude creeping and trail-
ing on the stems of trees and stones. This is well distinguished from
any of the other species by the free or wide-creeping rootstock, the
more or less distant fronds, relatively wider apart sori and primary
veins. Generally the margins are sinuate-repand, and the texture
hardly thicker than membrano-chartaceous.

142
CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEPARTMENT.

—

LIBRARY.

Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, VI.i. & ii. [Bentham Trustees through Kew.]
Bulletin R. Gard., Kew. App. II. 1897. [Director.]
Bot. Magazine, Apr. & May, 1897 [purchased]
Colouring matter of Querbracho Colorado; Do. of Sicilian Sumach ;
Clothworkers R. Lab. ; Trans. Chem. Soc. 1896. [Authors. |
Science Gossip. Apr. 1897. [Editor.]}
Tropical Agriculturist. Mar.—May 1897. [purchased.]
Sugar Cane. Mar.—June, 1897. [Editor.]
Sugar. Mar—May, 1897. [Editor.]|
Pharm. Journ. Mar.—May, 1897.
W.I. & Com. Advertiser. Mar.—Apr., 1897. [Editor.]
Chemist & Druggist. Mar,-May, 1897. [Editor.]
Produce World. Apr. 1897. [Editor.]
British Trade Journal. Mar—Apr.,1897. [Editor.]
Agr. Ledger, (India) 23, 35, 39-41 ; 1896. [Supt. Govt. Print. Calcutta. ]
Proc, Agri. Hort. Soc., Madras, Oct.—Dec ,’96. [Secretary.]
Report on Govt. Gards. & Parks, Mysore, 1895-96. [Supt.]
Report Bot. Gards., Straits Settlements, 1896. [Director.]
Report Bot. & Afforestation Dept., for 1896, Hong Kong. [Supt.]
Barbados Agri. Gaz. & Planters’ Journ. Apr., 1897.
Proc. of Agri. Soc., Trinidad. [Secretary.]
Bulletin R, Bot. Gards., Trinidad, Apr. & July,1897. [Supt.]
Report, Bot. Station, Dominica, 1896. [Curator.]
Report on Exp. Fields, Antigua, 1896. [Supt.]
Proc. & Trans., Nova Scotian Inst., 1895-96.
Agri. Gaz. N. South Wales. Jan.—Mar., 1897, [Dept. of Agri.]
Sugar. Journal. (Queensland) Jan—Apr., 1897. [Editor.]
Agri. Journ., Cape of G. Hope. Feb—Apr. [Dept of Agri.]
Report Colonial Herbarium (Durban) ,1896. (Curator. ]
Report Bot. Gardens, Natal, 1896. [Curator.]
Revue Agricole, Feb. & Mar., 1897. [Editor.]
Central African Planter. Jan.—Apr., 1896. [Editor.]
Report U.S. Nat. Museum. 1894.
Exp. Station Record, U.S. A., VIII. 7. [Director.]
Bulletin U. S. Dept. of Agri. Farmers’ Bulletin. [U.S. Dept. of Agri.]
Report Agri. Exp. Station, Louisiana Univ., for 1896. [Editou.]
Bulletin Louisiana Agri. Exp. Station, 46. [Director.]
Bulletin N. York Agri. Exp. St., 114, 117.124, 1897. [Director.]
Minnesota Botanical Studies. No.9. 1897, [Editor.]
Report Field Columbian Museum. 1895-96.
Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club. Mar.—May, 1897. [Editor.]
American Journ. Pharm. May & June, 1897. [Editor.]
Forester. Apr.—June, 1897. [Editor. |
Montreal Pharm. Journ. Apr. & May, 1897.
Life Histories of Plants, by I’. Meehan. XII. Proc. Acad. Philadelphia. [Author.]
Rel. Ann. Inst. Agri. S. Paulo, Brazil, 1894, 1895. [Director.]
Bulletin Imp. Univ. Coll. of Agri., Japan. Mar. 1897. [Director.]
Studies over Ampas ; H. C. P. Geerligs. [Author.]
Proc, Station, Suikerriet, W. Java. 1897. ([Editor.]
Fomagina del Cafeto; Ad. Tonduz; Costa Rica, 1897. [Author.]
Hawaiian Planters’ Monthly. Feb.—May, 1897. [Editor,]
Manuring of Tropical Plants. Stassfurt. [Finke & Co.]
Bol. R. Orto. Botanico, Palermo, 1897. [Kditor.]
Sucrerie Indigene et Coloniale. Mar.June, 1897. [Editor.]
Prim. Fl. Costaricensis; Th. Durand & H. Pittier; 1896. Brussels. [Author.]
Herb. Costa Rica; Ad. Tonduz ; Geneva, 1897. [Author.]
Der Tropenpflanzer. May & June, 1897. ([Editor.]
Bulletin L’ Herbier Boissier. Feb.—May, 1897.

143

HERBARIUM SPECIMENS.

From Royal Botanic Gardens, Trinidad.
Trichomanes Kraussii, Hook. & Grey.
T. Crispum, L.
Aspidium Plumierii, Pres].
Schizea elegans, Sw.

PLANTS.

From Botanic Gardens, Hong Kong.
Habenaria Susanne
H. imilitaris.

From R. 8. Haughton, Kingston.
Hyacinths
Tulips
Daffodils
Chionodoxa
Crocus corms
Ranunculus tubers.

From Messrs. Reasoner Bros., Florida.
Pomelo, Tresca Blood

Do. Royal

Do. Pernambuco
Centennial orange
Ruby do.

Jaffa Blood do.

SEEps,

From Royal Gardens, Kew.
Monodora myristica
Monsonia biflora

From Royal Botanic Gardens Sibpur, near Calcutta,
Cesalpinia minax, var. burmanica
Ficus altissima

From Royal Botanic Gardens, Trinidad.
Strychnos nux-vomica.

From Botanie Gardens, Durban.
Monsonia biflora

From Colonial Botanist, Brisbane.
Acacia. Farnesiana
A. Baileyana
A. stenophylla
Bauhinia Hookeri
Polyalthia nitidissima
Eremophila maculata.

From Messrs. Damman & Co., Italy.
Iris germanica
“ florentina
“ pallida
Pyrethrum cinerarizfolium
Citrus Bergamia

From Mr, A. J. Melville, Ohapelton,
Grape Fruit

144

Prom Messrs. PF. Sanders & Co., St. Albams.
Anthurium crystallinum
Primula obconica, grandiflora
Torrenia, hybrids
Coleus, choicest mixed
Anthurium, hybrid
Begonia, choice hybrids
Streptocarpus, newest hybrids
Hippeastrum, finest hybrids
Pitcairnia latifolia
Sonerila, new hybrids
Eriocnema, finest hybrids

From Miss PF. Burke, Kingston.
Stephanotis

Prom Col. A. H. Pinnock, Kingston.
Cotton Pods.

From Botanic Gardins, Hong Kong.
Hibiscus coccineus
Nymphza Lotus
Cupressus funebris
Uraria crinita
Enkianthus quinquiflorus
Aristclochia Tagala
Rhododendrom Fordii

From Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Acacia mollissima
Cupania anacardioides
Bossizva scolopendria
Grevillea robusta
Dillwynia floribunda
Boronia ledifolia, var. trifoliata
Eucalyptus pilularis

E. botryoides
Acacia Baileyana

A. prominens
A. discolor

A. suaveolens
A. linifolia
Kennedya rubicunda
K. prostrata
Prostanthera linearis
Hovea longifolia

Eustrephus latifolius
Grevillea Banksii
Actinotis Helianthi
Eriostemon Crowei
Kunzea corifolia

Hakea saligna

Dillwynia ericifolia

Ficus rubiginosa

F. «wwacrophylla
Helichrysum diosmifolium
Dodonwa triquetra
Frenela Muelleri
Notelza longifolia
Hybanthus filiformis
Callistemon linearis
Clematis glycinoides
Leptospermum flavescens
Cedrela australis

Beeckia diosmifolia

Nore.—This number of the Bulletin has been unavoidably delayed —Published _
13th September.

New Series. } JULY, AUGUST, SEPT., 1897. Vol. IV.
Parts 7, 8, 9.

BULLETIN

oF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

Se SS

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:

Grape Industry - — Pace 145
Coccidx, or Seale insects.—X1I. =: 149
How to gather Logwood Seed - 152
Leguminous plants for green manuring = - 153
Barnyard Manure - - - 170
Ferns—Synoptical List : XLVII - 197
Contributions to the Department - 214

P RIC E-Sixpence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA:
GovERNMENT Printine Orricr, 79 Duke Srreer.

1897.

JAMAICA.

bp U ieee N

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. IV.
New Series.| JULY, AUGUST,SEPT., 1897. Parts 7, 8, 9.

= _ = — =

THE GRAPE INDUSTRY.

By W. Crapvwick, Superintendent of Hope Gardens, being notes read
at the Kingston Horticultural Society’s Meeting.

_ Ido not intend to occupy your attention to-night for any leagth of time
but simply and as briefly as I am able to describe the methods which
we have practised in carrying our viaeyard at Hope so far; and to put
before you my opinion on the merits or demerits as the case may be of
those methods.

Many of the vines which are now growing at Hope were not raised
by me but were large plants transferred from another vinery ;—this as
results have shown us, 1s one of the least satisfactory methods of estab-
lishing a vinery.

When it was decided that grape growing was to be taken up at Hope,
the first thing which naturally claimed attention, was the position in
which they were to be grown.

The first indispensable qualification for the site of the vinery was that
it should be where the vines would receive all the sunlight possible; the
next was that it should be in such a position that the roots of trees
should not penetrate into the snug place I contemplated preparing for
the roots, and so rob them of the store of plant food which Tintseaeg
to place at their disposal.

I finally decided on a spot which after cutting down a good many
trees was without shade, I then dug a big trench between my embryo
vinery and some other trees to prevent their rcots from travelling inte
it,—and it really is astonishing how far the roots of even moderate
sized trees will stretch, when food and moisture are to be their reward.

For the accommodation of the roots of my vines I dug a trench four
feet wide and four feet deep, taking care, as it was being done, to sepa-
rate all the good alluvial soil which was found on tho top, from the gra-
vel of which three fourths of the removed soil consisted ; the top soil TE
returned to the bottom of the trench, the deficit caused by not returning
the gravel was made good by the addition of other good alluvial soik
and a cartload of manure added to every four feet of the border.
In the border thus prepared, we planted our vines five feet apart. The
planting was done in the spring of 1895: of the large vines which we
planted some were plants of three years old, the others being younger,

146

some not more than a year old. Most of the older vines grew very in-
differently, many of the young ones were cut down to within a foot of
the ground, and some of these made as much as forty feet of growth
during the year. Most of these vines bore fruit this year and next year
should be capable of carrying a good crop.

But the young vines which I have raised at Hope from cuttings since
we started our yinery, are I consider, likely to prove far more satisfac-
tory than any of the plants which had attained a large size and were
then removed to Hope.

I need not trouble you with details as to the methods employed in
raising young grape vines as you can buy them at Hope for a penny.
But when you procure a young plant, be sure that it is very wet at the
roots before you attempt to remove it from the bamboo pot. Before
you send for your vine you will of course bave properly prepared the
place in which you intend it to grow.

Be sure you do not attempt to shake it out of the bamboo joint, but
take one of those everlastingly useful cutlasses and split the bamboo
from bottom to top on both sides; so that when you take it in your
hand, the young plant lies in one half of the bamboo and the other half
can be lifted off. Be careful you do not put the young plant too
deeply into the ground. If you bury the soil in which it was growing
in the bamboo pot half an inch below the surface of the soil that will
be quite sufficient. Put the soil lightly round the young plant, press-
ing it only a little with the hands, and then water it well, the action of
the water will cause the soil to settle down round the young plant. In
putting out any young plants it is necessary to be careful not to make
the soil too tight, for if the soil is pressed down too firmly, it hinders
the freedom of root action without which satisfactory growth cannot be
made. For the first year a good strong straight stick is all that is
needed in the way of arbour. To this stick the young vine can be kept
tied, taking great care not to break the young point. Try to make the
young vine grow as long as possible. Do not however allow the vines to
make long side shoots: these should be stopped at the second joint:
and every time they make new growths, as they will, frcm the end of the
pinched back growths, they should again be stopped. By this system
during last year we grew plants of Foster’s Seedling and Muscat of
Alexandria from single eyes 20 feet in length.

These plants at the end of February this year were cut down to the:
gronnd, this being the plan always adopted by grape growers in Eng-
land, resulting there beyond doubt in the production of a stronger vine
than is produced by a plant which has not been cut back. When the
vines again commenced to grow they were treated exactly the same
with regard to the stopping, but on account of the much heavier and
longer canes which the vines always make the second year, provision
had to be made to train them horizontally. This was done by putting
two strong sticks five feet in length in the ground twelve feet apart,
and with pieces of wire fastening another stick to them at the top.
Along the rail thus constructed the vines were trained. As they
covered one rail, another was added and the vines grown as long as possi-
ble: nearly the whole of the plants so treated have already grown to @
length of 20 feet and over. The older vines have been provided with
an arbour which for simplicity and cheapness is, I think, hard to beat.

-

Four stout cashew posts were inserted into the ground four feet apart ;
a piece of 4 by 4 pitch pine scantling fastened on the top of this served
as an end for the arbour; a similar erection was made 25 feet from the
first, from one to the other wire was stretched 18 inches apart. The
front of the arbour is 4 feet 6 inches high and the back six feet this
giving a nice slope; across the wires thus stretched the vines are trained
in exactly the same way as they were over the sticks, exc pt that they
are trained parallel with the sticks and the opposite over the wires.
At the first time of pruning the plants which had made a cane after
being cut back to the ground, all the side growths were cut off close to
the main cane, a stronger growth being secured from the large bud
which is always present at the base of the first la‘eral growths than from
the first lateral growth itself. With the older plants I tried various
lengths of pruning the lateral growths, some were pruned back to within
two or even one eye of the main growth, some were left four, five and
even six joints in length. This I did as I had frequently been told that
the close system of pruning, as practised in English hot houses could not
be carried out with success in Jamaica, but as far as can be seen at pre-
sent it did not make the slightest difference in any way. What the
effects on the vines may be next year I do not venture to predict.

I have said nothing about watering, but at Hope it would be folly to
attempt to grow grapes unless they can be well watered. We water
thoroughly twice a week, and if by any chance this was neglected the
effects of the neglect could be noticed at once. Although growth did.
not stop entirely, the rapid rate of growth was checked. As an in-
stance of how rapidly grape vines will grow, I may mention that a cut
back plant of Gros Colmar last year grew 23 inches in eight days.

The question of how to grow the vines has been effectually solved,
the production of fruit however is not so easy; but will I think have
to be solved by the selection of suitable varieties. Nearly all the best
European varieties can be made to produce fruit, but the question of
ripening the fruit properly is still largely a problem.

A properly ripened bunch of grapes 1s one on which every berry is
ripened at one time. Of the white grapes which we have grown I
think that the Muscats are the only ones worth growing to any extent,
these ripen up easily and uniformly.

We have grown other white grapes the best of which are Raisin de
Calabre and Foster’s Seedling, but neither of these can be compared to
the Muscat, either for quality or for productiveness. Another great
point in favour of the Muscats is that they require very little thinning,
2a most tedious process with most varieties. Black grapes are not
favourites in Jamaica for what reason I cannot tell, except perhaps that
with nearly all the black grapes about five times more berries grow on
each bunch than can possibly find room to grow to maturity thus

| necessitating a lot of thinning. If this is not done and at exactly the

; right time the bunches are spoiled. Some Black Hamburghs which
we pruned at Hope in November last ripened some very nice bunches

in April this year; these were exhibited at Dr. Morris’ lecture at the
Collegiate Hall. This variety however gives us a lot of trouble ; mildew
growing on nearly every bunch.

Black Hamburgh is perhaps the finest flavoured of all the black
grapes.

147

148

Black Alicante has borne fairly well, producing nice bunches of very
fine dark coloured berries of fairly good flavour, but the thinning is the
bugbear with this variety.

Gros Colmar that most showy of all grap»s (although it never is as
good as it looks) has proved a regular fraud. It puts out the most
promising looking bunches, which grow and swell up in the finest style
imaginable, until just as it commences to colour, the berries begin to
crack and fall off, until, by the time they are ripe, often only six or
eight berries will be left hanging on a bunch which had it ripened
properly would have weighed two or three pounds. We have a great
many more varieties under trial at Hope amounting to over 30 in al,
in these we hope to be able to find a variety suited to Jamaica but of
course we do not expect to be able to find one which will grow without
some trouble. I hardly think we are likely to find a white grape better
suited to Jamaica than the Muscat, but I do trust we shall find a good
black of easier culture thad any of those tried With reference to the
grapes which I have seen growing in Manchester and St. Elizabeth ;
the distressful savannahs at the back of Alligator Pond, and on to Lititz
seem to be most admirably adapted for grape growing. A black grape
which I do not recognise, growing into magnificent vines in an incredi-
bly short space of time, and producing bunches up to six pounds in
weight, I did not see a really properly ripened bunch as none had been
thinned, and so only about half the grapes were eatable, but this of
course could be easily remedied especially as the grape mentioned really
does not set so very many more berries than could be ripened. The
berries in some cas2s were really magnificent being large and of a fine
black colour. The soil oa the Savannahs is a curious red sandy loam,
which on the surface gets as dry as ashes, but never hard, and even
after a prolonged drought is quite moist a few inches below the surface.
In the whole of the Savannah country which I went over I did not seea
single white grape, but in the Bluefields district of Westmoreland
Muscats grow and ripen splendidly, and nearly all the year round, but
most of the black grapes do not thrive, this part of the island being
much too wet.

149
COCCIDZ, OR SCALE INSECTS.—XI.

By T. D. A. Cockerei1, Entomologist of the New Mexico Agricultural
Experiment Station.

Genus Pinnaspis.

(68.) Pinnaspis pandani, Comstock. (The Pandanus Scale.)

Diagnosis —A very small light brown or reddish-brown mussel-
shaped scale, found in great quantities on the leaves of plants it
infests. Under a miscroscope it is seen that the median lobes
of the insect are closed together as in Chionaspis minor.

Distribution—Common in Jamaica, and especially in Trinidad.
Also found in Greneda, by Mr. Broadway, and in Barbados
and British Guiana. It isa hothouse species in the United
States and Italy; but it seems not to occur in those parts of
Asia and Australasia which have been examined for Coccide.

Food-plants—Originally found on Pandanus by Prof. Trelease, in
the Harvard Botanic Garden. Del Guercio reports it from
Pandanus utilis. It occurs on Pandanus in the Trinidad
Botanic Gardens, in company with Ischnaspis filiformis. In
Jamaica, I found it on coconut palm in the grounds of the
Jamaica Institute; and Mr. K. J. F. Campbell found it on
Dracaena in Castleton Gardens. From Barbados, Mr. A. C. F.
Morgan reports it on coconut palm; and he received it on
Areca lutescens from the Royal Botanic Scciety’s Gardens, and
on Dictyospermum album from Trinidad. The Grenada
specimens are on Anthurium crystallinum. Additional food
plants in Trinidad are Areca catechu, Pinanga kuhlii, Heliconia
Bthai, and “ Balizier.”

Destructiveness.—It has not attracted much attention in Jamaica,
but in Trinidad Mr. Hart says it “isa great pest on palms which
are natives of a cooler climate than ours.”

Varieties—Some specimens found in Jamaica are large and more
strongly coloured than usual. A distinct variety (var. albus.
Ckll.) occurs in Trinidad, having a white scale.

Enemies.—It is attacked by a parasitic fungus in Trinidad.

Note.—Mr. Morgan has expressed the opinion that this is a synonym
of P. buxi (Bouchi), which occurs on Buaus sempervirens in
Europe. It is quite probable, however, that the two species
are distinct, though closely allied.

(69.) Pinnaspis bambuse, Ckll. (The Bamboo Mussel-Scale.)
Diagnosis.—Small pale horn-coloured mussel-shaped scales, inclined
to be tricarinate, on stems of bamboo.
Distritution—Only known from Jamaica; it was discovered on
pieces of bsmboo-stem used for flower-pots at Hope Gardens.
Food-plants.—Bamboo only.
Destructiven:ss.—Not complained of, but from its abundance on the
stems it must be harmful.
Enemies.—It has a chalcidid parasite.

Genus Fiorinia.
(70.) Fiorinia fiorinie, Targioni—Tozzetti. (The Ridged Scale.)
Diagnosis.— An elongate yellcwish-brown scale, very small, distinctly

150

ridged; the second skin, small in other species, here forms
almost the whole of the scale.

Distribution.—Dr. Sinclair found it near Montego Bay, Jamaica, on
Ieaves of coconut palm. Mr. Morgan received it, also on
coconut, from Barbados. It is a hothouse speciesin Europe and
the United States. Maskell reports it from New South Wales.
Mr. E. E. Green has recorded it (as F. palme) from Ceylon.
oe Alex. Craw has found it on camellias from Belgium and

apan.

Food-plants.—Coco-nut palm, Livistona, Leptospermum, camellia,
Areca aurea, Phytelephas macrocarpa, Cycas revoluta and Kentia.

Destructiveness—Not usually very abundant, but destructive when
it becomes so.

Varie:i-s —Under the above name are includel some varieties, which
may possibly be distinct though allied species. Comstock
thought the form he found on camellia was a distinct species,
and named it F. camellie, but it is generally admitted now that
he was mistaken. Mr. Green also described the Ceylon form as
new, but he no longer considers it distinct. The most distinct
variety I have seen was crowded on the under side of a leaf of
Camellia japonica from Baton Rouge, Louisiana, sent by Prof.
Morgan. In this the female scales seemed a little larger than
usual, and were dark brown, much darker than those ordinarily
found on palms ; the middle of the scale became actually black,
while the ends were a red brown. There were numbers of male
scales with them, white witha slight median keel and very
pale exuvia. I found an orange-yellow male with white wings,
This does not seem to be quite the same as Comstock’s camellia.

Genus Ischnaspis.
(71.) Ischnaspis filiformis. Douglas (The Black-line Scale.)

Diagnosis.—-The most easily recognized of scales, appearing as a short
black line on the leaf it infests. It frequently occurs in numbers
giving the leaves a very odd appearance.

Distribution.—It seems to be very abundant in Trinidad ; it is also
found in Jamaica, Antigua, Grenada, South Australia, Japan,
British Guiana and in hot houses in Europe and the United
States.

Food-plants.—Various palms, Dictyospermum, Strychnos, Myristica,
Mango, Pandanus, Cycas, Monstera, &e.

Destructiveness.—Not usually comp'ained of, but in Trinidad Mr.
Hart sys it “isa great trouble tous on Cycas and several palms
and aroids.”

Note.—M. Simon has applied the name Jschnaspis to a genus of spi-
ders from St. Vincent. Our genus has priority, anda new name
will have to be given to the spider-genus.

Genus Aspidiotus.
This genus includes the small round usually more or less flat scales
so common almost everywhere. It is very numerous in species.
(72.) Aspidiotus sacchari. Ckll. (The Sugar-cane Aspidiotus.)
Diagnosis.—Scale white tinged with greyish, or rather a kind of
pinkish brown. Exuvie darker, first skin brown, second orange.

151

The insect itself is very pale yellowish, with aslight pink tinge.

Distribution—Discovered March 1893 in Mr. Streadwick’s Marine
Garden, Kingston, Jamaica. Not yet found elsewhere.

Food-plan*.—It occurs on the culms and sheathing bases of leaves of
Sugar-Cane.

Destructireness—No good opportunity has occurred to form an esti
mate of this,

Parasite —It has an undetermined parasite.

(73.) Aspidiotus hartii, Ckll. (The Yam Aspidiotus.)

Diagnosis.—Scale much like sacchari, with the same curious pinkish-
brown tint. The first skin is shining pale straw colour. When
the scales drop off the yams, they leave conspicuous white marks ;
s» that, to use a hibernicism, their presence is most noticeable
when they are not there

Distribution. —Only found in Trinidad.

Food-plant —On roots of yam, abundant.

Destructiveness—Mr. Hart says it does not appear to injure growing
plants; I should suppose it might interfere with the sale of the
yams.

a ae variety /untii, Ckll., was found by Mr. Lunt in Trini-
dad on the stems of some plant. The female, under the micro-
scope, does not show the groups of ventral glands of the type,
from which we infer that it is viviparous (ovoviviparous), the
type being oviparous.

(74.) Aspidiotus biformis, Ckll. (The orchid Aspidiotus.)

Diagnosis —A round dark brown or reddish brown female scale, with
a small elongate-oval male scale. Sometimes the scales are
almost black; they have a granular surfice.

Distribution Rather common on cultivated orchids in Jamaica and
Trinidad. Lately Mr. Alex. Craw bas found it on an orchid
from Central America,—the precise locality unknown.

Food-plants.—Orchids ; Oncidium Sprucet, Odontoglossum grande,
Epidendrum, Cattleya Bowringiana.

Destructiveness.—Certainly injurious to choice orchids.

Varieties While this is a very distinct species, it includes two va-
rieties, which I have named Catétley@ and odontoglossi. The
former is noticeable for its black exuvix; the latter has the
exuviz also black, but covered by pale secretion.

Note.—An account of this species, with figures, will be found in The
Gardeners’ Chronicle for May 6, 1893, p. 548.

(75.) Asptdiotus palme, Morgan and Ckll. (Tue Coconut Aspidiotus.)

Diagnosis.—A small rather convex pale brown scale, with the exuvi®
black, and on one side of the centre. The fzmale has grouped
ventral glands, which are wanting in A. rapax, which has a
similar looking scale.

Distribution.—Found in Jamaica and Trinidad.

Fvod-plants.—Leaves of coconut palm and banana. I once found a
few scales on lignum-vite trees in Kingston, Jamaica, but they
were c'ose to some coconuts.

Destructiveness.—It seems to do no serious harm.

_Parasites.--It has an undetermined parasite in Jamaica.
Mesilla, New Mexico, U.S.A., March 1, 1897.

152
HOW TO GATHER LOGWOOD SEED.

By T, He Srarp

February and March are the best months to gather the seed im
Jamaica.

Fully matured trees should be selected, young trees and old trees
avoided. To avoid being deceived carry with you a small sample of the
wood you require; scrape, wet and compare it with the interior of the
tree before gathering seed. Bore with an auger or chip with an axe
about three feet from the ground until you have obtained a portion of
the interior and satisfied yourself that the colour answers the sample
you desire. See that the appearance of the seed-pod on the tree is not
quite dark-brown, and bone dry ; but is light-brown and half dry: that
is to say that the seed-pods are fully matured and just getting dry.

Clear all weeds from under the tree, spread a large circular calico
sheet on the gr.und. Climb the tree, or take a long stick with a hook
at the end and shake the branches gently. A large quantity of seed
will fall, examine it, and you will find a large proportion immature,
also insect-eaten, and empty pods, dust, rotten twigs, &c. Gather up
the sheet and throw away the whole of the stuff. Spread the sheet
again, climb the tree and after selecting the branches that seem to
have the best seed, chop them with a sharp cutlass partially through, so
that they bend down within a foot or two of the sheet. About one-third
of the branches on the tree will be found to have good seed and are gene-
rally midway up, and if these are lopped half way out to the end no
harm will be done to the tree. Then with a coarse glove on your hand,
stand on the ground and strip the seed-pods off the branches so that
they fall on the sheet.

Remove the seed to some cool, well ventilated place, and spread
them out for three or four days so as to avoid fermentation. When
they are cured and cool, give them a few hours’sunning. Rub through
a sleve and winnow; then keep the seed in an open tray for two or
three days, winnow a second time, put them in dry bottles, shake well,
and fill to within an inch of the cork, put in a bit of cotton, then about
a teaspoonful of camphor, cork well and seal.

Seed gathered like this two years ago by me are still in good order.

Keeping seed in the pod after being gathered facilitates the destruc-
tion by insects which harbour in the pods.

153

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR GREEN MANURING
AND FOR FEEDING.

By E. W. Aten, Ph. D., Assistant Director of the Office of Experi-
> ment Stations, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture.

Reprinted from Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 16.

GREEN MANURING.

Green manuring, or ploughing under green crops raised for that pur-
pose, is one of the oldest means of improving the fertility of the soil.
It was advocated by Roman writers more than two thousand years ago,
and from that time until now it has formed a most important resource
of the farmer, especially where the supply of barnyard manure is insuffi-
cient. Its advantages are many. ‘The more striking are that it fur-
nishes the surface soil with a supply of the fertilising materials needed
by crups, increases the humus, and improves the physical qualities and
the tilth of the soil. As a humus-former green manuring stands next
to barnyard manure.

By means of green manuring, land which is practically barren may
be brought up to a state of fertility where it will produce profitable
crops. As a single instance of this may be mentioned the experiments
carried on by the Michigan Experiment Station on the ‘“Jack-pine
plains” of that State. In 1888 experiments were undertaken on the
light sandy, almest barren, soils of these plains. Green manures were
used mainly, supplemented by cheap fertilisers. In three years marked
improvement was evident, not only in the physical character of the soil
but also in the increased yields of various crops.

Again, green manuring may be used to take the place of more expen-
sive fertilisers and manures on soils already under cultivation. It is
in this latter use that it finds its widest application.

There has been much speculation as to the manner in which the crops
commonly used for green manuring could gather such large quantities
of fertilising materials. It will be remembered that the principal fer-
tilising ingredients required by plants are nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
and potash, These are each and all more or less essential 1o the
healthy growth of crops. Consequently they are applied to the soil in
the form of commercial fertilisers and other manures. In attempting
to explain how the fertility of the soil is maintained by green manuring
it has been said that plants with long roots, like clovers, feed deep
down in the soil or subsoil on materials beyond the reach of surface-
feeding plants; and that when the tops of these plants die down and
are mixed with the surface soil they enrich it much the same as an appli-
cation of barnyard manure. This is undoubedly true, but it fails to
explain how such large quantities of materials can be obtained, espe-
cially when clover is grown continuously for a number of years. The
question has finally been solved by one of the most interesting and
important discoveries yet made in agricultural science. It has been
found that certain plants can feed upon the nitrogen in the atmosphere
and store it up in their tissues as they grow. They take their phos-
phoric acid and potash from the soil, but they obtain their nitrogen very
largely from the air. Hence they draw from the air a material neces-
sary tothe growth of crops which in the form of commercial fertilisers,

154

as nitrate of soda, ammonium sulphate, dried blood, etc., is paid for at
he rate of from 15 to 20 cents a pound.

HOW PLANTS GET NITROGEN FROM THE AIR.

The air we breathe is about four-fifths nitrogen and one fifth oxygen.
We use the oxygen in breathing but discard the nitrozen. It has been
regard’d merely as a material for diluting the oxygen, which would
be otherwise too strong for our use. All attempts to economically render
this nitrogen of the air available for plant food, by chemical means,
have been unsuccessful. Recently it has been discovered that the so-
called leguminous plants—clovers, peas, beans, lupines, vetches, etc..—
can take up this nitrogen of the air, and can grow without being
manured with nitroge: if manured with phosphoric acid and potash.

The manner in which this nitrogen assimilation takes place has been
earefully and patiently studied by scientists, and although the details
are not fully understood the primary cause has been found. It is be-
lieved that plants are enabled to get this nitrogen through the activity
of the lower forms of life, bacteria or microbes, which can only be seen
with the aid of a powerful microscope. These organisms live in the
soil and are to be found where leguminous plants have been grown.
They produce or cause the plant to produce little nodules, or tubercles,
on the roots It is through these tubercles that the plant gets its
atmospheric nitrogen. The air enters the soil by the numerous pores
or openings in it, which are produced by ploughing, cultivating, and
working the soil, by the decay of rootlets, by earthworms, ete. By
just what physiological processes the nitrogen assimilation takes place-
is a questlon still in dispute among scientists. It is sufficient for prac-
tical purposes to know that nitrogen is taken up from the air by the
growing plant, directly or indirectly; and that this nitrogen assimila-
tion takes place as a result of the life of bacteria. It is a peculiar fact
that few, if any, root tub>rcles are formed when leguminous plants are
manured with nitrogen ; the plants must first hunger for nitrogen before
the tubercles are formed, and the presence of tub2rcles indicates that
the plant is taking nitrogen from the air.

Now, curious as it may seem, there appear to be different forms of
bacteria for different kinds of plants. Hence it sometimes becomes
necessary to provide crops with the necessary bacteria before they can
use the nitrogen of theair. This is done by applying a light dressing of
soil in which the kind of plants it is wished to grow have been previously
grown. This is called soil inoculation. It is sometimes necessary in
growing a crop on a piece of land for the first time in several years.
Suppose, for instance, that , eas which had been sown on land manured
with phosphates and potash but without nitrogen failed to grow luxu-
riantly. If the other co: ditions were favorable, the inference would be
that bacteria of the right kind were lacking in the soil, anda light dress-
ing of soil in which peas had previously been successfully grown might
be applied. Such treatment as this has been repeatedly tried with
success on a large scale.

These discoveries throw a new light on green manuring and on the
plants best adapted for green manuring. They recommend it more
highly than ever before as asoil renovator and a cheap means of main-

155

‘taining the fertility of a soil. They show that while both leguminous
and non-leguminous plants enrich the soil alike in humus-forming
materials, in proportion to the size of the crop, they differ in respect to
the source of their nitrogenous materials. While non-leguminous

larits derive their nitrogen supply almost exclusively from the soil,
ee irninous plants may take theirs largely from the air Conse-
quently, if spurry, buckwheat, mustard, etc. (non-leguminous plants),
-are grown on the soil and the crop ploughed in, the soil is not materially
enriched in nitrogen ; the process is simply returning to the soil all the
nitrogen which the crop took from it. But since leguminous plants
may derive the larger propotion of their nitrogen from without the
soil—that is, from the air—their use for green manuring actually
enriches the soil in nitr. genous matter,

It will thus be seen that by green manuring with leguminous crops
it is possible to manure the soil with nitrogen from the air, a free and
inexhaustible source, and thus avoid buying fertilisers containing much
nitrogen. This greatly lessens the expense for commercial fertilisers,
for nitrogen is the most expensive element the farmer has to buy. As
stated above, it costs from 15 to 20 cents a pound, while potash and
phosphoric acid ecst only 5 to 7 cents, or even less. Although grains,
grasses, corn, cotton, root crops, tobacco, ete., can not use the nitrogen
of the air, green manuring enables them to benefit by it indirectly.

SOME CROPS FOR GREEN MANURING,

Among the legumiuous pl ‘nts more commonly used for green manur-
ing in this country and in Europe are cowpea, alfalfa, clovers, melilotus,
serradella, lupines, vetch, and horse bean. Some of these are described
below.

Cowpea.

The cowpea is widely used as a green manure in the Southern States.
According to the North Carolina Experiment Station, “the cowpea,
being a tender annual, shonld always be sown in the spring. It will
give a good yield sown as late as July 1, but the earlier itis sown after
danger of frost is passed the heavier the yield. The pea is usually
sown broadcast at the rate of 2 bushels p°r acre and ploughed or har-
rowed in. The cowpea is not affected by heat, and is less sensitive to
drought than any of the clovers.”

Experimen's have shown that cowpeas respond readily to applica-
tions of potash and phosphates, and are able to derive their nitrogen
very largely from the air. Inasmuch as cowpeas are large gatherera of
nitrogen, and also secure considerable amounts of potash and phos-
phoric acid through their extensive root system, which reaches down to
the subsoil, they havea high fertilising value. How to get the greatest
benefit from the fertilising constituents of cowpeas is one of the problems
on which the experiment stations are working. If the cowpeas are
ploughed under in the fall and the ground lef ‘bare until spring a large
share of the nitrogen will be leached away. By sowing wheat or rye
after the cowpeas are plonghed under part of this loss may be avoided.
If the vines are cut and allowed to lie on the ground during the winter
the nitrogen is rapidly lost. In an experiment at the station ii Ala-

156

bama it was found that vines gathered in October had from 1.45 to
2.62 per cent. of nitrogen, while if left on the ground until January they
had only about 0.70 per cent., 7. e., they lost two thirds of their most
valuable fertilizing ingredient.

Experiments at the Louisiana station show that 1 acre of cow-
peas, yielding 3,970.38 pounds of organic matter, turned under, gave-
to the soil 64.95 pounds of nitrogen, 20.39 pounds of phosphoric acid,
and 110.56 pounds of potash, of which at least 8.34 pounds of nitro-
gen, 4.43 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 18.1 ponnds of potash were
furnished by the roots. Analyses made at the South Carolina Station
show that cowpea hay contains 1.42 per cent. of potash, 0.89 per cent-
of phosphoric acid, and 2.71 per cent. of nitrogen. Cowpea roots con-
tained 1.19 per cent. of potash, 0.28 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and 0.94
per cent. of nitrogen; the roots and stubble, two months after the
crop was harvested, contained 0.83 per cent of potash, 0.26 per cent.
of phosphoric acid, and 1.35 per cent. of nitrogen. Experiments else-
where showed that the vines from a given area weighed six times as
much as the roots, and were & times as valuable for manure.

Cowpeas and melilotus have given good results as green manure on
the canebrake lands of Alabama. “ Before the land was sowed in meli-
lotus and cowpeas it was not considered worth cul'ivating. This
season (1890) it produced as fine a crop as the best lends of the s‘ation.
highly fertilised.”

Alfalfa

Alfalfa or lucern has long been cultiva‘ed in Europe, and is grown
quite extensively in some of the Western and Southern States. It
seems probable that it may be introduced with advantage into many
parts of the Southern States east of the Mississippi, and over a wide tract
of the more arid regions of the Southwest. Under favourable conditions.
it will live from eight to fifteen years, and does not run out as clover
does. It has been grown successfully for seven years at the experiment
station at Geneva, N.’Y., but in recent experiments on 30 farms in
different parts of Vermont it was very largely winterkilled. While a
Southern climate is more favourable to alfalfa, numerous experiments
have shown that it will do well in many localities in the Northern
States, and when established will produce from three to five crops each
season for a number of successive years. Alfalfa is said to be especially
adapted to dry climates, and withstands drought much better than
ordinary clovers. For this reason it is largely relied on in Colorado
and California, especially where irrigation is used.

The value of alfalfa for green manuring has been quite thoroughly
studied by the New Jersey Experiment Station. Seed was sown broad-
cast at the rate of 15 pounds per acre. A fertiliser containing phos-
phoric acid and potash with a little nitrogen was applied. It appears
from these studies that alfalfa derives nitrogen from some other source
than the soil, and draws potash through its long roots from the deeper
layers of the subs: il. In three years 90 pounds of nitrogen per acre
was applied in the fertiliser, and the crops harvested in that time con-
tained 912.8 pounds of nitrogen per acre. The fertilising materials
contained in the crops harvested in four years are shown in the follow—
ing table:

a

157

Fertilising ingredients in alfalfa during different seasons .

=

| Pounds per acre.
Year. : ERC keel eas:
Nitrogen. | Phos horic Potash.
acid,
1886 261.6 | 39.6 203.5
1887 263.6 | 45.7 | 286.9
1888 299 2 | 52.4 292.2
1889 360.0 | 63.0 255.5

The average of the above table is 304 pounds of nitrogen, 50 pounds
of phosphoric acid, and 260 pounds of potash a year. These amounts
would be furnished by a dressing of 1,900 pounds of nitrate of soda,
500 pounds of muriate of potash, and 300 pounds of South Carolina
superphosphate, The phosphoric acid and potash were naturally
derived from th? soil. The 300 pounds of nitrogen would cost in the
form of nitrate of soda, at the present low pric3 of 15} cents a pound,

$46.50.

Red Clover.

Red clover has been cultivated for centuries It succeeds best in a
temperate climate not deficient in moisture. Inthe central and eastern
part of the United States it constitutes one of the most important han
crops. Though not generally grown in the Gulf States it succeeds oy
the strong clay lands and black prairie soil of the South It may be
grown as far north as Minnesota, but frequently does not thrive in
newly settled sections. It has been successfully grown all over Nebraska,
where it is recommended for early pasture as well as for hay, and where
it withstands drought. It has proved valuable in South Dakota. Most
of the experiment stations give favourable reports of this plant In
Nevada, however, without water the growth is light.

As a green manure it is perhaps more extensively used in the United
States than any other plant. Twenty pounds of seed per acre is the
quantity usually recommended. The seel is frequently adulterated
with weed seed. At the Mississippi Station light-c loured and dark seed
germinated alike in the ground. Clover is sown broadeist. In cold
climates spring sowing is customary. The Connecticut Storrs Station
recommends sowing after grain in the latter part of July, in order to
secure an early cropsthe next season. In the South seeding in Septem-
ber or October and in February is successful. In Kentucky seed sown
between February 2 and March 1 nearly all germinated

Studies of the root system of red clover grown at the Minnesota Sta-
tion showed that the amount of roots and the depth to which they
penetrate vary greatly, depending on the character of the land. Ina
favourable soil a plant one month old had a root extending 7 inches into
the ground ; at two months old it had reached a depth of 2 feet; at five
months its length was 5 feet 8 inches. The root development is most
extensive on drained land. The stand is also better on drained than on
undrained soils.

158

Crimson Clover.

Crimson clover, also called scarlet clover and Italian or German
clover, grows from 1 to 2 feet high, with flower heads from 1} to 2
inches long and ofa bright crimson colour. Though not generally-
grown in the North it made a growth of 26 inches at the Maine Station.
It thrives on soil too light for other clovers. In the South it is valuable
on non-calcareous, sandy, or light clay soils. It has been highly recom-
mended for green manuring and its value for that purpose has been:
studied especially by the Delaware Experiment Station. That Station
reported that in 1891 2,340 acres of crimson clover were grown in Del-
aware, 1,277 acres being used for green manuring. It is sown both in
the open fields and in orchids. The quantity of seed used depends
upon the aims of the sower, varying between 5 and 15 pounds per acre.
It is also sown among corn, and with a broadcasting machine 4 acres per
hour can be seeded. It may be grown either as a winter crop, cover-
ing the soil during September, October and November, or as a summer
crop. Asa winter crop it may either precede or follow the Southern
cowpea vine. In Delaware a very large acreage of field corn is sown
to crimson clover immediately after the cultivation of the corn is finished.
for the season.

Crimson clover is sown in Delaware the latter part of July or during
August. In the South the seed may be sown from August till the
middle of September or even later in extreme southern latitudes. It
is important that considerable growth should be made before winter.
On the other hand, to obtain a good stand, one must wait for a suitable
season. It is not necessary to prepare the land especially for the clover
crop, but the seed may be sown in the fields of cotton, corn, or vege-
tables immediately after the cultivation and without covering. If
clover is the only crop a light brushing or rolling is in order. The
seed may also be sown among the vines of a pea crop. Crimson clover
begins its growth as the peas die, and these two renovating crops
supply a very large amount of organic matter to the soil.

Failure to secure a stand of crimson clover is frequent, due some-
times to the seed and sometimes to the season. The newly germinated
plants are easily killed by a scorching sun. On stubble land a catch
may be secured by harrowing deeply and then sowing the seed and
rolling or harrowing lightly.

In Delaware crimson clover can be cut for hay or for silage early in
May. In the South it blooms in April. A yield of from 1 to 2 tons of
excellent hay may be secured from very thin land. The hay is taken
off in time to allow the use of the field for other summer crops. In
Delaware some farmers, while ploughing under the green crop in
orchards, turn the furrows so as to leave the heads of clover above
ground. These heads bear seed and thus afford a stand the next year-
In cutting for hay in orchards other farmers leave strips of uncut
clover along the rows of trees. From these strips the seed is scattered
for the next year’s crop.

Crimson clover may follow grain or grass as well as cultivated crops.
After cultivated crops it usually makes a good catch with slight
expense. Orchards on thin soils may be benefited by ploughing in
crimson clover for several years in succession. On rich soil and for
some crops it is possible to incorporate too much organic matter with

=" ee

— a ee ae

159

the soil. Crimson clover leaves the land in good condition for a erop
of cotton, corn or vegetables. It has been found an excellent sub-
stitute for nitrate of soda in growing sweet potatoes in Delaware.

At the Delaware Experiment Station crimson clover yielded at the
rate of 13 tons 556 pounds of green material per acre (exclusive of
roots and stubble), containing 131 pounds of potash, 35 pounds of phos-
phoric acid, and 115 pounds of nitrogen. Asa source of nitrogen for
fruits, field crops, and vegetables it has given highly satisfactory
results, in some cases surpassing nitrate of soda.

The following illustration of the result of using crimson clover for
green manuring is from a recent report of the Delaware Experiment
Station :

Seed of crimson clover costing $1 per acre was sown ina corn field near Newark,
in 1891, immediately after the last cultivation of the crop. The clover passed out
of blossom during the first week of June, 1892. A test made at that time indi-
cated that the green crop then standing weighed 8 tons 600 pounds per acre. 1t
was ploughed under on the 5th instant ; Mastodon seed corn was planted on the 7th.
An adjoining plat upon which tomatoes had been grown in 1891, and upon whick
no clover had been seeded for many years, was also planted with the same variety
of corn on the 7th instant. A portion of this corn on the tomato plat was top-
dressed with nitrate of soda, 100 pounds per acre, costing $1. The tomato plat
yielded 24 bushels of shelled corn per acre, the tomato plat with nitrate of soda
yielded 30 bushels, and the plat manured with crimson clover yielded 48 bushels.

Eight tons 600 pounds of crimson clover from seed which cost $1 per acre added
24 bushels to the corn crop. One dollar invested in nitrate of soda and used as a
top dressing added 6 bushels to the corn crop. Hence in this case $l invested in
clover seed returned four times as much as $1 invested in nitrate of soda. As to
the relative amount of labour involved, the sowing of the seed and the broadcasting
of the nitrate possibly balance each other. Ploughing down a green crop is doubt-
less far more costly than ploughing bare ground. ‘This drawback may reduce the
abovenamed apparent gain by approximately 25 per cent.

Jaian Clover.

Japan clover (Lespedeza striata) has been very successfully grown at
the North Carolina Experiment Station and is strongly recommended
as a renovator of worn soils. At the station it was grown on a very
poor stiff clay soil with a light dressing of phosphate. Other clovers,
lucern, and serradella, did very poorly on this soil, but the Japan
clover presented a most luxuriant appearance throughout the season.
The seed is broadcasted at the rate of about 12 ponnds per acre and’
covered with a smoothing harrow or roller. The seed costs from 12 to
20 cents a pound, and can be bought of most of the larger seed firms.
The seed should be sown in the spring after danger of frost is over,
as the plant is very tender. Japan clover seems to prefer a moist clay
soil, but does well on almost any soil except pure sand, and thrives
without fertiliser on exhausted soils. Drought checks its growth for a
time, but not seriously.

The North Carolina Station says:

The ability to grow on land too poor to produce even broom sedge, and to crowd
out all other plants; its dying each winter and leaving its roots to fertilise the
soil; and its possessing the nitrogen-fixing power peculiar to the pulse family of
plants, place Japan clover at the head of renovatipg plants adapted to the climate
of Southern States. It is unequaled as a restorer of worn fields, such as are gene-
rally turned out to grow up in pines.

Lupines.

The three species of lupines more commonly grown are the white, the

yellow, and the blue lupine. The plants are bushy, somewhat woody,.

16)

-and generally too coarse for good fodder, though they are used in some
countries for sheep. The seed is exceedingly nitrogenous and in Europe
is used for cattle food. As it contains a bitter alkaloid injurious to
animals it must b> disembittered before feeding. Kellner’s process
of disembittering lupine seed consists in soaking the seed in water for
twenty-four hours, with frequent changes of water, steaming for one
hour, and then extracting for two days, with frequent stirring. In the
latter operation the discoloured water is drawn off frequently and fresh
water added. Five pounds daily of this disembittered lupine seed may
be fed to cows per 1,000 pounds live weight.

Lupines are much used in Europe for green manuring. They thrive
on a light sandy soil, make a rapid growth, and produce large amounts
of organic materials, which when ploughed into the soil improve it in
humus and enrich it in nitrogen. A practice recommended for bring-
ing up very poor soils is to grow a crop of lupine manured with kainit,
turn the crop under. and follow it with winter rye manured with
Thomas slag phosphate.

In order to derive the greatest possible advantage from the green
manuring, the lupines should be sown early in May. By the first half
of August, which is believed to be the best time of the year for ploughing
under, “the seed of the lupine will be nearly or quite formed, and the
crop will contain the maximum quantity of nitrogenous matter. Four
or better six, weeks should intervene between the plowing under of the
lupine and the sowing of the rye

Under such a rotation a poor santy soil will gradually improve in
humus until the change is perceptible to the eye in the darker color of
the soil, and there will likewise be an increase in fertility.

In Europe large tracts of barren waste have been brought into con-
dition for profitable cultivation by green manuring with lupines treated
with phosphates and potash salts.

COMPOSITION OF GREEN LEGUMINOUS CROPS.

The following table gives the average amounts of water and fertili-

zing materials in 100 pounds in a number of green leguminous crops :
Fertilizing ingredients in 100 pounds of green leguminous crops.

Mois- | Nicro- | phoric | sium
ture. gen. acid. oxide.

Pounds. en Pounds. | Po wnds. -

Red clover oe eel oOL007}, 0263 0.13 0.46
White clover tes --.-| 81.00 0.56 0.20 0.24
Alsike clover aoe see ole oOn| (Ox44: 0.11 0.20
Crimson clover aco POZO (Ones 0.13 0 49
Alfalfa ace Sots 30" |) (Onaga 0.13 4 0.56
Cowpea wee cos eo.O1) | (O20 0.10 0 31
Serradella See ...| 82.59 0.41 0.14 0.42
Soja bean ses sod] GBD || ORE 0.15 0.53
Horse bean Ses Spal Ce kere | 0.68 O83) 1 37
White lupine sce ..| 85.35 | 0.44 0.35 1.73
Yellow Lupine | #83515 1. 0.51 0.11 015
Flat Pea (Lathyrus sylvestris) eee CLOO | 1.13 0.18 0.58
Common veich ser] OL. 00. | 0 59 | 1.19 0.70

161

GRERN MANURING COMPARED WITH FEEDING THE CROP.

In spite of the many advantages of green manuring, there are con-
ditions under which it can not be regarded as a rational and profitable
practice. It involves the absolute waste of large quantities of the very
best kind of fodder. For this reason green manuring on good soils
can only be recommended when the conditions of farming do not admit
of the careful preservation of manure. The crops should be fed to animals
and the manure carefully saved and returned to the soil. It is in this
manner only that the full value of the crop can be secured. By feeding

the cropthis animal food is saved, and at the same time from threa

quarters to nine tenths of the fertilismg materials (nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid, an! potash) in the crop may be returned to the soil in the
manure, if this is properly cared for. Animals need for their nutrition
nitrogen, fat, and carbohydrates (starch, sugar, ete). The nitrogen in
foods is in the form of protein (albuminoid materials). It is the same
nitrogen which in green manuring enriches the soil. These leguminous
crops are unusually rich in protein—far richer than most other coarse
fodders. For instance, while hay from grasses contains from 6 to 8 per
cent. of protein, red clover hay contains 12.5 per cent. alfalfa hay 14.3
per cent, and cowpea hay 16.6 per cent of protein. If grass hay and
corn are fed, such concentrated feeding stuffs as cotton-seed meal,
gluten meal, linseed meal, ete, must be fed to make up the supply of
protein needed, If leguminous crops are fed, much less grain will be
required.

As nitrogen is the most expensive fertilising element, so protein
(nitrogen) is also by far the most expensive food element. By feed-
ing the leguminous crops instead of ploughing them under a two-fold
result is secured—animals are nourished without buying expensive grain
feeds, and the soil is enriched to very nearly the same extent as in
green manuring.

Beyond question the nitrogen of the air, which is obtained without
cost through the agency of leguminous plants, is best utilised in im-
proving the productiveness of the land and increasing the profits of
the farm when it is used in the production of milk and meat and
thereby in the production of cheap barnyard manure. What has been
said of the nitrogen applies also to the carbohydrates and fats which the
plant derives from the carbonic acid of the air. If the crop is fed, the
carbohydrates and fat serve to nourish the animal anda portion in turn
passes into the barnyard manure, and when applied to the soil has a
favourable effect on the humus formation. This is the true economy of
material. It is following out the law of nature. Its profitableness will
depend upon the price of feeding stuffs in general. The higher the
prevailing price of hay and other feeding stuffs the larger will be the
profit from feeding the crop rather than using it for green manuring.
Let us consider a few examples of the value of a crop for green manurs
ing and for feeding on different kinds of soils.

SERRADELLA ON MEDIUM SANDY SOILS,

Take, for instance, the case of serradella on the better "class of sand
soils. This plant does well on medium light sandy soils, It may be
‘sown among winter rye in spring. Under these conditions it produces
an unusually luxuriant vegetation which may either be ploughed unde

&

162

with good effect on the crop following, or it may be pastured. Serra-
della is an excellent fodder plant and may be fed with none of the dan-
ger atteuding the feeding of lupines. It miy be fed either green or as
hay or silage. It is eagerly eaten by all kinds of farm animals, retains
its palatability and food value up to the end of blooming, and has a
very favourable effect on the secretion of milk.

The claim is frequently made, in advocating growing serradella for
green manuring, that it is an exceedingly cheap means of securing
nitrogen ; that with a small expenditure for seed, and no extra labour
except that of sowing the seed, a large amount of nitrogen is secured
from the air. Admitting this, has not this nitrogen, in the form in
which it exists, namely, as portein, a much higher value when used
for feeding animals than when ploughed under? If it is a cheap source
of nitrogen for manuring, is it not also a cheap source of portein for
feeding, especially when three quarters of the nitrogen in the crop is
recovered in the manure ?

