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Latew Series. ] JANUARY, 1898. 2) 2303) 9) Veh 


F 
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BULLETIN 


OF THE 
BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA 
| EDITED BY 
WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS. 
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. 
| | CONTENTS: 

- The Public Gardens and Plantations of Jamaica Pace 1 
{ Notes on Orchids : 20 
d Ferns—Synoptical List : XLIX. 21 
~ Contributions and Additions : 23 


Pie C ED Threepence. 


‘ee Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and 
_ Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. 


AT CAT WATS WAL CAS CAL CAL CAD CAD CAD Wd 
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KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
_ Government Printing Orrice, 79 Duke Street 


© 1898 


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JAMAIUA. “0 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


Vol. V. 


New Series. | J ANUARY, 1898. i ane Pact 1 = 


THE PUBLIC GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS OF 
JAMAICA. ! 


By Wi1aM Fawcett. 


INTRODUCTION. 


JAMAICA is about ninety miles south of Cuba. Its most western 
point is nearly directly south of Toronto, as it lies between 78° 20’ 50” 
and 76°11’ W. long. Itis situated between 18° 32’ and 17° 43’ N. lat., 
so that it is only one to two degrees nearer the equator than the City 
of Mexico (19° 25’), and a little farther from the equator than Belize. 
It is a very small island, being only 144 miles long and 49 miles wide 
in its broadest part; its area amounts only to 4,207 square miles, of 
which very little is flat, and a great deal is not suitable for cultiva- 
tion. 


The aboriginal name of Jamaica was Xaymaca, denoting “a land 
covered with wood, and watered by shaded rivulets.” The character 
expressed by the name is what one might expect to find in an island 
with lofty mountains, its shores bathed by the Gulf stream, and lying 
in the path of the trade winds. The general trend of the mountain 
ranges being at an angle to the direction of the prevailing winds, there 
is considerable precipitation nearly all the year round in some parts, 
while in other districts a small amount of rain falls during a few days 
only in two months of the year. 


The general features of the landscape and of the flora which clothes 
it have been developed by the position of the island, and its geological 
history. The lowest strata containing fossils are the Hippurite lime- 
stone of the Cretaceous series. Below this there is a series of meta- 
morphosed shale, sandstone and conglomerate, with dikes of intrusive 
diorite, syenite and granite. Above the Hippurite limestone are beds 


1 Prepared for the Botanical Society of America, Toronto meeting, 1897, with 
special reference to the proposal to found a tropical botanical laboratory in 
Jamaica. Reprinted from the “ Botanical Gazette,” Nov., 1897. 


256621 


© ¢ 


The differences in elevation from sea level to the 7423 feet of the 
Peak, the various exposures to sunlight, the abundance or the want of 
rain and dew, the geological formations, all have their influences on 
plant life, and make the conditions of existence of the most diversified 
character, and the cultivation of economic plants from all parts of the 
world an easier task than in most other places. 


HISTORY OF THE GARDENS.. 


The first botanic garden in Jamaica was formed about 150 years ago 
by a private individual, Mr. Hinton East, on his property near the 
present village of Gordon Town, vine miles from Kingston. After it 
had been in existence for some years, in 1774 Sir Basil Keith became 
governor, aud determined on the formation of two government botanic 
gardens, one a “ European garden,” and the othera ‘ Tropical garden.” | 
In December of the same year a committee of the legislature recom- 
mended that £700 be appropriated for the purchase of a piece of land 
proper for a botanic garden, and that £300 sterling be provided for the 
annual salary of a botanist. 


In 1775 a property named Enfield, adjoming Mr. East’s garden, was 


purchased and Dr. Thomas Clarke came out “at the particular instance 


and request” of Sir Basil Keith, as island botanist, and to take charge 
of the gardens. Dr. Clarke introduced in 1775 the china tea plant, 
camphor, litchi, Cycas cwrcinalis (the “ sago palm”), and Desmodium 
gyrans ; in 1778 Blighia sapida (Akee); and in 1779 the clove tree. 
Enfield being a “ steep hillside,” proved unsuitable, and in 1778 a law 
was passed to purchase land for a botanic garden at or near Bath. The 
botanic garden at Bath was founded in 1779 and placed under the care 
of Dr. Thomas Clarke. 


In June 1782 Captain Marshall, of H. M.S. Flora, one of Lord 
Rodney’s squadron, captured a French ship bound from Mauritius for 
Haiti, carrying a number of plants of economic value. The ship was 
sent asa prizeto Jamaica, and Captain Marshall “with Lord Rod- 
ney’s approbation” deposited the whole collection in Mr. EKast’s garden. 
Many plants were new introductions, and amongst these were the 
mango, cinnamon, and jack fruit. 


On Mr. EHast’s death in 1790, the Liguanea garden was offered by 
his nephew to the assembly as a public garden at their own price. 
It was purchased under the authority of an act of the Assembly, the 
preamble stating that the garden in Bath was insufficient in extent, 
and was besides liable to be carried away by the river which had des- 
troyed two-thirds of the town. 

In 1798 Captain Bligh in H. M.S. Providence brought several 
hundred plants of the breadfruit and other valuable plants from Ota- 
heite for the West Indies. These were distributed to the gardens at 
Liguanea and Bath, and to other centres, and committees were ap- 


3 


pointed to make arrangements for their reception, the care of them, 
and their distribution. One of the gardeners, James Wiles, who had 
circumnavigated the globe with Captain Bligh, was appointed to the 
are of the Liguanea garden, and writing to Sir J. Banks, in 1793, he 
Says: 


All the trees under my charge are thriving with the greatest luxuriance. 
Some of the breadfruit are upwards of eleven feet high, and my success in 
cultivating them has exceeded my most sanguine expectations. The cinna- 
mon tree is become very common, and mangoes are in such plenty as 
to be planted in the negro grounds. 


In 1782 Dr. Thomas Daucer was elected physician of the Bath of 
St. Thomas the Apostle; in 1788 he was appointed by the legislature 
superintendent of the Bath garden ; and in 1797 island botanist. The 
duties of the island botanist were defined as follows ; 


-To collect, class, and describe the native plants of the island; to use his 
endeavours to find out their medicinal virtues; to discover if they possess 
any qualities useful to the arts, and annually to furnish the House with a 
correct list of such plants as are in the botanic gardens, together with such 
information as he may have acquired relative to their uses and virtues, 


In 1799 Dr. Dancer went to practice in Kingston. He made the 
medicinal plants of the island a special study, and published in 1801 
“‘The medical assistant, or Jamaica practice of physic.” He died in 


1811. . 


The colony had now to undergo a period of difficulty and distress, as 
the slave trade was abolished in 1807 without compensation to the 
planters, and the wars with France and the United States caused great 
depression. Accordingly in 1810 the Liguanea garden was sold, and 
that at Bath was never afterwards adequately supported. 


In 1825 Dr. Jas. MacFadyen was appointed island botanist. In 
1837 appeared the first volume of his Flora of Jamaica; in-1850 part 
of the second volume was printed, and this was all that was published. 
He did not retain his appointment long; and in 1828 Thomas Higson 
was appointed island botanist and curator of the botanic garden at 
Bath. He presented to the garden a collection of living plants col- 
lected by himself in South America. 


In 1829 the garden at Bath, of one and three-fourths acres, was in- 
creased by three acres to the west. Higson left Bath in 1832; and in 
1846 Nathaniel Wilson was appointed island botanist with the care of 
Bath garden. Wilson had been in the gardens at Kew and at Ken- 
ssington for several years, and was a most capable man. He kept up a 
correspondence with Sir W. J. Hooker, director of Kew gardens, and 
introduced a very large number of plants from Kew and other parts of 
the world, trusting to be repaid his expenditure by the liberality of 
the'assembly. Behmeria nivea was imported by him, and he formed 
a very extensive collection of fibre plants. He also received from 
Kew in 1846 and 1847 the mangosteen, litchi, durian, and Musa Ca- 
vendishit. In 1849-1850 he reports the arrival of Poinciana, Spatho- 
dea, Bougainvillea spectabilis, Cesalpinia Sappan, Amherstia and As- 


sam tea. ay 
ese) Mt” Boces 2Nte CF 


4 


In 1851 there was some intention of moving the site of the gardew 
elsewhere, and Wilson, referring to Bath, says in his report for that> 
year: | . 


I would most unhesitatingly say that a more congenial climate for the~ 
growth and propagation of plants is not to be met with in the island. The 
humidity of the atmosphere is proverbial and suitable to a peculiar degree 
for plants in general. 


In 1856 the Sulphur river inundated the garden for the fifth time- 
since 1848 and destroyed half an acre. These floods and the impossi - 
bilily of extending the garden for the growth of additional plants were 
constant difficulties with Wilson, and in 1858 he says: 


The attention of the executive has of late been pointedly directed. 
towards it [the garden] with a view not only to place the establishment 
on a scale of permanent efficiency, but in a more central locality, accessible 
from all parts of the island . . . . The want of a more central and exten- 
sive depot has long been felt, particularly at the west end and north side 
of the island, where distance renders it impracticable to convey plants 
safely, and where industrial institutions and experimental gardens are- 
springing up. 


In 1860 the legislature appropriated money for the purchase of- 
Castleton, and Wilson was entrusted with the formation of a garden 
there, on the understanding, however, that the garden at Bath was to 
be maintained for supply of seeds to Castleton, and plants for general 
distribution. In his report for 1861, he states that Sir W. J. Hooker 
had sent out the previous year seeds of Cinchona succirubra. C. nitida, 
and C. micrantha, and that several hundred plants were ready for 
planting out. At this time the market price for succirubra bark was 
Gs. per lb. In 1862-68 an assistant to Mr. Wilson was appointed, Mr. 
Robert Thomson, and the formation of the garden at Castleton was- 
commenced, 


Experiments were made in planting out cinchona in different parts- 
of the Blue mountains, and at length in 1868, during the governorship 
of Sir John Peter Grant, the cinchona plantations were started under 
Mr. Thomson as “superintendent of botanic gardens” in succession to. 


Mr. Wilson. 


Six hundred acres of virgin forest land were assigned for planting” 
cinchona by Sir J. P. Grant on the southern slopes of the Blue moun- 
tains, ranging from 4000 to 6000 feet above sea level, and a commence- 
ment of work was made in the same year (1868) by planting out forty 
acres with five species of cinchona. Now also a first beginning was- 
about to be made to realize the conception of Sir Basil Keith of nearly 
a hundred years before to have a ‘‘ European garden” in a temperate 
climate. A small plantation was madein 1869 of Assam tea, and after-- 
wards of a hybrid between the Assam and China. FHucalyptus globulus 
from Australia, Cupressus macrocarpa and Pinus insignis from Cali- 
fornia, and Pinus excelsa from the Himalayas are among the forest 
trees planted out and flourishing in later years. In 1869, 40,000 plants 
of cinchona were offered for sale at rates of £5 to £7 per 1,000. 


5 


At Castleton, up to 1869, there had been no general importation of 
~plants, because of doubts about maintaining the garden on account of 
ats distance from Kingston. In the Blue Book for 1871 Sir J. P. 
Grant says : 


The famous Jamaica botanic garden of ancient times, which was not only 
-of the highest infrinsic value, but also was admirably situated, was sold, 
I believe, for a trifle, and was broken up a long time ago, in some spasmos 
dic fit of false economy. More lately a botanic garden was established at 
Bath. The site was unfortunately selected, being a long day’s journey 
from the capital. But the purchase, in 1859, of Castleton, and its forma- 
tion in 1863 into a new botanic garden in substitution for the garden at Bath, 
which was finally abandoned in 1866, is said to have been determined upon 
because of serious damage caused and threatened by a water course. The 
selection of Castleton as the site of the new garden was also unfortunate, 
as it is a distance of nineteen miles from Kingston; and it is important 
‘to interest the public as much as possible in such an institution as a bota- 
nic garden. But the selection having been made, and a large number of 
plants having been established there, whilst the position, except in respect 
of its distance from the capital, is unexceptionable, it would have been un- 
wise once more to have thrown away all that our predecessors had 
_ done for us by removal to a fourth position. It was determined therefore 
to treat the Castleton garden as a fixture; and as it is not too far from 
Kingston for a holiday excursion, to go to some little expense in its gra- 
dual embellishment, in the hope of attracting visitors to what I believe 
-will certainly become one of the most interesting spots in the West 
Indies. 


As soon as this determination had been arrived at in 1869, Dr. (now 
Sir) J. D. Hooker sent out from Kew great numbers of new and 
valuable plants, 400 different species and varieties, among which were 
mangosteen, Brazil nut, bhel, Monstera deliciosa, carob bean, cocoa, 
Tonquin bean, teak, New Zealand flax, and thirty-two species of palms. 
In the same year two cases of grafted mangoes arrived from India via 
Kew; Mr. Thomson states that “to His Excellency the Governor, from 
his personal knowledge of Indian mangoes, we are obliged for their in- 
troduction.” Even at this early period of its existence the nutmeg 
trees began to bear fruit, and the clove trees were six feet high. 

In the same Blue Book quoted above, Sir J. P. Grant reports that a 
gardener had been obtained from Kew to reside at Castleton, as Mr. 
Thomson had taken up his residence at the cinchona plantations thirty- 
four miles off, in the Blue mountains. He took charge at Castleton in 


December, 1870. 


Upwards of 200 species of plants new to the island were introduced dur- 
ing the year. Among these perhaps the most interesting were two plants 
of Ipecacuanha, two true mangosteens, and five choice varieties of pine 
_appies ; also four noted Bombay grafted mangoes, imported two years ago, 
are very flourishing, some of them being already five feet high. My belief 
is that there is nothing to prevent Jamaica becoming, for the quality, va- 
riety, and commercial value of its fruits, the most noted spot in the world, 
when gardening shall be understood, and the value of the art shall be duly 
gwecognized here. 


In 1870, four varieties of orange were imported, viz., navel, St. 


6 


Michaels, tangerine and mandarin. In after years thousands of grafted 
plants of this St. Michaels, and seedlings also of the tangerine and 
mandarin were distributed all over the island. A large tank was made 
for the cultivation of the Victoria regia, which has been growing there 
ever since. 


This was a period of great importance in the history of the develop- 
ment of the public gardens. In 1868 the government undertook to 
plant out in coco-nuts thenarrow sandy strip of land, known as the 
Palisades, with Port Royal at one end, forming a natural breakwater 
for the magnificent: harbour of Kingston. The first clearing and plant- 
ing was done early in 1869, and by 1879 nearly 20,000 coco-nut palms 
had been planted out, and 700 of them were bearing fruit. In 1870 
£1,800 was voted for the establishment of a garden in the Parade 
square of Kingston, and in 1871 £2,267 were voted for continuation of 
the work. This sterile waste in the centre of the city about seven 
acres in extent, Mr. Thomson reports in 1871, was enclosed with @ 
handsome iron railing. In 1871 the governor ordered that : 


In an appropriate quarter of the garden at Castleton space should be re- 
served for every species of cane procurable, so as, if possible, to afford 
specimens of every true, distinct, and permanent variety known. The bo- 
tanical garden of Jamaica should not be behind any garden in the world 
in regard to specimens of this particular sort of plant. 


The governor applied to Mauritius and Martinique for specimens of 
all varieties of cane grown there. Over sixty varieties of sugar cane 
were received in 1872 and 1873 from Mauritius, and the salangore- 
from Martinique. 


In Sir J. P. Grant’s report in the Blue Book for 1871, published in 
the Gazette, October 1872. he says: 


The Bombay grafted mangoes, planted three years ago, are in a thriving 
condition, and from eight to nine feet high. I do not doubt that the finest 
varieties of this almost unequalled fruit will thrive here quite as well as at 
Bombay. The plant has naturalised itself here in the course of only ninety 
years, and now spreads itself self-sown over large tracts in all parts of the 
island. As the propagation has been exclusively from seed, it is surpris- 
ing to find amongst these wild trees so many bearing fruit at all eatable, 
which I think could not be the case were not the climate and soil very pro- 
pitious for this plant. The quantity of fruit produced is remarkable, and 
it is greedily devoured by horses, cattle, and swine. With vessels running. 
in six days to New York, the commercial value of an orchard of fine Bom- 
bay mangoes near Kingston would surely be very great. 


Mr. Thomson in his report for 18738, referrmg to these mango trees,. 
points out that: | 


Although the climate of Castleton is extremely favourable for the growth. 
of these plants, the reverse is the case so far as the production of fruit is 
concerned. As soon as possible, however, a small plantation of these va- 
rieties will be established at the proposed garden at Hope, which, with its 
far drier climate, is probably as good a locality as any in the West Indies: 
for the production of this fruit. 


7 
In 1878, the report of the gardens states : 


Arrangements have been made to commence operations at Hope, with the 
view of establishing a pleasure garden and a small sugar cane farm for ex- 
perimenting upon new varieties of canes. The climate of the Castleton 
garden is too humid for numerous species of plants, which wil find a con- 
genial home in the drier climate of the Liguanea..... The establishment 
of this garden, simultaneously with that on the Parade, coupled with the 
greatly increased command of water in the course of being brought to 
Kingston, must undoubtedly constitute a new era in the history of horti- 
culture in Jamaica. 


It was found advisable to secure the services of a skilled European 
gardener at Cinchona. Accordingly Mr. Nock arrived here in April, 
1874, from Kew gardens. He devoted attention to the cultivation of 
European vegetables, which he hoped to show may be successfully 
grown in great abundance and variety under our conditions of climate. 
Mr. Thomson says in 1875, that : 


Mr. Nock has been very successful in producing an assortment of vege- 
tables such as are not grown elsewhere in the island, It is to be hoped 
that the peasantry will initiate the oultivation of similar vegetables, as 
these experiments show that at this height (5000 feet above the sea) almost 
all Kuropean vegetables can be grown with advantage. 


These hopes have been fulfilled, for the peasantry now grow all kin d 
of “ English” vegetables in the Hill gardens district. 


In 1876 a plantation of Liberian coffee was established at Castleton. 


W ith reference to the “Hope experimental grounds,” Mr. Thomson 
wrote : 


It is about three years since the government obtained possession of up- 
wards of 200 acres of Hope iand, contiguous to, and for the most part 
under the level of the Hope reservoirs. The acquisition of this land afford- 
ed an excellent opportunity for experimenting upon the numerous new 
varieties of canes that had just been imported from the Mauritius botanic 
garden. While this matter was under consideration, it was also proposed 
that the beautifully situated land in question should be utilised in a variety 
of ways. Among other schemes it was proposed that, in consideration of 
the accessibility of this locality to Kinyston, a pleasure garden should be 
formed for the inhabitants of that city, 


But the want of water prevented anything more being done than 
planting out a few canes, and forming a small nursery. 


The collection of new suger canes, embracing some sixty varieties of new 
canes, imported a few years ago from the Mauritius botanic garden, was in 
the first place establiseed at Castleton garden, As the necessary scope and 
appliances at Castleton for the experimental cultivation of these canes ona 
sufficiently large scale were not obtainable, advantage was taken of the 
government land at Hope to carry out the necessary experiments. Ac- 
cordingly in 1874 the first batch of canes, consisting of eighteen varieties. 
was transferred to Hope and planted to the extent of nearly an acre each. 
In 1875 the remaining varieties at Castleton, numbering upwards of forty, 
were removed to Hope, and there planted in small plots in order to ensure 


8 


a command of cuttings for subsequent propagation, the area occupied by 
these being about five acres. 


But water failed often and there was disappointment. Some fifty 
plants of teak were set out at Hope in 1874, and 500 plants more in 
1875. About ten acres were thus planted with teak. 


Mr. Thomson retired on pension in 1878, and in December, 1879, 
the gardens and plantations were constituted a department under Mr. 
Daniel Morris as director. The management of the gardens and 
grounds attached to King’s House, the residence of the Governor, was 
now placed under the department. Dr. Morris, in his report for 1885, 
refers to the future development of Hope nurseries. 


The only drawback to this locality as a site of a botanic garden is the 
smallness and precarious nature of the water supply... .. Although 
sufficient for the nurseries this water supply is wholly inadequate to main- 
tain a large area, such as a botanic garden must necessarily be, under per- 
petual cultivation, unless a system of reservoirs and tanks were introduced 
for the storage of water. 


The Hope plantation might, however, be greatly extended in the direc « 
tion of growing and distribuing economic plants, and in this respect the 
establishment would prove of great service to the island. As circumstances 
permit, this work will be transferred as much as possible from Castleton, 
leaving the latter to supply only the districts in communication with the 
main trunk road and the north side. 


The lands adjoining the Hope nurseries, about 100 acres in extent, 
might be cleared and laid out as a public park, with grass lawns and shade 
trees, and afford a convenient and healthful resort for the inhabitants of 
Kingston and Half Way Tree. At present, persons driving along any of 
the hot, dusty, and dreary looking roads leading out of Kingston have no 
place where they could get out of their carriages and enjoy a walk under 
shade. With the exception of the Parade garden, Kingston, which is 
largely frequented by the poorer classes of people residing in the immediate 
vicinity, there is no place of the nature of a park in the island: In the 
neighbourhood of every tropical city it is very necessary to have a public 
park provided with seats and ample shade trees where the people can for 
a time, at least, escape from the heat, and glare, and dust, and where they 
come into contact with some of the fresh invigorating influences of 
nature, 


The cost of laying out a park at Hope in conjunction with the experi- 
mental cultivation of fruit trees and nurseries of economic plants would be 
about £4,000 to £5,0u0. 


The governor, Sir Henry Norman, commenting upon this view of 
the future of Hope, wrote ; 


As regards the Castleton and Hope nursery gardens, it will be seen that 
there is a tendency rather to increase the usefulness of the latter than the 
former, and considering the inconvenient situvtion of Castleton this seems 
right. “Measures may be taken from time to time to improve the Hope 
gardens, but I am not prepared to recommend outlay from public funds for 
the construction of a park at the Hope. It is situated five miles from 
Kingston, which is too great a distance to allow of the poorer classes of 
the population enjoying the benefits of the proposed park. 


9 


‘The scheme proposed now to connect Kingston and Hope gardens by 
-an electric tramway with cheap fares removes the objection that the 
poorer classes of Kingston would not be able to make use of it. 


Dr. Morris left Jamaica in March 1886 to take up an appointment as 
assistant director of Kew gardens. Sir H. Norman then referred to a 
zommittee of the legislature the consideration of the condition of the 
department, and the provision to be made for its maintenance in the 
future. The committee submitted a report, which was adopted by the 
council in October 1886. In it the committee state that they 


Fully recognize the importance to a purely agricultural colony of an 
organized department for the giving of reliable and authoritative informa- 
tion in matters of agriculture and cultivation and for the dissemination of 
such knowledge. The importance of this is specially enhanced at the pre- 
senttime whenthe depressed condition of our staple products in the markets 
. of the world suggests not only the application of all means of science and 
invention to their more perfect and more economical production, but also 
the encouragement of the cultivation of those so-called minor products for 
which the soil and climate of this island are so fortunately suited. Courage 
may be taken from the experience of Ceylon, where the effects of the failure 
of its great staple of coffee have in a few years been largely diminished by 
attention to the cultivation of tea, cocoa, and other products, which has 
been materially benefited by the interest and fostering care of the botani- 
cal department of that island. The influence of a trained and scientific 
chief over such a department must be felt as well in the interchange and 
in the consequent continuous and careful thought of the information and 
experience of old and practical planters and cultivators, as in the educa- 
tion and training of the younger and inexperienced, and in the intelligent 
and profitable application of means and labour of both peasant and proprie- 
tor, to present and to new objects of cultivation, 


The work of the gardens department, its chief aims and possibilities, 
have frequently been brought before the public of Jamaica in the pre- 
sent director’s annual reports. Thus in 1892 occurs the following: 


The two main divisions under which work in a colonial botanical de- 
partment may be classed are: first, the supply of plants yielding products 
new to the agriculture of the colony. or of a better kind, or such as are 
not readily obtainable otherwise, involving experimental and nursery 
grounds in such situations as are suitable: second, the providing of infor- 
mation regarding the kind of soil, climate, etc., fitted for the plants, their 
proper cultivation and preparation for the markets. The second division 
is most economically and effectively carried on by means of printed mat- 
ter combined wi'h correspondence ; but practical demonstration of methods 
in the gardens are advisable whenever they can be carried out. Both di- 
visions imply considerable correspondence with persons in other countries 
as well as a complete herbarium and a good library. 


During the past twelve and one-half years, from fhe time that Mr. Mor- 
ris was first made director, to March 31, 1892, about 220,000 plants have 
been distributed from Castleton alone, besides seeds which would produce 
at least as many plants. This gives an average for a year of 17,600 plants 
and includes those sent to Hope for distribution from tbat centre. ene 


_ Of those plants, about half the number were such as may be termed 
strictly “ economic”, such as cocoa, nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, Liberian 


10 


coffee, vanilla, oranges, Hast Indian maugoes, cardamom, kola. The re-- 
mainder were palms, roses, ferns, orchids, and miscellaneous trees and. 


shrubs, among which are included timber trees. 


I stated in my report for the year 1887-8 that although it was not 


the mission of a botanic garden to undertake the work ofa horticultural 
establishment, and supply the public with ornamental plants, I thought it 


right to do as much as possible in that direction, so long as there was no- 


probability of interfering with private enterprise. 


But the danger of interfering with trade seems remote, and the demands. 


on the part of the public are positive and increasing. There has been an 


annual demand for some 8,000 or 10,000 ornamental plants, and even more- 
than the department can supply with its present means. The question: 
may sometimes arise, is the government right in fostering this demand ;. 


is it a legitimate one; is some great end served by the necessary expendi- 
ture, and the attention to the numberless details that it implies ? 


It appears to me that the question only needs to be stated for all intelli- 


gent persons to answer in the affirmative. Bacon recognises a love for 


gardening as an index of a nation’s advance in civilisation, and without 
doubt it is an important factor in rendering that advance more easy and 
more certain. He says, (Hssay 46) “ God almighty first planted a garden 
and indeed it is the purest of human pleasures. It is the greatest refresh- 
ment to the spirits of man, without which buildings and palaces are but gross 
handiworks; and a man shall ever see that where ages grow to civility 


and elegancy men come to build stately, sooner than to garden finely : as- 


if gardening were the greater perfection”’. 


The plants, cuttings, and seeds, both economical and ornamental from 
Castleton as well as from the other gardens, are distributed all over the 
island by means of-the coastal steamer, the railway, and the post office. 


The increase in the variety of cultural products, and the humanizing 
influence of ornamental plants are matters of appreciation in every part of 
the country from the morntain to the sea coast. Every person who obtains 
plants and grows them, from the sugar planter who makes trial of differ- 


ent varieties of cane, to the small settler who grows a nutmeg plant, is 


making experiments which are of direct benefit to himself and indirectly 
to his neighbours and to the district. 


Parochial or other associations can do a great deal to help the work by 
meeting periodically to discuss all matters connected with agriculture, 
The sympathy felt between those engaged in kindred pursuits, the feeling 
of rivalry aroused to attain better results, the mutual aid obtained by in- 
terchanging ideas are all most valuable in the improvement of agriculture. 
He who undertakes the laborious task of starting such an association in 
his own district, though he may find few at first to join him, yet by perse- 


verance with even only one or two sympathisers will eventually meet with. 


his reward. Such an association and this department can render mutual 
assistance to each other in many ways with results that will be of general 
benefit to the whole island.* 


_ The great importance of Castleton as a botanic garden over the other 


gardens may be estimated from the fact that there are some plants such as 
vanilla, which will only grow naturally there, and that there are others 


such as roses which can only there be successfnlly propagated. Castleton 


must therefore always be the great propagating centre. 


* The local association work has been undertaken by the Jamaica Agricultu- 
ral Society formed in 1895. 


11 

It is scarcely necessary to say anything in Jamaica about the importance 
generally of botanic gardens for the need for them has been continuously re- 
cognized there for more than one hundred years. The value of those ex- 
isting in Jamaica, Trinidad and Demerara, is so evident that lately botanic 
gardens have been started in Antigua, Dominica, Montserrat, and St. Kitts 
Nevis, among the Leeward Islands; in Grenada, St. Lucia, and St. Vin- 
cent among the Windward Islands: and still more recently in British 
Honduras. 


The same movement is also going on in other parts of the world; for 
instance botanic gardens have lately been established in Lagos and the 
Gold Coast on the west coast of Africa. 


Botanic gardens in the tropics do the work on the plant side of Agricul- 
tural deportments in temperate climates. They are in themselves experi- 
mental stations ; and are much more efficient in introducing new cultural 
products, and in distributing plants and imparting useful information, than 
most agricultural departments, 


The whole of the botanic gardens in the British empire are more or less 
in communication with one another, exchanging seeds, publications, etc., 
and all look up to the Royal gardens at Kew. as to their head for advice 
and assistance, Imperial federation is already in existence as regards the 
botanic gardens and their work. If any special variety of a plant or any 
new culture comes into notice information and plants are sought sometimes 
directly from the local gardens; sometimes through Kew as the botanic 
gardens’ clearing house. The director of Kew gardens has at his disposal 
the services of experts in every branch of botanical inquiry, and is always 
most willing to aid colonial gardens in every way. Any intricate question 
that arises in chemistry, in diseases of plants, in insect pests, in the value 
of products, etc,, can be determined by reference to Kew, Colonial gar- 
dens are threfore not isolated, but are branches of an agricultural depart- 
ment as wide as the British Empire itself. 


In 1896 the following paragraphs are found : 


Although the means and the number of men at my disposal are infinitely 
small as compared with the resources at the command of the government 
of the United States, we try to follow at a very long distance the aims and 
the methods adopted by them. Dr. A.C. True, the director of the office 
of experiment stations in the United States, has lately given a lucid expo- 
sition of the objects and work of these stations, and an extract from his 
bulletin will very clearly illustrate what we should always be striving 
after here. 


Then follow extracts showing what the objects of the stations are 
and details of their work. Chemical analysis and the study of live 
stock are outside the limits of our sphere at the gardens, but attention 
is paid to nearly all the other points detailed. 


Dr. True continues: 


The service which the stations have rendered in promoting the educa- 
tion of our farmers is incalculable. Even if the station bulletins recorded 
only facts well known to scientists and advanced agriculturists, the influ- 
ence of such a far reaching system of popular education in agriculture 
must be very great. So vast a scheme of university extension has never 
been undertaken in any other line. The stations have also taught the 
farmer how to help himself. 


12 


The Jamaica Bulletin which was started in a small way in 1887, appear- 

4ng atirregular intervals, has now increased to a publication of twenty- 
four pages appearing regularly once a month. It is sent free by post to 
all who ask for it, and the circulation is steadily increasing. Ihe depart- 
ment, indeed takes in some respects a wider scope than the experiment sta- 
tions of the United States, for not only are practical lectures given in various 
parts of the island, but an agricultural elementary school is managed un- 
der its auspices, and the boys are trained in practical work in the gardens 


ParaDE GARDEN. 


The Parade garden was formed for the recreation of the inhabitants 
of the City of Kingston, the principal port of the island and the seat 
of government. It is about seven acres in extent, with shady 
lawns, lily tanks, borders of ornamental plants, and numerous palms 
and tropical flowering trees. It is lighted in the evenings by electric 
jight, and a military band performs once a week. Elevation, 60 feet ; 
annual mean temperature, 79° F’.; average rainfall, 34.73 inches. 


Kinc’s House GARDEN. 


The garden and grounds around King’s house, the residence of the 
governor, amount in extent to 177 acres. The avenue from the entrance 
gate to the house is formed of the willow fig (Ficus benjamina), and 
the royal palm (Oreodora regia), with borders of ornamental shrubs 
and creepers, such as crotons, Hibiscus, Acalypha, Tabernzmontana, 
Mussaenda, Tinnea, Bambusa, Dracaena, Musa, Bignonia, Antigonon, 
Stephanotis. In the garden, adjoining the house, there are orchids, 
ferns, palms, climbers, and ornamental plants generally, with several 
lawns. and a tank for nympheas and the Victoria regia. Elevation, 400 
feet; annual mean temperature, 78.7° F.; average rainfall, 47.24 
inches, 


Hore GARDEN. 


Hope garden is situated in the Liguanea plain between five and six 
miles from Kingston at the base of the hilly country through which 
the road passes for ten miles or so to the Blue mountains. The plain 
of Liguanea is one of the dry districts, the average annual rainfall at 
Hope being only 51.5 inches. Vegetation is affected not only by the 
want of rain, but also by the sea breezes, which in their passage across 
the plain become quite dry. The plain is characterized by the presence 
of Cactaceze, such as various species of Cereus and Opuntia. The trees 
include Prosopis juliflora (cashaw or the mesquite of the mainland,) 
Gutacum officinale (lignum vite), Parkinsonia aculeata (Jerusalem 
thorn.) As we approach Hope, at the base of the hills the rainfall in- 
creases, from 35 inches in Kingston, and Catalpa longissima (the yoke 
wood tree), and Pithecolobium Saman (the guango) occur, while the 
Cactaceze disappear. 


The character of the flora is affected also by the soil, which is alluvial 
-vithout any admixture of clay. Where limestone rock commences on 


18 


the hill called Long mountain the prevailing feature is the beautiful’ 
yellow flowered Agave Morrisit. The soil of the plain is very fertile 
when irrigation can be used, and the gardens in fact form part of the 
old Hope sugar estate. 


From being at first a small nursery and an experimental ground for 
sugar cane, it has now developed into a large garden with six acres of 
lawns, three and one-half acres of ornamental borders, also ferneries- 
and orchid houses; collections of roses, crotons and palms; plantations: 
covering seven and one-half acres of sugar cane, Arabian and Liberian: 
coffee, oranges, ginger, tobacco, ramie, and five or six acres of teak. It- 
is hoped that in time it may be possible to make it a geographical 
botanic garden with different sections for India, Australia, China, etc. 
Two and one-half acres are given up to the nurseries which contair 
about 70,000 plants, such as cocoa, nutmeg, clove, orange, vanilla, cin- 
namon, Liberian coffee, rubber plants, etc. It is the distributing cen- 
tre, and on an average 40,000 plants are sent out all over the island 
each year. The director has a residence, office, library, and herbarium 
in the garden. Elevation 700 feet ; annual mean temperature 77 .4° 
F,; average rainfall 52.83 inches. 


HILL GARDENS. 


The following account of the possibilities for usefulness of the Hill 
garden was written by me eighteen months ago: The ceremony, by 
His Excellency the Governor, of cutting the first sod of the new driv-- 
ing roads along the southern slopes of the Blue mountain range, in- 
augurated a new era of prosperity for a wide stretch of country from 
Newcastle to the Cuna-cuna pass. The only means of communication, 
until quite lately, in all this region from one district to another and to 
the sea-coast road, was by bridle paths, a terror to nervous riders: 
and impossible for invalids. The road connecting the plain of Liguanea 
with Gordon Town is so short that it scarcely counts when there is’ 
now a commencement of the construction of roads which are to be 100° 
miles in length. The only cultivation in these mountains on a large 
scale has been of coffee, and this industry has been seriously hampered* 
by the expense and difficulty of transport. 


In 1868, Sir John Peter Grant with great foresight made the first 
attempt at another culture, one which cculd be carried on at higher 
elevations, namely cinchona. The experiment was a complete success, 
for the government established the fact that cinchona could be grown 
in the island, and realized a sum of about £17,000 by the sale of bark.. 
But for the very reason that the whole reagon was without roads, 
planters hesitated so long about embarking in the new industry, that 
the {golden opportunity was lost, the price of cinchona bark fell, and 
many persons lost money in the venture, whereas in Ceylon, with good. 
roads and railways, fortunes had beeen made by all the pioneers. 


Here in Jamaica, the loss to private individuals of large sums im 
cinchona planting, coinciding with the low prices for coffee and general 
depression in trade, led to the cry some ten years ago that the Hill 
garden instituted by Sir J. P. Grant had proved a failure, and should. 


14 


‘be abandoned. Fortunately this desponding wail has not bnee 
generally supported in the island, nor acceded to by the government. 
Six or seven years ago, Mr. Thistleton-Dyer, the director of Kew 
gardens, gave it as his opinion that it was quite possible that the 
Hill garden might again become the chief botanic garden of the island, 
and this prophecy, unlikely though it might have seemed to most, 
seems now in a fair way to become fulfilled, and to justify the faith of 
the few. The garden ss situated about half way between Newcastle 
and Abbey Green, and the elevation of the government property ranges 
from about 3000 to 6309 feet, so that greatly varied experiments can 
be made in cultures requiring different altitudes. 


The Hill garden, however, was not devoted solely to the cultivation 
of cinchona, Vegetables have been grown and instruction imparted so 
successfully, that all the settlers round for many miles grow such 
“English” vegetables as peas, cabbages, carrots, turnips, potatoes, 
artichokes, horse-raddish, cucumbers and beets. Tea has been grown 
of a quality declared by London brokers to be excellent, and an order 
has just been received from a planter for 1000 plants. Timber trees of 
various kinds have been planted out and tended for years, and a know- 
ledge gained of the capabilities of different trees for use in these hills 
where nearty all the valuable timber has already been cut. The nur- 
series at present contain some thousand of seedling trees. Fodder 
plants have been under experiment as well as many different kinds of 
economic plants, which will be taken up by planters in the near future, 
such, for instance, as jalap, which sells at ls. 6d. per lb, orris root at 
75 to 80s. per cwt., China grass, a variety of ramie which can only be 
grown successfully in the hills, and realizes twice the price of the 
tropical ramie, and fruit trees of temperate climates, and of high ele- 
vation both in the new and old worlds. 


As this region is the best in the island for coffee, it is raasonable to 
suppose that it is the best for oranges, since the soil requirements of 
both are much the same. Although no tests have been made in com- 
paring the oranges of Manchester with those grown here, many who 
know both, declare in favor of those grown in the Port Royal moun- 
tains where splendid fruit is produced at as high an elevation as 4100 
feet. 


The government has very lately established an orange experimental © 
garden and nursery as part of the Hill garden establishment at an ele- 
vation of about 3900 feet. A large number of budded and grafted 
trees have been imported from Florida, and also from Rivers in Eng- 
land, who supplied growers in Florida and California in the early days 
of their groves. These are permanent stock trees, from which buds 
will afterwards be taken for budding on Seville and lemon stocks. 
Several thousand seedlings of the above stocks are being grown, also 
of the Jamaica sweet orange, grape fruit, tangerine and shaddock. 