A German authority on feeding and farm management has calcu-
lated the matter on a financial basis. Assuming an average crop of
17,600 pounds of green serredella, which is a moderate crop, he finds
the nitrogen in the crop from an acre to be worth $11.06. This is
taken as the value of the crop for green manuring, as the nitrogen is
the only fertilising element not derived from the soil, and the barnyard
manure furnishes nearly as much humus as green manuring

The estimated profit from feeding the crop of 17,60 pounds of green
serradella to milch cows, when the barnyard manure is returned toe
the soil, is $28.12. In this caleulation every possible expense attend-
ing the feeding is taken into account, including care of animals,
interest on mney, cost of carting the barnyard manure to the land,
etc., and allowance is made for the phosphoric acid and potash sold in
the milk. The comparison stands then as follows :—

Profit from feeding crop of serradella from 1 acre... ............ $23.12
Value of crop of serradella from 1 acre of green manuring...... 11.06
Difference ........... cclsieeotdseeencasesedsuessccstences Lo OO

This calculation shows the crop of serradella to be more than twice
as valuable for feeding as for green manuring.

The above calculation assumed a daily milk yield of 74 quarts, sold
at 24 cents per quart. On the basis of only 14 cents per quart of milk,
the feeding value would be $13.52, or still $2.46 higher than the value
for green manuring.

GREEN MANURING ON MEDIUM RICH SOILS.

Green manuring on medium rich svils has much less 10 recommend
it than on sandy soils. Although the green manuring of light sandy
soils with lupines is often of very great advantage in enriching the soik
in humus, this advantage does not hold good in the case of better soil.

There are other plan's better adapted than lupines to serve as fallow
crops on these better soils. Serradella does well, but asa rule is not
to be recommended for a principal crop, and when sown with rye, giv-
ing a good yield, it is often so choked out as to amount to very littls.
But where it can be grown with advantage as a first crop on better
soils it must be fed to be utilised to the fullest extent, as pointed out
above.

163

Peas and vetch are especially adapted for fallow crops, and can be
recomm2nded for green manuring. But as they are also gool fodler
plants, all that has been said above regarding this subject applies to
them with equal force.

An experiment of interest in this connection was made at the Agri-
cultural Institute at Halle, Germiny, in 1891. About 3 acres of land
was used which had been in winter wheat in 1890 and io winter rye in
1891. A mixture of 194 pounds of white field peas, 44 pounds of com-
mon sand vetch, and 35 pounds of yellow lupine seed p2r acre was sown
August 11. The crop was ploughed under October 28. A good growth
had been made and the crop was fitted either for grem mainuring or
for feeding. ‘The yield was at the rate of 8,650 pounds of green mite-
rial per acre. This contained by analysis 0.575 per cent. of nitrogen, or
49.74 pounds of nitrogen per acre, which at 15 cents per pound gave a
value for the crop for green mwuring of $7.46 an acre.

In the spring of 1892 white pearl barley was sowa on the whole area
and also on an adjoining piece not green manured. ‘Tae crops were
harvested August 18, with the following results per acre:

Yield of burley per acre with and without green manuring.

|

a SO
|

Grain. | Chaff. | Straw.
| |
|

SS

Bushels.

Pounds. | Pounds.
Plat green mwured with psas, vetch, and lupine ..,| 61.38 | 366 3,260

Plat not green manured | 61.48 385 | 2,908

|
{

An effect of the green manuring is only noticeable in the amount of
straw, which is larger by about 359 pounds per acre where the mixture
-of paas, vetch, aud lupine had been ploughed in.

The barley crop from the green manured plat contained 68.56 pounds
-of ni rogen per acre, and that from the plat not green manured 56.6
pounds ofnitrogen. This difference of 11.96 pounds of nitrogen is nearly
-all accounted for by the nitrogen contained in the seed sown on the
green-minured plat, so that it may be that on this medium rich soil
green manuring was without any effect whatever on the crop immediatly
following it. The pea and vetch plants produced root tubercles, and it
is probable that had the plants been allowed to fully develop and ripen
the effect of the tubercles would have been much more apparent in the
amount of nitrogen inthe crop ploughed under. But thericher the soil
is the larger the proportion of nitrogen which will be taken from the
soil and the less from the air. This nitrogen-gathering appears to go
on best in a soil deficient in available nitrogen, as already mon ioned.

The author estimates the green forage as worth $3 per ton for feed-
ing, which would make the crop worth $14 per acre, or $5.54 more per
acre than the estimated value for green manuring.

GREEN MANURING ON SANDY LOAM SOILS.

Compared wit) the above green-manuring trial on medium rich goil,
the result was quite different in a similar trial in 1891 on a sandy loam
soil poor in humus, A piece of land which for many years had received

164

uniform cropping and manuring was divided into two plats of about

one fourth acre each. Rye had been grown on both plats that season...

On one plat white field peas were sown in the rye stubble August 15_
The otherplat was given the same preparatory treatment, but remained
bare. Both plats were ploughed November 2. The pea vines had grown
to a height of 15 to 18 inches, and a large weighed sample showed that
the green crop was at the rate of 3} tons per acre, containing 374
pounds of nitrogen.

March 238, 1892, barley was sown on both plats. The green-manured

plat received no other manuring, but the other plat received sn amount

of nitrate of soda furnishing 28 pounds of nitrogen per acre. The-

barley was harvested August 9. The yield on the two plats was prae-
tically the same. The agreement in percentage of nitrogen is equally
striking. The total nitrogen per acre in the crop from the green-
manured plat was 60.34 pounds, and from the nitrate of soda plat 60.12
pounds. ‘The green manuring, with 37.33 pounds of nitrogen per acre

had given a result equally as good in every way as an application of 28.
pounds of nitrogen per acre in the form of nitrate of soda. But even.

with this favourable result there was no financial advantage from the
green manuring as shown by this single crop. It furnished 37.33 pounds
of nitrogen per acre, which at 15 cents per pound would be worth only
$5.60, which would no more than pay for the pea seed used.

ALFALFA AND CRIMSON CLOVER FOR FEEDING.

Suppose that, instead of being ploughed under, the alfalfa grown at the
New Jersey Experiment Station, as referred to (p. 156), had been fed te
animals aud the manure carefully saved and returned to the soil. The
total yield cf four cuttings during the season of 1889 wes about 23 tons
of green alfalfa per acre. The value of this crop for fodder at $3 per
ton would be $69 as compared with its value of $46.50 for green manur-
ing, and it is fair to assume that some $35 worth of nitrogen would
be returned to the soil in the manure. The crop of 13} tons of crimsen
clover reported elsewhere (p. 158) would be worth about $40 for feeding
as compared with $17.25 for green manuring. When made into hay
crimson clover is an excellent feeding stuff and rivals bran in composi-
tion. Instead of cutting the crop it may be pastured to advantage.

COWPEA FOR FEEDING,

A prominent agriculturist in the South says of the cowpea :

For the production of a nitrogenous food in the shape of a forage crop the cowpea
vines are almost without a rival. * * * Onan acre cf ordinary land this crop
will probably pre duce more digestible foodthan either oats or corn. "The manure
resulting from feeding this crop is of the highest value and should be carefully
preserved and returned to the land.

At the Rhode Island Experiment Station a crop of 17} tons of green
cowpea forage was harvested. This contained 1574 pounds of nitrogen,
which at 15 cents per pound would make the crop worth $23.63 per acre

for green manuring. At $8 per ton the 17} tons would be worth $52.50-

for feeding end there would be less than one third of the fertilising
ingredients lost in feeding the crop. ..

What has been said of the above crops applics with equal force to

other crops commonly used for green manuring. The matter resolves

165

‘itself into this, that on medium an1 better classes of soils green manur-
ing is not as profitable as feeding the crop. When the crop is fed the
stubble and roots are left to the soil,, and they together with the manure
enrich the s vil in fertilising materials, and in humus to very nearly the
same extent as ploughing the whole crop under. With the exception of
perhaps one fourth of the fertilising materials, the soil shares all the
advantages to be obtained from green manuring when the crop is fed
and the manure preserved. More labour is involved in feeding but in
return more milk and more beef are made, or the purchase of expen-
sive grain is largely avoided.

In a rational system of farming not a single pound of protein which
ean be used as food for stock should be ploughed into the soil. Of course.
there are conditions under which green manuring is to be recommended
in preference to feeding the crop, and unfortunately sush conditions
prevail at present over a considerable part of this country. Unless the
manure is carefully collec ed and preserved the advantages from feed-
ing disappear to a large extent. In some sections of the country, even
where manures are at present necessary, little or no care is taken of
the barnyard manure. A large proportion of the fertilising and humus-
forming ingredients is lost, either through leaching, surfac2-washing,
or fermentation and decay. The farmer who permits this waste, whether
through igaorance or carelessness, is sure to feel the loss either in
diminished crops or in increased bills for fertilisers. The barnyard
manure should be as scrupulously cared for as any other farm product.
It has been repeatedly shown in experiments in the Hast in growing
stock for beef, mutton and pork, that a very large proportion of the
profit was in the manure. If the value of the manure was left out of the
account there was httle or no profit from the operation. If the manure
was valued at current rates for fertilising materials a fiir profit was
apparent.

ADVANTAGES OF SOILING.

The advantages of soiling, or feeding animals largely or wholly on
green forage crops in the barn instead of pasturing them, are that less
land is required to maintain a given number of animals, the food sup-
ply can be better regulated, the animals do not waste their energy in*
searching for food, and the manure can all be saved and applied to the
soil. The arguments for partial soiling are that the amount of feed
furnished by pastures is very irregular, being usually abundait and of
good quality early in the season, but falling off later from droughts or
early frosts In the case of milch cows unless some supplementary
food is given at such times the milk flow diminishes and the cows fall
off in flesh. j

Concerning the relative amounts of food furaished by pasturing and
by soiling, the Pennsylvania Experiment Station found in experiments
in two years that “in round numbers we can produce from three to five
times as much digestible food per acre by means of the soiling crops

(rye and corn or clover and corn) as is produced by pasturage su :h as is
represented by our small plat.” The plat in question was believed to
fairly represent the average pasture. From feeding trials with the
above soiling crops and pasture grass the average yield of milk per acre
was calculated as follows :}

.

ee ee

Soiling
Pasturage

Difference cers

It will be understood that the above is partly an estimate, but it

166
Yield of milk per acre of land.

points very strongly in favor of soiling.

Trials at the station in Wisconsin showed that ‘by soiling in summer
a certain area of lend will yield double the amount of milk and butter
that it will when pastured.”

The Connecticut Storrs Experiment Staticn maintained 4 cows from
June 1 to November 1 on a little less than 24 acres of soiling crops —

1888. 1889.
Pounds,| Pounds,

a 3,416 5,671

50 928 1,504
“ 2,488 | 4,167

with the addition of a very light grain and straw feed.

At the Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm about
three fourths of an acre of soiling crops (green clover, green peas, tares,
oats, and corn fedder) was sufficient, with the addition of 252 pounds.
of wheat bran, for 2 cows for sixty-three days.
therefore, to grow on about 1 acre sufficient green food to feed a cow

“We

for two hundred days under ordinary conditions.”

If soiling is to be practiced it is importent to have a succession of
green fodders throughout the growing season, with each in its best
stage of growth for feeding. ‘There should be no breaks in the succes-
sion and each crop should be used as nearly as possible at the time
when it contains the largest amount of valuable food constituents.
From three years of experience and observation in the practice of
soiling, the Connecticut Storrs Station suggests the following series of

crops for soiling in Central Connecticut:

Crops for sovting in Central Connecticut.

Kind of fodder.

OHIP MPO De

Rye fodder)

. Wheat Fodder

. Clover

. Grass (from grass lands)
. Oats and peas (each)

. Oats and peas (each)

. Oats and peas (each)

. Hungarian grass

. Clover rowen (from 8)

. Soja beans

. Cowpeas

. Rowen grass (from grass lands)
. Barley and peas each

_-

bushels
do.
pounds

bushels

do.
do.

do.

pushels

do.
bushele

Amount
of seed
per acre.

23 to 3
20

"9

2

2

23 tod |

1},

Approximate| Approximate
time time of feeding.
of seeding.
Sept.1 _...| May 10-20.
Sept.5 10...) May 20-June &
| July 20-80 | June 5-15.
se June 15-25.
Apr.10_...| June25-July1@-
Apr. 20. ...| July 10-20.
Apr. 30 ...| July 20-Aug.}
June 1 .| Aug, 1-10.
aoe Aug. 10-20.
May 25_...| Aug. 29-Sep. B
June 5-10.. | Sept. 5-20.
=e Sept. 20-30.
Aug. 5-10.. | Oct. 1-20.

might expect,

167

The growing of a leguminous plant and a cereal together, as oats
‘and peas, to be fed as green forage, has proved quite popular where it
has been tried. The experiment stations in nearly every State have
tested the adaptability of various fodder plants, leguminous and non-
leguminous, and can furnish information as to selection, where seed can
be obtained, etc.

By a judicious selection of soiling crops not only can a much larger
number of cows be kept on a given area of land, but the land may be
brought into a higher state of cultivation and fertility, and much grain
may be spared.

Soiling is a feature of a more intensive system of farming, and finds
more extensive application as the value of the land increases.

VALUE OF LEGUMINOUS CROPS FOR FEEDING,

Why should the farmer go on raising meadow hay as his main sup-
ply of coarse fodder and buying grain to supplement it, when by grow-
ing leguminous crops the nitrogen required by animals can be produced
at the lowest cost? The crops of red clover, crimson clover, Japan clover
(Lespedeza), cowpea, alfalfa, soja bean, horse bean, serradella, and many
others of this class far surpass common hay in the food materials they
contain, both pound for pound and in yield per acre. They may be
grown as catch crops and used for soiling or pasturage, or they may be
grown for making hay or silage. By mixing the green crops with corn
and ensiling the two together a palatable and nutritious food is pro-
duced which is much richer in portein (nitrogen) than silage made from

corn alone.

The cultivation of these leguminous plants involyes somewhat more
labour, as a rule, than raising grass hay, but it is believed that it will
prove profitable for it enables the farmer to raise his own concentrated,
feed at the same time that he raises his coarse fodder. For instance, a
recent experiment has indicated that soja-bean meal is fully equal to
cotton-seed meal for milk and butter production. This meal is one of
the richest feeding stuffs we have. It exceeds linseed meal and gluten
meal in portein (nitrogen) and far exceeds these and cotton-seed meal in
fat. It is only surpassed in protein by cotton-seed meal and some of the
oil cakes lit le used in this country. The beans can be trashed out and
ground and the straw fed as coarse fodder. This straw is richer in
food materials than a good medow hay. It contains 94 per cent. of
protein while meadow hay averages about 74 percent. The cowpea
may be treated in similar manner. The ground cowpeas are a richly
nitrogenous feed, althouth not as rich as soja-bean meal; and the vines
are nearly or quite equal to clover hay and far surpass grass hay in
richness.

The following table shows the average composition of bay from
leguminous crops as compared with hay from grasses :

168

Average composition of hay from grasses and leguminous crops

Hay fron— Water. | Protein.) Carbo- | Fat.
hyd:ates.
Per cent. \Per cent. Per cent. |Per cent.
Red top x 8.9 Ke | 720) 1S
Orchard grass cog} = Do || ie! 73.4 2.6
Timothy crd| aleee fey 74 0 2.5
Hungarian grass Sly per 75 76.7 2.1
Kentucky blue grass cos | 2.0 8.2 78.1 4.4
Red clover sop) 2Usi33 1223) \eGzes 316:
Crimson clover Sa) i6iec4 14.0 55.6 4.1
apan clover PA LORS 13.8 | 63.1 3.7
Alsike clover x 9.7 12 8 66.3 2.9
White clover Y| 9.7. || “There a eart 2.9
Alfolfa ol Seo) es ene 2.2
Cowpea sop Os Gee 62.3 29
Serradella Oe i ean ee (ta Pe 2.6
Vetch seal) 04 | 1455) GiGme eee
Soja bean 6.3 | 14.5 | 66.6 5.6
Average for grasses s=.| 10.94 | 7 52| 75.64 2.70
Average for leguminous plants | 10.2: |) 14.37 | 64.14 3.23
t |

It may be said in general that 100 pounds of hay from leguminous
crops contains about twice as much protein as 100 pounds of hay from
grasses. The leguminous hay may be safely estimated as worth from
one fourth to one third more for feeding than common hay. This is
true in spite of the fact that it dves not usually command a higher
price in the markets, owing to certain prejudices against its use.

Assuming that the common grasses yield 2 tons of hay to the acre,
and clovers, ete., 8 tons of hay, the amounts of food materials and fer-
tilising materials in the crops are approximately as follows :

Relative yield of food and fertilising materials in crops of huy from grasses and from
legwninous crops.

7 ]
|

Food materials in crop per |Fertilising materials in crop

acre. per acre.
Assumed
Hay from— yield |
|per acre. Carbo- Nitro- | Phos-
Protein. |hydrates| Fat. gen. phoric | Potash.
acid.

—

—————S— ee,

Tons. | Pounds.| Pounds. | Pounds.| Pounds,| Pounds. | Pounds.

Red top 2 158 | 1,520 58) -23.0)| ive zaleues
Timothy 2 118 1,480 50 | 25.2 10 6 18.0
Red clover 3 369 1,887 99} 62.1 11.4 66.0
Alfalfa ‘Se 3) \ one a0st 66| 65.7| 15.3| 60.4
Cowpea 3 498 1,869 87 | 58.5 15.6 44.1
Soja bean 3

435 1,998 ae | 69.6 al 32.4

The amount of hay produced on different farms varies so widely that
it is difficult to strike an average, especially for the leguminous crops.
It will be seen that on the above basis, which is believed to be a fair
one, the leguminous crops furnish from two to four times as much pro-
tein per acre as common grasses, together with much more fat and

169

rather more carbohydrates. They also contain nearly three times as
much nitrogen and about twice as much potash. It should be remem-
bered that under favourable conditions they may draw a large propor-
tion of this nitrogen from the air, instead of depleting the soil, and that
their long roots eneble them to feed upon the potash deep down in the
seil beyond the reach of surface-feeding plants.

Summary.

(1) Green manuring improves the physical properties of the soil by
making the soil more porous and adding to its supply of humus. It
brings up the dormant plant food from deep down in the soil and
deposits it near the surface, where it can be used by plants feeding near
the surface.

(2) Green manuring with buckwheat, Hungrian grass, and other
non-leguminous plants adds practically nothing to the soil which was
not there before, except a mass of vegetable matter which decays and
goes to form humus.

(3) Green manuring with clovers, peas, beans, lupines, etc. (legumi-
nous crops), actually enriches the soil in nitrogen drawn from the air.
These plants can grow with very little soil nitrogen. They store up
the nitrogen of the air as they grow, and when plowed under give it
up to the soil and to future crops. It is the cheapest means of manur-
ing the soil with witrogen.

(4) But animals, as well as plants, require nitrogen for food. By
feeding the crops of clover, cowpea, ete., only about one fourth of the
fertilizing materials of the crop is lost if the manure is properly cared
for. As the nitrogen of the air is the cheapest source of nitrogen for
plants, so itis the cheapest source of protein (nitrogen) for animals
Lhe leguminous crop is best utilised when it is fed out on the farm and
the manure saved and applied to the soil. The greatest profit is thus
secured and nearly the same fertility is maintained as in green
mauuring. ?

(5) For renovating worn or barren soils, and for maintaining the
fertility where the barnyard manure is not properly cared for, green
manuring with such l-guminous crops as cowpea, clovers, and lupines
is recommended. A dressing of potash and phosphates will usually be
sufficient for the green manuring crop.

(6) The practice of green manuring on medium and better classes of
soils is irrational and wasteful. The farmer should mend his system
so that the barnyard manure will be as well cared for as any other farm
product. Loss from surface washing, leaching, fermentation, and decay
should be guarded against. Then the feeding of richer food will mean
richer manure and better and cheaper erops.

(7) The system of soiling, or feeding green crops in the barn in place
of pasturage, enables a larzer number of animals to be kept ona given
area of land, and the manure to be more completely saved, For this
purpose leguminous crops are extremely valuable.

(8) Hay from leguminous crops is about twice as rich in protein as
hay from grasses. In the one case this protein (nitrogen) is obtained
very largely from the atmosphere; in the other it is all drawn from the
fertility of the soil. Leguminous crops yield lager crops of hay to the
acre than grasses. Hence the produc ion of food materials on an acre,
especially protein, is several times larger with leguminous crops.

170

(9) If allowed to ripen, the seed of the cowpea and soja bean furnishes
an extremely rich concentrated feed which can be ground and fed in
place of expensive commercial feeds. The straw remaining may be fed
as coarse fodder, for it is richer than ordinary hay.

(10) Grow more leguminous crops. They furnish the cheapest food
for stock and the cheapest manure for the soil. They do this because-
they obtain from the air a substance necessary for plants and animals
alike, which costs in the form of fertilisers and feeding stuffs from 15.
to 25 cents a pound.

BARNYARD MANURE.

By W. H. Brat, of the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.
Feprinted from Farmers Bulletin, No. 21.
MANURE AS A FARM RESOURCE.

The term “ barnyard manure” is used to mean the solid and liquid
excrement of farm animals either alone or mixed with litter and more
or less fermented

A well-kept manure heap may be safely taken as one of the surest
indications of thrift and succass in farming. Neglect of this resource
causes losses, which, though vast in extent, are little appraciated.
Waste of manure is either so common as to breed indifference or so
silent and hidden as to escape notice.

According to recent statistics there are in the United States, in round
numbers, 16,000,000 horses, 5°%,000,000 cattle, 45,200,000 hogs, and
45,000,000 sheep. Experiments indicate that if these animals were kept
in stalls or pens throughout the year and the manure carefully saved
the approximate value of the fertilising constituents of the manure
produced by each horse annually would be $27, by each head of cattle
$19, by each hog $12, and by each sheep $2. The fertilising value of
the manure produced by the different classes of farm animals of the
United States would, therefore, be for horses, $432,000,000; cattle,
$1,007,000,000 ; hogs, $542,400,000 ; and sheep, $90,000,000, ora total
of $2,071,400,000.

These estimates are based on the values usually assigaed to phos-
phoric acid, potash, and nitrogen in commercial fertilisers, and are pos-
sibly somewhat too high from a practical standpoint. On the other
hand, it must be borne in mind that no account is taken of the value
of manure for improving the mechanical condition and drainage of
soils, which, as the subsequent pages will show, is fully as important a
consideration as its direct fertilising value.

Discussing this subject from a more practical standpoint, Prof. Roberts
has suggested $250 as a conservative estimate of the value of the
manure produced during seven winter months on a small farm carrying
4 horses, 20 cows, 50 sheep, and 10 pigs.

If we assume that one third of the value of manure is annually lost
by present methods of management, and this estimate is undoubtedly
a conservative one, the total loss from this source in the United States,
as indicated by the first figures, would be about $690,466,000; or,
using Robert’s figures, the annual loss for each farm would amount to
883 33.

171

It should be clearly ui derstood that when the farmer sells meat,
milk, grain, hay, fruits, vegetables, ete., frcm his faim, or neglects to
save and use the manure produced, he removes from his soil a certain
amount of potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen that must be restored
sooner or later if productiveness is to be maintained.

The following table compiled by Armsby shows the amount and.
value of fertilising constituents carried away frcm the soil in different
products :

Manurial value of farm products.

Pounds per ton. Value: per ton.
Manu-
| ] | rial value:

Nitro- |Phospho-; Po- | Nitro-/Phospho-) Po- of $10

gen. j|ricacid.| tash. | gen. | ric acid | tash. | Total.| worth.

Meadow Hay .| 20.42 8.2 | 26.4 |$3.47| $0 57 |$1.06 $5.10 | $5.10
Clover Hay .| 40.16 11.2 | 36 6 | 6.83 0.78 | 1.46 | 9.07 9.07
Potatces | 26, Oi Gore || Wiech) wlyats) 0.22 | 0.46'| 1.87 0 12
Wheat Bran .| 49.15 54.6 | 28.6 | 8.35 | .3.82 | 1.14 |13.31 8.32
Linseed meal .| 105.12 32.2 | 24.8 |17.87 2.25 | 0.99 [21.11 7.54
potion seed 135.65 | 56.2.| 29.2 |23.06 3 93 | 1.17 |28 16} 10.05

mea |
Wheat .| 387.53 15 8 | 10.6 | 6.38 A Ona Zale Ou 2.63
Oats | 36.42 | 12.4; 8.8/6.21 | 0.87 | 0 35 | 7.43 3.86
Corn 3\' 33.06.|° 10.8.) 7-41/96062) 0.83 | 0.30 | 6.75 3.78
Barley aly pO.0D) |) 154719 9)0) G4: 1.08 | 0.86 | 8.18 3.03
Milk .| 10.20 | 3.4/ 30/1.73 0.24 | 0.12 | 2.09 0.88
Cheese -| 9060] 28.0) 5.0 15:40 | 1.61 | 0.20 |17.21 0.69
Live Cattle .| 53.20 37.2 | 3.4 | 9.04; 2.60 | 0.14 11.78 1.18
| |

We learn from the above table [says Armsby] thet the farmer who sells a ton of
hay, for example, cells in his ton of hay fertilising ingredients which, if purchased
in the form of commercial fertilisers, would cost himabout $5.10; that if he sells
2,C00 ponds of wheat he sells an amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash
which it would cost him $7.91 to replace in his soil in the form of commercial fer-
tilisers. Or, looking at it from a somewhat different standpoint, a farmer who sells,
for example, $10 worth of wheat sells with it about $2 63 worth of the fertility of
his soil. In other words, when he receives his $10 thisamount does not represent
the net receipts of the transaction, for he has parted with $2 63 worth of his
capital, that is, of the stored up fertility of his soil, and if he does not take this
into account he makes the same mistake a merchant would, should he estimate
his profits by the amount of cash which he received and neglect tg take account

of stock.

If the farmer, instead of selling off his crops, feed them to live stock
on the farm as far as possible, a large proportion of this fertility, as
has been shown above, is retained on the farm; and “if the business
of stock feeding is carried to the point where feed is purchased in addi-
tion to that grown onthe farm, a considerable addition may in this way
be made to the fertility of the farm at an almost nominal cost, since
it is assumed that feed will not be bought unless its feeding value will
at least pay its cost.” This commenduble system of indirect purchase
of fertilisers in feeding stuffs is practised largely in England and other
European countries, and accounts for no small share of the profits of
stock-raising in those countries.

But it is evident that these advantages will not be secured unless the
manure produced is carefully saved and used.

172

The growing of more leguminous plants, such as beans, peas, clover,
lupines, etc., as a means of increasing the fertility of the soil, is strongly
recommended both from theoretical and practical considerations, but as
has been said:

The legumnous crop is best utilised when it is fed ont on the firm and the
manure saved and applied to the soil. Tle greatest profit is thus secured and
nearly the same fertility is maintained asin green manuring. * * * The far-
mer should mend his system so that the barnyard manure will be as well cared for
as any other farm product. Loss from surface washing, leaching, fermentation,
and decay should be guarded against. Then the feeding of richer food will mean
richer manure and better and cheaper crops.

It is hard to persuade the farmer to abandon time-honoured practices
and adopt methods with which he is unfamiliar. He also hesitates
-about incurring the necessary expense of building suitable receptacles
for the storage of manure, frequently assuming thai this is greater than
it really is. As Roberts states “the new idea that the manure should
-be as carefully preserved from unnecessary waste as any other product
of the farm is hard to put in practice, after having stored for forty
years the farmyard manure under the eaves upon the steep hillside
which forms one border of the running brook.”

It is to be feared that the introduction of commercial fertilisers has
not been without effect in increasing the apparent indifference with
which this valuable farm resource is so often regarded. Too many
farmers lose sight of the fact that, as a rule, commercial fertilisers should
supplement and not entirely replace the manurial supplies of the farm.

AMOUNT, VALUE, AND COMPOSITION OF MANURE PRODUCED BY DIF-

FERENT ANIMALS.

It is of great importance to the farmer to know the amount and value
of manure which will be produced in a given time by animals of differ-
ent kinds, and various methods of calculating these approximately have
been proposed. Some authorities base their calculations upon the
amount of straw used as litter, assuming that for 1 ton of straw used
as bedding, 4 tons of manure will be produced. Armsby shows, from
carefully conducted experiments with horses, that where straw is used
as economically as possible, each horse will require 2,500 pounds of
straw per year for bedding purposes. Using this as a basis, he caleu-
lates “that a ton of wheat straw, economically handled, may result in
6 tons of fresh manure,” but under ordinary circumstances it will prob-
ably not result in more than 5 tons. ‘In stables where but one or two
horses are kept or where the manure is infrequently hauled away, the
product might not greatly exceed 24 tuns when the time came to re-
~‘move it.”

Probably the most accurate method which has been used is that
adopted by Heiden and others, which bases all calculations upon the
amount of food consumed and litter used

The dried excrement of horses, cows and other neat cattle, and sheep
is nearly one half of the dry food consumed. One hundred pounds of
dry matter io food consumed by horses yields 210 pounds of manure,
containing on an average 77.5 per cent of moisture. To this should be
added the wegiht of bedding (amounting to about 6} pounds per day)
in order to get the total product of manure. Making allowances for
dung and urine dropped outside of the stable, Heiden calculates that
-a well-fed working horse will produce 50 pounds of manure per day,

173

or 64 tons per year, which can be saved. Boussingault’s and Hofmeis-
ter’s figures indicate this amount to be 5} to 5} tons, while Armsby’s.
put it at about 64 tons. Cows and other neat cattle produce manure
containing on an average 87 5 per cent of water. One hundred pounds
of dry matter consumed in food yields 384 pounds of manure, to which
must be added the amount of litter used, which, according to Heiden,
should be about one-third of the dry matter fed. Calculating on this
basis, a steer weighing 1,000 pounds and consuming 27 pounds of dry
matter per day would produce about 20 tons of manure per year.

Sheep excrete 494 per cent of the dry matter of their food. The
manure contains on an average 73 per cent of water. One hundred
pounds of dry matter in the food would therefore.produce 183 pounds
of manure. <A 60-pound sheep, fed 2 pounds of dry matter and receive-
ing three-fifths pound of bedding, would produce about 4.1 pounds of
manure per day, or three-fourths ton yearly.

Careful observations have indicated that the pig produces from 12
to 16 pounds of manure per day, or from 2 to 3 tons per year.

The following table compiled from a bulletin of the New York Cor-
nell Station shows the amount and value of manure produced by the
principal kinds of farm animals fed liberally and given sufficient bed-
ding to keep them clean, calculated to a uniform basis of 1,000 pounds
live weight :

Amount and value of manure produced per 1,000 pounds of live weight
of different animals.

= Amount Value Value —

| per day. | per day.* |; per year.*
Pounds. Cents.

Sheep 34.1 7.2 $26.00

Calves 67:8 6 2 24.45

Pigs . 83.6 16.7 60.88.

Cows Wael 8.0 29.27

Horses 48.8 7.6 27.74

The fertilising constituents and the value per ton of the manure
obtained under the above conditions are shown in the following table
in which is inserted for comparison the results of analyses by Storer
of manure of hens, which is representative of that of fowls in general :

Analyses and value per ton of manure of different animals.

. Water. Nitrogen. Phosphoric Potash. Value

acid. per

ton

Per cent, Per cent. Per cent, Per cent.

Sheep 59.52 0.768 0.391 0.591 | $3.30
Calves Mathie 0.497 0.172 0.532 2.18
Pigs 74.13 0.840 0.390 0.320 | 3.29
Cows 75.25 0.426 0.290 0.440 | 2.02
Horses 48.69 0.490 0.260 0.480 2,21
Hen manure 56.00 | 0.80 to 2 0.50 to 2 0.80 to.90 7.07

* Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, phosphoric acid at 6 cents, and potash at 43 cents

per pound,

174

These figures probably fairly represent the actual fertilising value
of the carefully preserved minure (both solid and liquid) of well fed
and cared for animals. In all cises the manure was protected from
leaching and in some cases treated with a small amount of gypsum as
a preservative. “It will be noticed that the average amount of nitro-
gen recovered in all the minure is considerably more than that of the
potash and about twice the amount of phosphoric acid.”

In general practice the manure from the different kinds of animals
is frequently collected in a common heap until needed. While it is
difficult to state an average, mixed barnyard manure properly cared for
may besafely assumed to vary in composition within the following limits =

Per cent.
Nitrogen varies from on ses 0 4t0 0.75
Phosphoric acid varies from ... mas 0 2 to 0.40
Potash varies from ace see 0.4 to 0.75
Water varies from cae She 70 to 89

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF SOLID “AND LIQUID PARTS.

It is a fact often lost sight of in practice that the urine of animals is
by far the most valuable part of the excreta. The solid excreta con-
tains, principally, the fertilising constituents of the food which have
failed to be digested or absorbed into the animal system and are, there-
fore, chiefly in insoluble forms. The urine, on the other hand, contains
those fertilising c mstituents which have been digested and are largely
soluble. The composition of the urine, like that of the solil excreta,
varies with the kind and age of the animal, but especially with the
nature of food, water drunk, etc., as will be explained later. The com-
position of the urine of different kinds of farm animals has been found
by analysis to be as follows:

Chemical composition of the urine of different animals.

1 |
Water. | Nitrogen. Phosphoric} Alkali:s.
Acid.

}

Per cent. | Percent. Per cent. | Per cent.

Sheep are seal 86.5 1.4 0.050 2.0
Swine ak zea 97.5 | 0.3 0 125 02
Horses S56 eee 89.0 | 1.22 = 125
Cows Gas ANA 92.0 | 0.8 xe 1.4

The urine of farm animals may be said to be free from phosphoric
acid except in case of sheep and swine, where it occurs in minute traces,
but is rich in nitrogen and the alkalies (including potash and soda);
consequently it is an incomplete manure and should be supplemented
by phosphate if used alone. It is best, however, to app'y it along with
the solid excrement, which contains a considerable amount of phos-
phoric acid. This latter fact helps to explain why leachings from
rotted manure are more valuable as a fertiliser than urine alone. The
leaching contain in addition to the constituents of the urine the solu-
ble constituents of the solid manure, among which is a considerable
amount of phosphoric acid.

The comparative value of the solid and liquid excrement is shown in
the following table:

175

Composition of solid and liquid excrement of farn animals.

| Alkalies
| (potash and
| Oz soda).

Phosphoric

Water. Nitrogen. | ania.

Liquid
)
Liquid.

Liquid.

Solid.

Per | Per | Per | Per | Per Per | Per Per
cent. | cent. | cent. | cent | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent.
Horses | 76 | 89.0 | 0 50 | 1.20 | 0.35 | Trace.) 0.39 | 1.5
Cows weal hs 2.0 | 0.30 | 0.80 | 0.25 | Trace.| 0.10 | 1.4
Swine ...| 80] 97.5 | 0.60 | 0 30 | 0.45 |'0 125) 0 50] 0.2
Sheep Ant 58 | 86.5 | 9.75 | 1.40 | 0.60 | 0 EN 0.30 20

The urine is seen to be much richer than the solid dung in every case
except that of pigs, in which the high percentage of water (97.5) causes
the percentages of the other constituents to fall below those of the
same constituents in the solid dung. .

The fact that the urine of all farm animals (including pigs) is much
richer than the solid excrement is strikingly brought out in the follow-
ing table, which shows the composition of the dung and urine after the
water has been completely removed.

Composition of dry matter of solid and liquid manure.

)

Nitrogen. Phosphoric acid. | Alkalies (potash
and soda.)

l | | |
Solid, | Liquid. | Solid. | Liquid. | Solid. | Liquid.

Per cent.|Per cent. Per cent.| er cent. Per cent.|Per cent.
Horses or 2.08 10.9 | 1.45) Trace. 1.25 13.6
‘Cows alee S7, 10.0; 1.56] Trace. | 0.62 17.5
Swine sca 3,010 120) 2525") 500 2.50 8.0
Sheep ae 1.78 10.4 | W420 OUST One 14.9

|

J { {

‘The distribution of the manurial constituents in the urine and dung
depends largely on the nature of the food. On ¢his point Warington says:

If the food is nitrogenous and easily digested the nitrogen in the urine will
greatly preponderate ; 1f. on the other hand, the food is imperfectly digested the
nitrogen in the solid excrement may form the larger quantity. When poor hay is
given 1 to horses the nitrogen in the solid excrement will exceed that contained in the
urine. On the other haud corn, [oil] cake, and roots yield a large excess of nitro-
gen in the urine

- Generally one half and frequently much more of the total nitrogen

excreted will be found in the urine, a large portion of the potash, but
little or no phosphoric acid or lime. In experiments with sheep at the
Maine Experiment Station it was found that “the urine contained nearly
half the potash of the total excreta and from half to three fourths of the
nitrogen, but no phosphoric acid, the latter being wholly in the solid
excrement.”

The important points in this connection may be summarized ag
follows :

176

(1) Of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash supplied in the
food, comparatively small amounts are assimilated and retained in the
animal body, the relation between the amounts of these substances
excreted in the urine and the solid excrement depending largely upon
the nature of the food.

(2) The urine is much richer in nitrogen than the solid dung. It also»
contains considerable amounts of potash but is poor in phosphoric acid,
which remains almost entirely in the solid excrement. The best results
may therefore be expected from applying the mixed solid and liquid
excrement.

The figures given in the preceding pages have only approximate and
comparative value. They do not admit of too strict an application in
practice, because barnyard manure, as can be readily understood, is a
very variable substance. Its composition and value depend on a variety
of conditions, the more important of which are (1) age and kind of
animal, (2) quantity and quality of food (3) proportion and nature
of litter, and (4) method of management of the manure and the length
of time it is stored. Each of these factors will be discussed in detail.

INFLUENCE OF AGE AND KIND OF ANIMAL.

The proportions of the potash, phosphoricacid, and nitrogen of the food
recovered in the manure vary considerably with the ageand kind of animal.
Full-grown animals, neither gaining nor losing weight, excrete practically
all of the fertilising constituents consumed in the food. Growing animals.
and milch cows excrete from 50 to 75 per cent. of the fertilising consti-
tuents of the food ; fattening or working animals from 90 to 95 per cent.

The variations in the composition of the manure of different classes
of animals will be seen from the preceding tables. From these it
appears that classified according to strength of equal weights of the
normal manure produced the common farm animals stand in the follow-
ing order : Poultry, sheep, pigs, horses, cows This difference in value,
however, may be largely due to differences in the food commonly fed
to the different classes of stock, as will be explained later.

Sheep manure contains a small amount of water and is, weight for
weight, the richest manure produced by any of the common farm ani-
mals. It is what is ca.led a hot manure, fermenting rapidly with the
development of heat. Like horse manure it is especially liable to lose
ammonia.

Horse manure is very dry and is therefore difficult to thoroughly mix
with litter. It is a hot manure, undergoing fermentation rapidly and
generating a high heat on account of its loose texture. It is likely te
lose ammonia even more rapidly than sheep manure, and requires care-
ful management—in use of litter, preservatives, etc.—from the moment
it is voided. The composition of horse manure is more uniform than
that of any other farm animal, chiefly because the food of horses is
more uniform. The urine is especially rich.

Pig manure is very variable in composition, due to the variable nature
ofthe foodsuppliedto this animal, butis generally rich although contain-
ingahigh percentage of water. It generates little heat in decomposing.

The manure of neat cattle, like that of pigs, and for the same reason,
js variable in character, but is generally poorer than that of other
farm animals on account of its large percentage of water. It decom-
poses slowly and develops little heat.

177

Poultry manure is very rich in all the fertilising elements, but
especially so in nitrogen, due to the fact that the urinary secretions,
which contain large amounts of nitrogen as well as potash in readily
available form, are voided with the solid excrement. It quickly loses
nitrogen, however, by fermentation if not properly mixed with absorb-
ants or preservatives.

Warington states that for an equal amount of live weight the sheep
produces on the same weight of dry food very much more manure than
the pig, while the ox produces even more than the sheep.

It must be borne in mind, therefore, in estimating the manurial value
of the dung of different animals that the quantity of dung voided by
one animal is much greater than that voided by another. ‘The amount
voided by the cow, for example, is much greater than that voided by
the horse, so that the inferior value of the former is to some oxtent
compensated for by its greater quantity.

INFLUENCE OF QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF FOOD,

In a given class of animals the value of the manure is determined
more by the nature of the food than by any other factor. The quanti-
ties of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in manure stand in direct
relation to the quantities of the same ingredients in the food. The
crop-producing power of the manure will be largely determined by the
nature of the food supplied to the animals producing it. The following
table, adapted from a bulletin of the New York Cornell Station, shows
the wide variation in manurial value of some of the more common
feeding stuffs, (See also table p. 171.)

Fertilising value of feeding stuffs.

Value of | Value of | Value of Total

= nitrogen in| phosphoric} potash in | fertilising
1 ton. acid in 1 lton. | velue per
ton. ton,

Cornmeal S86 $4.53 $0.83 $0.31 $5.66
Corn silage see 0.78 0.14 0.32 1,24
Crimson clover (green) ee 1,29 0.16 0 44 1.89
Crimson clover hay see 6.63 0.82 2.26 9.71
Red clover hay Ses 5.70 0.64 1.31 7.65
Gluten meal fn 15.09 0.39 0.05 15.53
Cotton-seed meal Son 20.85 3.66 1.65 26.16

Linseed meal O08 16.08 2.28 599 19.36?

Moat scrap oo 29.01 6.01 0.67 35.69"
Wheat ys | 7:08 0.96 0.45 8.49
Oats oe 5.36 0.90 0.45 6.70
Skim milk =e 1.74 0.26 1.08 2.11
Timothy Hay se 3.00 0.43 | lLaale/ 4.60
Wheat bran Boal 7 56 3 40 L384 |. (19"380
Wheat straw west 0.81 0.30 | 1.02 2.18
Lurnips aa 0.48 0.14 0.84 |; 0.96

178

As already explained, from 50 to 95 per cent of the fertilising con-
stituents of food is recovered in the manure, depending upon the kind

of animal fed (see p. 176.)

In order to find from this table the amount of nitrogen, phosphori¢
acid, and potash which may b2 expected in manure, it is necessary
simply to subtract from the amount of these constituents contained in
the food the amount retained in the arfimal body. It can be readily
seen that as regards the value of the manure produced the concentrated
feeding stuffs, such as meat scrap, cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, and
wheat bran stand first ; the leguminous plants, such as red and crimson
clover, etc., second ; the cereals (wheat, oats, corn, etc.), third, and root
erops last. Thus with full-grown animils neither gaining nor losing
weight practically all of the fertilising constituents of the food are ob-
tained in the manure and each ton of wheat bran, for example, fed would
yield manure having a fertilising value of $12.30, each ton of clover hay
$7.50, each ton of oats $6.70, and each ton of turnips 96 cents. With
growing animals, milch cows. etc., only about 75 per cent of these
amounts, or $9.20, $5.60, $5, and 72 cents, respectively, would be obtained
in the manure. Finally, with working and fattening animals, which ex-
crete about 90 per cent of the fertilising constituents of their food, the
corresponding amounts would be $11, $6.75, $6, and 86 cents, respec-
tively.

As the table shows, the amount of nitrogen present in foods is the
most important element in determining the value of the manure, since
it is the most costly fertilising constituent and is present in much
larger proportion, as a rule, than phosphoric acid and potash. The
inorganic substances of foods (potash, phosphoric acid, lime, ete.) pass
very largely into the manure; consequently the manure is proportion;
ately richer in these constituents than the food. The case is some-
what different with the nitrogenous substances, which are partly used
in the production of meat, tendon, wool, milk, etc., thus leaving
the manure in many cases poorer in nitrogen than the food consumed.
Those, however, which are not so used undergo modifications in the
process of digestion which render their nitrogen more available to
plants.

As the New York Cornell Station has shown, increasing the amount
of nitrogenous matter in the food increases the secretion of urine, thus
necessitating the use of more litter and by this means increasing the
bulk of the manure produced. The use of nitrogenous foods thus brings
about the same result as the use of watery foods.

INFLUENCE OF THE NATURE AND PROPORTION OF LITTER.

Litter is used to furnish a clean and healthful bed for animals, to
absorb and retain liquid excrement, to extend manure and render it
easier to handle, to increase the physical and in some cases the chemical
action of manure, and to check and control decomposition. The
materials generally used are not, as a rule, rich in fertilising consti-

tuents, as the following table of composition given by Warington will -

show:

ein <p eaege

=

——e

—

179

Fertilising constituents in one ton of litter.

Phosphoric

Nitrogen. acid. Potash,
i, CC OO EL LLL MLL LLL LLLLL_ LLL LLLLD LAL a. > | > ne

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Dead leaves iets ey 16 6 6
Straw ah aA 8 to 12 4to 6 12 to 32
Peat moss eA ae 16 Trace. Trace.
Sawdust “06 ae 4to 14 6 14
Spent tan 00 «| LO0to 20 Nee sos
Peat vee ar 20 to 40 is eae

The use of litter therefore tends to dilute manure rather than improve
its chemical composition, but it absorbs and hold the valuable liquid
parts and reduces the loss of ammonia.

MANAGEMENT OF MANURE.

We have seen that barnyard manure is a material which rapidly
undergoes change. Where it is practical to haul the manure from the
stalls and pen and spread it on the field at frequent intervals the losses
of valuable constituents need not be very great, but when (as in winter)
the manure must be stored for some time the difficulties of preservation
become greatly increased.

Under these conditions, deterioration of manure results from two
chief causes, (1) Fermentation, whereby a certain amount of the nitro-
gen is lost, and (2) weathering or leaching, which involves a loss of
the soluble fertilising constituents, including potash and phosphoric
acid as well as nitrogen.

Fermentation of Manure.

The fermentation of manure is due to the action of minute micro-
scopic organisms which belong to two great classes, (1) those which
require an abundant supply of air (oxygen) and which die when de-
prived of oxygen—known as aérobic ferments ; (2) those which grow
without oxygen and die when exposed to it—known as anaérobic fer-
ments.

The decomposition observed in the manure heap is due as arule to the
combined action of these two classes of ferments. On the outer surface
of the heap, where the air circulates freely, the first class (aérobic) is
active, while in the interior of the heap, where the supply of air is
limited, the fermentation is due to the anaérobic ferments. The latter
soon run their course and cease to exist. ‘Their functions seems to be
principally to break up the more complex substances of the manure and
prepare them for the further action of the aérobic ferments which finally
convert them into simpler compounds such as water, carbonic-acid gas,
and marsh gas. A +

Where the manure is compacted (as in deep stalls for instance) the
carbonic acid gas formed by fermentation soon permeates the mass so
completely as to entirely exclude the air, thus arresting fermentation.
In loose heaps into which air is freely admitted fermentation of the
aérobic form may go on indefinitely.

180

The fermentations of manure are very complex and vary according
to circumstances. The principal conditions affecting these processes
are (1) temperature, (2) supply of air as determined by compactness of
heap, (3) moisture, (4) the composition of the manure, and (5) the
nature of preservatives added.

The higher the temperature the more rapidly will manure decay. In
aérobic fermentation of manure the temperature may rise to 122° to 140°
or even 158° F. On the other hand, in the interior of the heap, where
anaérobic fermentation is in progress, the temperature rarely rises
above 95° F. Experiments have indicated that 131° F. is the most
favourable temperature for manure fermentations.

As already explained, the supply of air determines whether the
slow-acting anaérobic ferment or the more vigorous aérobic ferment
predominates. The careful regulation of the two kinds of fermentation
is necessary to the successful rotting fof manure. If the heap is too
loosely built the decomposition is too rapid. The materials useful for
the formation of humus in the soil are destroyed, and the nitrogen,
especially that of the urine, escapes into the air, largely in the form
of ammonia. On the other hand, if the manure is too firmly packed
the decomposition may be too slow and the manure will not become
sufficiently disintegrated to produce the best effect in the soil.

A powerful means of controlling fermentation is the supply of mois-
ture. ‘The addition of water lowers the temperature and thus retards
fermentation. By filling up the pores of the mass and excluding
the air it checks aérobic fermentation when this becomes too active.
French authorities maintain that the principal precautions necessary to
prevent losses of ammonia consist simply in regularly and properly
watering the manure with the leachings. In case of drought, if the
leachings are insufficient, the lack should be made up with water.

The need of keeping manure moist is especially marked in case of
horse manure, which is naturally dry and decomposes with great
rapidity. The same is true in a less degree of sheep manure. The
common and harmful “ fire-fanging” is the result of an insufficient
supply of water and may be readily checked by sprinkling. The
sprinkling, however, should be regularly done and the heap kept in a
constant state of moisture, otherwise the alternate wetting and drying
will result in a lossof ammonia. Preservation of manure in this manner
is generally practised in Europe and the product obtained is highly
esteemed as a fertiliser. It is, “ very dark coloured, or even black, and
acquires a highly offensive odour, while the straw in it loses its consist-
ency and become soft and incoherent.” This black substance is held
by certain French agriculturists to possess special value asa plant
food. A method employed in the preparation of this well-rotted
manure in France is as follows: The manure is placed on slightly
inclined plats of packed earth or cement, so arranged that the leach-
ings drain out into a pit from which they are pumped up and distributed
over the manure heap. It is usual to provide two manure plats so
arranged that when one is full (when the manure is § to 10 feet high)
it may be allowed to ferment undisturbed while the other is used. The
yoanure is carried from the stables te the top of the manure heap in
wheelbarrows over an inclined plane of boards. Care is also taken to
emooth down the sides of the heap to prevent the too free access of air

181

and the loss of leachings, The system here described is illustrated in
fig. 1.

eee ;
2 x Tl Pe
Vala ™ NN _ ak
CTL ERAN NN. 4
hy, Mill! att NN Ni wa
LUT \\ \ te
WM aul SAAN
HANS

i WY "% | (A | Y Wh
Ki a Wh i it tid ws BEN a £i/ if j
NSA Yh bd yf! fila a Me Woe uN a CR TTITIIS de A Opi mE
SS SC a CS =
:

Ny
Y SSSSSSSSSSSSSS Y

ULSITI EU,

Fia t.
The French method of keeping manure.

It has been questioned whether the construction of expensive cisterns
for collecting the manure leachings repays the cost, but it is obviously
desirable from what has been said regarding the value of the liquid
manure and the desirability of promoting regular and uniform fermen-
tation of the manure, that the leachings should be saved and added to
the manure heap by some means. Stored separately, the liquid part
rapidly deteriorates and the solid part, from lack of moisture, is lable
to undergo “ fire-fanging,” or harmful fermentation.

The nature and extent of fermentation in manure also depends to
some extent on the composition of the manure, more particularly upon
the amount of nitrogen in a soluble form which it contains. The greater
the amount of soluble nitrogen the more rapid the fermentation. Urine,
as we have already seen, is rich in soluble nitrogenous compounds, and
this explains why it decomposes so rapidly.

By fermentation manure decreases rapidly in bulk. The substance
of which it is composed are converted largely into water and gases,
principally carbonic acid gas, and where fermentation is not properly
controlled, nitrogen may escape either in the free gaseous state or as
ammonia. ‘I'he coarse materials of the manure are gradually decom-
posed and are dissolved to a considerable extent in the black liquid
which oozes out of the manure heap. The mineral matter (the phos-
phates, potash, etc.) is also rendered more soluble. When properly
controlled, therefere, fermentation is a valuable means of increasing
the availability of the fertilising constituents of manure, although it
decreases the bulk; but when not properly controlled it seriously
reduces the value of the manure.

Leaching of Manure.

Leaching is the second cause of deterioration of manure. When
manure is exposed to the action of the elements and the leachings
allowed to drain away it rapidly decreases in value. Both the organic
and the mineral constituents originally present or which have been
made soluble by fermentation are carried off and lost. Experiments at
the New York Cornell Experiment Station indicated “that horse
manure thrown in a loose pile and subjected to the action of the ele-

182

mexts will lose nearly one half of its valuable fertilising constituents im
the course of six months; and that mixed horse and cow manure in @
compact mass and so placed that all water falling upon it quickly runs
through and off is subjected to a considerable, though not so great, a
loss.”

The Kansas Station concludes from similar observations “ that farm-
yard manure must be hauled to the field in spring, otherwise the loss
of manure is sure to be very great, the waste in six months amounting
to fully one half of the gross manure and nearly 40 per cent of the
nitrogen that it contained.”

The following experiments made by Dr. Voelcker in England show
very strikingly the loss in weight and of nitrogen in manure stored
under different conditions. Mixed manure containing 66.2 per cent of
moisture was divided into three 1,000 pound lots. Lot 1 was placed
in a heap in the open air, lot 2 in a heap under a shed, and lot 3 was
exposed in the open air in a thin layer. The weights of the manure ard
the amounts of nitrogen it contained at the end of different periods
were as follows:

Losses of Manure under different methods of Storing.

|

| In heaps under a | Exposed to air in| Exposedto the air
shed. | heaps. in thin layers.
Weight. | Nitro- | Weight.| Nitro- | Weight.| Nitro-
gen. gen. | gen.
———_ —_ Pee ar ae y at teenage
Pounds. | Pounds.| Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. |Pounds.
Manure at the beginning} 1,000/ 6.43 1,000 6.43 | 1,000 6.43

of experiment

Manureafter6 months . 49h 5.91 | 714 6.39 865 4.66
Manure after 9months . 398 5.02 703 4.19 612 2.47
Manureafter12 months . BYE ER Ded 700 4.55 575 2.27
Moisture at end of 12 41.6 74.3 65.6

months (per cent.)

‘The manure stored in a heap under cover lost 14 per cent of its nt-
trogen in twelve months ; exposed in a heap, 20 per cent ; and exposed
in thin layers, 64 per cent.

Field experiments by Kinnaird with manure kept in an open court.
and under cover resulted in an increase of about 4 tons of potatoes and
10 bushels of wheat per acre in favour of the covered manure. The
comparative value of leached and unleached manure has been carefully
tested at the Ohio Station on corn and wheat and mixtures of clover
and timothy. The experiments show a wide difference in value between
the leached and unleached manure and indicate that the margin of
profit from open-yard manure is extremely small.

Preservation of Manure.

Having now briefly discussed the nature and extent of the changes
which manure is likely to undergo when stored in heaps, let us enquire
into the best means of preventing loss of fertilising value during these
changes. It is a well-known fact that certain of the organisms which
cause decomposition of manure are voided with the dung and commence

183

their activity at once. In case of horses and sheep these organisms.
cause a considerable loss of ammonia in a comparatively short time. It
is necessary therefore to adopt prompt measures in order to reduce loss
from this source toa minimum. The means which are available for
this purpose are the use of absorbents and preservatives, such as straw,
peat, sawdust, dirt, gypsum (land plaster), kainit, etc. The litter takes
up the liquid manure, thus preserving it to some extent from decompo-
sition and also absorbs to a considerable extent the ammonia produced
by fermentation and prevents its escape into the air.

The relative absorptive power of various materials commonly used
as absorbents in stables is shown in the following table :

Absorptive power of different kinds of litter.

Ammonia ab-
Water retained | sorbed by 100
by 100 lbs. of lbs of dry
— materials after | matter in dif-
24 hours. ferent ma-
terials,
Pounds Pounds.
Wheat straw sap 220 0.170
Partially decomposed oak leaves ., 308 162 —
Peat See sca 600 1.103
Sawdust ; 58 S| 435 0.046
Spent tan .| 450 —
Air- dried humus soil 50 0.660
Peat moss wee ; 1,300 0.863
It thus appears from the table that peat and peat moss are the best
absorbents. It has already been shown (p. 178) that they also furnish

the largest amounts of fertilising constituents. Peaty soil is also an
effective absorbent, and the use of a mixture of peaty earth with straw
as litter as been strongly recommended. An addition of from 35 to
40 pounds of loam per head daily has been found advantageous, and
where straw is scarce it has been replaced to the extent of one fourth
or one third by earth. The amount of litter required for any given
animal depends largely upon the character of the food. Watery foods
and those containing a large amount of nitrogen increase the secretion
of urine and so increase the amount of litter necessary to absorb the
liquid and keep the animal cle:n. A safe general rule is that the
litter should amount to at least one third of the dry watter of the food
consumed. The following amounts per day for different animals are
recommended: Sheep, three fifths pounds of litter; cattle 9 pounds ;
and horses, 64 pounds.

It is not advisable as a rule to use an excess of litter beyond that
required to keep the animal clean and absorb the liquid excrement,
since the materials available for bedding are as a rule poor in fertilising
constituents, and so extend and dilute the manure unnecessarily.

A small amount of gypsum (land plaster) sprinkled on the moist
dung or urine is a popular and effective means of fixing the ammonia.
It should be remembered, however, that unless the gypsum becomes
moist it will have little effect. Kainit used in the same way tends to
arrest fermentation, but it must be used with caution or it may injure the
feet of the animals standing on it. Both kainit and acid phosphate
sprinkled on the manure before it is thrown into the heap are val-

184

uable as preservatives, and besides increase the value of the manure,
increasing the proportion of those constituents (potash and especially
phosphoric acid) in which it is somewhat deficient. German invyesti-
gators who have given a great deal of attention to the subject of pre-
servatives for manure unanimously recommended the use of superphos-
phate-gypsum, a by-product of the manufacture of superphosphates ;
but as this product is not found in the American market its place may
be taken by the ordinary acid phosphate or superphosphate of the trade
used in connection with a small amount of gypsum.

A German authority recommends the use of approximately the fol-
lowing amounts of the different preservatives per day :

Amounts of different preservatives to be used per head daily.

Per horse Per pig, | Per sheep,
1,000 | Per cow, 220 110
-—— pounds 880 pounds) pounds pounds

weight. | weight. weight. weight.

—

Lbs. Oz. | Lbs. Oz. | Ounces. Ounces.
Superphosphate Sale alee de? 3 23
Gypsum Are 1 9s AZ 43 on
Kainit was ie Die eb 4 2

If both superphosphate and gypsum are used, the above proportions
of these materials should be reduced from one third to one half. Kainit
should be applied to the fresh manure and covered with litter so that
it does not come in contact with the feet of the animals. Whether it
will be good economy to use these materials for this purpose will depend
upon their market price in the locality in which it is proposed to employ
them.

In cases where different kinds of animals are kept, one of the most
effective means of securing moderate and uniform fermentation of the
manure heap is to see that the moist “cold” cow and pig manure is
intimately mixed with the dry “hot” horse and sheepdung. The former
makes the heap more moist and checks the too rapid fermentation and
“fire fanging” of the latter.

It will be understood from what has been said that in order to reduce
the loss to a minimum, manure heaps should be made compact and kept
moist. Under cover the last result is secured by collecting the liquid
manure and at frequent intervals sprinkling it over the heap, or when
the supply of this is deficient, by sprinkling with water. Where the
manure heap is exposed to the rain in pits from which there is no drain-
age it probably does not require so much attention, but still care must
be taken to prevent loss by alternate leaching when heavy rainfalls
occur, and drying out in time of drought.

Regarding the management of manure, Prof. Frear, of the Pennsyl-

vania Experiment Station, says :

To secure such kind and degree of rotting as shal! make the manure easily handled
and put it into the condition best suited to the crops it is to fertilise, both extremes
of moistness and cold, and of exposure and heat, are to be avoided.

It is a much-discussed question whether this mean condition is best obtained in
practice by the preservation of the manure in dished yards, subject to more or less
exposure to wind and sun, to full exposure to rain, but to more loosely leaching,

185

_or under covered sheds where it is protected from sun and rain, and largely from
wind. In both cases it is supposed to be compacted fully as the heaps are forming.

Storer expresses a doubt whether sheds built to shelter manure have
ever paid their cost. On the other hand, Prof. Roberts of the New York
Cornell Station, recommends the construction of sheds or covered yards
for the protection of the manure. The use of completely covered barn-
yards for protecting manure has in recent years met with much favour in
certain parts of the country. The manure from the horse and cattle
stables and the sheep and calf pens is spread out evenly over these yards,
covered with coarse litter, and the whole kept firmly packed by allow-
ing animals to run over it, thus preventing injurious fermentation. The
construction of a cheap and durable covered yard, illustrated in fig. 2
is thus described by Roberts:

,

TITLICLTLIET }
TT Trt Ley
| H ( ie ol mat iil

fic. 2.
Plans for a cheap covered barnyard.

Long posts or poles, 8 inches in diameter at the butt, are set in the ground 2 feet
deep and 6 feet apart. Upon these are spiked 2 by 4 scantling, about 4 feet apart
for nailing girts, and a plate 2 by 6 is nailed on top of the posts which have been
previously sawed off to a line after the girts have been spiked tothem. Round
poles flattened at the ends, or 2 by 6 joists doubled, spiked to the heads of the posts,
will tie the building together. Ten feet will be quite high enough for the story ;
and one story will sufficeif no straw is to be stored above except that which is placed
there to exclude the cold. A few poles or old rails laid on these cross-ties which
bind the building together will suffice to sustain the weight of the straw, while the
straw will exclude the cold, and absorb the moisture far better than an expensive
matched ceiling.

On the inside of the posts which have been set in the ground flattened poles, rails
or slabs, or cheap boards may be nailed horizontally, and the space between the
outside vertical boarding and the inside horizontal boarding may be filled with
straw. This kind of a wall is far drier and more comfortable for the animals than
one made of costly stone or brick.

If it is desired to have a place to store straw, the building should be higher, the
joists stronger and more numerous than in the one-story building, and they will
all have to be supported by a timber, supported by posts placed under their centres.
The roofs should be steep, and can be made of any materials which will shed water.
When the posts which have been set in the ground have rotted off, or are much
decayed, they may be sawed off even with the ground and supported by placing
underneath each one of thema large flat stone. Whenever the building is treated
in that way it will be necessary to brace it thoroughly. It might be well ina
windy country to brace so wide a building at the start.

Such a building will be inexpensive and reasonably durable. It will serve as a
place for depositing manure when needed ; it will shelter the animals while they
are being watered and the stables are being cleaned and aired, and give facilities
for preventing loss of valuable fertilising material either by leaching or firing.

186

_ A more elaborate and expensive style of covered yard, suggested by
the American Agriculturist, is shown in fig. 3, which is worth consider-
ing when the construetion of a barn is contemplated.

|

aM

Fis 5.

A convenient covered barnyard.

This provides not only for the required protection of both animals and manure~
but affords also an excellent grain chamber where grain can be stored for conye-
nient use. Under the side roof is also afforded a chanee for the storing of small
tools and_a great variety of articles that are continually in the way when stored
about the farm buildings. It also provides splendid protection to animals when
housed at night during the summer, this roof protecting them from heavy showers
in the night and affording an excellent opportunity for exercise in the winter,
as all the sides, except that toward the south, can be protected against cold winds
by being temporarily boarded up.

Fig. £.

A cheap shelter for manure.

Many stables are so situated that by adding a cheap lean to, as shown
in fig. 4, “a receptacle for caring for the manure is easily provided.
The outside boarding of the lean to should be, for a part of the way at
least, put on horizontally and hung in the form of flat doors, so that the
mace can be easily loaded on a waggon standing on the outside of the

uilding.”

The unsatisfactory results attending the use of manure sheds and
covered yards haye probably been due to the fact that these structures

187

have generally been loosely constructed, allowing the free circulation of
air which has dried out the manure. We have already seen the losses
eaused by dry fermentation. On this account barn cellars, so common
in New England, possess decided advantages as receptacles for manure.
The common practice of allowing swine to “work over” the manure in
these cellars is a wise one, since it mixes the manure and keeps it well
packed and moist. In fact, if these cellars are provided with impervi
ous bottoms to hold the liquid manure, this system of storing manure
is probably the mest perfect practised.

In the method practised in France, the manure heap is under cover
and well compacted. Loam, peaty earth, or similar materials are added
to moderate fermentation. The impervious floors on which the heap
is placed, as explained on page 180, are so arranged that the leachings
may be collected and returned to the heap, thus keeping it moderately
moist. To prevent mixing fresh manure with old, two floors are pro-
vided, so that the manure on one may ferment undisturbed while the
other is used.

The method in which the manure is carried regularly from the stable
and placed in shallow pits with impervious bottoms, where it is closely
packed by allowing animals to run over it, is practised to a consider-
able extent both in this country and in Europe, and, as recent experi-
ments at the Pennsylvania Station indicate, it is probably as safe a
method as stoiing in an open shed where no special precautions are
taken to keep the manure moist throughout. The objections to it are
that the manure is subjected to extremes of drought and moisture and
must suffer injury in consequence unless special precautions are taken
to guard against these extremes.

A third method, which originated in Europe and is practiced to some
extent in this country, is that in which the soil in the stable is removed
to a level below that of the outside and the bottoms tamped or
cemented. The manure is allowed to accumulate under the animals
until it is hauled to the fields, bedding being used in abundanee. The
feeding troughs are made adjustable so that they can be raised or
lowered as required. The manure becomes highly compacted and is
kept in a favourable condition of moisture, so that fermentation pro-
ceeds slowly and uniformly. At the same time the manure is com-
pletely protected from the action of the weather. As would naturally
be expected under the circumstances, the manure obtained is stronger
than that allowed to ferment in heaps in the ordinary way. This
method is highly regarded where it is practised and it is claimed that
the health of the animals does not suffer.

It is hard to understand, however [says Storer], how the hoofs of the animals can
always escape the diseases that are apt to be caused by certain minute organisms
which appear to harbour in fermenting dung, and no man can tell without trial how
weil the system would answer for dairy farms in this eountry, i. e., in the warmer
parts of it. Doubtless it would serve well enough, however, in the case of fatten-
ing cattle.

Whatever the system adopted, the following general rules should be
observed in the storage of manure: (1) Spread the manure out uni-
formly; (2) guard as much as possible against the access of air; (38)
keep the manure always moist, but not too wet; (4) protect the heap
from sunshine.

188

USE OF MANURE.

It is the prevailing opinion of chemists as well as practical men that
where it is practicable it is best to apply manure and urine to the soil
in the freshest possible condition. The fertilising constituents of well-
rotted manure, as already explained, are more quickly available to
plants; the manure itself is less bulky, easier to distribute, and affords
a} good breeding place for organisms which promote nitrification* in
the soil; and is less likely to promote rank growth than fresh manure.
On the other hand, fresh manure mixed with the soil readily under-
goes a fermentation which not only increases the availability of its
own fertilising constituents, but also assists in rendering soluble the
hitherto insoluble fertilising constituents of the soil. In fact, even
with special precautions to prevent injurious fermentation under the
feet of the animals and in the heap, the greatest return is likely to be
gotten from manure applied in the fresh condition.

The form in which manure should be applied (whether fresh or
rotted) is determined largely by the soil on which it is to be used. If
improvement of the mechanical condition is the main object sought,
the best results will be obtained by applying the fresh manure to the
heavy clay soils, and the well-rotted manure to the light soils. If, how-
ever, the prompt action of the fertilising constituents of the manure is
desired, light soils, in a favourable season, are likely to utilise coarse
manure to better advantage than heavy soils. Decomposition takes
place slowly in heavy soils and the constituents of the fresh manure
become available very slowly. In light soils, on the other hand, unless
the season is dry, the conditions are such that the manure decomposes
readily, and the fertilising constituents are probably rendered available
as fast as the plant needs them. There is also considerable danger on
this class of soils that some of the soluble constituents will be carried
away in the drainage if well-rotted manure is applied. For this reason
such manure should be applied to light soils shortly before it is likely
to be needed by the crop. Small applications at frequent intervals is
a safe rule to follow on these soils. In general, it may be said that for
spring application the more readily available rotted manure is prefer-
able to the fresh unrotted material.

On clay soils it often happens that manure produces no effect what-
ever during the first year on account of slowness of decomposition,
but since the clay possesses very powerful absorptive properties the
manure is not lost. The fertilising constituents are retained in the
soil and are finally utilised by the crop. There is therefore no danger
in applying to clay soils large quantities of manure a long while in
advance of the planting of the crop. During dry seasons the manure
may produce little effect, but with a sufficient amount of moisture its
action is likely to be considerable. The application to such soils of
large quantities of manure improves their physical condition, and by
the addition of humus renders more porous those which are too compact.

The behavior of calcareous soils toward manure is very variable,
depending upon the compactness of the soil. In those which are suffi-

* Nitrification is the process by which the highly available nitrates are formed
from the less active nitrogen of organic matter, ammonia salts, etc. It is due to
the action of minute microscopic organisms which develop only in the presence of
air, moisture, and a basic substance such as lime or an alkaline carbonate.

189

ciently porous decomposition goes on with great rapidity, and the sol-
uble fertilising constituents formed are partially carried away in the
drainage water before they can be taken up by the plants. For this
reason, as in case of light soils, the manure should be applied in small
amounts and at frequent intervals.

The climate also may have an important bearing on this subject. In
a warm, damp climate it isa matter of comparative indifference whether
the manure is fresh or well rotted when it is applied, since under this
conditions decomposition in the soil will be sufficiently rapid. Ina
dry, hot season, however, it is well known that excessive applications
of undecomposed manure manifest a tendency to “burn out” the soil
and this tendency, as has just been stated, is more marked in light
soils than in heavy. In cold climates, where the season is short and
the conditions for rapid fermentation in the soil unfavourable, the use
of fermented manure is preferable.

Fresh manure has a forcing effect and tends to produce stems and
leaves at the expense of fruit and grain. It is therefore better for
grasses and forage plants than for cereals.

Direct application of manure, as is well known, seriously injures the
quality of tobacco, sugar beets, and potatoes, although mangel-wurzels
appear to profit by large applications. For these reasons it is advis-
able in the case of cereals, tobacco, potatoes, and sugar beets to apply
the manure to the previous crop, or, where land is to be planted in the
spring, to apply in the fall and allow to decompose during the winter.
Sir J. B. Lawes has pointed out, however, that wheat on light soil is
benefited by direct applications of manure, and that it is only on heavy
soils that it is best to apply it to the preceding crop.

“‘Manifestly,” as Storer remarks, “the rankness of fresh dung and
urine could be controlled and utilised by applying the manure in small
quantities and supplementing it with artificial fertilisers of kinds appro-
priate to the crops that are to be grown.”

What has been said above regarding the application of fresh manure
applies especially to manure containing only small amounts of coarse
undecomposed litter. It is not generally advisable to apply very
coarse manure before the litter has become at least partially decom-

osed.,
: It appears, therefore, that no fixed rules regarding the condition in
which manure should be used which will apply to all cases can be laid
down. It is a matter which naturally must be left largely to the indi-
vidual judgment of the farmer, based upon a careful study of the char-
acter of the soil and climate and the requirements of the crop to be
grown.

Methods of applying Manure.

In applying manure to the field three methods are pursued: (1) The
manure is placed in larger or smaller heaps over the field and allowed
to remain some time before being spread; (2) it is broadcasted and
allowed to lie on the surface for some time, or ploughed in immediately,
and (3) it is applied in the hill or drill with the seed.

The first method is objectionable because it increases labour of hand-
Ying and chances of loss by fermentation and leaching, while uniform
distribution of the manure is not likely te be secured. The spots om
which the heaps stand are strongly manured with thel leachings of the

190

manure, while the rest of the field receives the coarse parts of the
manure largely deprived of its valuable constituents. Another disad-
vantage of this method is that proper fermentation is interfered with
by the leaching out of the nitrogenous matter and the drying action of
the wind. The practice of storing manure in large heaps in the field
is subject to some extent to the same objections. If, however, the hea
is not allowed to le too long and is carefully covered with earth the
loss may be greatly reduced.

Spreading the manure and allowing it to lie on the surface should be
practised only on level fields where there is no danger from surface
washing. It has been claimed that when manure is spread broadcast
and allowed to le on the surface there may be a serious loss of ammo-
nia into the air, but experiments have shown that, in case of properly
prepared manure, loss from this case must be very small. On a leachy
soil there may be a loss of soluble constituents in the drainage if the
manure is spread a long while before the crop is planted, but in ordinary
practice the loss from this source is also likely to be insignificant. In
this method of application the fertilising constituents of the manure
are uniformly distributed, the liquid portion being gradually and thor-
oughly incorporated with the soil particles. One serious disadvantage,
however, of the method is that the manure before being ploughed in is
leached to a large extent of its soluble nitrogenous compounds, which
as we have already observed, are necessary for fermentation; and that
for this reason it does not so readily ferment in the soil. It is highly
advisable, therefore, in the case of light or sandy soils, not to follow
this practice, but to plough the manure in as soon as spread.

As to the depth to which it is advisable to plough the m inure in, the
general rule should be observed that it should not be so deep as to pre-
vent the access of sufficient moisture and air to insure fermentation
and nitrification and to permit of rapid washing down of nitrates to
the drain. In very compact soiis the depth should not exceed 4 inches.
In light soils this depth may be considerably increased, although in
such soils there is more danger of loss by drainage than with heavy
clay soils. ;

Application in the hill or drill is useful where the supply of manure
is limited and the full immediate effect is desired. For forcing truck
crops this method is especially valuable. Well-rotted manure is best
suited to this method of application. It has been claimed, however,
that manure applied in this way sometimes injures the appearance of
root crops, especially potatoes, by increasing the amount of scab.

The so-called parking system, or feeding animals on the land, is a
method of application which has many advantages; but the distribu-
tion of the manure by this system is irregular, and if practised in
autumn or winter the manure is subject to loss by drainage.

The application of liquid manure has certain obvious advantages, and
is largely practised, especially in Europe. Manure leachings is a quick-
acting, forcing manure, and is especially valuable for grass. The
expense of cisterns for collecting the leachings and the trouble of haul-
ing and distributing, together with the care which must be exercised
to prevent loss of nitrogen from the readily fermentable liquid when it
stands for any length of time, render it doubtful whether this method
is practicable except for special purposes and under peculiar conditions.

19d

Rate of Application.

As to the rate at which manure should be applied no fixed rules can
be given. The rate will depend upon the character of the soil, the
quality of the manure, the nature of the crop, and the frequency of
application. Cold moist soils should be manured lightly and often.
Thaer, a German writer, states 17 to 18 tons per acre to be an abun-
dant application, 14 tons good, and 8 to 9 light; other German writers
consider 7 to 10 tons light, 12 to 18 tons usual, 20 tons or more heavy,
and 380 tons very heavy, Stephens suggests 8 to 12 tons for roots and
15 to 20 tons supplemented by commercial fertilisers for potatoes. Sir
Henry Gilbert considers 14 tons per acre annually excessive for wheat
and barley. In New England the rate varies from 6 to 12 tons.
Twenty tons is a frequent application in New Jersey, as well as in other
regions where truck farming is practised. As a general rule it is more
scientific to apply small amounts of manure freguently than to apply
large amounts at longer intervals.

COMBINING BARNYARD MANURE WITH OTHER FERTILISING MATERIALS,

It has been the general experience that probably the best way to
utilise barnyard manure is in combination with such materials as sup-
plement and conserve its fertilising constituents. It has already been
pointed out how certain substances, such as kainit and superphosphate,
which possess a high fertilising value, may also be used to advantage
‘as preservatives on account of their ability to check fermentation or to
fix ammonia. Even the limited extent to which it is necessary to use
these materials in the stable will improve the fertilising value of the
manure, but it is necessary to do more than this if a well-balanced
fertiliser is desired, for, as has been shown, barnyard manure con-
sidered simply as a supplier of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash
is comparatively poor. It has been shown that the proportions of
potash and phosphoric acid especially are low. The potash, however,
is in a very available form and does not need to be reinforced to the
same extent as the much less available phosphoric acid.

Although nitrogen is the constituent most abundant in manure it
has been found that in order to get the best results in general it should
be reinforced if prompt action is desired. ‘This is explained by the fact
that a large part of the nitrogen of manure is very slowly available.
Sir Henry Gilbert says on this point :

The nitrogen of farmyard manure must obviously exist in very different condi-
tions. That due to the urine of animals will be most rapidly available, that in the
finely divided matter in the feces will be much more slowly available, and that in
the litter still more slowly available. Hence, the small proportion that is at once
effective and the very large amount that accumulates within the soil in a very
slowly available condition.

Experiments at Rothamsted indicate that the nitrogen of barnyard
manure is not half as valuable, weight for weight, as that of sulphate
of ammonia.

What has been said about supplementing barnyard manure with
more concentrated fertilising. materials should not be taken to imply
that the two kinds of fertilisers should necessarily be composted or
applied at the same time. It may be desirable to apply the manure at

192

intervals of several years, while the concentrated fertilisers would need
to be applied annually. However this may be, the facts above given
should be borne in mind in applying the supplementary fertilisers.

Whether the farmer can afford to incur the necessary labour and
expense involved in the preparation of composts is a question on
which there is considerable difference of opinion. This is a matter
which must be determined largely by individual needs and conditions,
but undoubtedly the manure heap may be utilised to advantage for
such purposes as reducing bones and other waste products of the farm
and for “ killing” cotton seed before it is applied to the soil.

In preparing composts the following directions should be observed :
Select a level spot under shelter and convenient to the stables. Remove
the earth so as to give a gentle slope from the sides toward the centre.
It is advisable to tamp the floor of this pit firmly or cover it with pud-
dled clay to prevent loss of leachings. It is also well to have a small
drain leading from the centre to the side and emptying into a half
barrel sunk in the earth. By this means the valuable leachings may be
collected and bailed out and sprinkled over the heap, thus assisting
materially in promoting a moderate and uniform fermentation of the
manure. It is not necessary, however, to provide for this collecting of
the leachings if in the construction of the heap the precaution is taken
to lay down first a fairly thick layer of the absorbent materials, such
as barnyard manure, peat, etc., which it is intended to use. Put down
first a layer of these materials, then follow with a layer of acid phos-
phate, for instance, and so on until all the materials are used, wetting
each layer thoroughly first with water or urine if it is at hand, and
finally with kainit, or other chemicals used dissolved in water. It is
well to have at hand a mixture of peaty earth and plaster with which
the finished heap is covered toa depth of about linch. The heap
should be examined from time to time and moistened with manure
leachings, urine, or water if there appears to be any danger of over-
heating. In from four to six weeks the compost is ready to be forked
over, thoroughly mixed, and carried to the field.

The following formulas for composts in which barnyard manure is
one constituent have been recommended and in may cases have been
tried with favourable results.

Formulas for cotton.

No, || Nob2e| (Noes. | Noa. | wolbetl Nome:

—_—~— | — | |

—————————————— oe rel
Pounds. |Pounds, |Pounds.

| Pounds. | Pounds.| Pounds.
Stable manure =| 275004) TBO 400 300 300 | 1,000
Cotton seed veal) 00 750 600 | 600 600 1,000
Acid phosphate wee] BDOF 500 800 750 sce 1,000
Floats Sed) ccc = 306 Bes 750 os
Kainit cil MAGORT | Y Nase 200 | 350 | 350 sa
Rate per acre -»| 1,600 | 1,600 | 1,600 | 1,600 | 1,600 oe

* Purman’s formula.
4 Found especially effective in experiments on cotton.

193

Formulas for cotton and corn.

No. 7.* | No.8. | No. 9. | No. 10. | No. 11. [5No.°12.

Pounds, |Pounds, |Pounds, }Pounds. |Pounds. | Pounds.
Stable manure 800 500 600 600 00 600
Stable manure with yard = xi eee see 1,000 Sa
scrapings
Cotton seed 750 500 400 ae “0 5
Cotton-seed meal or fish nee oa0 500 700 as a
scrap
Acid phosphate 365 5x0 800 600 . See oe
Acid phosphate or bone “6 eee vee oe 800 600
meal
“Dissolved bone ...| 450 500 : wae
Sulphate of ammonia ...;} ... 150 SOL aA See AC
Kainit a4 ves aoe 200 100 200 on
Sulphate of potash ascley baess 140 56h o08 500 SOS
Unburnt marl Pee tees 500 sae oa
Salt Sc) das 200 ans see
Ashes nae se 500 200
Rich earth or yard serap- 200 ° 5 . 600
ings
Rate per acre .../300-500 |800-500 M09 —

* When applied to corn on worn soil should be supplemented by 75 pounds of
muriate of potash per acre; when used on wheat by 50 pounds of sulphate of
potash and by 100 pounds of nitrate of soda sown broadcast in the spring.

Formulas for winter wheat, rye, corn, and cotton.

oo

No. 13. | No. 14.

—— | --— ——— | —_-

Pounds. } Pounds,

Barnyard manure eae soo} 700 700
Cotton seed god +--| 800 ono
Castor pomace 500 cor eee 700
Dissolved boneblack ook se5| mons 600
Dissolved bone meal mes ve 500 ves
Rate per acre Se +0: /000-800 {500-800

Formulas for wheat, oats, or rye-

]
No. 15. | No. 16. | No. 17. | No. 18.

ee ee | ee ) ee |

Pounds. |Pounds, {Pounds, | Pounds,

Stable manure erly tees 800 600 600
Stable manure or any rich earth ormould ...| 600 soe oo
Cotton seed a | 600 °
Cotton-seed meal sO scoll “G00 oo oO 700
Kainit cco eeclez00. rae acs ses
Muriate of potash e058 coll Gor 100 100 100
Acid phosphate .| 600 { 1,000 <0 600
Acid phosphate or bone meal cot} aon cos 600 ses
Sulphate of ammonia oo : 100 100 a5

Dry muck or other rich earth

0 nn i

194

Formulas for tobacev.

—
=

No. 19. | No. 20.

a
ae ee —— | ——— —_—_——

Pounds. | Pounds.

Stable manure sc | 900 a
fine horse or cow manure, rich mould, or similar material ...} ... 900
Acid phosphate eee «| 500 oes
Acid phosphate or dissolved bone Bae ay) cee 600
Fish scrap or tankage soe aH) tox 350
Sulphate of ammonia och «| 100 ses
Sulphate of potash CO --| 300 150
Sulphate of magnesia see | 100 coe
Plaster (gypsum) sae | 100 Soc

The following dry mixture is recommended by the North Carolina
Station for cotton and corn :

Pounds.
Acid phosphate eee eos 800
Muriate of potash mee nes 100
Sulphate of ammonia 5 60

Finely pulverised manure from henhouses, hors e or cow stables 1,040

2,000

In experiments on tomatoes, sweet potatoes, and peaches, annual
applications of 10 tons per acre of barnyard manure, supplemented by
169 pounds of dissolved boneblack, 80 pounds of muriate of potash or
sulphate of potash, and 100 pounds of nitrate of soda, supplied sepa-
rately ; and 20 tons of manure, with double the amounts of the other
materials, have given good results.

The fermenting of peat with stable manure was formerly practised
to a considerable extent. Where such a compost is desired the mate-
rials should be laid down in alternate layers in the proportion of about
five parts of peat to one of manure.

LASTING OR CUMULATIVE EFFECT OF BARNYARD MANURE.

Barnyard manure is probably the most efficient means at the disposal
of the farmer to permanently improve his soil. No other fertiliser
possesses to so great a degree the power of restoring worn soils to pro-
ductiveness and giving them lasting fertility. It accomplishes this
result, however, not so much by the actual fertilising constituents which
it supplies as by improving the physical properties of the soil, increase
ing the amount of humus, which is generally deficient in worn soils,
improving its texture, and increasing its water-absorbing and water-
holding power. Experiments have shown that the influence of manure
may be perceptible twenty years after application. Observations at
“Rothamsted, England, during forty years on barley unmanured, maoured
continuously, and manured during the first twenty years only showed
that “there was gradual exhaustion and reduction of produce without
manure, and gradual accumulation and increase of produce with the
annual application of farmyard manure. But when the application was
stopped, although the effect of the residue from the previous applica-
tions was very marked, it somewhat rapidly diminished, notwithstand-
ing that calculation showed an enormous accumulation of nitrogen as
well as other constituents.”

= ~

195

"The yield, however, was maintained for twenty years considerably
jhigher than that on the unmanured soil. Continuous manuring of
wheat at the rate of 14 tons per acre annually for forty years resulted.
in an average increase of yield from year to year of one-fourth bushel
per acre, or a total of about 10 bushels in forty years. While it is true
that there is a constant increase in the prolactiveness of soil on which
barn yard manure is applied regularly, it is not as great as the amounts
applied would seem to justify. This is chiefly due to the fact, already
explained, that the nitrogen is largely converted into slowly available
forms.

SUMMARY.

(1) Barnyard manure is the most important manurial resource of
the farm and should be carefully saved and used. It represents fer-
tility drawn from the soil and must be returned to it if productiveness
is to be maintained. In many cases it has been demonstrated that the
value of the manure obtained in cattle feeding represents largely, if not
-entirely, the profit of feeding.

(2) There are sound scientific reasons for the high esteem in which
this manure is held. It contains all the fertilising elements required
by plants in forms that insure plentiful crops and permanent fertility
to the soil. It not only enriches the soil with the nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, and potash which it contains, but it also renders the stored-up
materials of the soil, more available, improves the mechanical condition
of the soil, makes it warmer, and enables it to retain more moisture or
to draw it up from below.

(3) The amount and value of manure produced by different kinds of
farm animals may be judged from the following figures, calculated to
1,000 pounds of live weight: Sheep, 34.1 pounds of manure per day,
worth 7.2 cents ; calves, 67.8 pounds, worth 6.7 cents ; pigs, 83.6 pounds,
worth 16.7 cents; cows, 74.1 pounds, worth 8 cents, and horses 48.8
pounds, worth 7.6 cents, basing calculations of value on market prices
of commercial fertilisers, which probably gives results much too high.
Making liberal allowance for these and other considerations, Prof. Roberts
estimates that the value of the manure produced on a small farm carry-
ing 4 horses, 20 cows, 50 sheep and 10 pigs during the seven winter
months amounts to about $250.

(4) The urine is by far the most valuable part of the excreta of
animals. It is especially rich in readily available nitrogen, which rapidly
escapes into the ail if special precautions are not taken to prevent its
loss. It is also rich in potash, but deficient in phosphoric acid. It
should, as a rule, be used in connection with the solid dung, the one thus
supplying the deficiencies of the other and making amore evenly
balanced manure.

_ (5) Barnyard manure is a very variable substance. The more impor-
tant conditions which determine its composition and value are (lL) age
and kind of animal, (2) quantity and quality of food, (3) proportion of
litter, and (4) method of management and age. Mixed bamyard
manure properly cared for may be assumed to have the following com-
position: Water, 75 per cent; nitrogen, 0.57 per cent; phosphoric
acid, 0.3 per cent ; potash, 0.57 per cent.

(6) Mature animals, neither gaining nor losing weight, excrete prac-

196

tically all the fertilising constituents consumed in the food, Growing
animals and milch cows excrete from 50 to 75 per cent of the fertili-
sing constituents of the food; fattening or working animals from 90 to
95 per cent. As regards the fertilising value of equal weights of

manure in its normal condition, farm animals probably stand in the fol- -
lowing order: Poultry, sheep, pigs, horses, cows.

(7) In a given class of animals the value of the manure is determined
more by the nature of the food than by any other factor. The amounts:
of fertilising constituents in the manure stand in direct relation to _
those in the food. As regards the value of manure produced the con-
centrated feeding stuffs, such as meat scrap, cotton-seed meal, linseed”
meal, and wheat bran stand first, the leguminous plants (clover, peas, ete.)
second, the grasses third, cereals (oats, corn, etc.) fourth, and root crops,
such as turnips, beets, and mangel-wurzels last.

The nitrogen of the food exerts a greater influence on the quality of
the manure than any other constituent. It is the most costly fertilising
constituent, and is present in largest quantity. It undergoes more
modifications in the animal stomach than the mineral constituents
(potash and phosphoric acid), and rapidly escapes from the manure
in fermentation. ‘The secretion of urine increases with the increase
of nitrogenous substances in the food, thus necessitating the use
of larger amounts of litter and affecting both the amount and value
of the manure. The use of watery foods, as is obvious, produces the
same result. :

(8) The deterioration of manure results from two chief causes, (a)
fermentation, whereby nitrogen, either as ammonia or in the gaseous:
state, is set free, and (6) weathering or leaching, which involves a loss
of the soluble fertilismg constituents. The loss from destructive fer—
mentation may be almost entirely prevented by the use of proper
absorbents, and preservatives, such as gypsum, superphosphate, and
kainit, and by keeping the manure moist and compact. Loss from
leaching may be prevented by storage under cover or in pits. Extremes
of moisture and temperature are to be avoided, and uniform and mod.
erate fermentation is the object to be sought. ‘To this end it is advis—
able to mix the manure from the different animals thoroughly in the

heap.

(9) When practicable it is best to apply manure in the fresh condition.
The disposition to be made of the manure of the farm (both fermented
and unfermented) must be determined largely by the nature of the crop
and soil. Where improvement of the mechanical condition of the souk
is the principal object sought, fresh manure is best adapted for this
purpose to heavy soils and well-rotted manure to light soils. Where
prompt action of the fertilising constituents is desired, the best results
will probably be obtained by applying fresh manure to the light soils,
although excessive applications in this case should be avoided on account
of the danger of “burning out” of the soil in dry seasons. Fresh
manure has a forcing effect, and is better suited to grasses and forage
plants than to plants grown for seed such as cereals. Direct applica=
tions to root crops, such as sugar beets, potatoes or tobacco, often prove
injurious. The manure should be spread when carried to the field, and

not left im heaps to leach.
The rate of application must be determined by individual circum-

-

stances. As a rule it is better to manure lightly and frequently than
to apply a large amount at longer intervals.

(10) One of the best ways to utilise barnyard manure is to combine
it with such materials as supplement and conserve its fertilising con-
stituents. The best results are likely to be obtained by using com-
mercial fertilising materials in connection with barnyard manure, either
in compost or separately. As is well known barnyard manure is last~
ing in its effects, and in many cases need not be applied so frequently
as the more soluble and quick-acting superphosphates, potash and
nitrogen salts, etc.

197

FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—XLVII.

Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja-
maica. By G. S. Jenman, Superintendent Botanical Carden,
Demerara.

74, Polypodium angustifolium, Swartz. —Rootstock short-creeping, }
in. thick, more or less clothed with reticulated acuminate scales; stipites
numerous, crowded, 14-3 in. |, flattish, with one to several pair of indis-
tinct lateral glands to the narrow decurrent wings; fronds 1-2 ft. 1. }-1
in. w. curved or sub-pendent, narrowly acuminate, long tapering at the
base ; coriaceous, naked, glossy, the underside paler, the margins entire,
often undulate-repand, cartilaginous-edged, the rachis stramineous,
slender; primary veins hardly stronger than the intermediary, the
areole directed toward the margin, each containing a single free or
anastomosing soriferous veinlet ; soriterminal or dorsal, one to each of
the larger areole. P. teneosum, Willd.

a. var. P. amphosternon, Kunze.—Rootstock more elongated ; stipites
longer, less crowded and fewer; fronds #-2 in. w.; texture less coria-
ceous; areole and sori more copious. P. fasciale, Willd.

Common on trees and rocks up to 5,000 feet altitude, very variable
in width ; the narrowest forms being only two lines wide, with a single
series of areolz and sori on each side of the rachis, while the broader
states have two to three series. The texture is very coriaceous, and the
edges are often revolute. The venation is abnormal and intermediate
between Campyloneuron and Goniophlebium. In narrow forms it quite
agrees with the latter sub-genus. ais found on rocks at 6,000 ft. altitude} -
its larger state gives it a distinct appearance, but in venation it is quite
identical with the type, the broader fronded forms of which impercep¢
tibly pass into it.

75. P. ptloselloides, Linn.—Rootstock very slender, flexuose, wide-

+ creeping, freely branched, forming a net-work, clothed with fine pale
subsquarrose acuminate scales; stipites scattered 4-1} in. 1, slender,
finely fibrillose scaly ; fronds dimorphous; subcoriaceous, opaque woen
dry, dark green, freely clothed with scattered minute peltate—caudate
- scales, which have a brown disk at the base; barren oblong lanceolate
or ovate-lanceolate, the apex rounded acute or acuminate, the base
usually cuneate, 1-2 in. 1, 4-3 in. b., fertile linear-lanceolate, 1-24 in.
1. 2-3 li. b. margins entire; veins generally obscure, forming a row of
darge costal areolz with free included branches and smaller exterior
aneshes; sori large, confined to the costal areolw, terminal on the in-

198

cluded veinlets, receptacles bristling with copious brown hairs. PL
Fil. t. 118. Craspedaria, Fee, Lopholepis, J. Smith.

Common from the lowlands up to 5,000 feet altitude, growing or
stones, banks and the stems and branches of trees, in open places. The
rootstock when divested of its scales is hardly thicker than strong
thread. The barren fronds vary considerably in shape, in the largest
state they are ovate-lanceolate, pointed, 2 in. 1. on slender petioles —
nearly as long; in the smallest they are ovate-oblong, rounded, 4 in. L.
the stipites only 1-2 i. 1. Generally the barren and fertile fronds are
distinct in form, but not uniformly. In P. etliatum, Willd. the fertile
fronds are linear and so narrow that the two lines of sori touch on the
inside, and project on the outside over the margins, giving a moniliform
aspect to the margins.

76. P. vaccinifolium, Fisch & Langsd.—Rootstock as thick as strong
cord, wide-creeping ard freely branched, very densely clothed with
long fibrillose fine reddish scales which eventually become pale; fronds
scattered, copious, coriaceous, glabrous, bright green, glossy on the
upper side, subsessile or very shortly petioled, dimorphous; barren
oblong, rounded at the top, the base cuneate, 4-14 in. J], $4 in. w.;
fertile linear, 1-44 in. 1. 14-24 li. b., the margins even, veins immersed,
costal areole large, each containing a free veinlet, exterior meshes —
smaller, sori copious in long medial lines, the sporangia mixed with
reddish fibrillee.—Lopholepis, J. Smith.

Spreading abundantly over the branches and trunks of trees, usually
at low elevations. This has a stouter, more densely clothed and wider
diffused rootstock than any of the other species of the group. Ina
barren state the fronds resemble those of the next species, but are much
smaller. In this condition the different venation is a reliable dis-
tinguishing character. It presents however nearly at all times the two
kinds of fronds, when the rush-like fertile ones are so distinct as to
distinguish it at sight. Ihave only seen Jamaica specimens in the
Kew Herbarium; collected by Bancroft. B

77. P. lycopodioides, Linn.—Kootstock cord-like, wide-creeping,
branched and forming a copious net-work, densely coated with fine
appressed scales, which are pale at first but ultimately dark; fronds
coriaceous, naked, a bright glossy green, scattered, with hardly any,
or very short, distinct petioles, 4-7 in. 1. 4rd—$ths in. w., oblong or
linear-lanceolate, acute or acuminate at the apex, the base tapering
end decurrent on the short stipites, barren ones shorter and broader
than the fertile, margins entire; primary veins more or less distinct,
but evanescent before reaching the margins, fertile areola medial, with
included free or united branches, and smaller costal and exterior
meshes ; sori sunk, the opposite surface papillose, medial or nearer the
margins, terminal ona single, or two or more united enclosed vein-
lets. —Pl. Fil. t. 119.

a var P. salcifolium Willd.—Fronds usually rather narrower, the
sterile and fertile conform, or less distinct,—PI. Fil. t. 121.

Common, abundant at low elevations but attaining 5,000 ft. alt. 5
spreading over the trunks and branches, of trees, and on rocks and —
banks, chiefly in exposed places, but also in loose forests. Variable
in size, and usually smaller at the higher elevations. In the type
the barren end fertile fronds are generally distinct and different in shape

199

(not shown in Pl’s. fig.) but casually both forms are fertile. In drying
it turns nearly black. The conform barren and fertile fronds of a led
Willdenow, Grisebach and others to regard it as a distinct species.

78. P. Swurtsii, Baker.—Rootstock slender, wide-creeping, branched,
clothed with fine linear acuminate fulvous scales, which in time be-
come dark; fronds scattered, chartaceous or membrano-chartaceous,
pellucid, naked, or sometimes glandulose beneath, usually pale green,
stipitate, or more distinctly petiolate, 3-6 in. 1 } - 4 in. w., tapering both
ways, the apex acuminate or bluntish, the base decurrent on the slender
stipites, the margins subentire or sinuate, rarely deeply lobate ; veins
fine, but evident, areole 1-3 serial, fertile meshes enlarged, usually
central, with included free or united branches, marginal branches also
free or united ; sori-medial, slightly depressed, terminal on a single or
two or three united veinlets. PJ. Fil. t. 122, P. serpens, Swartz.

Common in the limestone districts up to 2,000 ft. altitude on rocks
and trees; variable in size, texture, venation, and the more or less uneven
margins. In some cases the fronds are irregularly lobate. The vena-
tion is equally variable, and in instances resembles that of Goniophlebium.
the costal series of narrow barren areole being absent. The rootstock too
is very distinct and somewhat peculiar. It is shrivelled and striated.
longitudinally and the branches are usually short or rudimentary. Mixed
with the scales at intervals are small acuminate dark spur-like appen-
dages. P. runcinatum, Desv. is represented in Plumier’s figure quoted
above. The name serpens was first used by Forster for an Australian
species. Swartz unwittingly used the term later for this Jamaica plant.
Heward not knowing this, and taking the same plant for a new species
described it in the Magazine of Natural History, Sept., 1838, naming it
P. exiguam. Subsequently Grisebach unaware of this, used the same
designation for another Jamaica Polypod., after which Baker discover-
ing Swartz’s name preoccupied by Forster’s plant called it P. Swartziz.
Heward’s name has therefore priority, but its adoption would involve
renaming Grisebach’s plant, a plant for which the term is entirely appro-
priate, and, as Heward’s authority has hardly been known, I think the
matter had better be left as it is.

79. P. lanceolatum, Linn.—Rootstock slender, free-creeping, clothed
with narrow pale-margined scales; stipites scattered, 2-4 in. 1, slender,
dark-brown, naked or with a few deciduous peltate scales, margined
above ; fronds very coriaceous and stiff, more or less freely coated with
minute dark-centred peltate fimbriate-edged appressed scales, beneath
which they are a dark brownish-green, lanceolate or linear-lanceolate,
4-12 in. |. 4-14 in. b., tapering freely at both ends, margins entire or
sinuate, rachis dark coloured beneath ; veins immersed copiously reti-
culated, forming large costal areole, with included and exterior smaller
meshes ; sori large, 2-3 li. b., medial, oval or oblong, rarely round, de-
pressed, contained in the large areole; sporangia mixed with short
dense scales, which form permanent pads. P. /epidotum, Willd. P.
ensifolia. Hook. Fl. Exot. t. 62.

a var. Elisabethe, Jenm.—Fronds uniformly lobed on both sides.

Common from 2,500-6,000 ft. alt. in exposed situations on rocks,
banks and trees. A very distinct plant. In narrow fronds the large
sori occupy the whole space between the midrib and margins. In the
irregularly lobed states there is often a partial second row, and the

200

short lobes have sometimes a double series. In many cases it is con—
fined to the upper half of the frond. The upper surface is usually pitted.
with elliptical depressions over the sori. a is found in the region of the
Govt. Cinchona Plantations.

TrisE XI. GRAMMITIDER,

Sori arcuate, oblong, linear-oblong, or linear, short or more or less
elongated and continuous, situated on the veins, which form the
receptacles, and disposed variously in simple, forked or confluent and
reticulated lines, superficial or immersed; quite destitute of involucres ;
sporangia stalked, compressed, arched by an incomplete vertical jointed
band, splitting transversely at maturity ; fronds from less than an inch
to several feet long, entire or variously cut and often multifid; venation
simple or forked and free, united or copiously reticulated.

The plants of this tribe form a moderately limited group representing
one fairly extensive genus and five very small ones, which are loosely
connected by the single tribal character of naked elongated sori. The
large majority inhabit regions within the tropics of both Hemispheres,
only a few extending beyond, chiefly in the south temperate zone.

Sori transversely oblong or arcuate ; fronds pin-
nate; primary veins costate, the transverse arcuate.— 1. Meniscium.

Sori oblong, lnear-oblong or linear; fronds

simple or compound; veins free. - 2. Gymnogramme
Sori linear-oblong, immersed in the parenchyma;

fronds simple ; veins united.— 3. Enterosora.
Sori reticulated ; fronds palmate or pinnate— 4. Hemionites,
Sori sparingly diffused over the under surface ;

fronds simple ; veins reticulated.— 5. Anetium.
Sori reticulated or zigzag in oblong angular

meshes ; fronds simple; veins areolate.— 6. Antrophyum.

Genus XXVI. Metsctum, Schreb.

Sori oblong, curved, dorsal on the are of the united transverse vem-
lets; primary veins costate, raised, pinnatiform, connected by opposite
united curved or angled branches, which form multiserial narrow
transverse areole containing each a free or attached erect veinule;
fronds rarely simple, chiefly pinnate.

All the species of this genus within the geographical scope of this
Flora are pinnate. The sori, though strictly confined to the transverse
veins, become ultimately confluent partly or quite concealing the under
surface of the fronds. The outer fronds are generally barren and the
inner fertile; and the united veinlets in the former are angled while
in the latter they are arcuate. Generally the species are well defined,
and they vary only in size and form. They are terrestrial plants pre-
ferring moist or wet situations. About a score of species altogether,
are known.

Fronds dimorphous, the pinne of the fertile re-
duced, and the sori covering nearly the whole

surface.— 1. M. angustifolium.
Fertile fronds not much modified in size of
pinne, and sori not generally confluent.— 2. M. serratum.

3. M. reticulatum.

201

1. W. angustifolium, Willd.—Rootstock fasciculate, decumbent, short-
creeping, forming with the abundant rootlets matted masses; stipites
contiguous or subtufted, 10—15 in. 1 strong, slightly pubescent, dark
coloured below and clothed with a few deciduous scales ; fronds pinnate
1-1} ft. 1. 5-10 or 12 in. w. barren and fertile distinct, subcoriaceous,
naked except the costee which are finely coated with puberule, dark
green, composed of numerous lateral pinne and a similar terminal
one, rachis light coloured channelled, finely pubescent ; pinne spread-
ing or erecto-spreading, approximate but not close, linear-lanceolate,
tapering and very acuminate, the base cuneate and stipitate, 3-6 in 1
#ths—zths in. w., lowest pair usually a little reduced, margins entire;

sori copious, confluent and covering the under surface at matu-

rity; veins close, areole 6-8-serial. Sl. Hist. p. 84, t. 40; Herb p.
86. MM. sorbifolium, Eat., Phegopteris, Mett.

Common on wet rocks in the beds of rivers among the lower hills,
and widely diffused through the island. This is the smallest of the
West Indian species, with narrow willow-like leaflets, the fertile fronds
smaller than the barren, with narrower pinne on rather longer stipites.
The plants are often submerged by the rising of the, rivers in wet
weather, and the matted roots are developed to hold their position in
the heavy drag of the rushing water on such occasions.

2. UM. serratum.—Cav.—Rootstock strong, decumbent, short-creeping;
stipites contiguous, erect, 2 - 3 ft. 1; channelled, naked, dark coloured
at the base, pale above; fronds chartace us, naked, or slightly ciliate
on the ribs and veins beneath, dark green, paler beneath, 2-4 ft, 1. 3-14 ft.
w., with a distinct terminal pinna and numerous more or less distinct
spreading or erecto-spreading lateral ones, which are 4 - 9 in. 1 #- 14
in. w., acuminate. serrate or creaate-serrate margined, the base plain
rounded or cuneate and stipitate, rachis and coste stramineous, the
former puberulous on the face; venation conspicuous on both sides,
areole narrow, numerous; sori sparse, becoming confluent and diffused
over the surface.

Common in swampy ground at low elevations: most plentiful in the
western parishes; more or less aquatic. A taller plant usually than
reticulatum, with more slender stems, and narrower pinne with uni-
formly serrated margins. The latter is its most reliable character.
The pinne often produce buds in the axils. The sori are less copious
in sporangia than in any of the other species, and it has a reddish tinge.

3. If. reticulatum, Swartz. — Rootstock stout, decumbent, short-creep-
ing; stipites tufted strong, erect, 14-3 ft.1, naked, brown or palecoloured ;
fronds 13-3 ft. 1. 1-14 ft. w. oblong-lanceolate, subcoriaceous, naked, or
beneath puberulous, and paler than above, rachis strong, naked, light
or dark brown; pinne numerous spreading, 2-3 in. apart, oblique, the
lower ones largest, gradually reduced upwards to the similar free ter-
minal one,, the former 5-10in. |. 1-21 in. w., broadest at the base, which
is rounded and stipitate or sessile, thence tapering outwards to the
acuminate point; margins entire or slightly crenate; venation con-
Spicuous, areole very numerous; sori copious, confluent or nearly so.
Pl. Fil. t. 110. Polypodium, Linn.

Common in moist, generally open, or little shaded situations at low

elevations. A strong robust species, with about 10-15 pinne to a side

which are generally large and broad at the base, from whence they

202

taper outwards to the acuminate point. The fertile fronds are taller
and on longer stipites than the sterile.
Genus XXVII. GymnocrammgE, Desy.

Sori oblong, linear-oblong or linear, situated on the back of the veins,
superficial or somewhat immersed; veins free or united; fronds rang-
ing from simple to decompound, naked, ciliate. or coated beneath with
white or yellow powder.

This isa genus of rather considerable extent, in which very dis-
similar plants are associated by the common character of superficial or
immersed naked elongated sori. In the form and arrangement of the
soriit resembles Asplenium, of which in this division it may be
regarded the anologue, differing by the absence of involucres. The
farinose section is remarkable for a fecundity equalled by very few
other plants in the family. The species are about equally divided
between the old and the new World and are chiefly tropical. They
occupy banks and usually open, generally fully exposed, situations, and
are represented abundantly from the lowest to the highest elevations.

Fronds flabellato-digitate.— 1. G. pumila.
Fronds simply pinnate.— 2. G. rufa.
Fronds bipinnatifid — 3. G. gracilis.
4. G. consimilis.
5. G. diplazoides.
Fronds decompound.— 6. G. cherophylla.
7. G. schizophylla.
Fronds coated with powder beneath.—
Pinne trifoliate.— 8
Fronds decompound,— 9
10
int

. G. trifoliata.
G. tartarea.

. G, triangulata.

. G. calomelanos.
12. G. sulphurea.

1. G. pumila, Spreng.—Rootstock filiform, erect, clothed with hair-
like reticulated ciliate-edged brown scales ; fronds membranous, glossy,
naked, green, tufted, few, v-shaped or. flabellate-cuneate, occasionally
linear-cuneate, 4-14 in. 1. 1-6 li. w. at the apex, the lateral margins en-
tire, the outer jagged or deeply incised, often into narrow spreading
sharp-pointed segments and gradually attenuated downwards to a slen-
der filamentose base with hardly any clear stipites; veins close, flabel-
late, dichotomously forked; sori linear, becoming confluent laterally,
forming one or more broadish patches on the more entire portion of the
outer parts of the fronds. Hook. 2nd Cent. Ferns t. 8. Hecistopteris,
J. Smith.

var. a4.—Fronds shorter and broader and deeply cut into spreading
linear segments, which divaricate like stag’s horns.

Communal, forming large or small patches in moss on the trunks of
trees; gathered by March, whose specimens are at Kew. It varies
greatly in shape and degree of cutting from linear with two or three
sharp segments or teeth at the apex, to broadly palmate flabellate and
multifidly cut to the base. The lines of sori are at first separate but
ultimately unite laterally, forming apparently amorphous patches; but
in var. a there are only one or two lines to each narrow segment.