Olives have been grown in the island for many years, but so far no 
fruit, nor even a flower, has been produced. It is probable that this 
may be accounted for by their having been planted at too low an ele- 
vation. Highty plants of the variety frantojo, which yields an excel- 
lent oil, have just been presented for trial by Lord Malcolm, of Knock- 


15 


alva, and these, together with others from Florida, have been put out 
at various elevations ranging from 3500 feet to 5500 feet. Meas 

Grape plants from Persia have been imported from California. 
They grow on the table-lands of Persia, have a distinctive character of 
their own, and are very highly spoken of by travelers. They ripen 
early, and as they have a firm and tough skin they will probably prove 
serviceable for early shipping. The native grape of Jamaica, so abun- 
dant in these hills, though of no value as a fruit, may turn out to be 
of special worth for grafting the more tender European varieties. 

These are a few of the cultures which may be taken up when roads 
are made. The prosperity of the Jamaica will advance by leaps and 
bounds with the increased production rendered possible by means of 
communication, and a temperate climate all the year round will be 
available for invalids, within a few hours’ drive of Kingston. But 
these benefits will also attract settlers from England when it becomes 
known that we have a Florida and a California in an island under 
‘British rule, with all the advantages of those climates and none of the 
disadvantages. Elevation 3000 to 6300 feet; annual mean tempera- 
ture at 4900 feet is 62.7° F., average rainfall, 105 inches. 


CASTLETON GARDEN, 


The drive from Kingston of nineteen miles, though along one is 
full of interest. The start is made in the fresh cool air of dawn; the 
road leads through the plain of Liguanea with a view of the hills ino 
the distance, bright with the ever-changing hues of early daylight. 
Then the assent becomes steeper, passing by settlers’ groves of cocoa, 
coffee, and bananas, with a sprinkling of oranges, akees, sugar-cane, 
annatto, and yams. The road passes over the crest of an elevation of 
1360 feet at Stony Hill; thence down into the valley of the Wag water, 
with broad alluvial stretches covered with tobacco, cultivated by Cu- 
bans; along the winding river fringed with clumps of graceful bamboo 
plumes, and its banks hidden by masses of creepers; past the rocks by 
the roadside covered with ferns, mosses, the scarlet ‘“ dazzle,” and the 
blue Jamaican “‘forget-me-not,” until Castleton is reached, where art 
shows nature at its best by world-wide selection and harmonious com- 


bination. 7 


At the principal gate stands one of the most superbly beautiful of 
all trees, the Amherstia nobilis, which, when in flower in the spring is 
worth crossing the ocean to see. Further on we see Norantea guia- 
nensis climbing over a large tree, and brilliant with long spikes, not of 
flowers but of nectar-secreting bracts; Mesua ferrea attracting atten- 
tion not so much by its large fragrant white flowers as by the red colour 
of the yonng drooping foliage; the mangosteen with its delicious fruits 
the travellers’ palm of Madagascar; Araucaria excelsa from Norfolk 
island. The palmetum contains specimens of 180 species of palms 
with great variety of graceful forms. The water lily tank is wonder- 
fully beautiful with its surroundings of palms, bamboos, and grassy 
slopes, and the placid surface of bright water on which float the sym- 
metrical leaves of red, white and blue lilies, and the Victoria:reqia 
in the centre, queen of the rest. From the brightness of the still lily 


16 


pool we pass to the grateful shade of the ferneries with the quick 
stream dancing over the stones, and then on to the nutmeg tree, its 
yellow fruit splitting and displaying the “mace,” a network of scarlet 
covering and half concealing the brown nut; the spicy clove and 
cinnamon trees; the climbing vanilla and black pepper; the coffee, 
cocoa, and kola trees; the peculiar flowers of the Couroupita and N as 


poleona. 


There is a small hotel in the grounds of the garden, open during the 
winter months, and as the importance of the garden has increased, a 
post and telegraph office, and constabulary station have been lately 
erected. The railway station at Annotto bay is only nine or ten miles: 
distant. 


Elevation 580 feet; annual mean temperature 76.2° F.; average 
annual rainfall 110 inches. 


BATH GARDEN, 


The Bath garden, forty-four miles east of Kingston, is situated ir 
one of the most tropical districts in the island. In other places, e. g.,. 
in Hanover, it could easily be imagined that the road led through some 
English park, until we perhaps notice the sensitive plant (Mimosa pu-- 
dica) trailing amongst the grass, or come upon a gigantic ceiba tree 
with buttressed trunk and its branches stretching far and wide loaded 
with a whole garden of exotic epiphytes. But in the Bath district the 
luxuriance of the vegetation arrests the attention on all sides. The 
street of the village has an avenue of the Otaheite apple (Eugenia ma- 
laccensis), which carpets the road with its purplish-red stamens. Sya- 
thodea campanulata, a large tree with reddish-orange flowers, from tro- 
pical Africa, has become quite naturalized. The upas tree and the 
durian both grow in the garden, as well as the talipot or umbrella 
palm of Ceylon (Corypha umbraculifera), which has fan-shaped leaves. 
twelve feet in diameter. 


The sea is only six miles off, where there is a large sheltered bay of 
shallow water, protected by a bold headland and small bays, where- 
search may be made for marine alge. 


About a mile and a half from the village, by a road aiong the side- 
of the gorge, we come to the famous bath dedicated to St. Thomas the 
Apostle. It isa hot spring of mineral water, efficacious in rheumatic 
and gouty complaints. This gorge is an unfailing delight for its pic- 
turesque beauty, and the botanist finds something new at every step. 
There isa bridle path across the mountains to Port Antonio, sixteen 
miles distant by the Cuna-cuna pass. This pass is an easy ride of six 
and one-half miles from Bath through virgin forest. 


The forest commences close at the north side of the village. Most. 
of it at one time or another has probably been cut for negro provision. 
fiells, but at a distance only of two or three miles undisturbed forest 
can easily be found, where the palm, Calyptrogyne Swartzit, flourishes, 
its stems clothed with that rare tropical American fern Anetium citri- 
folium. The John Crow, or Blake mountains, are unknown land, and- 


17 


it is said that the Maroons alone penetrate into their fastnesses in 
hunting wild pig. Inspector Thomas of the Jamaica constabulary 
crossed them a few years ago, and published an account of his expedi- 
tion, but he is the only white man who is actually known to have ven- 
tured into them. These limestone mountains are of some considerable 
elevation (about 2000 feet), and are only ten miles from Bath, seven 
miles of which can be ridden. They ought to prove a happy hunting 
ground for the botanist. There are specimens of two species of tree 
fern, Cyathea conquisita and C. pendula in the British Musium, coll- 
ected by Nathaniel Wilson who lived at Mansfield, two miles from 
Bath, but they have never been found since, and it is quite possible 
that he may have come across them near the John Crow mountains 
where no botanist has ever been since his time. The soil at Bath is 
alluvial, deep and rich. The rainfall is heavy, being on the borders of 
the district which is classed by Maxwell Hallas having the heaviest 
fall, viz., over 100 inches in the year. 


The garden fis only a remnant of Nathaniel Wilson’s garden, but is 
maintained by government asa small arboretum. It contains several 
trees of great interest and beauty, and is much more tropical in its as- 
pects than any of the other gardens, Elevation 70 feet ; mean annual 
temperature 78° F. 


THE FLORA, 


Jamaica is a paradise for the botanist, whether he specialises in algze 
fungi, mosses, ferns, or flowering plants. Of ferns there are about 
450 species, and of flowering plants 2180 species ; a number of both are 
endemic. Among the flowering plants are not only those found every- 
where in the tropics, but types from North, Central and South 
America and the other West Indian Islands. 


Forty-four new species of mosses from a limited area in the Blue 
Mountains have just been described in Bulletin de Herbier Boisster. 
A synopsis of the ferns is now appearing in the Bulletin of the Botanical 
Department, Jamaica. Grisebach’sFlora of the British West Indies is 
the only book that gives a connected account of the flowering plants. 
The flora of the whole of the West Indies is being thoroughly worked 
up now by Professor Urban, assistant director of the botanic garden of 
Berlin. ‘he results of his labours appear in Engler’s Botanische 
Jahrbiicher. The monographs in continuation of De Candolle’s Prodro- 
mus also contain later works than Griscbach’s. In the Jahrbuch of the 
botanical gardens of Berlin Dr. Mez has published a monograph of 
the American Lauracez including those of the West Indies. 


ELEVATIONS. 


The following table gives a general idea of the area in square miles 
embraced in the different zones of elevation, above sea level, in the seve- 
ral parishes, 


—" 
oo 


ra) ra) = 
S| 2 Jeeq= | Soe 
re N * = oo ined e fo 
: £ = s = & 34 
“ Ss — md + » aS ae 
Parishes. oF: 3, ae 2. | 2. ge 62 
g2 | 92 182) e8 | Soares 
Le Se =H Soe ow S = S$ 2 
< a lo oS al iS 
Kingston ae 64 3 of ces - 7% 
St. Andrew af 59 54 27 173 8 3 166 
St. Thomas oa: 135 59 35 20 14 11 274 
Portland «ate 94 89 4) 322 17 123 285 
St. Mary es: 110 116 19 4 | ° as 249 
St. Ann ane 85 33387 54 nes <6 476 
Trelwany ae 166 135 32 oe coe aoe 333 
St. James Bc: 139 90 5 ae: ae oe 234 
Hanover ee 161 6 ae 3 oe 167 
Westmoreland aa 235 73 te 308 
St. Elizabeth ep 335 120 7 Je 462 
Manchester = 42 134 126 302 
Clarendon $14 |}~ 236 45 2 ; 474 
St. Catherine urs 336 124 10 a 470 
Totals e-| 2,217% | 1,4522 | 400 74 39 24 4,2073 


1870 | 110.€0 83.9 | 102.98 61.07 89.43 


1888 ‘| 98 00 5442 
1889 99.81 56 82 


70.43 | 65.58 72 11 
75.94 54.02 74.15 


eee ee eee aS S- 


Means . 84 96 50.96 75.74 54.51 66.54 


1871 - 69.45 41.88 54.56 34.46 50.09 
1872 ; 59.42 40.79 | 51.50 29.02 45.18 
1873 84.08 62.64 | 67.79 47.71 63.06 
1874 : 97 .18 68 . 25 62.97 47 35 68.94 
1875 71 89 47.15 56.16 34.47 52.42 
1876 90.38 64.71 87 33 52.99 71.35 
1877 .| 100.72 56.53 | 64.06 52.27 68.40 
1878 | 104.12 62.99 | 72.44 66.11 76.42 
1879 .| 122.55 65.44 | 87.54 79.85 88.84 
Means. 91.04 57.34 | 7078 50.53 67.4] 
1880 76.37 47 01 64.91 33.47 55.44 
1881 91.24 49.44 | 75 32 | 58.42 68.60 
1882 65.48 43.76 78.59 | 43.66 57 .87 
1883 | -\ 2380 41.52 78.19 | 45.02 59.26 
1884 | 69 00 41.87 7310 | 43.738 56.90 
1885 70.55 52 77 72.62 | 43.52 59 86 
1886 | 126.61 60.98 88.21 | 86.64 90.61 
1887 80.25 61.07 80.14 | 61.16 70.66 


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20 
NOTES ON ORCHIDS AT HOPE GARDENS. 


Dendrobium formosum, Roxb., var., giganteum, Hort.—First intro- 
duced to European gardens from the Khasia Hills, im 1837. It is 
widely distributed over north-eastern India and Burmah. In British 
Burmah the native women use the flowers to adorn their hair. It is 
also a native of the Andaman Islands, and some of the very finest forms 
are found in mangrove swamps along the sea coast, where the plants 
are washed by sea-spray during stormy weather. In these islands there 
is rain during eleven months of the year, so that the plants have prac- 
tically no resting season. This is the largest-flowered, and finest of the 
white Dendrobiums. The flowers are produced towards the ends of the 
leafy stems, usually in clusters of 3 to 5; the individual flowers are 
about 4 inches across, of the purest white, save an orange-yellow blotch 
on the lip; the sepals are lance-shaped and pointed, the petals almost 
as broad as long, blunt; the lip has a large tongue-like spur. 


Dendrobium Phalenopsis, Fitzg.—This fine Dendrobium is a native of 
North Australia and New Guinea. The flowers latter are about 3 in- 
ches across, the sepals lance-shaped and pointed, varying in colour 
from pure white to rosy-mauve; peta!s twice as broad as the sepals, 
rosy-lilac or purplish-mauve in colour, lip three-lobed, maroon-purple. 


Lelia rubescens, Lindl.—This pretty little orchid is a native of 
Southern Mexico and Guatemala, and the inhabitants of the last named 
country think so highly of it that they call it “Flor de Jesus.” The 
scape is about 12 inches high, and bears at its summit a loose raceme 
of 5 flowers. The latter are about 24 inches in diameter rosy-lilac in 
colour. 3 


Broughtonia lilacina, Henfr.—This beautiful orchid is a native of 
Jamaica, Cuba and San Domingo. The scape is 15 to 30 inches long, 
producing at its summit 5 to 9 flowers, each about 2 inches across, and 
in colour pale rosy-mauve with purple veins and marklings. This has 
been known for long as “ Leliopsis domingensis.” 


Oncidium Papilio, Lindl.—This is the Butterfly Orchid of Trinidad 
remarkable for the appearance of its flowers. The central lobe of the 
lip is of a canary-yellow colour with a bright red marginal band. The 
side lobes are small but from below them the lateral sepals spread 
down wing-like, with wavy margins almost surrounding the lip; they 
are bright chestuut-red crossed by yellow bands. Above are three long 
and narrow appendages of the “ Butterfly,” the central one being the 
third sepal, and the two others the petals. 


Oncidium Kramerianum, Reichb.—This is considered by many as 
merely a variety of O. Papilio, but others point out various structural 
differences which are considered sufficient to separate the two, such as 
the upper sepals and petals are shorter and differently coleured. It is 
a native of the Andes of Ecuador and New Grenada, 


Calanthe Veitchit, Lindl.—The genus Calanthe includes over forty 
species widely distributed over the tropical and sub-tropical regions of 
the Eastern Hemisphere and occurring also very sparingly in Mexico, 
Central America and the West Indies, “Calanthe mexicana” being 
found in Jamaica. The Calanthes are most numerous along the lower 


21 


Himalayas from Assam to Nepal, and again in Java. The plant above 
named is a garden hybrid, raised by Messrs. Veitch at their Exeter nur- 
sery in 1856. The parent plants were C. rosea, Benth. and C. vestita, 
Lindl. The scape is about two feet high, and 8 to 12 flowered. Flowers 
about 2 inches across, bright rose colour, with a white spot at the base 
of the lip. 

Cypripedium Sedenii, Rchb.—This is one of the ‘‘ Lady’s Slipper” 
orchids, The plant under notice is the garden hybrid known as “‘ can- 
didulum.” The sepals and petals are white, the former with pale 
yellow-green veins, and the latter with a faint flush or pale rose towards 
the tips, lip pale rose. 


FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—XLIX. 


Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja- 
maica. By G. S. Jenman, Superintendent Botanical Garden, 
Demerara. 


1. Acrostichum Herminieri, Bory.—Rootstock short, densely clothed 
with matted linear or filiform, undulate, bright ferruginous scales, which 
are a third tol in. l. and + li. w.; fronds several, scimiter-shaped, 
tufted or subtufted, quite pendant, tapering and long-decurrent at the 
base to stipites an inch or less long, tapering and acuminate at the 
apex 14 - 3 ft. 1, #- 1 in. w., very coriaceous, dark glossy green, paler 
beneath, glabrous but with scattered minute speck-like scales beneath 
while young ; midrib immersed in the parenchyma ; veins close, forked, 
immersed, evident above, less so or concealed beneath ; fertile fronds 
4-5 in. 1. 14 - 14 im. w. lanceolate or lanceolate-oblong, shortly pointed, 
the base cuneate ; petiole about 1 in. l. 

Infrequent on trees in forests of the eastern parishes; gathered in 
1886 by Mr. Sherring above Bath, at 4000 ft. altitude; a peculiar and 
very striking species distinguished by the very long narrow sterile 
fronds, over a yard long often not exceeding an inch wide, and the very 
disproportional short but rather broader fertile ones, that rarely exceed 
six inches long. Though very coriaceous, the fronds, which curve late- 
rally, owing to one margin being shorter than the other thus acquiring 
scimiter-shape, are not so rigid as in some of the other species. The 
rootstock is short repent or subrepent descending, and quite concealed 
in the copious tuft of long dense glossy scales. 

2. A. gramineum, Jenm.—Rootstock slender, creeping, naked, but 
viscil; stipites nude, scattered but approximate, slender, 2-3 in. 1. 
winged in the upper part by the decurrent sides of the fronds, fronds 
numerous, erect or spreading somewhat forming grass-like patches, 
linear, 24-5 in. 1. 3-4 li. w., tapering equally at the apex and base, or 
more so at the latter, chartaceous, pellucid, naked, glossy, bright green, 
viscid throughout; veins rather close, simple and forked, terminating 
within the margins in clavate apices; fertile fronds smaller, the same 
shape, on longer stipites, Journ. Bot. 1879, p. 263. 

Common on banks and rocks at 2,000 ft. alt.; gathered near Second- 
breakfast Spring, beyond Mt. Moses, St. Andrew. A smaller and much 
thinner textured plant than the next, naked in all its parts, very viscid, 


22 


which however only shows when pressed in paper to dry, and forming 
large patches, and in substance quite distinct from all the rest of this 
section. 

3. A. simplex, Swartz.—Rootstock slender, short-creeping, clothed 
with small very dark lanceolate-acuminate scales ; stipites erect, con 
tiguous, 2 - 3 in. 1. slightly scaly at the very base; fronds linear-lan 
ceolate, erect, tapering equally at both ends, very acuminate, the base 
decurrent on the petioles, 4- 1 ft. 1, 4-#in.w., very coriaceous and 
stiff, naked, the upper side glossy dark green, under paler, the margins 
reflexed when dry, the rachis prominent beneath ; veins obscure, close, 
simple or forked; fertile fronds usually somewhat smailer, though as 
broad, acute at the apex, the stipites rather longer—Hook. Gen. t. 
105. A. 

a. A. martinicense, Desv.—Fronds linear, 10 - 15 in. 1.2 -4or61. 
Ww. very numerous ; rootstock more slender; upper surface with a blueish- 
green tinge, under pale and at first sprinkled with a few minute ap- 
pressed scales ; fertile fronds shorter and broader.—Hist. Acrost. p. 45 
bn.1'6..4.-3. 

Infrequent on decaying logs in forests and coffee plantations at 
2000 - 4000 ft. altitude. This is not nearly so abundant as the follow- 
ing allied species from which it is distinguished by its narrow linear- 
lanceolate fronds. «a occupies the trunks and branches of growing trees 
chiefly in moist forests up to 4000 ft alt. and is much more common. 
Though equally coriaceous it is usually pendant or much curved in habit. 
and the rootstock interlaces, forming patches as large or larger than 
one’s outspread hands, with numerous densely aggregated fronds. 

4, A. inequalifolium, Jenm.—Rootstock free-creeping, cylindrical, 
thick as a quill, horizontal, densely clothed with chesnut coloured pale- 
margined palez ; stipites scattered, erect, 2-3 or 4 in. |,, rather freely 
clothed at first with spreading scattered brown scales, subsequently 
naked ; fronds stiffly erect, linear lanceolate, very acum inate, tapering 
equally to the apex and base, 4-10 in. 1. 4rd-14 in. w, coriaceous, dark 
bright green, paler beneath, dotted with scattered very minute fimbriate 
pale-edged scales, which are paler, less abundant and more fibrillose on 
the upper surface; margins cartilaginous-edged, and rather reflexed when 
dry; veins fine, forked from the base, close obscure; fertile fronds 
conform but on stipites, which are more or less distinctly scaly, usually 
twice as 1 ng as the barren.—Journ. Bot. 1886, p. 278. 

Frequent in high mountain forests on logs and decaying vegetable 
matter; like chartaceum with which it grows, in colour, but uniformly 
smaller, much stiffer and coriaceous, the minute scales of the surface 
more fibrillose and paler, the petioles freely palaceous at first, the fertile 
ones always so while the fronds are fresh, and twice the length of the 
barren, and with a slender free-creeping horizontal rootstock, by which 
it can always be distinguished, several inches long, dark coloured and 
with a double series of the bases of past stipites 4—$in. 1. on the upper- 
side. 

5. A. alatum, Fée.—Rootstock shortly repent, freely clothed with 
dark or ferruginous reticulated, fine, acuminate scales; stipites appro- 
ximate or sub-tufted, erect, 14-4 in., 1. slightly scaly or naked; fronds 
erect, oblong-lanceolate, or lanceolate, acuminate, the base decurrent as 
wings to the upper part of the stipes, subcoriaceous, dark green, 


23 


glabrous, 3-7 in. l. 14-2in. w. glabrous or sprinkled beneath with very 
minute speck-like scales ; veins patent, $—1 li. apart, simple and forked, 
evident; fertile fronds much reduced, less decurrent, on much longer 
slender stipites overtopping the sterile—Iée Mem. pl. 5, fig 2. 
Infrequent in mountain forests of St. Andrew «t 2,000 3,000 ft. alti- 
tude. Differs from conforme and other allied species by the decurrent 
base of the fronds which wings with membrane the upper part of the 
petioles, and by the smaller long petioled fertile fronds which are pro- 
jected quite above the tops of the sterile ones. 

6. A. viridifolium, Jenm.—Rootstock short, rather stout, oblique or 
decumbent, densely clothed with small feruginous linear scales : stipites 
subtufted, erect straminous, | - 3 in. |. channelled; fronds linear-lan- 
ceolate, 7 - 9 in. 1. 1 - 14 in. w. tapering both up and down, but more 
downwards and passing insensibly into the petiole, the apex pointed but 
obtuse, glabrous, but with laxly scattered very minute peltate scales 
over the underside, coriaceous, bright green; margin even or repand; 
veins fine. close, once forked, nearly concealed : fertile fronds much nar- 
rower, nearly or quite as long, on stipites twice as long.—Journ. Bot. 
1886, p. 273. 

This comes nearest to A. flaccidum, Fée, but is distinguished by its 
longer petioles, coriaceous texture, finer and closer venation, and the 
obtuse pointed fronds. The petioles are slightly scaly at first, but early 
become quite naked. The midrib is prominent beneath, channelled 
above, and with the petioles straw-coloured when dry. 


CONTRIBUTIONS AND ADDITIONS. 


LIBRARY. 
Bulletin R. Gard. Kew App. III, 1897, I, 1898. |Director. ] 
Bot. Mag. Dec. 1897, Jan. 1898. [ Purchased. ] 
Trop. Agriculturist Nov. & Dec. 1897. [Purchased.] 
Sugar Cane. Dec. 1897. Jan. 1898. [Hditor.] 
Sugar. Nov. & Dec. 1897 & Jan. 1898. [Editor.] 
Pharm. Journal. Dec. 1897. 
W.I. & Com. Advertiser. Dec. 1897. Jan. 1898. [Editor. ] 
Chemist & Druggist. Nov. & Dec. 1897. [Hditor.] 
Produce World. Nov. & Dec. 1897. [Editor.] 
- Botanical Gazette. Dec. 1897. Jan. 1898. [Hditor.] 
British Trade Journal. Nov. Dec. 1897 & Jan. 1898. [Editor.] 
Agr. Ledger. Nos. 9 & 17.1897. [Supt. Govt. Print. Calc itta. ] 
Journ. Board of Agr. England. Dec. 1897 & Jan. 1898. [Board.] 
Pro. Agr. Soc. Trinidad. Sept. Oct. 1897 & Jan. 1898. [Secretary.] 
Meteorlogical Return Bot. Gard. St. Vincent. Nov. Dec, 1897. 
Bulletin Bot. Gar. Trinidan. Jan. 1898. [Supt. ] 
Barbados Planters Monthly. Jan. 1898. |EHditor.] 
Agr. Gazette, N.S. Wales. Sept —Nov. 1897. [Dept. of Agr.] 
Sugar Journal. Oct. & Nov. 1897. [EHditor.] 
Agr. Journ. Cape of Good Hope. Oct.—Dec. 1897. [Dep. of Agr.] 
Central African Times. Oct.—Dec. 1897. [Editor.] 
Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club. Nov. & Dec. 1897. Jan. 1898. [Editor.] 
American Journ. of Pharm. Dec. 1897. Jan. 1898. [Hditor.] 
Evidence of Dr. William Saunders on Agri & Colonization. May 1897. [Author. ] 
Nova Scotia Prov. Govt. Crop. Report Nov. 1897. [Director.] 
New Natal Plants I. Extr. Journ. Bot. Sept. 1897. [Author. | 
Control & Fixation of Shifting Sands. By John Gifford. [Author. ] 
Notes on Zamia and Ginkgo by H. J. Webber Extr. Bot. Gaz. Oct. 1897. [Author.] 
Flora of British India, Vol. 7 Pts, 23, 24. By Sir J. D. Hooker. [Dirctor, Kew. | 


24 


Annals of Botany. Dec.1897. [Purchased.] 

Treatise on Sugar Cane. Voll. By W.C. Stubbs. [Author.] 

Times of Ceylon. Nov. & Dec. 1897. [Editor.] 

Queensland Agr. Journ. Sept.—Dec. 1897. [Director.] 

Report on Gardens of Oodeypore. 1897. [Supt.] 

Pro. Agr. Hort. Soc. Madras July—Sep. [Secretary. ] 

Circular R. Bot. Gard. Ceyion. July, Aug. & Nov. 1897. [Director.] 

Forester. Dec. .897. [Editor.] 

Montreal Pharm. Journ. Dec. 1897 & Jan. 1898. 

Canadian Entomologist. Dec. 1897. 

Publications Field Columbian Museum. [Curator.] 

Report Dept. of Agr. Canada 1896. [Director. ] 

John Hopkins Univ. Circulars. Nov. 1897. [President] 

Trans. Acad. S. E. St Louis. [Secretary.] 

Annual Report Bot. Sta. Sierra Leone. 1896. [Curator.] 

Journ Botany. Dec.1897. Jan. 1893. [Purchased. ] 

Hawaiian Planters Monthly. Nov.1897. | Editor. | 

Sucrerie Indigene et Coloniale. Nov. & Vec. 1897. [Editor.] 

Proefstation Seukerriet. W. Java. 1897. [Hditor.] 

Bulletin de L’Herbier Boissier. Nov. & Dec. 1897. 

Garden. Jan. 1898. [ Purchased. ] 

Gardeners Chronicle. Jan. 1898. [Purchased. ] 

Journ. Jamaica Agr, Soc. [Secretary.] 

Contributions to Flora of Queensland. F. N. Bailey. Ext. Queensland Agr. Journ. 
[ Author. | 

Bulletin Bot. Gard. & Museum, Berlin Dec. 1897. 

Pamphlets by J. N. Lloyd. [Author.] 

Amsterdam, Kol. Mus. Nuttige Ind. Pl. IV. Greshoff & Boerlage. 1897. 

Reports, Bulletins & Records from the following Agricultural Experiment 
Stations, U.S. A. 

Vermont, Texas, Arizona, Virginia, New Hampshire, California, Idaho. 

Nebraska, Georgia, Utah, Maryland, Rhode Island, Ohio, Kansas. 

Pennsylvana, New Jersey, Wyoming, N. York (Geneva). 


PLANTS. 

From Royal Gardens, Kew.— 

Tubers of Oxalis crenata 
SEEDS. 

From Lady Blake, Moneague.— From Hugh Dixson, Sydney, N.S.W.— 
Cleome speciosa Stevensonia grandifolia 

From Dr. Morris,.Kew.— From Technological Museum, Sydney, 
Double yellow Datura N.S. W.— 

From Secretary Agri-Hort. Society, Ochrosia Poweri 
Madras.— Pittosporum rhombifolium 
Acacia Sundra Endi :ndra discolor 
Cordia Rothii Cryptocarya gliucescens 
Ficus racemosa From Mr. R. B. White, Colombia.— 
Anogeissus acuminata Ceroxylon andicola, occidentalis 
Dalbergia frondosa From Mr. W. Jekyll, Robertsfield.— 
Cassia marginata Hibiscus Sabdariffa 
Mimusops Elengi From Mr. J. V. Sigvald Mueller, Guaya- 
Pterospermum suberifolium quil, Eucador.— 
Calophyllum inophyllum Papaya Chongona 
Bassia longifolia Solanum quitoense 
Pongamia glabra From Secretary Colonia Cosme, Paraguay. 

From Botanic Gardens, Demerara.— Solanum sysimbrifolium 
Triplaris surinamensis From The Royal Gardens, Kew.— 

From Royal Botanic Gardens, Trinidad, Heterospathe elata 
Clavija ornata Pitcairuia ferruginea. 


Musa sumatrana 


New Series.] FEBRUARY, 1898. i You. V. 


Part 2. 
OF THE } 
BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA. 
EDITED BY 
WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS. 
Director of Publie Gardens a Plantations. 
| CON Ay ENTS: 
Cocoa in Trinidud, Venezuela and Grenada + Pace 25 
Rubber ; oT 
Note on Ceara Rubber : 37 
Wax Palms of the Andes Hi : | 38 
Oka of Peru 40 
Coccide or Scale Insects. - XII ‘ | 40 
Ferns: Synoptical List.—L far nae 44. 


Centributions and Additions ‘ 47 


PRICE Threepence. 


A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name ana 
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. 


KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
GovERNMENT Printine Orrion, 79 Duke Srruszr. 


1898 


-_ 
ood 


Le al aaek mt f 58 ia “S xP * prt wos : TIEN fe enon ia res Ss Cm 


JAMAICA, 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


Vol. V. 


New Series. ] FEBRUARY, 1898. Part 2 


COCOA IN TRINIDAD, VENEZUELA AND 
3 GRENADA.* 


Notes by a Visitor in January and February, 1897. 


TRINIDAD. 


General Remarks on Cultivation. 

In the oldest Cocoa growing districts, these estates are situated in 
the valleys formed by the ridge of hills running along the north of the 
Island parallel to the coast. 

The soil in these valleys was said by many planters to be getting ex- 
hausted, and to be giving poorer crops than some of the newer lands — 
-opened up more recently. 

The centre of the Island has been opened up within the last 20 years, 
and at the present time, there is a great quantity of young Cocoa just 
coming into bearing. 

It is said to be the richest and most productive part of the Island, 
the Cocoa estates situated here giving a higher return per tree than 
elsewhere. 

This is a slightly undulating district, and the hills and valleys are 
clothed with Cocoa trees. 

Varieties of Cocoa Grown.—The varieties of Cocoa grown in 
Trinidad are the Criollo, Forastero and Calabacillo. ji 

The quality of the Criollo Cocoa is better than that of the Forastero, 
and the Forastero is again better than the Calabacillo variety. 

Formerly the Criollo Cocoa was grown in Trinidad, but some 100 
years ago, a blight destroyed nearly all the trees, and these were re- 
placed by the hardier Forastero variety from the Main, (probably they 
would come from the district round Carupano). 

The Calabacillo is the commonest kind of Cocoa grown, it is the 
hardiest variety of tree and gives the largest yield. 


*For general information consult: Cacao, how to grow and how to eure it 
By Dr. Morris. Price 6d. Published by the Institute of Jamaica. 

*Cacao. By J. H. Hart. Price 5/. Govt. Printing Office, Trinidad. See also 
Bulletin 1895 (pages 38, 180); 1896 (page 15). 


26 


The Criollo variety gives the smallest yield of the 3 varieties, and 
the tree is more subject to disease than the other two. 

Whilst these 3 varieties exist in Trinidad, the bulk of the trees are 
strains of the Forastero and Calabacillo, the Forastero variety largely 
predominating. 

In Grenada the Calabacillo predominates ; in the west of Venezuela 
the Criollo is grown. 

The various varieties of Cocoa are distinguished by the pods and 
seeds, the shape of the pods and the size of the seeds. 

The Calabacillo has a small round pod—the Criollo a long narrow 
one—the stalk end being constricted. The Forastero has a long pod 
without the constriction. The beans of the Criollo Cocoa are round - 
and thick, and when cut are white in the centre and of a sweet flavour. 
Those of the Forastero are not so round, and flatter than the Criollo™ 
beans and when cut, have a purple colour, and bitter taste. 

The Calabacillo beans are smaller, flatter and more purple than the 
Forastero beans. When these beans have been fermented and dried, 
the Criollo is of a light brown colour, the Forastero a dark brown, the 
Calabacillo a purple colour. The “break” of the Criollo Cocoa is bet- 
ter than that of the Forastero, whilst the Calabacillo has a more 
 slatey” appearance when cut across The commoner varieties of Co- 
coa require longer fermentation to make them at all palatable (i.e. to 
remove the bitter taste). , 

All the varieties of Cocoa bear both red and yellow pods this being 
no indication of the quality of the Cocoa. 

The value of the Cocoa depends upou 

(1) The variety of the tree from which the beans are gathered. 
(2) The method of fermentation adopted by the planter. . 
(3) The quality of the soil on which the Cocoa is grown. 

‘The very finest flavoured Cocoas can only be grown on certain soils. 

One planter attributed the quality of his Cocoa to the care that was 
taken in the sel: ction of the trees and the difference in quality between 
his and another estate was due to this fact, as they are both grown in 
the same valley on contiguous estates. 

Lhe Criollo Cocoa had been tried, but it was difficult to grow, and the 
yicld was small, consequently the trees had been pulled up. 

Seeds have been taken from the trees grown in the Ocumare and 
Choroni Valleys of Venezuela and planted in other parts of Venezuela 
and Trinidad, bus have not given Choroni Cocoa, and trees from other 
districts planted at Ocumare in 4 generations produced Ocumare Coc: a. 

However, one must not forget that there is only |-16th of the ori- 
ginal strain of Cocoa, if the tree is planted at Ocumare surrounded by 
trees of the true Criollo type. : 

Probably it would be safe to say one could grow Cocoa in any West 
Indian Island, like the average Cocoa produced in any part of the world, 
but not equal to the best of any particular kind. «It would be necessary 
to take seed from the variety of Cocoa one wanted to imitate, ferment 
it in exactly the same way, and to take care the flower was not crossed 
by any local variety growing near. 

Formation of an Estate.—The estates in Trinidad are nearly all formed 
by contractors. That is to say the planter gives a certain portion of 
his land to a contractor, generally a negro, who clears it and plants the 


27 


Cocoa trees. He grows plantains and ground provisions between the 
young Cocoa trees for his own use or for sale. 

At the end of five years he hands the land back again to the owner, 
who gives him 80 cents or $1 per tree, according to the arrangement 
made. 

A single contractor generally planted 1,000 trees. 

Some plan'ers supply the contractor with seeds but generally they 
are left to provide their own 

When we were in Trinidad, the planters said it did not pay to take 
the trees over so soon, and some left them with the contractor a year or 
two longer. 

The advantages of the system are its cheapness, but the disadvan- 
tages are that unless the contractor is supplied with seed and well looked 
after, he will put in a common and hardier variety of plant, as it is easier 
to grow. 


Arrangements of an Es ate.-—The Cocoa trees are planted in lines, 
some 12 feet apart, whilst every 36-40 feet the Bois Immortelles 
are planted. I[n the hilly districts where the Cocoa trees are planted 
on the steep hillsides they are placed closer together and fewer shade 
trees are employed. This method of planting seemed generally em- 
ployed throughout the Island, though of course some estates were better 
lined out than others. 

One planter thought a better yield might be obtained per tree by 
planting the trees further apart. 

The Bois Immortelles were used in nearly all cases as shade, though 
in some places the sand box tree was used instead. 

The timber of the Immortelle is valueless, but it has always been 
found to be the most successful shade tree by the planters. 

The manager’s or owner’s house is generally situated in the centre of 
the estate and is surrounded by the sweat boxes and drying sheds. 


Kind of soil, adapted for the Cocoa estate is a light, loamy one; 
sandy soil gives a better quality Cocoa than heavy ones. It is essential 
that the soil shv-uld be of some depth. | 

All the planters in Trinidad said it was not worth while planting old 
sugar estates, as the soil had been exhausted by the sugar, and as there 
was plenty of virgin soil to be obtained, it was better to clear fresh land 
than plant that partly exhausted. 


Work on an Estate.—This consists, after it has been handed over by 
the contractor, in the carcful weeding of the ground, the pruning of 
the trees, the gathering, breaking, fermenting and drying the Cocoa. 
There is work on an estate all the year round, as the men are employed 
in pruning and weeding when the picking is over. 

‘Thus a small body of men are constantly employed, and there is no 
necessity fora large amount of labour at oue time, and neither isa 

very large amount of labour required as on a sugar estate. 


Gathering Cocoa.—This is done by the men who cut off the Cocoa pods 
within easy reach by meaus of a machette: those higher up they remove 
by means of the Cocoa hooks which are mounted on long bamboo poles. 
The Cocoa hook is sharpened at the tip and on the under side of the 
hook, so that the Cocoa can be gathered by means of a thrust or a pull. 


28 


The pods are known to be ripe by their colour, some being green, 
others red. It is not easy to say at first when they are quite ripe, but 
the men employed soon gain experience and are enabled to tell by the 
appearance. 

When the pod is cut open it 1s easy to tell whether it is ripe, as in a 
ripe pod the beans are separated from the shell, but they adhere to it 
before ripening. 

The Cocoa gatherers leave the pods upon the ground where they fall. 
Women are employed to collect them into baskets. 

The women deposit the peds into large heaps at different parts of the 
plantation. | 


Breaking Cocoa.—This consists in cutting open the pods and remov- 
ing the beans. A planter told us that it improved the quality of the 
Cocoa to leave pods a few days in the heaps on the ground before 
“breaking,” but he said that he always had the Cocoa broken as soon 
as it was gathered, to prevent it being stolen in the night. 

In the other plantations we visited it was generally left three or four 
days in the heaps on the ground before “ breaking.” | 

If the Cocoa is left too long in this manner, it will ferment and go 
mouldy. 

When “breaking” the Cocoa the men take a short knife (i.e. a ma- 
chette with the end taken off) und cut the pod in two throwing the top 
half on one side and the bottom half (to which the placenta with the 
beans is attached) into a basket. ‘The beans are removed from the bot- 
tom half of the pods by means of little wooden spoons and put into 
large wicker baskets. 

This part of the process is performed by women. 

These baskets are emptied into the panniers of the ponies which take 
the Cocoa to the sweat boxes. Whilst breaking on the best estates the 
black and decayed beans are put on one side and not mixed with the 
good Cocoa. 