2. G. rufa, Desv.—Rootstock fibrous, upright ; stipites tufted, erect,
chestnut brown, polished, rusty villose, 4-10 in. L; fronds pinnate, thin

203

and rather soft, surfaces slightly pubescent, under paler than the upper,
oblong-lanceolate, 1-1} ft. 1. 4-5 in. w.; rachis like stipes, but less vil-
lose ; pinne entire, spreading horizontally, oblong-lanceolate, subdistant,
stipitate, and articulated at the top of the pedicels, 1-24 in. 1. 4-1 in. w.
rounded or subcordate at the base, shortly acuminate, 6-9 to a side with
a similar terminal one, the lowest pair not or very little smaller, midrib
slender ; veins close, much curved, in fascicles, two or three times
forked, fine, terminating within the even margin; sori copious, linear
on the veins, extending usually from the midrib to near the edge.
Acrostichum, Sw., Neurogramme, Link. G. acuminata, KIf.

Common on dry banks below 2,000 ft. altitude; especially abundant
about Hope and Gordon Town; well marked by the simply pinnate
habit and the copious rusty pubescence. The stipites and rachises,
though not slender, are very fragile. ‘hey stand dead around the live
fronds, spurred at intervals with the short pedicels of the pinne which
have all dropped away. The latter are about 10-15 to aside. The
upper ones are very little reduced, passing abruptly into the larger free
terminal segment.

3. G. gracilis, Heward.—Rootstock erect or oblique, scaly; stipites
cespitose, short, scaly; fronds bipinnatifid, chartaceous or subcoria-
ceous, slightly ciliate, oblong-lanceolate, usually spreading or pendent,
2-4 ft. 1. 3-14 ft. w., acuminate, the base gradually reduced; rachis
rather slender, light brown, channelled, more or less ciliate or pube-
scent, as are the costz; pinne spreading, sessile, very numerous, con-
tiguous above, below subdistant or distant and dwindling nearly to the
base of the petioles into very minute segments, central ones 5-10 in. 1.
1-1? in. w., very acuminate, pinnatifid nearly to the costz; segments
linear oblong, straight or falcate, blunt, close, or in the larger states
with a rounded sinus between, less than 4—1 in. |. 14-2 li. w.; veins
oblique, 10—16 to a side ; sori close to the margins, the edges of which
are entire and often reflexed —Polypodium Hewardit, Gr.

Very abundant on banks at 4,000-6,000 ft. alt. The stipites usually
are only 1 - 3 in. |. below the dwindling segment-like pinne. The sori
are short, and so near the margins that the reflexed edges partially cover
them. The lowest pair of opposite veins enter above the sinus. This
and the two following have quite the habit and aspect of common
bipinnatifid Nephrodia.

4. G. consimilis, Fée—Rootstock short, erect, scaly; stipites
cespitose, very short (1-3 in. 1.) brown or darked coloured,
scaly, fronds bipinnatifid, chartaceous, pubescent, dull green, lan-
ceolate, or ovate lanceolate, acuminate, gradually reduced at the
base, 2 - 3 ft. 1.8 - 12 in. w., spreading or prostrate; pinne spread-
ing, oblique, apart, the lower ones, which dwindle at the base
to ;mere segments, usually distant, 4-6 im. 1. ?-1 in. w. sessile,
very acuminate, cut almost to the costz into blunt or acute, straight or
subfalcate narrow segments, 4rd - 4 in. 1. 14 1. b., the bases very slightly
dilated, with an acute or rounded sinus between ; rachis slender, chan-
nelled, brown, pubescent; veins oblique, 9 - 12 to a side; sori medial,
a little short of both midrib and margins.

Common in the parishes of St. Mary and St. Andrew, in woods or
shady places, near, or not distant from, the banks of rivers, at 500-
1,000 ft. altitude. This differs from the preceding and following species

q

204

‘by its medial sori and more pubescent surfaces. It is smaller and often
relatively broader than gracitts, of a duller colour, and with longer sori.
The margins are not, as a rule, reflexed, and the lowest pair of opposite
veins enter them above the sinus.

5. G. diplazioides, Desy.—Rootstock erect, scaly ; s‘ipites caespitose,
erect, 6-12 in. 1, brown, dark-coloured at the base with a few
deciduous scales: fronds bipinnatifid, chariaceous, pellucid, nearly
glabrous, clear green, paler beneath, erect, lanceolate, 2-3 ft. 1. 6-9 in.
w. acuminate, reduced at the base; rachis brown, channelled, puberulous
on the face ; pinne spreading, distant or subdistant, 3-44 in. l. ¢ in. w.
sessile and usually broadest at the base, the apex entire and more acute
than acuminate, cut down about #ths to the cost into flat broadish
blunt or rounded segments which are widest at the base, and 2 li. b.,
the lowest pair usually enlarged, veins 6-9 to a side, the lower ones
often forked, the opposite basal pair entering the sinus; sori nearer the
the margin than midrib, linear on the lower veins and double when they
are forked.—Phegopteris Duchassagniana, Fée. Fil. Ant. t. 14 fig. 3.

Frequent by the open way side ia the in the neighbourhood of
second-breakfast spring, near Mount Moses, St. Andrew at 2,000-3,000
ft. altitude. This differs from the other two species by its erect habit ;
longer stipites, few reduced pinne at the base, which, too, are not so
small, clear coloured and nearly naked surfaces, less deeply pinnatifid
and acuminate pinne, broader segments, the lowest pair usually enlarg-
ed, fewer and more open veins, the lowest pair of which meet at the
sinus and are often forked, with invariably longer sori than those above.
The sori show prominently on the clear pale under surface.

6. G. cherophylia, Desv.—Rootstock short, fibrous, upright ; stipites
tufted, few or many, erect, 4-6 in. 1., slender, the base chestnut-brown,
above this green, naked; fronds subdeltoid, membrano-herbaceous,
naked, dark-green above, 3-4 in. each way, tri-quadri-pianate; lowest
pair pinne largest, and rather distant from the next above, all, erecto-
spreading and freely petiolate; pinnule also stipitate; tertiary seg-
ments flabellate-cuneate, 14-24 li. b., once or twice cut to the base into
similar segments, the outer margin freely toothed ; rachis and coste flat
and margined, slender, green; veins dichotomously forked, flabellate,
terminating in the final teeth, which are a } li. w.; sori copious, linear,
occupying all the veins their entire length, and confluent or nearly so
laterally, pale or brown coloured. Pl. Fil. t. 50, C. Hooker and Grev.
Icon. t. 45. G. lestophylia, Bat. Anogramme, Lk.

Frequent at 4,000-5,000 ft. alt. on damp banks, rocks and waysides
and generally plentiful where found. This is a tender herbaceous plant,
of great fecundity, but short individual duration, and hence regarded as
an annual. It is most abundantly soriferous, the underside being covered
with the contizuous almost confluent lines of pale brown sporangia.
The lowest pair of pionz are often so much larger and distant from the
others that the fronds in these instances appear trifoliate. 3

7. G. schizophylla, Baker.—Rootstock fibrous, erect or oblique ; sti-
pites tufted, slender, erect, early farinose, dark chestnut-brown, polished,
1-3 in. 1; fronds membrano-herbaceous, naked, bright green, lanceolate
or oblong-lanceolate, 4-1 or 14 ft. 1. 2-3 or 5 in. w. tri-quadri-pinnate ;
rachis slender, channelled, castaneous, polished, generally producing a
farinose but, and often forked near the apex; pinne numerous, conti-

205

guous spreading, 14-3 in. 1. $-1 in. or over w. lower ones usually re-
duced; pinnule very freely and deeply cut, ultimately into delicate-.
spreading 2-fid-cuneate segments with narrow emarginate linear divi-
sions 24-4 li. w., cost filiform and brown at the base, the outer part
flat, margined and green, as are the ribs of the other divisions; veins
pellucid, forked, simple in the final segments ; sori copious, medial, one
to each segment. Hook. Icon. t. 1682. ;

Infrequent at 4,000—4,500 ft. altitude on open or shady stony ground;
rediscovered in 1875 at Old England, St. David, where it was collected
in 1853 by Miss Taylor, whose collection was not examined however
till 30 years later. It is found also in parts of the Government Cin-
chona Plantation. This is the most finely cut species of all. The
fronds resmble very much the pinnule of Davallia fumarioides. They
sometimes extend considerably by the bud which is produced near
the top.

8. @ trifoliata, Desv.—Rootstock fibrous, scaly, erect or oblique;
stipites tufted, stiff, erect, 9-18 in. 1., blackish, polished, faintly chan-
nelled, fibrillose at the base; fronds 2-4 ft. 1, 4-6 in. w., erect, firm
or subcoriaceous, naked and dark bright green above, beneath coated
with yellow farina ; rachis stiff, coloured like the stipites, slightly scaly
and farinose at first, ultimately naked; pinne numerous, distant, peti-
olate, digitate composed of 1-3 spreading linear, acuminate, pinnule,
which are 3-4 in. 1. and } in. w., those of the lower pinnz usually
barren, of the upper fertile, each with a prominent raised costa be-
neath; the edge very finely crenate-serrate; veins fine, curved, close,
dichotomously forked ; sori linear, confluent.—Pl. Fil. t. 144. Hooker
Gard. Ferns t. 4.

Common, gregarious in open marshy places below 2,500 ft. alt;
generally by the sides of permanent trickling streams. The upper
pinne are simple, the next below 2-foliate, those below these, which are
the large majority, 3-foliate, the central pinnule in each pinne being
the largest. The veinsare so close that the sori quite cover the surface.
It is a stiffly erect, tall and robust species, that forms generally large
communities, often crowded together from the plants which have grown
from viviparous buds produced on the roots.

9. G. tartarea, Desv..—Rootstock fibrous, densely scaly, erect or ob-
lique ; stipites czespitose, usually spreading, strong, 4 - 14 ft. 1, casta-
neous or blackish, polished, channelled, deciduously scaly at the base ;
fronds 1 - 23 ft. 1.4 - 14 ft. w., subcoriaceous, naked and dark green
above, beneath densely coated with white powder, usually widest at the
base, varying from lanceolate to ovate-acuminate, bi-tripinnate ; pmne
numerous, spreading or erecto-spreading, more or less distant below,
sessile, or the lower ones stipitate, lanceolate-acuminate, 3 - 9 in. L 3 -
23 in. w.; pinnul contiguous or apart, oblong, acute or rounded, adnate
to the costz or the inferior ones free, entire, auricled at the base, or more
or less lobed or pinnatifid, + - 14 in. 1. 14 - 6 li. w., the margins entire
and rather reflexed ; rachis strong, channelled, polished and coloured.
like the stipites; veins 1 - 3 times forked, sori copious, confluent and
often covering the surface.—G. dealbata, Link. Hemionitis, Willd.
Acrostichum, Swartz.

Abundant in open places. banks and dry woods from 2,000-6,000 ff.
alt.; very variable in size and cutting. The normal state is nearly

206

simply bipinnate, and a larger fully tripinnate state is found at the
higher altitudes. The powder is asa rule very white, but there is a
beautiful golden statein Dominica.

G. ornithopteris, Kl. also gathered in Jamaica, is more rigid than the
type, the pinnz resembling pinnule of Pteris aquilina, the edges of the
segments revolute. This is a much stiffer plant than calomelanos, of
spreading (not erect) habit, with less cut broader more obtuse seg-
ments and whiter powder. They occupy, too, separate zones in altitude.

10. G triangulata, Jenm.—Stipites tufted from an erect fibrous
sealy rootstock, slender, 1-1} ft. 1, very dark, polished, deciduously
scaly at the base; rachis slender like-coloured, channelled; fronds
tripinnatifid ovate-deltoid, acuminate, broadest at the base, spreading,
$-14 ft. 14-1 ft. w., firm, chartaceous, upper surface bright clear
green, under sparingly coated with white powder; pinne spreading,
petiolate, the lowest pair largest and rather deeper on the under side,
4-6 in. 1. 13-2 in. w., lanceolate-acuminate; pinnule oblong, broadly
rounded at the lobed or subentire apex, $-1 in. 1. -}rd in w. uniformly
pinnatifid, final segments apart, short, rather ovate or rounded
narrowed or cuneate at the base; 1-14 li b. and d. outer edge entire or
dentate ; veins pellucid, dichotomously forked, flabellate; sori linear,
confluent.

Infrequent at 4,000 ft. attitude; gathered at Moody’s Gap, St.
Andrew. A broader less coriaceous and more freely cut plant than
tartarea, to which it is more closely allied than to calomelanos, with
the final segments not broadly adnate as in that species, but narrowed
or more or less free at the base. Itis uniformly tripinnatifid, and
shows hardly any variation in its features. Of the three silver species
it is much the prettiest. All the vascular parts are relatively slender,
the lower pinne are subdistant and the upper ones are not close, and
generally the fronds narrow directly from the base upwards. The
slender cost are rather flexuose, and flat and margined in the outer
part. The rachis, too, is often to the same slight degree flexuose, at
the top. It differs from G. peruviana, which species it most nearly
approaches by being more lax in habit, and having no powder on the
upper surface. No goldea form has yet been found but should it
would be the most lovely of all golden ferns.

1l. G. ealomelanos, Kaulf.—Rootstock fibrous, scaly, erect; stipites
densely tufted, erect, polished, blackish, or dark castaneous, with a few
deciduous scales at the base, 1-2 ft. 1; fronds erect 1-2 ft. 1 4-1 ft. w.
lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, chartaceous, naked and dark
glossy green above, beneath white or grayish with copious farina; bi-
tripinnatifid ; rachis channelled, polished and coloured-like the stipites ;
pinne numerous, erecto-spreading, more or less distant below, petiolate,
lanceolate-acuminate, 3-6 in. |. 1-2 in. b., pinnule contiguous or sub-
distant sessile and cuneate, acute-pointed or sometimes acuminate,
varying from oblong to linear-lanceolate, simply toothed or deeply
pinnatifid in the lower two-thirds, the outer part entire, 4-1} in. L, 2-4
li. w., lobes acute, the lowest largest; veins close, curved, once or twice
forked; sori linear, confluent, covering the whole surface at maturity-
Pl. Fil. t. 40.

var. a. G. Wartensti, Bory.—Fronds bipinnate ; pinnule ovate-oblong,

207

-entire or the inferior lobed on one or both sides at the base; powder

pale yellow.

var b. G. chrysophylla, Kaulf.— Fronds uniformly tripinnate ; stipi-
tate and rachises castaneous ; powder deep yellow. PI. Fil. t. 44.

Abundant in the lowlands and among the lower hills throughout the
island, on open banks and exposed rocky places fully open to the sun;
a very hardy plant, found from the wettest districts to the arid plains
of Liguanea. Distinguished from its allies by the erect habit, sharp-
pointed segments, and more herbaceous texture. a is usually smaller
than the type, and reaches a higher mountain elevation. This and 5
are abundant at the old mines near Hope and Gordon Town. The
latter is as large as the type.

12. G. sulphurea, Desv.—Stipites densely tufted from a fibrous erect
or oblique rootstock, slender, castaneous, glossy, 24 in. |.; fronds
spreading, lanceolate, or the larger ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, herba-
ceous, upperside naked and bright green, under densely covered with
yellow powder; 4-1} ft. 1. 3-6 in. w., bi-tripinnatifid, somewhat re-
duced at the base, the rachis slender, castaneous, polished; pinnae
spreading or erecto-spreading, distant below, nearly sessile, lanceolate,
14-4 in. 1 4-1 in w.; pinnule $-4 in. |. 2-4 li. w., ovate-oblong, blunt
or rounded and dentate at the apex, widest at the base, lobed or pin-
natifid; tertiary segments ovate-oblong or the lower flabellate-cuneate,
1-2 li. w. and d., dentate or inciso-dentate, the teeth retuse; veins
forked, very oblique, pinnate in the pinnulae: sori oblong often con-
fluent. —Pl. Fil. t. 48. B.

a. G. Wileont, J. Sm.—Fronds 3-5 in. 1. 3-1} in. w. short-petioled;
rachis margined in the upper part; pinnae and segments close, some-
what crispate, freely soriferous, powder not copious.

Frequent on damp banks and under the shade of rocks from the
lowlands up to 4,500 ft. alti.; a much more delicate and slender plant
than any of the yellow states of calomelanos, with shorter sori, obtuse
lobes, and deeper coloured powder. Of the small variety, G. Weilsoni,
J. Smith, there are specimens both in the Kew and British Museum
Herbaria collected by Wilson “near Arntully Gap, St. David,” and I
have gathered it myself at several places above 3,000 ft. alt. It is often
nearly devoid of powder, more leafy and deeply incised, with sharper and
more emarginate teeth than the type. Wilson says it does not grow
larger than his specimens, which are, 3 - 4 in. l.and an inch or less wide.
It varies, however, in size and my specimens exceed his, but it is never

large.

Genus XXVIII. Enrerosora, Baker.

Sori linear-oblong. immersed on the veins, within slits of the paren-
chyma of equal length, which at first quite enclose it with connivent
edges but are subsequently open, forming one or two irregular series on
each side of the midrib, directed obliquely to the margin; veins forked,
oblique, the branches more or less uniting at the margin ; fronds simple.

A remarkable monotypic genus, that differs from the rest of this
group, and might therefore be included in the next, in having the sort
enclosed within the parenchyma in slit-like cavities of the cuticle, so
that when young, as seen held up to the light it seems to be quite inside
the frond.

208

E. Campbellii, Baker.—Rootstock as thick as a quill or less, short or
elongated, fibrous below, the apex freely clothed with small brown
reticulated scales; stipites tufted, 3-5 in. 1. wiry, dark brown, sparsely
clothed with spreading brown hairs, articulated and clavate at the base ;.
fronds linear-oblong, or oblanceolate, 3-6 in. 1. 3-1 in. w. coriaceous,
pellucid, slightly ciliate at first, chiefly on the margins, at length glab-
rous; apex obtuse, the sides even sinuate or lobate; midrib and veins
concealed in the parenchyma, the latter very oblique, branched, the ends
united within the margin; sori 1-1} li. 1. oblique in 1-2 series chiefly
in the upper half or two-thirds of the frond, immersed in slit-like cavi-
ties, the edges of which at length open and abundantly reveal the
ruddy erupting sporangia. Baker in Trans. Linn. Soc. Ser. 2. Bot.
vol. II, p. 294, Pl. 55. #. Fawcettii, Jenm. in Gard. Chron. 20th
Aug., 1895.

Rare on the tops of high trees in the forests where Lelia monophylla
grows, Rose Hill and Green Hill Wood, St. Andrew Parish. The
species was first gathered on Roraima, British Guiana in 1884 and in
Jamaica three years later. Better Jamaica material gathered recently
(1895) show that the plants from the two countries are the same, only
differing, partly, in vestiture and size. The fronds are occasionally
forked apically or laterally or both, and possess a very close general
resemblance to Polypodium trifurcatum, Linn. with which it grows at
Roraima, and for which indeed it was mistaken when first gathered.
The sori are sometimes on the free veins enclosed in the areolae of the
connecting branches and again on the latter.

Genus XXIX Hemionitis, Linn.

Sori in continuous, forked or reticulated lines, superficial on the
veins, the entire ramification of which is sporangiferous; veins
anastomosing, little or much reticulated; fronds entire palmate or
pinnate.

Hemionitis differs from Gymnogramme by the sori being continuous
and more or less reticulated and coextensive with the venation. It is
a small tropical genus, of less than a dozen species, half of which belong
to the New World; and the rest to India, Java and Fiji. The
plants are relatively of small size or stature, and grow in open situations
on banks or rocks.

Fronds palmate.— 1. H. palmata.
Fronds pinnate.— 2. H. pinnata.

1. H. palimata, Linn.—Rootstock erect, fibrous, rather slender,
clothed with narrow tawny scales ; stipites tufted, erect, 4-1 ft. 1. dark
and rather glossy, deciduously villose, scaly at the base; fronds mem-
brano-herbaceous, densely pellucid dotted, dark green, tawny-villose ;
palmatitid, 3-5 inches each way, composed of 5 acute diverging nearly
equal divisions, that are 4-14 in. w. 1-24 in. |. entire or cut into broad
rounded appressed shallow lobes; veins copiously reticulated ; sori
occupying the entire venation, forming copious elevated areolx, which
gradually diminish outwards to the margins; barren fronds prostrate,
smaller, often only tripartite, with rounded lobes viviparous in the
sinuses, or much shorter slender stipites.—PI. Fil. t. 1651. 81. Herb. p.
45. Hook Fil. Exot. t. 53.

Common on open exposed banks below 2,000 ft. attitude. Welk

209

marked by the pedate-palmate form of the fronds and copiously re-
ticulated venation and elevated sori. Though the stipites are stiff they
are fragile, and easily broken by wind or other pressure. Occasionally the
fertile fronds, too, produce buds in the axils of their divisions. The
plants vary much in size, and on dry banks may be gathered down to
an inch in diameter of leaf. In these small fronds the basal divisions.
are shorter than the others. It is known locally by the name of
“ Strawberry-fern.”

2. H. pinnata, J. Smith.—Stipites tufted from a small erect rootstock,
6-9 in. 1. erect castaneous, glossy rusty-pubescent, rachis similar; fronds
erect, 5-8 in. 1. 8-5 in. w. membrano-herbaceous, densely pellucid dotted,
dark green, tawny-pubescent, the terminal segment subentire lobed or
pinnatifid, below this 3-5 pair of spreading distant pinne, the lowest
pair of which are largest, and }-} in. w. 2-3 in, 1, the point acute or
bluntish, the base free and slightly stipitate, once lobed or forked on the
under side, those above simple, oblong-lanceolate, adnate at the base, the
upper ones broadly so, margins subentire, or cut into broad shallow
appressed lobes; veins repeatedly forked, the branches close, curved,
partly free and partly anastomosing; sori thin, following the venation.

Infrequent on grassy banks near Hope and above Dublin Castle near
Gordon Town; first discovered in the same district at the beginning
of the century by Wiles. This has somethiug of the aspect of Gymmo-
gramme rufa, which also is plentiful in the same region, but the few
distant, mostly adnate, pinne, the lowest pair forked, pinnatifid upper
part and narrow oblicue areole of the venation are characters which
at a glimpse distinguish it.

Genus XXX. Anetium, Sprite.

Sori thinly scattered on the veins, but sparingly diffused as well on
the surface between, sometimes in small groups or larger amorphous
patches; fronds simple; venation copiously reticulated. ;

A monotypic genus, with affinity to two or three generally accepted
genera, but presenting in each case sufficient dissimilarity to prevent
its association therewith and warrant a separate recognition. The
texture, venation, habit and, to some extent, aspect show a near natural
alliance with Antrophyum, from which the more diffused sori distin-
guishes it.

1. A. citrifolium, Splitg.—Rootstock fleshy, free-creeping, clothed
with much attenuated narrow reticulated distantly toothed scales ; stipites
scattered, from hardly any clear to 3 in. 1. or more, dark coloured ; fronds
entire membrano-herbaceous, densely pellucid-dotted; light green ;
oblong-lanceolate, pendent variable, in size, + 14 ft. 1. 1 - 341i. w.,
obtuse acute or shortly acuminate, the base gradually tapering and
decurrent on the petioles; costa prominent below, but evanescent at.
the apex; veins reticulated, areolz copious, very oblique; sori sparse
much diffused,sporangia minute.—PIl. Fil. t. 116.
- es Linn, Antrophyum, Fee, Hemionitis, Hooker and

aker.

Infrequent on trees in damp forests of the eastern parishes below 2,000
ft. alt. variable in size; the larger fronds occasionally 3 ft. 1. andétrd
ft. w. and sometimes broadly furcate, or the upper part curiously cut
into sharp, shortly extended lobes. While fresh the leaves are fleshy,
but in drying become membranous.

210

Genus XXXIJI, AntRopHyum, Kavu er.

Sori in zigzag, reticulated, or straight lines, situated on the veins,
oblique to or parallel with the margins and costa, superficial or sunk in
shallow grooves; veins reticulated ; fronds entire. A small strictly tropi-
eal genus, numbering about a score of species, which are widely diffused.
About a fourth of the number are American. These have narrow linear
or lanceolate leaves, of a dull cloudy colour, which grow a few together
or in dense patches on treesand rocks. They are found only in very
humid regions, and under prolonged drought shrivel up. The rootstocks
are fleshy but slender, and the roots are densely tomentose and form a
sponge-like mass very retentive of water.

Sori immersed in parallel longitudinal furrows.—1. A. lineatum.

Sori superficial in angular areol or zigzag lines —

Fronds under 1 inch wide.— 2. A. lanceolatum
Fronds over 1 inch wide.— 3. A, subsessile.

1. A. lineatum, Kaulf —Rootstock repent short or elongated, clothed
with acuminate clear reticulated scales; stipites few or several, more or
less clustered, an inch or two long, or less, passing insensibly into the
frond ; fronds 4-1 ft. 1. 4-4 in. w. firm, densely pellucid-dotted, dull
cloudy green, linear-ligulate, tapering at both ends, long acuminate,
margins even; costa concealed on the upper side, but evident beneath ;
veins forming narrow much-elongated areole running parallel with the
costa and margins; sori sunk in two or three equidistant parallel longi-
tudinal grooves between the costa and margins, continuous, or only the
outer ones interrupted. Vittaria lanceolata, Sw. Polytenium, Desv.

Plentiful in very damp forests in the middle and upper mountain
regions, reaching 6,000 ft alt.; an abnormal species. With Aitrophyum
it agrees entirely in texture aspect and habit, but in all other characters
is more allied to Vittaria, to which Swartz ascribed it, and from which
in fact it only differs technically in the lines of sori and areole being
multiserial.

2. A. lanceolatum, Kaulf.—Rootstock short-creeping, densely tomen-
tose, clothed with small linear-acuminate dark brown, reticulated scales ;
fronds firm, densely pellucid-dotted, a dull cloudy green, contiguous,
linear-lanceolate, long-tapering both ways, below quite to the base, of
the stipites, 4-14 ft. ].4-Zths in. w. the margins even or rather irregular,
the costa strong and raised beneath at the base in the larger fronds,
slender or vein-like at the apex; veins reticulated, areole chiefl
oblong, the inner line narrow much elongated, and parallel with the
costa as is also the next series, the outer ones oblique, falling short of
the edge; sori linear, parallel with or oblique to the costa.

On trees, forming spreading patches, below 2,000 ft. altitude. In
the narrower fronds the areole are only 2 serial, and run parallel
with the midrib and margins; when broader the outer meshes are
oblique.

3. A. subsessile, Kze,—Rootstock repent, short or elongated, clothed
with brown reticulated even-edged scales; stipites hardly distinct, or
reaching 1} in. 1.; fronds firm, pellucid-dotted dull green above, pale
beneath, erect or subpendent, subtufted, few or several, 4-1 ft. 1. 1-3
in. w., oblong-lanceolate or oblanceolate, the apex acute obtuse or
rounded, tapering in the lower half to the winged base; the margins

thin, even or irregular; costa raised in the lower part and flat on both

211

sides; veins freely reticulated, falling short of the margins; areole
copious, oblong, oblique; sori linear the lines curved, zigzag, or
reticulated, quite superficial.

Infrequent on the sides of large stones and rocks in wet forests at
6,000 ft. altitude; first gathered ina disintegrated gully above the
Portland road, not far from the Government Cinchona Plantations,
where a good many plants then existed. It varies in size: the
Jamaica specimens are mostly small, under 6 in |. and an inch wide,
but occasionally much larger; in Guiana it is 8-12 in. |. and 2-3 in. w.
It has broader fronds than any of the other species, broadest above the
centre, becoming thus oblanceolate or spathulato-lanceolate, with short
winged stipites.

Tre XII Virrarira.

Fronds entire, rarely forked, or pinnate, linear, ligulate or ensiform,
tufted or scattered ; veins copiously reticulated, transversely connected,
or quite free, in some cases quite absent; sori linear, costal or sub-
marginal, running parallel with the margins. continuous or casually
interrupted, sunk in a groove or slit or superficial; sporangia stipitate,
with an incomplete vertical jointed ring, splitting transversely when
mature : receptacles special or not.

This is a small tribe, which is difficult to place with satisfaction as
it possesses no very obvious affinity. In some cases the sori are more
or less embraced before maturity by the recurved margins of the fronds
or connivent sides of the furrows, and this feature, together with the
linear and transverse or longitudinal character of the sori, gives it
some claim to follow Pteridee and Blechnee, from which however the
entire absence of special involucres removes it under this arrangement.
The three genera which comprise it consist of a few grass or ribbon-
like fronded species, which are chiefly epiphytal on trees or rocks.
They are spread through the torrid belt, quite round the world, being
about equally divided between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

Genus XXXII. Monocramma, Scux.

Fronds small, linear, simple or forked: devoid of veins or with short
simple or forked costal branches; sori linear, sunk in a longitudinal
cleft down the back of the costa or superficial on both sides of it, the
two lines becoming confluent laterally.

About a dozen species form this genus which in their vascular parts
are among the simplest of all ferns. They are small epiphytal grass-
like plants, mostly tropical in their range, through which regions they
are widely but not very generally diffused. About half the number are
West Indian and American. The individuals, locally, grow alone or
in communities and are infrequent or rare.

Fronds with a midrib only, and no lateral
veins.— 1. M. graminoides.

Fronds with simple or forked lateral veins— 2. M. minor.

3. M. seminuda.
4. M. immersa.

1. UM. graminoides, Baker.—Rootstock slender, cylindrical, erect,
clothed with small brown scales, fronds tufted, simple, or casually
forked at the top, narrowed to the base of the filiform margined stipites,
1-2 or more in. |. about 4 li. w., herbaceo-coriaceous and stiffish, bright
green, naked; midrib distinct raised on the upper side, but with no

212

lateral veinlets ; sori oblong or linear-oblong superficial on the back or
sides of the midrib, confined to the upper part of the frond, where the
edges are often folded or recurved, the margin below this part flat.
HM. furcata, Desv. Hook. Pleurogramme graminoides, Fée. Grammitis,
Swartz. Cochlidium, KI.

On trees; apparently rare, as modern collectors have not gathered it.
It was collected first by Swartz, “on trees in the highest mountains,”
Grisebach says, and subsequently by Wiles, both of whose specimens
are in the old collections of the British Museum Herbarium. J. Smith’s
ferns, there also, include specimens marked from “ Wiles ex herb. Lam-
bert, 1843.” A very slender species, marked by the absence of lateral
veinlets, and many of the fronds being furcated.

2. M. minor, Jenm.—Rootstock filiform, erect minutely scaly ; fronds
tufted 3-14 in. 1, about 1 li. w., in the broader upper part, the apex
blunt, tapering gradually in the lower half or more to the base of the
hardly distinct dark coloured yery slender stipites, firm or coriaceous,
pellucid, naked, bright green; midrib filiform, distinct flexuose, covered
by the parenchyma, raised on the upper side ; dark-coloured beneath to-
ward the base; veins simple very oblique, open, not reaching the mar-
gins; sori linear or interrupted, confined to the upper half or third of
the frond but not reaching the top, biserial in the groove-like depres-
sions along, and close to, the midrib, which the lines at length quite
cover, becoming confluent laterally and superficial.

Infrequent but communal on rocky banks scattered in beds of moss ;
gathered in the forest adjoining Murray’s Flat near Mount Moses, St.
Andrew at between 2,000 and 3,000 ft. altitude, It is clearly very
rare, but might easily be overlooked under the conditions in which I
found it. There are from six to a dozen leaves to each plant, which
spread and curve upwards acquiring thereby a falcate form, giving each
other plenty of room. They are broadest in the upper half or toward
the top, and thence rather long-tapering to the base, the narrow wings
reaching to the bottom of the slender purple stems. The venation is
quite distinct and evident, though immersed.

3. I. seminuda, Baker.—Rootstock erect, slender, cylindrical, fibrous,
the apex clothed with narrow light brownscales; stipites tufted, slender,
dark coloured, 2 - 3 li. 1.; fronds linear, subcoriaceous, light or brown-
ish-green beneath, darker above, glabrous, 3 - 5in. 1. 2 li. w., the apex
obtuse, the base attenuated, casually furcate, the margins thin and more
or less even, midrib evident above, covered by the parenchyma; veins
close, oblique, simple or forked, terminating within the margin with
clavate apices; sori linear, in a groove, occupying about grds of the
frond, not reaching the apex or base, originating close to the midrib on
each side, the two rows at length confluent and covering it,
the margins of the groove sharp and sometimes replicate —M. gramini-

olia, Hook., Blechnum seminudum, Willd. Pleurogramme, linearis,
Presl. On trees growing singly in upright tufts or few plants near
together. It differs from immersa by the much less rigid, rather broader
and flatter, fronds, which are not so much thickened down the centre
the sori consequently being less deeply immersed. The colour, too, is a
lighter green, and brown beneath. It is many times larger than minor,
the fronds differently shaped, and with closer, less oblique, veins.
_ 4 MM. immersa, Fée.—Rootstock elongated, erect, freely clothed with

213

brown narrow acuminate scales, the base fibrous; fronds tufted, erect
or erecto-spreading, 3 - 6 in. 1. 14 li. w., coriaceous and rigid; rather
opaque, usually curved, linear, the apex blunt or acute, tapering at the
base to the short and hardly distinct stipites, when fertile much thick-
ened down to the centre and subtriquetrous, the margins even and fre-
quently folded together, glabrous, bright grass-green, midrib distinct
on the upper side, covered in the parenchyma; veins oblique, immersed,
both simple and forked, not reaching the margins; sori sunk in a deep
slit, down the back of the midrib, confined to the upper third half or
two thirds of the frond.

Infrequent on trees on the ridges and peaks at 6,000-7,000 ft. alt.
The fibrous portion of the rootstock gradually elongates in a cylindri-
cal form to, occasionally, three or four inches in length. The slit-like
groove which contains the sorus is at first closed with connivent edges,
but as the fronds mature the sides of the groove open, showing the dark-
brown linear sorus embraced by them. The texture is particularly rigid.

Genus XXXITI. Virraria, Suiru.

Sori linear, sunk in a marginal or intramarginal slit or groove, rarely
slightly impressed or superficial, continuous and parallel with the mar-
gins; veins simple, oblique, prolonged and connected by a transverse
anastomosis, which forms the receptacle; fronds entire, linear or
ligulate.

A small, almost strictly tropical, genus comprising about a score
of species, which are nearly equally divided between the Old and
New Worlds, reaching quite round the equatorial belt and possessing
considerable homogenity of form and habit, having mostly long pendent
fronds, linear or strap-shaped, which grow in tufts on the branches of
trees, or on rocks, in shady places or forests.

Fronds $ inch wide, or less.— 1. V. intramarginalis.
2. V. lineata.

Fronds $-} inch wide.— 3. V. stipitata.
4. V. remota.

1. V. intramarginalis, Baker.—Rootstock horizontal, very shortly
repent, densely clothed with hair-like reticulated serrated scales ; fronds
more or less tufted, few or many, the barren broader, rounded at the
top, linear-spathulate, fertile linear 2-6 in. 1. a line to $ in. w., narrowed
aud thickened toward the base, with no distinct unmargined petioles,
tapering and acute or acuminate at the apex, back rather rounded, with
a distinct narrow depression down the centre, dark green, under side
much paler, the margins thin ; sori sunk in continuous (or rarely, inter-
rupted) grooves, which fall short of both apex and base of the fronds;
veins distant forming long narrow costularareole. Journ. Bot. 1877, p.266.

On branches of trees overhanging Ginger River, St. Mary, and near
Bath, St. Thomas-in-the-East. A small plant, which much resembles
seedlings of the next species, from whieh it is readily distinguishable by
the distinct small barren fronds (not however present in full-grown
plants), less coriaceous and more pliant texture, pale under surface,
thin margins, and distinctly intramarginal open slits containing the
sori. There is no distinct midrib, the central vein being not stronger
than the lateral ones, with a line of narrow longitudinal areole on each
side of it. The groves are medial, open and rounded, with thin edges
when the fronds are dried and the surface wrinkled longitudinally.

214
i\CONTRIBUTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

LiprRary.

Tropical Agriculturist. June & July 1897.

Sugar Cane. July & August, 1897. [Editor.]

Sugar. June-Aug. 1897. [Editor.]

W.1. & Com. Advertiser. June-August, 1897. [Editor]

Chemist & Druggist. June-August, 1897. [Editor.]

Produce World. June-August, 1897. [Hditor.

British Trade Journal. June-August, 1897. [Editor.]

Field Exps. with Sugar Cane, Seasons 1893-95. [H. Edson.]
Diseases of Sugar Cane. By C. Barber. [Director, Kew. |

Scientific Researches into Agri. Imp. of Sugar Cane. [Author.]
Gardeners Chronicle. June-Aug., 1897.

Garden. June-1897.

Agr. Ledger, (India) 16, 16, 24-42 ; 1896. (Supt. Govt. Print. Calcutta. ]
Proc, Agri. Hort. Soc., Madras, Jan.—Mar., “97. [Secretary.]

Proc. Agri. Soc., Trinidad. [Secretary. ]

Agri. Gaz N. South Wales. Apr—June, 1897, [Dept. of Agri.]
Sugar Journal. (Queensland) May-July, 1897. bittor

Agri. Journ., Cape of G. Hope. May-July. [Dept of Agri.]

Revue Agricole, Apr.—June., 1897. [Hditor.]}

Central African Planter. Apr.—June 1897. [Kditor.]

Times of Ceylon. June-Aug., 1897. [Editor.]

Notes on Forests of Holland, Germany, Switzerland & France. [Author. ]
Companion Queensland Student of Plant Life. [Editor.]

Journ. Board of Agri. June 1897. [Secretary.]

Journ. R. Agri. & Com. Soc. of B. Guiana. June, 1897. [Editor.]
Agri. Journ. Queensland. July, 1897. ([Secretary.]

Report Dept. of Mines & Agri. N.S. Wales. 1895. [Secretary.]
Report Bot. Gardens, Grenada, 1896. [Curator.]

Anniversary Address R. Soc. N. S. Wales. May, 1897.

Report R. Bot. Gard., Ceylon, 1896. ([Director.]

Bulletin Dept. Land Rec. & Agri. [Director.]

Agri. Bulletin Malay Peninsula. June,1897. [Govt. Print. Office.]
Insect Pests Plant Diseases. [Oom. of Library of Leg. Ass. B. Columbia.]
Exp. Station Record, U.S. A., VIII. 8&9. [Director.]

Report U.S. Dept. of Agri. [Editor.]

Report on Exp. Farms. 1896. [Editor.]

Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club. June & July, 1897. [Editor.]

Bulletin U.S. Dept. of Agri. Farmers’ Bulletin. ti S. Dept. of Agri.]
Bulletin Agri. Exp. Station California. July 1897. [Director.]
Bulletin Central Exp Farm. Ottawa. June 1897, [Editor.]
Louisiana State Univ. Agri. & Mechanical College. 1896-97. [Supt.]
American Journ. of Pharm. July-September, 1897. [Editor.]
Forester. July-Sept., 1897. [Editor.]

Montreal Pharm. Journ. July & August, 1897.

Diseases & Insects of Citrus. [H.J. Webber.]

Peculiar Structures occurring in Pollen Tube of Zamia [H. J. Webber]
Bot. Gaz. June-Aug., 1897. [Editor.]

Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1896. [Secretary.]

Spontaneous Combustion of Molasses. [J. T. Crawley.]
Announcement Philadelphia Pharm. Coll, 1897. [Editor.]
Pro-American Acad. Arts &Science. June, 1897.

Hawaiian Planters’ Monthly. July & August, 1897. [Editor.]
Proefstation, Suiherriet, W. Jaya. 1897. ([Editor.]

Bole. R. Orto. Botanico, Palermo, 1897. [Editor.]

Sucrerie Indigene et Coloniale. July & August, 1897. [Editor.]
Bulletin L’ Herbier Boissier. June-August, 1897.

Bol. His. Natural E Ethnographia. May, 1897. ([Director.]

215

No. Eizblalt Kon. Bot. Gar. und. Mus, zu Berlin. June, 1897.
Bulletin Kolonial Museum, Haarlem, June & July, 1897. [Editor.]
Report Graaff Reinet Bot. Gardens. 1896.

Plantas Novas Cultivadas Jar. Bot. Rio de Janeiro. [Editor.]

SEEDs,

From Botanic Gardens, British Guiana.
Castilloa elastica.

From Botanic Gardens, Port Darwin.
Grevillea heliosperma.
Albizzia procera.

Mucuna gigantea.
Gossypium flayiflorum.
Livistonia Leichardtii.
Melaleuca symphiocarpa.
Petalostigma quadriloculare.
Dodonzea lanceolata.
Adansonia Gregorii.
Acacia holosericea,

Cassia occidentalis.
Convolvulus parviflorus.
Aeschynomene sensitiva.
Urena lobata.
Philhydrum lanuginosum.

From His Honour A. V. Lucie-Smith.
Pepper Tree.

Pine (Pinus).

From Royal Garcens, Kew.

Melhania Erythroxylon.

From Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Acacia pycnantha.

From W, Jekyll, Esq., Robertsfield.
Cineraria maritima candidissima.

From Mr. C. L. Hall, Hayti.
Leguminosa.

Botanical Station, British Honduras.
Baboon’s Cap. ”’

PLAnNtTs.

Prom Messrs. J. Veitch & Sons.
1 Aerides multiflorum (affine).
do. odoratum.
Cattleya labiata,
do. Dowiana.

do. Trianzi.

do. do. rosea.

do. Warneri.
Dendrobium barbatulum.

do. densiflorum.

do. Farmerii.

do. primulinum.
Oncidium ampliatum majus.

do. Kramerianum.,
Phalsenopsis amabilis.

do. grandiflora.

do. Sanderiana,

do. Schilleriana,

RE RE ee ee ee eee ee eee

216

1 Vanda Amesiana.
1 do. Bensoniz.

1 do. cerulea.

1 do. tricolor.

1 Dendrobium glomeratum.
1 do. subclausum.

1 Cypripedium Germinyanum.
1 do. Godseffianum.

1 Oncidium pulvinatum.

1 do. divaricatum.

1 do. phymatochilum.

1 Maxillaria Sanderiana.

1 Dendrobium crassinode.

1 Cypripedium Harrisianum,

From Messrs. F. Sander & Co., St. Albans, England.
Dipladenia speciosa.
Davalla hirta.
Watsonia Ardemei.
Mapania pandaneefolia.
Petunia Mrs. F. Sander.
Sander’s new variegated Canna.
Anthurium Bogotense.
Jocobinia coccinea,
Rosa polyantha Snowball.
Asystasia chelonoides alba.”
Pntapetes fascinator.
Caladium albanense.
C. speciosa.
C. venosa.
Rudbeckia laciniata fl. pl.
Salvia splendens grandiflora.
Deutzia Lemoinei.
Hemerocallis aurantiaca major.
Coleus Captain Holford.
Arundinaria sp,
Croton Hybrid.
Coleus Black Bedder.
tricolor undulata,
Mrs. F. Sander.
Gaiety.
egonia Duchess of Sutherland.
Lady Clare Annesley.
Decorator.
Empress.
Claudine Schmidtt.
Capt. Holford.
Lebrum.
Mrs. W. EHlpinstone
Confucius
Hatfield Gem.
Silver Grey
: White Collarette
Dendrobium Phalnopsis Schroderianum
formosum giganteum
D Dalhousieanum
Cattleya Gaskelliana

Rnb WOOS

From Mr. C, L. Hall, Hayti.
Corms of Irideze.

[Issued 26th October, 1897.]

New Series. | OCTOBER, NOVEMBER. , 1897. Vol. IV.
Parts 10, 1!.

BULLETIN

or THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

————_ —_ + -e-+—__ -

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONDE N TS:

Movements of Plants - - — Page 217
Analysis of Sugar Cane - - 227
Elementary Notes on Jamaica Plants - 232
Cabinet Woods: Market Report - 236
Rhythmic growth in Citrus — - 240
Ceara Rubber — = 242
Carob or Locust Bean Tree — - 243
Citric Acid - = 248
Ferns—Synoptical List : XLVIIT - 251
Contributions and Additions — = 256
Castleton Gardens — = 257

P RIC E-Sixpence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA:
GoveRNMENT Printine Orrice, 79 Duxe STREET.

1897.

JAMAIUA.
BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. IV.
Parts 10, 11.

THE MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS.

By Professor D. T. MacDoveat, M.A., M.S., Ph.D.
Lecture given at the Institute of Jamaica, June 19, 1897.

It is a matter of common custom to consider motion as a special charac
teristic of the animal kingdom, and when attention is called to the more
apparent movements of certain well known plants, it is with the accom-
panying idea that it is something novel, sensational and exceptional rather
than general, and that this property does not properly belong to plants.

It is pertinent to state, in the beginning of our discussion of the sub-
ject, that the power of movement is quite universally distributed among
plants and that but very few species may be found which do not exhibit
it in some form more or less easily observable.

Although the general purposes of the movements of plants and animals
are identical, yet the general structureand mode of life of the two series of
organisms is so unlike, that the greatest possible differences are to be found
between the general character of the movements of plants and animals,
with respect to duration, rapidity, amplitude and immediate purpose, as
well as in the structure of the organs concerned in the movement, and
the mechanism of the elements of which these organs are composed.

As a matter of fact the movements of animals and plants are so much
unlike, that specific comparisons would be wholly unprofitable. In
general however it is to be said that the power of locomotion or move:
ment from place to place is exhibited by the greater majority of animals
and by but very few plants; the movements of animals may be of great
amplitude, those of plants are quite limited in range; the movements
of animals may be so rapid as to elude the eye, while those of plants are
generally so slow that they may be detected only by repeated and accu
rate measurements.

The fundamental necessity for every organism whether plant or ani:
mal is the acquisition of a proper supply of food, and a secondary neces-
sity is the avoidance of danger, while the chief purpose of the organism
is reproduction or the preservation of the species. Movement is a very
important factor in the attainment of these objects, and the unlike
development of this power in plants and animals is due to the widely
dissimilar character and distribution of the food supply, and environ-

-mental factors eucountered by the two groups. Bil
In the consideration of this part of our subject, the time at our dispo-
sal will not permit us to pursue it to its utmost ramifications and we

_ may direct attention to a few of the more important points only.

The animal has developed in such manner that the high:r forms use
‘substances for food, which are not uniformly distributed throughout the

New Series.| OCTOBER, NOVEMBER, 1897.

218

soil, air and water, but occur in irregular masses. In order to acquire
these separate portions of food it was and is highly necessary that the
animal should be able to move from place to place, and should be able
to sustain this movement sufficiently to acquire the requisite number of
food-masses ; hence arose the necessity for the power of locomotion,
which also serves the animal as a means of protection from danger from
other animals, inclemencies of the climate, etc.

The emergence of the plant from an aquatic to a terrestrial habitat in an
early stage of its development was accompanied by several radical changes
in its physiological organization, and from a motile, or floating body it
acquired the habit of fixing itself firmly in the soil or other substatum.
The power of locomotion was not only useless but impossible in its new
location, and with its newly acquired rigid body, and hence it was lost.

The loss of the power of movement from place to place and the acquisi-
tion of the habit of fixation was due to the character of the food supply.

The food of plants consists of mineral salts derived chiefly from the
soil and carbon dioxide from the air.

The mineral elements and water are quite widely distributed through-
out the soil, and furthermore iu sufficient quantity to enable a plant to
meet its needs without moving from the place in which it began its
existence. It is but necessary that the roots should pierce the soil and
place the absorbing surfaces in contact with the solutions serving as
food. ‘The mineral food of the plant thus lies in the soil beneath it or
near it laterally, and the physical conditions prevalent make something
more necessary than a simple random penetration of the soil. In other
words it is necessary that the root tips should be guided as they bore
through the substratum. In order to guide or direct the growth of a
tip of a root, it is necessary that this tip should have the power of
movement or of changing the position of its axis. Thus it is of the
greatest importance that the primary root of a seedling should penetrate
the soil in a vertical direction and reach the moist particles at greater
or less distance beneath the surface. To accomplish this the primary
root should always grow downward no matter in what position it may be
placed at the time of the germination of the seed. In order to do this
the root has acquired the power of irritability to gravity which we term
geotropism. A geotropic root tends to place its axis parallel to the force
of gravity, that is with its point directed toward the centre of the earth.
The movement by which the plant accomplishes this may be very easily
demonstrated if a seedling with a root two or three inches in length is
placed in such position that the root isin a horizontal position ina
damp chamber. If examined an hour later it will be found that curva-
ture has taken place in a portion near the apex and that the tip now
points directly downward.

It would not suffice however for all of the root to be driven directly
downward through the soil, since the soil containing the most ad-
vantageous proportions of food, lies comparatively near the surface.
The lateral roots which issue from the primary roots are therefore en-
dowed with a power of movement which tends to place their axis ina
horizontal position. By a combination of the two movements it may be
seen that the plant is enabled to drive its roots downward to the proper
depth and laterally through the layer of the best soil. The difficulties
to be overcome and the conditions to be met in this penetration of the

219

substratum are numerous and the root tip is most richly endowed with
various forms of irritability and movement in response to such needs.
Thus in finding its way, through the soil a root may encounter a stone
which blocks its way or splintered fragments which might pierce and
destroy the tip. The root tip is irritable to contact or injury and when
it meets such objects as those named above, it bends away from them,
and then once more resumes its former direction past the obstacle.

Certain portions of soil may contain more water or food material than
others and it will be found that the roots curve in such manner as to
direct their tips toward these portions. Then again a laterally growing
root may find itself exposed to sunlight filtering down between the
particles of the soil with injurious consequences. To avoid danger
from this source the root has the power of bending away from the light.

The root tip responds by movement to many other forces, and it is so
delicately adjusted and has acquired so many forms of irritability that
Chas. Darwin compared it to the brain of an animal in his classic work
“Movement in Plants.”

Let us now turn our attention to some of the movements which are
exhibited by the shoot and which may be seen without any troublesome
detail of experimentation.

If the compound leaves of the Logwood (Haematoxylon), Shameweed
(Mimosa), or Guango (Pithecolobium Saman) are examined shortly after
sunrise, it will be found that the leaflets are spread open in a horizontal
position, and that they are exposed to the full force of the sun’s rays.
(See Fig. 1.)

Fig. 1 Extended position of leaf of Pithecolobium Saman, Guango, occuring
in the morning or in diffuse light throughout the day.

220

If the same leaves are examined later in the day or at a time when
the sunlight is near its maximum intensity, it will be seen that the
leaflets are no longer spread out to receive its full force but that they
are folded together in pairs in such manner that the edges are presented
to the sun, so that the rays strike the surfaces at a very acute angle.
and the entire aspect of the plant is altered. (See Fig. 2.)

' Fig. 2. Closed position of leaf of Pithecolobium Saman Guango to be seen at
noon-day ‘The position of the leaflets at night is slightly different.

The meaning of this movement may be most easily interpreted when
the functions subserved by the leaves are recalled

For the purpose of this discussion we may consider a green leaf as a
mill into which water laden with mineral salts from the soil, and carbon
dioxide from the air are poured, which converts these substances into
sugar and other useful compounds. The driving power of this leaf-mill
is sunlight, and the energy is absorbed from the light by means of the
green colouring matter (chlorophyll) Like all mills the leaf does its
work best when a certain amount or intensity of force is applied to it,
or in other words when itis driven ata certain rate of speed. If
driven tco rapidly not only is the work done less perfectly but the
mechanism may suffer injury. These facts apply exactly to the leaf.
It functions best when it receives light of a certain intensity.

In the plants which I have mentioned, the leaflets receive the proper
amount of light for the successful performance of work when in a hori-
zontal position, in the early part of the forenoon. As the sun advances
toward the zenith, the heat and light of its rays increase in intensity,
and at the same time the rays infringe at right angles on the surface of
the leaves held in a horizontal position, greatly increasing their effect
on the leaves. Ifthe leaves remain exposed to the full force of the
sun’s rays in the morning position, the green colour will be destroyed
and water will be evaporated faster than it can be brought up from the
roots, and wilting or withering will ensue.

The leaflets are automatic machines however. The moment the sum
beats too fiercely upon the blades, an action is set up which results in
turning the edges toward the sun, and the effect of the rays is greatly
lessened. In this manner the plant has almost absolute control over the
amount of heat and light which may be allowed to act upon the leaves.
A glence at many plants found in every door-yard will show plants
which have made this adjustment to the noonday sun.,

221

The actual value of this motion of the plant may be seen if two
metal plates are exposed to the sun, one horizontally, the other verti-
cally, in the middle of the day. A touch of the finger will reveal the
difference in temperature an hour later.

As the sun sinks toward the western horizon the action of its rays
decreases and the self regulating leaflets slowly open. The dangers of
the day are by no means over however. As the sun disappears the air
grows cooler, and the leaves radiate heat that would result in chilling
and other injuries, if allowed to continue. Once more the regulating
mechanism is called into play and once more the leaflets are placed in
a vertical position when they radiate heat less rapidly. This so-called
‘‘ sleep position” of leaves may or may not be identical with the noon-
day position.

The metal plates may again be used to demonstrate the physical value
of sleep movements. The plate held in a horizontal position for an
hour will be found to be cooler than the one held vertically. The test
is a delicate one and requires accurate thermometric measurements. The
necessity for the movements of the leaflets may be shown if the leaflets
of the Guango are fastened in a horizontal position and allowed to
remain exposed to the full blaze of the sun and to the night air for a
day or two.

All of the above movements are adaptations by which the plant
facilitates the acquisition of food or protects the organs of nutrition.

It will be profitable to turn our attention for afew minutes to
some specialised movements exhibited by some of the common plants
of Jamaica.

The ordinary Shameweed (Mimosa) the pest of your lawns and
pastures will serve as an example. The leaflets of this plant beside
moving in response to changes in temperature and light, also exhibit
reactions to a shock or a blow, incision or other injury, electric current,
or a flame, and may be made to assume the sleep position by ether or
chloroform. Although much attention has been given to this plant
yet it is quite impossible to see that any useful purpose is subserved by
movements in response to some of these stimuli. It is safe to say that
so far as some of the stimuli are concerned, they are not met with
by the plant in its original habitat in Brazil and Venezuela.