“Sweat Boxes.—These on one estate were large wooden troughs with a 
cement bottom some 6 feet square and 4 feet deep arranged in sets of 
i2 under one roof, there being an opening between the top of the boxes 
and the roof, and sufficient space between the bottom of the box and the 
ground to allow of the juices liberated during fermentation to escape. 
A rack is put at the bottom of the box and when it is filled with Cocoa, 
banana leaves are spread over the top with sometimes a lid over all and ~ 
most of the sweat boxes we saw were arranged on the same principle. — 
Some had fewer divisions. 

The boxes on another estate that they were using held from 30 to 40 
bags of Cocoa. — | 

On another the fermenting troughs were arranged somewhat differently. 
There were 6 side by side with a door opening into each box. 


Fermentation.—The method of fermentation was the same all over 
Trinidad with some slight differences. The difference between an 
estate mark and a common Trinidad is mainly in the fermentation, the 
better Trinidad Cocoa being fermented the longest of all. 

One planter only fermented 5-8 days. The Cocoa on another estate 
was fermented 10-12 days, being turned over two or three times. Dur- 
ing fermentation the white pulp which surrounds the beans is largely 


29 


removed—part being used in the process, and part draining away as a 
liquid at the bottom of the troughs. 

The bean itself is split up into a granular structure. Unfermented 
dried beans when cut open are slatey, whilst the fermented have the 
cellular structure. 

According to some planters the maximum heat developed was 120°. 
They said it took 5 or 6 days to develop this heat, and then the tem- 
perature of the mass cooled down. 

Another said he had tried a thermometer in his fermenting boxes, 
and had come to the conclusion that if the temperature rose above 130° 
the Cocoa was spoilt. He thought the fall in temperature at night had 
a harmful effect, and suggested that steam pipes in the boxes might 
obviate this. 

On one estate the Cocoa was turned over every three days from one 
box into another, this being turned over four times during the process 
of fermentation. 

On other estates where they did not ferment so long, the Cocoa was 
not turned over so many times, but it seems to be a pretty general rule 
after three or four days to open the ‘‘sweat” boxes and to turn the 
Cocoa over. If this process is not carried out, the Cocoa in the centre 
of the box becomes too hot, whilst the Cocoa on the outside is not suf- 
ficiently fermented. 

Drying Cocoa.—When the Cocoa has been fermented a sufficient 
length of time, it is spread out upon the drying tables. 
These are large raised floors some 60 feet by 30 feet wide 
with a movable roof. The roof is in two parts and is made 
so that it can be slid out at either end of the drying shed 
(upon rails) thus the Cocoa can be exposed to the sun during the day, 
but at night-time, or when it rains, the roofs are rolled back again over 
the floor. There is a door at the end of the gable, to enable the men 
to get inside to push the roof off. These roofs are always made with a 
lock, so that the Cocoa, at night, can be kept safe from thieves. 

When the Cocoa is first spread upon the table it is of a whitish 
brown colour and very moist. During the process of drying, the pulp 
shrivels up and the exterior of the bean acquires the brown colour of 
the Trinidad Cocoa we see on the London Market. The interior also 
become darker in tint, the Calabacillo Cocoa dries a dark brownish pur- 
ple. No fermenting will give Calabacillo Cocoa the brown tint of a 
good Forastero or Criollo Cocoa. 

A planter said it took three to six days to dry the Cocoa. It de- 
pended, of course, upon the weather, as, if there was a prolonged rain 
and the sheds could not be opened, it took longer than if the weather 
were fine. The Cocoa is covered up also if the sun is too hot, as it blis- 
ters the skin, and appearance is not so good in consequence. 

There is generally an old coolie or negro in charge of the drying 
floors, who pulls the roof over them when it rains or when the sun is too 
hot, and spends his time while the sheds are open in turning the Cocoa, 
that is, shuffling up and down the drying shed and turning the Cocoa 
over with his bare feet. 

If the Uocoa were bagged up and shipped after simply drying in this 
way, it would have a somewhat mildewed appearance. 
In order to get the bright gummy look of the best estate Trinidad 


30 


Cocoa, the beans are piled into small heaps on the drying tables, in the 
early morning, and are “danced” by the coolies, that is, flve or six of the 
men and women walk in a little ring on the top of this heap rubbing the 
Cocoa together with their feet ; on some estates this is done every morning 
till the Cocoa is dry. ° On one estate. this was left until the last morning, 
when the skins of the Cocoa were slightly moistened with water, a little 
red sand being added to the water after which the Cocoa was ‘ danced” 
spread out again on the floor and finally dried. We did not see in Tri- 
nidad any satisfactory artificial dryers. We were informed that several 
had been tried, but a satisfactory one had not yet been made. 

Picking and Sorting —On the best estates in Trinidad, the Cocoa, 
after drying, were sorted in a Pernollet machine. The broken nibs and 
small beans appeared to find a ready sale locally. One planter had his 
large beans picked over again by hand, which, he said cost 24d. per 
bag. When we were at San Antonio some coolie women were picking 
Cocoa over in the floor of a shed. 

Manuring—There seemed to be practically no manuring on the 
Cocoa plantations whatever ; pen manure that a Cocoa planter had, he 
put on his estate, but this was necessarily small as few animals are kept. 
We did not hear anywhere ofartificial manures being successfully applied. 
All the husks after breaking the Cocoa, and the branches of the trees 
were left upon the ground to rot, but apart from this nothing was put 
upon the lands. Some of the planters said they had tried artificial 
manures without success but all testified to the value of pen manure 
when they could get it. i 

Pruning.—Most of the planters cut away all the suckers, leaving the 
stem some four or five high before they allowed it to branch, and 
their idea in pruning, seemed to be, to keep the tree evenly balanced 
upon this central stem. 

One planter who had original ideas on pruning sometimes allowed 
suckers to grow on a tree. His main idea being to keep the tree evenly 
balanced and to prevent any part of the stem being exposed to the wind © 
or rain. 

Drainage.—On the flat estates there is the expense of drainage. 
These have to be made when forming the estate and to be kept clean 
afterwards. 

Pests. - These are mainly squirrels and rats. They make holes in 
the pods, and eat perhaps one or two beans only, then leaving them, but 
the rain is admitted and the Cocoa is turned black and rotten. Ten 
cents. a tail is paid for these animals. Some birds also make holes in 
the pods to attract insects. The old trees on many dump estates are 
covered with moss which has to be scraped off from time t» time. We 
noticed this particularly on one estate, where the manager told us they 
paid 2s. a tree, using a corn cob for the purpose. 

Another pest is the Cocoa Beetle which is systematically hunted for 
and destroyed whenever there are evidences of its appearance. 

The Crop of an Estate depends on 

Ist. There being an average amount of rain whilst the trees are 
flowering and the pods are young, as a continued drought then withers 
up the young pods. 

2nd. A not too continuous rain on the other hand when the pods are 
ripening as this makes them turn rotten. 


31 


Time of Crop.—The picking goes on during the whole of the year, 

-the main crop however begins in October and November, and the 

“sweat” boxes were nearly always full from January to March. A 
-smaller crop again takes place in June or July. 

Age of Trees.—The trees on one estate were 32 years old and were 
in good bearing condition, but there were trees on some of the older 
estates in the [sland, between 90 and 100 years old. It seemed to be 
generally considered that the trees properly looked after should yield 
well for 50 or 60 years at least. 

Yield of Trees.—One estate yielded two or three lbs. per tree, and 
one tree situated neara stable yielded 32 lbs, of Cocoa. A planter 
showed us a tree from which he had picked 300 pods or 22 lbs., in 
one year. The present yield on one estate was 14 bags of 185 lbs., per 
1,000 trees. 

Size of Estates.—These vary, from the negro who had a few trees to 
the large estate of 100,000 trees. One Estate had 90,000 trees. 
Another had 70,000 trees, and another estate 60,000 trees One of the 
largest in the Island, had a yield of 1,500 bags. For the greater 
proportion of the Cocoa in Trinidad appears to be grown on large 
estates. 

Price and Value of Estates.—-One planter considered that an estate 
would not pay if it did not contain 10,000 trees. 

Another thought at present prices, an unencumbered estate might 
yield 150/o net profit, all expenses of management paid, but that 10o/o 
was a more likely figure. 

Cost of production of Cocoa.—A planter told us he considered that it 
did not pay to grow Cocoa that was selling at 45s. per cwt., or at any 
rate he did not consider it worth while to plant Cocoa at this price. At 
the present prices a new estate did not begin to pay until 12 to 14 
years, and then only yielded 8 per cent. interest after paying a mort- 
gage charge of 8 per cent., which seemed to be the general rate. 
Another said that Cocoa could be grown at 2ls. a cwt., and men- 
tioned that he had a small estate which was managed by his wife, on 
which it only cost him four dollars acwt. Another said it could not 
be grown under eight dollars a cwt, and that he did it at this price. 
Labour had been cut down to 25 to 30 cents, instead of 30 to 50 cents 
a day, which used to be paid. The cost of production of Cocoa depends 
largely upon the position of the estate, as some estates had to pay as 
much as a dollar a bag to get the Cocoa down to Port of Spain, being 
a long way from either road or railway. Planters said they would be 
quite content if Cocoa rose 5s. a cwt. above the then ruling low prices, 
(45s.) 

Shipping Cocoa.—All the Cocoa is shipped to Europe or America a8 
soon as it is dried, as it will not keep in the moist, tropical climate of 
‘Trinidad. 


Increase in Production.—This seemed to be going on on all hands, 
although the drop in prices had slightly checked it. The increase is 
put down at between 5 and 6 per cent. per annum. A new railway 
will shortly be completed across the island, which will open up a large, 
fertile district, where there are several important plantations in process 
of formation. 


32 


Statistics of Cocoa Cultivation. 
(Sugar Commission Report. Vol. II. Appendix 282.) 


F - Mee): ¢ 
= Ps gd No. of Free- se 
a = rt ,jResidentsem-| ‘4, 
e 3 2S: ployed. = 
Me 4 i Ws Pees, Fis, 
Hstate. = & — 2 as A a) os a4 
re 2 a Og: & 2 
£ o Ps Bo: 3 - 
= Se Olli eee < 
3 B oe | o Bt i ee 
° > om 6 0: 6s H 3 
H < 'S) A: 2 oO © 
Acres.|Bags--165lbs.| £.s. d. 
Talparo woo} 394 650 149 6 Be 19 6 
Mount Pleasant .,.j 227 100 215 0 > +e 5: 
Montserrat seal OO 572 1 os 8 4 = 
San Leon Grande 
Salaried } 995.1. 600f bows yd fics aD RR PaO D reep 
La Compensacion 
Siac \ B71 | 1,287 112 0 | 83 | 16 | 14 
Mararaval + 
nee } 311 949 1.6.0) Se | Denese 
Esmeralda .--| 550 464 3 15-07 (15 19 34 | 100 
Adivinanza * * 
La Gloria \ 520 3507 fC is Fs 
Esperanza wes] 74d 349 re aye 30 * * 
La Descada 
La Regalada 600 940 a0 le 6/0 80 
San Rafael 
San Carlos | 564 300 Li Ga se 30 3 25 
Tierra Nueva. 
Gaia ne 900 1.13: 4 « | * | 42 
Torreeilla we| 849 — 400 a 13) 4 2\4 * 
Ortinola ...| 430 520 3 18 10 wo y 
Santa Estella | 649 807 1 AS Oe, 38 23 soe 
San Francique...| 200 150 3.0 0| 16 we =o * 
El Salvador s+} 357 | 1,600 2 5 0| 80 2/0 80 
VENEZUELA. 


General Remarks on the Cultivation of Cocoa in Venesuela. 


The Cocoa in Venezuela is cultivated on a narrow strip of land along: 
the northern coast. The interior of the country is high table-land, too 
high for the Cocoa to flourish. A small quantity 1s grown in the 
valley of the Orinoco, but, with this exception, and also that of 
Orinoco, where Cocoa is grown, the whole of the Venezuelan Cocoa 1s 
grown on a narrow strip of land, within 20 miles of the sea. ‘The 
main producing districts are the districts round Rio Chico and the 
Puerto Cabello— the peninsula of Paria. On the peninsula of Paria, the 
the Carupano, Guaira and Yrapa Cocoas are grown. After Carupano 


* No returns. t Young cultivations. 


33 


there is a little stretch of coast where Cocoa does not flourish, until we 
come to Carenaro, in which neighbourhood, the Rio Chico and Iguerote 
are grown. All the best Caracas Cocoa comes from the country, west 
of La Guaira—in fact, the further west you go, the better the Cocoa 
becomes : the best of all coming from the two adjacent valleys, in which 
the town of Ocumare and Choroni are situated, the Chuao estate being 
situated in the latter valley. Each valley appears to have a slightly 
different growth of Cocoa. 

Varieties of Cocoa Grown.—The two varieties of Cocoa grown in 
Venezuela are, the Criollo and the Forastero, the Forastero Cocoa being 
planted and grown on the Paria peninsula and probably in the neigh- 
bourhood of Rio Chico, whilst the true Criollo Cocoa is grown in the 
Ocumare and Choroni valleys, and in the neighbourhood of Porto 
Cabello. Probably some of the commoner kinds of Porto Cabello Cocoa 
come from the Forastero variety of tree, which has been planted in the 
neighbourhood. 

The value of the Cocoa.—The value of the Caracas depends upon the 
variety of the tree from which the beans are gathered, and the quality 
of the soil upon which the Cocoa is grown. ‘There appears to be no 
doubt whatever, that the very best kinds of Caracas Cocoa can only 
be grown on the best soils, and the best soils which have been found 
hitherto have been those of the Ocumare and Choroni valleys. 

Arrangement of an Estate—The estates we saw were arranged exactly 
as in Trinidad, the trees being planted about 12 or 15 feet apart, in 
dows and shaded by the Immortelles. 


Kind of Soil.—The soil around Porto Cabello, we noticed, was of a 
rich red colour. The sand which was used to cover the Cocoa at 
Ocumare comes from the Choroni Valley, from whence they get it on 
account of its red colour. 

Work on an Estate-—Appeared to be the same as in Trinidad. The 
labourers employed, were the native peons. There seemed to be very 
few negroes in Venezuela, the bulk of the labourers being peons with 
Spanish blood in their veins. 


Wages.—-One man told us, at Ocumare, that he paid 90 cents for hav- 
ing 6 fanegas of Cocoa guthered and cured. We did not learn what the 
rate of wages were, but were told that they were high as labour is scarce. 

Gathering Cocoa.—The same as in Trinidad. 

Breaking Cocoa.—The same as in Trinidad, except, at Ocumare, we 
noticed they cut open the pods lengthwise, instead of across, as in 
Trinidad. 

Sweat Beans.—Those on some estates had been made on the Trinidad 
model with cement. Elsewhere the Cocoa seemed to be thrown into a 
wooden box upon banana leaves, the box being placed ia some outhouse. 

Fermentation.—The owner of one estate said, he fermented one day 
only. Another said he fermented his Cocoa three or four days. 

Drying Cocoa.—The old method of drying Cocoa in Venezuela is to 
spread the beans out in a large, open, courtyard paved with tiles. 
These courtyards are placed in front of the hacienda and have a low 
wall running round the three sides. They slope towards the centre, 
where there is a drain. If the weather be wet, the Cocoa has to be 


34 


gathered up and taken inside, as there is no roof to put over it in case 
of rain, as in Trinidad. Just before the Cocoa is dry, it is rubbed over 
with red sand, which has been previously sifted. It is thought the 
sand helped to keep out insects. It alse possibly hardens the shell and 
pr vents breakage, and, of course. it also gives the Cocoa a more even, 
and better appearance. All the Venezuela Cocoa is dried again at the 
port before shipment. It takes three or four days to dry on the 
hacienda. At Carupano in the courtyard behind a planter’s house, 
were a great many large wooden trays in which the Cocoa was spread, 
exposed to the sun. These trays were made to run on lines, and were 
pushed under sheds, which were ranged round the courtyard, at night 
‘time, and when i! rained. At La Guaira, Cocoa was drying upon the 
roof of a warehouse. This seemed to be the method adopted there 


Picking and Storing.—This was done by means of a Pernollet ma- 
chine on one estate at Ocumare, but probably this was an exception. 


Dratning.—This was well looked after ut Ocumare, all the estates we 
saw, being drained. 


Time of Crop.—Corresponds with the Trinidad crop. 


Yield of Trees.— We were told by the owner of an estate at Ocu- 
mare, that the trees yield from one to two pounds each, and again, we 
were told that they averaged one pound each. 


Size of Estates —A planter had amalgamated nine or ten estates at 
Ocumare, and had an output of 2,500 bags of 110 lbs. each. There 
qwere some four or five more estates in the valley. | 


Value of Estates—The 9 or 10 estates mentioned above had cost 
£80,000. 


Cost of Production.This was difficult to get at, but in talking to a 
planter at Ocumare, we mentioned that they had told usin Trinidad 
that the cost was 8 dollars per cwt. This price, he said, struck him as 
excessive. 


Shipping Cocoa.—All the cocoa grown on the Paria peninsula is now 
shipped from Carupano, whilst . a Guaira only sends that grown round 
Rio Chico, and in the Valleys to the west of La Guaira. This does not 
include Maracaibo which ships direct. 


Increase in the Production of Cocoa.—The production of Cocoa in 
Venezuela was not extending. The district around Porto Cabello pro- 
duces about 7,000 bags and the best valley appeared to be well planted 
up, so that there is not much possible room for extension. 


General Remarks.—The system of cultivation and preparation in 
Venezuela is said to be very crude, and there was a great lack of 
system. There is no increase in production going on in the common 
kinds of Cocva, though there is plenty of land for this, owing to the 
lack of energy on the part of the people. There did not appear to be 
any reliable statistics on the production of Cocoa. 


The price of common Cocoa depends upon the price ruling, in other 
kinds, upon the European markets, whilst the price for the better kinds 
which cannot be got elsewhere, depends upon the quality produced in 
the one or two valleys where it is grown. 


30 


GRENADA. 

General Remarks on te Cultivation —The Island of Grenada 
used to have a large export of sugar, this has, however, been entirely 
given up and the old sugar lands have been largely planted with Cocoa. 
The Coco» has also replaced the original forests on many of the hill- 
sides of Grenada. 


The Island is very hilly throughout, the mountains rising direct from 
the sea. Communication is difficult as the roads have not been kept 
up, and there are only bridle paths across the Island. 

Varieties of Cocoa grown.—The trees are probably a cross between 
Calabacillo and Forastero, although the Forastero is largely predomi- 
nating 

The value of the Cocoa.—Our planter considered that this depended 
entirely on the sweating. Another said that the difference between 
Grenada and Trinidad Cocoa depended upon the soil and the kind of 
Cocoa used. 

Formation of an Estate-——The Estates in Grenada, as in Trinidad, 
have been formed mainly by contractors. At the current price of 
Grenada Cocoa we were told that a new Estate ought to pay in five or 

-slx years after planting. 

Ar: angement of an Estate.—The trees are planted as in Trinidad 
some ten or twelve feet apart, except that no shade trees are used. 

This is due to the hilly nature of the country, as the Cocoa trees are 
planted on the shady side of the valleys. The Cocoa trees, however, do 
not look so well as they do in Trinidad, the tips of the leaves are often 
shrivelled and brown with the sun. The trees are planted slightly 
closer together than in Trinidad, and are not so tall. The general impres- 
sion left upon us was, that the cultivation was not so good as in Trinidad. 

Kind of Soil.—A great many of the plantations in Grenada aré 
upou old, abandoned sugar estates, owing to the fact of all the land being 
under cu!tivation. The Cocoa in the valleys gives a better return than 
that upon the hill-sides. 

Work on an Estate—Very much the same as in Trinidad, except, as 
stated above not so much care is taken over the cultivation. We were 
told that no weeding was required. Labour employed is nearly all 
negro, as there are very few coolies in Grenada, they have not had any 
immigrants for some time past. 

utathering Cocoa and breaking Cocoa.—These operations are done in 
the same manner as in Trinidad. 

Sweat Boxes.—These are the same as in Trinidad, only, they are not 
so well made. Those on one estate were inside an old sugar-boiling 
house, about 5 feet square each. There was a row of them, arranged 
along the wall side. 

Fermentation.—The best Cocoa in Genada is fermented from seven to 
nine days, (the common Cocoa only three days) and turned over several 

times during the process. 

Drying Cocoa—The Boucans, as the drying sheds are called in 
Grenada, are somewhat differently arranged to those in Trinidad, inas- 
much as they have a set of drawers that run in on iron rails, underneath 
the drying shed itself. There are generally two sets of these drawers, 


36 


one below the other, which pull out on either side of the drying floor, 
thus one roof is able to protect nearly three times the drying area that 
a similar roof will do in Trinidad. It appeared to be a more economical 
and a better thought out system than that in use in Trinidad: 

The Boucan is often placed near a little village on the coast from 
whence the Cocoa is shipped, thus being able to serve two or three 
estates. The Boucan at Gouava dried the Cocoa from three estates. 
Best Grenada Cocoa, is ‘‘ danced” just before shipping. On one estate, 
we were informed, they used an artificial dryer. On another estate the 
manager had recently constructed one, on the principle of one they had 
in Ceylon.* The principle upon which it worked consisted in drawing 
hot air from a stove, over the Cocoa, which was spread out in traysin a 
small wooden house. He used a small Blackman Fan. He said this: 
had been very successful, and had saved him a considerable quantity 
of Cocoa, and many of his neighbours had wanted to dry their Cocoa 
in his dryer. When dried in the air, it took three or four days, de- 
pending, of course, on the weather. 


Picking and Sorting—We did not see any evidence of this being 
carried out in Grensda. 


Januring—There appeared to be no manure applied other than the 
small amount of stable manure that the estate happened to possess. 
One planter, however, collected as much as he could from the town of 
St. George’s, his estate being a little way off, and he obtained his very 
high yield of Cocoa from the high manuring which he practised. 


Pruning.—It was said this should be done every three or four years. 
Zime of Crop.—This is the same as in Trinidad. 


| Yield of Trees.—One planter said that he obtained five bags per acre 
of 500 trees. Another considered that an average yield would be four 
or five bags per acre. 3 
Another said that four bags per acre was an average yield ; although 
this might be increased by manuring, the truth of which was illustrated 
by the fact, that one owner obtained eight bags per acre on his small 
estate. 


Value of Estates.—A planter said, at the price then current, an un- 
encumbered estate paid, in Grenada, but it did not pay to plant a new 
estute. He put the cost of Cocoa in Grenada without reckoning in- 
terest and managing expenses at 2Us. to 25s. per bag of 125 lbs. He 
said, an estate purchased at £40 or £50 per acre ought to pay a clear 
15 per cent. Another said it still pays to plant Cocoa in the valleys, and 
an estate ought to yield 10 to 15 per cent. after the managing expenses 
had been paid. 

Increase of production of Cocoa in Grenada. Estates are still beng 
. added to, by further planting, but no new ones are being formed. Ac- 
cording to one planter, the Island was capable of doubling its produc- 
tion of Cocoa. Another said that the increase in the next few years- 
might be 1,000 bags a year. This was not as greut as it might be, ow- 
ing to the fact that some of the hill cultivation was being allowed to- 
deteriorate, as this did not pay. 


e'? Se ORS D2 1) AE) ae Ne SE 
* For description of this drying house, see Bulletin, Old Series, Nos. 41 and 48. - 


37 
RUBBER, 


Tue following letter has been communicated by the Seoretary of 
State for the Colonies :— 

The Director of Royal Gardens, Kew, to Colonial Office. 
Royal Gardens, Kew, December 20th, 1897. 
Sir, 

I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of No- 
vember 30th, enclosing for observations Ceylon Sessional Paper XXIII 
of 1897 on the cultivation of Kubber-producing trees. 

2. It appears from this that a number approaching a quarter of a 
million rubber-trees of various ages are under cultivation on private 
estates in Ceylon. This represents an area of about 750 acres. In 
addition 85 acres have been planted by the Conservator of Forests. 

8. Data are still wanting as to whether the enterprise will be suffi- 
ciently profitable. Rubber-planting appears to require from 8 to 11 
years before it yields any return. It is therefore obviously unsuited 
to small proprietors. On the other hand, if it pays at all, it may well 
receive some attention on large estates and at the hands of a Govern- 
ment Forest Department. 

4. The actual amount of land in most of our tropical Colonies suit- 
able for Para Rubber is probably not large. As suggested in my let- 
ter of September 6th it is likely to be most successful in the Straits 
Settlement. Through the instrumentality of Kew the Para Rubber 
tree was introduced into Perak. Sir Hugh Low reported in 1879 :— 
‘“‘They take to the country immensely.” It is understood that these 
trees have been successfully tapped. It would be extremely useful to 
have an official report upon the present result of Sir Hugh Low’s ex- 
periment. 

5. Dr. Morris is of opinion that in the West Indies “ where banana 
cultivation can be carried on rubber trees might afford a useful subsi- 
diary crop.” It has been estimated that trees planted 10 feet apart at 
1l years would yield 6 oz. of rubber. This would give a gross return 
of £22 10s. Od. per acre. For this purpose Castilloa would be per- 
haps,more suitable than the Para Rubber tree.* 

I am, &c., 
. W. T. THistLetTon-DyYeEr. 
©. P. Lucas, Esq., 
Colonial Office, Downing Street, S.W. 


NOTE ON CEARA RUBBER. 
By 8. T. Scuarscumipt, A.M.L.C.E. 


In the Bulletin for October and November, 1897, I observe the arti- 
cle on “ Ceara Rubber.” In May, 1887, I put in 6 plants which I got 
from your Department at Hanbury; the largest is now 25 feet high 
and 10 inches girth at 4 feet from the ground. It is only this year, 
and in this month December, that I find the rubber begins to assume 


* For information on Rubber, consult Bulletin 1894 (page 99), 1895 (page 31), 
1897 (pages 80, 242). 


38 


fairly good properties. The rubber was collected in the following 
manner :—The epidermis was taken off the bark so as to give a clean 
smooth surface. The bark was then scarred with a sharp knife some- 
what spirally, the incisions being about 234 inches apart. The milk 
exuded rapidly, «nd after ullowing it to rest till bleeding ceased, that is 
for about 5 minutes, I rubbed the open hands up and down and round 
about the surface of the bark under treatment. The milk readily ad- 
hered to the hands, and coagulated rapidly. I send you a small sam- 
ple of the rubber so obtained. There is a good crop of seeds now on 
the trees. Hanbury is 1,550 feet above sea level; the average annual 
rainfall is 99 inches. 


WAX PALMS OF THE ANDES. 


CEROXYLON ANDICOLUM, Humb. & Bonpl. 


Ceroxylon andicolum, the Wax Palm of the Andes, was first made 
known and described, says the Treasury of Botany, by the celebrated 
travellers Humboldt and Bonpland, who found it growing in great 
abundance in very elevated regions on the chain of mountains separa'- 
ing the courses of the rivers Magdalena and Cauca, in New Grenada, 
extending almost as high as the lower limit of perpetual snow, which 
is a remarkable fact when it is remembered that the generality of the 

alm tribe luxuriate in tropical climates. It has a straight trunk of 
great height, and about a foot in diameter, cylindrical for the first half 
of its height, after which it swells out, but again contracts to its original 
dimension at the summit; but the most singular feature connected with 
the trunk is the circumstance of its being covered with a thin coating of a 
whitish waxy substance which gives it a curious marble-like appearance 
It is surmounted by a tuft consisting of from six to eight handsome 
pinnate leaves, each of which is about twenty feet long, and has a 
strong thick footstalk, the base of which spreads out and clasps round 
the trunk, leaving a circular scar when it falls away ; the leaflets are 
densely covered on the under side with a beautiful silvery scurf, while 
the upper side is of adeep green colour. The waxy substance of the 
trunk forms an article of commerce amongst the inhabitants of New 
Grenada. It is obtained by cutting down the tree and scraping it with 
a blunt implement, each tree yielding about twenty-five pounds. 
According to the analysis of Vauquelin, it consists of two parts of resin 
and one of wax, und is therefore of too inflammable a nature to be used by 
itself; but by mixing it with one-third part oftallow, very good candles 
for ordinary purposes are manufactured from it. The candles used by 
the inhabitants for offerings to the Saints and Virgin are, however, 
made without any such mixture; but on account of their resinous 
nature the priests will not allow them to be used for the high 
ceremonies of the Romish Church. The wood is very hard towards the 
exterior, and is commonly employed for building purposes; and the 
leaves are used for thatching. 


The following interesting letter has lately been received by the Di- 
rector from Mr. Robert B. White from Cauca, in Colombia :— 


39 


I forwarded you by sample post a few seeds of what I believe to be~ 
an interesting variety of Ceroxylon andicolum. This palm as you’ 
know is found in the Central Andes. Its inferior limit is 7,000 feet 
with a mean temp. of 60° but it is most abundant at 8,00 to 9,000 feet 
with a temp. of 55° to 57°. The palm I send you is found in the 
Western Andes, 60 miles South of Cali, in the Valley of Cajamarca on 
the Pacific watershed. It is most abundant at 5,500 feet in a mean 
temp. of 61 to 68°. Good sugar cane grows alongside of it. ‘lhe 
flowers, fruit, etc., are similar to those of andicolum but the tree is 
very distinct. It has no base of fasciculated rootlets, as andicolum 
has, but springs clear from the ground. The stem is slighter, not so 
tall as andicolum and I should say that 150 feet is the average. ‘Lhe 
leaves are 20—25 feet long but much slighter and lighter than 
andicolum and there is much less silvery scurf on the under side of 
the pinne. These, whilst the leaf is not fully grown and hardened, are 
joined together at the points by a slender thread like some Attaleas 
and Sabal and [ have not noticed this peculiarity in andicolum. The 
wax which coats the stem is as abundant as in andicolum, but seems to 
be different in composition. It has an agreeable smell when rubbed or 
when burned, which the wax of andicolum has not, and it is more 
brittle, which would seem to indicate a larger proportion of resin. At 
Kew this will be investigated, and I only send you a small sample for 
you to see what it is like. If you would like more, I shall have plea- 
sure in sending you some. 


This palm is evidently more easy to acclimatize than andicolum and 
it may be of yet greater value if the wax turns out to have other pro- 
perties. 


I should mention that the farinaceous pulp within the rind covering 
the seeds is slightly bitter, and appears to be more abundant than on 
audicolum. Pigs however eat the whole fruit with the same relish as 
they do that of andicolum and it fattens them famously. 


The palms here flower twice in the year, but supposing that they 
only flower once, they will bear about 16 arrobas (400 lbs.) of fruit. 
When maize is worth 20 cents. the arroba, or 80 ceuts. per 100 !bs., 
the annual value of a wax palm for fattening hogs is $3.20. ‘Lhe 
palms may be climbed just as they climb cocoanuts, and the wax 
scruped off. Here they cut down the palms, and each one yields from 
15 to 25 lbs of wax. 


Tallow candles made with a mixture of 10 per cent. of this wax give 
a good light, and are as hard as ordinary wax candles, but the wax of 
andicolum gives a disagreable smell to the smoke, which will not be 
the case of the wax of the Cajamarca variety is employed. 


I think it is likely that the prehistoric aborigines may have accli- 
matized the original palm in the Western Cordillera, and that it may 
be fairly named Ceroxylon andicolum var. occidentale. 


40 
OKA OF PERU. 


OXALIS CRENATA, Jacq. 


Kew Gardens to Public Gardens, Jamaica. 
Dear Sir, 

I am sending you a few tubers of Ozalis crenata, the “Oka” of the 
‘Peruvians, which is worth a trial as a vegetable for table. The tubers 
should be planted like the potato. New tubers are formed at the end 
of the season and under favourable conditions they are 38 inches long 
and weigh 2 ounces. When lifted, they should be exposed to sunlight 
for two or three days. To cook them boil for 20 minutes in water 
containing a pinch of carbonate of soda; they change to a bright am- 
ber colour, and if eaten with pepper aud salt they are palatable and of 
pleasant flavour. 

Yours faithfully, 
W. T. TuistLeton-DyeEr. 


The Treasury of Botany states that it is largely cultivated about 
Lima for its very acid leafstalks. 


The following seeds have also been received from Kew :— 

HReterospathe elata, Scheff (a palm from Amboina). 

Pitcairnia ferruginea, Ruiz & Pav., one of the Bromeliacez or wild 
Pines. The flowering scape is 5 or 6 feet long, and ftowers 5 inches - 
long, greenish-white. It is a native of Peru. 


COCCIDA, OR SCALE INSECTS.—XII. 
By T. D. A. CocxEre tt, Entomologist of the New Mexico 
Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Genus Aspidiotus. (Continued). 


(75.) Aspidiotus articulatus—Morgan. (The West Indian Red 

Scale). 

Diagnosis—A small flat scale, about the size of a pin’s head, deep 
orange in the middle and whitish round the sides, circular in out- 
line. On lifting up the scale with the point of a pin or knife, the 
orange-coloured insect is seen beneath, and with a hand lens it is 
easily observed to be deeply constricted between the thorax and 
the abdomen. 

Distribution—Very abundant in Jamaica. Also found in Nevis. 
Barbados, Demerara, Trinidad, Mexico, and Lagos, W. Africa, 
It is quite possible that it is really a native of Africa, which has 
been introduced into the West Indies. Maskell has described a 
variety (A articulatus var. celastri) from the Cape of Good Hope. ~ 


Food-plants.—It is abundant on palms, but also infects many other 
plants, including grape-vine, lime, orange, Paneratium (or 
Hymenocallis) caribaeum, lignum-vite, olive, Tabernemontana 
coronaria, violet, rose, star-apple, guava, Lawsonia alba, pome- 
granate, Anacardium occidentale, mango, akee, genip, Apetba, 
Hibiscus, Bignonta maanitfica, Persea, &e. 


41 


Destructiveness.—This is a decidedly pernicious species, especially on 
palms and citrus trees. It is not yet universally distributed in the 
West Indies, and care should be taken to prevent its introduction 
into new localities. 


(76). Aspidiotus aurantit Maskell_—(The Californian Red Scale). 


Diagnosis.—The scale closely resembles the last, but there is a sort of 
nipple-like prominence in the middle, and the insect itself does 
not show the deep constriction between the thorax and abdomen, 


Distribution.—Jamaica, Montserrat, California, Arizona, Australia, 
Hong Kong, Formosa, Japan, New Zealand, Fiji Is.. Sandwich Is. 
Samoa, Tonga, New Caledonia, Central America, Cuba, Ceylon, 
the Mediterranean Region, and, if I remember right, Lounsbury 
reports it from South Africa. 


Food-plants.— Usually this species is known as a destructive pest of 
Citrus trees, but as found in Jamaica, it never attacks Citrus, but 
occurs on lignum-vite principally. A. articulatus, which is very 
rarely found on lignum-vite, takes its place on Citrus. Other food- 
plants of A aurantii are Podocarpus (in Japan), coconut palm (in 

-Central America), Taxus (in Italy), tyave Americana (in Ceylon), 
rose, grape, &c., (in California). 


Variety.—A brownish-yellow variety has been named citrinus by 
Coquillett. It occurs in California and Japan. 


Enemies.—This scale has many natural enemies. In Australia it is 
attacked by a fungus, Wicrocera coceophita; which fungus, it may 
be remarked, also occurs in Jamaica, infesting A. articulatus. 
Mr. Koebele reports that several coccinallid beetles (Orcus 
chalybeus, O. australasie, Rhizobius satellus) prey upon A. aurantit 
in Australia. Dr. L. O. Howard reports six hymenopterous 
parasites from California, of which three (Coccophagus lunulatus, 
How., Aphelinus diaspidis, How., and Aphycus immaculatus How., 
infest typical aurantii ; and three others (Aspidiotiphagus citrinus, 
Craw., Prospalta aurantii; How., and Signiphora occidentalis 
How.,) the var. citrinus. 


Destructiveness.—When it occurs on Citrus trees, as in California and 
the eastern Mediterranean region, it is a first-class pest. In 
Jamaica it is not found in quantity, even on lignum-vite, and is 
of no economic importance. It is probable that if the Citrus-feed- 
ing form were introduced into the West Indies, it would be 
destructive as elsewhere. 


(77). Aspidiotus ficus, Ashmead. (The Red-spotted Scale). 


Diagnosis —A smal circular black or dark brown scale, witha central 
shining reddish or orange boss. 


Distribution—Common in Jamaica. Also found in Cuba, Hayti, 
Florida, Mexico, Australia, Ceylon, Japan, Egypt, Formosa, and 
In hothouses in various parts of the United States and. Europe. It 
seems not yet to occur in the lesser Antilles. 


Food-plants——Very various, including Ficus spp, Citrus . trees, 
Laurus virginiana, coconut palm, Oredowa regia, Curcuma longa 
Pandanus, Celogynecristata, jambolana, Myrtus Aillii, Castaneosper- 


42 


mum, camphor laurel, Atlanta buwifolia, rose, Machilus Thunbergii 
Quercus cuspidata, Garcinia Cambogia, Rhododendron arboreum, 
guava, Lonchocarpus Barteri, &e. 


Enemies.—The parasite Aspidiophagus citrinus has been bred from it 
by Prof. W. G. Johnson. 


Destructiveness—When abundant it may become troublesome, but it 
occurs scattered over the leaves and twigs, not massed like A. ar- 
ticulatus. It is, on the other hand, a much more conspicuous 
scale than articulatus. 


(78.) Aspidiotus destructor, Signoret. (The Bourbon Aspidiotus.) 


Diagnosis.—A very thin, flat, circular white or whitish scal>, with a 
very pale yellow central spot. 


Distribution—Abundant in Jamaica and Trinidad. Also found in 
Grenada, Barbados, Antigua, Porto Rico, Demerara, Bourbon, 
Marquesas Is., Laccadive Is., and Formosa. 

Food-plants.—Various palms, Ba-sia latifolia, guava, banana, mango, 
Terminalia Catappa, Pandanus, &ce. 

Distructiveness.—Its name was given on account of its destructive pro- 
pensities in Bourbon. More recently it has been complained of 
as a serious pest in the Marquesas Is., and it 1s quite troublesome 
in Trinidad. It is undoubtedly a native of the tropics of the old 
world. 

(79.) Aspidiotus hedere, Vallot, var. nerii, Bouché.—(The Oleander 

Aspidiotus.) 

Diagnosis.—Like destructor, but whiter, with the central spot smaller 
and of a pale orange tint. 

Distribution—In the West Indies known only from Grenada. Itisa 
very common scale in the Mediterranean region and other parts of 
Europe, as well as in the United States. It is also found in Chile 
and Mexico. While A. des/ructor is essentially a tropical insect, 
nerit belongs to the warmer parts of the temperate zone, and is 
rarely observed in the tropics. Maskell reports it from New Zea- 
land, Australia and the Sandwich Is. 


Food-plants.—Very numerous. In Grenada it was found on olive, 
elsewhere it occurs on Melia, currant, ivy, Acacia, cherry, lemon, 
maple, Yucca, plum, lilac, arbor-vite, Agave americana, Magnolia 
grandiflora, Quercus agrifolia, Arbutus Menziesvi, Solanum Douglasii, 
Aristea major, Clematis fammula, Spartium junceum, Calycotome 
spinosa, Ceratonia, Robinia pseudacacia, Crategus, Phillyrea me- 
dia, Antirrhinum majus, Stachys eircinata, Laurus nobilis, Smilaz 
aspera, &c. 


Varieties.—The species is commonly known as A. nerit, but it is only 
the more frequent form of the ivy scale, earlier named hedere. 
The form on lemons is known as var. dimonii, Signoret ; a form 
found on Ceratonia is var. ceratonie, Signoret ; a form on olive is 
var. villosus Targ. Tozz. 

E nemies.—The Rey. A. E. Eaton writes that in Algeria it is preyed 
upon by Chrysopa vulgaris and Coecinellide. Berlese has reared 
_Prospalta aurantii, Howard, from the Aedere form in Italy. 


43 


Destructiveness.—It is a troublesome pest where it abounds, but it is 
much too rare in the West Indies to be of economic importance. 


(80.) Aspidiotus personatus, Comstock. (The Masked Aspidiotus.) 


Diagnosis.—A very small, convex, dark grey or black scale, looking 
like some fungus,—especially the date-palm fungus, Graphiola 
phoenicis. 

Distribution.—Jamaica, Antigua, Cuba, Barbados, and Acapulco, 
Mexico. Also in Kew Gardens, under glass. 


Food-plants.—Areca rubra, Sabai, cocoa-nut palm, star-apple, roses 
guava, and a variety of other plants. 


Destructiveness.—Not usually very troublesome, but I have seen it 
abundant enough on the leaves of the olive to do serious injury. 


(81.) Aspidiotus dictyospermi, Morgan. (The Dictyospermum As- 
pidiotus.) 
Diagnosis.—A small flat greyish or reddish scale, very much like A. 
aurantit. The insect is known, under the microscope, by the pair 
of long serrated processes on each side of the hind legs. 


Distribution.—Demerara (typical form and var. arece), Jamaica (var. 
jamaicensis), Hong Kong (a slight variety), Ceylon (collected by 
Mr. EK. E. Green), Trinidad (colleeted by Mr. J. H. Hart), and oc- 
casionally in hothouses in the United States. 


Food-plants.—Areca catechu, Dictyospermum album, Erythrina indica, 
&e. The var. jamaicensis on Cycas and rose. 


Varieties.—It appears to be quite a variable species. The var. areca, 
Newstead, is from Demerara; var. jamaicensis, Ckll., occurs in Ja- 
maica. Aspidiotus minor, Berlese, on Pandanus in culttvation in 
Italy, is apparently a form of the species. A. mangifere, Ckll, 
found on leaves of mango in Kingston, Jamaica, is perhaps a dis- 
tinct species, but I decidedly incline to the opinion that it is but 
a variety of dictyospermi. A description of it may be found in 
Journ. Inst. Jamaica, vol. 1, p. 255. 


(82.) Aspidiotus rapax, Comstock. (The Greedy Aspidiotus.) 


Diagnosis.—A small, convex yellowish-grey scale, with a dark brown 
or black spot somewhat to one side. The scales commonly occur 
along the sides of the midrib of leaves. 


Distribution.—Jamaica, not frequent. Also in Antigua, Ceylon. Amoy 
(China), New Zealand, and the southern part of Europe and the 
United States. The Rev. A. E. Eaton found it in Algeria, and 
Dr. Grabham sent me specimens from Madeira. 


Food-plants.—Very various; Casuarina, Stillingia sebifera, Huonymus 
japonicus, Cercis siliquastrum, myrtle, Fuchsia, Pittosporum, 
guava, Camellia, olive, almond, quince, fig, willow, Eucalyptus, 
Acacia, &e., &e. 

Destructiveness.——Ilt is a destructive insect, but not common enough 
in the West Indies to do any appreciable damage. Mr. Green says 
it is a rather serious pest on tea in Ceylon, and he has seen a young 


Cinchona killed by it. 


44 


Note.—This insect is frequently called Aspidiotus camellie, a name 

which was applied to it in error by Signoret. 
(83). Aspidiotus punice, Ckll. (The pomegranate Aspidiotus). 
Diagnosis—A small white scale, with a small shining orange-brown 
boss. The scale is rather like rapaz, but not so convex, and of a 
different colour. 

Distribution.—Jamaica, Dominica, Brazil, and in a hothouse in Wash- 
ington, U.S.A. 

: Food-plants.—Originally found on pomegranate, but more frequently 
observed on palms. 

Destructiveness.—It would be destructive if abundant. 

(84.) Aspidiotus diffinis—Newstead var. lateralis, Ckll. 

This a scale found on Jasminum in Jamaica, whieh may prove to be 
only a variety of punice. The scale is convex, brownish-white to 
brown. The typical diffinis is from Demerara. 

(85). Aspidiotus bowreyi, Ckll. (Bowrey’s Aspidiotus). 
Diagnosis—Small elongate gray scales, with a blackish spot towards 
one end. 

Distribution.—Only known from Hope, Jamaica, where it was discovered 
by Mr. Bowrey. 

Food-plant.—Agave rigida. 

Destructiveness—The scales occur crowded on the plant, and must be 
harmful. 

This ends the series of West Indian Coccide, except a few species dis- 
covered since the genera they belong to were discussed, which will be 
described in a supplementary article. ; 


FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—L. 


Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja- 
maica. By G. S. Jenman, Superintendent Botanical Garden, 
Demerara. 


7. Acrostichum chartaceum, Baker.—Root-stock shortly repent or 
erect, freely clothed with bright dark-brown or castaneous palez ; 
stipites tufted or sub tufted, erect, 2-6 in. l. bearing at first a few 
scattered brown scales; fronds linear-lanceolate, acuminate, much 
tapered at the base, 4-1} ft. 1. 1-2 m. w., chartaceous or sub-coriaceous, 
naked or sprinkled with minute punctiform brown scales over the 
paler under surface, the upper a glossy dark, rather metallic green ; 
rachis distinct on both sides, slightly channelled above ; veins usually 
evident on the surface, 1-3 times dichotomously forked, #-1 li. apart ; 
fertile fronds narrower, as long or not, sometimes longer, on stipites 
of equal length with those of the barren or longer.—Journ. Bot. 1882, 

327. | 
a Very plentiful in forests at 5000-6000 ft. alt. on decaying logs and 
other substance on the ground. This was first ascribed to A. Sartorit, 
Lieb. from which it appears to be distinct. In shape of frond it re- 
sembles A. flaccidum, Fée, with which Jamaica specimens have before 


45 


been placed, but its larger size, much longer petioles and dark nearly 
metallic green colour and different habit quite distinguish it. The 
much tapered sides of the fronds often somewhat expand at the very 
base. Near the margin the veins occasionally and casually unite. 
From /atifolium it differs in texture, colour and shape. 


8. A pallidum, Baker. —Root-stock woody, very stout, cylindrical, 
elongated, densely clothed with loose, undulated, narrow, glossy, dark- 
coloured scales 4-4 in. 1.; stipites numerous, czspitose, rather slen- 
der, 5-10 in. 1, scaly at the base ; fronds pendent or spreading, oblong- 
lanceolate, 4-14 ft. 1. 14-24 in. w. the apex acuminate, the base round- 
ed, or in the smaller stutes cuneate ; coriaceous, but pellucid, naked, 
pale green, the margins repand, cartilaginous-edged ; veins forked, 4-1 
li. apart, the bases dark-coloured ; fertile fronds smaller, the same shape, 
on rather longer stipites.—Journ. Bot., 1879, p. 263. 


Abundant on open banks near the Government Cinchona Plantation 
at 5000 ft. alt. The rootstock is an inch thick, increasing in diameter 
as it elongates, erect or oblique (not at all repent) and densely clothed 
with linear crispate or undulate almost blackish scales, with the fronds 
czspitose at the apex. The fronds are as many as 1-2 dozen to a plant, 
though fewer also in numerous instances. The largest ones are sub- 
cordate at the base. The colour is unusually pale. 


9. A. conforme, Swartz—Root-stock short-creeping, rather woody, 
densely clothed with bright tawny scales; stipites approximate, 2-6 
in. l., straw coloured, nearly or quite naked except at the very base, 
narrowly margined at the top; fronds variable in size, 3-6 or more in. 
]. 2-1} in. w. lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, erect, acute-pointed, the 
base cuneate, very coriaceous and stiff, naked, pale green generally, 
the rachis raised beneath ; veins close simple and forked ; fertile fronds 
usually somewhat smaller, subrounded or less cuneate at the base, the 
stipites rather longer —Sw. Syn. t. 1. fig. 1. 


Common on decaying logs in forests and coffee plantations from 
2000 ft. alt.upwards ; much smaller and stiffer than latifolium, which 
in texture and shape it most nearly resembles. It varies in size with 
the position in which it is found; some specimens, which are fully fer- 
tile, from exposed situations are only 2 in. 1. in the fronds. 


10. A. latifolium, Swartz.—Root-stock usually short-creeping, woody, 
densely clothed with glossy bright or dark coloured scales; stipites 
few, contiguous or an inch or two apart, strong, 4-1 ft. 1, brown or 
stramineous, slightly channelled, naked except at the scaly base; fronds 
naked, very coriaceous, bright green, 1-2 ft. 1. 2-4 in. w., oblong- 
lanceolate, tapering equally at both ends, the margins thin, and rachis 
strong, and prominent beneath; veins very close, mostly forked from 
the base; fertile fronds smaller, more rounded at the base, the stipites 
as long or rather longer.—Pl. Fil. t. 135. A. longifolium, Jacq. A. 
alismifolium, Eat, 

a. var. A. crassinervum.—Fronds several, smaller, deeply and freely 
undulated. 

Plentiful in forests chiefly on decaying logs and trees from 1,000 ft. 
alt. upwards,but most abundant at the higher elevations. The habit of 
growth is erect or suberect, but not straight and strict as in its near 


46 
allies. This is the largest local species of the glabrous section, 
marked also by its long stipites. 


11. A. viscosum, Swartz.—Root-stock short-creeping, densely clothed 
with blackish very fine scales; stipites numerous, crowded, lateral on 
the root-stock, slender, 3-6 in. |. very finely scaly throughout, light or 
dark brown; fron(s linear-lanceolate, 4-1 ft. 1. 4-2 in w., acuminate or 
acute, the base tapering or cuneate, chartaceous or subcoriaceous, dark 
green, lighter beueath; both surfaces viscid, and sprinkled over with 
stellate minute scales, more densely clothed along the prominent dark- 
brown midrib beneath ; veins simple aud forked; fertile fronds nar- 
rower, on lorger stipites—Pl. Fil. t. 129. (Very artificial.) Hook. 
and Grey. Icon. Fil. t. 64. 


Very plentiful on open banks at 5,000 ft. altitude. The stipites 
arise obliquely from the root-stock, along the upper side of which they 
are confined, and are densely crowded. Those of the barren fronds 
are a darker brown and only half the length of those of the fertile. 
The surface is very glandulose and viscid,.and the scattered minute 
lacerate or stellate scales are grayish. Those down the midrib are 
denser. It differs from Huacsaro by the shorter, rather broader, more 
lanceolate than ligulate acuminate, stellate scales, more glandulose 
surface, as well as in the characters of the root-stock above described. 


12. A. Huacsaro, Ruiz.—Root-stock elongated, clothed with small 
black scales, and quite enclosed by the splint-like bases of the nume- 
rous stipites; stipites slender, long-curved at the base, #-1 ft. 1. light 
or dark brown, channelled, more or less furnished throughout with 
minute scales; fronds numerous, linear-ligulate, obtuse at the apex, 
much tapering at the base, $-2th in. w. 3-1 ft. 1., subcoriaceous, more 
or less furnished with minute scales, chiefly along the rachis and thin 
slightly reflexed margins beneath, glandulose, very dark, blackish- 
brown, the underside lighter; the rachis prominent; veins obscure, 
close, simple or forked; fertile fronds conform, but the stipites usually 
longer.—A. Calagula, Kl. A. Ruizianum, Moore. 


Common on open banks at 5000 ft. altitude, especially abundant on 
the sides of the tender, crumbling wayside banks near the Government 
Cinchona Plantations; distinguished from the next species by the 
longer more numerous ligulate fronds, longer stipites, different scales, 
and peculiar form of the root-stock. The latter though decumbent is 
not repent, and the fronds spring from all sides of it. It is much 
elongated, reaching a span or more long, slender and densely clothed 
with small black scales; the stipites are very numerous, and run, ap- 
pressed, parallel to it like splints, completely enclosing, and in the 
outer part concealing it. 


13. A. tectum, Wild.—Rootstock short-creeping, densely clothed with 
rather squarrose subulate black glossy scales; stipites rather slender, 
close, 4-8 in. 1. meally looking with pale dark-centred appressed scales ; 
fronds 2-11 ft. 1. $-14 in. w, acuminate with a fine point, tapering 
likewise to the base, coriaceous; grayish-green, upper surface clothed 
with deciduous thin gray slightly fimbriate-edged much appressed peltate 
scales, the under sprinkled over with minute brown stellate ones 
margins thin and somewhat reflexed, rachis raised beneath and clothed 


47 


like the stipites ; veins obscure, very close, forked and simple; fertile 
fronds 4rd in. w., on much longer stipites.— A. rubiginosum, Fée. 


Common on open banks from 38,000-5,000 ft. alt. The scales of the 
upperside are a pale silvery gray, fine and lightly fimbriate-edged but 
not stellate, eventually deciduous leaving the surface nearly bare. 
Those beneath form very minute scattered stellate reddish-brown cilie, 
smaller than in any of its allies which also are more or less deciduous. 
When naked, though larger and firmer, the species most resembles 
viscosum. 


14. A. auricomum, Kunze —Rootstock very shortly repent, densely 
clothed with bright dark-brown  ciliate-edged scales; _ stipites 
tufted or sub-tufted, several, 14-2} in. or more l., freely clothed with 
spreading, very ciliate, ferruginous scales ; fronds pendent, 4-1 ft. 1.4 
-l in. w. tapering both ways nearly equally, the apex acuminate or 
acute, even or repand margined, thin, membrano-chartaceous, rusty 
green, both surfaces sprinkled with dark-brown long-ciliated minute 
scales, those on the upperside reduced to stellate hairs ; rachis slender, 
clothed like the stems; veins simple and forked, #~—1 li. apart ; fertile 
fronds smaller, on rather longer stipites.— A. acwminans, Feée. 

Infrequent on the sides of rocks in open or shaded situations at 2,000- 
3,000 ft. alt.; gathered in the coffee fields above Mount Moses, St. 
Andrew. As locally represented this is a smaller species than the 
next, of thinner texture, and much less and finer vestiture. In vestiture 
the Guiana specimens quite agree, but they are larger. The species is 
however very variable in size. 


ee ee ee 


CONTRIBUTIONS AND ADDITIONS. 


LIBRARY. 


Bulletin R. Gard. Kew. Nov.1897. App. I &I1I, 1898. (Director. ] 
Bot. Mag. Feb. 1898. [Purchased. ] 

Trop. Agriculturist Nov. & Dec.1897. Jan. 1898. [Purchased.] 

Sugar Cane. Feb. 1898. [Editor. ] 

Pharm. Journal Jan. & Feb. 1898. 

W.1. & Com. Advertiser. Feb. 1898. [Editor. ] 

Chemist & Druggist. Jan. & Feb. 1898. [Editor.] 

Quarterly Record, Roy. Bot. Soc., London. July—Dec. 1897. [Secretary. ] 
Produce World. Jan. & Feb. 1898. [Editor.] 

Botanical Gazette. Feb. 1898. [Editor.] 

British Trade Journal. Feb., 1898. [Editor.] 

Agr. Ledger. Nos. 9-11-13. 1617.1897. [Supt. Govt. Print. Calcutta. ] 
Gardener’s Chronicle. Feb, 1898. [ Purchased. | 

Agr. Gazette, N.S. Wales. Dec. 1897. [Dept. of Agr.] 

Sugar Journal. Dec. 1897. [Editor. | 

Agr. Journ. Cape of Good Hope. Jan. 1898. [Dep. of Agr.] 

Central African Times. Jan. 1898. [Editor.] 

Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club. Feb. 1898. [Editor.] 

American Journ. of Pharm. Feb. 1898. [Editor.] 

Farmers Bulletin U.S. Dept. of Agr. [Secretary.] 

New Natal Plants Jour. I & II. extr. Joura. Bot. 1897. By J. W. Wood [Author]. 
Exp. Station Record. . [Director.] 

Kelectic Medical Journ. Aug. 1897. -[Editor.] 

Queensland Agr. Journ. Jan. 1898. [Director.] 

Times of Ceylon. Jan. & Feb. 1898. [Editor.] 


48 


Montreal Pharm. Journ. Feb., March 1598. [Editor. ] 

Nature. Feb. 1898. [Purchased. ] 

Bulletin New York Botanical Garden. Jan. 1898. [ Director. ] 

Publications Univ. of Pennsylvania. [Secretary. 

Journ. Roy. Agr. & Com. Soc., British Guiana. Dec. 1897. [Secretary.] 

Bulletin U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1897. [U.S. Dept. of Agr.] 

Journ. Botany. Feb. 189%. [ Purchased. ] 

Hawaiian Planters Monthly. Jan. 1898. [Editor. ] 

Sucrerie Indigene et Coloniale. Jan. & Feb. 1898. [Editor.[ 

Ziekten van het Suikerriet op Java. By Wakker & Went. [Authors.] 

Der Tropenpflanzer. Feb. 1898. [Editor. ] 

Biographische Skizzen. V. By Prof. Urban. [Author.] 

Bulletin de L’Herbier Boissier. Jan.1898. [Conservateur.| 

Garden. Feb. 1898. [Purchased. | 

Journ. Jamaica Agr. Soc. Feb. 1898. [Secretary. | 

Bulletin Koloniaal Museum. 1897. [ Director. | 

Bulletin Bot. Gards. & Museums, Be lin. Dec. 1897, Feb. 1898. [Director.] 

Observations on some West Amer. Thermal Algae. Extr. Bot. Gaz. Josephine 
E. Tilden. [Author | 

Movements of Protoplasm in Coeaocytic Hyphae By J.C.Arthur. Exir. 
Amn. Bot. [Author. ] 

Reports, Bulletins and Records have been received from the following Agri- 
cultural Experiment Stations, U.S A. :— 

Vermont, Texas, Arizona, Virginia, New Hampshire, California, Idaho, Ne- 
braska, Georgia, Utah, Maryland, Kingston, t.I., Kansas, Utah, Wyoming, Ver- 
mont, Amherst, Mass., Oregon, Alabama, Arkansas, New Jersey, Rhode Island, 
New York, Storrs, Conn., 


SEEDS. 
From Dr. D. Merris, C.M.G., Kew. From Botanic Station, Lagos. 
Eucalyptus Lehmanni Lenchocarpus cyanescens 
KF. cornuta From Rev. Wm. Griffith, Kingston. 
Citrus Bergamia ' Phytelephas macrocarpa—the lvory Nut 
From Botanic Gardens, Singapore. Palm 


Cycas Rumphii 
MuszumM SPECIMEN. 


From Dr. Plaxton, Kingston. 
Wood of Pithecolobium Saman. 


{Issued 30th June, 1898. | 


. Ay F apd 4 # Any 
Temi ae: yi 
af o 4 hy ; abd 


New Series.] _ 7 MARCH, 1898. Vol. V. 
B Part 3. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


| BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA. 


OO - 


EDITED BY 


WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS. 


Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. 


CONTENTS: 


. Agricultural Chemistry of Cocoa PAGE 49 
_ Elementary Notes on Jamaica Plants.—II. 67 
Contributions and Additions CBO aG 


P RIC E-—Threepence. 


A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and 
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. 


KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
GOVERNMENT Printing Orrice, 79 Duke STREBT. 


1898. 


JAMAICA. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


Vol. V. 


New Series. | MARCH, 1898. a Sa aeme 


THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF COCOA. 


Extract from Report on the Agricultural Workin the Botanic Gardens 
of British Guiana for the years 1893-4-5. By G. S. Jenman, Govt: 
Botanist, and J. B. Harrison, Govt. Analyst. 


Our attention has been directed to the little that is known, or at any 
rate published in a readily available form, about the agricultural re- 
quirements of this important crop. We have, therefore, devoted some 
time to the study of the chemical constituents and requirements of the 
Cocoa, and to that of the changes in composition which take place during 
the fermentation and curing of the beans. 


The composition of the different parts of the cocoa tree has been 
treated upon by Marcano of Venezuela (a), and in part by Boname, late 
of Guadeloupe, now of Mauritius (6). Our opportunities for studying 
the requirements of the plant as represented by the composition of the 
mature trees themselves being very limited, we prefer to accept for our 
guidance in this colony the results given by Marcano. This authority 
estimates that a cocoa tree twenty years old is made up of— 


Trunk BEE ae oon 49°65 
Large branches... coe ina eee 
Medium branches ... cas a & 
Small shoots be acu ee YG 
Leaves coe eee we «= G4 
100:0 


and that a plantation of trees of this age growing on one acre will con- 
tain— 


Nitrogen aa coe 201 lbs 
Phosphoric anhydride son os Sa 
Potash een ses 251 “ 
Lime tot ast 400 « 
Magnesia aes vee iit; « 


@ Essais d’Agronomie Tropicale, V, Marcano, 
La culture de la canne 4 sucre 4 la Guadeloupe. Ph. Boname. 


50 


whilst the so-called suckers and other young shoots trimmed annu illy 
from the trees contain* 


Nitrogen ste oes 84 lbs 
Phosphoric anhydride ces 42 = 
Potash sky —s 42 6 
Lime cos eee 66 “ 
Magnesia 4 ; aon 20 « 


These together with the leaves which he states contain—' 


Nitrogen = oes 39 ‘Ibs. 
Phosphoric anhydride one ib¢ 
Potash see vos a0 i 
Lime eee oes 32 
Magnesia eee 10: 3 


are practically in all cases yearly returned to the soil. 


The fruit, of which the husks may or may not be returned to the soil: 
according as to whether the pods are or are not broken on the field, are 
estimated to remove as follows: 


If whole fruit re- If the pods are 
moved from the _ broken and left in 


field. the field. 
Nitrogen eos oo 15°5 8:7 lbs. 
Phosphoric anhydride Coe Vo 4:5 3 
Potash im 22°1 gy eRe 
Lime a ae 6°5 1 ee 
Magnesia aa ose 2°0 io Pe 


From these figures it appears that the cocoa tree whilst stor- 
ing up in the plant itself relatively large proportions of the important 
elements of plant food present in the soil, requires for the yearly pro- 
duction of young shoots, leaves and fruit not less than 138 lbs. of nitro- 
gen, 64 lbsof phosphoric anhydride, 94lbs. of potash, 104 lbs. of lime 
and 31 lbs. of magnesia. Under careful conditions of agricultural prac- 
tice, however, of this great annual drain upon the soil but 8°7 lbs of nitro- 
gen, 4°5 lbs. of phosphoric anhydride, 3°7 lbs potash, 1°4 lbs of lime and 
1 lb. of magnesia are necessarily removed from it, the remainder becom- 
ing more or less available again for plant food by the decomposition of 
the fallen leaves, prunings and husks upon the land. Of the, in round 
numbers, 130 lbs. of nitrogen returned to the soil a considerable propor- 
tion, possibly 20 to 30 per cent. may be lost during the decomposition 
of the vegetable matter, but where the trees are shaded by the nitrogen 
collecting Bois Immortel or Oronoque tree (Erythrina velutina and K. 
umbrosa which are used on the islands, or E. glauca which is used in 
Guiana) doubtless much of the amount thus lost is recouped to the soil. 


Hence, from these considerations, we are led to the conclusion that a: 
good cocoa soil should be one capable of yielding to the tree in the course 
of years a somewhat high proportion of the important constituents of 
plant food without exhaustion, and also capable of rapidly rendering 
again available the large quantities of manurial matter returned to it in 
the forms of prunings, leaves fallen and broken pods. It must in addi- 
tion be one in which the course of nitrification readily take place: in- 
other words, a fairly rich friable and well drained soil. 


Sooo 


*This estimate appears to us from our somewhat limited experience as excessive. 


51 


The following are types of good cocoa soils recently examined in the 
Government Laboratory :— 


Grenada. 


Demerara. 
St. Vincen 
Trinidad. 


No. 1.| No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4. 


| Nicaragua 


es ee | en | 


ou 8 ic matters & com- 
: phic water ...| 9°031| 7°644| 10°442} 10°993) 9°688) 3°046) 3°768) 10°815 


*058 .114 *084 *293. 
027 .055| traces. *141 


Phosphoric anhydride...) °087) + °082}.  °184 
Sulphuric anhydride ....)._ | «-°018} ~=—_°118/ traces. 
Chlorine ...| trace, | traces.| nil | traces.| traces.|traces.| nil "007 
Tron peroxide | 4°783) 9.085) 9°485 12°033| 9°574} 3°910) 7:°000 
Alumina we. 9°217] 13°628] 10°024| 17°140) 12°710} 8-889) 2°038) 4:717 
Manganese oxide ect.) “19L), °313 249) °435) °12., "163 
Calcium oxide eee} 2596) 1°335) 2°379 1°183] 4°981} °356; 2-250. 
Calcium carbonate | 032} °236) °026 099} nil nil nil 

Magnesium oxide we| 404) 1°367| 3°367 *680) 2°418| °495 "217 
Potassium oxide wo| °291| °254; °343 *428] °178) °118 619: 
Sodium oxide woof «= ° 208} += 893) = * B74 1°102} °369) °278) 1°184 
Insoluble silica & silicates | 74°986| 65°667| 62°863] 50°509| 61°743] 69°941) 88°826) 72°594 


1 Containing nitrogen...) °262; °309| °271 


en an | a ee | a | ee | i 


Water retained by air dried 


soil 6.5 8°65) 12°4 9°6 8°1 1°8 8°0 


| 


The samples from Grenada, St. Vincent and Demerara were pe: sonally 
selected by one of us, whilst those from Trinidad and Nicaragua were 
given to us and described as very fertile cocoa soils by J. H. Hart, Esq., 
F.L.S., the Superintendent of the Botanic Gardens, 'l'rinidad. With the 
exceptions of the Demerara and Trinidad samples, all are of soils aris ng 
from the degradation of lavas and volcanic debris, rich in soda lime fel- 
spars. As a rule these fertile cocoa soils are fairly rich in nitrogen, and 
contain a somewhat high amount of potash of which a relatively high 
proportion was found to be soluble in 1 per cent. citric acid solution, 
whilst the proportion of phosphoric anhydride present appears to be of 
lesser importance. They can, we consider, be safely regarded as relia- 
able types of the composition of really fertile cocoa soils. 


In order to obtain reliable data as to the composition of cocoa grown 
under fairly favourable conditions at low elevations in this colony, we 
availed ourselves of the kindness of Charles Ross, Hsq., of Pln. Land of 
Canaan, Demerara River. He supplied us with a large number of 
fieshly gathered ripe pods of cocoa of two varieties : 1st the small podded, 
thick, smooth skinned variety with flat beans, known as Calabacillo ; 
and, 2nd, the large podded somewhat thick rough skinned variety with 
full rounded beans known as “Forastero.” The former is the variety 


52 


agriculturally best suited for our somewhat heavy lands, being the 
hardiest of all varieties, and giving on low lying land by far heavier 
yields of cured cocoa than ‘‘ Forastero” does. In addition we obtained 
from him cured beans of these varieties. Many other varieties are to 
be found growing in greater or less abundance in the cocoa groves of 
this colony including the Criollo or Caraccas kind, but as the bulk of 
the crops appears to consist of Forastero and Calabacillo cocoa, princi- 
pally of the former, we confined our attention to them. 


We found the fresh pods to yield as follows :— 


Calabacillo. Forastero. 
Husk ak 80.59 ae 89.87 
Pulp “A. 1261 = 4.23 
Cuticles of beans Lad sea .50 
Kernels of beans 10.03 ne 5.40 
100.00 100.00 


The yields of cured cocoa are 37.5 and 35.6 per cent. of the beans 
and pulp of the two varieties respectively. Hence 100 lbs. of the fruit 
of Calabacillo will yield 7.25 lbs of fermented cured cocoa and 100 lbs. 
of the fruit of Forastero 3.6 lbs. There would appear to be a distinct 
advantage in growing cocoa of the variety Calabacill»>; but the dif- 
ference in the m:rket value of the small flat beans of this variety and 
in that of the large plump beans of Forastero very materially reduces 
the apparent advantage. 


The fresh fruits were rapidly divided up into the outer husks, the 
cuticles of the beans and their adherent pulp, and the inner kernels 
of the beans or cocoa nibs proper. The cured beans were also divided 
into the cuticles and inner kernels. After weighing, all parts of the 
fresh fruit were dried at a temperature of about 140° F’. until they ceased 
to lose weight, the loss of moisture noted, and the dry material carefully 
ground up and sampled.. 


Analyses were afterwards made of these portions and the results cal- 
culated back to the original state of the fruits as received. 

The following show the detailed composition of the fresh fruits of 
each variety, of the various parts of the fruits, and the distribution of 
the constituents in the parts of the fruit :— 


Whole fruit of Cocoa, variety “Calabacillo.”’ 


Water a sheen 78°790 
1. Albuminoids ee i. 1:370 
2. Theobromine cae sie - 234 
3. Caffeine Ses soe °015 
4, Indeterminate nitrogenous matters... ‘067 
Fat ses ee 3°093 
Glucose = sige *274 
Sucrose ie aie ‘006 
Starch ne aie +844 
Astringent matters... eos 2.332 
Pectin, etc. oes oon 1-522 
Cocoa-red — zat *888 
Digestible fibre a ie 5-405 


Woody fibre aes a 3°122 


53 


Tartaric acid free ooo eee *324 
Acetic acid free... ges “054 
Tartaric acid combined aa “h16*' 
Iron peroxide eos oes “008 
Magnesia ces eae -120 
Lime coe see ¥ 042 
Potash woe ees -468 
Soda eee eee "038 
Silica eee ‘007 
Sulphuric anhydride Ae 044 
Phosphoric anhydride eos °152 
Chlorine eos eee °030 
99 - 967 
1. Containing nitrogen son *219 
2. # 99 ee *072 
3. » ry) vee "004 
4, “ 99 ose 032 
Total nitrogen ose 325 


Constituents of the various parts of the Cocoa fruit, variety —“ Calabacillo.” 


ee of Cuticles Haka. 
eans. and pulp. 

Waiter = 37° 637 87-600 82-893 

1. Albuminoids von 6°696 °918 -760 
2. Theobronine <oa 1°352 -241 -094 
- 3. Uaffeine "108 °041 Nil. 
4, Indeterminate nitrogenous matters °531 Traces. "169 
Fat a 29.256 *444 °146 
Glucose aay *991 *725 °132 
Sucrose me Traces. ‘066 Traces. 
Starch 3°764 °945 °469 
Astringent matters and tannin 5-004 *395 2°225 
Pectin ete. a 657 “815 1°710 
Cocoa-red ete 2°952 "B11 *675 
Digestible fibre, etc. ... §°112 4°652 5411 
Woody fibre 3°030 1°346 3°340 
Tartaric acid, free... °079 *439 *341 
Acetic acid, free is Nil Nil 067 
Tartaric acid, combined °477 33 "794 
Iron peroxide coe 4 2 032 004 "006 
Magnesia dan *324 *114 °095 
Lime ee 054 *054 °039 
Potash a *842 -190 °454 
Soda Dre -239 “041 -014 
Silica -016 -002 -006 
Sulphur’c anhydride .. coe °079 021 042 
Phosphoric ng a *749 *115 082 
Chlorine Be °019 °018 036 
100-000 100°000 100-000 

1. Contains nitrogen... 1-071 147 °121 
2. < E °416 077 029 
3. . Be -031 °012 Nil. 
4. be pa 085 Nil 027 


Total nitrogen 1-603 *236 177 


54 


Distribution of the constituents of the fresh Cocoa fruit, variety “ Calabacillo.” 


Percentage of Kernels of Cuticles Husk«. 

beans. and pulp. 
10:03 9-38 80-59 
Water as 3°7751 82169 66-7980 
a: Albuminoids a ‘6716 "0861 *6125 
Theobromine “a *1355 0226 ‘0757 
3, Caffeine *0:08 ‘0038 Nil. 
4. Indeterminate nitrogenous matter *0532 Traces. 0136 
Fat aes 2°9343 -0413 “1577 
Glucose ae -0994 “0680 -1064 
Sucrose AE Traces. -0062 Traces. 
Starch i *3775 0886 37°80 
Astringent matters ... “5019 ‘0370 1:7931 
Pectin, ete. as -0659 -0764 1-3800 
Cocoa-red a *2961 “0479 "5438 
Digestible fibre, etc. ... *5127 ‘5316 4°3607 
Woody fibre es °3039 =——is‘«- 1262 26917 
Tartaric acid free__..... ‘079 -0412 “2745 
Acetic acid free --- Nil Nil -0540 
Tartaric acid combined *0478 -0284 *6399 
Iron peroxide ay -0032 -0004 0048 
Magnesia de °0325 ‘O1L97 ‘0765 
Lime ae *0050 *0051 0314 
Potash see *0844 -0182 * 3659 
Soda vee -0240 ‘0038 -0101 
Silica ‘0016 ‘0002 “0041 
Sulphuric anhydride .. F -0080 *'020 0358 
Phosphoric a | eS = ‘0751 “0108 *0661 
Chlorine = -0019 ‘0016 -0290 
10 +0293 9-3750 80 4616 
a Contains a = *1074 *( 138 0:975 
2. ef *0417 *0072 0233 
3. Be € ae ‘0031 ‘0011 Nil. 
4. - > ee. “0085 Traces. *0:17 
Total nitrogen *1607 -0221 °1425 


ee —_——— - see 


Whole fruit of Cocoa, variety “ Forastero.”’ 


Water ae one 81::77 
1. Albuminoids eee east] 1-234 
2. Theobromine ee Sad +152 
3. Caffeine ne *015 
4. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters  ... *175 
Fat on aa 1-800 
Glucose ates lg *927 
Sucrose oe a “054 
starch = ae ‘780 
Astringent matters ees "424 
Pectin, etc. = ane 1-022 
Cocoa-red = aoe *684 
Digestible fibres  .u. ne 4-097 
Woody fibre ae eos 3°055 
Tartaric acid, free ... coe *255 


Acetic acid, free... see ‘053 


Tartaric acid, combined 


lron peroxide 
Magnesia 
Lime 

‘Potash 

Soda 

Silica 


Sulphuric ashydride 
Phosphoric anhydride 


Chlorine 


6c 


al od al 


Total nitrogen 


Containing nitrogen 
6s “cc 


55 


"276 


Wonstituents of the various parts of the Cocoa fruit, variety ‘‘ Forastero.” 


mm o> ho 


Water oan 
. Albuminoids 2 
. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters 
. Theobromine 4 
. Caffeine ae 
Fat woe 
Sucrose oo 
‘Glucose ads 
Starch oo 
Astringent matters ... 
Pectin, etc. a 
Cocoa-red eee 
Digestible fibre 
Woody fibre ses 


err 


Tartaric acid, free... 
Acetic acid, free 


‘Tartaric acid, combined 
lJron peroxide 


Magnesia im 
Lime aie 
Potash oce 
Soda ~~ 
Silica 

Sulphuric anhydride .. 
Phosphoric anhydride 
Chlorine 


. Containing nitrogen ... 
itd ce 


6c 6c 


Total nitrogen 


Kernels of Cuticles and 


beans. 


36 * 567 
4°826 
2 725 

"882 
*222 
30° 602 
°165 
917 
6-038 
4-894 
1-380 
1-543 
2°821 
3°458 
038 
nil. 
487 
032 
.454 
°105 
635 
-068 
°016 
048 
1-045 
032 


100-000 


°772 
°436 
*271 
064 


1:543 


pulp. 
83 030 
1-271 
Nil. 
-340 
*059 
*421 
1-001 
‘091 
1°305 
"108 
1 126 
*705 
6°564 
2°455 
-606 


trace, 


*351 
-010 
°073 
°030 
*248 
°015 
703 
°031 
098 
°051 


100 000 


°203 
nil. 

-107 
"017 


*327 


Husks. 


84-538 
1-017 
°031 
“098 
Nil. 
°142 
*969 
Nil. 
*445 
°172 
°995 
°631 
4°045 
5°288 
*250 
“059 
-580 
°009 
°101 
037 
*358 
073 
°008 
°032 
096 
026 


56 


Distribution of the constituents of the fresh Cocoa Fruit, variety “ Foras- 
tero.” 