It is to be seen that the Shameweed offers several interesting
features which are by no means common. Of these, one of the most
striking is the manner in which impulses are transmitted from one
branch to another. ‘This may be. best illustrated by reference to the
diagrams. (See Figs. 3 and 4.) Ifthe flame of a burning match is

-¥ig. 3. Branch of Mimosa showing normal and irritated closed leaflets.

222

applied to the tip of a branch
at A.in Fig. 4, the leaflets
nearest the flame close at once
by an almost instantaneous
movement, then the motion
is taken up by each pair of
leaflets in turn until the base
is reached. Then an impulse
starts towards the tip of the
other secondary petioles clos-
ing the leaflets in succession.
Meanwhile an impulse has
been travelling toward the
base of the leafstalk, and as it
reaches the thick cushion of
tissue—the pulvinus—which
joins it to the stem, the pul-
vinus contracts on the lower
side and the entire leaf sinks
downward. Impulses then
travel downward and upward

ee the ‘Aig and ore Fig. 4. Diagram showing direction of impulses
and out to t Le tips of the in Mimosa from a flame applied at A.
leaves, producing a move-

ment similar to that of the first leaf. It may interest you to know that
the rate at which impulses trave?

has been accurately measured and
that it is found to be about four-
teen feet per minute, though
dependent upon the temperature,
age of the plant, etc. At the rate
given, an impulse might traverse
the entire body of the plant in a
few seconds. All of the move-
ments of the Mimosa are effected
by means of pulvini at the bases
ot the primary and secondary
petioles, and of the leaflets. The
structure and action of a pulvinus
may be illustrated by reference
to the diagram. (See Fig. 5.)
The portion of the stalks consti-
tuting the pulvinus consists of a
central strand of very flexible
hard tubes, vessels and fibres sur-
rounded by a cylinder of thin
walled cells which are capable of
almost instantaneous changes in
size and form. When an im-
Fig. 5. Section of pulvinus of Mimosa pulse from a shock reaches a pul-
a. Fibres and vessels. b. Upper side. VWUS, the cells on the lower side~
at once lose a part of their con—

7

nin oy 7

223

tents, which passes out into the spaces between them, and they contract
with the result that the leaf stalk curves in that direction which may be
upward or downward according to the location of the pulvinus. Ina
few minutes after a pulvinus has curved in this manner, the cells which
have contracted begin to reabsorb water and finally regain their former
size with the result that the leaf is in its original position in fifteen to
twenty-five minutes after the stimulus was applied to the plant. It is
then capable of repeating its former action.

Another movement, the object of which is unknown to us, is afforded
by the “Telegraph Plant” (Desmodium gyrans) which is to be found in
Jamaica. I have recently had the opportunity of examining several fine
specimens in the Castleton Gardens, and am informed that it is also grown
inthe Hope Gardens. The generalaspect of the plant is shown in Figure 6.

ML I pn

Sea
SS.

Fig. 6. Desmodium gyrans. A, Normal position of leaves. B, Leaves during darkness.

224

The plant belongs to the Leguminosae, and its leaves undergo the move-
ments for adjustment to the intense sunlight and to the cool night air
in the same general manner as the Guango, or the Shameweed.

If an examination of the The movement continues

compound leaf is made it
will be found to consist of
one large terminal leaflet,
and ene or two small lateral
ones. (See Fig. 7.)

The small lateral leaflets
keep up a rather rapid con-
tinuous jerking movement at

even in the night and these
leaflets do not) undergo
‘Sleep movements”. The
tip of the Jeaflets move up-
ward and downward through
an are of one hundred and
eighty degrees and at the
same time twists on the

times when the temperature "7, yea! Grestalk so that an irregular
is between 72 and 104° HF’, modium gyrans) yal or ellipse is described.
From two to five minutes are necessary to complete the movement.

We are not only unable to ascribe any useful purpose to this move-
ment of the Telegraph Plant but do not understand the mechanism by
which it is produced. Such marked and continuous movements are by
no meaus common among the higher plants.

It is necessary for

every green plant to lift

its leaves aloft into the

sunlight To accomplish

2 this more or less rigid

ra, stems and branches are

constructed upon which
the leaves are displayed.
A comparatively enor-
mous amount of mate-
rial, energy and time are
used in this process,
and the plant which gets
up to the sunlight with-
out thisexpenditure will
have a great advantage
over other forms. One
group of plants, the air
plants (epiphytes) obtain
exposure to the light by
growing on the elevated
branches of other plants.

Another g: oup of par-
ticular interest in con-
nection with this discus-
sion, accomplish the
Fig. 8. Tendril of Granadilla (Passiflora quadrangu- S4me purpose by climb-
laris.) a. Normal position. b curved afterirritation. ing upward over the
bodies of other plants or any object near them. ‘They may cling to the
support by twining round it, or by means of special grasping organs or
tendrils. The latter class is the most highly developed group since if
accomplishes the climbing at the least expense.

225

Tendrils exhibit irritability of the most highly developed form and
sreact to a number of stimuli by very rapid movements.
~ When a tendril comes into contact with a branch of a tree or another
solid body, it will begin to curve in a time varying from five seconds
to an hour, and soon completely encircles the body with which it has come
into contact. In this manner the apical growing portions of a vine are
fastened to a support. As soon as this has been accomplished the part
of the tendril between the plant and the object to which it is attached
exhibits another movement by which it is thrown into the form of a
spiral spring, which pulls the plant upward through a distance equa! to
about one third the length of the tend:il. The tendril will also move in
response to a number of other stimuli, such as heat, acids, electric cur-
rents, and may be rendered incapable of motion by ether or chloroform.

A movement which has for its purpose the facilitation of reproduction
is offered by the Water Hyacinth (Kichhornia speciosa) which is to be
found in the botanic gardens of Jamaica. The perfection and germination
of the seed of this aquatic plant can take place under water only. If
an examination of the plant is made during the proper season it will be
seen that the showy azure flowers stand upon erect flower stulks several
inches above the water. Soon after the pollen has been conveyed from
the stamens to the pistils the flower stalk begins to bend downward

GO)

1Q)

_Fig.9. Flower stalk of Water Hyacinth, (Hichhornia speciosa.) a. Normal up-
right position. b. Curved inverted position.

226

and in the course of a few hours it has moved downward through one
hundred and sixty or seventy degrees and the flowers are completely
immersed in water, where the development of the seed occurs. (See
Fig. 9.)

The foregoing examples illustrate some of the principal or rather the
more apparent forms of movement, and the time is lacking to enumer-
ate others although of great importance and wide occurrence. It will be
more profitable to spend the remaining time at our disposal in a dis-
cussion of the movements.

The external similarity of the movements of some plants to those of
animals has led to many ungrounded comparisons, and to the ascription
of sense or intelligence to plants. The questions at once arise in the
mind of a person who observes the movements for the first time: Have
plants muscles, sense-organs, and nerves, and is it conscious of the
movements ?

In general I may enswer all of these questions by saying that the
mechanism of movement of plants offers only a general analogy to that
of animals, and that all motions are of a reflex character : The plant has
no nervous centre, but when a stimulus acts upon any part of the plant
the impulse is conveyed directly to the part of the plant producing the
movement.

The plant has no structures which may be properly designated as
sense organs, yet there are certain portions which alone may receive
stimuli, and convert them into impulses. The extreme tip of a root,
the blade of a leaf, the lower side of the tendril of the Passion Flower
are specially capable of sensibility. The Shameweed is however “ sen-
sitive” over its entire surface with the exception of the flowers, seed
pods and upper side of the pulvinus.

But movement is not produced at the extreme tip of a root or in the
blade of the leaf, or in other words the cells which receive the stimulus,
do not set up motion. The motile cells are at the base of the leaf stalk,
or at some distance from the “ sensitive” cells. It will be convenient
to speak of the cells receiving the stimuli as constituting the “sensory”
zone, and the cells producing the movement as the ‘‘ motor” zone.

Now since the sensory and motor zones are separated by some distance
it is evident that there must be some sort of transmission of force from
one to the other. ‘the path along which the transmission is made has
not yet been made ont, that is to say the p ant hasno known structures
analogous to the nerves of an animal.

Although the mechanism by which movement is produced in plants is
not so well differentiated as that of animals, yet the degree of sensitive-
ness is in some instances even greater.

Thus a tendril will curve in response to a weight not appreciable to
human touch and the shoot of a young plant will bend toward a light
which can not be perceived by the human eye. It is of interest in this
connection to note that many reputable biologists ascribe some form of
consciousness to plants; the way is not clear to concur in this opinion
in the present state of our information on the subject. To recapitulate
the principal points in the foregoing discussion :

The power of movement is quite widely distributed among plants and
is one of the most important means by which it adapts itself to its en-
vironment. The mode of life of the plant has tended to the loss of the

227

power of locomotion. By means of movement the absorption of food
from the soil is facilitated and the roots are protected from injury. By
means of movement the action of the sun upon the leaves is controlled,
the food- forming processes regulated, and the leaf protected from injury
from excessive light, heat, transpiration, and radiation. Movement en-
ables the grasping organs of climbing plants to fasten to supports and
pull the plant upward, and by the same property, reproduction and
protection of seeds are accomplished. This summary must not be taken
to cover the entire subject, but touches only upon the points included.
in the discussion. Movements serve many other purposes as well.

ANALYSIS OF SUGAR CANE.
By the late J. J. Bowrey, F.C.8., F.1.C., Island Chemist.*

Government Laboratory, Kingston, 18th October, 1897.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.
Stir,

Herewith I send two tables containing results of analysis of Canes
received from the Hope Gardens in July and August last. One contains
the named Canes i1.e., varieties which are. known in cultivation, the
other numbered Canes, i.e., canes which have been raised from seed
within recent years and are not yet in economic cultivation. The canes
have been sampled and the analysis made in the manner described in
the last Report of Agricultural Work in the Botanic Gardens, Demerara,
and to facilitate comparison the results are stated as in that Report.

It is to be noted that one analysis of a variety of cane is not sufficient
to determine its characteristics as to yield, strength, and purity of juice.
Analysis must be made yearly for several years, before an authoritative
opinion can be formed. The climatic conditions vary from year to year
and greatly affect the canes and the analytical results vary much with
their riperess or otherwise.

I have carefully compared the results here tabulated with those ob-
tained in Demerara, and it may be interesting if 1 now briefly state the
outcome.

Namep Canes.

The names Lahaina, Ko-poa-pa, China, Salangore, Grand Savanne,
Po-a-ole, Hillii and Bouranappa appear in the Demerara Reports, but
Queensland, Bourow, Nagapoury, Barkley and Nain do not.

I suspect however that Queensland is Queensland Creole, Bourow is
Boisrouge, and possibly Nagapoury is Naga or Keeming, and Nain is
Mani. ‘The other canes appear in the Demerara Reports under the
following synonyms:

Oiaheite syn Bourbon

Elephant uf Jamaica Transparent.
Caledonian Queen fi

Java ke White Elephant.
Hope

Red Rose Ribbon a Red Ribbon.
ee Green Ribbon.

* We record with sincere regret the death of Mr. Bowrey on 19th November,
while this article was passing through the press. [Hd.]|

228

Comparison of canes grown in Jamaica with the same varieties growm
in Demerara.

Weicut or Crop per AcRE.

Rather smaller, ... Elephant.

About equal, ... Otaheite, Caledonian Queen, Java, Hope, Red
Rose Ribbon and Hillii.

About double, ... Salangore, Green Rose Ribbon and Brisbane-

About three times, ... China and Po-a-ole.

About five times, ... [o-poa-pa.

PROPORTION OF JUICE.

Is about equal or slightly larger than that yielded by the same variety
in Demerara.

PROPORTION OF SUCROSE IN THE JUICE,

Less ... Lahaina, Ko-poa-pa, Elephant, Green Rose Ribbon, Bris-
bane and Po-a-ole, (Second Ratoons.)

Equal... Po-a-ole, (Plant Canes.)

Greater ... Otaheite, China, Salangore, Caledonian Queen, Java, Hope,

Red Rose Ribbon. Green Rose Ribbon, Brisbane, Grand
Savanne, Hillii, Bouranappa.

QuorTieNtT oF Purity.
Follows much the same order as the proportion of Sucrose.

YIELD OF SUGAR PER ACRE SUPPOSING 85 PER CENT. OF THE SUCROSE IN
THE JUICE IS WON.

This is smaller from the Elephant Canes but larger from all the
others as might be expected from the superiority in weight of crop per
acre.

I suspect that the six canes which proved inferior in proportion of
sucrose and purity were not really ripe.

NuMBERED CANES.

These Canes compare more irregularly than do the named canes, as
will be seen from a glance at the table appended.

On this table I would remark that Nos. 95 and 119 are very little
below the Demerara grown canes of the same numbers, in contents of
sucrose ; while I suspect that the other canes which yielded less sucrose
were not fully ripe.

In conclusion I would repeat that one year’s results are not sufficient
to allow a decided opinion to be formed and that these experiments
need to be repeated before it will be possible to determine the fitness or
otherwise of these canes for cultivation in Jamaica.

I an, Sir,
Your Obedient Servant,

J. J. Bowrey,
Island Chemist.

229

Numbered Canes grown in Jamaica compared with the same varieties grown in

Demerara.
Weight of Crop Proportion of Quotient of Sugar per Acre sup-
per Acre. Sucrose ip. Juice, Purity. posing 85 p.c. iron.

| o 7
5 = | ae Bally ecull oS z| & | 2 = | or ieee
4 & o eI et id) 4 ia) ids) | & o
& = 32 —| 32 = =| 32 = - = 32
= = 49 49 = = 49 = = —| 49 =
_ _ 51 - = 51 - _ 51 ~ - 51
= 53 = -—| 53 = —| 538 - = |) 3) =
= 61 = 61 = = 61 - = 61 = =
= - 74 74 = = 74 = = -| 74 =
= 78 = 78 = = 78 = - 78 - =
as = 81 81 = = 81 = — = = 81
= = 95 95 = = —| 95 = = = 95
a= = 99 —| 99 = - = 99 = = 99
3. = 1108 - | 108 — | 108 ~ = - - | 108
= - | 109 - — | 109 - — | 109 = — | 109
115 - - - — | 115 - — | 115 — | 115 —
ae — | 117 — PV = - - |117 - = ny
as ae a all) = = | 119 - - = = Pit)
Ba V3) = = Slee = | 128 = — | 128 =
ae i Abe 145, = =n 4b = - =a
= SRI = SHY = — | 212 = ait.
iz S246 — | 246 = — | 246 = - =) 246

230

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232
ELEMENTARY NOTES ON JAMAICA PLANTS.

1. LimnantHEMUM HuMBOLDTIANUM, GRISEB.

Humbold’s Pond Flower.
This beautiful little aquatic, at the first glimpse we get of it in ponds,

looks like a minature Water Lily with its white flowers and floating

leaves. ;

An examination however of the structure of the flower will show how-
very different it is from the true Water Lilies,—Nymphexa and
Nelumbium.

A Nymphza has numerous petals all separate from one another,
whereas this plant, as may be seen in figures b &e, has its petals united
to one another.

We may give it an English name, and call it ‘“‘ Pond Flower,” which
is the meaning of Linnanthemum, or ‘‘ Humboldt’s Pond Flower”
which connects its geographical extension from Mexico to South
Brazil and the West Indies with the name of the great traveller through
these lands.

It is beautifully adapted to its aquatic life. The leaf shoot springs
from under water, at first with the edges of the leaf rolled up tight,
so that there is no resistance as it gradually rises out of the water.
Then the leaf unrolls, and sinks on the surface a floating leaf, support-
ing the plant, and providing for the opening of the flower above the
water where moths or other insects can visit and fertilise it.

The flowers spring several together from a point on the shoot just
below the blade of the leaf. If the drawings b & e are compared, it will
be seen that some flowers have a long pistil and short stamens, whilst
others have a short pistil and long stamens. Thisarragement is for the
purpose of ensuring cross-fertilisation, which is so much more ad-
vantageous to the species than self-fertilisation in securing better seeds.
A moth visiting the flower for the purpose of sucking the honey
secreted by a small gland at the base of the petal (fig. e), puts its long
tongue between the pistil andthe petal. Ifthe flower has a short pistil,
the stamens are high up above it, and the insect’s tongue touching them is

dusted with pollen. When it goes to a flower with short stamens, the .

place on its tongue covered with pollen reaches the stigma of the pistil,
and fertilises the flower with pollen from the other flower, at the same
time carrying off pollen for a flower with long stamens.

When the flower is fertilised, it gradually bends over, as shown in
the figure, sinks below the surface of the water, and ripens its seed there
in seclusion to drop into the mud below. '

There are certain features in the structure of the flowers which show
a family resemblance to other plants, and all these plants are accordingly
classed together as a natural family, or order, called Gentianez from the
gentians which are so abundant on the Alps of Switzerland. ‘These
family features should be carerully observed in all the plants of the
order that can be found, and the differences amongst the family groups,
or genera, also noted.

‘ihe commonest plants belonging to this order in Jamaica are species
of Le1anruus, which have flowers looking very much like yellow
Fuchsias. One species Leianthus umbetlatus, forms a small handsome
tree, a most unusual form, as the Gentian order is almost universally

gsi “UnUDYppoquNE, wnwayjunumMsT ‘T9PHpoow *¥j'H

284

composed of quite low-growing plants. Macrocarpma differs in having
a two lipped stigma. The only other yellow flowered member of this
order occurs in Voyrta, a very peculiar genus, without any green
colouring, and only minute scale-like leaves; the plants live on
decaying leaves and do not elaborate their food themselves from air
and soil. Another species of Voyria has a red flower.

The species of Scuutrzsta have red or purplish flowers with a square
stem and 4-winged calyx. Eryrurma has red flowers with spirally-
twisted authers. Evusroma has blue or white-variegated flowers; it
grows on dry banks on the sea-shore. LimnanrHEmuM is aquatic.

Nearly all the plants of this order contain a bitter principle, which
possesses tonic properties.

Eustoma, the “Gentian Centaury” isa tonic and febrifuge. A tea
can be made of three drams of the whole plant in a pint of water, and
may be used instead of quinine. Descourtilz recommends its use in
Yellow Fever. He says :—“ L’infusion vineuse se prépare en mettant
digérer a froid quatre gros dela tige dans deux pintes de vin de
Bordeaux blanc. J’ai obtenu de trés grands succés d’une cuillerée de ce
vin, édulcoré avec le sirop d’éther, dans les syncopes qui accompagnent
la fiévre jaune.”

Schultesia is said by Descourtilz to be stomachic, febrifuge, emmena-
gogue, anthelmintic and alexipharmic. He recommends its use in
intermittent fevers, but particularly in chronic diarrhea.

Linnanthemum, the Pond Flower, is not only a tonic and febrifuge,
but is also anti-scorbutic.

The following are the general characters of the order :—

GENTIANEAE.

Flowers regular.

Sepals, generally 5 or 4, distinct, inferior.

Petals 5 or 4 connate, hypogynous.

Stamens as many as petals, alternate with them, inserted on corolla-tube.

Carpels 2, connate into a 1-celled or more or less completely 2-celled superior
ovary ; placentas parietal; ovules many, horizontal.

Capsule opening along the margins of the carpels.

Seeds small albuminous.

Herbs, shrubs or small trees, with bitter juice.

Leaves opposite (but one only in Limnanthemum), entire, without stipules.

To put it rather more briefly : amongst Gamopetale with superior ovary of
two carpels, Gentianez may be distinguished as having a regular corolla, stamens
as many as the corolla-lobes and alternate with them, ovary one-celled, juice
bitter.

The characters of the genera and species may be shortly indicated as follows: —

LE1ANTHUS.

Calyx 5 cleft. Corolla, narrowly funnel-shaped, 5-lobed, yellow, persistent
Ovary with the placentas sometimes so far intruding as to make it appear to be
2-celled. Stigmaone, round. Herbs, shrubs or small trees.

* Inflorescence a long-stalked umbel, surrounded by small leaves.

1. L. wmbellatus, Griseb. A shrub or small tree.

** Inflorescence paniculate.

2. L. exsertus, Gciseb. Stamens 2 or 3 times as long as corolla. 6 to 12 feet
high.

3. L. latifolius, Griseb. Stamens not longer than corolla. Leaves $to6 in-
ches long, with long petioles. 4 to 6 feet high.

4. L. longifolius, Griseb. Stamens not longer than corolla. Leaves 1 to 3 in—
ches long, with very short petioles. 1 to 3 feet high. e

235

VoyriA.

Calyx 5-lobed, Corolla salver-shaped, 5-lobed. Stigma capitate. Herbs
without green colouring-matter, growing on decaying leaves or wood. Leaves rem
duced to scales.

* Stem simple, one-flowered.

1. V. uniflora, Lam. 6 to 8 inches high. Corolla yellow, one inch long.

2. V. tenella, Guild. 1 to 4 inches high. Corolla red, 4 to 4 inch long.

** Inflorescence with more than one flower.

3. V. mexicana, Griseb. 4 to 6 inches high. Corolla + to 4 inch long. *

ERYTHRAA.

Calyx 5-cleft. Corolla salver-shaped, 5-lobed. Anthers when burst becom-
ing spiral. Stigmas two. Annual herbs.
Ei. ramosissima, Pers. “Centaury.” Corolla red.

ScHULTESIA,

Calyx 4-keeled, 4-lobed. Corolla funnel-shaped,4-lobed. Stigmas 2, broad
Annual herbs.
1. S. stenophylla, Mart. Inflorescence forked, with many flowers, corolla
red-violet ¢ in long.
2. S. heterophylla, Mig. Flowers one orafew. Corolla red, 14 inch long.
EvustoMa.

Calyx 5-cleft, keeled. Corolla bell-shaped, 5-cleft. Anthers when bursé,
curved back. Ovary 1-celled with the placentas growing in; stigmas 2, broad.
Glaucous herbs.

E. exaltatum, Griseb. ‘‘Gentian Centaury.”’ Corolla blue, 1 inch long.
MacrocarPma.
Calyx 5-lobed, not keeled. Corolla funnel-shaped, 5-lobed, deciduous. An-

‘thers when burst, curved back. Ovary with the false appearance of being 2-celled

from the intrusion of the placentas which meet and divide at the centre ; stigmas
2. Shrubs.

1. M. thamnoides, Gilg. Corolla greenish-yellow, 1 inch long. Stamens ex-
serted. Leaves elliptical.

2. M. Hartii, Kr. & Urb. Corolla yellowish, 1 inch long. Stamens eqnal-
ling corolla-tube. Leaves obovate.

LIMNANTHEMUM.
Calyx 5-cleft. Corolla almost rotate, 5-cleft. Capsule not opening regularly.

Aquatic herbs.

L. Humboldtianum, Griseb. Corolla white. Leaves cordate-roundish.

236
CABINET WOODS: MARKET REPORT.

As infermation is occasionally sought from the Department on the
market prices of some of the Jamaica Cabinet Woods, it may be of in-
terest to have the opportunity of seeing the following Report, for which
we are indebted to Messrs. Park Macfadyen, & Co., of 25 Lime St,
London, E.C. The Report is given in full, so that comparison may be
made with exports from other places.

Market Rerort on Manocany, Cepar, Watnut Woop, Rosrwoon, anp
OTHER CaBtneT Woops, &c.

(From 6th to 20th September, 1897.)

29 Clements Lane,
London, E.C., 20th September, 1897.

MAHOGANY.—Arrivals have been very light, and, as important sales
Shave been effected, stocks in first hands are now in small limits. Prices
for good wood keep steady, and a large quantity of an inferior character
has been cleared without further weakness, so that the general tone is
healthy. Honypuras.—The wood offered last week all sold readily and
weil, as the demand is good, and supplies of this description were needed.
Nicaracua—is in fair demand. Cotumpra.—Fresh arrivals of sound,
sizable wood should sell satisfactorily. Tasasco,—Logs of good sizes, and
in fair condition, sell well, andstocksarenow unusually low. MryatirLan.—
Sizable, sound logs would bring fair prices, but unsold stock is limited to
small wood. Txcoturia.—Considering its very inferior condition, the
‘wood sold last week brought good prices; the market is now cleared, and
fresh cargos of sizeable, sound logs would be well received. Panama.—
Good wood, of fair sizes, would sell readily, but faulty and badly-split logs
are not wanted. Arrican.—Large sales have been effected without change
in prices. Small and poor wood has been shipped too freely, but there nas
been no excess in the supply of good logs from medium to large sizes. Sr.
Domrtnco.—There is no stock, and good cargoes would sell well. Curts —
Only prime pieces are wanted. Cusa—continues to sell readily, and com~
mands full prices, supplies being unequal to the demand.

CEDAR,—Cuxsa, Honpuras and Mrxtcan.—Sizeable wood, sound and
straight, sells fairly well, but for small logs, the tendency is still weak.
Paracuay—is passing into consumption very slowly, and stocks are heavy.
Ponta Arenas, Panama, Arrican, Tr1nrpaD, etc.—fmall and poor logs, of
which late imports have chiefly consisted, can only be placed at low prices.
AvstRALIAN.— Only sound, well-squaied logs of good sizes should be ship-

ed. Prncrt Cepar—if large and sound, would bring fair prices.

WALNUT WOOD.—Anmenrican Brack.—Logs—continue dull; stocks
are not increasing, but consumption is inactive, and only really good wood
should be shipped; planks and boards—are in fair demand, but prices are
low, except for medium to prime grades, which keep good. Irat1an— is im
very limited demand, and there is sufficient stock. Brack Sea.—The only
enquiry is for large, prime logs. Burrs.—Finely figured pieces would
realise good prices.

ROSEWOOD.—Rio and Bantsa.—Prices are stationary, the demand show—
ing no signs of improvement. East Inpra—is wanted, and good parcels.
would find ready buyers. Mapacascar.—Large wood, of good colour,
-would realise fair prices.

SEQUOIA (Cattrorntan Repwoop).—There is a moderate demand

without variation in prices,

237

AMERICAN WHITEWOOD.—Logs—continue of slow sale without any
advance in prices ; planks and boards ~are quiet and prices rather weak
as stocks are large.

KAURI PINE—For logs there is asmall demand, but a good inquiry
for planks and boards.

SATIN WOOD.—Porvto Rico. Sr. Domryao, Sr. Lucta and Cusa.—Sales
have been small as the demand has fallen off and lower prices have to be
accepted. Banamas and Jamarca—are seldom askedfor. Hasr Inpta.—.
The stock is too heavy for present demand.

LIGNUM VITA. —Szr. Domryeo —has not been imported for a long time
and really good parcels would sell well as supplies are much needed.
Banamas—is more asked for. JAmAtoa, Purrro Caspetio, Curacoa and
Cusa.— Only well-grown wood, of good sizes, should be shipped, as there is
a large stock of badly grown and small-sized pieces, which are very un-
saleable.

EBONY.—Cryton.—There is very little stock, but scarcely any demand.
Kast Inpra—if really good would find buyers at fair prices. MApagascaR,
Mauritius and Macasaar. —Large, sound wood, of good colour, would.
realise fair prices.

COCUS WOOD—is in moderate demand.

BOXWOOD.—Persian and ArasiaN—are in good demand at steady
rates. Arrican—would find buyers at fair prices.

SNAKEWOOD.—There is no stock, but very little enquiry.

LANCEWOOD SPARS.—Shipments have moderated, but still sales are
uot easily effected and prices keep very low. Drcamwe Spars—are asked
for and would sell well.

LOGWOOD-—is in moderate demand at. recent rates.

FUSTIC— is quiet, but steady.

The Arrivals during the past fortnight have been: -

HONDURAS.

“ Spheroid”’ at Belize to Messrs. Gonzalez, Byass, & Co., Ltd.
281 logs Mahogany. 3 logs Cedar.
Ditto at do. to Messrs. P. Leckie & Co.
400 logs Mahogany. —
Ditto at do. toJ. EH. Plummer Esq.
160 logs Mahogany. 58 logs Cedar.
Ditto at do. to The Belize Estate & Produce Co. Ltd.

615 logs Mahogany. _—
‘* Barbadian” at Puerto Barrios to Order
(via Liverpool) 282 logs Mahogany. —
CUBA.
“ La Fayette” at Havanna to Order
47 logs Mahogany. —

Also—Manocany, 265 logs Arrican vid Liverpoot, &c.; Watnut Woon,
AmeERICAN Brack, 45 logs at Battimore ; AMERICAN ’WurrEewoop, 14 logs,
at PHILADELPHIA ; Sattnwoop, 24 logs East Inpia at Coxomso ; Exsony
817 picces at Mauritius; Lancewoop Spars, 362 pieces at Jamarca, 260
pieces Cupa at Havanna.

The sales reported have been :—

HONDURAS.

“*¢ Sibun” at BelizaManoaany 58) logs at from 34d. 93d., average 47d. per ft. fully
(part cargo) ;
Do. at Belize Cupar 11 logs at from 42d. to 8}d., 53d. average par ft. barely...

238

TABASCO.

% Excelsior” at Laguana Manocany 194 logs at from 4d. to 93d. 512d, per ft.
(one lot at 33d.)
Do. at Laguana Crpar 34 logs at from 5d. to 53d., average 5zsd. per ft.fully..
“Carl” at Laguana Manocany 98 logs at from 33d. to 63d., average 4icd. per ft.

MEXICAN,
* ¢Sichem” at Tecolutla M anocany 345 logs at from 22d. to 43d., average 2iéd. per.
ft. fully.
(balance cargo) (one lot at 2d.)
“ Edwin Bailey” at Tlacotalpam Manocany 5 logs at 31d. per foot.
Do. at do. Crpar 37 logs at 33d.
Do. at do. Crpar 45 logs upen private terms,
“Susanne” at Tecolutla Manocany 346 logs upon private terms.
AFRICAN.

eae

“ Batanga,” &c. at West Coast cf Africa Manocany 127 logs at from 2d. to 10d.

average 322d per ft. barely,

“ Biafra,’ &c. at West Coast of Africa Manocany 540 legs at from 2d. to 133d.
average 32d. per ft.

Do. at do: Crpar 8 logs at 33d. & 33d., average 322d.

per foot.

CUBA.

“A Keene” at Cuba Manocany 386 logs at from 42d. to 15d., average Gisd. per
foot fully.
(balance cargo)
Do. at Cuba Crpar 1 at 414d. per foot.
“ Lafayette” at Cuba Crpar 47 logs at from 42d. to 83d., averago 53d. per ft. fully
Washington” at Havanna CrEpar 67 at from 43d. to 54d. average 53d. ee eh
arely.

Also—Manogany, 11 logs Cotumpra, 46 logs Panama, upon private terms ;
Cxpar, 42 logs Trrnmap @ 3d. per foot, 108 logs Trrnipap, and 6 logs West
Inpia, upon private terms ; WALtNut Woop, AVERICAN Brack, 20,415 planks and
boards ;56 planks Ivatran; ‘AMERICAN WurrTEwoop, 1log; Kauri Pinu, 62
planks, all upon private terms ; SaTmnwoop, 23 logs and 10 planks Cusa at from
5d. to 1s. 9d. per foot, 25 logs Wxsr Inp1a; at from 4d. tols. per foot; St.
Domineo, 6 logs at 9d. per foot, and 15 logs upon private terms; Cocus Woop,
452 pieces (13 tons) Jamaica; LAancewoop Spars, 260 pieces Cusa, all upon
private terms.;

PRICES CURRENT.

Carco AVERAGE.

MAHOGANY, per foot superficial

Honduras "ose, AR) St oda
Tabasco wes aE COGS de
Mexican sen) ORG. ohare
Panama weet OGs) CAE
African wo | ody ears
Cuba wos) O0.02 8 GTS
St. Domingo oe «add, Grds

es Curls, good to prime eos Odi Seiad

CEDAR,

Cuba «ve 4d. * add

Honduras, Mexican, &c.° oes) OCs) gy copa ee

239

Paraguay wc OGses: cond.
Australian Fe | OE eres
Punta Arenas, Panama, &c. ee ee ESL
Pencil, per foot cube oe 28. Gd} 3s, Od.
WALNUT WOOD,
Italian, per foot super Bae, AOCay meee 7d.
Black Sea, per ton wre, 100, eee
American, per foot cube s» . 28,00, © 48 Gd
H és (plank and boards) ee eee 6s.
SATIN WALNUT, (logs) (nominal) oo Is. 3d, “ Jerod.
. (planks and boards) ess, S28: Saas
SEQUOIA (Catirornian Repwoop), per foot cube .,. 1s, 8d. “ 1s.10d.
WHITEWOOD,
American... .....000... (logs) oes) Sod." Danes
se ses seeeeseeeee (planks and boards) sso 18.60, “252 90s
KAURI PINE............... (logs) es els GG. 0° 2s.
4: Seaktenmerte sons (Planks) Mes) (2B, O06 nga as ae
MAPLE, per foot super..,,.,.......prime ree eae 8d.
SATIN WOOD.
Porto Rico ce LOG. ceo adie
St. Domingo wee Os ‘ead:
East India ue Od, SI 2de
Bahama. per ton os) wo LOS, aap
Jamaica As geet eit (6
ROSEWOOD, per ton
Rio Aaa e5¥l £14
Bahia avs eo (i LES
| Madagascar ey ESR <0
Kast India ae Es) Gree
| TULIP WOOD............... (nominal) <, (£5 | Sates
| LIGNUM VITA,
City St. Domingo.,,......... (prime) Soo als! pepee 1s
me Ye seeeeeeeOKdinary to fair ec ee| Clr
Bahama ay bali 6
Jamaica oot ee ae
Cuba Se ES Ge eal:
EBONY,
Ceylon = x0 eee 1
East India ase OE. 8
Mauritius xo Ee) ee 9
Madagascar saeth eat (Or SD
cocus WOOD............0rdinary to fair «. £3 10s. “£410s
auetaeeions ..large and good mop GHD SE oe Si)
BOXWOOD,
/ eurkey and a ...ordinary to fair ave ok << 58
S00 one vssjeveeos--- G00 to prime riety ¢ S15
: African we £4108. ‘£5108
| SNAKEWOOD “=. 28 SLO
LANCEWOOD Spars, each, fresh and large eco) 48, pees
ordinary to fair wos, 28. Od. ** SaGde

DEGAME Spars a0 LOS: oo melons

240
LONDON & INDIA DOCKS STOCK ACCOUNT.

Landings | Deliveries) Landed Landed
during the past fort-| Stock, 20th | Stock, 18th
night. Sept., 1897.| Sept., 1896.
|
MAHOGANY. coe .esssesee: Honduras ...). Nil, __ | 141 Logs, | 1,097 Logs. | 1,300 Logs.
Nicaraguan os es 1B) 775 Nil.
Mexican --| 206 Logs.| 290 “ |3,411 “* |2,309 Logs.
Panama | anal Nil. (2 WN RE
African --.| 421 Logs. | 357 Logs.|1,712 “ 45) (tert
Cuba +) SOL SIGE. 68 9 051 745 Lee Ob yee
St. Domingo ...) Nil. 1. © 1407 eee One See
CEDARS, .H.ssevsteees +e CUDA .-| 1 Log. Nil. | 428 “ TAG) A
Honduras eee Nil. ce Shae Bye IS
Mexican --.| 116 Logs. | 52 Logs.| 824 “ 260
Paraguay aa Nil. Iba Pay 2,063 “*
Punta Arenas ... ae Nil. Nil. Nil.
Pencil ae se 57 Logs. }1,420 Logs. | 1,912 Logs.
ROSEWOOD.........s0000eR10 “ce 5 9Planks| 243Planks| 58Planke
Bahia sel ce LOS ore 650 “ SHay
WALNUT WoOob..........Italian so} oO. Planika|) ib > * 6560 S42 S
Burrs eaal Nil. 7Pieces.| 13Pieces.! 22 Pieces
American .--| 71 Logs. | 71 Logs. | 1,093 Logs. | 1,692 Logs.
Black Sea aoe Nil. 44. 399 388
SO ATING WOOD: cisstecco<se St. Domingo ...| 26 Logs: Nil. 457 = 224
Porto Rico a Nil. of Nil. Die
Bahama aoe 3 os Nil.
EBONY.. ..-..-Ceylon, &c. “cd ag 1 Ton, 233 Tons. | 161 Tons.
Cocus WooD.......--... Cuba, &e. | eoeL OSs timlidgn ms LOG 14S
LIGNUM VIT#.. . ot. ny aga &e.| 2 Gis shi (fie
LANCEWOOD SPARS.. “Cuba, &e, -| 260 Pieces! 495 Pieces, 8,800 Pieces.) 3,908 Pieces.

CHURCHILL & SIM,
Brokers,

ee eee

THE RELATION BETWEEN RHYTHMIC GROWTH
AND VARIETY IN CITRUS FRUITS.

By Tuomas Mernan, Botanist to the State Board of Agriculture,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

The recognition that growth is rhythmic, and not one continuous
act, affords a ready explanation of many phenomena otherwise in-
explicable ; and this is well illustrated by a comparison of various forms
of fruit in the orange and other varieties of the citrus tribe.

Occassionally an orange may befound wholly formed inside of another
orange, and more frequently an orange will be found projecting from
the apex of another—that is partially enclosed, while in another which
has been propagated as a distinct variety and called the Navel orange,
a very small attempt to form another fruit at the apex is generally seen
giving the navel or umbilical appearance from which the variety
derives its name.

The morphological unity of the foliaceous and floral part of a plant
being conceded, we conceive of the axis as being arrested in its long-
itudinal development when a flower is being formed. In most oranges,
we find the axis still extending a considerable distance into the fruit
bnt varying very much in consistency in different varieties. Sometimes
it is quite woody, in others it is found cellular and so soft that it can be
compressed between finger and thumb; while in some—notably ina
variety known as Tangierine there is rarely but afew lines of axis,
usualy no axis at all.

241

The rhythmic waves of growth are not all of equal meisure. As in
jumping a ditch, a boy may now rest exactly where he lands, and now
have to continue several paces before final rest, so does the wave force
in growth vary in intensity. In the process of the metamorphosis of a
branch with its various modes into a flower and finally a fruit, the
expenditure of force in the arrestation of axial growth and the develop-
ment ofthe appendages to petals, stamensand carpels is exactly meted to
the results,—now it is short of the mark, and the axis starts under
another rhythmic movement the next time to be arrested for good
and all.

It is this succession of growth rhythms that produces the double fruit
oranges, but the phenomenon is not confined to the citrus tribe. In
the formation of cones in the coniferous family the branch in its axial
growth is usually wholly suppressed ; but occasionally, especially in the
Larch where the tree is young and in a very vigorous condition, the
growth-wave not being wholly exhausted, will make another venture,
and a weak shoot from the apex of the cone results. In Rosacex the
same phenomena are by nomeans uncommon. One rose blossom * will
push out from thecentre of another, andasmall branch bearing a minature
pear has been known to spring from the crown ofa pear of normal
character beneath it

The main purpose of this paper is to note the remarkable origin of
the variety of orange known as the Tangierine, and this by reason of a
singular variation in the character of the force in the rhythmic wave.
In the primary wave, for some reason yet obscure, it is remarkably
weak, and sends the greater part of its effort into the secondary one.

What is usually the small orange within the larger in the double
orange, or the minute orange in the apex of the navel variety, becomes
the leading and only original fruit :

Once in a while nature furnishes the absolute proof of this morpho-
logical conception. Jt is not rare to have specimens of Tangierines in
which are from five to ten abortive carpels at the base of the fruit. In
these cases the well defined axis, usually in the common orange, runs
through the lower abortion, to be suddenly and finally suppressed when
the upper cycle of organs takes its turn to become fruit. The Tangierine
has always a flattish or oblate form. The utter suppression of the axis
at the point of its formation naturally favouring a lateral growth.

The key herewith furnished, will doubtless disclose to us the secret
of the many forms which the citrus tribe often assumes. The length
of the lemon as compared with the more globular orange is evidently
due toa more rapid advance of the growth wave This naturally
leads to a more elongated form. lhis hypothesis is supported by
examining a half section of the lemon taken longitudinally. The
axis is much more apparent and more woody than in the orange.
It will be found to have come to a rest at the apex of the oval, starting
again as from a regular node on the branch, to form a new and weak
axis through the nipple which forms such a distinguishing mark of the
lemon as compared with the orange. The nipple is possibly the result
of the secondary rhythmic growth, which in the Tangierine orange was
able to advance toa perfect fruit. From the limited opportunities of
examining large quantities of lemons from seedling trees, | have not

* Mr. 8S. Moxsy lately sent an interesting example. [Ed. Bn.|

242

been able to demonstrate this as an actual fact asin the case of the:

orange, but I feel sure some one may meet with an abnormal specimen
which will prove the point.

The varying intensity of rhythmic waves of growth may come to be
regarded as a leading factor in the development of form. These waves
certainiy have todo with the varying sexual characters of trees, as1 have
shown in other papers. The fact brings us near to a certain knowledge
of the origin of form, though we have still to learn what causes the
variations in the intensity of these waves. Even in these different
forms of citrus fruits the varying forces affect fertility. In the case of
the Tangierine orange, in which the secondary rhythm has been
accelerated to such an extent as to cause abortion in the whole of the
lower carpellary system, the seeds necessarily are not formed. In the
case of the Navel, where the secondary wave has only drawn part of
the force from the lower, it usually results in so much weakening of the
latte:’s power that few or no seeds result. ‘The Navel is usually a seed-
less fruit. (Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia.)

CEARA RUBBER.

This Rubber was noticed in the Bulletin for March, 1895, and the re+
sults were given that were obtained in the Public Gardens.

The following lettter calls attention again to the subject.

Messrs. Cross and Howard differ very much in their remarks on the
elevation at which it grows. According to Mr. Cross, it would appear
as if the elevation was not above 200 feet, whereas Mr. Howard has
seen it at 3,600 feet. It would grow at greater elevations still in
Jamaica, and it may be well to try it all over the island. Applications
for a few plants to experiment with, should be addressed to the Direc-
tor of Public Gardens, Kingston P. O.

The price of rubber has risen since Messrs. Silver quoted 2s. 3d. per
Ib., as the value of some obtained from a tree in Hope Gardens, and
Mr. Howard states that the price now is 3s. 3d. per lb.

Mr. Esme Howard to His Excellency Sir H. A. Blake.
Barbados, 2nd October, 1897.

I have been travelling in Mexico and Brazil for some months to exa-
mine the habits of the different rubber-producing plants of those coun-
tries with a view to finding out which are the most suitable for planta-
tions. In Ceara, Brazil, I bought several thousand seeds of the Wani-
hot Glaziovii, which I think will grow well in many parts of the West
Indies, meaning to distribute them in various islands for the pur-
poses of experiment. It seems to me that parts of Jamaica would be
well suited for the cultivation of this tree, which produces a good rubber
fetching at present where well collected and cured the second highest
price of any rubber on the market, viz. about 3/3d. per lb.

The Manihot Glaziovii will grow well on hill sides in a rocky and
rather poor soil. We found it growing in Ceara upto a height of
3,600 feet above the sea. Itisa rapid grower and can be tapped in
five years after planting, provided it has grown well. I believe a
rainfall of about 100 inches or more is most suitable for it, but it will
do with much less say 65 or 70 inches.

.

243

AsI cannot go to Jamaica myself, I take the liberty of sending a
packet of these seeds to you, hoping that means may be found to try the
plant in Jamaica. I fancy there are already one or two specimens in
the Gardens at Castleton. The seeds before planting should have a bit
of the hard outer shell chipped off to allow water to get more readily at
the germ within, and cattle should be kept from the young plants as
they eat them very greedily.

CAROB OR LOCUST-BEAN TREE.

[The Carob Tree has for many years been growing in some of the
Public Gardens, but has not proved to be satisfactory. It will probably
grow in many dry rocky places in the island where the Guango which
bears a similar pod will not flourish; but the results obtained so far have
not warranted a recommendation to Penkeepers to plant it.

However, the following Foreign Office Report (No. 431, Sept. 1897),
by Mr. Neville-Rolfe, H. M. Consul at Naples, places the matter in a
new light, and efforts will be made to obtain grafted plants of the best
variety.— Ld. |

Carob cultivation.—In the course of last spring a well-known gentle-
man from South Africa made enquiries at this Consulate concerning the
cultivation of the carob or locust-bean tree and the possibilities ofits intro-
duction into the Cape Colony. The carob is a tree the fruit of which
consists of a long pod which not only forms excellent horse-food, but is
very largely eaten by human beings, especially children, on account of
its sweetness. The pods contain very hard beans which are useful only
for seed, as horses leave them in their mangers, and if by chance they
swallow them, it is found that they do not digest them. The tree bears,
moreover, thick dark ever-green foliage which gives a cool and grateful
shade. It grows in many places in the Mediterranean where nothing else
will grow, notably on the arid hills of Malta, and it seems certain that
in the endless varieties of soil and climate to be met with in the Cape
Colony there must be many districts where it would grow freely. The
successful result of such an experiment would be simply invaluable to
the colony if merely as a supply for horse-food, for one of the greatest
difficulties in travelling at the Cape is to feed one’s horses, the price of
forage in some districts being extremely high, and the supply often.
distressingly short. Forage, moreover, as it consists of oats with their
straw, is not readily portable, but carobs enough for a pair of horses for
a day can be carried in a small bag. The carob in Italy grows along-
side the oranges and lemons, and there can be no reason why it should
not grow with the magnificent orange trees of Wellington, and become
as superior to the carob of Italy as the Cape orange tree is superior to
its Italian prototype. In places like Graaf-Reinet, and Aliwal North,
the success of the experiment seems absolutely certain, while, judging
from the way the tree prospers on the dry stone of Malta, where it
grows with apparently no soil to help it, there is good hope that it might
take kindly to the “Kopjes” near Colesberg, the bush veldt of the
Western coast, the lower slopes of the Drakenfelds. or among the trees
of the Knysna forest. The writer being well acquainted with the Cape
Colony has had much pleasure in investigating the matter thoroughly,
and, after lengthened consultation with practical arboriculturists, the
Following modus operandi has been decided upon. First, a sufficient

244

quantity of seed will be sent out to grow a number of seedlings in
different parts of the colony. These seeds will produce carobasters,
which will not have a fruit worthy of the name till they are grafted.
The strongest seedlings may be grafted in their third year, but it is of
no use to graft until the plant is strong and well grown, which may
not be till it is five or even seven years old.

General scheme.—A number of plants in pots will be grafted here
next spring, repotted in larger pots with plenty of clay, and when the
grafts have taken well the trees will be packed, the clay well soaked in
water, and it is confidently hoped that they will bear the journcy satis-
factorily. They will be sent from here in the month of February, and
will probably travel vid England, which seems climatically preferable
to the East Coast route, by German steamer to Durban vid Zanzibar.
If the coincidence of the steamers can be secured they may reach Cape
Town withinamonth of their despatch from here, or even less, but if not,
we have no doubt that the steamship company will see that the roots
are keept carefuliy wetted while the trees are in bond at the port of
origin. Itis with the object of keeping the roots wet that they are now
being repotted in stiff clay, a soil which is in itself favourable to the
growth of the tree.

Details —Having thus given a general sketch of the scheme, it is
necessary for its success to enter into minute detail as to the method to
be employed in the cultivation of the trees. We will first take the
plants to be exported two years hence, because these are ultimately the
most important part of the subject. If they should succeed, the acchi-
matisation of the tree at the Cape is assured; if they fail, the seedlings
willbecomparatively valueless for want of grafts. It is the fixed opinion
of people here who have studied the subject closely, that there would be
no chance of grafts sent out arriving in a condition to be of any value
whatever, so that it becomes absolutely necessary to send out the plants
themselves; besides, when the plants at the Cape were ready to be
grafted, our grafts would be out of season here.

Plants for grafting—We have already secured some excellent plants,
from each of which a large number of grafts should be available. It
does not seem possible to secure plants already grafted, for the reason
that they are not usually grafted in pots, the operation being performed
after they are planted out and have got a good hold on the soil which
is to be their permanent home. We cannot graft these plants till May,
1898, nor can we be sure of the success of the operation till May, 1899,
when the plants will be sent out. The carob is a tree which cannot be
transplanted on account of its tap-root, so that once planted it must re-
main where it is ; it is therefore very essential to plant it in the right
place to begin with. In the case of our plants it will be necessary to
top them and to cut off every leaf, in order that the sap may not be
exhausted by the foliage when it begin to rise. We shall consequently
export mere skeletons to the colony, and here again we have another
difficulty to contend with, namely, the change of season. The plants
will leave here at the end of our winter, and will arrive at Cape Town
at the beginning of the South African winter. They will thus have a
great strain put upon their nature, and great care will have to be taken
of them to enable them to overcome it. This care they will certainly
have at the hands of the managers of the Botanical Gardens in the

245

Colony, so that this is one of the least of our anxieties. The details in
this report would therefore be unnecessary, but for the fact that as the
experiment will be tried on an important scale, and many of the plants
till fall under the care of less capable hands, it is advisable to give very
clear instructions.

Potting.—On the arrival at their destination the plants must be care-
fully potted in garden mould, to which a little old farmyard manure
should be added, and the pots must be moved from time to time to pre-
vent the plants striking a tap-root through the hole at the bottom of
the pot into the soil, in which case they will certainly perish. They
will not require very much water, in fact the climate of South Africa
so much resembles that of Naples that were it not for the clay which we
must send with them the plants would scarcely require water at all in
the Cape winter. If, however, this clay gets hardened it may kill the
rootlets which by that time will have spread into it, and give the tree
a worse chance, so that the clay must be kept moist. It may be de-
sired to plant the trees out at once, but this should not be done in
windy weather, and on the whole it will be safer to pot them, at all
events for a few months till they can recover from their journey.

Seedlings.—With regard to the seedlings, they should be sown in pots
with proper drainage, and in garden mould, with a slight sprinkling of
old, short, farmyard manure. The greatest care must be taken to move
the pots often enough to prevent a tap-root being struck through the pot
into the ground beneath. Experiments may safely be made by sowing
seeds in the spots where they are intended to remain, and grafting them
when the plants come to maturity, but this should be done in enclosed
gardens or places where the plants can be guaranteed from being
choked by weeds, nibbled by sheep or game, or otherwise harassed in
their early years. The carob grows freely in dry soils, but, economi-
cally speaking, it has been found preferable to raise them in pots. The
seeds will be sent out in the pods, as this has proved to be the best me-
thod for their preservation. It is desirable to remove the beans from
the pods, and soak the beans for four days before sowing them ; the seeds
thus gets softened and germinates more rapidly. At Naples the seeds
are scwn in February and March, but they are apt to sprout very un-
equally. The majority grow freely and well, but some come up as late
as October, and then generally develop weak plants. The strongest
seedlings may be potted at the end of the first year, or even as early as
November ; the weaker ones at the close of the second. They must be
kept in pots till they are finally planted, as they will not bear transplant-
ing, and windy weather should be avoided for these operations. The
experiments couducted here show that it takes a minimum of four years
and a maximum of seven to produce a plant. A stong plant may be
planted out in safety in five years, but mnch depends on the skilful
care of the seedlings in the nursery.

Cost of plants—Each plant brought to maturity in this country is.
calculated to cost 8d., and it has been found by experiments that it is
cheaper in the long run to grow the plants in the nursery then to sow
them in the open ground. They are not particular as to soil, and grow
freely in clay, if not too wet, in sandy soils, and in the clefts of rocks,
where of course holes of about a cubic yard must be dug for them and
filled up with soil, drainage being provided in the ordinary way.

246

Mountain planting —It is usually necessary to build a rampart of
stones in the shape of a crescent on the lower side of the hole to pre-
vent the soil from being washed away. On “ Kopjes” and hill sides the
trees must be planted on such spots as offer a position, unless the hill
has soil enough to be terraced, but on open arable land they should be
planted in rows from 12 to 15 yards apart. The intervening ground
can be used for garden crops, but these, must not be grown within four
feet of the young trees, although the ground round the trees may ad-
vantageously be dug over when the rest is prepared for cropping. Ex-
hausting crops, such as corn and mealies, must not be grown, but cab-
bages and garden produce generally will do no harm.

Grafting.—It is better to let the plants obtain a strong growth be-
fore attempting to graft them, the third year being about as early as it
is prudent to do it. Ifa plant is very full of leaf it is desirable to leave
it alone and not to graft it at all, for a reason which will appear below,
and also because being leafy it may be taken to be a good variety. The
season for grafting here is from the middle of May to the end of June,
the grafter being careful to see that the bark opens easily. The best
plan is to graft on the boughs and not on the stem, leaving the smaller
boughs to utilise the winter deposit of sap, which may otherwise prove
injurious to the grafts. These boughs can be cut off in the following
year. The carob can also be satisfactorily budded, or grafted by saw-
ing off the trunk and cleaving it. In windy situations it will be neces-
sary to bind canes to the grafted boughs to stiffen them, and to pre-
vent the grafts from moving. ‘The best two varieties of carob are both
called here the ‘‘ Honey bag :” one bears a long narrow pod, the other a
short wide one.

The object of leaving a fair sprinkling (say 25 per cent.) of ungrafted
trees in a grove is the following. The grafted tree produces almost ex-
clusively female flowers, the ungrafted tree males. Unless these flowers
are in due proportion there can be no crop; and in fact this was the
primary cause of the failure of a carob grove in Sicily, a cause which
was discovered and remedied by Professor Bianca. In planting these
trees on ordinary arable land great inequality will often be found in the
plants, which arises from the fact that the carob cannot support water.
Hence, where water accumulates in the subsoil the tree will not grow,
whereas, where the water drains away, it will grow freely, and for this
reason a hill side is the best situation for a grove.

Prince Belmonte’s grove-—Some years ago the Italian Alpine Club
agreed that it would be greatly to the advantage of South Italy, and
would add materially to the attractions of the mountain scenery, if the
Apennines, which are now for the most part quite bare, could be made
to grow trees such as there is every reason to believe that they did in
more ancient times. They determined to consult Signor Savastano, the
professor of arboriculture in the school of agriculture at Portici near
Naples, who gave it as his opinion that the mountains where the lentisk
and the myrtle grow freely enough could be utilised to produce the
more remunerative carob. ‘To the obvious advantage of re :fforesting the
mountains, and thus adding to the rainfall, would be added to the pro-

duction of a valuable crop where nothing saleable had grown before.

The great carob-growing districts of South Italy are in the Bart
region on the Adriatic coast, and quantities are exported annually to

>
a) |

247

Russia and central Europe from Brindisi and the other ports along the
coast. Though the tree may be seen in almost any garden here, and is not
uncommonly found on the mountains, the only person who has made a
hobby of its cultivation is the Prince of Belmonte, who has large pro-
perties in the province of Salerno not far from the ruins of Paestum.
Besides planting several trees in his shrubbery, the Prince has a long
avenue of them leading up to his house, which is particularly interesting,
and is, we believe, the only avenue of its kind. The trees are planted 7
metres apart and the largest of them has a trunk of 85 centimetres
(about 2 feet 9 inches) in circumference. This tree is 18 years old, and
its top is from 6 to 7 metres in diameter, and 4 or 5 in height. In
common with the other trees of the avenue the fruit is of the best des-
cription, and each tree may be taken to yield annually 50 chilos, or say
120 lbs. of fruit, worth here about 6 shillings. This may be spoken of
as the ornamental part of the work, while the plantations of Licosa and
Tresina are more on the scale of a commercial enterprise. They are
both germane to our present purpose, as they show in what different
circumstances the carob will grow and flourish. The Licosa grove is in
a plain by the seaside, and the difference of the trees is very remarkable,
some of them growing with great vigour, others not flourishing at all.
The reason of this must be the existence of land-springs beneath the
surface with which the weaker trees come into contact, and by which
their growth is checked. There is no other apparent reason, and as the
grove consists ofabout 1,500 trees thereis scope for observation. The site is
very much exposed to the wind, and in the first attempts at forming the
grove as many as 70 per cent. of the plants were lost. There were
other causes too which led up to this heavy loss. First, the whole thing
being an experiment, they did not know at what period and in what
way it was best to graft the trees, and also the grafters had not any-
thing like the skiJl which they have since acquired.

The grove at Tresina is planted in altogether different conditions.
Here we have a hilly country fully 1,000 feet above the sea, and here
the outside loss of plants has been 20 per cent., which is not more than
occurs in the planting of ordinary forest trees. The plantation consisted
originally of 7,000 trees, but has been largely increased year by
year, and the Prince expresses every confidence that in a few years’ time
he willclothe the barren slopes with a mantle of luxuriant green.
Professor Savastona asks very pertinently why, if these results can
be obtained at Tresina, they should not be obtained elsewhere, and
thousands of barren acres of Italian mountains be made useful and
productive. And in fact, since he wrote upon the matter,
the spread of this cultivation has been steady and continuous.
We have shown pretty plainly that Prince Belmonte has attained success
only by patient experiments extending over a considerable number
of years commercially speaking he is abundantly satisfied with the re-
sults obtained, but he does not relax his efforts. He rears some 8,000
seedlings every year, and has a skilled staff to conduct all the necessary
operations with the result that he grows a valuable crop on ground
which before was absolutely unproductive ; and if the landed proprietors
of South Africa profit by his experience and are equally persevering,
and the tree as is anticipated, proceeds to grow likea weed, its intro-
duction should form a mine of wealth to our industrous colonists. There

248

is one important advantage that the carob has over other beans, namely,
that it does not require threshing. In feeding horses itis usual to
break the pod into two or three pieces and to putit in the nose bag or
manger mix with bran.

CITRIC ACID.

Raw Marteriat.

Citric Acid is prepared from the fruit juice of three species of
Citrus—the lemon, bergamot, and lime; the first of these is the prin-
cipal source of citric acid. Concentrated lemon juice is chiefly im-
ported from Sicily ; a very little comes from Naples or Sorrenio. Con-
centrated bergamot juice is prepared in Calabria and exported from
Messina. Concentrated lime juice is imported in small quantity from
Montserrat and Dominica. The lemon juice from Sicily is prepared
by pressing the inferior fruit, from which the rind has previously been
removed, for the manufacture of essence. The so-called “single” juice
is then boiled down till its sp. gr. equals 60° on the citrometer (sp.
gr. |. 24) ; it then forms a dark brown, rather syrupy liquid.

The total quantity of concentrated Sicilian and Italian juice im-
ported to England in 1887, was equivalent to rather more than 3,400
pipes of 108 gallons; the amount used for the manufacture of citric
acid was probably equivalent to 3,200 pipes, of lime juice, about 2,000
puncheons of 110 gallons were imported in an unconcentrated condi-
tion, and used for the preparation of beverages. About 200 pipes of
concentrated lime juice were imported, and employed for the manufac-
ture of citric acid.

Lemon juice has its greatest acidity early in the season (November).
The juice of the fine fruit, exported as lemons, has sp. gr. 1.03-1.04;
it contains free acid equal to 11-13 oz. of citric acid per gallon. The
inferior fruit pressed in Sicily yields a juice containing at the begin-
ning of the season about 9 oz. of free acid per gallon, and at the end of
the season a great deal less.

There are other differences between the juice of fine lemon
pressed in England, and the Sicilian juice employed for the manufac-
ture of citric acid. The former contains very little combined organic
acid, only about 2.5 p.c. of the total organic acid (free plus combined)
present. In unconcentrated Sicilian juice the combined acid is about 7-9
p.c. of the total. Again, the English pressed juice contains hardly
any organic acid save citric only about 1 p. c. of the total organic acid
bemg unprecipitable as calcium citrate. In Sicilian juice about 8 p. c.
of the total organic acid is unprecipitable as calcium salt.

The concentrated lemon juice from Sicily is reckoned of standard
quality when its sp. gr. is 1.24, and its acidity is equal to 64 oz. per
gallon of nominal citric acid. In dealing with trade analysis it must,
however, be borne in mind that the “ crystallised citric acid” of a trade
certificate is not the crystallised acid of commerce, but an acid contain-
ing only half the actual amount of water, an acid in fact having the
atomic weight 201 instead of 210

(C, H, O, H, O.) ’
no reason can be given for this practice, which should certainly be
abolished. In the present article all quantities of citric acid will be ex-
pressed in terms of the common crystallised acid.

249

The concentrated lemon juice from Sicily contains pretty uniformly
7-8 oz. per gallon of combined organic acid, equal to about 10.p e. of
the total organic acid (reckoned as citric) present. Of the total organic
acid about 10 p. ec. is not precipitable as calcium salt, and is therefore
not citric acid; this proportion is, however, by no means constant.
Purchases of lemon juice are unfortunately still made on the basis of
acwlity, and not on the amount of precipitable acid present. Analyses
of 895 pipes of concentrated lemon juice by Mr. Grosjean have been
published (Town Cham. Soc. Lond. 43,333). The average proportion of
precipitable acid was 99-2 p. c. of the free acid, but the range of varia-
tion was considerable, individual parcels of juice giving 81.1, 85.8, and
103.6 of precipitable acid p. c. of free.

Concentrated Bergamot juice has a similar sp. gr. to lemon juice,
but a lower acidity; it generally contains free acid equal to about 51
oz. of citric acid per gallon. The quantity of combined organic acid
is apparently similar to that in lemon juice, namely 7-8 oz. per gallon ;
but the proportion of combined to total is higher, 12-13 p.c. The
proportion of unprecipitable acid is about 13 p.c. of the total. Mr.
Grosjean’s analyses of 90 pipes of Bergamot juice, show a mean of 98.4
of precipitable acid for 100 of acidity, the extremes being 95.4 and
101.4.

The unconcentrated lime juice of Montserrat has a mean of sp. gr.
of 1.036; it contains according to Conroy (Ph. J. 1883, 606) an aver-
age of 7.84 p.c., or 12.54 0z. per gallon of free acid. The extremes
observed were 6.70-10.05 p. ¢. equal to 10.7-16.1 oz. per gallon.
The juice yields 0.43 p.c. of ash. It contains only a trace of sugar.
Warington found the combined acid in two samples 5 p. ce. of the
total; 10 p. c. of the total acid was not precipitable.

Concentrated lime juice is a viscid liquid, sp. gr. 1.32, and with an
acidity averaging about 94 oz. of citric acid per gallon. The combined
acid is about 8-9 oz. per gallon. The unprecipitable acid is about
10.14 p. c. of the total. The precipitable acid bears a lower proportion
to the free than is the case with either lemon or bergamot juice, the
published analyses showing a mean of 93.8 of precipitable acid for 100
of free.

The nature of the organic acid, other than citric, present in lemon,
‘bergamot, and lime juice has not been determined. A little formic acid
and acetic acid have been detected in concentrated juice , bat the prin-
cipal acids other than citric are clearly non-volatile and have soluble
calcium salts. The acids most probably present are malic and aconitic.

Besides lemon juice, some crude calcium citric, prepared in Sicily by
precipitating lemon juice with chalk, is exported into England. It
contains about 64 p. c. of citric acid.

Process oF MANUFACTURE.

The manufacture of citric acid from concentrated lemon juice is ex-
tremely simple. A proper quantity of whiting (levigated chalk) is
mixed with water, and heated by steam in a wooden vat provided with
a revolving agitator; the concentrated juice is then slowly pumped m,
care being of course taken that the whiting is finally in small excess.
the liquor never becomes neutral, however long boiling may be con-
tinued, or however great is the excess of whiting present ; the adjus -
ment of juice and whiting is therefore effected by ascertaining if the

250

liquor effervesces with more whiting, or the precipitate effervesces
with more juice. The amount of unneutralised acid is about 1-24 p. c.
of the original acidity of the juice. Pure citric acid is readily
neutralised by whiting, malic «and aconitic acid are not; the
final acidity is thus possibly due to the presence of these acids. Citric
acid, however, is not neutralised by chalk if phosphates, and especially
ferric phosphates, be present; this fact will also explain the result.
It is not advisable to neutralise completely by the use of lime, as vege-
table impurities are then thrown down which are afterwards difficult
to separate.

The precipitated calcium citrate is washed with hot water ona filter.
It is next brought by the addition of water to the state of thin cream,
and decomposed, with constant agitation, by the addition of a small
excess of sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1.7.). The occurrence of an axcess of
sulphuric acid is known by the liquor affording a precipitate with a
strong solution of calcium chloride after some minutes’ standing.

The citric acid liquor is then separated from the gypsum, which is
washed on a filter. The liquor is evaporated in shallow leaden baths
by steam heat. Much gypsum is at first deposited, from this clear
liquor is run off and further concentrated. When strong enough to
cerystalise, the hot liquor is run into a wooden tub provided with an
agitator, and the liquor is kept in constant motion while cooling; by
this prccess, known as “granulation,” the citric acid is obtained
as a crystalline powder. The mother liquor is again concentrated, and
salt again obtained by granulation. The process may be repeated a
third time. The liquor is then too dark and impure for further crystal-
lisation, and is known as ‘old liquor.’ The granulated citric acid when
drain, and if necessary slightly washed, is redissolved, decolourised by
heating with animal charcoal (previously freed from phosphates by
hydrochloric acid again concentrated to the crystallising point, and
poured into leaden trays about 3 inches deep; the crystals here formed
are the citric acid of commerce. Citric acid thus prepared always con-
tains a trace of lead.

The ‘old liquor’ is diluted with water, and the citric acid it contains
precipitated with an excess of whiting, exactly as in the case of the
original juice. The liquor is never neutralised by the whiting; this
may be either due to aconitic acid formed during the heating of the
citric acid liquors, or to the presence of ferric or aluminic phosphate
derived from the whiting.

Any considerable excess of sulphuric acid in the liquors, or any over-
heating, must be avoided, as occasioning decomposition of citric acid.
The presence of iron or aluminium in the whiting also occasions loss,
as citric acid holding iron or aluminium in solution is not precipitated
by csleium carbonzte. In consequence of the non-precipitation of iron
or aluminium from citric solutions by whiting, the citric liquors of the
factory remain nearly ; ure. however long the work may have been con-
tinued, a result very different from what happens in the case of
tartaric acid; the purity of citric acid liquors is however obtained at the
expense of some loss of citric acid. In a well-conducted factory the
total loss during manufacture will amcunt to 12-15 p. c. of the citric
acid in the juice.

The total quantity of citric acid made in the United Kingdom in

251

1887, was between 400 and 500 tons, of which about half was exported,
About 15 tons were imported from Sicily; this was the only import.
The acid is chiefly used by calico- -printers; it is also employed in the
preparation of effervescing drinks and in medicine.—TZhorpe’s
Dictionary of Applied Chemistry.

FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—XLVIII.

Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja-
maica. By G. S. Jenman, Superintendent Botanical Garden,
Demerara.

2. Vittaria lineata, Swartz.-—Rootstock shortly repent, fasciculate,
densely clothed with dark hair-|ike reticulated serrate scales; fronds linear,
1-4 ft. |. 1th in. w., aniform, pendent in dense compact tufts, narrowed
gradually and thickened at the base, but with no distinct stipes, glossy,
deep ¢ green, thickly coriac_ous but pliant while green ; openly depressed.
down the bac -k, the under side rounded toward the base, margins as
thick, but the edges subrounded both above and beneath; veins slender
immersed and concealed, oblique, distant, forming narrow longitu-
dinal «reole ; sori sunk in thread-like very narrow uninterrupted sub-
marginal grooves. Pl. Fil. t. 148. Haton’s Fern N. Am. PI. 38.

Very common on trees, especially on the banks of rivers at low
altitu.es, and on rocks and trees in torests from sea level up to almost
the very highest peaks Specimens from the mountain forests are
dwarf and not often over a foot long. The finest plants grow on the
branches of trees that overhang rivers among the lower hills. These
are horse'ail-like, in dense pendent tufts, 2-4 ft. 1. .The grooves are
narrower and n arer the .dge than in the last species, the substance
thicker, and themargins not reduced, the corners being merely rounded.

3. V. stipitara, Kunze.-—Root>tock sub-repent, very short, clothed
with minute hair-like dark reticulated scales: stipites tufted, naked or
slightly scaly, dark purple, 1-3 in. |. passing gradually into the dark-
green fronds, which are linear-ligulate, pende nt, 1-34 ft. 1. 4-2ths in.
w., firm, but pliant while fresh, very clear and translucent, the aEeine
slightly thickened, the edge on the underside not Tourdeds: veins
immersed very oblique, long, forming very narrow greatly elongated
areol ; sori submarginal, ‘sunk in a narrow continuous thread like
groove, falling short ‘of the base and apex.

Infrequent on the branches of trees over rivers, and in very wet
forests, chiefly among the lower hills, but ascending as high as 4,000
ft. altitude: most frequent on the banks of Ginger River. St. Mary,
gathered also at Old England, below the Government Cinchona
Plantations. It grows chiefly in peaty matter, which accumulates
about the roots of Bromeliads and on decaying wood. There are only
a few fronds to a single tuft, but the plants are generally aggreeated
in amass. In growth the fronds are exceedingly tramslucent so
much so that the venation ran be clearly seen a yard or two away, in
favourable light. The lateral veins are nearly as strong as the
midvein ; there being no distinct midrib as in the preceding species,
above the base of the fronds.

252

4. V. remota, Fée.—Rootstock slender, short, erect, the scales very
minute, reticulated, and dark; stipites caspitose, erect, few to a plant,
purple, short, winged by the decurrent fronds to near the base; fronds
erect or suberect, {-11} ft. 1. $4 in. w., tapering gradually both ways,
the apex acuminate, very rarely forked, pellucid, chartaceous, a bright
glossy green, pale beneath, margins thin and slightly reflexed or
bevelled, sometimes irregularly narrowed and forming a shallow notch
in the line; midrib evident, raised on the upperside, the base dark
purple; veins close, about 11. apart, connected exteriorly within the
margin, and also casually interiorly; sori forming a dark-brown band,
superficial, or the receptacle, very slightly depressed, continuous or
interrupted.

Rare in forests on decaying logs of wood, growing in grass-like
masses, gathered at Chesterfield, St. Mary. A well marked but rather
anomalous species, distinguished by the superficial broadish bands of
sori, the close veins, which casually form medial conn -ctions as well as
the normal exterior anastomosis, and the distinct midrib. The veins
though immersed (as is also the midrib) are slightly raised on the upper
side. The texture while fresh is pellucid, and the colour a very fresh

bright green.

Genus XXXIV. Tanitis Swartz.

Sori linear, continuous or interrupted, rarely in oblong patches, sub-
marginal, intramarginal or medial, superficial or more or less impressed
or sunk in a narrow furrow; veins freely reticulated or the veinlets
connect2d by a transverse longitudinal vein, which forms a linear or
elongated receptacle; fronds simple, furcate or pinnate, generally cori-
aceous, naked or slightly scaly; rootstock shortly repent or free-
creeping.

A very small genus, much resembling the preceding, but dis-
tinguished by its more superficial sori, generally copiously reticulated
venation, stiffer and coriaceous texture of leaf, and erect or less pendent
habit. There are barely a dozen species, all tropical, two-thirds of
which are American, and the others Asiatic. They are all epiphytal,
growing on the branches and stems of trees, mostly in moist districts
or situations.

Fronds simple.— 1. T. Swartzii.
2. T. angustifolia.

3. T. lanceolata.

1. T. Swartsit. Jenm.—Rootstock free-creeping, thick as slender
cord, dark tomentose-scaly in the extending part; fronds scattered,
4-6 in 1. 4-4 in or more wide, acuminate, tapering at the base and
decurrent on the short purple petioles, which are 4-1} in. 1, elastico-
coriaceous, opaque, thinly sprinkled with minute peltate fimbriate-edged.
scales, underside paler than the upper, coste purple, thread-like
upwards; veins immersed, hidden or obscure, reticulated, the areole
elongated and parallel with the costae and margins, sori superficial,
intramarginal, continuous or interrupted, mostly in oblong patches im
small fronds, confined to the upper part. Grammitis elongata, Swartz.
Mecosorus, Klotzsch, Gymnogram na, Hook., Putypodium, Mett.

253

Common below 2,000 or 3,000 ft. altitude, growing on the stems of
bushes and trees, generally near the ground. The fructification is \ery
variable, ranging from patches a quarter of an inch, to unbroken lines
two or three inches long. ‘The fronds with the longer lines of sori no
one would on first knowledge think of referring to any of the genera
above quoted, and therefore I think the species is_ best associated with
Tenitis. Indeed narrow soriferous fronds might very readily be
taken for branches of T. *urcata, Willd. so near is the likeness.

2. T. angustifolia, R. Br.- Rootstock rather slender, repent, densely
clothed with dark, reticulated, hair-like, lacerate-edged, acuminate
scales; fronds linear-lanceolate, suberect or pendent, approximate, or
rather tufted often, 1 - 14 ft. 1. 4 in. or rather over wide, long tapering
to the very acuminate apex, the same to the long-decurrent base, in which
the petiole is hardly distinct, coriaceous, naked, the upper side darker,
the margins entire, even, thin and rather reflexed, sometimes concealing
the sori, the midrib evident beneath, purple in the lower part; veins
immersed, copiously reticulated in elongated areole, which run parallel
with the coste and margins; sori continuous or interrupted, slightly
within the margin, in a shallow or rather superficial groove falling
short of both apex and base Pl. Fil. t. 140. Pteropsis, Desv.

Frequent on the branches of trees close to rivers below 2,000 ft. alti-
tude. As in some of the species of Vittaria and other similar epiphy-
tal ferns which grow without soilor vegetable matter, the roots are densely
tomentose. ‘The fronds resemble most those of Vittaria remota, but are
longer, more opaque, and may at once be distinguished by the netted
venation, which, however, is often quite concealed in the leathery opaque
substance. Ina young state the thin reflexed margins or outer edges
of the grooves, more or less conceal the lines of sori, but at maturity they
are exposed and form dark submarginal bands.

3. TL. lanceolata, R., Br.—Rootstock shortly repent with dense much
matted root fibre ; stipites approximate or apart, chestnut-brown, 1-2 in.
1., erect; fronds erect, lanceolate, 4-14 ft. 1. 4-14 in. w. tapering both
ways, upwards to a long somewhat contracted fertile part, the base de-
current shortly more on one side than the other, coriaceous, stiff, naked,
glossy, dark green, midrib distinct, the same colour as the frond, margins
entire but repand; veins freely reticulated, forming oblique meshes
with free included veinlets ; sori marginal, confined to the upper part of
the fronds in continuous or interrupted marginal lies, superficial, or
very slightly impressed at first; Pl. Fil t. 182. Pteris lanceolata,
Linn. Pteropsis, Desv. Paltonium, Presl. Neurodium, Fée.

Frequent on trees at low elevations growing in erect spreading
patches, with densely matted roots. A broader, stiffer, and more lan-
ceolate species than the last, and definitely marked by the bands of sori
being more marginal and confined to the rather contracted upper third
or less of the fronds, and by the different venation which has rather
stronger main veins at intervals, with free included veinlets in the
meshes. The venation shows distinctly on the upper side. The mar-
gims are so repand that when dry they are quite wavy.

Trizt XIII, AcrosticHEe®.

Fronds usually dimorphous, covering a wide range in form, cutting
and habit, the fertile more or less contracted; sori usually diffused

254

over the whole under surface (and occasionally the upper) except on the
rachis and coste; sporangia stalked, compressed, girdled by a vertical
jointed band, splitting when ripe transversely ; usually naked and des-
titute of any involucral covering.

This tribe as here viewed, and represented in this Flora, comprises
only a single large genus, in which regardless of diversity of habit, ve-
nation and circumscription—which characters authors have adopted
for dividing it into several genera—are included all those plants which
have naked amorphous sori, and though confessedly an heterogeneous
assemblage, the character is an obvious and easily recognised one.
They are principally tropical subjects, and have their head-quarters
on the islands and mainland of equatorial America, where about two-
thirds of the known species exist.

Genus XXXV, Acrosticuum, LINN.

Sori diffused in a uniformly even superficial layer over the under,
and in a few cases the upper surface of the frond; sterile and fertile
fronds (except in one case) distinct, the latter usually more or less con-
tracted; venation free or variously anastomosing ; habit and circumserip-
tion various.

This well marked genus embraces about 200 species, the majority of
which are epiphytal subjects, living among moss and vegetable
debris on trees, rocks and decaying logs in damp fcrests; and of
the rest, the majority lift themselves clear of the ground where they
begin their growth, and ascend the nearest vertical surface by means
of their creeping or scandent rhizomes; so that very few are strictly
terrestrial. The barren fronds are permanent, usually for years, but
the fertile, which are produced only in season, and are herbaceous or
membranous in substance, mature and perish in a few weeks. Some
species only fruit during a limited portion of the year, generally in the
late summer months.

Fronds simple.
Veins free.
Fronds nearly or quite naked.
Fronds tapering at the base.
Stipites of barren fronds usually under 1-2 in. 1.

1. A. Herminieri, Bory.’
Stipites of barren fronds usually over 2 in. 1.
2. A. gramineum, Jenm.
. A. simplex, Swartz.
. A. inequalifolium, Jenm.
. A. alatum, Fée.
. A. viridifolium, Jenm.
A. chartaceum, Baker.

NAMB ON

Fronds s! ortly tapering, cuneate or rounded at the base.
Stipites over 2 in. 1.
8. A. pallidum, Baker.
9. A. conforme, Swartz.
10 <A. latifolium, Swartz.

255

Fronds more or less paleaceous.
Scales few.
11. A. viscosum, Swartz.
12 A. Huacsaro, Ruiz.
Scales copious but not matted.
13. A. tectum, Willd.
14. A. auricomum, Kunze.
Scales matted.
15. A. muscosum, Swartz.
16. A. lepidotum, Willd.

17. A. squamosum, Swartz.

Scales chiefly on the margins and midrib, paleaceous or hair-like.
Scales more hair-like than paleaceous more or less deciduous.

18. A. hybridum, Bory.
Scales hair-like, confined chiefly to the margins and rib or spread
over the surface.
Scales chiefly on the margins, but sparingly over the other
surface.
19, A. apodum, Kaulf.
20. A. cubense, Mett.
Scales spread more freely over the surface.
21. A. spathulatum, Bory.
22. A. Lindeni, Bory.
23. A. siliquoides, Jenm.
24. A. villosum, Swartz.
Veins areolated.
Scales hair-like, scattered over the surfac>.
25. A. crinitum, Linn.
Fronds compound.
Veins free.
Fronds palmate or flabellate.
26. A. peltatum, Swartz.
Fronds simply pinnate.
27. A. sorbifolium, Linn.
Fronds bi-tripinnate.
28. A. osmundaceum, Hook.
Veins united.
Veins united only at the margin.

29. A. cervinum, Swartz.
Veins copiously areolated.
Sporangia not mixed with corpuscles.
30. A. nicotianefolium, Swartz.
31. A. alienum, Swartz.
Sporangia mixed with corpuscles.
32. A. aureum, Linn,
33. A. lomarioides, Jenm.

256
CONTRIBUTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

LipraRry.
Bulletin R. Gar. Kew. Dec. 1896. Jan.—Oct. 1897.} [Kew.]
British Museum Return, 1896-97. [Trustees. |
Bot. Magazine. Aug.-Oct. 1897. [purchased |
Tropical Agriculturist, Aug. & Sept. 1897. [purchased. |
Sugar Cane. Sept. & Oct., 1897. [Editor. |
Sugar. Aug.—Oct., 1897. [Editor. |
Pharm. Journal. Aug.-Oct. 1897.
W.1. & Com. Advertiser. Sept., 1897. [Editor.]
Chemist & Druggist. Aug., Sept., Oct., 1897. [Editor.]
Produce World. Sept. & Oct.,1897. [Editor.]
British Trade Journal. Sept. & Oct., 1897. [Editor.]
Journ. Board of Agri., England. Sept. 1897. [Secretary.]
Field and other Experiments, Rothamstead. [ Director. }
Leaflet, Board of Agri., England. ([Secy.]
Bot. Gaz. Sept. 1897. [Editor. ]
Journal of Botany. Oct. 1897. [purchased.]
Agr. Ledger, (India) 1897. [Govt. Print. Calcutta. ]
Proc, Agri. Hort. Soc., Madras, Aprl.—June, 1897. [Secretary.]
Proc. Agri. Soc., Trinidad. Sept., 1897. [Secretary. ]
Bulletin R. Bot. Gard. Trinidad. [Supt.]
Report for 1896, Bot. St., Barbados. [Authors. |
Report for 1896, Bot. St., St. Lucia. [ Curator. }
Agri. Gaz., N. South Wa'es. July, Aug., 1897. [Dep. of Agri.]
Sugar Journal, Queensland, Aug., Sept., 1897. [Kditor. |
Agri. Journ., Cape of G. Hope. Aug. & Sept., 1897. [Dept of Agri.]
Revue Agricole. July & Aug., 1897. ]Editor. |
Central African Planter. July, 1897. [Editor.]
Ceylon Times. Aug.-Oct.,1897. [Editor.]
Meteorol. Returns, St. Vincent. June-Aug. [Curator.] .
Report Hort. Gard. Lucknow. 1896-97. [Supt.]
Report Bot. Gard. Saharanpur. [Supt.]
Report Cinchona Plant., Nilgiris, 1896-97. [Govt. of India. ]
Bot. Gard. & Mus., Berlin. Aug. & Sept., 1897. [ Director. |
Queensland Agri. Journ., Aug. 1&97. [Editor.]
Dep. of Land Record & Agri. India. Mar. 1897.
Experiment Station Record U.S. A., 1X. 1. [Director.]
Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club. Sept., 1897. [Editor.]
Am. Journ. of Pharm. Oct., Nov., 1897. [Editor.]
Forester. Oct.,1897. [Editor.]
Montreal Pharm. Journ. Sept. & Oct., 1897.
Trans. Acad., St. Louis, Sept., 1897. [Harvard Univ.]
Proc-American Acad. of Arts & Se. Oct.1897. [Harvard Univ.]
Bot. Gaz., Sept., (ct., 1897. [Editor. |
Photographs American Fungi. By C.G. Lloyd. [Author.]
Antherozvids of Zamia, By H. J. Webber. [Author.]
Some North American Coniferze. By E. 8. Baslin & H. Trimble. [Authors.]
Propagating Citrus Fruits. By H. J. Webber. [Author.]
Proefstation, Suikerriet, W. Java. [Editor.
Hawaiian Planters’ Monthly. Sept., 1897. [Editor.]
Sucrerie Indigene et Coloniale. Aug.—Oct., 1897. [Editor.]
Bulletin deL’ Herbier Boissier. Sept. 1897. [Conservateur.]

Reports, Bulletin, & Records have been received from the following Agricul-
culinral Experiment Stations, U. S.A.

Arburn, Alabama; Uniontown, Alabama; Tueson, Arizona : Fayetteville, Ar-
kansas; Berkley, California; New Haven, Connecticut; Storrs, Connecticut ;
Lake City, Florida; Lafayette, Indiana; Ames, Iowa; Manhattan, Kansas ; ,
Lexington, Kentucky; Andubon Park, Louisiana; Baton Rouge, Louisiana ;
Orno, Maine; College Park, Maryland; Amherst; Massachusetts ; Agricul-

@ @=

257

tural College, Michigan; St. Anthony Park, Minnesota ; Agricultural College,
Mississippi ; Lincoln, Nebraska ; New Jersey ; Mesilla Park, New Mexico ; Geneva,
New York ; Ithaca, New York; Raleigh, North Carolina; Fargo, North Dakota;
Wooster, Ohio ; State College, Pensylvania ; Kingston, Rhode Island; Brookings,
South Dakota; Knoxville, Tennesse College Station Texas; Burlington, Ver-
mont; Blacksburg, Virginia; Madison, Wisconsin ; Laramie, Wyoming; Corvallis,
Oregon.

SEEDS.
From Frank Walker, Launceston, Tasmania.—

Leptospermum levigatum Olearia stellulata, var, angustifolia
Eucalyptus Risdoni O. persoonioides

E. cordata Anopterus glandulosus

E. urnigera Pimelea drupacea

E. Gunni Acacia longifolia

E. coccifera Clematis gentianoides
Helichrysum antennarium Telopea truncata

rosmarinifolium Drimys aromatica

Jels baccharoides Casuarina distyla
Blandfordia marginata Metrosideros tomentosa
Styphelia Billardierii Sprengelia incarnata

Trochocarpa thymifolia

From Botanic Gardens, Trinidad.—
Aristolochia gigas, var. Sturtevantii

From Dr. Plaxton, Kingston.—
Sapodilla

Pants.

From Lady Blake, Moneague.—

Habenaria macroceratitis.

CASTLETON GARDENS.

JULY.
In Flower. In Fruir.
Averrhoa Bilimbi, Linn | Czesalpinia Sappan, Linn.
(The Bilimbi, E. Indies) (Sappan Wood, E. Indies)
Andirainermis, H. B. & K. Carapa guianensis,
(Cabbage bark tree, W. Indies, Brazil) (Crab-wood, Guiana)
Baphia nitida, Lodd Cocos botryophora, Mart.
(Cam Wood, W. Africa) (A Brazilian Palm)
Bauhinia variegata, Linn. Cynometra americana, Vog.
—- (Butterfly tree, India & China) (Trop. America)
Brexia madagascariensis, Thou. Eugenia malaccensis, Linn.
(Madagascar) (Malay Apple, Malay Islands)
Brownea Rosa-de-monte, Berg. Garcinia indica, Choisy
(Rosa-de-monte, Trop. S. America (Kokam Butter, India)
Calophyllum Calaba, Jacq. Garcinia Morella, Desrouss
(Santa Maria, West Indies & Trop. (Gamboge tree, E. [ndies)
Amer.) Gmelina asiatica, Linn.
Caryocar nuciferum, Linn. (An East Indian tree)
(Souari, or Butter nut, Guiana) Heritiera macrophylla, Wall.
Cassia siamea, Lam. (Looking-glass tree, India, Burma)
(India & Malaya) Imbricaria maxima, Poir.
Castilloa elastica, Cery. (Mauritius & Bourbon)
(Central America Rubber, Cntr. Amr.)| Michelia Champaca, Linn.
Cerbera fruticosa, Roxb, (Champac tree, India)
(Burma) Omphalea triandra, Linn.
Clerodendron macrosiphon, Hook. f. (Cob-nut, Trop. America)
(Trop. Africa) Pachira aquatica, Aubl.
Cocos botryophora, Mart. (Pachira, Trop. America)
(A Brazilian Palm)

298

In FLowekr.

Cordia alba, Roem. & Schult.
The White Cherry tree, W. Indies
Cynometra americana, Vog.
(Trop. America)
Dipteryx odorata, Willd.
(Tonquin Bean, Cayenne)
Heritiera macrophylla, Wall.
(Looking glass tree, India, Burma)
Hyophorbe Verschaffelti, H. Wendl.
(A Palm from Rodriguez Island)
Lagerstroemia Flos-regine, Retz.
(Queen’s Flower, India & Burma)
Michelia, Champaca, Linn.
(Champac tree, India)
Myroxylon toluiferum, H. B. & K.
(Balsam of Tola, Trop. America)
Nerium Oleander, Linn, var. alba
(White Oleander, Mediterranean Re-
gion)
Norantea guianensis, Aubl.
(Norantea, Guiana & Brazil)
Omphalea triandra, Linn.
(Cob-nut, Trop. America)
Oreodoxa regia, H. B. & K.
(Royal Palm, Cuba)
Pachira aquatica, Aubl.
(Pachira, Trop. American)
Pterocarpus Draco, Linn,
(Dragon’s Blood tree, Trop. America)
Pterospermum lancezfolium, Roxb.
(An East Indian tree)
Semecarpus Anacardium, Linn.
(Marking-nut Tree, India)
Sterculia carthaginensis, Cay.
(Chica, Trop America)
‘Stevensonia grandifolia, F. Duncan
(Palm from the Seychelle Islands)

In Frotrr.

Pachira Barrigon, Seem
(Barrigon, Panama)

Posoqueria longiflora, Aubl.
(Guiana)

Peterocarpus indicus, Willd.
(Rose Wood, E. Indies & China)

Terminalia Arjuna, Bedd.
(Arjun tree, India & Ceylon)

Vanilla planifolia, Andr.
(Vanilla, Trop. America)

Victoria regia, Lindl.
(Royal Water-lily, Guiana)

AUGUST.

In FLoweEk,

Acacia cyanophylla Lindl.
(Blue-leaved Acacia, Australia)
Artocarpus Lokoocha, Roxb.
(Indian Breadfrnit, India & Malaya)
Averhoa Carambola, Linn
(Carambola, India and China)
Baphia nitida, Lodd.
(Cam-Wood, W. Africa)
Bauhinia variegata, Linn
(Butterfly tree, India & China)
Bignonia magnifica, Bull
(Colombian Bignonia, Colombia)
Brexia madagascariensis, Thou.
(Madagascar)

In Fruit.

Cananga odorata, Hook. f. & Thomas.
(Cananga, Llang,India)
Castilloa elastica, Cerv.
(Centr. American Rubber, Central
America)
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens, Wend.
(A Maritius Palm)
Couroupita guianensis, Aubl.
(Cannon-ball tree, Trop. Amer.)
Copernicia cerifera, Mart.
(Wax Palm, Brazil)
Cynometra americana, Vog.
(Trop. America)
Dillenia indica, Linn.
(Dillenia, E. Indies)

259

In FLOWER.

Brownea Rosa-de-monte, Berg.
(Rosa-de-monte, Trop. S. America)
Calophyllum Calaba, Jacq.
(Santa-Maria, W.Indies & Trop.Amer-
ica)
Caryocar nuciferum, Linn.
(Souari or Butter-nut, Guiana)
Cordia alba, Roem. & Schult.
(The White Cherry-tree, W. Indies)
Couroupita guianensis, Linn.
(Cannon-ball tree, ‘l'rop. America)
Davidsonia pruriens, F, Muell.
(Australia)
Hichornia speciosa, Kunth
(Water Hyacinth, Trop. America)
Erythrina umbrosa, H. 8. & K.
(Bois Immortelle, 8. America)
Erythroxylon Coca, Lam.
(Coca, Andes)
Eugenia malaccensis, Linn.
(Malay Apple, Malay Islands)
Gelonium, multiflorum, A. Juss.
(India, China & Malaya)
Hevea brasiliensis, Muell. Arg.
(Para Rubber, Brazil)
Manihot Glaziovii, Muell. Arg.
(Ceara Rubber, Brazil)
Mesua ferrea, Linn
(Naghas Tree, India)
Miconia magnifica, Triana
(Mexico)
Musa coccinea, Andr.
(A bright red flowering Banana. China)

Norantea guianensis, Aubl.
(Norantea, Guiana & Brazil)

Noronhea emarginata, Thou.
(A Madagascar Tree)

Omphalea triandra, Linn.
(Cob nut, Trop. America)

~Oreodoxa regia, H. B. & K
(Royal Palm, Cuba)

Pterocarpus Draco, Linn.
(Dragon’s Blood tree, Trop. America)

Sanchezia nobilis, Hook. f.
(Ecuador)

Sarcocephalus esculentus, Afzel.
(Sierra Leone Peach, Upper Guinea)
Semecarpus Anacardium, Linn.
(Marking-nut tree, [ndia)
Stevensonia grandifolia, F. Duncan)
(Palm from the Seychelle Islands)
Tabernemontana Wallichiana, Steud.
(Sumatra)
Terminalia Arjuna, Bedd.
(Arjun Tree, India & Ceylon)

In Fruit.

Diospyros discolor, Willd.
(Mabola Ebony, Philippines)
Garcinia indica, choisy.
(Kokam Butter, India)
Hevea brasiliensis, Muell. Arg.
(Para Rubber, Brazil)
Imbricaria maxima, Poir)
(Mauritius & Bourbon)
Michelia Champaca, Linn.
(Champac tree, India)
Omphalea triandra, Linn.
(Cob-nut, Trop. America)
Oreodoxa regia, H. B. & K.
(Royal Palm, Cuba)
Pachira Barrigon, Seem.
(Barrigon, Panama)
Phyllanthus Emblica, Linn.
(The Emblic Myrobalan, India &
Burma)

Samadera, indica, Gertn.
(Samadera, India & Ceylon)
Sarcocephalus esculentus, Afzei.

(Sierra Leone Peach, Upper Guinea)

260

SEPTEMBER.
In Frower. In Frvirt.
Wormia Burbidgei, Hook. f. Averrhoa Carambola, Linn.
(Borneo) (Carambola, India & China)
Acacia cyanophylla, Lindl. Cananga odorata, Hook. f. & Thoms.
(Blue-leaved Acacia, Australia) (Cananga, Llang. India)
Allamanda neriifolia, Hook. Couroupita guianensis, Aubl.
(Brazil) (Cannon-ball tree. Trop. America)
Ardisia tinifolia, Sw. Dillenia, indica, Linn.
(Jamaica) (Dillenia, E, Indies)
Artocarpus Lacoocha, Roxb. Diospyros discolor, Willd.
(Indian Breadfruit, India & Malaya) (Mabola Ebony, Philippines)
Cesalpinia Sappan, Linn. Eriobotrya japonica, Lindl.
(Sappan Wood, East Indies) (Loquat, China & Japan)
Cassia bacillaris, Linn, Erythroxylon Coca, Lam.
(Trop. America) (Coca, Andes)
Cassia glauca, Lam. Garcinia Mangostana, Linn
(Glaucous Cassia, E. Indies, & Aus- (Mangosteen, Malay Archipelago)
tralia) Landolphia Kirkii, Dyer
Cassia siamea, Lam. (Rubber Vine, Africa,)
(India & Malaya) Manihot Glaziovii, Muell. Arg.
Conostegia speciosa, Naud. (Cearea Rubber, Brazil)
(Panama) Maunritia flexuosa Linn. f.
Coccoloba latifolia Lam. (Ita Palm, Brazil & Guiana)
(S. America) | Norovhia emarginata, Thou.
Cordia alba, Roem. & Schult. (A Madagascar Tree)
(The White Cherry tree, W. Indies) Omphalea triandra, Linn,
Crinum Moorei, Hook. f. (Cob-nut, Trop. America)
(South Africa) Tabernzemontana longiflora, Benth.
Croton Tiglium, Linn. (Trop. America.)

(Croton-oil tree, India & Malaya)
Davidsonia pruriens, F. Muell.
(Australia)
Derris dalbergioides, Baker
(Burma, Malaya)
Diospyros montana, Roxb.
(An Ebony tree from India)
Dillenia indica, Linn.
(Dillenia, E. Indies)
Eriobotrya japonica, Lindl.
(Loquat, China & Japan)
Erythrina umbrosa, H. B. & K.
(Bois Immortelle, 8S. America)
Eugenia brasilieasis, Lam.
(Brazil Cherry)
Eugenia malaccensis, Linn.
(Malay Apple Malay Islands)
Heliconia Bihai, Linn.
(Wild Banana, W. Indies & Trop
America.)
Heritiera macrophylla, Wall.
(Looking-glass tree. India, Burma)
Hymenoceallis caribzea, Herb.
(Carribean Lily, West Indies)
Manihot Glaziovii, Muell. Arg.
(Ceara Rubber, Brazil)
Mimusops Elengi, Linn.
(Elengi, India)
Musa coccinea, Andr.
(A bright red flowering Banana, China.)

261

ly FLOWER

Myroxylum toluiferum, H. B. & K.)
(Balsalm of Tolu, Trop America)
Napoleona imperialis, Beauv.
(Napoleona, W. Africa)
Norantea guianensis, Aubl.
(Norantea, Guiana & Brazil)
Oncidium Lanceanum, Lindl.
(Orchid from Guiana)
Oncidium Papilio, Lindl.
(Butterfly Orchid, Trinidad)
Pachira aquatica, Abbl.
(Pachira, Panama)
Peristeria elata, Hook.
(El Spirito Santo, or Dove Orchid,
Panama)
Phyllanthus nivosus, Bull,
(Pacific Islands)
Piper nigrum, Linn.
(Black Pepper, India & Malaya)
Pterocarpus Draco, Linn.
(Dragon’s Blood tree, Trop. America)
Quassia amara, Linn.
(Quassia, Surinam)
Ravenala madagascariensis, J. F. Gmel.
(Travellers Tree, Madagascar)
Sanchezia nobilis, Hook. f.
(Ecuador)
Stevensonia grandifolia, F. Duncan
(Palm from Seychelle Islands)
Vanda tricolor, Lindl. y
(An Orchid from Java)
Wagatea spicata, Dalz.
(East Indies)
Zizyphus Jujuba, Lam.
(Jujube tree, India & Malaya)

In Frotit.

as a i

OcToBER.

In FLOWER.

Cananga odorata, Hook. f. & Thoms.
(Cananga, Ilang. India)
Cassia bacillaris, Linn.
(Trop. America)
Cassia glauca, Lam.
(Glaucous Cassia, E. Indies.)
Clerodendron macrosiphon, Hook! f,
(Trop. Africa)
Colvillea racemosa, Boj.
(A Madagascar tree)
Combretum coccineum, Lam.
(Madagascar, Mauritius)
Cordia alba, Roem. & Schult.
(The White Cherry tree: W. Indies)
Cynometra americana, Vog.
(Trop. America)
Dillenia indica, Linn.
(Dillenia, E. Indies)
Eugenia caryophyllata, Thunb.
(Clove tree, Moluccas)

In Fruit.

Adenanthera pavonina, Linn.
(Red-bead tree, Trop. Asia & Mal-

aya)
Averrhoa Carambola, Linn.
(Carambola, India & China)
Barringtonia Butonica, Forst.
(Barringtonia, E. Indies)
Bauhinia variegata, Linn.
(Butterfly tree, India & China)
Cezsalpinia Sappan, Linn.
(Sappan Wood, E. Indies)
Cananga odorata, Hook. f. & Thoms.
(Cananga, Ilang, India)
Cocos botryophora, Mart.
(A Brazilian Palm)
Couroupita guianensis, Aubl.
(Cannon-ball tree, 'Trop. Amer.)
Diospyros discolor, Willd
(Mabola Ebony, Philippines)

lw FLOWER.

Se

Eugenia brasiliensis, Lam.
(Brazil Cherry)
Erioboctrya japonica, Lindl.
(Loquat, China & Japan)
Ficus indica, Linn.
(Banyan tree, Trop. Asia & Malaya)
Ficus rhododendrifolia, Miq.
(Himalayan Region)
Garcinia Mangostana, Linn.
(Mangosteen. Malay Archipelago)
Gmelina asiatica, Linn.
(An East Indian tree)
Hevea brasiliensis, Muell. Arg.
(Para Rubber, Brazil)
Manihot Glaziovii, Mueil. Arg.
(Ceara Rubber, Brazil)
Mesua ferrea, Linn.
(Naghas tree, India)
Morinda citrifolia, Linn.

(The Indian Mulberry, Trop. Asia &

Australia)
Myroxylon toluiferum, H. B. & K.
(Balsam of Tolu, Trop. America)
Musa coccinea, Andr.

(A bright red flow ering Banana, China)

Pachira aquatica, Aubl.
(Guiana)
Pteroca:pus Draco, Linn.

(Dragon’s Blood tree, Trop. America)|

Semecarpus Anacardium, Linn. f.
(Marking uut tree, India)

Swartzia grandiflora, Wild.
(Swartzia, Trop. America)

Trachy lobium verrucosum, Oliver.
(Copal tree, Madazasoar)

262

In Frotr.

Erythroxylon Coca, Lam.
(Coca, Andes)
Garcinia Mangostana, Linn.
(Mangosteen , Malay Archipelago)
Morinda citrifolia, Linn.
(The Indian Mulberry, Trop.
& Australia)
Myristica fragrans, Houtt.
(Nutmeg tree, East Indies)
Nororhia emarginata, Thou.
A Madagascar tree)
Ochna Kirkii, Oliver
(Trop. Africa)
Omphalea triandra, Linn.
(Cob-nut, Trop. America)
Pachira aquatica, Aubl.
(Pachira, Panama)
Posoqueria longiflor:, >ubl.
(Guiana)
Semecarpus Anacardium, Linn. f.
(Marking nut tree, India)
Terminalia Arjuna, Lian.
(Arjun tree, India & Ceylon)

Asia

NovEMBER.

In FLOWER.

Ambherstia nobilis, Wall.
(Amherstia, India & Malacca)
Bauhinia megalandra, Griseb.
(West Indies)
Czesalpinia Sappan, Linn.
(Sappan Wood, K. Indies)
Cattleya Skinne i, Lindl.
(Orchid from Guatemala)
Dendrobium Phalznopsis, Fitzg.
(An Australian Orchid)
Diospyris discolor, Willd.
(Mabola Ebony, Phillipines)
Dillenia indica, Linn.
(Dillenia, E. Indies)
Erythrina Crista-galli, Linn.
(Scarlet Coraltree: Brazil)

In Frit.

Bixa Orellana
(Annatto, W. Indies & Trop. Amer.
Cvesalpinia Sappan, Linn.
(Sappan Wood, E. Indies)
Conostegia speciosa, Naud ;
(Panama)
Dipteryx odorata, Willd.
Tonquin Bean, Cayenne)
Eriobotrya japonica, Lindl.
(Loquat, China & Japan)
Ellettaria cardamomum, Maton.
(Cardamon, India)
Garcinia Mangostana, Linn.
(Mangosteen, Malay Archipelago)
Gmelina asiatica, Linn,
(Aa East Indian tree)
Noronhia emarginata, Thou.
(A Madagascar Tree)

263

In FLower.

Fagrzxa obovata, W all.
(E. Indies)
Gmelina asiatica, Linn.
(An East Indian tree)
Hedychium coronarium, Koen
(Ginger Lily, Hast Indies)
Ixora laxiflora, Sm.
([xora: Trop, Africa)
Landolphia florida, Benth.
(Rubber Vine, W. Africa)
Mesua ferrea, Linn.
(Naghas Tree, India)
Musa coccinea, Andr.
(A bright red flowering banana, China)
Randia maculatz, DC.
(Trop. Africa)
Rhodoleia Championi, Hook.
(Small tree f om Hong Kong)
Stifftia Chrysantha, Mikan.
(Stifftia, Brazil)
Swartziagrandiflora, Willd.
(Swartzia, Trop. America)
Tabernzmontana longiflora, Benth.
(Trop. Africa)
Tectona grandis, Linn. f.
(Teak, India)
Terminalia Arjuna, Bedd.
(Arjun Tree, India & Ceylon)

ne

In Frvit.

Semecarpus Anacardium, Linn.
(Marking Nut tree, India)

DECEMBER.

In FLoweEr.

Ambherstia nobilis, Wall.
(Amherstia, India & Malaya)
Aleurites triloba, Forst.
(Indian Walnut, Trop. Asia)
Artocarpus Lakoocha, Roxb.
(Indian Bread fruit, India & Malaya)
Bauhinia variegata, Linn.
(Butterfly tree, India & China)
Beaumontia grandiflora, Wall.
(Beaumontia, E. Indies)
Brownea Rosa-de-monte, Berg.
(Rosa-de-monte, Trop. 8. Amer.)
Cananga odorata, Hook. f. & Thoms.
(Cananga, Ilang. India)
Carapa guianensis, Aubl.
(Crab wood, Guiana)
Caryocar nuciferum, Linn.
(Souari, or Butter-nut, Guiana)
Cassia glauca, Lam.
(Glaucous Cassia, E. Indies)
Cassia grandis, Linn.
(West Indies & Trop. America)
Cassia siamea, Lam.
(India & Malaya)

In Frovrt.

Andira inermis, H. B. K.
(Cabbage-bark tree, W. Indies)
Barringtonia Butonica, Forst,
(Barringtonia, E, Indies)
Bixa Orellana, Linn.
(Annatto, W. Indies & Trop. Amer.)
Cananga odorata, Hook. f. and Thoms.
(Cananga, Ilang. India)
Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Nees.
(Cinnamon, Ceylon)
Colvillea racemosa, Boj.
(A Madagascar Tree)
Conostegia speciosa, Naud.
(Panama)
Couroupita guianensis, Aubl.
(Cannon-ball Tree, Trop. Amer.)
Diospyros discolor, Willd.
(Mabola Ebony, Philippines)
Eriobotrya japonica, Lindl.
(Loquat : China & Japan)
Erythroxylon Coca, Lam.
(Coca: Andes)
Fagrea obovata, Wall.
(E. Indies)

Ir Flower.

a as

Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Nees.
(Cinnamon, Ceylon)

Cola acuminata, Schott & Endl.
(Kola Nut, W. Trop. Africa)

Combretum coccinea, Lam.
(Madagascar, Mauritius)

Diospyros discolor, Willd.
(Mabola Ebony, Philippines)
Dypsis madagascariensis, Hort.
(A Palm, Madagascar)
Erythrina umbrosa, H. B. & K,
(Bois Immortelle, S Amer)
Eugenia caryophyllata, Thunb.
(Clove tree, Moluccas)
Erythroxylon Coca, Lam.
(Coca, Andes)
Fagrea obovata, Wall.
(E. Indies)
Hibiscus elatus, Linn.
(Blue or Mountain Mahoe, W. Indies)
Musa rosacea, Jacu. |
(A reddish-lilac flowering banana, S.
China)
Musa coccinea, Andr.
(A red flowering banana, China)
Napoleona imperialis, Beauv.
(Napoleona, W. Africa)
Norantea guianensis, Abul.
(Norantea, Guiana & Brazil)
Rhodoleia Championi, Hook.
(Small tree from Hong Kong)
Stifftia Chrysantha, Mikan
(Stifftia, Brazil)
Tectona grandis, Linn. f.
(Teak, India)
Victoria regia, Lindl.
(Royal Water-lily, Guiana)

In FrRvrt.

Garcinia Morella, Desrouss
(Gamboge tree, E, Indies)
Garcinia Mangostana, Linn.
(Mangosteen, Malay Archipelago)
Hibiscus elatus, Linn.
(Blue or Mountain Mahoe, W. In-
dies)
Manihot Glaziovii, Mueil. Arg.
(Ceara Rubber, Brazil)
Musa coccinea, Andr.
(A bright red Howering Banana, S.j
China)
Myristica fragrans, Houtt.
(Nutmeg tree, E. Indies)
Napoleona imperialis, Beauy.
(Napoleona, W. Africa)
Noronhia emarginata, Thou.
(A Madagascar tree)
Omphalea triandra, Linn.
(Cob-nut, Trop. Amer.)
Posoqueria longiflora, Aubl.
(Guiana)
Semecarpus Anacardium, Linn. f.
(Marking Nut tree, India)
Swartzia grandiflora, Willd.
(Swartzia, Trop. America)
Terminalia Arjuna, Linn.
(Arjun tree, India & Ceylon)

[Issued 10th December, 1897. ]

New Series. ] DECEMBER, 1897. Vol. IV.
Part 12.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:
Annual Report of Director
Index to Vol. LV.

Title Page

P RIC H~Sixpence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.

AD UAF UI CI CAT CAD CAM WAM CLA WLM Ved

KINGSTON, JAMAICA:
GovERNMENT Printine Orricze, 79 DuxEe STREET.

1897.

JAMAICA.

By el ee IN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. LV.
Part 12...

New Series. | DECEMBER, 1897.

Report of the Director on the Department of Public Gardens and Plan-
tations for the Year ended 31st March, 1897.