Name of part. Kernels of Cuticles and 
beans. pulp. Husks. 
Per eent of part 5-40 4°73 89:7 
Water 1:9746 3°9273 75:°9750 
1. Albuminoids a -2605 .0601 °9136- 
2. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters °1471 nil. -0278 
3. Theobromine eee ‘0476 0164 ‘0880 
4, Caffeine aaa ‘0119 0028 nil. 
Fat ~s 1:6524 0199 1276 
Glucose ale -0089 *0473 °8708 
Sucrose ss *0495 -0043 nil. 
Starch a -3186 -0617 *3999 
Astringent matter .. *2643 -0051 -1546- 
Pectin, ete, oes ‘0745 .0532 "8942. 
Cocoa-red ove 0833 .0333 *5671 
Digestible fibre =a. -1519 *3105 3°6352 
Woody fibre ~ *1867 *1161 4-°7522 
Tartaric acid, free °0020 ‘0286 2246 
Acetic acid, free nil. trace. -0530 
Tartaric acid, combined °0263 -0166 *5213 
Tron peroxide eos -0017 “0005 “0081 
Magnesia, ee 0245 0034 0907 
Lime ao “0056 -0014 0332. 
Potash ses 0343 -0117 *3217 
Soda. ° oss -0036 -0007 -0065 
Silica —. =. -0008 -0002 -0072 
Sulphuric anhydride... “0026 -0015 -02E8 
Phosphoric anydride ... 0564 .0046 0864 
Chlorine ae .0016 ‘0024 -0023 
5°3912 4°7296 89-7898 
1. Containing nitrogen 0417 ‘0096 1465 
ig «“ 0233 nil. “0045 
3. ‘“ & 0146 *0050 0270 
4. “ ‘6 0233 -0008 nil, 
Total nitrogen =A -0830 0154 1780 


The fruit of Calabacillo contained less water but distinctly more 
nitrogen, potash and phosphoric anhydride than that of Forastero. 
The kernels of the beans of Calabacillo were distinctly richer in the 
alkaloids, also in astringent matter, and in cocoa-red than were those of 
Forastero, the result being that the beans of the former variety were of 
a harsher, more astringent flavour than those of the latter. The beans 
of the two varieties showed but little difference in their contents of fat, 
but those of Forastero were of a higher content of starch and sugars. 
In the cuticles and pulp from Calabacillo there were found somewhat: 
lesser amounts both of the alkaloids and of starch and sugars than in 
those from Forastero. In the husks of both varieties small amounts of 
theobromine, less than 1 per cent. were found, but no caffeine, which 
was present in small quantities in the kernels and cuticles of both va- 
rieties, was found in either. But little difference existed in the husks- 
of both varieties in their contents of nitrogen and phosphoric anhydride 
but those of Calabacillo contained the higher proportion of potash. 


57 

When however we take into consideration the higher proportion of 
husk in the fruit of Forastero, we find that this variety returns more 
nitrogen, more phosphoric anhydride and but little less potash to the 
soil in the waste husks than does an equal weight of the fruit of Cala- 
bacillo. But it requires double the weight of fruit of Forastero than of 
Calabacillo to produce an equal weight of cured cocoa, hence the return 
to the soil by the husks is more than twice as great in the case of the 
former than of the latter. 

Assuming that the average yield here of the variety Calabacillo, is 
250 lbs. and that of Forastero 150 lbs. of cured cocoa per acre respec- 
tively, we find that the amounts of the constituents of plant food re- 
moved from the land annually in the whole fruit, returned to the soil 
in the husks and either cold in the cured cocoa or lost in the sweatings 
from the fermenting boxes, are as follows :— 


Pounds per acre per annum. 


Variety of Cocoa. Calabacillo. Forastero. 


Parts of fruit referred to.| Whole | Refuse | Beans | Whole | Refuse | Beans 
fruit. | husk. jandpulp.) fruit. | husk. jand pulp. 


eee ee 


ee 


Weight per acre, 6,200 | 5,000 1,200 | 6,900 6,200 700 

| 

| 
Nitrogen sof: 20°16 S853) \11<30| 19 047. 11-78 7°26 
Phosphoric anhydride ...) 9°42 4°10 5:32 | 10°14 5 95 4°19 
Potash eos) 29° OR1e 22°70 6°31 | 25°39 | 22 19 3°20 
Lime tes 2°60 1:95 65 2°76 2°29 *47 
Magnesia eh 7°44 4°75 2°69 8:21 6°26 1°95 


The unavoidable loss per acre in this colony as compared with that 
in Venezuela given by Marcano, and with that in Guadeloupe reported 
by Boname is as follows :— 

Ibs. per acre per annum. 


Demerara. Venezuela. Guadeloupe.* 
- 
Calabacillo Forastero Varieties not stated. 

Nitrogen aa 11°30 7°26 8:7 
Phosphoric anhydride... 5 32 4°19 4°5 2°8 
Potash ~~ ae 6°31 3°20 3°7 4-3 
Lime er 65 47 1:4 4 
Magnesia xi 2.69 1°95 rs 1:4 


There is a general concordance in these results showing the low 
amounts of constituents necessarily removed from the soil by the pro- 
duction of a crop of cocoa. 

In the absence of direct experiments on the manuring of cocoa we 
have formed our opinion that where the Erythrine are used as shade 
trees, manuring should be directed largely towards the upkeep of the 
potash and phosphates necessary to enable the shade tress to do their 
part as nitrogen collectors and that where no shade trees are used the 
mineral manuring ought to be more largely supplemented by nitrogen. 
Thus the following mixtures or mixtures of other materials yielding the 


* Average return per acre assumed by us to be 450 lbs. 


58 


-same proportions of nitrogen, phosphates and potash per acre aint be 
advisedly tried on cocoa plantations :— 


Erythrine — ia shade. Net shaded. 
Nitrate of soda le ins 2 cwt. 
Superphosphate of lime 36 ofo soluble #2 ,, aa Bis 


Potash sulphate 2 

The materials should be well mixed and applied i in “quantity according 
‘to the number of trees planted per acre around each tree at a distance 
of about two to three feet from the stem. 

Our attention has also been directed to ascertaining the changes which 
the beans with the surrounding pulp undergo during the operations of 
fermenting and curing. For this purpose we analysed cured beans of 
the two varieties from the same plantation on which the samples of the 
fruits had been grown. The cuticles and the husks of the beans were 
separately examined, the composition of the whole bean being calculated 
from the figures thus obtained. The analyses were conducted on pre- 
-cisely the same lines and by the same methods as those of the various_ 
‘parts of the fresh fruit. Unfortunately the two varieties are never, as 
far as our experience goes, in the West Indian colonies kept separate 
during fermentation and we were forced to select our samples from out 
of a very large sample of cured beans of the mixed kinds. Mr. J. H. 
Hart of Trinidad kindly examined the samples drawn and considered 
them to consist of typical beans of the two varieties. 

The following show the results of these analyses compared with those 
of the analyses of the similar parts of the fresh fruit dried as before 
-described in the Laboratory. 

Compositions of the dried and the fermented and cured beans, cuticles and 
adherent pulp of Calabacillo. 


Dried. Fermented and cured. 
1.: Water a 5-000 7-169 
2.° Albuminoids 9-704 7:213 
3. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters ‘681 3°509 
4. Theobromine se 2:023 1-549 
Cafieine as 186 103 
Fat aie 38°181 40:744 
Glucose oe 2-143 -909 
Sucrose or ‘07 -024 
Starch so 5 980 5-249 
Astringent matters sae 6°900 5-306 
Pectin, ete. ade 1-822 2°671 
Cocoa-red ane 4°404 2-420 
Digestible fibre, ete. ce 12-048 11-615 
Woody fibre Ve 5-515 5-503 
Tartaric acid, free wie -629 0 535 
Acetic «cid, free ars Nil “869 
‘Tart+ric acid combined ... “974 1-114 
Iron peroxide bed *044 -105 
Magnesia a ‘559 *686 
Lime aes °134 *207 
Potash ide 1-312 1-125 
Soda ae *355 +120 
Silica aon °022 “065 
Sulphuric anhydride ie *482 ‘057 
Phosphoric anhydride... 1-098 1-113 
Chlorine = *044 *020 


59 


1. Contains Nitrogen oe 1°551 1-153 
o & as A ; 0°106 546 
3. 3 3” cee . 623 477 
4, ve a ; -052 ‘C29 
Total Nitrogen oe 2-332 2-205 
Cuticles of Cocoa beans, variety * Oalabacillo.”’ 
. Dried. Fermented and cured 

Water one 12-400 12-400 
‘1. Albuminoids ae 6: 092 6-750 
2. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters traces 4 V06 
3. Theobromine © “ee 1-599 1 023 
A, Caffeine eS ‘272 °355 
Fat ae 2°946 4-000 
Glucose 4-811 -476 
Sucrose 8 *240 -143 
Starch nie 6°271 4-865 

Astiingent matters ze" 2°621 2-113 | 
Pectin, ete. ° 5:408 6-140 
Coeoa-red : 3°39] 3°000 
Digestible fibre, etc. : 36-388 35°721 
Woody fibre 8-932 9°840 
Tartaric acid, free 2°913 *420 
Acetic acid, free Nil. ‘720 
Tartaric acid, combined 2-010 3°450 
Iron peroxide 5 026 *057 
Magnesia -756 *999 
Lime 358 266 
Potash 1-260 1-821 
Soda -272 -219 
Silica one 013 200 
Sulphuric anhydride woe 139 085 
Phosphoric anhydride ‘763 *912 
Chlorine : “139 ‘019 
100-000 100-00u 
1. Contains Nitrogen ‘974 1-080 
2. ” “ te traces 640 
a ” ” eee : 492 ; 315 
4. » 99 le -076 099 
Total Nitrogen ss 1.542 2.134 


Kernels of the beans of “ 


Calabacillo” dried, and fermented and cured. 


Dried. 

Water eS 5-000 

1. Albuminoids eee 10.202 
2. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters *809 
3. Theobromine vee 2 059 
4. Caffeine _ 164 
Fat eas 44-574 
Glucose ahs 1-510 
Sucrose vet traces 
Starch ae 5°735 
Astringent matters ane 7 °624 
Pectin, etc. nen 1.586 
Cocoa-red ate 4°497 
Digestible fibre, ete. af 7° 287 
Woody fibre ia 4°617 
‘Tartaric acid, free -* °120 


Fermented and cured. 
6-080 
7.310 
3°406 
1.659 

-051 
48-400 
1-000 
Nil. 
5-329 
5°972 - 
1-°950 
2°300 
6 182 
4:600 
-560 


a. 
2. 
3. 
4 


Compositions of the dried, and fermented, and cured beans, cuticles and 


Acetic acid, free 
Tartaric acid, combined 
Iron peroxide 
Magnesia 

Lime 

Potash 

Soda 

Silica 

Sulphuric anhydride 
Phosphoric anhydride 
Chlorine 


Containing Nitrogen 


Total Nitrogen 


one Nil. 
eee *726 
coe *048 
ase *493 
cee °082 
coe 1-283 
ew * 364 
eee °024 
eos °120 
. 1°141 
-028 

100-093 

° 1°662 
°129 

: °634 
oe *047 
2°472 


pulp of “ Forastero.” 


Dried. 

Water ces 5-000 
1. Albuminoids oes 7°203 
2. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters 3°305 
S$. Theobromine # 1:°461 
4. Caffeine cee *331 
Fat se 37 °575 
Glucose es 1-263 
Sucrose oe 1-209 
Starch ae 8 545 
Astringent matter ‘ 6°053 
Pectin, etc. oe 2:869 
Cocoa-red eee 2°620 
Digestible fibre ees 10°420 
Woody fibre ase 6.803 
Tartaric acid, free oss ‘687 
Acetic acid, free = trace 
Tartaric acid, combined -964 
Iron peroxide -049 
Magnesia *627 
Lime °157 
Potash 1°033 
Soda F -096 
Silica *022 
Sulphuric anhydride 092 
Phosphoric anhydride : 1.370 
Chlorine 2 "089 
99.843 

1. Containing Nitrogen 1°152 
2. bP 93 *523 
3. 9 ” "440 
4. 33 93 2 094 
Total Nitrogen 2-209 


*900° 
624 
*115 
‘621 
°196: 
“980° 
"477 
037 
051 
1:179 
°021 


100-000 


1-170 
"545 
“S11 
“014 


2 240 


Fermented and cured.- 


7 :027 
6°259 
2°641 
1:°402 
°431 
46° 263 
-586 
Nil. 
6'337 
3°588 
1-457 
2-883 
9-070 
6-662. 
-420 
674 
-981 
078: 

. 676 
°163 
-945° 
.195 
-051 
-016 
1.155 
-040 


100.000 


61 


Cuticles of Cocoa beans, variety Forastero. 


Dried. Fermented and cured. 
Water oon 11°840 11°840 
1. Albuminoids oes 6-603 6°130 
2. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters traces 3°394 
3. Theobromine ea 1-808 -909 
5. Caffeine cos -306 *547 
Fat coo 2°186 8-580 
Glucose coe 5°200 -714 
Sucrose on *473 Nil. 
Starch sos 6°779 3°682 
Astringent matters see *561 4°350 
Pectin, etc. Sue 5°849 5*895 
Cocoa-red en 3°662 3-100 
Digestible fibre oes 34-100 31 +292 
Woody fibre eed 12-753 9-640 
Tartaric acid, free es 3°148 -420 
Acetic acid, free i“ traces 1:140 
Tartaric acid, combined ... 1°823 3°456 
Tron peroxide ie °052 -218 
Magnesia vr 319 1°035 
Lime od °156 °224 
rotash are 1-288 2:038 
Soda Pe ‘078 -194 
Silica = -015 -250 
Sulphuric anhydride sea °161 °122 
Phosphoric anhydride... ‘509 ‘807 
Chlorine re *265 -023 
99-994 100-020 
1. Containing Nitrogen aa 1°056 -981 
2. - A a trace *543 
3. “a * a 544 -274 
A. ss .. 4 -087 +155 
Total Nitrogen oes 1-687 1-953 


Composition of the kernels 


of the beans dried, and fermented and cured of 


‘“¢ Forastero.”’ 


Dried. 
Water wee 5-000 
1. Albuminoids das 7.228 
2. Indeterminate nitogenous matters 4-081 
3. Theobromine eee 1:'321 
A. Caffeine aaa -332 
Fat soc 45°831 
Glucose one °247 
Sucrose nee 1°373 
Starch ain 9-043 
Astringent matter see 7°329 
Pectin, etc. wee 2:°068 
Cocoa-red eos 2°311 
Digestible fibre =a 3°969 
Woody fibre eos 5°435 
Tartaric acid, free eos 057 
Acetic acid, free eos Nil. 
Tartaric acid, combined °729 
Iron peroxide eee 048 
Magnesia ae *680 
Lime Se °153 
Potash wee °951 


Fermented and cured, 


6-280 
6°13 
2°525 
1°480 
°414 
52°120 
-566 
Nil. 
6:750 
3°470 
°770 
2°850 
5-752 
6:200 
0-420 
“600 
*596 
*057 
621 
°154 
‘776 


1 

2. 
3. 
4. 


Soda 

Silica 

Sulphuric anhydride 
Phosphoric anhydride 
Chlorine 


. Containing Nitrogen 
if 


Total Nitrogen 


62 


*101 
024 
"072 
1 565 
-047 


99°995 


1:156 
.653 
-406 
095 


2-310 


. 196 . 

-020 
trace. 
1°210 

*043 


ee 


100°000 


“980 
°404 
°457 
°119 


1:960 


When the compositions of these substances are given in percentages: 
it is difficult to perceive the changes in composition which may have 
taken place during the fermentation and curing. We have there- 
fore recalculated the results obtained on the assumption that the fat in- 
the original beans as submitted to fermentation would undergo little or 
no change during the process; comparison of the compositions of the 
portions of the fresh fruit submitted to fermentation and of the corres- 
ponding amount of the product yielded is thus approximately obtained. - 
These are given for both varieties in the following :—~ 


Changes taking place in the kernel of the beans of “ Calabacillo” during 
fermentation and curing. 


Fresh beans. Cured beans. Lossin curing. 


Water cee 37 637 3°675 33°962 
Albuminoids cee 6°696 4°419 2°277 
Indeterminate nitrogenous matters *531 2-059 1°521 
Theobromine “a 1°352 1:003 *349 
Caffeine ave -108 "032 ‘O76 
Fat aS 29-256 29-256 Nil. 
Glucose “991 604 “387 
Sucrose vee traces. Nil. 
Starch sas 3 764 3°221 ‘543 
Astringent matter .. 5-004 3°610 1.394 
Pectin, etc. ven 657 1:°178 + °521 
Cocoa-red mo 2-952 1-390 1-562 
Digestible fibre sos 5.112 3°737 1-375 
Woody fibre — 3°30 2°780 *250 
Tartaric acid, free se. ‘079 °328 4+ +269 
Acetic acid, free a Nil. *544 + 544 
Tartaric acid, combined "477 377 -100 
Iron peroxide — *032 069 + °037 
Magnesia ose "$24 375 + ‘051 
Lime eos *054 *118 + ‘064 
Potash =: °842 *592 *250 
Soda ae 239 *288 + °049 
Silica -016 *022 4+ °006 
Sulphuric anhydride .. v0 .079 *031 "048 -— 
Phosphoric anhydride *749 °712 037 
Chlorine ann 019 °012 007 
100-000 60: 442 


2 


Water eee 
Albuminoids on 
Indeterminate nitrogenous matters 
Theobromine see 
Caffeine coe 
Fat ~ 
Glucose one 
Sucrose ees 
Starch ose 
Astringent matters ... 
Pectin, etc. vee 
Cocoa-red eee 
Digestible fibre coe 
Woody fibre soe 
‘artaric acid, free... 
Acetic acid, free Sas 
Tartaric acid, comb. ... 
Tron peroxide wae 
Magnesia <2 
Lime = 
Potash ove 
Soda ons 
Silica 

Sulphuric anhydride .. oe 
Phosphoric anhydride 
Chlorine oes 


Water vee 
Albuminoids 

Indeterminate nitrogenous matters 
Theobromine owe 

Caffeine oie 

Fat te 

Glucose dé 

Sucrose Sa 

Starch Bes 


Astringent matters ... 
Pectin, etc. 


Cocoa-red dae 
Digestible fibre, ete. ... 
Woody fibre eee 
Tartaric acid, free... 
Acetic acid, free cee 
Tartaric acid, comb. ... 
Iron peroxide heb 
Magnesia sos 
Lime eos 
Potash ct 
Soda as 
Silica 


Sulphuric anhydride .. 
Phosphoric anhydride 
Chlorine oe 


63 


61°780 
3° 904 
°274 
°814 
°075 
15°361 
*862 
°032 
2 406 
2 776 
‘733 
1:772 
4 847 
2°219 
*253 
Nil. 
“392 
°018 
"225 
*054 
°528 
°143 
°009 
°194 
°442 
°019 


100-132 


58 °261 
3°165 
1°452 

°641 
°145 
16°509 
°655 
-531 
3°754 
2°659 
1:°261 
1°161 
4°578 
2°989 
°302 
trace, 
°423 
°021 
°275 
‘069 
°454 
*042 
*009 
-040 
-602 
*039 


99-927 


Besulis of fermenting and curing 100 parts of the beans with cuticles and 
suid of * Oalabaeillo.” 
Fresh. 


Cured. Loss in curing.- 


2°702 59:078 
2°719 1°185 
1-168 4. °894 
°584 *230 
-039 "036 
15°361 Nil. 
*342 *52u 
*009 023 
1-979 °427 
2-000 *776 
1-007 4+ °374 
-912 *860 
4-379 °468 
2-074 °145 
*201 *042° 
-327 + °327 
-420 4+ °028 
-039 4+ °021 
*258 + °033 
‘078 4+ °024 
*424 "104. 
*045 -098 
024 4. *B15- 
-021 °173 
"419 ‘023 
07 °011 
37.538 


Results of the fermentation and curing of 100 parts of the beans, cuticles 
and pulp of ** Forastero,”’ 
Fresh, 


Cured. Loss in curing. 


2°507 55 °754 
2°233 *932 
*942 °510 
*500 *141 
°154 + ‘009 
16-509 Nil. 
"209 *246 
Nil. ‘531 
2 261 1°493 
1-280 1°379 
‘520 ‘741 
1-028 °123 
3°236 1-342 
2 377 °612 
°150 °152 
*240 + °240 
*350 ‘073 
°028 a O00 
*241 034 
*058 *O11 
°337 oY 
069 4 ‘027 
‘018 4+ ‘009° 
‘006 034 
*412 °190 
*U14 °025 


— 


35 *679 


64 


Changes taking place in the kernels of the beans of “ Forastero,’ during 
fermentation and curing. 


Fresh beans. Cured beans. Lossin curing. 


Water = 36 * 567 3°687 32 880 
Albuminoids ee 4°826 3°599 1°227 
Indeterminate nitrogenous matter 2-725 1°482 1°243 
Theobromine oo “882 *869 °013 
Caffeine coo °222 +243 4+ °021 
Fat eee 30 -602 30° 602 

Glucose ads °165 *332 + °167 
Sucrose a+ “O17 Nil. “917 
Starch — 6°038 3°963 2:075 
Astringent matters ... 4:°894 2:°037 2°857 
Pectin, etc. i. 1-380 *452 *928 
Cocoa-red nes 1°543 1-673 + °130 
Digestible fibre ee 2°821 3:37T + °556 
Woody fibre soe 3.458 3°640 + °192 
Tartaric acid,free ... ‘038 *246 + °218 
Acetic acid, free soe Nil "352 + °352 
Tartaric acid, combined ‘487 -350 a Re § 
Tron peroxide ne *032 033 4 °001 
Magnesia eee . 454. -364 °090 
Lime aa °105 -090 °015 
Potash eee *635 °455 °180 
Soda ate 068 °115 4. °057 
Silica “ws °016 -012 004 
Sulphuric anhydride ... *048 trace "048 
Phosphoric anhydride.. 1-045 ‘710 *335 
Chlorine bes *032 025 °007 

100-000 58°708 


In the case of the variety Calabacillo we find that 100 parts of the 
fresh material submitted to fermentation and curing lose 62°5 per cent. 
of their weight of which 59 is water and 3°5 organic and mineral mat- 
ters. In the kernels of the beans the loss on 100 parts amounts to 
39:4, of which 6:5 parts consists of solid constituents. 

In the variety Forastero 100 parts of the material submitted to fer- 
mentation and curing yield 35°6 parts of cured cocoa a loss of 64'4 per 
cent. ensuing, of which 55°7 is water and 87 solid constituents. The 
kernels of the beans lose 41°3 per cent. during fermentation and curing, 
of which 8:4 parts are solid constituents. 

It is evident that when submitted to a similar fermentation and curing 
beans of the variety Forastero lose a higher proportion of their weight — 
than do the small flat beans of Calabacillo. 

In both cases a considerable loss of the albuminoid constituents en- 
sued, with, in the case of Calabacillo, an increase in the indeterminate 
nitrogenous matters. In Forastero, a loss of the latter also appeared to 
have taken place. In both cases we find a loss of the alkaloid constituents 
has taken place, this being greater in Calabacillo than in Forastero. A 
marked loss of the sugars has occurred, and also of the starch, pectin, 
gums and digestible fibre, this being much greater in the case of Foras- 
tero than in that of Calabacillo. The astringent matters and cocoa-red 
have also decreased in about equal proportions on the two varieties. 
Little change has taken place in the total quantities of tartaric acid 
present, but the fermented and cured beans contain a small proportion 


65 


of acetic acid not present in the original material. Both varieties have 
lost some of the more soluble constituents of their mineral ingredients. 

Comparison of the losses apparently undergone by the whole material 
submitted to fermentation and by the kernels of the beans lead to the 
conclusion that, as might be expected, a certain amount of change in 
place has occurred in the constituents of the kernels of the beans and 
the cuticles and pulp The kernels show a much more marked loss of 
astringent matters than do the whole beans and to this loss much of the 
improvement in flavour must probably be due. 

It is also seen by examination of these results that it is probable that 
during the sweating process slight changes in the position of the consti- 
tuents of the beans of the two varieties have taken place leading in some 
cases to apparent gains of constituents in one or other of the kinds. It 
was found that the original sample consisted approximately of one-fifth 
beans of Calabacillo and four-fifths beans of Forastero. The following 
shows the losses resulting from the fermentation of the mixture and we 
think may be considered as a fairly reliable indication of the changes 
which ordinarily take place during the fermentation and curing of 
eocoa :— 

Losses resulting from the fermentation and curing of a mixture of beans ef 
« Calabacillo” and Forastero.’ 


Water 20s ao 56-419 
Albuminoids 19 nas *982 
Indeterminate nitrogenous matters... *229 
Theobromine ose Be *159 
Caffeine oo we Nil. 
Fat ee ae Nil. 
Glucose ie ia *301 
Sucrose Bal ae -429 
Starch 44. 1-280 
Astringent matters. =e 1-258 
Pectin r aes bee *518 
Cocoa-red ee ie ‘270 
Digestible fibre... side 1:167 
Woody fibre ses ose °518 
Tartaric acid, free ... oes *130 
Acetic acid, free... ide + °257 
Tartaric acid combined ‘ii .053 
Iron peroxide a win + °010 
Magnesia a as 021 
Potash coe aa *114 
Soda =" ae 002 
Silica aoe + -010 
Sulphuric anhydride oes ‘030 
Phosphoric Rae er 156 
Chlorine *022 


There has occurred a loss in almost all constituents of the eocoa, the 
only gains being in acetic acid, a product of the fermentation, and in 
iron peroxide and silica due to dirt and dust picked up during the final 

i As acheck on the accuracy of these results we obtuined a 
sample of the liquid running from the sweating boxes, the constituents 
of which consist of matters removed from the fermenting material and 
we found it contained, with the exception of theobromine, either the 
missing soluble constituents or the soluble products of their alteration 
and of that of the less soluble carbohydrates, 


66 


Composition of the sweatings from a mixture of Calabacillo and Forastero. 


Water ae ie 84°817 
1 Albuminoids ht 062 
2 Indeterminate nitrogenous matters  ... *250 
Glucose a) Se 11°604 
Sucrose <- *638 
Astringent matter, ete. Des 354 
Alcohol aes bas "188 
Tartaric acid, free ... ne -340 
Acetic, acid, free... et *892 
Acetic acid, combined Rae *290 
Iron peroxide as aa ‘038 
Magnesia woe “he “074 
Lime Aes woe 029 
Potash owe wos 354 
Soda ee 004 
Sulphuric anhydride 4 °021 
Phosphoric anhydride see 038 
Chlorine fae 007 
ees 100-000 
1 Containing Nitrogen oan -010 
2 y 040 


99 29 


Kxaminations made by us of the process of sweating showed clearly 
that at first an alcoholic fermentation takes place accompanied by a rise 
in temperature of the material; later a little acetic ether is produced 
either as a direct product of fermentation or by the interaction of the 
alcohol and the acetic acid produced, and that, finally, the fermentation 
becomes an acetic one, the temperature in the fermenting boxes gradually 
rising so high as to practically stop the alcoholic fermentation. 

The results of our examinations and analyses show that the process of 
fermentation or sweating in cocoa consists in an alcoholic fermentation 
of the sugars in the pulp of the fruit accompanied by a Joss of some of 
the albuminoid and indeterminate nitrogenous constituents of the beans. 
Probably the albuminoid constituents are first changed into amides and 
other simpler combinations which may be further broken up during the 
process of the fermentation. Some parts of the carbohydrates other 
than sugars undergo hydrolysis and either escape in the runnings from ° 
the boxes in the form of gluccse or undergo in turn the alcoholic and 
acetic fermentations. 


During this change some of the astringent matters to which the some- 
what acrid taste of the raw beans is due are also hydrolysed and thus a 
marked improvement in flavour is gained. Small quantities of the 
miueral constituents principally of potash and phosphoric acid are re- 
moved from the beans in the liquid escaping from the fermenting maie- 
rial. A slight loss in woody fibre is shown, which may be due to loss 
of portions of the cuticle during the operation of drying. 


Our work has necessarily only resulted in a partial and incomplete 
study of the results of the fermentation. We are compelled, under the 
conditions of this colony, to leave the study of the changes which take 
place in various kinds of beans and during variously modified conditions 
of fermentation to botanists and chemists in colonies and countries where 
cocoa is an important product. We feel that our work in this line will 
be fully compensated if it leads others more favourably situated to take 


67 


up the study of this interesting and intricate subject, and, at any rate, 
the record of the investigation may be of some service and guidance to 
the owners and managers of plantations in the colony and to those con- 
templating purchasing suitable land for est :blishing plantations. 


ELEMENTARY NOTES ON JAMAICA PLANTS -II. 


2 & 3.—HETEROPTERIS LAURIFOLIA, A. Juss. 


Golden Vine. 


Many of the common wayside plants of Jamaica are the ornaments 
of English hothouses, and amongst the most charming are species of 
the family Malpighiacex. 


The cherry of the West Indies represents that section of the family 
the species of which are trees or shrubs and have the component parts 
of the seed-vessel united into a single fruit generally fleshy and coloured 
forming an attraction to birds who feed on the fruit and disperse the 
seeds The Golden Vine of plates 2 & 3 is a representation of the 
other section, the species of which are climbers, and have the parts of 
the seed-vessel separate from one another, generally provided with 
wings so that when ripe, the wind scatters them far and wide. Those 
climbers which have yellow flowers may be called generally ‘“‘ golden 
vines.” 


The genus which gives its name to the family commemorates a fam- 
ous Italian physician Malpighi, who more than 200 years ago, about the 
same time as the English botanist, Grew, laid the foundations of the 
ecience of the anatomy and physiology of plants. 


From the bark of species of Malpighia is obtained a pectoral gum 
good for catarrh. A decoction of the fruit relieves the thirst of invalids, 
and is especially useful in inflammatory and bilious fevers. The fruit is 
called the West Indian or Barbados Cherry and is often eaten both fresh 
and in tarts and jellies. ‘Those species which have stinging hairs are 
known as the Cowitch Cherry. 


Byrsonima spicata is known as the Locus Berry or Lotus Berry. The 
fruit has an agreeable acid flavour, and asit contains gallicacid, a decoc- 
tion is used as a gargle and has also been prescribed in cases of dysen- 
tery. The bark is employed for the same purposes and also in yellow 
fever. The wood is said to be good for tanning. In Guiana the bark 
is given in intermittent fevers, and for inflammatory affections of the 
lungs and bronchia; an infusion is given as an antidote to the bite of 
the rattle-snake. 


Generally, in this family, the wood and bark are astringent, rather rich 
in tannin, and sometimes also in red colouring matter. 

The wood is adapted for beams or rafters for roofs, and is easily work- 
ed, sometimes being used in cabinet work and for small ornaments, 


68 


The following are the general characters of the family as it occurs in 
Jamaica : — 


Calyx, free from the ovary, in 5 parts, some orall of which have 2 
glands on the outside (Plate 2, fig. 3). 
Petals 5, usually with a stalk-like part called the claw (fig. 3), inserted 
on the receptacle (fig. 2). 
Stamens inserted with the petals (fig. 2), 10, of which some are occa- 
sionally imperfect ; the filaments are generally united at the base 
Ovary superior (fig 2), composed of 3 carpels (fig. 4), united or dis- 
tinct only at the top, with 3 styles (fig. 5) ; ovules one in each cell, 
pendulous 
Ripe Carpels, sometimes forming a drupe (as the West India Uherry), 
sometimes disiinct and separating into nuts which are usually wing- 
ed. (Plate 3). 
Seeds exalbuminous. 
Trees or shrubs often climbing. 
Leaves usually opposite, simple 
To put it rather more briefly : amongst Polypetale with 10 stamens 
and superior ovary of 3 cells, Malpighiaceze may be. distinguished as 
having a glandular calyx, and clawed petals. 


The character of the genera and species may be shortly indicated as 
follows :— 


1. Trees or shrubs ; fruit a drupe. 
Malpighia. Flowers reddish or purplish in axillary rembels or corymbs. 
Byrsouima. Flowers yellow in terminal racemes. 
Bunchosia. Flowers yellow in lateral racemes. Leaves with 2 glands beneath, 


2. Climbers ; flowers yellow; fruit composed of nuts, winged in the 
centre, but only crested in Brachypterys. 

Stigmaphyllon. Flowers in corymbs. Stamens 10, only 6 perfect. 

Wing of nut thickened on upper margin. 
Heteropteris. Flowers in panicles (Pl. 2). Stamens 10, all perfect. 

Wing thickened on lower margin (°1. 3). 
Brachypterys. Flowers in umbels. Stamens 10 some not always perfect. 

Nut crested, not winged. 


3. Climbers; flowers yellow, (except in T-iopteris which has blue 
flowers) ; stamens all perfect; fruit composed of nuts with wings 
at the sides. uy 

Triopteris. Flowers blue, panicles of distant racemes. Nuts with 3 wings. 
Tetrapteris. Flowers yellow, umbels paniculate. Nuts with 4 wings. 
Hirza. Flowers yellow, corymbs paniculate. Nuts with 2 roundish wings. 


Malpighia. 
1. Leaves with stinging hairs on under surface. 
M. fueata, Ker. Flowers whitish-pink. Leaves large (over 4 in. long). 
M. oxycocea, Griseb. Flower purple. Leaves small (not over 4 in, long). 
2. Leaves without hairs. Flowers whitish-pink. 


M. glabra, Linn. Flowers 3 to 7 together. 
M. punicifolia, Linn. Flowers ene alone, or only 2 together. 


Byrsonima. 


B. cinerea, DC. Leaves elliptical, under surface hairy. Anthers hairy. 
B. spicata, Rich. Leaves elliptical lanceolate, midrib underneath hairy, An- 
thers without hairs. 
B. jamaicensis, Urb. & Nied. in Jam. Herb. Leaves lanceolate, without any 
hairs, veins forming a prominent net-work below. 


H. A. Woop del. 


HETEROPTERIS LAURIFOLIA, A. JUSS. 


Jam. lo, 2. 


Jam. Ic. 3. 


H. A. Woop del. 


HETEROPTERIS LAURIFOLIA, A. Juss. 


69 


Bunchosia. 
Tree ; leaves large (over 4 in. long.) 
B. Lindeniana, A. Juss. 
Shrubs; leaves not large (under 4 in. long.) 
B. media, DC. Fruit 2-celled. 
B. Swartziana, Griseb. Fruit 3-celled. 
Stigmaphyllon. 
Leaves with hairs on lower surface. 
S. emarginatum, A. Juss. Leaves eordate at base. 
S. diversifolium, A. Juss. Leaves rounded at base. 
Leaves without hairs on either surface. 
S. ciliatum, A. Juss. Leaves fringed on the margin with hairs, stigma leafy. 
S. periplocefolium, A. Juss. Leaves without any hairs, 


Heteropteris. 
H. parvifolia, DC. Leaf-stalk with 2 glands at the top. Leaves hairy beneath. 
. H. laurifolia, A. Juss. Leaf-stalk without glands. Leaves without hairs, veins 
forming a prominent network on both sides, 


Brachypterys. 
B. borealis, A. Juss. Leaf-stalk with 2 glands at top. Sea-side shrub. 
Triopteris. 
T. ovata, Cav. Leaves with 2 glands on lower surface close to stalk; veins re- 
ticulated. 
Tetrapteris. 


T. inequalis, Cav. Glabrous. 
Hirza. 
H. Simsiana, A. Juss. Flower-stalks jointed above the base. 


Explanation of Plates of Heteropteris laurifolia. 

Fl. 2. fig. 1. Flowering branch, 4 natural size. 

fig. 2. Section of flower. 

fig. 3. Calyx and corolla from outside. 

fig. 4. Transverse section of ovary. 

fig. 5. Vertical section of ovary. 

(figs. 2-5 enlarged), 

Pl, 3. fig. 1. Fruiting branch, 4 natural size. 

fig. 2. Vertical section of ripe carpel, natural size. 

fig. 3. Entire fruit. 


CONTRIBUTIONS AND ADDITIONS. 


LIBRARY. 


Bulletin Roy. Gards. Kew. Add. Series I. [Kew.] 
Bot. Magazine. Mar. 1898. [Purchased.] 

Trop. Agriculturist. Feb. 1898. [Purchased.] 

Sugar Cane. Mar. 1898. [Editor.] 

Sugar. Feb. 1898. [Kditor.] 

Pharm. Journal. Mar. 1898. 

W.I. & Com. Advertiser. Mar. 1898. [Editor.] 
Chemist & Druggist. Mar. 1898. [Editor.] 

British Trade Journal. Mar. 1898. [Editor.] 

Agr. Ledger, No.12. [Govt. Print. Calcutta, ] 
Report Exp. Fields, Dodds Reform. 1896. Barbados. [Supt.] 
Agr. Gazette, N.S. Wales. Jan. 1898, [Dept. of Agr.] 
Sugar Journal. Jan. 1898. [Editor.] 

Ceylon Times. Feb. 1898. [Editor.] 

Nature. Mar. 1898. [Purchased. ] 

Journ. of Botany. Mar. 1893. [Purchased.] 
Gardener’s Chronicle. Mar, 1898. [Purchased.] 


70 


Garden. Mar. 1898. [Purchased.] 
Pamphlet by L. H. & E. Pa:nmell. [Authors.] 
Investigations in Bark of Trees by Prof. T. Meehan. [Author.] 
Agr. Journ. Cape of Good Hope. Feb. 1898. [Dep. of Agr.] 
Report Bot. Survey of India. 1896-97. [Director.] 
Circular Bot. Gar. Ceylon. Jan. 1898. [Director.] 
Hawaiian Planter’s Monthly. Feb. 1898. [Editor.] 
Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. Mar. 1898. [Editor.] 
Bulletin de L’Herbier Boissier. Feb. 1898. [Conservateur.] 
Rapport over Den Proeftuin 1896-97. By J. D. Kobus & E. W. Van Den 
Bossche 1878. [Director Proept. O. Java.] | 
De Wevervogels inhet Snikerriet op. Java. Ur. L. Zehntner 1898. [Director 
Proept. O. Java.] 
Reports, Bulletins and Records have been received from the following Agri- 
cultural Experiment Stations, U.S A.:— 
Minnesota, Logan, Utah; Florida, Lake City, Fla; New Jersey, Geneva, On- 
tario ; lowa. 


SEEDS. 
From Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. 
Eucalyptus Planchoniana. Callitris robusta. . 
K. diversicolor. Eugenia Smithii. 
K. siderophloia. Vitis hypoglauca. 
K. saligna. From Botanic Gardens, Trinidad. 
EK. marginata. Monstera deliciosa. 
E. tereticornis. From Messrs. Herb & Wulle, Naples. 
K. obliqua. Centaurea gymnocarpa. 
K. pilularis. C. suaveolens. 
K. resinifera. C. “ Margherithe.” 
K. ereba. Amarantus hybridus. 
E. hemastoma. Ipomeea imperialis. 
K. trachyphioia. I. “ Carmen Sylva ” 
E. maculata. Begonia semperflorens, ae opuepare 
E. corymbosa. Cyclamen persicum. 
E. eugenioides. Impatiens Balsamina, fi. pl. 
K. globulus. Canna “ Legionaire.” 
Tristania conferta. Coleus hybrids. 
Acacia podalyrizfolia. Torenia Fournieri, grandiflora. 
Morinda jasminioides. Vinca rosea var. alba (pure). 
Rhipogonum album. Dianthus “ Margherithe.” 
Geitonoplesium cymosum. Lobelia cardinalis. 
Sarecopetalum Harveyanum. From Lord Maleolm, Knockalva. 
Myrsine variabilis. Lagerstroemia Flos-reginz. 
Eustrephus Brownii. 
PLANTS. 

From Mr. A. E. Pratt. From Mr. Robt. Thomson, Bogota. 

Cattleya labiata. var. Dowiana aurea. (dontoglossum crispum. 


Frem Lord Maleelm, Knockalea. 
Buds of Genoa Lemon. 


[Issued 21st July, 1898.] 


' a 
3 


New Series. ] APRIL, 1898. | Vol. V. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA. 


EDITED BY 


WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS. 


Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. : 


CONTENTS: 


Report on Sugar Cane : Pacr 71 
~ Anti-Malarial Tree ; 73 
Wild Olives of Jamaica 72 
Methods of propagating Oranges and other Glew Fruits 75 
Analysis of Cuba Tobacco Soil 88 
Ferns: Synoptical List—LT. 88 


PRICE Threepence. 


A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and 
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. 


AD CALD WD CAD CAM CLM CAD CAM CHM MT MA 


KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
GOVERNMENT Printing Orrice, 79 DuKE STREET. 


Contributions and Additions 94 | 
1898. 


>) 


: JAMAICA. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


New Series. ] APRIL, 1898. Vol. V. 


Part 4. 


REPORT ON SUGAR CANES. 


By J. Suore. 
8 
Canaan Estate, St. James. Canes received from Public Gardens, 
and planted with some Creole canes on 16th December, 1896; cut 16th 
March, 1898. 


3 Return 

ta s | (|.2°.| per Acre. 

21a jes 

C5 ee A a 2 q =} 

Name of Cane. = z ‘3 a | 25/93 & = Remarks. 

Odi HaleslPsl A| 

a2 |@ |SSlE4| 5] 

= = a] Su — 

S) w ® Es 5 F 

e So & | ) aS) 
No. 49 ..| 34 | 144 | 71 | 21 | 34 | 128 | Grew fairly erect—hardy. 
Po-a-ole ...| 304 | 142 | 70 | 21 | 352 | 182 | do. do. do. 
Tsimbic ...| 29° | 136 | 67 | 22 | 282 | 105 | Lodged very much—many 


canes rotted and rat-eat- 
en. 


46 | 175 | Very erect, strong, stout ~— 


‘Caledonian Queen | 444 | 140 | 69 | 23 
; very long joints. 


No. 114 ...| 27 | 140 | 69 | 20 | 25 | 95 | Many canes rat-eaten and 
| spoilt. 
No. 99 os) 34 | 148 | 70! 17 | 31 | 113 | Fairly erect-strong—likely 


to ratoon well. 


parent canes, usually 
planted on estates here. 


Creole Ist Ratoons | 263 | 132 | 65 | 28 31 | 155 


| 


Creole Plants --| SL | 138 | 68 | 26 | 353 | 178 Ordinary black and trans- 


72 
The above canes grew in the same field—had no manure nor irriga- 
tion. 
Land—clayey loam which had been in rich common for 40 years. 


Rainfall for 15 months—64 inches 15 parts-fairly distributed and am 
average fall for that district. 


Extent of land covered by this report—8 square chains—lined 
4x44. 

Results carefully noted, and proportion of rum fixed as correctly as- 
possible, having due regard to quantity and density of materials. 

The Rum from new varieties was of appreciably less flavour; but 


return of Sugar was proportionately larger; that of rum was lesa, 
than Creole. 


Oe Tons 
ane pre Cane per 
_ Name. a Remarks. Number. it Remarks. 
Tourkoury : 334 | Stout & upright 116 442 | Very upright, 
long joints,. 
stout. 
Barklyj © 9 = ..| 262 Do. do. 115 363 Do. do. 
Red Rose Ribbon 23: | Fairly upright 81 35% Do. do. 
Bouroappa : 193 TF) Do. 345 24 Fairly upright. 
Elephant : 20 Do. 80 223 |) Do. do. 
Seete ‘ 192 Do. 275 192 Do. do 
China : 18 Do. 82 182 | Do. do. 
Naga .| 17% 282 183 Do. do. 
Grand Savanne . 174 |! 57 18 | Do. do 
Brisbane te) ae | 74 172 Do. do- 
Hillii : 123 ra 343 172 | 
Keni Keni | 428 | = e 102 17} = 
Nagapoury of oe g 4 128 173 | = 
Norman AOE er hs Pees 105 | 16,.)| ae eeu 
Salangore : 4 zie & 37 143 5 cS 
Waphendnow. 2 Soo 53 103 neice 
Kopo-appa . 4 Soe. 78 9 z= 2 
Bourow . Te = z 61 9 ee a 
Green Rose Rib- 3 159 8 (cee 
bon 1S Se gee ee = 
Cuapa ; aaa i = 108 3 | Sues 
Vulu Vulu : 2 || 69 3 = 
Batraime : 2 aD 45 a 


The above canes were planted on same soil as previous experiment 
here reported, and adjoining. The quantity of each was too small to 
make a detailed synopsis of return of sugar, &c., but the tons cane per 
acre give an idea of the outturn. ‘The gravity of juice average 24° 
(Arnaboldi) and the average quantity of juice from one ton cane equalled 
143 gallons, extraction 69 per cent. 

Most of the varieties were very much rat-eaten ; and those lower down 
on the list were almost entirely destroyed by these pests. It was found 
also that the ordinary creole “Bamboo” eane was much damaged by 
rats; the Black and transparent and those higher up on the list suffer- 
ing little. | 


73 
AN ANTI-MALARIAL TREE. 


MELALEUCA LEUCADENDRON, Linn. 


The late Baron Sir F. von Mueller, Government Botanist of 
Victoria, who did so much for the economic botany of the World, sent 
to the Director of Public Gardens in April 1895, seeds of a Melaleuca 
(MI. leucadendren), to which he thus referred in his letter :—‘ This tree 
should become of the utmost importance also to the Western hemi- 
sphere. Ags a’ tropical tree, fit to grow in malarian swamps, and con- 
taining in its foliage much antiseptic and anti- miasmatic oil, it deserves 
your snecial attention. It will grow where no Kucalyptus could be 
reared.” 

Baron Von Mueller’s notice of this tree in his ‘‘ Select Extra-tropical 
Plants” is as follows : — 

“The Cajaput-tree of India, North and East-Australia as far extra- 
tropical as 34° south latitude. This tree attains a height of about 80 
feet, with a stem reaching 4 feet in diameter, on tidal ground; it can 
with great advantage be utilised on such intra-tropic areas and in 
salt-swamps for subduing malarian vapours, where no Eucalyptus 
will live. The lamellar bark protects it against conflagrations. It is 
splendid for fruit-packing: oranges kept 4 months in it, lemons 5 
months, apples 3 months. The wood is fissile, hard and close- 
grained, regarded as almost imperishable underground, and resists the 
attacks of termites (white ants). Itis well adapted for posts, wharf-piles, 
ship-building and various artisans’ work. The foliage yields the well- 
known Cajaput-oil, so closely akin to Kucalyptus-oil. Mr. K. Staiger ob- 
tained on distilling the leaves as much as 2 per cent, of oil, which might 
be manufactured on a large scale from ample material in many parts of 
Australia. It is rich in Cineol. The tree should be extensively 
planted where yellow fever occurs.” 

Young seedlings are now ready for distribution for growing on edges 
of swamps. Application should be made to Director, Public Gardens, 
Kingston P.O. 


WILD OLIVES OF JAMAICA. 


It has been stated frequently in the Bulletin that the Olive (Olea 
europa) has not been known to flower or fruit in Jamaica, 

Whenever this statement appears, numerous communications are re- 
ceived to the effect that the writers have seen the Olive tree bearing 
fruit. 

However when specimens are sent to the Herbarium in confirmation, 
it is seen that there are two or three trees that go by that name, but 
none of them are the Olive of commerce. 

Information given to enquiries on this point has more than once 
saved the investment of capital in an attempt to introduce and grow 
the Olive on a commercial scale in places where a ‘‘ Wild Olive” is 
known to bear abundant fruit. 


XIMENIA AMERICANA, Linn. 
One of these wild olives is known botanically as Ximenia americana 
Besides being called a Wild Olive, it is sometimes known either as 
Mountain Plum, or Seaside Plum. The tree is usually armed with 


74 


spines; the leaves are not opposite as in the Olive, they are elliptical 
and of the same colour on both sides; the flowers are small, yellowish- 
white, and fragrant ; stamens 8, whereas there are only 2 in the olive. 
The fruit is about the size of an olive, of a yellow colour, with a pecu- 
liar aromatic flavour, and delicious perfume; there is one stone, the 
kernel of which tastes like a filbert. The fruit is useful in cases of 
habitual constipation and gastric troubles when the irritating action of 
drastic purgatives has to be avoided; the kernel is more strongly pur- 
gative 

Ximenia is anative of the tropics generally. In India the Brah- 
mins often use the yellow wood as a substitute for Sandal wood in their 
religious ceremonies. (Olacinez). 


TeRMINALIA Buceras, Wright. 
Another “ Wild Olive” is a near relation of the Broad Leaf (T. latifolia). 

It is also called the ‘“‘ Black Olive” or ‘‘ Olive Bark Tree”, and is known 
botanically as Terminalia Buceras. 

This tree, 20 to 30 feet high, has horizontal branches, with the leaves 
crowded together at the ends of the branches, and where they fork. 
The leaves differ from thse of the true olive, not only in the way 
they grow. but also in being broader towards the tip than below. The 
flowers have no petals, but the calyx is yellowish, and there are ten long 
stamens. The berry is only a quarter of an inch long with the remains 
of the calyx at the top. 

The wood is an excellent cabinet wood, and the bark is good for 
tanning. | 

TERMINALIA HILARIANA, Steud. 

This tree is much like the last except that it grows higher, the 
flowers are arranged not in a cylindrical but a globose spike, and the 
berry is twice as large. 

Both these trees are natives of the West Indies and the northern 
part of South America. (Combretaceae). 


BontTIA DAPHNOIDES, Linn. 

This shrub or tree is small, 10 to 30 feet high, and is known in the 
French W. Indies as “Olivier bitard.” The leaves are in shape like the 
Olive, but they are not opposite. The flower is about an inch long, 
with a tubular, two-lipped corolla of a yellowish-red colour, and 4 
stamens. 

A decoction of the flowers is recommended for ophthalmia. The 
fruit is yellowish, nearly half an inch long, and when quite ripe contains 
an oil of a yellowish colour, which is employed in colic and other irri- 
tations of the intestines. 

It may be that it is on this fruit the famous Ring Tail Pigeons get 
so fat, and acquire their bitterish flavour. 

Cuttings of the twigs will grow readily, and planted as a hedge they 
answer the purpose well. 

This tree is a native of the West Indies. (Myovporinez). | 

Several trees of the true Olive are growing in the Hope Gardens. 
They are large trees, but have never flowered. Highty plants presented 
by Lord Malcolm, have been planted in the Hill Gardens at elevations 
varying from 3,500 feet 10 5,500 feet, and it is possible that they may 
fruit there. 


76 


METHODS OF PROPAGATING THE ORANGE AND 
OTHER CITRUS FRUITS. 


By Herbert J. Wesser, Assistant, Division of Vegetable Physiology 
and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


Reprinted from the Year book of the Department of Agriculture for 1896- 


GENERAL REMARKS. 


The methods used in propagating citrus trees do not materially differ 
from those used in the propagation of other fruit trees. However 
there are certain differences with which the prospective grower of 
citrus trees should be familiar, and it is therefore the intention of the 
writer to briefly describe the principal methods employed by Citrus 
nurserymen and growers in Florida as a guide for those not already 
familiar with the industry. 

One of the most difficult questions the prospective orange grower 
must decide is whether to use seedling or budded trees. Such con- 
flicting opinions exist among orange growers in Florida regarding this 
question that to decide the best policy is confusing and somewhat diff- 
cult. The pros and cons of the question, however, cannot be discussed 
here. Sutiice it to say that the general tendency of intelligent and 
progressive growers is to use only trees budded with thoroughly tested 
and approved varieties Practically all the advance that has been 
made in improving citrus fruits by propagating from selected seed- 
lings, hybrids, sports, etc,, which produce superior or peculiar fruits, 
depends entirely upon propagation by budding and grafting, as the 
characteristic features are commonly lost by seed propagation. How- 
ever, many continue to use seedling trees, and there will probably 
always be some used. 


SEEPLING TREES. 


When seedling trees ure to be used, the selection of seed becomes 
an important feature. Any and ‘every orange seed should not be 
used. On the contrary the greatest care should be exercised in selec- 
tion. It is not an uncommon report that seeds of sweet oranges fre- 
quently produce sour oranges, and vice versa but this is probably 
never true unless the seeds are the result of hybridization. It is well 
recognised by growers in Florida, California, and Italy that when seeds 
of a sweet orange are planted, trees bearmg sweet fruit, of a fairly 
good character, almost invariably result. Orange trees, however, are 
generally grown in close proximity to lemons, limes, sour oranges, 
pomelos, etc., and it is not to be wondered at, if hybridization occasion- 
ally occurs. When hybridized with the sour orange, lemon, etc., the 
resulting seedlings may naturally be expected to produce sour, un- 
marketable fruit, or fruit with rough and unsightly skin While 
seedlings of the sweet orange almost invariably produce sweet fruit 
similar to that produced by the parent, there is nevertheless c nsidera- 
ble variation wholly aside from that resulting from crossing and hy- 
bridizing. This uncertainty as to fruits, especially the finer sorts, 
reproducing themselves true to seed is what renders budding and graft- 
ing desirable in the orange as in other fruit industries. 

Where sweet seedlings, or in fact any kind of seedlings, are to be 


76 


grown, the seeds should be taken from selected seedling trees known 
to produce good fruit and which are isolated from citrus trees of other 
varieties or species. Such selection would prevent the probability of 
obtaining seeds affected by crossing or hybridizing with other varieties 
and make it reasonably sure that seedling trees producing good fruit 
would be obtained. Pomelos, lemons, limes, citrons, kumquats, and 
the various other species of citrus fruits are almost invariably produced 
true by the seed, as in the case of the orange, that is, pomelos produce 
pomelos, lemons produce lemons, etc. Like other fruit trees, however, 
the different varieties of the fruits named do not reproduce themselves 
t:ue from the seed. Seedling pomelo, or grape fruit, trees are quite 
common in Florida. The varieties, however, have not been so much 
improved as in the case of the orange, and as yet there is but little 
difference between the fruit of seedlings and that of the best named 
varieties. ‘Tne principal varieties or subspecies of mandarin oranges 
cultivated in Florida, known as the China (commonly called Mandarin) 
Tangerine, King, and Satsuma, are not infrequently propagated by the 
seed, and with but slixht variation they commonly reproduce true to 
the parent variety. However, they seldom average equal in flavour to 
the selected varieties, which must be budded, as they are not repro- 
duced true by the seed. Seedlings of the China are said to showa 
tendency to form an elongation of the rind at the stem, which makes 
them awkward to pack. In all cases where seedlings are to be used 
the greatest care should be exercised to select seed from isolated trees 
known to uniformly produce good fruit. 


Tux SEED BeEp. 


The seeds used for planting should in all cases be selected from fully 
grown normal fruit taken from vigorous, healthy trees. In this case, 
as in others, it is important that the seed should be good in order to 
secure vigorous seedlings. The method of extracting the seeds from 
the fruit most commonly followed by nurserymen and those planting 
on an extensive scale is to cut the orange in half and squeeze the 
seeds out into a receptacle. Sometimes the entire fruits are thrown into 
barrels and allowed to decay, after which the seeds are separated by 
washing in a coarse sieve, which allows the pulp to pass through. The 
seeds should be planted immediately, before they have had time to dry, 
but if this can not be done, they may be preserved moist and in good 
condition for some time by packing in damp earth. If seeds dry out 
from necessity or by accident, the great majority of them can be induced 
to germinate by soaking in water for several days previous to planting. 

Many different plans are followed in arranging the seed bed: If only 
a few seedlings are to be grown, the seeds may be planted in boxes about 
8 inches or 1 foot deep and of any convenient size. The soil should 
be kept moist, but not wet. Mulching the soil with moss (the common 
Florida long moss) until the plants appear is said by some to be bene- 
ficial. If many seedlings are to be grown, it will probably be necessary 
to plant them in the open ground. In such cases the seeds are com- 
monly sown in beds from 3 to 4 feet wide and about 2 feet apart. 
Sufficient room must be left between the beds so that the seedlings may 
be easily cultivated. The seeds sre spread broadcast or are sown in drills, 
1 or 2 inches being left between each seed. They are then covered 


77 


‘with soil to a depth of about 1 inch. Some sow the seeds from one 
half to 1 inch apart in rows about 1 foot apart. (1) 

After planting, the seed bed must be either mulched or covered with 

a shelter of some kind to protect the young seedlings from the sun 
when they first appear. The cover may be made of brush supported by 
a suitable frame, or of some thin cloth, like cheese cloth or burlap, such 
as is used in making fertiliser sacks. The practice of protecting the 
bed with some such cover is more commonly followed than mulching, 
and is apparently the preferable method. January is probably the best 
month for planting [in Florida}, although any time will do if care is 
taken to keep the seeds moist. If planted late in the spring, the dry 
season [in Florida], of April and May comes before they are thoroughly 
rooted and ‘is liable to seriously injure them, so that watering may be 
required. Seeds planted in boxes usually appear in from ten to twenty 
days, but when planted in open beds they do not appear for about six 
weeks, although less time may elapse if the beds are artificially watered. 
The success of the seed beds depend very largely upon cultivation and 
fertilisation. (2) 

Previous to planting, the soil should be fertilised with some non- 
‘heating manure, such as well-rotted stable manure or some of the 
-commercial manures for vegetables. Heating manures, like blood and 
bone or cotton-seed meal, should be avoided, as they are liable to injure 
the young seedlings. The soil should be fertilised a second time when 
-the plants are from 4 to 5 inches in height, and probably again a third 
-¢ime before they are removed to the nursery. Cultivation should be 
-very thorough, as in the case of vegetables, no weeds being allowed to 


ow. 
The seedlings may be left'in the seed bed for a year or more, until 
they are about the size of a lead pencil at the collar and from 12 to 14 
nches in height. Probably the best time to transplant to the nursery 


i a, eke gd nn 

(1) The method found to be the best at Hope Gardens, Jamaica, after extensive 
experiments, is as follows :—Thoroughly fork up a bed, in virgin soil if possible, 
four feet wide and as Jong as necsssary, make the soil as fine as possible, spread 
-the seeds not closer than two inches apart on the surface of the bed, which should 

be about two inches above the surrounding soil. Cover the seeds with fine soil 

of the best quality to a depth of about an inch. The beds should always be kept 
moist, but not wet, and free from weeds. As soon as the seedlings have matured 
their first pair of leaves, transplant the seedlings into other beds similar to those 
used for the seeds, cut off about a third of the tap root at the time of transplant- 
ing so as to cause the plant to send out a large number of fibrous lateral roots. 
“By this treatment a plant two feet high, with a mass of fibrous roots can be grown 
in about eight months. W.-C. 

(2) The time of the year for sowing orange seeds must be regulated entirely by 
-the conditions of the local rainfall. The seeds must be sown im nediately after 
the heavy rains, ani the transplanting done before the succeeding rainy season. 
‘If this is done, and the young plants have recommenced growth after transplant- 

ing, there is no danger of their suffering from the heavy rains. But untrans- 
planted seedlings are very liable to be damaged by the rains. No shade whatever 
-is given at Hope Gardens, the seed beds and plants are exposed to the full rays 
of the sun; great care being taken to keep the seed and nursery beds as far as 
possible from trees. 

When the young plants are two feet high they are quite reauy to pe again 
transplanted, in the case of sweet seedlings to the Grove, and sour seedlings to 
where they are to be budded. At the second transplanting care should be taken 
:to ren —. all the large roots, especially those inclined to grow straight 
down. oD, 


78 


is in December or January [in Florida], when the plants are thoroughly 
dormant. Usually transplanting can be done with safety at any time 

during the rainy season, but even then it is necessary that the soil 

should be thoroughly wetted, either naturally or artificially, several 

times shortly after planting, if the seedlings are to succeed well. 

In digging the seedling, carefully thrust a spade down perpendicu- 
larly near the plants and work it back and forth until the soil is loose- 
ened from the roots, after which the plants may be lifted out without 
injury. ‘The roots and tops are then pruned preparatory to planting, 
the tap-root being cut off toabout 8 or 10 inches in length and the tops. 
pruned back a corresponding distance. A number of the seedlings 
may ,be taken in the hand and the roots and tops cut off with sn axe 
to the desired length. As the seedlings are removed from the bed the 
roots should be placed in water or wrapped in damp moss or cloth to 
prevent them from drying out while they are being transferred to the - 
nursery and planted. All small or weak seedlings should be discarded. 

THE USE OF CUTTINGS. 

Lemons, citrons, and limes are sometimes propagated by cuttings. - 
Oranges and pomelos may also be propagated in this way, butas they do 
not root readily this method is seldom used with these fruits. As in- 
other cases, the cutttings are taken from young wood, the twigs being’ 
cut into sectionstrom 4 to 6 inches in length, and usually with a portion 
of one or two leaves remaining attached to the upper end. The base of 
the cutting is prepared by a smooth, slanting cut made with a sharp 
knife (a smoothly cut surface forms roots much more readily than a 
roughly cut surface in which the tissue is injured.) Cuttings thus pre- 
pared may be planted in any convenient-sized box filled with sand. The 
basal end of the cutting is inserted in the soil, leaving about 1 inch of 
the upper end exposed. Wherever bottom heat can be secured, rooting ~ 
is greatly facilitated. When the cuttings have sprouted and have at- 
tained a height of 8 inches to 1 foot, they may be transp!anted to the 
nursery, as in the case of seedlings. 

Tue NuRSERY. 

The citrus nursery should be on well-drained soil. . . The land 
should be thoroughly cultivated and all rubbish removed. The 
trees are usually planted in rows from 4 to 6 feet apart. The 
tendency of nurserymen is to put the rows a considerable “distance 
apart to facilitate budding and cultivation. The seedlings are planted: 
from 14 to 15 inches apart in the rows. As it is much easier to culti- 
vate straight rows than crooked ones, considerable care should be 
exercised in laying out the nursery. During the process of planting: 
the seedlings should be kept with their roots in water or wrapped in 
wet cloth to protect them against drying out. The holes in which the 
seedlings are to be planted are commonly made by thrusting a spade 
into the ground and pressing it back and forth until the soil is suffi- 
ciently spread. The seedling may then be put in place and the soil 
pressed firmly around it. The holes in which to set the seedlings may 
also be made by pressing a nurseryman’s dibble into the soil and 
crowding it back and forth until a space of the desired size is made. 
The roots may then be spread out and the soil pressed firmly around. 
them. In planting great care should be exercised to get the soil packed? 
firmly around the base of the root and not simply around the collar. 


79 


Wherever convenient, it is desirable to use water in planting. The 
soil must always be moist when seedlings are transplanted, and there- 
fore transplanting should be done soon after a heavy rain, or else the 
ground should be artificially watered. This is verv desirable, not only 
for the benefit to the plants, but if the soil is dry it is difficult to keep 
the holes open properly and prevent the dry, hot sand from falling 
in around the roots. Cuttings are transplanted in the same way as 
seedlings. 

In the nursery, as in the seed bed, thorough cultivation and heavy 
fertilisation insure success. In fertilising, chemical manures espe- 
cially prepared for vegetables should be used. About 2,000 pounds 
per acre of such fertiliser should be given annually in two or three 
applications. If two applications are to be made, one in February and 
one in July will probably give the best results. In case of three appli- 
cations, February, June and August will prove satisfactory periods. 

The trees are allowed to remain in the nursery about two years 
before transplanting into the grove. The second spring after planting 
in the nursery they have usually attained sufficient size for budding. 
If it is intended to bud them, they should all be budded at this time, 
as it is desirable to insert the buds as soon as the trees have attained 
sufficient. size, in order to throw all growth into the bud. [If they are 
budded in the spring, the buds will have reached sufficient size, by fall 
for the trees to be transplanted into the grove or put on the market. 
as may be preferred. 

SrTocks. 

The kind of stock used for budding has considerable influence on the 
health, vigour, and productiveness of the tree. As some stocks will 
not do well on certain soils and some varieties grow well only on cer- 
tain stocks, it is desirable that the stock used for planting any given 
tract be carefully considered. The orange and pomelo, or grape fruit 
are commonly budded on sweet orange, sour orange, lemon or pomelo 
stock. If planting is to be done on rich, moist lowlands (low ham- 
mocks and flat woods) which are subject to foot rot, or mal-di-gomma, 
stock which is immune from this disease should be used. Sour orange 
stock is the most resistant variety that has been found and usually gives: 
the best results. Pomelo, or grape fruit, stock is also quite resistant 
and is probably the best stock in foot-rot regions where the soil is 
droughty at certain seasons of tbe year. It is a more viyorous grower 
than the sour-orange and resists drought better. Foot rot is common 
also on some flat woods and high pine land soils which are dry and well 
drained, and in such localities the pomelo [grape fruit or shaddock | is 
probably the best stceck for general use. 

In the case of high and dry lands not much subject to foot rot, sweet 
orange, lemon, and pomelo [grape fruit or shaddock] are probably the 
best stocks. On dry lands sour stock, although much used, does not always 
give satisfaction. Lemon stock, particularly the Florida rough lemon, 1s 
a very excellentstook for dry sterile lands, as it isa very vigorous grower, 
doing fairly wellin soil where the sweet-orange would perish. Itis so easily 
injured by cold, however, that it is safe only in southern localities. 
Pomelo is also a more vigorous grower than sweet orange and is proba-- 
bly a better stock for dry lands, but it is more tender and should be: 
budded near the ground or its use limited to southern regions. In 


80 


segions where foot rot is prevalent, sweet-orange stock and lemon stock 
should never be used, as they are particularly subject to this disease. 
The lime, which is a very vigorous-growing stock, similar to the lemon, 
is used to some extent in southern Florida asa stock for the orange, and 
is said to be excellent for barren scrub land and rocky locations. The 
hardy trifoliate orange is used to a limited extent as a stock for the 
orange, but has not always given thoroughly satisfactory results. 

Tangerine and China (Mandarin) do well on any of the stocks used 
for the common sweet orange, but as the grower usually desires to 
increase the size of these varieties it is probably preferable to bud 
them on rough-lemon stock. The satsuma, which is a hardy variety, 
is very extensively budded on the hardy trifoliate orange, on which 
it is said to do well It also gives good results on sweet-orange, which 
is probably the best stock to use in southern locations, but does not 
do well on sour-orange stock. Lemons are usually budded on rough- 
lemon, sour-orange, or sweet-orange stock, the rough-lemon being con- 
sidered the most desirable, as it is the most vigorous grower. In 
places where foot rot abounds, sour-orange stock should be used. 

In selecting stocks it is also important that the latitude and local climate 
be carefully considered. The various citrus species used as stocks for 
grafting or budding vary greatly in their resistance to cold. . . 

In regard to the effect of stock on the character of the fruit, it may 
be said that while some growers claim to have observed that the fruit 
is rendered coarser and thicker skinned by budding on vigorous, ra- 
pidly growing stocks, like the pomelo and the lemon, yet it is certain 
thst the difference is very slight and in most cases hardly perceptible. 
In this connection all that needs to be considered is that stocks of 
this nature tend to produce rather larger fruits. While in some varie- 
ties this character is a disadvantage, it is, on the other hand, an 
advantage to have a vigorous stock, as in certain varieties this is 
mecessary to insure fruitfulness. The varieties of the Navel orange 
are unfruitful on sweet or sour stock but usually they are normally 
prolific if budded on rough lemon. 

j Buppina. 
WHEN TO BUD. 

The trees in the nursery should be budded when they have attained 
-a size of from one-half to one inch in diameter. If the trees are 
grown for sale it is probably best to wait until they are three- 
fourths to one inch in diameter before budding. I1f the young trees 
are grown for planting, it may be desirable to bud them rather sooner, 
in order to put them as soon as possible in their permanent places in 
the grove. Ifa tree is transplanted when still small, the greater por- 
tion of the roots and top is saved, and the shock in transplanting 
is therefore less. Budding can be done only when the tree is in a 
growing condition, so that the bark slips and sepurates easily from 
the wood. It is usually preferable to bud as early in the spring as 
possible. The nursery is commonly budded during March and April. 
It may be gone over again in May and those stocks which failed the 
first time rebudded. Budding may be done at any time during the 
summer, unless the trees are checked in growth by a severe drought, 
but it is usually not best to bud later that the first of July, as suffi- 
ient time should remain fer the bud to push and mature the wood 


81 


of the first growth before winter. If the budding can not be done by 

-the time named, it is probably best to wait and put in dormant buds in 

‘October or November. 
SELECTION oF Bups. 

Bud wood should always be selected from fairly well-matured wood 
-of the current year’s growth. Round sticks (or as nearly round as 
possible) should be selected. The young growth of orange wood is at 
first angular, becoming rounder as the twig matures. The basal 
‘portions of the young branches, which are nearly or quite round supply 
the best buds, with the exception of the first two or three, which are 
usually somewhat imperfect and should be discarded. Where it is 
difficult to secure well-rounded wood, angular wood which is not too 

-soft may be used. ‘This, however, is not quite so satisfactory. Thorny 
bud wood should never be used when other wood can be obtained. Thorny 
trees are very undesirable, and a careful selection of thornless bud wood 
will soon result in thornless trees. The thorns have been bred out of 
many of the best citrus varieties, and if nurserymen would exercise 
proper care all the desirable varieties could soon be rendered thornless. 

The bud wood should be cut while the wood is dormant, before the 
buds show any signs of pushing. That desired for spring budding 

should be cut the latter part of January. It is well to leave the 
‘wood on the tree as long as possible, and therefore the trees should 
be carefully observed during this period. When the first buds are 

observed to be swelling, all the bud wood desired should be cut 
immediately. After cutting, the leaves should be pruned off and the 
twigs cut into sections of the desired length. To preserve the bud 

-wood until needed, the twigs should be tied up in convenient-sized 
bundles, carefully labeled, and packed in old sawdust in a box of suit- 
able size. The box should then be closed and buried in sheltered ground 
several inches below the surface. In this way bud wood can be pre- 
served in good condition for from two to three months. Dampened 

-sphagnum, or peat moss, may be used instead of sawdust, but in this 
case considerable care must be exercised to get the moss properly dried. 
It must be moist, but not wet, for if too wet the bud wood may mould. 
‘The same caution applies also to sawdust. In this case, the proper de- 
gree of moisture can be secured by taking the material from the interior 
of an old pile Sawdust does not lose its moisture readily and is the 
best material for packing. Some simply bury the bud wood in the soil 

~u der shelter, digging down until the moist earth is reached. 
MATERIALS. 

Before beginning the operation of budding, material should be pro- 
~vided for wrapping the buds. For this purpose cotton cord, yarn, strips 
of waxed cloth, etc., are used. The last named has practically super- 
-seded all others in Florida, being more convenient and giving better 
results than any other wrapping material. The strips are made from 
-strong muslin or calico. Before the cloth is torn into strips, it is folded 
into convenient size and dipped into a hot solution of wax made by 
melting together two parts of beeswax and one part of resin. Several 
formulas for making this wax are used, any one of which will probably 
-answer. ‘The method described is known from personal experience and 
observation to give good results. After saturating the cloth with the 
Ahot wax, all the superfluous wax should be removed before the cloth 


82 


cools. To accomplish this quickly hang the piece of cloth, folded im 
convenient form before waxing, over a small, strong stick which is held 
by anassistant. Then take two similar sticks of wood and holding them 
parallel on cither side of the cloth press them firmly together and pull 
downwards, squeezing out the superfluous hot wax. The cloth should 
then be spread out until cool, after which it is ready to be torn into 
strips of the desired size, that is, one-fourth to one-half inch wide and 
from 10 to 12 inches long. The cloth may be torn into strips before it 
is taken into the field, or it may simply be torn into convenient-sized 
pieces and afterwards torn into strips in the field as desired for use. 
The latter is probably the most convenient way. Using waxed cloth 
for wrapping effectually excludes moisture, prevents the bud from dry- 
ing out, and the work can be done more quickly than with string, as the 
strips cover more surface and do not require tying. the wax serving to 
hold the cloth firmly in place. It may therefore be recommended as 
far preferable to any other wrapping material. . 


How To BuD.* 


Budding is a simple process, consisting in inserting a bud ofa desired 
variety under the bark of the stock in such a way that the freshly cut in- 
ner bark of the bud comes in close contact with the layer of growing wood 
(cambium) ot the stock. The bark is closed over the inserted bud and 
the stock wrapped with waxed cloth, as described, so that the bud is 
firmly pressed against the growing wood. Ifthe operation is properly 
performed, the tissue of the bud and stock soon fuse together and the 
bud may be forced to grow. 

In all varieties and stocks of citrus fruits the process of budding is 
practically the same, the method commonly employed being that known 
as shield, or eye, budding. ‘the bud is inserted in the young stock 
near the ground. Previous to the severe freezes of the winter of 1894- 
95 the general practice was to insert the buds 12 to 18 inches above the 
ground, but since then the tendency is to bud as near the surface of the 
soil as possible, so that the trees may be readily banked with the earth 
above the bud to protect against injury irom freezes. Most of the buds 
are now inserted from 2 to 6 inches above the soil. In sections where 
foot rot is abundant and sour-orange stock is used as a preventive mea- 
sure the buds should be inserted from 12 to 18 inches above the soil, so 
that the sweet-orange wood will be above the influence of the disease. 

All leaves and limbs which would hinder the proper wrapping of the 
buds should be cut away with a sharp budding knife. The use of sharp 
tools is the secret of success. A vertical cut about 13 inches long is 
made at the point where the bud is to be inserted. At the base of this 
a horizontal cut 1s made. so that the two cuts presents the appearance of 
an inverted ‘I’. The cuts should not be deep. The aim should be to 
merely cut through the bark, but no injury will result if the cuts are 
rather deeper. The lower edges of the bark are slightly raised with the 
end of the knife blade to facilitate the insertion of the bud. ‘This may 
also be accomplished by giving the knife an upward turn aftor making 
the horizontal cut. Now, take a stick of bud wood in the left hand and 
cut out a bud. Formerly tie portion of the wood cut out with the bud 
was removed. but experience has shown that this is entirely unnecessary 


* See also Bulletin, December, 1895. 


83 


The upper end of the bud is inserted under the slightly raised ends of 
the bark and gradually pushed upward until all portions of the cut face 
of the bud come in contact with the wood of the stock. If in proper 
condition for budding, the bark of the stock readily separates, allowing 
the bud to be pushed upward into position. The bud is now ready to 
wrap. ‘Take a strip of the waxed cloth prepared as above, and begin- 
ning slightly below the horizontal cut wrap tightly round the stock 
over the bud ina spiral manner, each turn slightly overlapping the 
previous one. The wax holds the cloth in place and makes it possible 
to draw it very tight. When the vertical incision has been entirely 
covered, turn the end of the strip slightly downward over the wrapped 
portion, to which it adheres more firmly than it would to the bark, and 
no tying will be necessary It is better to wrap from below upwar|, 
as in this case each turn overlaps the other in the right direction to 
prevent water running down the stem from entering. Nurserymen 
usually wrap over the bud, covering it entirely. Some, following the 
practice commonly used in other fruits, leave the eye of the bud ex- 
posed. This, however, is more troublesome and does not succeed so well. 

In some cases where bud wood of certain varieties is difficult to se- 
cure, it may be desired to use buds from the young angular wood. 
This may be used with good results if the stock to be budded is grow- 
ing rapidly and is in a succulent condition. In this case the method 
of cutting and inserting the bud is slightly different from that already 
described. In cutting the buds the stick is turned slightly to one side 
so that as the bud is cut off the eye lies on one side instead of in the 
centre of the bud It is only by cutting the bud in this way that the 
cut surface is made wide enough to hold the bud firmly in position. 
For inserting these buds an incision is made in the bark. The bark is 
slightly raised on one side with the pointof the knife and the bud is 
slipped under in a lateral direction, the eye remaining in the vertical 
slit. The bud is then wrapped. 

| UNWRAPPING THE BUDS. 

In from ten to twelve days the buds will have united with the stock 
and may then be unwrapped. In early spring, when the weather is 
cool and the growth slow, the wrapping should be left on from fifteen 
to twenty days, while in the summer, when the weather is warm and 
the growth rapid, ten days is usually a sufficient length of time. 
However, it is impossible to say definitely how much time should elapse 
before the wrapping should be removed as the wood of the stock should 
never be allowed to grow over the buds. It should not be removed 
until a light greyish line of new tissue can be seen fo:ming around the 
edge of the incision made in inserting the bud. A little experience will 
enable one to tell at what stage it is safe to unwrap. Under ordinary 
conditions from twelve to fifteen days will give good results, but in 
very dry weather in the summer, when growth is slow, it may be ne- 
cessary to leave the wrapping on fora longer time. Some ten days 
after budding an examination should be made of the number of the 
buds and if they are found to be well healed on, the wrapping may be 
taken off, but if not, the wrapping should be replaced and allowed to 
remain some time longer. If the wraps are allowed to remuin too long 
the wood of the stock is liable to grow over the buds and greatly hin- 
der their pushing. 


84 


FORCING THE BUDS. 

In order to force the buds to push uniformly after they have healed” 
on it is necessary to severely check the growth of the stock This is- 
most commonly accomplished in nursery trees by lopping the tops, as it. 
is called, which is usually done from three to five days after the wraps. 
are removed from the buds. ‘The lopping is usually done with pruning 
scissors, the knife edge being placed about 2 inches above the bud and 
the stock cut two-thirds through. The top is then bent over to one side’ 
and allowed to rest on the ground. 

To provide for subsequent cultivation and attention it is necessary to: 
use some definite plan of budding and lopping in the nursery. Two 
methods most commonly followed by Florida nurserymen are to lop the 
tops of two adjoining rows into the same centre, keeping the alternate’ 
centres free for cultivation, or to lop the tops of alternate rows in diffe- 
rent directions, one row in each centre, and place them near the rows. 
By the latter method a cultivator may be run up one row and down the 
other, passing always in the direction in which the tops are inclined so 
that the branches will not interfere with the cultivator. Usually the 
old tops are allowed to remain attached until the buds have attained a 
height of from 12 to 18 inches, after which they may be cut off. 