ConTENTS :
Page.
I. On the Gardens a 265
Il. Educational
Practical Instruction ... 268
Schools ists 269
Hope Industrial School... 269
Reports by Instructor ... 271
III. Staff
Assistants in Herbarium 276
LV. Diseases of Plants
Coffee spe 277
Coco-nut, ete. Be 279
V. Herbarium te. 280
VI. Library nae 282
VII. Reports of Superintendents... , 283
VIIL. Meteorological Tables art 305

ON THE GARDENS.
Horr GARDENS.
In my Report for the year ended 3Ist March, 1892, I stated that the

total number of plants distributed from Castleton Garden during the
previous 124 years amounted to 220,000. During this past single year
about 261,000 plants have been sent out from Hope Gardens alone
which is now the chief distributing centre. To grow and distribute in
one year more than a quarter of a million of plants is a large nursery
business, especially as the plants are not at all of one kind, but very
varied in every respect.

A packing shed is very much ‘required to protect those who are put-
ting up the plants from the rains, as it is mainly during the “ seasons”
that plants are distributed. A seed-house is also required for growing
seedlings in.

Attention is being paid to getting the right kind of shade trees in
the Nursery, as too dense a shade weakens the plants.

266

A few of the seedling canes promise well, especially No. 95, but the
majority will be discarded after finally testing with the Polariscope.

Experiments are being still ec ntinued with the Grape Vines. From
a large number of varieties imported from the Royal Horticultural

Society’s Gardens at Chiswick and elsewhere, probably only 2 or 8 kinds.

will be found suitable for growing in Jamaica. Varieties of
American Grapes and some Persian Grapes have also been imported,
one of the latter has fruited, and proves to be a small sweet grape
without seeds. A Black Hamburgh Vine bore fruit, ripening in April.
An effort will be made to get an earlier bearing next season.

The Superintendent is puying particular attention to the selection of
good Ripley Pines, and points out a curious fact in connection with the
marking of the leaf of the Green Ripley. If there is a broad red stripe
in the centre of the leaf, the fruit will turn out good ; in other cases the
fruit goes into holes at the bottom and is attacked by ants. Experi-
ments were made with different manures, but no difference was noticed.

Experiments were also made in manuring bananas, but as the water
for irrigation was cut off to keep other plants supplied during the
drought, no results were obtained.

With regard to budding Oranges, it is still a question what kind of
stock is the most suitable both for the lowlands and for elevations of
2,000 to 3,000 feet. At Hope trials are being made of Seville Orange,
Sweet Orange and Rough Lemon. The Rough Lemon stocks grow
best in the early stages, but a considerable time must elapse before any
definite information can be gained about their subsequent growth and
their freedom from gumming and other diseases.

From experience of our plantation of Ramie, it is quite evident that in
dry districts like Hope it is quite useless to try this cultivation. What
might be done under constant irrigation such as can be had near Spanish
Town, cannot be ascertained at Hope, as the water is frequently locked
off for several hours during the day.

The Superintendent has found that the public prefer to pay 1s. each
for Roses obtained by circumposition to 4d. for those raised from cut-
tings, and the Roses at Hope are now all propagated by the former
amethod.

» Orchids, Cannas and Pot plants generally have made a good show
during the year.

Slow progress is being made with the extension of the Botanic
Garden as distinct from the Nurseries, and plantations of economic
plants, but naturally the latter have the first claim on our attention.
A few trees have however been planted out.

The boys of the Industrial School are being taught in the Gardens
on the same lines as before, and are making good progress.

The number of visitors to Hope Gardens during the year has beer
more than twelve thousand. When the Electric Tram Line is con-

structed, and runs past the gates, several alterations must be made to

provide for the comfort and pleasure of the visitors, who will then come
an much larger numbers.

CastTLETON GARDENS.

The attention of the Superintendent at Castleton has this year beem
chiefly devoted to the work of thinning overgrown parts of the Garden,

267

opening up new portions, giving better views of the river and freer
access to it, extending the nurseries, and improving facilities for pro-
pagation.

It is satisfactory to find that the young Durian is so far doing well.
There is a tree in the Rath Garden, but it has never fruited. The
young plants at Hope have died, so that it is a matter of some anxiety
that the Castleton plant should get a chance of fruiting. It is said to
bear a most delicious fruit, so delicious that one learns to neglect its re-
volting smell.

The Superintendent has the credit of being the first at Castleton to
induce the Black Pepper plants to fruit. It requires some management,
and in the East it is not allowed to climb higher than about10 feet, the
tips being then trained downwards.

The Liberian Coffee continues to bear good crops, and is perfectly
healthy in contrast to that at Hope, which evidently suffers from want
of moisture. At Hope it is impossible to give all the water that it can
have on the irrigation lands near Spanish Town, and great interest is
felt in the future of the plantations there. Bnt certainly where there
is no possibility of irrigation, it is necessary before planting Liberian
Coffee to ascertain whether the rainfall is equal rather to that of
Castleton than of Hope.

The Garden is drawing increased numbers of visitors every year; as
many as 150 a day have on occasions visited Castleton. There is no
doubt that the railway to Annotto Bay has induced many to go who
would not otherwise have done so, even although there is a drive from
the Station of 9 or 10 miles, ascending nearly 600 feet.

Hit GarvEns.

The work of getting the Orange Grove into good order has been
continued. Feocing and roadmaking operations have been continued.
The work of weeding has been heavy, and experiments are being
carried out with growing leguminous plants to keep down weeds, and
to increase the nitrogen in the soil.

The stock plants of species of Citrus are growing well, though many
of those imported from California died. Large numbers of seedlings
and budded plants have been raised and distributed.

Fodder plants, vegetables and canes for settlers have received atten-
tion. The potatoes supplied for seed by the Agricultural Society were
not suitable, and the results were not better thun we expected.

The Bermuda Lily trial shows that while the bulbs multiply quickly,
there is no interval of cessation of growth during which they can be
taken up, and dried off for export. The only chance seems to be to
catch them whilst in flower, litt them then, and cut off the stem when
withered

Several thousands of seedlings of the West Indian Cedar have been
grown, and distributed to settlers and others, thus encouraging re-
afforesting on a small scale.

As Coffee Planters have lately had some difficulty in providing
plants for themselves, and have asked for supplies from the Gardens,
nurseries have been formed, and plants will soon be ready for distri+
‘bution,

Seed of Cinchona officinalis (Crown Bark) is now sent every year by
xequest of the Government of India to the Cinchona Plantations on the

268

Nilgiris, as it has been stated that the bark of trees grown from seed
obtained there has deteriorated in quality.

Quinine has been manufactured on the Nilgiris since 1889. Itis put
up in five grain powders, and sold at a very small charge at 1,550 Post
Offices throughout the Presidency of Madras. The nominal charge
made enables the poorest to obtain quinine in his need, and this was
the original reason for the introduction of the Cinchona trees from
South America.

The receipts at the Nilgiris Plantations for last year on the sale o
quinine, febrifuge, bark, etc., amounted to 147,527 rupees, while the
expenditure was 78,317 rupees, showing a gain of 69,210 rupees.

Kinecston Pusric GARDEN.

The railings for enclosing the lawns have been obtained, and will
doubtless make a great improvement in the appearance of the garden.

The vote for the garden is inadequate, and does not really suffice
for the maintenance in a proper condition. The pathways require to
be gravelled, the Band Stand and railings round it should be painted,
and there are many improvements which could be made with a larger
vote.

Several of the large Ficus trees have died without apparent cause,
unless it be that the soil round their roots has become quite exhausted.

Baru GARDEN.

The Garden at Bath is in fair condition, considering the small ex-
penditure, and the drought. If it had not been for the well in the
garden, the plants would have suffered considerably ; the inhabitants
also of the town were so short of water that they were glad to have the
opportunity of supplying themselves from the well.

~ Krna’s House GARDENS.

™ The other Public Gardens have their various special uses, besides
serving as Botanic Gardens, e.g., special attention is paid at Hope to
the economic cultures of cane, pines, etc.: at the Hill Gardens, species
of Citrus; at Castleton where the conditions are so favourable for
tropical vegetation, the Mangosteen, Amherstia, Palms, etc., are culti-
vated; the Parade Garden is a City Garden. The gardens attached
to King’s House have also their particular function, which is to serve
as a pleasure garden attached to the residence of the Governor. The
object is not to form a collection of plants interesting only to the
planter and the botanist, but mainly to grow such as are pleasing to
the eye.

A fie etanic has been provided and a Victoria regia planted in it.
It is circular in outline, 3 feet deep, except in the centre where it is 5
feet deep. The overflow water will be utilised for the growth of Nel-
umbium and other suitable aquatics.

EDUCATIONAL.
Practica INsTRUCTION.

The Department concerns itself with giving practical instruction on
the lines of “the greatest good of the greatest number.” While oc-
easionally time can be spared for individuals, I can only for the most
part work on our present system, and send an Instructor where the

269

demand from one district comes from a large number of people. It is
most gratifying to find that the efforts made to supply instruction meet
with such a hearty response and grateful appreciation.

Tt is in the fields in actual touch with the soil and the plants that
real good is done. The cultivators know their own difficulties; they
are quick and ready to assimilate ideas which are obviously improve-
ments on their own practice, especially when examples, such as pruned
cocoa trees, are left on their grounds by the Instructor as models to be
watched and followed day after day and year by year.

ScHoo.s,

Although instruction is sometimes also afforded to school children, it
is not possible to give the continual repetitions which are necessary
with children who are not so intent on earning their bread as their pa-
rents. What is absolutely necessary is a daily instilling of element-
ary agricultural ideas into the minds of the children by their school
teachers.

Horzt InpusrriaL ScHoo..

The Hope Industrial School at Hope Gardens is giving a good
training to a small number of boys which will fit them for agricultural
work when they leave.

The Superintending Inspector of Schools writes :—‘ The Hope In-
dustrial School obtained at last inspection the total number of marks
qualifying it for a first class, but failed to reach first class standard in
writing. It takes abetter position as an elementary school than six-
sevenths of the schools of the Island.”

The boys over 12 years of age have only 2 hours a day at reading,
writing and arithmetic in school, and those under 12 only 3 hours at
the usual school subjects; the former working the rest of the time in
the Hope Gardens, and the latter in and around the school buildings.

All have half an hour’s daily instruction by the Superintendent of
Hope Gardens in the theory and practice of gardening. There is no
doubt in my mind that this practical teaching and questioning on the
work that they are occupied with during most of the day, sharpens
their wits, and enables them to make better use of their time in school.

The following is from Mr, A J. Hopwood’s Report, Master in charge.

“On the Ist April, 1896, there were 27 boys in the Institution.
During the year 15 boys were admitted, 3 were discharged, 1 abscond-
ed, his time expiring shortly after, 7 were transferred to Stony Hill, and
1 to Alpha Cottage, and 1 died in the Union Poor House. The
number of boys at the end of the year was 29, the increase being 2.
The average rate of increase for the past six years has been 2. Of
the boys transferred to Stony Hill, 2 were for repeated acts of miscon-
duct, 4 because they had been committed for criminal offences, and one:
was a case of Yaws. One of the boys discharged was delivered to a
relative on special application; one is now working in the Hope Gar-
dens; the third obtamed private employment.

“The daily routine has been kept up. Of the 42 boys who have
been more or less inmates of the Institution during the year, 19 were
boys above, and 23 boys below 12 years of age. The older boys have
worked in the Hope Gardens for 14, and 3 hours in the morning and
afternoon respectively : the younger boys have been occupied as usual

270

in keeping the buildings and grounds in order. In general the boys
have been engaged as customary in performing various domestic duties,
and in the planting and caring of truit trees and ornamental shrubs.

“On the Ist October an important change took place in the curri-
culum for boys above 12 years of age, in consequence of which they
have been spending 12 hours only in the Elementary school instead
of 18 as formerly.

“The demonstrations by the Superintendent at Hope Gardens have
been regularly attended by all the boys. Lessons have been given
during the School year in cultivation of grapes, cocoa, coffee, pineapples
and oranges, including proper methods of applying remedial measures
for scale insects. They have also had short courses on the structure of
plants and on gardening operations.

‘““The Elementary School was examined on the 13th August by R. B
Strickland, Esq. and took 56 marks, a total increase of 8 marks. The
full 6 marks in Elementary Science (including Practical teaching in
Agriculture) was obtained. With regard to the above mentioned
change which took place in the curriculum for boys above 12 years
of age, the 12 hours have been exclusively devoted to reading, writing
and arithmetic, and elementary geometrical drawing, Scripture being
included in the reading lessons and explained on Sunday. The boys
below 12 years have been instructed as usual in all the subjects pre-
scribed by the Code.

“The buildings are all in good order. General painting and the
erection of a Verandah around the additional Dormitory by the Public
Works Department were carried out in the early part of the year.
A portion of the Stables has also been altered into two small rooms.

“The health of the boys has been on the whole good. A boy
suffering from skin-disease in an aggravated form (Pemphigus) was
sent by order of the Surgeon to the Union Poor House on the 9th
July. He got almost well, and for a time improved, but symptoms
of tuberculosis rapidly developed, and he died there on the 21st
October. Another boy who had remittent fever was removed to the
Public Hospital on the 25th November and returned on the 5th Jan-
uary. A very delicate boy suffering from an attack of influenza with
a tendency to tuberculosis—necessitating the employment of a tem-
porary Nurse—was also removed to the Public Hospital on the 5th Jan-
uary and returned on the 20th February. In addition to general.
directions in cases of accidents, notes on nursing have been furnished
from time to time by Dr. Cargill.

“Two changes took place among the Warders during the year—one
in the month of June and the other inthe month of October. The
staff, consists of the Master in charge, two Warders, and a woman as
Cook, who does as much as possible the duties of a Matron.

“Prayers have been read daily in the Institution, and the Sunday
Schools have been regularly held. On Sunday the boys as usual attend
Public Service at the Grove Church—religious instruction being given
at the School once, and occasionally twice a week by Rev. H. F. Kirton.

“The best interest has been shown in the School. On the occasion
of his visit on 11th May, His Excellency Sir Henry Blake was accom-
panied by Hon. E. Parsons, Custos of the Cayman Islands. The Official
Visitors have been :—Honbles. Jas. Allwood, (Actg. Col. Secy.) W.

271

Fawcett, T. Capper, Dr. C. B. Mosse, 8. C. Burke: Their Lordships
the Bishop of Jamaica and Bishop ‘Gordon, Rev. H. H. Isaacs and
A. Robinson, Esq. On Christmas Eve Mrs. Cradwick, as on other
Public Holidays distributed gifts of different kinds to the boys from
herself, Miss Cooper of St. Andrew, and Miss Usher and Mrs. McRea
of Kingston. This kindness was much appreciated by all the boys.
The boys were fall allowed to join the Annual Treat at Shortwood
Industrial School on the 6th January—being kindly invited by Miss
Johnson. They thoroughly enjoyed themselves as on former occasions.
A free MagicLantern Entertamment was kindly given in the School
room by Messrs. C. J. Brandon and Son of Kingston on the 24th
March. It was greatly enjoyed by the boys. Mr. CU. H. Grossett of
Port Antonio was good enough to present the School with a number
of coco-nut sprouts—a gift which was also much appreciated.”

Reports oN Pracricat Instruction.
The following reports are by Mr. Cradwick ;—
PorTLAND AND Sr. Mary.
I beg to make the following Report on demonstrations given in

‘Portland and St. Mary :—

Tuesday, 14th April, 1896. Tranquillity. Demonstrated in the
School room to about 70 of the School children, afterwards in the
ground of Mr. Robt. W. Murray, on the planting of kola, chocolate,
coffee, budding of oranges, pruning of chocolate and coffee. Gave
instruction as to the curing of coffee and cocoa, and distributed
leaflets on growing and curing cocoa and kola.

Mr. Murray has made good use of the instruction imparted to him
during my previous visits, andwas very pleased to see me back again
to get still further instruction. His cultivation of over thirty acres
of cocoa, coffee and kola is very creditable to him.

Three other land owners attended the demonstration, and these also
testified to the benefits they had derived from the demonstrations ; they
were particularly interested in the orange budding.

Kola, coffee, cocoa and oranges all grow most luxuriantly. I
measured kola trees 2 years of age, which were 14 feet high. The
trees had leaves over 20 inches in length. Kola plants 10 months old
had attained a height of 5 feet. An orange tree 3 years old bore 112
oranges. A tree from seeds planted December, 1893, bore in Autumn
of 1895 eighteen fruits.

Wednesday, 15th. Charles Town. Gave a demonstration in the fields
of Mr. Jos. Welsh early in the morning, on budding oranges, pruning
cocoa, coffee, and also dilated strongly on the evils of crowding plants,
and of mixing up crops.

There were a good many kola trees about 10 years of age, none of
which fruited before they were 7 years old. But I do not think that
they can be taken as a fair test as to the time trees would bear in the
locality, as they were planted far too near to coco-nuts, to say nothing
of cocoa, bananas, canes, etc., which must have retarded the fruiting
period for some 2 or 3 years. Then a demonstration was given in the
fields of Mr. Prestwich, who had attended previous demonstrations in
Mr. Sutherland’s fields, and had honestly endeavoured to carry out the

instructions given. But as his cocoa and coffee were much older tham

272

Mr. Sutherland’s and had gone wrong before my visits, he waylaid me-

on my way to Charles Town in order to get instruction on his own old
trees.

Still further along the road another settler, Mr. Wallen, was wait-
ing for me to inspect his field. |The inspection developed into another
demonstration. Mr. Wallen had made excellent use of the instruction
gained the previous year, and the further instruction imparted to so
energetic and intelligent a man was a very pleasant task.

Later lectured in the Charles Town Schoolroom to about 20 adults
and a large number of school children, and afterwards gave a lengthy
demonstration in the field of Mr. Sutherland.

Mr Sutherland’s field was in quite young chocolate when I first
visited Charles Town, and has been the place selected by me on each
visit for the chief demonstration. Although a little is left to be de-
sired in the way of thinning out the trees, the field is such a vast im-
provement on the usual style that it serves admirably as a model to
others, especially as it is quite close to the important Buff Bay River
Valley road.

Thursday, 16th, Belvedere. An extremely wet morning quite spoiled
the day, as the people in this very scattered district did not expect to
see me at all, only four men appearing, but these four were thoroughly
in earnest and very grateful for previous advice. In the two fields
visited, Mr. Thos. Gray’s and Mr. Henry Colthirst’s, the improvement
observable from last year was very great, and the two gentlemen were
very grateful for the great improvement which is visible in their fields.

Friday, 17th, Enfield. The Rector, Rey. W. Taylor, said, that in
consequence of the late heavy and continuous rains he had been unable
to hold any services on Sunday, and in consequence, although, he said,
the people were very anxious to see me, it was impossible for them to
be fully aware of my coming, and only six people turned up. Two of
these had come a long distance on the off chance, and were particularly
anxious to get a lesson in budding. A demonstration was given in the
grounds of Mr. C. Maxwell on pruning coffee, cocoa, planting kola and
budding oranges. Mr. O. Maxwell’s cultivation has greatly improved
since my previous visit, and he expressed great gratitude for the help I
I had been to him.

Monday, 20th, Black Hill and Rodney Hall Valley. Although the
morning was fine, noon saw heavy showers of rain which continued
throughout the afternoon, and although people here were quite keen
on the meeting only about 10 people turned up. A lengthy demon-
stration was an impossibility, two short ones were given however one in
Mr. Francis Minott’s ground and one in Mr. Uter’s, the demonstrations
being on pruning and transplanting coffee, pruning cocoa and on the
forking and draining of the heavy land and the budding of oranges.

Tuesday 21st, Swift River. Lectured in the Schoolroom to about @
dozen people and a number of school children and afterwards demon-
strated in the fields of Mr. Winter and Mr. Holworthy on budding,
pruning and planting coffee and cocoa, also inspected the Teacher's
garden and gave him advice as to its better management and the better
arrangement of it, on a definite plan, and pointed out to him the evils
of mixing up his crops.

Wednesday 22nd, Bybrook. Only four people turned up at Bybrook,.

278

two Messrs. Burgess and Mr. Sutherland. The whole afternoon was:
spent in their fields. The Messrs. Burgess were very anxious that I
should visit their lands last year and as there was so small an atten-
dance this year I gave them the benefit of it. They had made good
use of the information gained last year and I am sure the instruction
imparted this year will also be put to a good use by them. ‘The three
hours occupied by the demonstration on pruning coffee, cocoa, budding
oranges and giving advice on various matters in connection with the
soil was quite enough for one day, for most of the land was steeper than.
the roof of a house. I also discussed the curing of produce with them
and gave advice on it.

Thursday 23rd, Birnamwood. Not a soul was present at Birnamwood,
so devoted the afternoon to the School Children. The school is large
and comprises many boys and girls apparently of about 16 years of age ;.
they appear to be much interested in Agriculture.

Last year in the Glebe I dug round and manured an old and very
forlorn-looking coffee tree, the scholars then being present, the im-
provement exhibited by the tree this year is little short of marvellous
and is a standing object lesson much observed by all the people and the
boys and girls of the school. The whole piece of coffee has vastly im-
proved having been manured and forked and pruned to some extent by
Mr. Cole by my advice.

General report on the tour. I was disappointed at the small number
of people who attended but the weather was very bad both before and
during my journey; only one day had been fine during the preceding”
week, and I had but one fine during the tour, consequently the people
had quite given up expecting me. But at the same time I was very
much encouraged by the improvement visible in several of the grounds.
visited.

I noticed throughout each of the different valleys visited that oranges.
looked exceptionally well, no borer or ants trouble them. I saw no
signs of dying back at the points of the branches or any other signs of
delicacy of the trees, most of the trees had a quantity of fine fruit
ripening up and a huge crop of the regular season’s fruit as well. Some
trees must have had four or five hundred fruits ripening up now. The
valleys on the north side appear to me to be the finest land of any I
have seen for orange cultivation but almost the whole of the land on
the route of the new mountain road is well adapted to the cultivation.
On the north side the risk of the trees suffering from drought is re-
duced to a minimum and the finest produced is of the finest in flavour
and appearance.

The land on the north side is also admirably adapted for kola and
cocoa, and the higher lands for coffee. At Mr. Mason’s property nut-
megs are also growing beautifully ; plants four years of age are 10 to 12
feet high and have commenced to bear. His cocoa has yielded three
times as much this year as last, a wonderful rate of increase due to good
cultivation. Mr. Mason’s cocoa-dryer leaves little to be desired ; it has
a drying capacity of 10 barrels and will dry freshly washed chocolate
in 48 hours without danger of burning. :

WESTMORELAND.

I beg to report that on Saturday the 29th of August, 1896, I went

to the Bluefields district of Westmoreland for the purpose of lecturing:

274

there on fruit culture, and also inspecting the sites which Mr. Laurence
Tate is willing to offer to the Government for the purpose of establish-
ing an experimental fruit farm.

On Monday the 31st August I inspected the various sites which Mr.
Tate is willing to give the lease of for a term of years.

I ffirst carefully inspected the sites proposed on his own property
“Shafston”, then proceded to Grand Vale, the owner of which Mr. King,
is willing to grant the lease of any land the Government might select.
I examined the proposed sites on Grand Vale, after which we visited
“ Forest” another property owned by Mr. King. I went carefully over
the different pieces of land which Mr. Tate thought might prove suit-
able and finally came to the conclusion that ‘ Forest” would be the most
advisable spot to advise the Government to select if they decide to
establish the fruit farm.

“‘Shafston” grows grapes well, and a great advantage in having the
farm there would be that it would be immediately under the eye of
Mr. Tate, who is a very enthusiastic cultivator. But there is not a
very large population near Shafston, and the people who live there-
abouts are apparently better off than those people who live in the
district round Forest.

“Grand Vale” is wet with a clay soil not suited for grapes, and is
out of the way.

Forest is situated almost entirely in St. Elizabeth, and near a poor
district called “‘ The Grove.” It is extremely hot, has a fine black sandy
loam soil, and is well drained. It would be admirably adapted for an
experimental grape plantation and could be easily visited by a large
population who apparently would be only too glad to find a method of
increasing their incomes.

That most of the district from Black River to Ferris is well adapted
for grape culture is abundantly proved by the vines which are already
growing in several “yards.” These vines are very badly treated, yet
they grow and bear much better than one could expect.

The grapes found fruiting, with the exception of those at Shafston,
are the Black Barbarossa, a grape of poor flavour, but large and showy
and evidently one capable of existing under the greatest difficulties.

At Shafston Mr. Tate has the following fruiting vines :—Barbarossa,
Muscat of Alexandria, Gros Colmar, Foster’s Seedling, Raisin de
Calabre, Black Hamburgh, Black Alicante.

The first named was fruiting very heavily, the second almost equally
so, while of course there is no grape to be compared to it for flavour.
As far as I could judge from one visit, there are only four grapes worth
growing in that district, the two just mentioned, “‘ Foster’ s Seedling”
and Black Hamburgh. Foster’s Seedling grows most vigourously, and
although not a fine flavoured grape, it fruits heavily and is a nice look-
ing grape.

“ Black Hamburgh” is not a vigorous grower but it bears a grape
that ripens two or three weeks sooner than any of the others. It also
ripens all the berries on a bunch together which many of the other
black grapes do not. This is especially the case with Barbarossa and it
is a great draw-back to it, half a dozen green berries often spoiling the

appearance of an otherwise grand bunch.

Tuesday, September 1st. Demonstrated at Salem on budding oranges,

a

275

‘thinning grapes, and pruning coffee. A good and appreciative audience
of over 50 men. At Salem there is a large vine of the Barbarossa
wariety which has borne heavily for between twenty and thirty years.

Sr. ANN.

I beg to submit the following Report on a lecturing tour in the Parish
of St. Ann.

Monday, March 29th, 1897, Bamboo. I walked about the district
with the Rev. J. P. Hall, made myself known to the people whom L
saw working in their grounds, had little chats with them, showed them
how to bud, and in this way awakened an interest in the district that
will I am sure lead to good results.

Tuesday, March 30th. Lectured to a meeting of five or six hundred
people in the Tabernacle at St. Jean d’ Are, one of the biggest meetings
tbat I had ever had, owing to its being thoroughly advertised by the
Hon. Dr. Johnston.

Wednesday, March 31st. Spent the day in looking over various
cultivations which I had visited the year before and was much pleased
to see the improvements, and to hear from the owners that the improve-
ments were entirely due to my efforts on previous visits. At night

- lectured in the Court House to an assembly of about 60 men, nearly all

Jandowners and men of the right stamp.

Thursday, April !st. Lectured in the Church of England Mission
Station at Clarke Town. The room, not a small one by any means,
was simply packed and many people had to stay outside. I was told
that never but once before had such a number of people gathered in

- the building ‘and that was on the occasion of a visit of the Assistant

Bishop.

Friday, April 2nd. Gave a demonstration on Mr. Ormsby’s property
and gave him also some advice about his grapes. In the evening
lectured in the St. Ann’s Bay Court House, here again the house was
packed until there was not even standing room.

Subject dealt with : —

Treatment of the soil, coffee, oranges, grapes. The treatment of the
soil was chiefly confined to digging, how to do it and the reasons why
it should be done.

Coffee: the evils of over-crowding, neglecting to prune, and the
neglect of proper shading.

Oranges: The budding was fully explained and demonstrated ; hints
were given as to the suitability of stocks, and the folly of allowing
good trees to get covered up with creepers, wild pines and mistletoe.

Grapes: The growing of grapes was fully explained.

Seeds of the shade trees Bois Immortelle (Erythrina umbrosa) were
distributed and directions for their treatment were given. Wherever
I go, I notice almost identical mistakes with the treatment of coffee
by the peasantry, namely overcrowding, neglecting to prune, and
either shading the coffee until it can scarcely exist for want of air and
light, or exposing it to full power of the sun, but gradually in every
district where my visits are repeated, I see one or two carrying out
my instructions and in this way I think the good works is bound to
spread.

The treatment of the soil is little understood, but with this the

276

peasantry are also making experiments on my suggestions, digging
up, ra and liming their lands. and this also is bound in time
to tell.

With regard to oranges, when people start to look after their trees,
they are apt to do more than the trees can stand, and I am careful to
impress on them the necessity of careful continued systematic pruning
and cleaning.

With reference to grapes, at St. Jean d’Arc, I saw a vine two years.
old only, putting out a fine crop of grapes, whether they will ripen or
not of course depends on the treatment they get, and also on the variety.

Mrs. J. H. Levy of Brown’s Town informs me that she formerly
grew grapes but that they were always just getting ripe when the
Autumn rains set in, which spoilt them; this difficulty could in all
probability be got over by growing a variety which would ripen in
a shorter time. There were many people at St. Ann’s Bay who had
cultivations of various kinds which they were wishful for me to visit
but as I had to hurry home on Saturday leaving St. Ann’s Bay at 4
a.m. I had no time to do so.

Demonstrations were also given at Kellits on 29th July, at Darliston,
5th August, 1896, at Salem, 23rd February and Shafston, 24th Feb-
ruary, 1897.

STAFF.
Lapy Assistants IN HERBARIUM AND OFFICE.

A vacancy occurred for a lady assistant in the Herbarium, and
the conditions governing the appointment were distributed to candi-
dates. It may be of interest to state the conditions here.

Work IN HERBARIUM.

(1) Drying plants.—As soon as the plants are brought in by the
collectors, they are placed between sheets of drying paper, under
weights which are varied according to the texture, thickness, etc.,
of the leaves and flowers. The sheets are changed once or twice a day
at first, and afterwards at intervals of 2 or 3 days until they are quite
dry. The leaves and flowers require a great deal of manipulation in
order to make them assume, when dry, the characteristic habit of the
plant, and exhibit the technical marks which distinguish the species.
The plants are washed over with a solution of cyanide of potassium
to kill any insects as far as possible that would otherwise destroy
them. Collectors attach a particular number to all specimens collect-
ed from one plant, with notes of locality, colour of flower and
fruit, height, elevation, etc., added for quotation afterwards in botan-
ical works ; and the greatest care is necessary so as not to misplace the
labels and thereby cause confusion.

(2) Mounting specimens.—The specimens that are to be laid into
the cabinets are mounted on sheets of paper by applying a mixture
of gum arabic and gum tragacanth to one side, laying them on the
sheets and again putting them under weights.

(3) Placing in cabinets:—As soon as the mounted specimens are
ready they are arranged in the cabinets in regular order according to
the scientific system of botanical works, so that any given plant can
be at once found in its proper place for comparison with specimens -

|

277

‘which require to be named. The whole series of cabinets torm the

permanent departmental herbarium. The collection has frequently to
be gone over, examined, and cyanide of potassium applied whenever
there is a trace of attacks by insects or fungi.

(4) Duplicates.—The duplicates are all named and aumbered to
correspond with those in the cabinets, and are distributed to various
Herbaria.

(5) Requirements in Assistants.—All these operations require the
greatest care, neatnessand accuracy. The Assistants should know at
any rate the elements of botany, and be able to draw accurately the
outline of a growing plant, and the parts of a flower and seed vessel to
show their anatomy.

Work IN OFFICE.

(6) A great deal of copying for the office has to bedone by the type-
writer, and it is advisable that the Assistants should be able to use it.

Other work consists of cataloguing books, ete., for the Library.

REMUNERATION AND CoNnDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT.

(7) The remuneration is at the rate of £40 a year, with £36 as
house allowance, altogether £76 a year, payable monthly.

Twelve days are allowed annually as holidays, at the discretion of
the Director, besides the public holidays. A month’s notice on either
side, without reasons assigned, will be considered sufficient to terminate
the engagement.

DISEASES OF PLANTS.
CorFEE,

Various species of coffee are being grown in the gardens experiment-
ally.

Liberian has done well for years at Castleton, and as the only diffi-
culty, namely suitable machinery, has been overcome, there is now no
reason why it should not be cultivated in districts which either have a
plentiful rainfall or a system of irrigation, and at low elevations where
Arabian Coffee will not produce a paying crop.

Some of the coffee planters expressed alarm at the introduction of
coffee from Kew or anywhere else, and the following letter was written
by me on the subject :—

3lst October, 1896.
Sir,

I have the honour to acknowledge your letters of 22nd and 28th
instant.

I regret to think that you are still uneasy about the possibility of in-
troducing Hemileia with Coffee plants from Kew, and I will therefore
try to be more clear with my reasons for thinking that you need not
have the slightest apprehension.

The whole life history of the Hemileia has been exhaustively studied
and worked out in Ceylon by Dr. Marshall Ward, who is now Professor
of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Professor Ward spent two
years in this investigation giving up his whole time to it, and there
is no disease affecting either plants or animals that is better known.

There is no Hemileia disease on the West Coast of Africa, nor in
Kew Gardens, and therefore it cannot be transmitted from Africa
through Kew to Jamaica.

278

It is quite possible that the spores of Hemileia might be carried to»
Kew on seeds, or in ordinary correspondence, or in the clothes of
travellers, just as they have been carried to Fiji and elsewhere, and
just as they may at any time be carried to Jamaica by globe-trotters
landing in Kingston and making an excursion to the Blue Mountain
Peak.

But precautions are taken with plants and seeds at Kew, which
cannot be taken with excursionists to the Peak, so as to prevent any
risk.

But assuming that the ordinary precautions of a scientific estab-
lishment lize Kew were unavailing and that some traveller from Cey-
lon, to take an absurdly extreme case, had actually infected Coffee-
plants destined for Jamaica with Hemileia spores, the conditions of the
temperature and moisture of the air in the plant houses at Kew are the
most favourable to the germination of the spores, and spores that
remained inactive so long as they were quite dry would within 48 hours
grow in the presence of moisture and heat in those plant houses. Any
which fell on the soil-or on the wooden sides of plant-cases would
germinate exactly in the same way as they would on the Coffee leaf,
but their existence would be terminated as soon as the nutritive sub-
stance of the spore was exhausted. I may illustrate this by reminding
you that a Coffee seed may germinate, and will grow, producing leaves,
in pure sand and pure water as long as the nutritive material of the
seed is available, but as soon as this is used up in the growth, the
young seedling must die unless it is planted out in soil. Just in the
same way spores of Hemileia will inevitably germinate, given the fa-
vourable conditions, and will as inevitably die, unless the spores are
actually on the leaf of a coffee plant, and penetrate the “ breathinz pores.”

Supposing that some of these spores have fallen on the leavesof a
Coffee plant in the Kew plant-houses. They will germinate probably
in 12 hours. If they have not germinated within 48 hours they are
dead and will never germinate. From their germination to the
“diseased spot” making its appearance on the leaf, the time varies from
8 to 19 days, 13 or 14 days being the usual time.

Plants would be kept in Wardian Cases at Kew before despatch to
the Colonies long enough to ascertain and to make sure that they had
contracted no disease and were perfectly sound and healthy
But even if such precautions were not taken, and the plants became
infected on the very day they were leaving Kew, the disease would
have developed by the time they had arrived in Jamaica, and would be
so evident to the naked eye that the plants would be immediately
destroyed on opening the Wardian Case at Hope Gardens.

The spores of Hemileia can only infect Coffee through the “breath-
ing-pores” of the leaf. They may germinate in any other position, but
invariably die, even on the leaf, if the germinal tube does not,in its
growth, come across one of the “ breathing pores” and penetrate it.

You allude to the plant-diseases known as “smut” and ‘‘ ergot.” The
life-history of smut in corn is of quite a different character, being
specially adapted to the life-history of the plant it attacks. The
spores cling to the seed, and remain in the ground at rest like the seed
itself until the latter germinates. The spores germinate at about the
same time as the seed, and although the germinal tubes are unable to

279

‘penetrate the hard skin of the seed, they can easily push their way
into the soft body of the seedling, making their way through the
tissues and coming to maturity in the flower as soon as it appears. It is
only at this particular time in the life of the corn-plant that smut can
successfully attack it.

Ergot is a disease of grasses which is different from smut. It
attacks the flower, and assumes the form of large grains, which are
in this case also the resting stage of the disease, remaining quiescent
through the winter months until the grasses, corn, etc., are flowering
when spores are formed in the ergot to be carried by the wind to attack
the flowers. It is a disease which is also quite different in its life-
history from that of Hemileia.

Smut or ergot in corn and Hemileia in coffee cannot be considered
analagous; and because smut may attack the seed corn when germi-
nating, and yet be not noticeable until the plant flowers, it is not pos-
sible to argue that a similar process may take place with the Hemi-
leia in Coffee. Infection has been tried in every way with the Hemi-
leia spores, and the only possible mode of infection is through the
breathing-pores of theleaf. The disease runs its course within certain
definite limits of time, and the journey from England to Jamaica is
practically equal to a period of quarantine. To prohibit the landing
of a coffee plant which is healthy on arrival from England, would be
equivalent to perpetual banishment from Jamaica of anyone who had
once been in a place or ship infected with small-pox.

There is infinitely more danger in admitting into the Island letters
and travellers from Ceylon than Coffee-plants from Kew, and if the
latter be considered a source of infection, it is about time to proclaim
permanent quarantine against the whole world.

I have, ete.
W. Fawcerr,

During the Session of the Legislative Council, a rumour arose that a
planter had imported coffee plants from India, which caused anxiety.

The matter was finally arranged by the Hon DeB. 8S. Heaven, re-
presenting especially the Coffee Planters of the Blue Mountains, and
the Hon. J. T. Palache, representing especially the Coffee Planters of
Manchester, and myself, approaching His Excellency the Governor, who
then issued a Proclamation forbidding the introduction of seeds or
plants of Coffee from any other source than Kew Gardens, and then
only when imported by the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

Coco-nut, &c.

I have examined in several parts of the Island a large number of
examples of so called disease of the Coco-nut, in one case travelling to
a property near N. Negril Point.

In very many instances I believe the unheualthiness and death of the
palms is due entirely to the unsuitable nature of the soil and climate.
This is eminently so in the case of the Palisadoes ‘plantation. So long
as the Government, through this Department, undertook the care of the
Coco-nut palms; when bush was cleared, pigs and goats kept out, and
the trees manured, they throve and bore fairly well. But from the time
that the Government leased the plantation in May, 1887, the trees
have rapidly deteriorated, and very many have died out altogether. My

280

opinion is that it would not pay expenses for the Government to main-
tain it, and I doubt whether it would pay any private individual even if
he lived on the spot, unless he could get a constant supply of water, or
unless he could utilise the land for other purposes.

The Liguanea plain is a dry district, and like the Palisadoes quite
unfit for the growth of the coco-nut unless water can be supplied
artificially.

In some instances I found a large beetle (Sfrategus titanus) attack-
ing the “ cabbage” of coco-nut palms, thereby giving opportunities for
the attacks of various parasitic fungi, which soon destroyed the terminal
bud, and led to the death of the tree. In other cases the large white
grub of the same beetle was seen gnawing the roots.

I also noticed the base of a diseased trunk of a coco-nut riddled with
the holes of a small boring beetle, and on cutting it down found the
passages made by the insect very numerous, some containing the white
grub of the beetle, and the whole of the tissue of the trunk smelling
strong of a fermentation set up as a consequence of the attack.

In other instances I could find no specific cause of unhealthiness
except the drought, and I believe that with the return of rains, these
would soon recover.

I have also examined portions of various diseased plants sent to
me by post, but as a rule it is necessary to examine the plant where it
grows.

It is probable that an unhealthy condition of a plant whether due to
want of water, to too great abundance of moisture in the soil keeping
out air, or to some other cause, may lead to such abnormal growth or
want of growth, that insects and fungi are able to make the successful
attacks which they could not accomplish in health. This consideration
accounts frequently for the appearance of scale-insects, which again
disappear with the return of the normal conditions of the climate.

It is advisable however to keep a close watch on all plants, and by
attending to early symptoms, prevent the disease or pest running its
course and becoming epidemic. The risk of a disease spreading is
enormously increased where plants are cultivated all together on alarge
scale, and I anticipate that growers of Orange trees and Grape vines
will have to pay strict attention in future to diseases which only become
important as we begin to grow their hosts on an extensive scale.

Notes on the subject of diseases of plants due to the attacks of
insects and fungi occasionally appear in the Bulletin.

HERBARIUM.

The following are new additions to the flora of Jamaica, obtained
during the year :—
New Genus, SPECIES AND VARIETIES DESCRIBED FROM PLANTS FOUND
IN JAMAICA,

Loranthacee :
Phoradendrum tetrapterum, Kr. et Urb. (Engler’s Botan. Jahrb;
XXIV.)
P. quadrandulare, Kr. et. Urb., var. gracile, Kr. et Urb. (Le) ,
P. Wattii, Kr. et Urb. (Lc.)

281

P. Campbellii, Kr. et Urb. (L.c.)

Dendrophthora Danceri, Kr. et Urb. (Le.)

Phthirusa Jamaicensis, Kr. et Urb. (l.c.)
Orchidee :

Homalopetalum jamaicense, Rolfe (Hooker's Ic. Pl. 2461).
Musei:

Leucobryum Jamaicensis C. Muell. (Bull. de 1’Herbier

Boissier, v.7.)

L. subglaucum, C. Muell. (1.c.)

Entosthodon paucifolius, C. Muell. (1.c.)

Mnium rigidum, C. Muell (1.c.)

Polytrichum glaucicaule, C. Muell. (I.c.)

Catherinea synoica, C. Muell. (1.c.)

Bryum chlorosum, C. Muell (Lc.)

B. eygnopelma, C. Muell. (1.c.)

B. mammillosum, C. Muell. (l.c.)

B. ripense, C. Muell. (Lc.)

Pilopogon glabrisetus, C. Muell. (Lc.)

Chysanomitrium Jamaicense, C. Muell. (L.c.)

Dicranum retinervis, C. Muell. (l.c.)

D. Harrisi, C. Muell. (L.c.)

D. longicapillare, C Muell. (1c.)

Leptotrichum pseudo-rufescens, C. Muell. (1.c.)

Angostrémia Harrisi, C. Muell. (1.c.)

A. Jamaicensis, C. Muell. (Le.)

Symblepharis Jamaicensis, C. Muell. (L.c.)

Pottia glauca, C. Muell. (l.c.)

P. nanangia, ©. Muell. (Lc.)

Trichostomum lamprothecium, C. Muell. (l.c.)

Barbula recurvicuspis, C. Muell. (1.c.)

B. ferrinervis, C. Muell. (l.c.)

B. purpuripes, C. Muell. (1.c.)

Zygodon Jamaicensis, C. Muell. (1.c.)

Macromitrium cacuminicolum, C. Muell. (1.c.)

M. altipes, C. Muell. (1.c.).

M. peraristatum, Muell. (I.c.)

Schlotheimia ciliolata, C. Muell. (l.c.)

8. pellucida, C. Muell. (l.c.)

Helicophyllum Jamaicense, C. Muell. (Lc.)

Phyllogonium globitheca, C. Muell. (1.c.)

Pilotrichella eroso-mucronata, C. Muell. (I.c.)

Hookeria dimorpha, C. Muell. (1. c.)

H. obliquicuspis, Muell. (1. C.)

H. Harrisi, C. Muell. (1 c.)

Stereophyllum Jamaicense, C. Muell, (1. c.)

Microthamnium minusculifolium, C. Muell. (1. c.)

Cupressina arcuatipes, C. Muell. (1. c.)

Rhynchostegium rigescens, C. Muell. (1. c.)

Brachythecium Jamaicense, C. Muell. (1. c.)

Thuidium perrigidum, C. Muell. (I. c.)

Fissidens eae ee C. Muell, (1. c.) (found in a previous
year.

282

SPECIES AND VARIETIES FOUND FOR THE FIRST TIME IN JAMAICA-
Myrtacee :
Gomidesia Lindeniana, Berg.
Composite :
Achillea Millefolium, Linn.
Chenopodiacee -
Chenopodium murale, Linn.
Piperacee :
Peperomia maculosa, Hook.
Loranthacee : .
Phoradendrum trinervium, Griseb., var. Domingense, Kr. et
Urb.
Euphorbiacee :
Euphorbia Preslii, Guss.

LIBRARY.

The following is the Catalogue of the works placed in the Library in
addition to those already acknowledged as contributions in the monthly
Bulletins. ‘The names of donors are added in square brackets.

Anderson (J.) Colonial Office List for 1896. London. 1896. 8vo-

Boissier (E.) Icones Kuphorbiarum. Geneve. 1866. Fol.

Campbell (Prof. D. H.) The Structure and Development of the
Mosses and Ferns. London. 1895. 8vo.

Candolle (C. de) Nouvelles Recherches sur les Pipéracées. Geneve.
1882. Fol.

Chodat (Dr. R.) Monographia Polygalacearum. Parts 1 & 11-
Genéve, &c., 1891, 93. 4 to.

Cooke (Dr. M. C.) Grevillea. A Quarterly Record of Cryptogamic
Botany and its Literature. Vols. 1-20. London 1872-1892.
8 vo.

Dickie (Dr. G.) On the Marine Algae of Barbados. (Extract) Linn.
Soc. Journ. Bot. XIV. London. 1875. 8 vo.

Dyer (W. T. Thistelton) Hooker’s Icones Plantarum. Vol. V.
Parts 3&4. London. 1896. 8vo. [Bentham Trustees. |
Elmeren (G.) Plantarum Jamaicensium Pugillus. Upsal. 1759.

4 to

Felix (Dr. J.) Die fossilen Holzer Westindiens. Cassel. 18838.
4 to

Green (E.E.) The Coccidae of Ceylon. Part 1. London. 1896. 4 to.

Greville (Dr. R. K.) On the Asterolamprae of the Barbadoes De-
posit. (Extract.) Trans. Micr. Soc. X.N.S. London. 1862. 8 vo.

Hiern (W.P.) Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr. F.
Welwitsch. Part 1. London. 1896. 8 vo. [British Museum. }

Hooker (Sir J. D.) The Flora of British India. Parts XXI, XXII.
London. 1896. 8 vo. [ Kew. |

Journal R. Agricultural Society of England. Vols. VI & VII.
London. 1895-96. 8 vo.

Lagerheim (Dr. G.) Algologiska Bidrag. 11. Veber einige Algen
aus Cuba, Jamaica und Puerto-Rico. (Extract.) Botaniska
Notiser. Lind. 1887. 8 vo.

Lodeman (Ef. G.) Spraying of Plants. New York. 1896. 8 vo.

McAlpine. (D.) Systematic arrangement of Australian Fungi-

283

(Department of Agriculture, Victoria.) Melbourne. 1895. Large
8 vo. [The Hon. The Premier, Victoria. |

McConnell (P.) Elements of Farming. London. 1896. 8 vo,

Mueller (Baron Sir F. von.) Select Extra-tropical Plants. Ninth
Edn. Melbourne. 1895. 8 vo. [The Hon. the Premier, Vic-
toria.

Sadtler 16 P. and H. Trimble) Text Book of Chemistry. Phila-
delphia. 1895, 8 vo.

Sandmark (C. G.) Flora Jamaicensis. Upsal 1759. 4 to

Sargent (C. 8.) Silva of North Ameria. Vols. VII, IX. Boston
and New York. 1895, 96. Fol.

Schlich (Prof. W.) and Fisher (W. R.) A Manual of Forestry.
Vol. V. Forest Utilisation by W. R. Fisher, being a transla-
tion of “ Die Forstbenutzung” by Dr. K. Gayer. London. 1896.
8 vo.

Seeligmann. (Th.; G. Lamy-Torrilhon and H. Falconet.) Le
Caoutchouc et le Gutta Percha. Paris 1896. 8 vo.

Seeman (B.) Journal of Botany. Edited by B. Seemann. Vols.
I-VII. London. 1863-1869. 8 vo.

Stephani (F.) Hepaticarum species novae, VIII. (Extract.) Hed-
wigia XXXIV.5. Dresden. 1895. 8 vo.

Urban (Prof. Dr. I.) Additamenta ad cognitionem florae Indiae
occidentalis. I-III. (Extract.) Engler’s Botan. Jahrb. XV,
XIX, XXI. Leipzig. 1892, 95, 96. 8 vo.

Voelcker (Dr. J.) Report on the Improvement of Indian Agricul-
ture. London. 1898. 8 vo.

Walsh (Joseph) Coffee. Its History, Classification and Descrip-
tion, Philadelphia. 1894. 8 vo. [Author.]

REPORTS OF SUPERINTENDENTS.
Horr GarpEns.
The following Report is by Mr. Wm. Cradwick, Superintendent :—
NvrsERY.

I stated in my annual report for 1895-96 that the importance of the
Nursery at Hope could hardly be over estimated. When one looks at
the list of plants distributed from Hope during the past year I think
it will be admitted that the statement was correct.

We have endeavoured to send out the best plants possible, and to
bestow the greatest care in the packing and despatching of them. We
have to work under the most adverse circumstances, as we have practi-
cally no shelter under which to pack and address plants. The ma-
jority of them are sent away during the rainy seasons and very often
we are compelled to work out in drenching rain at the risk of catching
cold with all its attendant ills, or disappomt people who have ordered

lants.
3 The same care has been bestowed on the appearance of the Nursery
as formerly, and with the same difficulty as regards our nomadic la-
bourers.

‘{he remarks made in my last report with reference to seedlings still
hold good, the treatment with kerosine being almost a specific against
their being carried off by insects,

284

The difficulty of making provision for soil for the large number of
plants put into bamboo and other pots, increases every year, the re-
newal of the beds for seeds and for transplanted nursery stock is also a
serious matter entailing a great deal of labour ; the soil gets exhausted
very quickly, chiefly on account of the continuous watering necessary
at Hope.

Continual thinning of trees in the nursery is necessary to prevent
the overshading of the young plants, in fact there seems to be no end
of the work, especially of “ odd jobs” in a nursery, and for which, at the
end of the year, there is nothing to show.

The hedges planted around the nursery nave been very helpful during
the late fearful drought in checking the passage over the nursery of
the hot dry winds so prevalent during one period.

All trees with large leaves will be removed from the nursery as fast
as the trees with fine leaves have grown sufficiently to take their place.
Besides casting too dense a shade and causing injury to the young
plants by drip, the large leaves will sometimes, when they fall, lodge
on a small plant, and if not removed in a few hours, particularly in hot
damp weather, will kill it.

The list of plants sent out from Hope is appended.

The nursery is now well stocked with plants, there being about 30,000
orange plants, 17,000 kola, 30,000 transplanted Liberian coffee plants
and fully 90,000 awaiting that operation, a good stock of cocoa, cedar,
mahoe, lignumyvite and yoke wood, and as near as can be estimated,
about 30,009 other ornamental and economic plants.

The propagation of roses by circumposition has been a great success,
so much so that I have now abandoned the propagation by cuttings en-
tirely. We raise very fine plants of the best sorts by circumposition,
which readily sell at 6d. or 1s. each, when inferior plants raised from
cuttings will not fetch 4d.

Economic Prants.

Nutmegs. The nutmeg trees ripened their fruits nicely, one tree had
nearly 700 fruits on it, but the crop seems to have been more than it
was capable of bearing, for this year it has not grown during the season
when it should and gives very little promise of fruit.

There are two distinct varieties of nutmegs growing at Hope distinct
both as to the fruit and the foliage of the trees.

One tree grows very vigorously with large, dark green leaves with
the branches spreading out, bearing fine large elliptical fruits, but not
in any great quantity. The other tree grows upright, the leaves have
less colour, the fruits are very plentiful, 700 on one tree, but they are
round and very small, and the tree appears to be much less vigorous
than the other which produces the elliptical fraits.

Coffee. The old Liberian Coffee trees do not look well. After they
were first exposed to the air and light by the removal of other plants
which had grown up around them, and after they had been forked round,
manured and kept constantly watered, they made a fine spurt looking
green and healthy and starting to grow nicely. But it was only a
spurt, although they have again been manured and kept watered.

The young trees of Liberian Coffee which are now 2 years old have
thriven moderately well. Some are no more than one foot in height,
while some are as much as five feet and have branched nicely. Two

a

285

have blossomed a little, but many of them have been much troubled
with scale insects. The soil is only fair, but good holes were dug for
these plants, they were well manured, they are nicely shaded by bananas
and have been kept well watered.

The small plantation of 137 Arabian Coffee shrubs, 18 months old,
has done well. The majority of them have reached a height of 5 feet
at which they have been topped. Some have berries, while a great
many were a perfect sheet of blossom during February. These plants
received exactly the same treatment as the Liberian Coffee.

The Coffee trees have all had two dressings of farm-yard manure well
forked in, and they are kept regularly watered, and weeded. Some of
the trees which were not at one time looking well, were manured with
Jadoo munure, but there was no apparent result.

The plants of Abbeokuta Coffee received from Kew seem perfectly
healthy, with the exception of one or two beiog troubled by scale in-
sects in a similar manner to ordinary Liberian Coffee.

The plants of Coffea stenophylla are doing fairly well.

Seeds of the supposed Mocha Coffee were received from the Secretary
of the Jamaica Agricultural Society. They have grown nicely and have
been planted out.

Cocoa. The number of large cocoa trees has been reduced as there
were still a few trees of inferior varieties which it was thought wise to
remove. It is intended as soon as sufficient shade has grown up to re-
plant the empty spaces with plants of the best varieties.

Sugar Cane. All the new seedling Canes have been increased by
double their number, and plant canes of all the varieties will be avail-
able for testing this year. A large quantity of the No. 95 variety has
been propagated. If we only had had our usual rainfall, tops would
have been available for distribution in April in large quantities, but in
consequence of the severe. and prolonged drought few wll be ready be-
fore the end of May. A large quantity of good tops will be ready for
the autumn planting, it is proposed to largely increase the area planted
with this variety at Hope. Many of the seedling canes seem to have
no constitution at all, making very unsatisfactory growths, and when
this is the case with the care and attention they receive at the Gardens,
I think they are not likely to improve outside

No. 95 grows well as a plant cane, our plants averaging fifteen canes
to a stool, it has a good top, our rows are six feet apart and yet it covers
the ground completely ; our second ratoons of this variety are also pro-
mising well in spite of the severe drought.

Nos, 1:5 and 116 are still as vigorous as ever.

Po a-ole of the older canes still leads as a vigorous growing cane,
second ratoons averaging twenty canes in a stool.

Grape Vines. The Vinery at Hope is fast becoming a very interest-
ing and useful institution.