Some nurserymen have found that the buds make a larger growth if 
the old tops are allowed to remain attached through the summer and 
are cut off in September. If this practice is followed, two rows of trees - 
should be lopped together. ‘The tops thus form a dense shade or sort of 
mulch on the soil, keeping it moist and preventing the weeds from 
growing. In this case it is also desirable that the rows lopped together 
should be planted rather close (about 3 feet apart,) for if this isnot done 
the weeds will grow up among the tops, making it necessary to cut off 
the latter when the buds are 1 foot to 18 inches high in order to keep 
the weeds down. In the case of vigorous-growing stocks, like the rough- 
lemon. it is said to be very desirable to leave the tops attached for some 
time. 

When the old tops are removed, the portion remaining above the bud 
should be cut off smooth and close to the bud, so that it will soon heal 
over without forming an uglyscar. Some follow the practice of coating” 
the freshly cut end with schellac, but others working on an exten-: 
sive scale never do this. It is seldom that any noticeable benefit is de- 
rived from the practice. 

GkOWTH OF THE Buns. 

The attachment of the rapidly growing bud is at first very weak and. 
it is necessary to strengthen it by tying toa stake’ Some nurserymen 
practice cutting the stock rather high in lopping, and support the buds. 
tor a time by tying them to the remaining portion of the stock. The- 
buds push much better, however, when the stocks are cut very close.in 
lopping, so that it is hardly desirable to depend upon this method of 
supporting the buds, as in either case it is necessary later to supply the 
supporting stakes. : 

The development of the buds should be carefully watched during 
summer, and they should be pruned in such a way as to produce a top- 
of the desired shape. In Florida, where a low tree is desired, it is neces- 
sary to nip the tops when they are 2 or 3 feet high to induce branch- 
ing. ‘The buds which push low down on the stock or bud should be 


85 


rubbed off before they have grown to any size, as their growth detracts 
from the development of the bud. 

The best time for transplanting orange or other citrus trees is prob-- 
ably during December [in Florida, | although they may be transplanted 
in January or February or during the rainy season. By December buds- 
put in early in the spring have reached a convenient size for trans- 
planting into the grove. 


DorMANt BuppDING. 


Putting in. buds which are intended to remain dormant during the 
winter, or dormant budding, as it is called, is usually done in October or 
November. The process is exactly the same as descrjbed above, except 
that the tops are allowed to remain standing until the following spring. 
They are lopped in the usual manner the latter part of February, or 
just before the spring growth starts. The advantage of dormant bud- 
ding is to secure the first spring growth in the bud, which is the largest. 
growth of the year. 


Spric Buppina. 


This is a form of budding frequently used on old stocks, where 
the bark is thick, in changing the variety or replacing a limb acci- 
dentally broken off. A scion about 4 inches long is selected, and 
the basal end sharpened by a slanting cut onone side. A curved oblique 
incision is made in the bark, the lower edge of which is slightly raised 
with the point of the knife, and the end of the scion inserted and pushed 
between the bark and wood in an oblique direction until the freshly cut 
surface of the scion comes in contact with the growing wood of the 
stock. The scion is held firmly in place by the bark of the stock, and 
the use of grafting wax or wrapping of any kind is said, therefore, to- 
be unnecessary. 


GRAFTING. 

Grafting has not been extensively used in citrus culture in Florida, 
but as there is an increasing tendency to place the point of union. 
between stock and graft, or bud, near or below the surface of the soil, 
this method will probably be more used in the future. There seems to 
be no good reason why it should not be adopted wherever desirable. 
Grafting should be done in January or February, while the trees are - 
still in a dormant condition. The scions must be taken from thoroughly 
mature wood of the last season’s growth. Round and thornless twigs 
should be selected if possible, although the somewhat angular wood may 
be used if thoroughly mature 


CLEFT GRAFTING. 

Cleft grafting, which is one of the simplest methods, may be used to 
advantage in place of budding in nursery trees where it is desired to 
place the point of union below the soil. A scion about 5 inches long is 
selected and the lower end sharpened to a wedge shape by two slanting 
cuts 14 inches long on opposite sides. The young stock to be grafted 
is cut or sawed off slightly below the surface of the soil and a cleft 
made in the stock. If the stock is larger than the scion, the latter 
must be inserted at the side, so that its cambium layer (the growing 
layer between the bark and the wood) on one side will come in contact 
with that of the stock. After the scion has been pushed down into 


86 


place, the stock should be wrapped with strips of waxed cloth, like those 
used in budding, one or more strips being put across the top of the 
_stock to keep the sand out of the cleft until the grafts starts to grow. 
The moist soil is then thrown up around the graft, leaving only the 
upper end exposed. The wrapping cloth will decay in a short time, but 
it is probably best to remove it soon after the grafts begin to grow. 


TonGuE, ok Wuip, GRAFTING 


In grafting small stocks the tongue, or whip, graft is generally used. 
If properly made, the tongue serves to hold the scion firmly in place and 
forms a good union. After the scion and s’ock are placed together, 
they are firmly wrapped around the point of union with strips of waxed 
cloth, as in the case of buds. The wrapping should be left on until the 
graft has started well, when it should be removed. By removing the 
soil somewhat around the collar the tongue graft may be used on small 
nursery trees to place the union below the surface. 


Crown GRAFTING. 


When the tops of comparatively large trees (3 inches or more in 
diameter) are killed to the ground by freezing or in any other way 
which leaves the roots uninjured, they can be most quickly replaced by 
crown grafting. This method of grafting may be used to advantage 
on large limbs also. In crown grafting, as practiced in Florida, a scion 
about 5 inches in length is sharpened at the basal end by a long, slant- 
ing cut on one side. In crown grafting other fruits a slight shoulder 
is usually left on the scion, and this rests on the stock when the scion 
is inserted. When frozen or killed down, the stock to be grafted is 
sawed or cut off 2 or 3 inches below the surface of the soil, where the 
wood is fresh and living. With the aid of a knife blade the bark is 
then slightly lovsened from the wood at one place and the scion 
is pressed in between the bark and wood, with the cut surface 
against the latter. The best places to insert the scions are in the 
concave portions of the trunk, as here, in order to allow their insertion, 
the bark can be pressed out without breaking. Several scions may be 
inserted on one trunk if desired. The bark, if unbroken, will 
hold the scion firmly against the wood and no wrapping will be 
required. If, however, it should be necessary to split the bark 
to allow the insertion of the scion, it should be wrapped with string or 
waxed cloth to hold it firmly in position. Moist earth is then banked 
up over the stump until only the upper portion of the scion remains ex- 
posed. In using crown grafts above the soil, strips of waxed cloth or 
grafting wax must be used to prevent the scions from drying out. 


Roor GRAFTING. 


Propagating citrus fruits by root grafting has never been thoroughly 
tested, so far as the writer is informed. In March, 1895, the writer was 
led to make several tests of this method, which, owing to the condition 
of some of the roots used, though not thoroughly satisfactory, yet strong- 
ly indicated that the method might frequently be used to advantage. 
About the first of April lateral roots, varying from one-half to three- 
fourths of an inch in diameter, were taken from sweet-orange trees and 
cut into sections about one foot in length, each having a fair quantity 


87 


of fibrous roots remaining uninjured. These were immediately tongue 
grafted with dormant sweet-orange scions obtained from California, and 
were then planted, the union being placed slightly below the soil. The 
majority of the grafts started growth promptly, but about one-half of these 
made very slow progress, the growth appearing unhealthy. The roots 
used were taken from trees about sixteen years old which had been fro- 
zen.to the ground twomonths before, and this, it is thought, affected 
the results. While not recommending the general use of this method, 
the writer would suggest that the results obtained indicate that a bear- 
ing grafted tree may be secured in this way in far shorter time than by 
any method now practiced. The method would seem particularly 
promising where lemon, lime, or pomelo stocks, which root easily, are 
used. 


All the methods of budding and grafting described may be greatly 
changed in detail. No attempt has been made to describe all varia- 
tions, only those methods being given which have proved most satis- 
factory and are most commonly used. 


INARCHING. 


Inarching consists of uniting limbs of the same or different trees by 
a process similar to budding. Several methods of inarching are used, 
but only the one in most common use will be described. The two 
limbs to be inarched must be close together, in such a position that one 
may be easily bent over against the other. The operation is practicable 
only where one of the limbs is comparatively small—under one inch 
in diameter. The small limb is cut off by a slanting stroke in such a 
place that the cut surface faces the other limb when bent over againstitat a 
point where the union is to be made. A vertical and a cross cut like an 
inverted T (J,) is made in the bark of the large limb or stalk at the 
point where the two limbs touch. The end of the small limb is then 
pushed up into the slit as in shield budding described elsewhere and 
strips of waxed cloth are wound around the union to hold the limbs 
firmly in place. The wrapping should be allowed to remain fora 
month or more till the limbs have become very firmly grown to- 
gether. Inarching is frequently used in cases where trees are girdled 
by foot rot, wood lice, or white ants (Termites) or in any other way. 
In foot rot, young sour-orange stocks, which are immune from this 
disease, may be planted by the side of trees in the first stages of the 
malady and inarched into them 14 or 2 feet above the ground. In this 
way they may almost certainly be saved from the disease. If the 
bark of thediseased tree will not slip, a wedge-like union, similar to the 
cleft graft, should be tried, the incision in the stock being made with a 
chisel. Incase of girdling by white ants or animals, sprouts from the 
roots may be inarched, or small trees may be planted by the side of the 
injured tree and inarched, as in the case of foot rot. Inarching is also 
frequently employed where it is desired to throw the strength of two 
or more sprouts into the development of one top, as in the case of 
numerous sprouts coming up around large frozen trunks. Limbs may 
be braced and strengthened by binding them together by means of 
inarching branches, 


88 


ANALYSIS OF CUBA TOBACCO SOIL. 
The following analysis was published in Bulletin No 19 of the Ex- 
periment Station at Lake City, Florida, 1892. 


The soil was taken from a Tobacco field in Cuba. The analysis was 
made by Dr. J.J. Earle, Prof. of Chemistry in Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College. 


Per Cent. 
Moisture at 110° ows 14 20 
Organic matter alee 12 30 
Sand and insoluble matter o. 30.32 
Carbonic acid (CO,) a 4.20 
Sulphuricacid (SO) eas 12 
Oxide of Iron (Fer O,) cane 29.40 
Oxide of Lime (Ca O) — 7.60 
Oxide of Magnesia (Mg 0) ee a 
Phosphoric acid (P, O;) as 1.60 
Potash (K, O) a .16 
Soda (No, O) i 084 

100.154 
Nitrogen to ie 32 
Ammonia 39 


The Sulphuric acid is combined with the lime to form sulphate of 
lime (gypsum). ‘The remainder of the lime is combined with the car- 
bonic acid to form carbonate of lime, and with the phosphoric acid to 
form phosphate of lime. 


FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—LI. 


Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja- 
maica. By G. 8S. Jenman, Superintendent Botanical Garden, 
Demerara. 


15. Acrostichum muscosum, Swartz.—Rootstock stout erect, very 
densely clothed with long linear acuminate, reddish-brown slender scales ; 
stipites tufted, strong, 3-8 in. 1, densely clothed with two kinds of 
bright rather tawny scales, one small and appressed, the other large, 
loose and spreading ; fronds erect, lanceolate-oblong, 4 - 1 ft 1. 14 - 2} 
in. w., rounded at the apex, the base cuneate or nearly rounded, the 
margins often repand and uneven, coriaceous, dark green beneath the 
vestiture, both surfaces equally scaly, the scales generally diffused but 
not very dense, those of the upper side pale and more appressed, ulti- 
mately deciduous, beneath tawny, ciliate-edged, most plentiful along 
the costa and edges ; veins obscure, $ - 1 li. apart, forked; fertile fronds 
much narrower and on longer stipites.—Pl. Fil. t. 126. 

Common on the branches of trees in damp forests at 5,000 - 6,000 ft. 
alt ; well distinguished by the upright rootstock, tufted stipites with 
abundant large spreading scales, and erect round-ended fronds. It has 
similar pale bleached scales to Jepidotum on the upper surface, which 
also becomes naked in time, though as it grows in more sheltered situa- 
tions not so quickly or completely as in that species. The forms from 


89 


the mainland differ in some particulars from the Jamaica plant which 
IT have described and which is, no doubt, the type of the species. 


16. A. lepidotum, Willd.—Rootstock short-creeping, densely clothed 
with glossy blackish scales; stipites contiguous, 5 - 8 in. 1. coated 
throughout with appressed pale, or at first, rather fuscous scales ; fronds 
$ - 1} ft 1. 4-1 in. w.. accuminate or bluntish at the apex, the base 
tapering, coriaceous, dark green beneath the vestiture, upper surface 
covered by a thin coating of very pale much appressed lanceolate scales 
which at length drops off leaving it naked, the under densely matted 
and glossy with imbricating tawny or fulvous ciliate-margined scales 
which are persistent ; veins close, obscure ; fertile fronds somewhat re- 
duced, terminating abruptly at the unequal base, the stipites longer. 
Pl. Fil. t. 189. A. vestitum Schlecht. 

Common on open banks at 4,000 - 5,000 ft. altitude. This of all the 
species is the most densely coated on the under surface. The scales of 
the upper side are very deciduous, so that the mature fronds are naked 
above and densely coated beneath, by which feature the species may be 
immediately recognised. The abrupt termination and unequal sides at 
the base of the fertile fronds, shown particularly in the larger ones, is 
also a good distinguishing character not possessed by any other of 
these species. In the partially developed state of the fronds, the scales 
of the stipites are squarrose. 


17. A. squamosum, Swartz.—Rootstock short, stout, densely clothed 
in glossy, blackish ciliate-edged scales; stipites 4 - 8 in. 1, copiously 
furnished with spreading dark-fringed and ciliate reddish brown scales ; 
fronds pendent, 4 - 1$ ft, 1. 1 - 2 in. w., tapering at the base, the apex 
acuminate, flaccid when fresh, drying sub-coriaceous, dark rusty green, 
freely clothed, especially beneath, and on the rachis above and along 
the margins, with reddish-brown copiously ciliated scales ; veins simple 
or forked, # - 1 li. apart ; fertile fronds 4 - ? in. w. on longer stipites. 

Very abundant on trees in forests above 5,000 ft. alt., a fine species, 
easily recognised by its abundant clothing of bright reddish brown 
scales, which along the margins form a distinct fringe. Except on the 
rachis they are much more plentiful and larger on the under side than 
on the upper. It presents two states the larger of which is much less 
common than the smaller, but there are no other variations between 
them. 


18. A. hybridum, Bory.—Rootstock short, or shortly elongated, 
densely clothed with dark, fine, almost hair-like scales; stipites tufted 
or sub-tufted, slender, 3 - 6 in. 1. sparsely clothed with spreading dark 
hair like scales ; ultimately naked, light brown; fronds spreading or 
pendent, 4 - 1} ft. 1. 14-3 in. w, oblong or linear-lanceolate, acumi- 
nate, the base cuneate, chartaceous, or hardly firmer, very 
pellucid, bright green, rather paler beneath, with a slight fringe 
of dark hairs aiong the somewhat thickened margin while immature, 
quite naked with age; veins simple or forked, # - 1 li. apart; fertile 
fronds the same shape but reduced. Hook. and Grev. Icon. Fil. t. 
2l.avar. denudatum, Jenm.; much smaller and much barer ; stipites 14- 
: in. 1., fronds 3 - 7 in. 1,, the fertile a fourth or fifth the size of the 

arren. 


Infrequent on open banks, growing with other herbage, at 2,000 « 


90 


3,000 ft. alt. ; distinguished by the very dark hair-like deciduous scales 
that fringe the margins, the midrib on the under side, and petioles. 
With age the fronds become nearly or quite naked, when, but for their 
thinner texture they might be mistaken for those of Jatifolium, which 
in form they nearly exactly resemble, the venation however being 
rather more open and the apex more inclined to cuspidate. The pe- 
tioles and rachises vary from stramineous to a bright or dull reddish 
brown. a isa smaller variety a fourth or sixth the size of the type, 
with very little vestiture and permanent in these characters. It is 
much the more plentiful, generally gregarious with other herbage. 

A Boryanum, Fée, intermediate between villosum and hybridum, the 
fronds blunt or truncate, retuse and viviparous at the apex, very open 
venation, and hairy on the surfaces, likely inhabits Jamaica, but has 
not yet been recorded. 

19. A. apodum, Kaulf.—Rootstock short and broad, very densely 
clothed with light aureous long soft linear scales ; stipites tufted, several, 
4-4 in. 1, furnished with a few deciduous spreading hairs; fronds 
spreading flabellately, 6 - 10 in. 1. 3 - din. w., the apex shortly acumi- 
nate, gradually tapering from the middle, or upper third, to the base, 
chartaceous, pellucid; light but rather dullish green, a thin deciduous 
short fringe of hairs along the margins, other parts naked; veins 
forked ; fertile fronds the same shape, but much smaller.—Hook. and 
Grey. Icon. t. 99. 

Plentiful on open banks and in shade from 2,000 ft. alt. upwards, 
but chiefly in the middle mountain region ; a peculiar and well charac- 
terised species. The rootstock forms a flat broad cushion, clothed densely 
with the bright soft light aureous undulate scales, from which the 
fronds spring in a loose cluster, and spread flatty in the form of a fan. 
The stipites are very short, and hardly longer in the fertile than in the 
barren fronds, both of which in some cases appear as if quite sessile and 
the vestiture consists only in a short thin marginal fringe, which is 
deciduous. 

20. A. Cubense, Mett.—Rootstock short, fibrous, densely coated with 
aureous lanceolate acuminate crispate scales; stipites contiguous or 
sub-tufted, 4 - 14 or 2 in. 1. furnished with deciduous spreading rather 
ferruginous hairs; fronds oblanceolate, spreading 4 - 6 in. 1. 14-14 
in. w. shortly pointed or rounded at the apex, the base much tapering 
and decurrent on the slender petioles, chartaceous densely pellucid dot- 
ted, light green, deciduously clothed with scattered hairs, more plenti- 
fully on the midrib, a copious aureous fringe to the margins, veins close, 
1 - 3 times forked; fertile fronds much smaller, the same shape, but 
the tapering lower part more elongated. 

Infrequent between 2,000 - 5,000 ft. altitude. Allied to apodum but 
distinguished by the smaller rootstocks, shorter, oblanceolate fronds, 
which are rounded or very shortly pointed in the broad upper part, the 
base tapering gradually into the slender petioles ; by the more copious 
though deciduous hairs, which, as in the four preceding species, have a 
beautiful aureous tinge along the margins, and by the closer dichoto- 
mously branched veins. The rootstock is at length shortly repent, and 
in this state the stipites are not so near together. The old fronds be- 
come nearly bare, but more or less of the marginal vestiture is retained 
to the last. 


91 


21. A. spathulatum, Bory.—Stipites tufted from a small scaly root- 
stock, very slender, 14 - 2 in. 1. freely clothed with spreading silky 
yellowish bright hairs; fronds spreading 4 - 2 or 3 in. 1. 4 - ? in. b. ob- 
long or spathulate, the apex rounded, the base cuneate or tapering, soft 
in early growth, at length firm; pale green, both surfaces freely clothed 
with silky yellowish hairs, which are fringe-like around the margins ; 
veins forked ; fertile fronds on longer stipites, rounded, ovate or ellip- 
. 4-4in. 1. and nearly as w.—Fil. Escot. t. 29. A. piloselloides, 

resl. 

Infrequent on banks and rocks with moss and other herbage over 
2,000 ft. altitude. The localities of this species are infrequent, but it 
is usually plentiful where found. A pretty dimunitive plant, that re- 
semblesmuch, half buried in the moss in which it often grows, a sundew. 
It is abundantly fertile, and I have never observed it at any season of 
the year without the soriferous fronds. The small fibrous rootstock is 
clothed densely with bright-golden silky scales. The fronds are few or 
several. 


22. A. Lindeni, Bory.—Rootstock short, densely clothed with darkly 
ferruginous, crispate, slightly ciliate fine hairlike scales; stipites tufted, 
very slender, 3-5 in. 1. freely furnished with spreading ferruginous 
hairs; fronds pendent, variable in size, the —_— ovate or ovate-ob- 
long, the larger oblong-lanceolate, 14 - 5 in. 1. ? - 1} in. w., the apex 
acute or roundly pointed, the base eihaad or aaaate: chartaceous, 
densely pellucid-dotted, dark green above, paler beneath, more or less 
ciliate on both sides and with a fringe of ferruginous hairs along the 
margins, midrib slender: veins open, evident, 1 - 14 1. apart, simple or 
forked ; fertile se on longer stipites, rounded at both ends, ellip- 
tical, ? - 14 in. 1. 4 - # in. w.—A. venustum, Liebm. 

Infrequent on the sides of large rocks and banks in the forest above 
7,000 feet altitude, just below the crown of Blue Mountain Peak. 
Remarkable for its variable fronds and long very slender stipites, open. 
venation, and the dark tan-coloured scales, which on the surfaces of the 
fronds are to a considerable extent deciduous. 


23. A. stliquoides, Jenm.-—Rootstock short, stoutish, fibrous, densely 
clothed with silky hairlike yellowish or rather ferruginous scales ; sti- 
pites tufted, several, rather strong, 2-5 iu 1., freely clothed with long, 
spreading, aureous hairs; fronds linear-oblong, pendent, }-1 ft. l. jths- 
$ths in. w, the apex acute or bluntish, the base tapering, firm, densely 
pellucid dotted, light green, freely clothed, especially along the some- 
what nunte margins, with silky golden hairs; veins simple and 
forked, $-1 li. apart; fertile fronds rounded at both ends, ovate or el- 
liptical, s" -l¢invl. At. in. w., stipites longer thickened in the upper 
par 

Infrequent on open banks and rocks from 2,000 - 5,000 ft. altitude. 
Distinguished from villosum by the narrower, thicker more hairy bar- 
ren fronds, and difform spoon-shaped fertile ones, which are at first 
folded together, with close edges, like pods, opening out flat at maturi- 
ty. It has a peculiar astringent smell when growing. The long silky 
hairs densely envelope the young fronds. Seen in sunlight, on all 
parts of the plants, they have a most exquisite golden tinge. 


24. A. villosum, Swartz—Rootstock short, densely coated with hairliek 


92 


dark brown or ferruginousscales ; stipites tufted; slender, 2-5in. 1., freely 
clothed with long spreading ferruginous hairs ; fronds pendent, lanceo- 
late-oblong, the apex cuspidate or acuminate, the base cuneate, 4 - 8 
in, l, 1 - 1}1in.b, very thin, pellucid, pale green, thinly clothed on 
both sides with long spreading hairs, which form a fringe to the rather 
uneven margins; veins visible, open, 24 li. apart, simple and forked; 
fertile fronds the same shape, but greatly reduced, the stipites not 
much if any longer—Pl. Fil. t. 1387. Hook and Grey. Icon. t. 95. 
A. Plumieri, Fée. 

Common in damp forests from 2,000 - 5,000 ft. altitude on the sides 
of rocks; the commonest and best known mountain species of this 
group. ‘The substance is very thin and pellucid, in which the veins 
are conspicuously visible. Unlike the three preceding, the fertile 
fronds, though much smaller are the same shape as the barren, with a 
more copious gold-tinted fringe to the margins, and a band beneath 
free of sporangia, which contributes a very characteristic feature. 


25. A. crinitum, Linn.—Rootstock short, densely clothed with soft 
undulated yellowish scales; stipites tufted 6-10 in.1, strong, erect, 
dark coloured, most abundantly furnished with spreading long blackish 
hairs; fronds elliptical or elliptical-oblong, $ - 14 ft. 1. 6- to9 or 12 
in. w., broadly rounded at both ends or the top shortly pointed, fleshy, 
drying chartaceous, densely pellucid-dotted, very dark green, both sur- 
faces similarly criniferous, the margins freely fringed with long black- - 
ish hair, the midrib clothed more abundantly ; veins copiously areolated, 
areolae elongated, directed to the margins ; fertile fronds much reduced, 
the same shape, on longer stipites —Pl. Fil. t. 125. Hook and Grev. 
Icon. t. 1. Fil. Ex. t.6. Hymenodium, Fée. 

Common in places on rocks and banks in very moist forests between 
1,000-4,000 ft. alt. A singular, but well known species that has long 
been among the curiosities of European nurseries. The fronds are as 
large as dinner table mats, and are the large entire fronds in the 
American fern flora. The scales of the stipites are $ in. 1, spreading 
and exceedingly copious. Those scattered on the surfaces drop away 
in the course of time, leaving them bare. 


26. A. peltatum, Swartz.—Rootstock very slender, filiform, free- 
creepiug, clothed with bright brown lanceolate scales that are some- 
what spreading; stipites filiform, scattered, paleaceous to the top, or, 
at length, naked, erect, 1-34 in. 1., fronds flabellate-palmatipartite, 4-2 
in. diameter, repeatedly dichotomously divided to the axis into numer- 
ous spreading linear segments + - 4 li- w., theends of which are bifid 
or retuse and the final tips bluntish, firm, dark green, the under sur- 
face slightly scaly ; veins forked, simple in the final divisions ; fertile 
fronds palmate on longer more filiform stipites, reniform, entire or 
slightly bilobed nearly orbicular, with a thin scariose margin ; veins 
repeatedly dichotomous. Pl. Fil. t.50, A. Rhipidopteris, Schott. 

Infrequent on mossy logs, rocks and banks, in forests on shady moss- 
grown places from 2,000 - 6,000 ft. alt. The thin wiry scaly rootstock 
runs freely, throwing up fronds from 4 - 1 inch apart, the fertile being 
few in number to the sterile. The primary divisions of the sterile 
fronds are not stronger than the other divisions. 


27. A. sorbifolium, Linn.—Rootstock thick as a quill, long-creeping, 


93 


vertical, ligneous, scaly or barely glabrous; stipites few or many, con- 
tiguous or apart, erect-spreading, 4 - 14 ft 1. scaly at the base and often 
more or less so upwards; fronds pinnate, 1 - 24 ft. 1.4 - 14 ft. w., rachis 
slender, dark-brown, margined or not in the outer part, naked or palea- 
ceous ; pinne patent, cuneate or rounded at the articulated sessile or 
stipitate base, acuminate or cuspidate, even, or crenato-serrate-margined 
plain or striate-surfaced, 5 - 8 in. 1, 4-1$in. w., dark green above, 
beneath paler, chartaceous or membrano-chartaceous, pellucid, glabrous 
or slightly scaly on the ribs beneath; veins patent, simple or forked, 
usually close ; fertile fronds the same shape but pinne greatly narrowed 
and linear.—Sl. t. 38, Herb. pp. 81 - 83. Pl. Fil. t. 117. Onoclea Swartz, 
Lomaria, Kif., Stenocklena, J.Sm. Lomariopsis, Fée. 

Very abundant in forests, ascending the trunks of trees many yards, 
from the lowest valleys up to +,000 or 5,000 ft. alt. It begins growth 
on the ground, and at this stage the rachis is flatty winged and the 
pinnae uniformly toothed. The forms are exceedingly numerous, and 
no very clear line can be drawn between them. Locally there are two 
states, in one of which the pinnae are numerous (1 - 14 doz.) the ter- 
minal one absent, the rachis ending in a leafless point ; in the other the 
pinne are few (6-8) much broader and shorter, the terminal one 
present. 


28. A. osmundaceum, Hook.—Rootstock strong, ligneous long-creep- 
ing, vertical, densely filamentose, brown, scaly; stipites contiguous or 
apart, scaly at the base like the rootstock, brown ¥ - 1 ft. 1., fronds sub- 
deltoid, 14-3 ft each way, tri-quadri-pinnatifid, subcoriaceous, naked or 
the rachis and costal fibrillose beneath ; pinne petiolate, 1 - 14 ft.1.9-12 
in. w, the larger deeper on the underside; pinnule shortly petiolate, 
lanceolate-acuminate, 3 - 8 in. 1. 1 - 24 in. w., within pinnate, above 
this pinnatifid, passing through lobes to the fine serrulate point ; ter- 
tiary segments $ - 14 in. 1. 24 - 41. w., acute or obtuse, deeper on the 
upper side at the base, the under rather cut away and plain margined, 
the inferior ones roundly lobed, the outer serrulate or crenate-entire ; 
veins evident beneath, pinnate in the larger lobes, forked in the smaller; 
fertile fronds much the same shape, tri-quadri-pinnatifid, ultimate 
segments soriferous on one or both sides. about 1 li. w. and 2-61. 1. 
—Pl. Fil. t 32. SL. Hist. t. 60, Herb. p. 116, 154, 155. Hook. Gen. 
t.78 B. Polybotrya H. B. K P. cylindrica Kaulf, P. cyathifolia 
Fée. Fil. Ant. t. 2. 

Widely dispersed in woods and forests, from sea level to 4,000 ft. 
alt. ascending the trunks of trees often twenty or thirty feet. The 
fertile fronds are transient, and are only produced at seasons, so that 
the plants are generally seen with barren fronds only. The tertiary 
fertile pinnules are in the larger states sinuate, lobed or pinnatifid. 


94 
CONTRIBUTIONS AND ADDITIONS. 


LIBRARY. 


Annals of Botany. March, [ Purchased. ] 

British Trade Journal. April1. [Editor.] 

Chemist & Druggist. Mar. 12-26, April 2. [Editor.] 

Garden. Mar. 26, April 2. [Purchased. ] 

Journal, Board of Agriculture, England. Mar. [Editor. | 

Journ. of Botany. Apr. [Purchased.] 

Journal, R. Colonial Institute. Apr. [Editor.] 

Nature. Mar. 10,17, 24,31. [Purchased. ] 

Pharm, Journal. Mar. 12,19, 26, April 2. [Editor. | 

Sugar. Mar.15. [Editor.] 

Sugar Cane. April [Editor.] 

W.I. & Com. Advertiser. Apr. [Editor.] 

Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. Mar. 15-29. Apr. 5. [Hditor.] 

Tropenpflanzer. Mar. & Apr. [Hditor. | 

Bulletin de L’ Herbier Boissier. Mar. & Apr. [Conservateur.] 

Agr. Ledger. 1897. No.19. [Govt. Print. Calentta. ] 

Ceylon Times. Feb. 23 & Mars &10. [Editor.] 

Report R. Ceylon Bot. Gardens 1897. [Kditor.] 

Trop. Agriculturist. Mar. [EHditor.] 

Agr. Gazette, N.S. Wales. Feb. [Dept. of Agr.] 

Queensland Agri. Journal, Feby. ([Secy. fcr Agri.] 

Sugar Journal Queensland. Feb.15. [Editor.] 

Trans. Acclimatisation Soc. Queensland. Mar 1897. [Secretary. | 

Agr. Journ. Cape of Good Hope. Feb. 17 & Mar. 3. [Dep. of Agr.] 

Central African Planter. Jan. 15 & 22. [Editor.] 

Central Afriean Times. Jan. 29. [Hditor.] 

Maritius Revue Agricole. Jan. [Hditor. | 

Journal, Jamaica Agri. Soc. Apr. [Secretary. ] 

Botanical Gazette. Apr. [Hditor.] 

American Journ. of Pharmacy. Apr. [Hditor.] 

Torrey Club, Bulletin. Apr. ipntyid dr 

Province and Problems of Plant Physiology by Prof. MeDougal. Reprint from 
Science, VIL. 168, 1898. [Author. ] 

Fern Bulletin. Apr. [EHditor. ] 

Publications of the following Agricultural Experiment Stations, U.S.A,:— [Di- 


rectors. | 
Arkansas New Hampshire 
California New York, Geneva 
Kansas North Dacota 
Kentucky Ohio 
Maryland Oregon 
Michigan South Dacota 
Nevada Tennessee 


New Species of Chionaspis & Notes on previously known Species. Reprint, Cana- 
dian Entomologist. [ Author. | 

Report of Agriculture, N. Scotia. 1897. [Secretary.] 

Hawaiian Planter’s Monthly. Mar. [Editor. ] 


PLANTS. 
From Botanic Station, British Honduras. 
Brassavola nodosa Oncidium altissinum 
Epidendrum (2 spp.) O. Sp. 
H. venosum Schomburgkia tibicinis 


Lelia Digbyana 


[Issued 17th Aug, 1898. ] 


MAY, JUNE, & JULY, 1898. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


—_—_——— oe 


EDITED BY 
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc.. F.L.S. 


Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. 


CONTENTS: 


Vines and Vine culture PaGE 
India Rubber ~ 
Insects in Cigars 

_ Insects in grains and peas 

 UCoccidee or Scale Insects—X III 

- Burmuda Onions in Antigua 

_ Agriculture of the Sugar Cane—I 

Diseases of Citrus Fruits 

Ferns: Synoptical List—LII 

Contributions and Additions 


PRICE Ninepence. 


Parts 5, 6, 7. 


Vol. V- 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA. 


95 
103 
105 
106 
107 
110 
111 
127 
153 
163 


b A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name ana 


KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
GOVERNMENT PrintTING Orrice, 79 Dux Street. 


1898 


Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. 


JAMAICA. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


Vol. V. 
Parts 5,6, 7 


He 


New Series. | MAY, JUNE, JULY, 1898. 


VINES AND VINE CULTURE. 


By Rev. WiLuiAM GriFfFitTH. 


Read before the Kingston Horticultural Society at the Institute of 
Jamaica, 21st June, 1898. 


THE subject of my paper is “ Vines and Vine Culture”. The time 


-at our disposal will not permit of more than a very rapid glance at 


general principles whilst some attention must be given to those cul- 
tural details which are regarded as essentials to success. 


Man time out of memory has been a cultivator of the Vine and in 
one or other of its manifold products it enters very largely into the 
national, social and religious life of men almost everywhere. It is ca- 
pable of successful cultivation over a wide range of climate and the 
art of man has devised means whereby in places where otherwise its 
cultivation would be scarcely possible, grapes of the best quality and 
in great quantity are regularly produced. The number of recognized 
varieties in cultivation is very great. A healthy vine in vigorous 
growth is always a pleasant sight and a well grown cluster of ripened 
fruit is a “thing of beauty”. Grapes vary in size, shape, colour, and 
flavour very widely, the quality of the fruit however depends neither 
upon size, nor colour. Some of the smallest alike in bunch and berry, as 
for instance all the Frontignans, are most delicious grapes, whilst 


“<Buckland’s Sweetwater” a much more showy grape very easy to 


grow, and invariably yielding good crops has absolutely nothing to 
recommend it except its good looks. The “ Muscat of Alexandria” 
however, which is one of the freest bearers, stands perhaps without a peer 
for size of both berry and cluster and its invariable high excellence. 
Vines thrive best near the sea, or rather near the sea level—this is so 


96 


here, it is also true in England where I believe most, if not all, the 
great grape growing establishments are little above sea level. The: 

robable reason may be the more even temperature as between day 

and night that prevails on the low lands as compared with the hills. 
During the twelve months of the year the vine can bear very wide 
divergencies of temperature but a difference of from ten to fifteen de- 
grees is allit can endure with safety as between noon and night. 
There is also considerable difference in the adaptability of varieties 
for special localities. Some that are highly prized and largely grown 
in temperate regions are failures in the tropics and on the other hand 
kinds that are not regarded as very desirable elsewhere under a change 
of environment do excellently well here. 


Vines can be brought into bearing the second year and as a matter 
of business it is well known that quantities of grapes are so produced 
whilst on the other hand with proper care a vine may live andfyield 
annual crops of fruit for centuries. 


A vine consists of root stem, branches and canes. The root and/stem 
are the original vine—the branches may be any age from two years and. 
upwards, the cane is the result of the previous season’s growth and it is 
on this cane that all the natural processes of leaf, blossom, tendril and 
fruit are carried on and completed. It is also on this ripened jcane, 
the produce of the past season, that we rely for the crop of the next 
season. 


You will perceive that the cane I now hold in my hand is jointed— 
i.e, it consists of nodes and internodes—this formation is peculiar to the 
green shoot and the ripe cane, and if any portion of this cane is left to 
form a part of the permanent vine it disappears. On this node or joint 
all the processes of growth are carried out. On one side we have a leaf 
—this leaf however you see changes sides every other node and in the 
axil of the leaf there are two buds, one of which is usually found push- 
ing into growth. This growth is commonly known as the sublateral— 
the province of this sublateral is to keep the second bud quiet and also 
to assist in its ultimate development into a plump mature bud capable 
of giving fruit the following season. To remove this sublateral en- 
tirely would be either to start the second bud into growth and so destroy 
all hope of fruit from it, or else so to reduce its proper amount of sus- 
tainance and so render it very doubtful if it could yield fruit. The 
usual procedure in these circumstances is to follow the middle course 
and pinch it back to one bud and to keep it so pinched until the season 
of growth is over; at the time the vine is next pruned it is entirely 
cut out. 


On the other side of the node you may see a cluster of fruit, or a ten- 
dril, or the node may be barren. Every node has a leaf; the life-time 
of which is about nine months—having served its urpose it falls away 
of itself. Every node however does not hae have fruit, or ten-— 
dril. More than two succeeding clusters or ‘ondatly are never seen to-- 
gether—at least every third node is barren. The tendrils also invaria- 
bly follow the cluster and never under any circumstance precede it. 
In Spring after the vine has been pruned and growth has commenced, . 
it 1s easy to see where the fruit will be—it generally appears after the 


97 


third leaf and the first cluster may be followed by another, as a rule a 
smaller cluster, or by atendril, Two clusters together are always 
followed by a barren node and that by either another cluster or a ten- 
dril. So soon however as atendril appears there is no further hope 
for fruit on that cane. These facts go to prove that cluster and ten- 
dril are identical organs and are an illustration of the resourcefulness 
of natural laws in adapting an organization when no longer needed 
for one purpose to another very different but equally useful end. The 
leaves are attached to the node very slightly and may easily be broken 
off. It is not so with the peduncle of the cluster or the tendril—the 
fibres in their case run through into the cane and their tensile strength 
is very great. The influence of the tendrils has a great deal to do 
with the growth of a young vine. Give it nothing to lay hold upon 
and so to speak to pull itself up by, and it will sprawl upon the ground 
and never make a good plant ; but put something that it can climb up 
conveniently near, and you will soon see it reaching out to it and 
when it once lays hold it will not let go but if exposed to wind will 
tie a knot and so make itself secure. 