Last year we were greatly troubled with “ Maybugs” which did
much harm to the vines. There has been no such trouble this year.
Owing to the dead leaves of the Teak trees which were infested with
scale insects, blowing among the vines, many of them became badly in-
fested with scale insects. These were easily got rid of by the use of
an insecticide made of Telola soap supplied by Messrs. T. Christy &
Co. of London. It was recognised however that had the vines been

286

fruiting last year the destruction of the scale insects would have meant
very seiious damage to the crop. During the Spring therefore when
the leaves, as usual in the “pring, all fell from the Teak trees fire
was run through the plantation, which destroyed the scale insects. The
pruning of the Grape Vines was carried on at the same time, and great
care -»+ taken to burn all prunings which were not needed for cuttings.
All such growths were carefully washed in preparation of Telola soap.
Then the whole of the vines were thoroughly washed to clean off any
scale insects which were on them, and painted over with a mixture of
soot, sulphur, and cow manure, thus ensuring the destruction of all the
eggs of the scale insects. It is early yet to venture an opinion as to
the success of grapes at Hope, but my present opinion is, and in this I
am borne out by that eminent grape grower, the Rev. W. Griffith, that
the hot lowlands near the sea are the places peculiarly adapted for grape
growing and that the elevation of Hope (600 feet) is much against it.
We shail, however, have about one hundred vines, each bearing a little
fruit this year, and the quality of the fruit will largely determine the
question Six black Hamburgh vines, pruned on the 10th of December,
ee up very nice fruit indeed in April. The bunches were not

a s one might expect from this variety, but the berries were large
oe ‘a fine colour and flavour. Three bunches were exhibited in the
Collegiate Hall on the occasion of Dr. Morris’s lecture and were admired
by all who saw them. These vines will be pruned in September and
October of the present year to see if we can ripen fruit in February
and March. Earlier than that is perhaps not possible at Hope, although
in districts like the lowlands of Manchester, St. Elizabeth and West-
moreland they probably may be ripened in January,

The vinery at Hope will always be, to a large extent, experimental.
It is important now to determine—

1. The best varieties :
(a) the heaviest cropper ;
(b) the finest looking grape;
(c) the best traveller;

(d) the period at which they are ready to cut with a view
of sending them long distances.

2. The best methods of training whether on arbours, fences or
otherwise.

9

». The best method of root cultivation.

4. The best method of pruning.

With reference to varieties, so far as it has been possible to deter-
mine at Hope, the varieties to be grown on a large scale must be se-
lected from the following :—

Black Hamburgh.
Muscat of Alexandria.
Alicante, (black).
Raisin de Calabre.
‘ine bearing large bunches of fine black grapes was also brought
from ising’s House to Hope but unfortunately the label was lost in

287

the transplantiug. This is with perhaps the exception of Gros Col-
mar, the most vigorous I have seen; growing nearly 40 feet during
ast season, the canes made being nearly two inches in diameter.

Of other varieties tried Gros Colmar hus turned out a failure, it
produces large quantities of big bunches, which have large berries up
to the time when they begin to colour, then they split and fall off.

Monukka and '[rebbiano have also been given an extensive trial but
have failed to produce any fruit. A large number of varieties have
been received from the Royal Horticultural Society’s Gardens, Chis-
wick.

Many plants have been raised; two or three plants of each variety
have been planted out for a trial at Hope, the rest being distributed to
the public.

Persian varieties have also been received and are growing well.

The following varieties of American species have been received and
planted out, but at present are not looking very promising. Delaware,
Hartford, Concord, Niagara, Mailtra, Catawba, Moore’s Early, Empire
State, Yves.

At present the methods of cultivation followed are almost entirely
English, and what is known as the extension system. I have followed
this plan, for the following reasons:—(1) that I thoroughly under-
stand it; (2) that the enormous growths made by the vines in Jamaica
seem to indicate that the repressive measures carried out by the Con-
tinental field grape growers would entail endless labour, with so far as
I can see at present, no particular object to be gained. We have,
however, this year started to give the Continental methods a trial.

Pines. As stated in my report for last year experiments in manur-
ing pines were being carried out, artificial manures, ashes and farmyard.
manure were used, but no result from either was visible.

As far as I am able to judge in the short time that the pines have
been under observation, ‘much seems to depend on the size and age of
the sucker which is used for planting also on the time of the year at
which it is planted. A good stout healthy sucker; about 15 inches
long, planted just after the heavy October seasons seems to be the right
kind, and seldom fails to make a good strong plant which will fruit
the following year. Large suckers planted out in the spring time start
to fruit almost immediately and by so doing exhaust themselves,

There are two well defined varieties of Ripley Pine to begin with,
usually called the red and the green; the red has a plain red leaf, the

reen has a pale green leaf, with red stripes situated on different parts
of the leaf, the stripes being very pronounced in some plants varying
from a dark red stripe an inch in diameter to none at all, as far as my
observations go at present it 1s only when the Green Ripley has the
broad dark red stripe and that situated in the centre of the leaf that
the plant is worth growing; the totally green leafed plant, or the plant
with a narrow stripe especially when the stripe is on the edge of the
leaf instead of in the centre is not worth anything, the fruit produced
usually having holes near the base into which ants creep and by eat-
ing the fruit start it rotting.

Whether good cultivation would improve the varieties and produce
a preponderance of plants with the correct stripes, whether bad culti-
vation causes marking to deteriorate, can only be demonstrated by

288
actual experiment, but there is little doubt in my mind that unless the
plant has the correct marking it is useless to expect good fruit from it.

Bananas.—15 rows of the plants each were planted for the purpose of
testing the effects of different manures, the ground was carefully pre-
pared and the plants throve well at first, but when the long drought
settled down and it became a question of providing enough water to
keep them alive, it was soon apparent that the experiment was doomed
to be a failure.

Oranges. The budded trees by the glass house have grown well but
have fruited very litle.

In consequence of the importance which the orange industry has
assumed of late, an Orange Grove of nearly three acres has been laid
out at Hope; here a thorough trial of the merits of different varieties
of Citrus as stocks will be thoroughly tested at present we have the
following plants growing :—

18 Tangierine on rough Lemon Stocks.

18 Sweet Oranges on rough Lemon Stocks.

19 Sweet Oranges on Sour Orange Stocks.

19 Sweet Oranges on Sweet Orange Stocks.

6 Imperial Lemon on Sweet Orange Stocks.

10 Imperial Lemon on rough Lemon Stocks.

5 Grape Fruit (Castleton var.) on rough Lemon Stocks.
6 i . < “« on Sweet Orange Stocks.
12 “ * on rough Lemon Stocks.

4 Melrose Shaddocks on rough Lemon Stocks.

32 Navel Oranges ‘“ ef

Mangoes. Quantities of seedlings have been transplanted into beds,
these are transplanted about every four months in order to compel them
to make plenty of fibrous roots; as soon as they are large enongh they
are put into large sized clay pots and used for grafting.

Durian. I regret to have to report that the Durian after growing
nicely in a pot, died soon after being planted out.

Ramie. The old plots of Ramie continue to thrive according to the
treatment they have received, that which was planted in good land has
thriven fairly well, that which was planted on thin soil has not
thriven at all.

The new plot of 3 chains planted at the request of the Agricultural
Society in November at a cost of £1 0s. 0d. per square chain, planted
exactly as described in the leaflet, has owing to the severe drought,
grown very badly. In fact with our very limited and uncertain rain-
fall growing Ramie as a commercial venture would be utterly out of
the question. If the plants are put in the beds in the way advised in
the pamphlet and they are properly cared and watered, plants can be
raised in large quantities very rapidly.

Correspondence—The Correspondence for the year is 4,409 letters re-
ceived, 5,349 letters despatched.

—

289

Buildings—The need for a seed house is intensified, and we also
want badly a new plant house. We still have to pack and despatch
our plants in the open air, getting drenched to the skin when it rains,

Roads, Fences, &c.,—Sixteen chains of Roads from the Superinten-
dent’s House down have been repaired, the gradient here being steep
this piece of road requires repairing oftener than the other parts

The path through the Divi-Divi avenue has also been regravelled
and most of the paths in the nursery. Very little has been done to the
fences most of these having been thoroughly repaired last year.

ORNAMENTAL PLANTS,

Rose Garden.—The rose garden has been kept in good order, the
number of plants of the better kinds has been increased, and the
number of the inferior kinds decreased.

A few good roses are ‘always popular, and plants of them are always
in great demand.

We have given up attempting to raise plants of the good varieties by
cuttings, raising them wholly by cireumposition. By this method we
get a strong, healthy plant without wasting wood, a great feature, as
nearly all the good roses are slow growers.

Cannas, §c.—Cannas still continue to prove what a valuable class of
flowering plants they are for our dry district.

All the ornamental plants specially mentioned in last year’s 1 eport
have done well, except Chickrassia tabularis, which died on being
removed to its proper geographical position.

Pot plants—The quantity and quality of these have maintained the
standard of former years.

Orchids.—The orchids have made a grand show throughout the
whole year.

The following have flowered for the first time :—Lzlia tenebrosa ;
Peristeria elata; Bifrenaria aurantiaca; Epidendrum osmanthum ;
Cattleya Schrodere; Lelia glauca; Epidendrum bicornutum ; Den-
drobium giganteum var superbum.

Laelia glauca is considered a difficult species to flower in cultivation,
the only plant which flowered at Hope was one growing on one of the
Divi-Divi trees, those in baskets did not flower. They will he trans-
planted to the trees. Many of the epiphytal orchids have been found
to thrive better when grown on blocks of tree fern than when grown in
the usual peat mixture; this I ascribe to two reasons, first that the
tree ferns do not rot and become nasty in the same way that the peat
so rapidly does, and secondly that the roots of the orchids being able to
bury themselves deeply in the tree-fern-blocks, are not damaged by
cockroaches as they so often are in the baskets; the cockroaches are
easily able to dig among the peat and eat off the soft young points of
the roots. A new floor has been put into the orchid house, which has.
greatly improved the appearance of it, as well as enabled visitors to
walk through to see the orchids dryshod. The fern house still con-
tinues to be a great source of attraction, especially to visitors from
abroad.

Geographical plan of Gardens —The work of laying out Hope as &
Botanic Garden on a design to follow the natural Geographical distri-
bution of the plants to be grown there, is a work of large dimensions,

290

especially when conflicting interests are taken into consideration. All

kinds of experiments have to be carried out, which cannot be delayed ;

and besides there are the frequent droughts which make it useless to
ut out plants unless they can be well watered.

The following work has been carried out in connection with the
scheme. Four acres of land have been cleared of weeds and bush,
thoroughly forked, cleared of large quantities of stones, nicely levelled
and planted with Bahama grass; this in the Tropical African section.
After the planting of the Bahama grass, the work of establishing it is
by no means done, in fact it is hardly begun; for the watering in such
a dry year is very expensive; and the weeding which must be done is
endless.

The following trees have been planted in the Malayan and East
Indian section :—Chonemorpha Griffithii; Ficus elastica; Ficus
religiosa; Ficus infectoria; Ficus indica; Mimusops Elengi; Cordia
Myxa; Eugenia malaccensis; Citrus decumana; Cananga odorata;
Nephelium Litchi; Leea sambucina; Gynocardia odorata; Bassia
latifolia; Acacia cyanophylla; Rhododendron indica ; Morinda citrifolia ;
Livistona chinensis; Rhapis flabelliformis; Chickrassia tabularis ;
Wrightia tinctoria; Exceecaria Agallocha. In the Australian Section :
Dendrocalamus strictus ; Casuarina Cunningahamii. Near the Chinese
Section—Diospyros discolor.

IT hope during this year to carry out a greater proportion of this
work than heretofore but of course the same difficulties present them-
selves year after year; each acre of land that is brought into culti-
vation makes the daily routine grow larger.

Hope Industrial School—The theoretical teaching has been carried
out on the same lines as in previous years, my aim being to make the
theoretical teaching the interpretation of the practical operations
carried on in the Garden. The boys can carry out details of planting,
preparing land, pruning, budding, te., and give clearly and intelligently
their reasons for so doing.

Insecticides—During the past year I have paid a good deal of atten-
tion to the question of the destruction of scale insects, and tried many
formule for making insecticides. The most effectual insecticide, in
fact, the only effectual one on scale insects which I have used is the
Telola insecticide—this mixed with water usually kills scale insects
after two or three sprayings at intervals of three or four days.

Jadov.—Experiments were carried out with Jadoo as a soil and as
a manure. Asa soil for Begonias, it was as good as the best and most
carefully prepared soil obtainable, and perhaps a trifle better. Mixed
with ordinary soil I could not see, with one exception that it did any
good at all; the exception was with orange seeds, it prevented the
“damping off” so prevalent in young orange seedlings.

As a manure I have tried it with the utmost possible care on
Arabian Coffee, and it did not make the slightest difference to it.

The Jadoo liquid tried on a Bahama grass lawn was equally ineffectual.

Visitors.—In conclusion, IT am glad to be able to report that the
Gardens are becoming much more popular, the number of increasing
every year. As many as 586 have visited the Gardens in one day,
the total for the year being 12,037.

291

Priants DistriBuTED.—SOLD.
Economic Plants :—

Liberian Coffee tee 22,134
Sweet Oranges san 14,110
Tangierine Oranges sos 3,795
Sour Oranges one 228
Grape Fruit Soc 6, 488
Ramie a 11,120
Kola aes 1,855
Nutmegs aot 7,816
Cane Tops So 17,061
Cacao fee 2,587
Rubber plants sis B72
Arabian Coffee ais PALF
Grape Vines 413
Miscellaneous Fruit and Etcononnic plants wee MAO MZane
94,233

Ornamental Plants un 15,319

Free GRANTS.
Economic Plants:—

Miscellaneous (including Timber and Shade Trees) 7,240
Ramie Roots bets 142,672
Ornamental Plants ace 4,481

Total number of economic Plants distributed 244,145
Total number of ornamental Plants distributed 19,800

Total number of Plants distributed DNs 263,945

Sceds distributed. 131 Cocoa pods, 1,000 Sweet Orange, 1,060 Sour
Orange, 141bs. Lignum Vite, tobacco seeds (5 vars.) and 20 pkts. of
various seeds.

The elevation of the Garden is 700 feet above sea-level.

The average annual mean temperature is 77° 4 F., and the average
annual rainfall 52.83 inches. The amount of rain that fell during the
year was 31.48 inches, being 21.385 inches below the average April,
May, September and N ovember, were the wettest months, and J anuary,
February, March and June the driest.

The mean temperature was 77° 5 F. The Meteorological tables for
the different months are given on page 307.

CasTLETON GARDENS.

The following Report is by Mr. Wm. Thompson, Superintendent.

T have continued on the same lines as I had been doing the previous
fifteen months when I returned to my duties at these oardens, namely :-—

Taking steps to facilitate the working of the gard en, pruning trees,
and shrubs, thinning out useless ones, planting young plants to increase

292

the collection of both economic and ornamental trees and shrubs, bill-
ing down bush to extend the garden, extending space in nursery, look-
ing to the quality of the plants sent out, making potting sheds, plant
sheds to grow tender plants under, watering arrangements, labels,
walks, ete.

I am pleased to say after two and a half year’s hard work, I have
accomplished this, and from this time I hope to be able to attend to
collecting and planting in the Garden native plants and such imported
plants as would be of use.

I am sorry to say the Garden is still in want of a seed house in which
to raise seeds by artificial means. Every year we lose quite half of the
seeds received because there is no house for their germination, in which
the temperature would not fall too low at night and early morning.
This is a reproductive work which would pay for itself in a few years.

It is still important that other buildings such as a seed, specimen and
store room and a proper office should be provided at these Gardens.

The number of visitors to the Garden is increasing fast. During
some days in the past year we have had as many as 150 in the gardens.
Many take the train from Port Antonio to Annotto Bay, and then drive
from Annotto Bay to the Gardens.

There is not nearly enough accommodation for visitors in the way
of shelter.

A large number of plants have been sent away from the Annotto
Bay railway station. The Castleton Post Office is also used for sending
away seeds and plants.

Letters despatched number 1195 and 643 letters were received.

The walks on the economic side of these gardens have received the
usual amount of hoeing, weeding, and raking. Fresh gravel has been
put on the walks when needed. The old gutters on these walks
have been repaired and fine new cement gutters made to prevent the
heavy rains washing the gravel off the walks.

The old public road that ran through the north part of the garden
up to some provision grounds, has been closed and another walk six
chains less in distance and to the north of the old walk has been made.
People are thus prevented from walking through that part of the gar-
den at night, and a fence has been put up to keep out stock.

On the economic side of the garden six chains of new walk have
been made. All the other walks have been widened and regravelled.
The drains running under these walks have been bridged over with
2 inch planking, instead of with Rose-apple sticks as was the case for-
merly.

The drain that ran alongside the Liberian Coffee land has been
filled up and another drain made four feet closer to the Liberian Coffee.
By doing this I have been able to make the walk that runs parallel
to the drain four feet wider so that it is now eight feet wide instead
of four feet as before. There are now in the garden over two miles of
walks to be looked after.

The usual attention has been given to the lawns and verges. The
grass has been billed more times than usual. All the weeds have been
taken out. Soil and manure has been supplied where needed, and the
lawns are all in good condition.

Several old tree stumps and bamboo roots have been dug out-

293

The soil round many palms and trees on the lawn has been trenched
and manured.

All the bends and borders have been well forked and manured, a
large number of old shrubs have been dug out and young shrubs
planted in their place. Some of the borders have had all the plants
dug out, the land trenched and manured and young plants planted
in the place of the old ones. One bed has been planted with Crotons
and Hibiscus ; these plants are very effective at the present time.

Most of the shrubs in the other borders have been transplanted.

The old worn out Crotons in the border to the north of the
palmetum have been dug out, the land has been trenched, levelled,
raked and planted out with Bahama grass, also a few palms and shrubs.
Bright foliage plants have been planted about the tanks.

The pruning of trees and shrubs has been continued and has made
a great improvement to the plants and the gardens generally. The
trees had been planted much too close, and in places they had formed
quite a block of vegetation, but by judicious thinning, several new
vistas have been formed and the trees and shrubs are looking all the
better for the extra light they are getting.

All the plants in the old rose garden have been taken up, the land
trenched two feet deep, manured and planted with rose plants. These
plants are now making good growth.

I have replanted two borders with rose plants. The roses have been
planted in rows, one kind in a row. I have also planted roses on the
economic side of the garden. Up tothe present it has been a hard
matter at Castleton to get rosewood for propagating. With the large
number of roses planted out this year we should have plenty of rose-
wood for propagating purposes.

There is not a very large variety of roses at these gardens, and more
varieties are very much needed.

The old nursery was not only too small for the 30,000 plants of all
kinds that we have to keep in stock, but it was too shady, and the
ground too much on the slope, so that it was impossible to water the
plants properly.

It was also very expensive to keep re-arranging the plants after
heavy rains. To alter all this an acre of land was cleared and levelled
on the economic side of the garden, and 600 ft. of 1 in. piping, 12 taps
and 12 tanks were laid down so that the watering can be done easily.
‘The new nursery is all that can be wished for, the land level, plenty of
light and air, a fair amount of sun so as to make the plants hardy, plenty
of room between each bed, and every facility for watering, potting, seed-
beds, ete.

All the plants in bamboo pots have been removed to the new nursery,
a new potting shed 30 ft. by 12 ft. has been erected so that we can now
turn out 100,000 plants a year if wanted.

Up to the present the plants in the nursery have been put down any-
where, without any arrangement whatever. Now most of the plants are
arranged alphabetically, and there is a place for every kind of plant we
ought to have in stock.

The old nursery ground is being kept solely for plants in earthen
pots, orchids, ferns and plants established, economic plants, vanilla,

294

black-pepper, inarching plants, plant houses and such plants that need’
daily attention.

Now that the second potting shed is erected, it gives ample room for
potting, storage of pots, all kinds of soil, ete.

Two plant-sheds have been erected this year, one 30 ft. by 4 ft. and
one 15 ft. by 4 ft., these make five plant-sheds and two potting sheds’
erected within the last two years.

A new roof has been put on the fern house and three more windows
let in to allow more light, the staging repaired, refilled and painted,
the path levelled and gravyelled.

Among the purchases are new varieties of Orchids, Begonias,
Caladiums, Cannas, Anthurium, Asparagus, Azaleas; they are all doing
well except the two last.

I have introduced a new kind of label, made from one inch square
cedar and 18 inches long planed all over, tarred nine inches at the
lower part and painted white the upper part, this will be very effective
and inexpensive.

A large number of orchids have been collected and established on
trees in the gardens, also many native lilies and ground orchids have
been collected and planted in beds about the gardens.

The Lily-tank has been emptied, new soil put in for the Victoria
regia, and the small lilies repotted. I have planted three Victoria lilies
in the tank instead of one lily as formerly, by planting three lilies we
will get three times the amount of flowers, so that one flower should
always be open in the season and there will always be plenty of good
foliage in the tank. By taking away the leaves as soon as they are past
their,best, the tank should not get too full of foliage.

The small lilies have made a good show during the present year, but
I am sorry to say they have not increased as I expected they would
have done, so I have not been able to send out any young plants.

Young plants of Victoria regia have been sent for planting in the
new tank at King’s House Garden. Young plants of this lily have also
been sent to several places in the Island, and a few planted in the still
waters about the district.

The drought of this year was felt by the planters in the district; as
far as the gardens were concerned it was good for them ; and on account
of it several trees flowered and fruited which usually do not as the
weather is generally wet in this district.

The value of the new tank has been demonstrated through the past
drought by not having to carry water from the river as was the case in
former years.

The old Liberian coffee trees continue to do well. The young plants
that were planted 24 years ago have flowered and fruited, the young
trees are about four feet high.

The two new kinds of coffee, Coffea stenophylla, and the coffee from
Abbeokuta are both making good growth, and C. stenophylla should
soon fruit.

The plant of the Durian is quite established and making good
growth.

The Imperial lemon trees have made good growth and a numberof
young plants have been produced from seeds and from inarching.

The rubber trees have made good growth the past year and I hope

295

soon to be able to send out a good number of plants. More young
plants have been planted out.

The young plants of logwood, Durian, West Indian Dragons-blood,
rubber tree are all doing well.

Half an acre of idle land between the cocoa ground and the walk
has been cleaned, manured, trenched, drained and planted with such
plants as ginger, arrowroot, cassava, cardamom, Liberian coffee seedl-
ings, oranges, grape fruit, etc., etc.

Several large trees of oranges and lemons have been transplanted to
more suitable places.

One thousand rough lemon plants received from the Hill Gardens
and some thousands raised in the garden have been planted out to grow
as stocks for budding.

Some of the plants of the Imperial Lemon raised by inarching have
been sent to Hope and the Hill Gardens, and others planted out at
Castleton as stock plants.

Piper nigrum.—Finding that the pepper plant had never fruited at
Castleton, I have devoted attention to the plants during the last 18
months, and am pleased to say I have succeeded in fruiting two plants
and have raised several young plants from the seeds gathered. I made

several experiments and found out that the plants had been kept too
shady.

The remainder of the palms that were not growing very well have
had the soil about them trenched and manured, and they are all grow-
ing now in a satisfactory manner.

The old plants of Bertholletia excelsa that have been in such poor
condition for years have taken another lease of life since the land they
are on has been trenched. The plants are all making rapid growth,
and the leaves that used to be as yellow as gamboge have now
turned quite a dark green. I see no reason why they should not fruit
in time.

Two of the Mangosteen trees have borne a good number of fruits ;
all the seeds we could get have been sown; I am sorry to say the seeds
grow very slowly. I am raising plants of Garcinia Morella in the hope
of being able to inarch the Mangosteen on them.

Common mangoes are being grown, on which to inarch Hast Indian
Mangoes.

Hight fruits of the Coco-de-mer or Seychelle Palm have been received
at the garden. Six of them have germinated and been planted out in
suitable places on the economic side of the gardens.

Seeds of Borassus flabelliformis have also been received and planted
out.

A quantity of Tree-ferns have been planted out in the border at the
lower end of the Palmetum.

Between the economic side of the garden and the river the bush
has been cleared for about two hundred yards. The clearance has made
a great improvement in the landscape, as visitors can now see the
water and the large creeper on the opposite side of the river and the
hills beyond.

The bush has been cleared from 8 acres of land, some bamboos and
mative trees have been reserved and the land has been planted with

296

guinea grass, so that we can cut grass for the stock on the garden
ground instead of the men having to go outside the gardens. 50 chains
of fencing has been run to fence in the new land cleared.

The Public Works Department have run a fence around the new
nursery to protect it from stock. They have also fixed a pipe to convey
the water from the upper tank to the lily tank, run a wall on our side
of the gutter that runs through the economic garden, painted and re-
paired part of the Superintendent’s house and made two latrines for
visitors.

Three 4ft. iron gates have been bought and fixed. About six more are
needed. Wooden gates soon rot in this district as it is so wet.

Priants Sotp at CastLeTon GARDENS.
Economic Plants :—

Liberian Coffee aye 4,335
Kola on 1,943
Manilla Hemp A 256
Grape Fruit ae 120
Oranges 34 100
Rubber Plants te 87
Miscellaneous oon 2,086

8,927

Ornamental Plants ate 2,300

Realising £70 lls. 4d.
Plants sent to Hope :—

Economic plants ae 2,794
Ornamental “ wae 7,030

9,824
Total number of Economic Plants Distributed 11,721
Total number of Ormamental Plants Distributed 9,330
Total number of Plants Distributed 21,051

Seeds Distributed :—50 quarts Liberian Coffee.
12 bags ditto
20 Ibs. cured ditto

The elevation of the Garden is 580 feet above sea-level.

The average annual mean temperature is 76°. 2 F., and the average
annual rainfall J10.01 inches. The amount of rain that fell during the
year was 99.90 inches, being 10.11 inches below the average. Septem-
ber, October, November and December were the wettest months, and
January, February, June and August the driest.

The mean temperature was 74° 9 F.

The Meteorological tables for the different months are given on page
306.

297

Hitt Garpens,

The following Report is by Mr. Wm. Harris, Superintendent :—

Roads.—The main roads through the property were cleaned and kept
in fair order.

Fences.—Necessary repairs were attended to, and the fences kept in
good order. The Nursery was made secure by a substantial barbed
wire fence.

Pastures. —These were billed and cleaned as usual during the year.

Garden.—The borders were thoroughly overhauled, trenched, man-
ured, and the plants re-arranged. This became necessary through
overcrowding, and through many of the specimens having become
altogether too large for border plants. A large number of tree
ferns were brought in and planted in the Arboretum. The walk
through the Arboretum was re-made, considerably widened, and
generally improved. The usual garden work, e.g. forking, manuring,
weeding and raking, cutting grass, etc, was attended to as usual.

Nursery.—The propagation of garden plants has been attended to,
and a stock sufficient to meet requirements has been kept on hand.

Blue Mountain Coffee.—Considerable difficulty is often experienced
by Coffee planters in obtaining supplies of young coffee plants for
supplying vacancies, or for planting up new land. To assist in this
matter a quantity of the best Blue Mountain Coffee was procured for
seed, and was sown. The plants, about 25,000 in number, were duly
pricked out in prepared beds and they have made fair progress. The
very dry weather experienced during the last three months of the
official year affected them considerably, but they were shaded with
fern fronds and are again looking well. Naturally, growth at this
altitude (4,900 feet) is not so fast as it would be at a lower elevation,
but it is thought that the plants will be hardier, and better suited for
exposed situations than those raised at a lower altitude.

Orris Root. In the Annual Report for 1894 mention is made that
seeds of Iris florentina and I. germanica were imported and sown.
The plants raised are all apparently forms of the latter species. As
expected they have grown luxuriantly, and during the latter part of
the year under review many of them were lifted, the rhizomes cut off
and the heads replanted.

For information on Orris-root see Bulletin for January 1896.

ORANGE GARDEN AT RESOURCE.

Resource is a property of 162 acres situated on the southern slopes
of the Blue Mountains, about 9 miles from Gordon Town, and ranging
in elevation from 3,400 feet to 4,000 feet. Parochial roads intersect
the property, and as it is within half an hour’s ride of Cinchona it
has been placed under the Superintendent of that Establishment.
As might be expected, an old property which had been out of culti-
vation for over a quarter of a century, save a few patches of provision
ground worked by tenants and squatters, required a great deal of
heavy work to restore it to something like order. There were no
roads, no fences, and rank bush and large mango trees of useless sorts
grew everywhere filling the land with roots and impoverishing the
soil. These had to be renewed, the ground thoroughly dug up and
immense quantities of roots and stones cleared away.

298

It is important ‘that the g-ound for oranges should be thoroughly
pulverised and carefully prepared; time is lost rather than gained
by putting out plants in soil that has not been worked into condition
suitable for their growth, and, moreover, they are likely to become
diseased and stunted. The removal of stumps is not absolutely neces-
sary, but renders subsequent culture much easier. In a word, every-
thing is to be gained by careful cultivation at the start.

Work was commenced in the latter part of October 1895, by en-
closing a portion of the land with a substantial wire fence. Since then
150 chains of wire fence have been erected. This fencing was neces~
sary, as the property is surrounded on the east, south-east, south and
west by small settlers, on the north and north-east by Coffee proper-
ties, and the Parochial roads passing through the property necessitated
a good deal of extra fencing. As the cultivation extends, further
fencing will be necessary. About 80 chains or 1 mile of roads have
been made; mules have been purchased for the carriage of manure
from Cinchona and other work; a small office for the use of the Su-
perintendent, sheds for tools and for stock have been erected. The
ground was cleaned end prepared for planting, and nearly 1,000 plants
of all the best kinds of oranges, lemon, grape-fruit, shaddock, citron
and lime have been planted out in permanent positions. These plants
were obtained from England, Florida and California.

Seed bels ona very extensive scale have been specially prepared,
and large quantities of Sweet orange, Sour orange, Lemon, Gra; e-

fruit, Shaddock and Lime seeds sown.

During last orange season quantities of the best fruit procurable were
purchased, and sufficient seeds sown to produce over 400,000 plants.
The exceedingly dry weather experienced from the end of December
1896, to the end of March 1897, has retarded the growth of the young
plants and although they were shaded and watered regularly they will
not be ready for pricking out for some time yet. This work has to be
very carefully done, and the plants have to be shaded and watered
during dry weather till they again take good hold of the soil, then the
beds must be weeded and kept clean.

The Sour oranges and Lemons are to form stock plants for budding,
and this work is being carried on as quickly as the lemon and sour
orange plants arrive at a suitable size. Already a large number of plants
have been budded with the very best kinds of grape fruit, navel orange
and choice shaddock, and many of these have been planted out in per-
manent positions. At present we have to depend on the generosity of
owners of the best kinds of grape fruit and other trees for supplies of
buds, but in a few years our own plants imported from England, Florida
and California ought to be large enough to supply all the buds required ;
indeed this is what the plants were imported for.

In addition to the plants of the Citrus family about 150 fruit trees
have been put out at Resource. These include Olives, Persian Grape
vines; Figs, Peaches, Apples, Pears, Plums, Pomegranate, Mulberry,
Loquat, etc. As there is plenty of land available, Resource should
become a valuable property for experimenting with, and propagating
fruit and other plants from sub-tropical and temperate climates, which
would be likely to succeed at elevations from 2,000 feet upwards.

299

Sugar Canes.—Over 50 varieties of sugar cane from Hope Gardens
have been planted to ascertain which are the most suitable for hill culti-
vation. The tops will be distributed free to settlers in the district who
cultivate cane for making “ new sugar.”

West Indian Cedar.—About 55,000 plants of this tree were raised
from seed, and the seedlings were duly transplanted and have grown
splendidly. These are now being given away to anyone who applies for
them. Already over 4,000 have been distributed. They have also
been planted along our fences where they will in a few years nut only
clearly define our boundary lincs, but will also become permanent
fence posts, and effect a considerable annual saving on the renewal of
posts. They will also materially increase the value of the property.
A large number of Juniper Cedar plants are also being grown for distri-
bution.

Green Manuring.—Quantities of seeds of Cow pea, Soja bean, hairy
Vetch, Conga pea, Alfalfa, and other leguminous plants were sown
through the cultivated portions of the ground to serveas green manuring,
and to help to keep down the weeds that spring up everywhere after
each shower of rain. It will take years of patient weeding and culti-
vation to thoroughly eradicate the weeds, which have had full sway
here for over 25 years.

Fodder plants.—Various kinds of grasses and other fodder plants are
under trial The Himalayan Grass grows most luxuriantly, and pro-
mises to be a great success.

Teosinte.—A packet of seed of this magnificent fodder plant was
sown in April last. It produced stems ten feet high and flowered in
October. Towards the end of October, half the area grown was cut and
carefully weighed, when the yield was found to be at the rate of 44,000
Ibs., or over 194 tons of fodder per acre. Beyond being kept free from
weeds when in a young state, the Teosinte received no special attention.

The plant is an annual, but readily reproduces itself on good land
from the seed shed. If cut when young, but not too short, the stubble
quickly springs again, and asecond or evena third crop of green fodder
may thus be obtained. The fodder is greatly relished by stock.

Bermuda Lily.—This beautiful lily is cultivated as a field crop in
the Bermudas, to supply English and American growers with bulbs, and
is a very remunerative industry. Mr A. H. Crane, an American who
has recently settled in Jamaica, imported 40,000 young bulbs in the
beginning of 1896. ‘These were planted at Resource, being placed 8
inches apart in rows |8 inchesasunder. The bulbs flowered all through
the snmmer months, and were a noticeable feature at fully a distance
of three miles from the field. The work of thoroughly cleaning and
preparing the ground and planting the bulbs entailed cousiderable ex-
pense, which was borne by Mr. Crane.

In March, at the request of Mr. Crane, the bulbs in an average row
were lifted and examiued to see what progress, if any, had been made.
There were originally 90 bulbs in this row, and when lifted and counted

300

these were found to have increased in number to 308. The bulbs were
then sorted into sizes with the following results :—
4 bulbs, 3 inches in circumference

95 é 4 « “ “
20 ““c 5 “ “ “cc
13 66 54 “ “ (73
20 “ 6 « “ “
9 “ 64 ““c “ -
8 ““ 7 6c 6c“ (a3
5 (a3 8 ““ “ “

204 “small, under 3 ins. in circumference.

—_—_——

308

Vegetables—Although attention has been devoted in the first place,
and mainly to the cultivation and propagation of plants of the Citrus
family, other products that are likely to prove useful are being tried
on a small scale, when time and circumstances permit of this being
done. This district is eminently suited during certain months of the
year for the cultivation of European vegetables, and certain kinds are
fairly well grown, but here, as elsewhere, the peasantry need practical
lessons on the best methods of cultivation. With this object in view,
as well as to test the capabilities of the soil, a few vegetables have
been grown—cabbages, turnips, carrots, beet, leeks, peas, potatoes,
tomatoes, cucumbers, marrows.

One pound of potatoes yielded 40lbs. of good tubers; tomatoes yield
abundant crops of handsome well flavoured fruits; splendid marrows
were produced in less than a month from date of sowing seed, and
cucumbers in two months; cabbages form excellent heads, large and
firm, and all the other kinds grown have been most successful. The
seeds of tomato, etc., are given to any of the settlers who ask for them.

The following special experiment in potato cultivation was carried
out, but, for the reasons stated was not altogether a success, and
similar experiments carried out in different parts of the Island about
the same time were, generally, even less successful.

Report on Porato EXPERIMENT.

We received one barrel of Potatoes from Mr. Douet in October 1896.
They were apparently fine potatoes for cooking purposes, but not at all
what are known as ‘“‘seed potatoes”. They were too large and evi-
dently had not been allowed to remain in the ground long enough to
ripen, and consequently the eyes were immature, and unable to make
good strong growths. Then again, many of the large tubers, when
cut, were found to be quite hollow and useless, 40lbs in weight being
in this state.

The potatoes were kept till the middle of November, and as they
were then showing signs of growth the sets were prepared, and on the
20th of November they were planted at Resource, at an elevation
of 3,600 feet, the ground having previously been well dug and man-
ured. The soil I may mention is a gravelly loam.

Mode of Planting. The sets were planted in trenches 24 feet apart,
and a space of 15 inches was allowed between the sets in the trenches.

301

Subsequent culture. The ground was kept free from weeds whilst
the potatoes were growing, and the plants were moulded twice.
Lifting.—The potatoes were taken up on the 1st March, 1897, so
that they were in the ground exactly 100 days, or a little over 3 months.
Weather.—* Seasvnable” weather prevailed from time of planting to
29th December, or 39 days, and from then till date of lifting the crop
no rain was registered, a period of 61 days, or two months.
Yiela.—The total weight of potatoes lifted was 360lbs.; of these
215lbs. were of marketable size, and small tubers suitable for seed
14dlbs. The marketable potatoes were of good quality and were sold
at the rate of 12/6 per 100lbs.
The following is a Statement of Receipts and Expenditure :—
Receipts—
2\5lbs. potataesat 12/6 per 100lbs. ... £1 6 104
145lbs, seed at suy $d. per Ib. mG. (OF Sie haul

Expenditure —

Cleaning and preparing ground
Manure, valued at

Ibrl. of potatoes

Planting

Moulding and weeding
Lifting

SOoCOaocel
FPwonoan
DAADCO

Net profit esc a £0 5 5

This shows a ‘profit of 5/5 on the transaction, which would not pay
for the trouble, but there is little doubt that with good seed, and a
favourable season, excellent results might be obtained.

Puants Disrripurep.—Soxp.
Economic Plants :—

Sweet Oranges ans 11,639
Sour Oranges or 2,500
Grape Fruit a 4,150
Shaddock and Limes ote 58
Ornamental plants ae 506
FREE GRANTSs.
Tea Plants Fat 16,055
W. I. Cedar ae 4,425
Other Economic Plants ae 447
Ornamental—various oe 287
Total Economic plants distributed 39,274
Total Ornamental plants distributed 893
Total number af plants distributed 40,167

The following seeds were also distributed :~ —

28lbs of Tea seed.

18,000 Rough Lemon Seeds.

and of Tree Tomatoes, 217 dozens weighing 434lbs.

302

The elevation of the Hill Garden House where the instruments are
placed is 4,907 above sea-level.

The average mean temperature there is 62°9 F. and the average
annual rainfall 105.04 inches for 26 years.

The amount of rain that fell during the year was 80.98 inches or
19.40 inches below the average.

September, October, November and December were the wettest months,
and January, February and March were the driest.

The mean temperature was 62° -4 Fah. The Meteorological tables
for the different months are given on page 305. The rainfall at the
Orange Garden, Resource, was 45.63 inches for the year; May,Octo-
ber and November were the wettest months, and June, January and
February the driest. During the two latter months, and the first half
of March, no rain was registered.

Kineston Pusric GARDEN.

The following Report is by Mr. J. Campbell, Superintendent :—

The general work of the Garden during the past year has been
strictly attended to in weeding forking, pruning, trimming, edging,
clearing away of rubbish, manuring and watering; the last item had
to be done almost incessantly, on account of the protracted drought
of about eight months. It is with difficulty that the cut edges can be
kept in good order on account of the continual trampling by the
people who will not keep to the pathway.

I may mention that the outer borders around the Garden are crowd-
ed with too many trees of large growth which are now becoming de-
veloped. It would be well to take away a few of these alternately
so as to allow the shrubs and flowering plants to thrive, and this would
improve the appearance of the Garden.

A few of the Ficus lucida trees have died out this year, especial-
ly those that are fully grown; every care was taken to save the trees
#8 soon as they showed the first sign of decay by application of fer-
tilisers, etc. It is noted that several trees of this kind about Kingston
have died out during the past year.

The garden benches have been repaired and painted.

The walks require gravelling, but this item of expenditure was
sometime ago taken off the vote. I would suggest that it be renewed.
The bridges require repairing. The dung pit enclosure requires re-
pairing.

I would suggest the removing of the Kiosk from the Garden, as it
is becoming quite a nuisance to the Garden. The person in charge of
it does not confine himself to it, but allows refuse to be thrown in the
Garden, and allows all sorts of utensils, barrels, boxes, handcarts, etc.,
which he uses in his trade to lie about, cooking with a large stove and
kerosene tin in the Garden, and using the tank for washing all sorts
of dirt. I have repeatedly remonstrated with the man, but it 1s useless.
I may say that what he sells, visitors can be easily accomodated with at
the gates.

it would be necessary to have on band evenings more police super-
vision. The infringements of the Garden regulations have been dealt
with at the Police Court. I may state that the amount alotted for the
up-keep of the Garden is inadequate to the requirements.

The elevation of the Garden above sea-level is 60 feet.

303

The average annual mean temperature is 79°.0 F., and the average
annual rainfall 34.73 inches for 27 years.

The amount of rain that fell during the year was 15.07 inches,

The mean temperature was 79°.9 F. The Meteorological Tables for
the different months are given on page 309.

Baru GARDEN.

The following Report is by Mr. A. H. Groves, Overseer of Bath Gar-
den :—

I am glad to report that this garden is in fair order, and this is chiefly
owing tothe supply of water from the well, as indeed, if it were not
for this supply, many of the plants and trees would have suffered
seriously, as also many of the inhabitants of the Town of Bath for want
of proper drinking water.

Fearfully dry weather prevails, rivers dried up, and the small lots of
water quite unfit for drinking purposes.

At the same time I find that although the well is near at hand, it
costs from 5s. to 6s. per day to supply water at this season of the year.
I would therefore ask if it would not be economy to furnish a small
pump and hose, say, about 200 feet. If the Government will consent
to supply these articles, it will be a great saving in labour, and also a
convenience.

I have supplied, as per vouchers, a grindstone and tools for the Gar-
den.

The walks have been regravelled, the trenches cleaned out, and the
greater part of the garden forked.

I find the wire fence requires to be looked to, as many of the droppers
are entirely rotten from rust. I intend to have them replaced by those
on hand, and have them painted by the end of the next quarter.

Elevation of the Garden above sea level 170 feet. Mean temperature
78° Fah.

Kine’s Houst GARDEN.

The following Report is by Mr. T. J. Harris, Assistant Superinten-
dent.

In the course of the year several improvements have been made in
the Garden, such as the contruction of a spacious tank for the giant
water-lily (Victoria regia,) the cleaning away of tangled masses of
shrubs and climbers which formed a dense belt around the north side of
the Garden, the opening up of vistas, and the planting of a large portion
of the enclosed garden with Bahama grass. A border running south-
west from the ball-room has been laid out and planted with miscella-
neous shrubs, which are doing fairly well notwithstanding the fact that
the soil is only two inches deep in that part of the garden.

Several large trees have been felled, including a large Mahogany
and three large Mangoes; this was found necessary when opening up
views in the garden.

A large Ficus immediately in front of the Bungalow died and had to
be removed ; the ground was afterwards well dug and manured, and
Prue with flowering shrubs and a Cassia siamea to replace the defunct

icus.

In the Guinea-grass piece between the Bungalow and the stables,
A dozen or so large trees were felled and the stumps grubbed out and

304

cleared away ; a large number of stumps were also grubbed out of the
new grass piece at the back of the stables.

The pastures have had the usual cleaning, and the fences have been
kept in good repair, and the gates have lately been rehung and tarred.

The mule-paddock has been billed out as it became necessary as
also have the plots of cleared ground at the back of King’s House and
near the stables; the roads too have had the usual hoeing and cleaning,
and repairing where necessary.

Two plants of Beaumontia grandiflora obtained from Hope Gardens
have been planted near the west lodge and are doing well; a large pod
of seed ripened on an old plant in the fernery and was sent to Hope.

The Victoria regia was planted on January Ist but apparently no
time would have been lost if the planting had been deferred until the
beginning of April; around the outside of the tank the pretty little
Ficus repens has been planted and is commencing to climb up the wall.
The overflow has been led out toa convenient place in the lawn, where
a pond will be formed for the cultivation of different aquatic and semi-
aquatic plants.

Most of the Orchids have been repotted or rebasketted and are doing.
well; the decorative plants in pots have also been treated as found nec-
essary. The weeding, rolling, mowing, and watering of the lawns
have been regularly attended to, and the task of repairing the walks
and verges has been proceeded with as opportunity offered.

About two acres of the enclosed garden remain to be ploughed up
and planted with Bahama grass, and this, no doubt will be accom
plished during the coming year.

A group of the Mountain Pride (Spathelia simplex) has been planted
in the lawn near the outer walk and is doing well ; these when in flower
will have a striking effect in the landscape.

The walks and lawns have been regularly cleaned and tidied up,
rubbish carted away, manure collected as soon as available, pot plants
attended to in house and nursery, flowers gathered and decorations
carried out in both ball and dining rooms, and the innumerable details
inseparable from the routine of a well-kept garden have been strictly
supervised,

I may add that the need of more glass accommodation for the proper
cultivation of delicate plants such as Orchids, etc. is daily becoming
more apparent; and that a small building equivalent to the English
“bothy” is badly needed for a few of the regular employees, as at
present the Superintendent is compelled to give up his servants’
quarters for this purpose.

The elevation of the Garden above sea-level is 400 feet.

The average mean annual temperature is 78°.5 F. and the average
annual rainfall 47.24 inches for 17 years. The amount of rain that fell
during the year was 3().69 inches being 16.06 inches below the
average. September, October, and November, were the wettest months, .
and January, February andMarch the driest.

The mean temperature was 76°.9. The meteorological tables for
the different months are given on page 808.

305

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INDEX.

Paax.
Acacia, mollissima Willd. 5 80
Acrostichum oc eco 254
Allen, E. W,, on Leguininous plants eee 153
Alfalia 166, 157, 160, 164, 167, 168
Anetium Sas eae 209
Anthrophyum oes Kes 210
Arachis hypogea, Linn. coe 75
Aulacaspis Bes aoe 107
Aspid.otus ace 150
Averrhoa Carambola, Linn. aoe 64
Barnyard manure, by W. H. Beal 6 170
Bath Garden, Report on 560 303
Beal, W. H., on Barnyard manure “C0 170
Bordeaux mixture eae 39
Bowrey, J. J. on Sugar Canes ace 227
Brindonia tallow Nes 64
Butter, Cocum or Kokam ooo 64
Cabinet Woods: Market Report soe 236
Carambola ccc Bee 64
Carob or Locust Bean 243

Castleton Gardens, monthly list of plants in flower

or fruit one 1, 46, 70, 257
Castleton Gardens, Notes on plants in ees 64
Castleton Gardens Report on oes 266, 291
Ceara Rubber see 242
Cedar ses Boe 236, 8
Citric Acid “ce coe 248
Citrus, Rhythmic growth in 240
Clover, crimson nes 158, “160, 164, 167, 168, 177

<e Japan ace 159, 167, 168

Kc Red "157, 160 167, 168, 177
Coccidze or Scale insects, by T. D. A. Cockerell ... 10 ie 149
Cockerell, Prof. T. D. A., on Coccide ese 107, , 149
Coco-nut, Disease in se 79
Cocum butter eae see 64
Cocus wood eve 237, 9
Coffee and Manures, Sir J. B. Lawes on aes 7
Coffee, disease in. soe 277
Commercial Fertilisers, by E. B. Voorhess, 505 88
Coneys and Nutmeg trees coe 79
Cowpea ; 155, 160, 164 166, 168
Cradwick, W. on Grape Vines ses 7
on Grape Industry S00 145

Cultivating soil, Reasons for, by M, Whitney ... 81
Diseases of plants 00 200 277
Duerden, J. EH. on Insect Pests S00 9
Enterosora <co eee 207
Erythrea 2a eos 234, 5
EKustoma ae cb 234, 5
Fadyenia prolifera ... coe 18
Fagara flava, Kr. & Urb. eee 73
Ferns of Jamaica ... 17, 42, 68, 112, 197, 251
Fertilisers, Commercial, by E. B. Voorhess ses 88
Fiorinia ace aoe 149
Fungicides oes 39
Fungous Diseases of the Grape se 37
Galloway, B. T. on Spraying soe 30, 4

Garcinia indica, Chois. eee

Il

Gentianese soe 34
Government Lands, sale of sce 66
Grape, Fungous diseases of wee 37
Grape Industry, by W. Cradwick sae 145
Grape Vines, young, directions for care of oat 7
Grass firing, by F. Turner eee 65
Green Manuring oes 153
Gymogramme ose 202
Harris, Wes on Oil Tree coe q7
Hemionitis cas 208
Herbarium, new plants oon 280
ce work of Assistants “0 276
Hill Gardens, Report on ses 267, 297°
Hope Gardens, Report on on) 265, 283
Industrial School, Hope eee 269, 290:
Insect Pests, by J. E. Duerden “0 9
Instruction, Practical Sf 268
Irvingia Barteri, Hook, oo 80
Ischnaspis, 33 150
Jamaica pene Elementary Notes on ade 232
Jenman, G. 8. on Ferns, 17, 42, 68, 112, 197, 261
Jute a5 41
Kickxia Africana, Benth, ode 80
Kilmer, F. B., on collecting papaw juice oes 68
Kings House Gardens, Report on oes 268, 303
Kingston Public Garden, Report on vee 268, 302
Kokam Butter eae eee 64
Lancewood Spars ses 237, 9
Lawes, Sir J. B., on Manuring ves 6T
Lecanium eee 109
Leguminous crops, Value of, fer feeding, 167
“ plants for green manuring and for feeding by E. W.
Allen coo 153
Leianthus oes ses 232, 234
Library, Catalogue ... soe 282
Lignum Vite eee ses 237, 9
Limnanthemum _.... oes 234, 5
« Humboldtianum, Griseb. eee 232
Locust Bean wee eee 243
Lodeman, E. G. on Spraying sos 30, 36
Logwood Seed, How to gather, by T. H. Sharp ... 152
Lotus of New World ooo 15
Lupines eee 159, 160, 169
MacDougal, D. T. on . Movements of Plants ocb 217
Macrocarpxa <o0 eee 234, 5
Mahogany ote S00 236, 8
Mango, Wild 600 cos 80
Mangosteen Oil oss eos 64
Manihot Glaziovii ... wee 242
Manure, Barnyard, by W. H. Beal see 170
Manures and Coffee, Sir J. B. Lawes on : 67
Manures and Oranges, by H. J. Webber Bee 49
McDonald-Boyle Machine for Ramie aes 110
Meehan, T., on Rhythmic Growth in Citrus 30 240
Meniseium, see 200
Mimusops Elengi, Linn ses 64
Monogramma oes 211
Movements of Plants, by D. T. MacDougal oc 217
Mytilaspis eee aot 108
Nelombium luteum Ss 15
Nephrolepis biserrata Re NG
Neville-Rolfe, Consul, on Carob Bean 243
Nutmeg trees and Coneys 79

Oil tree

Oleandra nodosa we

Oranges and Manures, by H. J. Webber
Papaw juice, collecting, by F. B. Kilmer

Parlatoria
Pea Nut
Pinnaspis
Pindar Nut
Polypodium

. albopunctatum
angustifolium
asplenifolium
attenaatum
aureum

brunneo-viride
capillare
caudatum
chnoodes
costale
crassifolium
crenatum
ctenoides
cultratum
curvatum
decumanum
decussatum
dendricolum
dissimile
Eggersii
exiguum
Fawcettii
firmum

gracilentum
gramineum
graveolens
Hartii
hastaefolium

incanum
Jamesonii

J ubzeoyrme
laevigatum
lanceolatum
lasiolepis
lepidopteris
loriceum
lycopodioides
marginellum

moniliforme
myosuroides
nerifolum
nigrescentium
nigro-limbatum
nimbatum
nutatum
obliteratum
Ottites
Paradisez
pectinatum
pendulum

PPO SO PS eh Eh me a bd ff ef de af

ro hy rp

heterotrichum .

see

basi-attenuatum

flayopunctatum

eee

michrochasmum

IV

P. petrafolium

P. Phyllitidis xD
P. piloselloides

P. Plumula fa
P. pubescens on

P. punctatum ses
P. repens see
P. rigescens One
P. rugulosum ae

P. saxicolum soe
P. serrulatum SO

P. Sherringii “se
P. simile .
P. squamatum see
P. surrucuchense ...
P. suspensum

P. Swartzii are
P. teenifolium

P. taxifolium

P. tetragonum ...
P. Thomsonii aes
P. thyssanolepis ..,
P. trichomanoides

P. trifurcatum ae
P. vyaccinifolium ...
Pond Flower aos

Potato Experiment ...

Prioria copaifera, Griseb.
Pseudoparlatoria —--

Petrospermum acerifolium, Willd.
Ramie Machine, Jamaica Committee on

eee

Report of Director for year ended 31st March, 1897

Rhythmic Growth in Citrus, by T. Meehan
Rubber, Ceara 50
Rubber, West African

Sale of Government Lands

Satin Wood

Scale Insects, by T. Dz A. Cockerell
School, Hope Industrial

Schultesia

Serradella

Sharp, T. H., on Logwood Seed
Shirley, Capt. L. on . Sugar Canes
Soil Ferment, by Dr. - Wiley

Soiling

Spraying of Plants . 500

Stifftia chrysantha, Mikan

Sugar Cane, Analysis, by J. J. Bowrey
Sugar Canes, Reports on
Superintendents, Reports of

Taenitis oe

Trimble, Prof. H. on Prioria copaifera
Turner, F., on Grass-firing

Vittaria

Voorhess, E, B., on Commercial Fertilisers
Voyria od

Waitle, Black ace

Webb, A. J., on Sugar Canes
Webber, lek ae on Manures and Oranges

Whitney, M., on reasons for cultivating the soil

Wiley, Dr. W. H., on Soil Ferments

vee

eee

"160, 161, 162, 167, 168

139
140
197
124
128
131
141
117
132
116
112
113
126
135
137
122
199
114
124
133
130
134
114
121
198
232
300
17
108
64
110
265
240
242
80

66
73, 237, 239
107, 149
269, 290
234, 5

New York Botanical G

wii

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