It is on this green shoot when developed into ripe cane that the 
fruit of the following season is to be borne. The more perfectly this 
process of ripening has been performed, the more sure we are of the 
coming crop and the better also for the crop itself. Half ripened cane 
is seldom of much good and growth of over two seasons seldom or ever 
bears fruit. The point we wish to make here is this :—that it takes 
two seasons to produce a bunch of grapes—one to grow the fruiting 
cane and a second to grow the fruit itself— no possible manipulation 
of the vine can shorten this process. Whether fruit is taken from the 
cane that bore last season crop or a new cane is grown from the old 
wood the result is in each case the same. The shoot that has borne 
fruit once never bears fruit again, and further the cane that might have 
borne this season but from any cause did not do so never gets another 
chance. It can at the time of pruning be cut out, or it can be trained 
in and so become part of the main body of the vine, but it can never 
give fruit. 


You will see from this that one essential condition of successful vine 
culture is constunt careful attention from first to last. uch season 
the vine has a twofold office to fil, first to carry to maturity its crop of 
fruit and next to ripen properly the canes for the following year. As 
a rule a vine that can do either, can do both and to secure these desirable 
ends over-cropping must be avoided and only sufficient shoots should be 
allowed to grow as may be required for fruiting cane for the next season 
and the more you can moderate your demands under both these heads 
the more likely are you to succeed. 


The selection of a site for either a vine or a vineyard is a matter of | 


some importance. © In towns as a rule there is little room for choice in 
the matter. It is indispensable however that sunlight and plenty of 
air should be secured. Any good garden soil will do fairly well and 
our natural drainage is generally ample. Where such is not the case 
it should be provided. Good drainage means good ventilation of the 
soil, and that means that all the processes essential to fertility are at 


98 


work, The soil is warmer, is better supplied with moisture, there 
is no stagnant water, and root actionis rapid and constant. Before the 
vine is planted the soil should be well broken up to the depth of eigh- 
teen to twenty-four inches. The deeper and broader the tillage—-the 
larger the root run, the ampler will be the food supply and the 
more vigorous your vine. 


- Some well rotted stable manure, wood ashes, broken bones and 
lime rubbish added at the time the ground is prepared will be of last- 
ing service. Top dressings of manure in the form of heavy mulching 
during active growth are very useful. They keep the roots moist and 
warm and also add to the food supplies. The less the soil is after- 
wards disturbed the better. Where stable manure is used constantly 
a light dressing of lime every three or four years will be of benefit. 
Stable manure forms humus, and humus in the soil adds to its water 
holding capacity, increases its warmth, helps it to hold elements of 
plant food and to convert fertilizers into a form assimilable by the 
plants. A good root run with plenty of food and drink at hand, 
will not only give youa healthy fruitful vine but will keep it so. 
Badly nurtured vines are exposed to numberless perils from both insect 
pests and disease, which healthy vines escape. 


Il take it for granted that none—now that young plants of good 
varieties of grapes can be bought for a nominal sum, will lose time 
and spend labour in raising their own vines from cuttings or eyes. 
Having everything in readiness when you plant your young vine let 
the surface of the soil for from 12 to 18 inches round it be about 3 to 
4 inches below the surface of the surrounding ground—let the collar 
of the vine—i.e. where the junction of the new growth is made with 
the old wood be just beneath the surface of the soil—if possible let no 
old wood be visible. As the vine makes growth this slight depres- 
sion will come in useful both as a convenience for mulching and water- 
ing as well as keeping the new roots at home. Little by little about 
an inch at a time the soil can be raised round the vine until it is level 
with the surrounding surface—into this new soil the vine will send 
out a multitude of rootlets and the old wood from which the shoot 
originally grew will gradually perish and you will get what is practi- 
cally a vine from a bud which is the very best possible. 


So soon as root action begins and new growth shows; a slender 
twiggy stick about five to six feet long should be given it to climb up. 
Without this artificial aid the vine will show possibly two or three 
growths—not one of them of any value and it will sprawl all over the 
ground. On whatever side you insert the stick the vine will find it, 
lay hold upon it, and then will not be long in finding its way to the 
top. 


By this time there will be developed on the new growth a series of 
sublaterals. These must be stopped at the first leaf and as new 
growth shows, be kept stopped. They must not however on any ac- 
count be taken entirely out—their province is to feed and develop 
the main growth and if they are removed the cane will probably ripen 
when little thicker than an ordinary lead pencil whilst if left on, it 
will be many times stouter. All vine growers are agreed I think as 


99 


to the forgoing treatment of the young vine but they are not agreed 
as to the treatment of the main growth or leader. The general rule 
is to let it roam at will and sometimes when the vine is vigorous and 
the treatment liberal a growth of twenty, thirty or more feet may be 
made during the season. 


It has been my practice to restrict both laterals and main growth 
and I believe it is the right thing todo. I pinch the tip out when a 
few feet of growth is made and-repeat the process once or twice. I 
find others sometimes do the same. 


Mr. A. Young, one of England’s best grape growers says ‘‘ Young 
canes planted this season must not be allowed to ramble too much; 
both the leader and sublaterals being kept well in hand” and Mr. 
Stephen Castle of Bottlesford Vineries, perhaps the greatest authority 
living on vine culture says “It is a grave error to encourage the wild 
growth of the leader im young vines.” The restrictive method recom- 
mended secures a good vine in less time and the general stamina of 
the vine is improved. 


Vines may be trained in a variety of ways and each different way 
has both its advantages and its advocate. Thousands of vines and 
tons of grapes are grown annually in pots. Some varieties do ex- 
ceedingly well in pots and where grapes are wanted and land can- 
not be had for a permanent arbour this method might often be use- 
fully adopted. 


Another method and one that has much to recommend it is the 
espalier or horizontal trellis. This is a neat, clean, easy method of 
training which gives a maximum of result for a minimum of labour. 
Every part of the vine is easily at all times accessible. Every portion 
of the vine is (except at noon) exposed to the action of light and air. 
There is also the flat or sloping arbour, the method most generally in 
use here, and we presume from its universal adoption that it is the 
method that has been found best adapted to our circumstances. 
Whatever method of training may be followed the principles that 
govern the training, pruning and after treatment are the same. 

Fruit may be taken from a vine the second year—it is however bet- 
ter not todo so but to wait one or even two years longer by which 
time the vine should be strong and vigorous enough to yield fruit for 
many years. Pruning is an intentional and artificial removal of cer- 
tain portions of the vine to serve one or more of the following ends, 
viz.:—To give some desired shape to the vine itself either as a matter 
of taste or of utility, to remove superfluous or ill-placed growth—to 
concentrate the vital forces of the vine within a limited area—to se- 
cure an even distribution of fruit over the different parts of the vine— 
to open up and keep the canes with foliage and fruit well exposed to 
the influences of air, light, and warmth, and to secure more and better 
fruit. You may put a new reading into the old proverb—‘ Spare the. 
knife and spoil the vine” for “a vine left to itself bringeth its owner 
to shame.” 


Many varities, such “ Muscat of Alexandria”, ‘‘ Madresfield Court”, 
“Black Hamburgh” and “Fosters Seedling” do best when pruned 


100 


back to one eye. Madresfield Court is a magnificient grape and it is a 
pity that it does not do well with us. A handsomer grape when well 
grown cannot be found and for quality it is very difficult to beat. 
Foster Seedling is very fruitful but requires a great deal of care and 
is only a second class grape when at its best, but where grapes are in 
demand and earliness with good looks count, it is worth while to grow. 
Muscat of Alexandria will give good fruit under any method almost. 
When cut back to one eye the clusters are not large but they are cam- 
pact handsome and heavier than they-look. Pruned to three or four 
eyes the clusters will be larger, but looser and not by any means so 
good in appearance, 


Vines that lose their first and second leaves early in the season are 
better pruned to the second or third eye. Young vines pruned to 
one eye invariably do well, but in the case of old vines—say ten or 
more years it is better to cut back to a good plump visible bud. Black 
Barbarosa pruned to one eye is often totally barren. Vines should be 
pruned at the same time every year. By careful treatment and taking 
the vines in hand early it should be possible to get in time good crops 
of fruit fat any period of the year. Vines may be pruned for fruit 
any time between January and the end of April. The time when it is 
best to do so depends upon the variety and the time when ripe fruit 
is wanted. The same variety prunedin January will not mature a 
crop as quickly as it would if pruned in March or April The Fron- 
tignans take about four months—Muscats five and Gros Colman takes 
over six months and in dry seasons will keepin good condition on 
the vines for a month or more longer. 


Autumn pruning will give a crop but is seldom satisfactory in either 
quantity or quality. 


In pruning, first cut out all the dead or dying wood. Ona well 
kept vine there ought to be no dead wood. We are speaking now of 
a vine such as we commonly see, one that receives attention only once 
a year when half acart load of worthless growth has to be cut out. 
Then take out all the thin feeble immature growths that are perpet- 
ually showing on the trunk and branches of old vines. You ought 
then to have nothing left except the ripe canes from which you 
are to get your crop. These you cut back to the bud from which you 
desire to take fruit. As arule except in the instances already men- 
tioned the first bud is the best. It may very likely be almost invis- 
ible but if you have a good ripe cane it is there nevertheless As 
you begin so finish. Apply the same principle to all the canes alike. 
If you cut some to the first eye and other canes to the second, third 
or fourth eye because they chance to be plump good looking buds you 
will have an irregular break. The poorest eyes will push first and 
from your best wood you may possibly have no break at all. Cut out 
completely all sublaterals. Leave nothing on the vine except 
what has a purpose to serve by being there. There is less risk of 
bleeding when vines are pruned in dry bright weather. I have seldom 
been troubled by vines bleeding after pruning neither have I noticed 
any harm to the crop as aresult of it. So soon as growth begins, 
bleeding ceases and when the sap is in motion, as in every case of 


101 


‘bleeding it must be, the new growth soon appears. Between the time 
when the last fruit is cut to the time of pruning a vine ought not to 
need much water, all the needful growth by this time should be com- 
pleted and the ripening of the cane during the fall will be more 
thorough if the water supply is restricted. Should there be dryness 
at the roots, a day or so before pruning give the vine a good watering. 
Never start a vine into growth with dry roots. After pruning and 
when the new growth has begun the vine must on po account be al- 
owed to go short of water, periodical soakings of water—the warmer 
the better should be regularly supplied. Too much is better than too 
‘little asif the drainage is good the soil will soon put itself right, 


So soon as the new growth shows where the fruit will be, disbudding 
must have attention. By disbudding we mean the rubbing off with 
the thumb and finger where two or more buds show close together ; 
all except one—the one left being the one in the best position and also 
removing any buds which if left on would result in over-crowding. 
The next step is pinching back to the third or fourh leaf all fruit bearing 
canes and the tying in out of the way of the cluster any non-bearing 
cane that it may be desirable to retain as a fruit bearer for the follow- 
ing season. Most vinesif at all free bearing will show more fruit 
than they can properly mature. This raises the question as to how 
many and what clusters should be allowed to remain. Some shoots 
will show only one cluster—the majority will however be likely to 
show two and now and again a cane may have three clusters. Here 
is a Gase in which two are not better than one, and where three is 
worse yet. Never leave more than one cluster on one cane and that 
not always the one that promises to be the larger. Well finished me- 
-dium sized olusters are worth more than poorly finished larger ones. 
Nothing is lost by restricting the crop but sometimes a great deal in 
the way both of weight and quality is gained by it. The orop left on 
should be distributed over the entire area of the vine as evenly as pos- 


sible. 


After the fruit has set, no time must be lost in the thinning. Free 
setters such as Frontignan, Foster Seedling, Gros Oolman, Royal 
Ascot and others will be irreparably injured by delay. Muscat of 
Alexandria, Bowood Muscat and Canon Hall Muscat are shy setters— 
thinning in their case may be safely delayed a while longer until it is 
seen what the set is. 


Ordinarily it is safe to say that from one third to one half of the 
‘berries may safely be cut out but an experienced grower more anxious 
for quality than quantity would go yet further and take out fully two 
thirds. In the case of long loose strag xling clusters the bottom berries 
seldom are worth anything—they fail to develope and are slow to 
‘ripen— it is best to remove them and so have a shorter but much bet- 
ter looking cluster. Some varieties are heavily shouldered whilst 
others are destitute of it. At the time of thinning these shoulders 
should either be carefully tied up or else cut out—to allow them to 
remain and press upon the body of the cluster will do mischief. 


From this time the after treatment should aim at maintaining the 
eyine in vigorous health. Pinching back the sublateral growths on 


102 


bearing canes—removing as it shows all superfluous growth which if 


allowed to remain would tax the resources of the vine needlessly— 


seeing that the roots are never allowed to become dry—if this: 


once takes place the cane begins to ripen and the growth of the 


berries ceases—they begin to ripen also but so long as the cane retains: 
its green colour so long both cane and cluster will continue to grow. | 


By these means you may hope not only for grapes the present season 
but a supply of good cane with a prophesy of better things the season 
to follow. ; 


Just one word in conclusion as to the varieties that it is desirable to 
cultivate. Tastes differ and no one variety suits everybody. At the 
head of the list we must put Muscat of Alexandria and where only one 
vine can be grown then we say let it be Muscat of Alexandria. The 
green shoots in young vines are apt to suffer from Black Rot, but about 
half a pound of powdered Sulphate of Iron (green vitriol) dusted over 
the earth and raked in will remedy this evil. 


Asa second vine where more than one can be grown, my choice 
would be either Royal Ascot, Mrs. Pince’s Black Muscat or Madres- 
field Court, Alicante or Alnwick Seedling. These are all black grapes. 
Royal Ascot is a free bearer—the clusters never turning the scale at 
over a pound oftener from eight to ten ounces but the grape is very 
handsome and the quality excellent. Mrs. Pince isa muscat grape 
having the same flavour as Muscat of Alexandria. It is a free bearer— 
has done very well with me and is every way amost desirable grape. 
Madresfield Court I have grown but it is a difficult grape to grow well 
and I have oftener failed than succeeded. Where room is ample I would 
however recommend a trial. Success where every one succeeds is much, 
but to succeed where others fail ismore. Alnwick Seedling is handsome, 
good flavoured, very fruitful and not difficult to grow well—the berry 
is quite as large as Muscat of Alexandria and isa mid-season or late 


grape. : 


Grapes that ripen in the shade are of a superior flavour, take a 
better colour, look better and keep better, the skin is tenderer and the 
ripening is more uniform than when exposed to the full light and heat 
of the sun. Early grapes ripen and take colour better than late 
grapes. Just as a vine should only have as “many clusters as it can 
mature and perfect thoroughly so also it should only be allowed to 
have as many canes as it can easily ripen for next season’s fruit bear- 


ing. Make your demands upon your vine as little exacting as you can; 
give it kind and generous treatment and it will repay your care abun- 


dantly. 


103 
SOURCES OF COMMERCIAL INDIA-RUBBER. 


By Dr. Morris, C.M.G. 
Cantor Lxucrures. Socizty or Arts. 
Lecture I. delivered April 18th, Summary by the Lecturer. 


Since the days when Le Condamine first described the rubber tree of 
Brazil and Don José, King of Portugal, in 1755 sent several pairs o 
his royal boots to Para in order that they might be covered with the 
water-proof ‘‘ gum-elastic,” the use of India-rubber has enormously 
increased. Besides the demand in almost every department of arts and 
manufactures the rapid development of cycling and of the use of rubber 
tyres for carriage wheels has added largely to the increased consumption 
of this interesting article. The quantity of raw Caoutchouc imported 
into the United Kingdom in 1830 was only 23 tons. Even in the year 
of the accession of our Queen it was only about 200 tons. Last year it 
had increased to 20,000 tons —exactly a hundred fold. aighsonait hp Ol 


The present value of the imports are about 5 million sterling. The 
total trade is probably not less than 10 million sterling. More than 
one-third of the imports is now received from British Possessions. In 
1888 only about one-fifth was so received. Itis estimated that the 
world’s consumption of rubber is 60,000 tons, of the value of 14 
millions sterling. ‘This stupendous quantity of raw material is labour- 
iously extracted from the milky juice of trees and shrubs belonging to 
three natural orders viz., the Spurges (Huphorbiacee), the Nettles 

¢(Urticacee) and the Dogbanes (Apocynacew.) These plants are dis- 
tributed over nearly every part of the tropical zone—none are found in 
the temperate zones—the most important bein x found in the vast basin 
of the Amazon, an area almost as large as that of the Continent of 
Europe ; others are found on the Kast and West Coasts of Africa, in 
Assam and the Malay Archipelago. 


Hitherto the preparation of India-rubber has depended upon the 
crude hereditary art of a semi-savage people, the rubber-hunters, who 
explore the depths of tropical forests and obtain the rubber milk at the 
sacrifice of millions of trees, which owing to the recklessness with which 
they have been treated are yearly decreasing. 


The result is that many localities where rubber was once abundantly 
obtained have almost ceased to produce it. New sources of supply have, 
it 1s true, been found in West Africa, especially in Lagos, the Congo 
State and Portugese south-west Africa. But here also the work of 
destruction is rapidly going on. ‘The collectors have to go further and 
further into the interior and the cost of transit is thereby greatly in- 
creased. An account was given by the Lecturer of an important discovery 
whereby rubber could be extracted from the milk in a perfectly pure 
state. This isa mechanical contrivance on the principle of a cream 
separator. This was likely to prove of great value in the preparation 
of Central America and some West-African rubbers where the milk 
flows in an appreciable quantity and is capable of being brought in by 


104 


‘the collectors. It would be indispensable on regular plantations of 
rubber-trees. By such means the process of preparing the rubber could 
be kept under scientific control and all injurious substances such as the 
proteids and all dirt and chips excluded. The value of rubber so 
prepared has been shown to be increased fully 25 per cent. 


The rubber-trees of Brazil were then exhaustively described, together 
with the distribution of the various species yielding the Para rubber of 
commerce. The exports from Para in 1897 includmg rubber received 
from Bolivia, Peru and Venezuela amounted to 22,650 tons. Of this 
amount 51 per cent. was shipped to the United States and 38 per cent. 
to the United Kingdom leaving only about 11 per cent, or 2,500 tons, 
for all other countries. 


The priee of Para rubber which regulates the price of all other sorts 
has been steadily increasing since 1894 when it was 2s. 11d. per pound ; 
in 1895 it rose to 3s. 2d.; in 1896 to 3s. 4d.; in 1897 to 3s. 64d. 
while the average price for the first three months of 1898, was 3s. 94d. 
At the last sales on the 15th inst.. it was 3s 11d. per pound. 

It was however, pointed out that these prices were below what they 
were in 1882 and 1883, when fine Para fetched 4s. 4d. per pound. 


Concluding Lecture delivered April 25th, 1898. 


There is a concensus of opinion that in nearly all localities in Central 
America the trees of Castillo. elastica are being gradually exterminated. 
Hence the supply of rubber from Mexico, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and 
the U.S. of Colombia is steadily diminishing. The interesting tree 
yielding Ceara rubber (Manihot Gilaztovtt) readily propagates itself and 
its area has not apparently sensibly diminished of late’years. ‘he peo- 
ple are, however, being attracted more and more into the rubber districts 
of the Amazon valley and the amount of Ceara rubber exported is com- 
paratively small. : 


Mangabeira rubber on the other hand seems to be increasing. The 
tree Hancornia speciosa is found in the States of Pernambuco, Bahia, 
Rio de Janeiro, and extends westward to Matto-Grosso. The rubber is 
eured by means of alum, it is of a pinkish colour and the price is gene- 
rally only one half of that of fine Para. Passing on to the rubber-pro- 
ducing areas of the Old World it was stated that the rapid development 
of African rubber was one of the most remarkable incidents of recent 
years. As regards the world’s commerce Africa now occupied an im- 
portant place as a source of India-rubber. The value of the imports of 
African rubber into the United Kingdom during 1896 amounted to over 
a million sterling. Of this Foreign Possessions supplied rubber to the 
value of £206,972 and British Possessions £844,840. Up to within a 
recent period all the rubber produced in Africa was obtained from 
climbing plants belonging to the genus Landolphsa, with sweet-scented 
flowers and edible pulpy fruits. In 1894 anew rubber tree Kicksta 
-was found at Lagos from which in 1895 rubber to the value of nearly 
£300,000 was exported. 


More recently still another new rubber plant (Carpodinus) has been 


105 


discovered in Africa. This is of a semi-herbaceous character with 
underground stems which are rasped in water and yield rubber of 
excellent quality. 


The rubbers of Assam, Burma,Penang, and Singapore were then 
dealt with. Borneo rubber although known since 1798 has only come 
into commerce within the last fifty years. It is yielded by climbing 
plants, closely related to the Landolphias of Tropical Africa and is gene- 
rally of excellent quality. 


New Guinea rubber is in part yielded by a species of Ficus. Thenatives 
are said to allow the sap torun over their arms and body, and when 
hardened, they remove it and roll it up into balls the size of cricket balls. 
The prospects of obtaining some of the future supplies of rubber from 
cultivated trees were favourably regarded. In selecting sites for plan- 
tations, preference should be given to localities in which the trees were 
already found. Para rubber trees introduced tothe East at the expense 
of the Government of India had done remarkably well in Ceylon, 
Tenasserim, and the Straits Settlements. In Ceylon such trees were 
estimated to yield 120 lbs of rubber per acre after the tenth year. This 
would give a probable return of 20 per cent. on the capital invested. In 
the Straits Settlements the trees were found to yield at an earlier age 
and the estimated returns per acre were placed as high as 30 per cent. 
It was stated that where rubber trees were cultivated under suitable 
conditions they would probably yield a larger quantity of milk than 
wild trees; also that the rubber from the greater care and attention it 
‘would receive would be more uniform in quality and therefore obtain a 
higher price. 


INSECTS IN CIGARS. 


Report by Artuur G. Burier, Assistant Keeper, in charge of the 
Entomological Department, British Museum of Natural History. 


With reference to the letter from Mr. Secretary Chamberlain touch- 
ing the injury done to cigars in Jamaica by a small boring insect,* it 
appears that :— 


1. The insect is a small beetle allied to the “ Death-watch Beetle,” 
although it has incorrectly been called the “‘cheroot weevil ;” its name 
is Lasioderma testaceum, Duft., and it is known in this country as des- 
tructive to ginger, to boot linings, &. (We found the larva by break- 
;2g up one or two of the cigars ) 


2. The injury which this insect does to cigars is not confined to Ja- 
maica, but interferes seriously with the exportation of Indian cheroots. 
3. Attempts to destroy these insects by subjecting the cheroots to a 


* Sent to England by the Director for a report by an expert. 


106 


temperature of 80 or 90 degrees of centigrade for a few hours were 
found to injure the flavour of the tobacco, and therefore it has been 
suggested that the most likely means of reducing damage would be to 
keep the leaf during the process of manufacture, as much as possible 
out of the way of old cheroots and refuse tobacco, and to pack the 
cheroots in as air-tight a manner as possible, to prevent the beetles 
getting into the boxes to lay their eggs. 


It however seems probable that a more certain way to prevent mis- 
chief would be to clean out and thoroughly fumigate the warehouses 
and manufactories periodically and thus destroy all insect life in these 
buildings; this could not, of course be done whilst the cigars were in 
store as the fumigation would doubtless injure their flavour, as steaming 
undoubtedly would. 


ArtHur G. Burer, 
25th May, 1898. 


REMEDIES AGAINST INSECTS IN GRAIN, 
PEAS, &e.* | 


An application has been received for information as to a remedy for 
weevils infesting red peas, (Phaseolus nanus). The weevil was submitted 
to Mr. Tyler Townsend, Curator at the Jamaica Institute, and was 
determined as Bruchus tetricus. 


In the Kew Bulletin for July, 1890, there are two methods described 
as being successfully employed in India in granaries for preventing the 
ravages of a weevil. 


One of these methods is by the employment of carbon disulphide, the 
other of naphthaline powder. 


As the former of these substances, however, is poisonous, inhalation 
of the vapour finally producing coma; inflammable, its vapour igniting 
at 801° F. when mixed with air ; and explosive when mixed with an 
amount of air containing three times its volume of oxygen ;—it Is 
scarcely so convenient for use as naphthaline powder. This latter sub- 
stance is cheap, and a very small quantity placed at the bottom of the 
bin or receptacle in which peas or corn is stored will keep out insects; 1¢ 
can be obtained from druggists. 


The following is the plan recommended for applying the powder, if 
weevils are found in the stored grain. 


“Tt is best to place the naphthaline powder at the bottom of the bin 
or bulk of grain. To accomplish this, take a bamboo, about 14 inches 


* From Bulletin No. 47, September, 1093. 


107 


jn diameter, and long enough to reach from the top to the bottom of 
the bulk of grain. Punch the joints out of the bamboo, so as to be able 
to pass a stick through from one end of the bomboo to the other. Have 
the stick made to fit the cavity in the bamboo. Pass the bamboo with 
the stick in it, down through the bulk of gain from the top to the 
bottom. Withdraw the stick, and drop into the top of the bamboo 
about half a teaspoon of naphthaline powder. The bamboo can then be 
drawn out, as the naphthaline is safe at the bottom of the bulk of grain. 
If the bulks are large this should be done once to every 10 feet square 
_of the bulk. Repeat the application every 15 or 20 days as the powder 
evaporates. 


‘The weevils that can leave the grain will do so, and those that can- 
not leave are killed by the odour of the naphthaline. I do not believe 
that naphthaline thus used can cause any injury whatever to grain. 
For seed purposes the germinating powers appear not to be affected in 
the least. For marketable grain the colour is not affected, and the 
_odour will leave in a short time if fresh naphthaline is not applied to 
it. The quantity of powder used is infinitely small in proportion to the 
quantity of grain, and the powder is entirely destroyed by evaporation, 
so that for food purposes the effect is nt/.” 


COCCIDZ OR SCALE INSECTS—XIII, 


By T. D. A. CockEReE, Entomologist of the New Mexico Agricultura 
Experiment Station. 


The following species and varieties have been added to the West In- 
diana fauna since the groups to which they belong were discussed in the 
present series of Articles. 


(12a.) Margarodes formicarum, var. rileyi, Giard, 1897. (Riley’s 
Ground Pearl.) On the shore at Port Royal are washed up 
quantities of small pearl-like objects, of a beautiful golden-brown 
colour. ‘These are the shells of a species of Margarodes, which 
M. Giard has named as above. ‘The same insect has been found 
in quantity at Largo Key, Florida. by Mr. W. T. Swingle. I 
am by no means certain that this insect is an inhabitant of 
Jamaica, as it is well known that seeds from Trinidad can be 
found in the drift outside of Kingston harbour, and there is no 
telling whence the Mangarodes shells may have floated. 


-(86.) Rhizecus eloti, Giard, 1897. (Hlot’s mealy-bug). 
This is a small mealy-bug, 2 mm. long, which infests the roots 
of coffee trees in Guadeloupe. Itis of a greyish colour, with 
more or less of the usual cottony secretion. M. Giard’s speci- 
mens were found by M. Auguste Elot The genus Rhizecus was 
established by Kiinckel d’Herculais in 1878 for a species (R. fal- 
cifer) found on the roots of an Australian palm ; it resembles 


108 


Dactylopius, but the female is said to be eyeless, with five-seg- 
mented antenne the last segment of the antenna with sickle 
shaped hairs, and the tarsi with no digitules. 


(87.) Phenacoccus barberi, Ckll, 1896. (Barber's mealy-bug). A 
large mealy-bug discovered by Mr. C. A. Barber in Antigua, on 
Aliamanda, Thunbergia, etc. Mr. Barber also found it at St. 
Kitts, and Mr. Urich found it infesting orange trees in Trinidad. 
This insect will be known by its comparatively large size (length, 
not counting the tails, 5mm.) and the fact that the antenneze 
have nine joints. It is likely to become quite destructive. In 
Mexico is found a very closely allied form (P. yacce), of which 
P. barbers is perhaps only a sub-species. 


(88.) Dactylopius nipe Maskell, 1893. (The Nipa mealy-bug). <A 
red mealy-bug of small size, with seven or eight segments to 
the antenne and the cottony secretion unusually firm, arranged 
in distinct tufts. The male is brownish-red. Originally des- 
cribed from specimens found on Nipa frutieans in Demerara; 
since found by Mr. Urich in Trinidad. 


(89.) Dactylopius sacchari, Ckll, 1895. (The sugar-cane mealy-bug — 
of Trinidad). An olivaceous or pinkish mealy-bug, with seven- 
segmented antenns, found under the leaf-axils of sugar-cane in 
Trinidad. 1n 1896 Mr. Maskell received specimensof a mealy-bug — 
from Mauritius, on roots of sugar-cane, and on examination they 
proved to be this same D. sacchari.. It seems that the insect 
has been known to planters for many years in Mauritius, and no » 
doubt it was introduced into Trinidad with sugar-cane from that 
region. 


(90.) Ortheziola fodiens Giard, 1897. (The Guadeloupe Ortheziola). 

A small insect with waxy lamelle, found with Rhicecus eloti on 
the roots of coffee trees in Guadeloupe. 
The genus Orthesiola was established in 1894 by Sule for a spe- 
cies (O. Vejdovskyi) found under leaves and moss in Bohemia, 
differing from Ort/ezia in having only four segmeuts to the an- 
tenn, and the tibia not separate from the tarsus. 


(46a.) Asterolecant :m bambuse var. bambusule Ckll. (Lhe small bam- 
boo fringed-scale.) This is a small variety (female scale 2 mm. 
long) found on a small species of bamboo in Grenada, by Mr. 
W. E. Broadway. 


(91.) Pulvinaria broadwayi, CkIL, 1896. (Broadway’s Cottony Scale) 
A small species essily known by the cottony matter entirely sur- 
rounding (but not covering) the scale, and not much projecting 
behind. The marginal spires are very numerous, and the an- 
tenne are eight-segmented. Found by Mr. Broadway on a culti- 
vated plant not identified in Grenada. 

(92.) Pulvinaria brasste, Ckll. (The Orchid Cottony Scale). A spe- 
cles with a very narrow ovisac, allied to P. simulans, found on 
orchids. It was found on a Brassia in a hothouse in Canada, 
but more recently Mr. Hart has detected it in Trinidad. 


109 


(98.) Ceroplastes euphorbia, Ckll., 1896. (The Euphorbia Wax. 
Scale). A small wax-scale (34 mm. long), with the wax not 
divided into plates, but the plate-nuclei; or knobs very distinct, . 
each onasmall dark pink patch. Discovered by Dr. M. Grabham 
in the Red Hill district, Jamaica, on Euphorbia hypericifolia. 
From it was bred a parasite. which Dr. L. O. described as Aner- 

 sstus ceroplaste. 

(94.) Ceroplastes confluens, Ckll. and Tinsley, 1898. (The Confluent 
Wax Scale). A species found in Jamaica, in which the wax of 
the several individuals runs together and surounds the twig. A 
description was sent in 1896 to the Journal of the Institute of 
Jamaica, but has not yet appeared in print so far as the writer 
knows. 

(95.) Lecanium batate, Ckll., 1895. (The Sweet Potato Shield Scale ) 
A small (8 mm long), soft, pale ochreous, broad oval scale, found 
on the tuberous roots of the sweet potato in Antigua by Mr. C. 
A. Barber. In shape and size it has a general resemblance to 
L. terminalia. 


(96.) Lecanium nanum, Ckll., 1896. (The Dwarf Shield Scale). 
Very small (14 mm. long) flat, reddish-brown or yellowish, broad 
pyriform in outline. Antennz seven-segmented. Found asso- 
clated with an ant (Asteca chartifex, Forel) in Trinidad by Mr. 
J. H. Hart. 

(97.) Lecanium punctatum, Ckll. 1895. (The Speckled Shield Scale). 
A small hemispherical scale, 84 mm. long, ground-colour pale 

_ ochreous peppered with brown, but largely excluded by reddish- 
brown blotches with blackish spots in their centres. Found on; 
Citrus in Grenada by Mr. W. E. Broadway. 


The following changes in nomenclature should be made :— 

(4.) Dactylopius adonidum, (Linné) Signoret. 
Syn.: Dactylopius longispinus, Targ.-Tozz. 
Syn.: Dactylopius longifilis, Comst. 

(6.) Dactylopius citri (Risso, 1818) Signoret, 1875. 
Syn.: Dactylopius citri (Boisd.) : 
According to Berlese the Coccus farinosus, DeGeer, 1778, is the 
same insect. I have held this doubtful, but if our insect is;really 
identical with DeGeer’s, we must call it Dactylopius farinosus. 

(21.) Lecansum nigrum var. begonie (Douglas). 
Syn.: Leconium begonie, Douglas. 

(22.) Lecanium nigrum var. depressum (Targ.-Tozz) Maskell. 
Syn.: Lecanium depressum, Targ.-Tozz. 

(23.) Lecanium coffee Walker. 
Syn.: Lecanium hemisphericum, Targ.-Tozz. 

(59.) Diaspis calyptroides, Costa, var. Cacts (Comst) Maskell. 
Syn: Diaspls cacti, Comst. 

(62.) Parlatoria proteus var. crotonis, (Ckll.) 
Syn.: Parlatoria pergandti var. crotonts, Ckll. 

(71.) Ischnaspis longirostris (Sign.) 
Syn.: Mytilaspis longirostris, Signoret. 

Syn. : Ischnaspis fili/ormis, Douglas. 


110 
BERMUDA ONIONS IN ANTIGOUA. 


By ARrcHIBALD SPooNER. 


The cultivation of the White Bermuda Onion is gradually being ex- 
-¢ended here, and in a few years I think will form an important article 
of export. The secret of success seems to be the choosing of rather 
poorish clay loam soil containing a fair amount of lime, such as a run- 
down cane piece, and avoiding any manure, especially artificial manure; 
on rich land or where manure is used, onions will hardly form bulbs, but 
_allthe growth goes to leaves andstem. I have grown onions in Victoria, 
Australia, where it was always held that heavy manuring was necessary, 
but here in the tropics the reverse seems the case. 


The following hints may be useful. Use only ‘‘ Bermuda onion 
seed” either “red” or ‘‘ white.” The seed comes from Teneriffe ; neither 
Spanish, Italian or Madeira onion seed is any use in Antigua, the plants 
never bulb satisfactorily, but grow either to thick necks or divide up 
the roots like shallots. The best soil is a rather heavy calcareous loam 
that crumbles on the top intoa fine mould, by the action of sun and 
rain, and is thus easy to weed. The land must not be too rich, a cane 
piece from which old ratoons have been cut is quite rich enough with- 
out any manure. Of course it must be properly drained. On land of 
the above description, manure, especially artificial manure like sul- 
phate of ammonia or guano, does harm, the onions nearly all running 
to top and not to bulb. The seed should be sown in boxes in a good 
sandy loam, quite shallow not more than a quarter of an inch of soil 
covering the seed, and special care should be taken to compact the soil 
round the seed, for which purpose the rows may be pounded with the 
edge of a brick, the earth may then be watered and kept damp, but not 
too wet or many of the young plants will die; in seven days most of 
the seed will be above ground. Never use any manure, especially dung 
manure, in the seed boxes, the young plants are very liable indeed to be 
killed by nematode worms and these are always worse in soil enriched 
with dung. ‘The young onions come up all right, but when about 14-2 
inches high, shrivel up just at the ground level and die. If you cannot 
get soil free from these pests, put your earth into an oven and bake it 
before sowing the seed: this is a good plan anyway, as the weed seeds 
are killed too. Plant the young plants out when about as thick as a 
slate pencil, about 6 inches apart in the rows, and the rows far enough 
apart to work a hand hoe between. 


The best month for sowing seed here is October, planting out the 
young plants in November. ‘he onions will be fit to pull about March, 
when the rains have stopped, and they can ripen up in the dry soil. 
When the leaves are yellowish, the onions can be pulled up and left on 
the ground for a few days to harden, then moved to a shaded but windy 

lace and thoroughly dried until the tops are quite brown and can be 
pulled off without showing a green centre shoot, they will then keep for 
9 or 3 months at least, in a cool and airy place, as long as they are not 
piled up in a heap, or in barrels. _ Several caterpillars of moths attack 
the plant here at all stages, especially a black caterpillar ; look out for 
these about a week before new moon, and pick them off. 


EEE: 
- AGRICULTURE OF THE SUGAR CANE.—I. 


Extracts from “Sugar Cane, Vol, I.” by Dr. Witttam Srusss, 
‘Director of the Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station. 


Edited by Francis Warts, Government Chemist, Jamaica.* 
RAINFALL. 


It is generally estimated that an annual rainfall of about sixty inches 
is most advantageous for the growth of cane. This amount should be 
-well distributed over at least ninety to one hundred days, of which 
about forty-five inches should fall durmg the wet or growing season, 
and about fifteen inches during the dry. However, annual rainfalls of 
double this amount occur in parts of Reunion and Guiana where they 
make large crops of cane; but as remarked elsewhere, such canes are 
always green and give low sugar contents. On the other hand, cane — 
is grown now most successfully in countries with a very small rainfall 
by irrigation. Indeed it may be said, that when the temperature 
and soils are suitable, that cane growing by irrigation is the most re- 
munerative. The largest crops, ripened artificially by the withholding 
of water, are obtained, and the output of sugar per acre in such coun- 
tries is enormous. (') 


Cane growing by irrigation has given yields surpassing the highest 
records of the best sugar countries. The presence of humidity in the 
air deemed heretofore necessary to successful cane growing, was but a 
means to prevent evaporation and to maintaiu moisture, conditions most 
suitable to the wants of the cane. In irrigated districts, little or no 
humidity of the air exists. 

DRAINAGE, 


Nowhere on earth is drainage more essential than in the alluvial dis- 
tricts of Louisiana, and while many plantations may be considered well 
drained, the average planter has not yet fully appreciated the necessity 
for multiplying open ditches to the extent of forcing his soils to their 
fullest capacity. This is evidenced by a trip over the State and observ- 
ing the varying distances between ditches which obtain in different 
plantations. 


*It is thought desirable to present to the readers of the “ Bulletin” a series of 
extracts from a recently published treatise on the Sugar Cane by Dr. Stubbs the 
well known Director of the Louisiana Experiment,Station. This work summarises 
all the latest information on the subject, and coming from so eminent an authority, 
the opinions expressed cannot fail to command respect and must prove both in- 
teresting and useful to those connected with the sugar industry in any part of the 
world. 

In a few instances the practices recommended hardly apply to the conditions 
prevailing in Jamaica and the West Indies generally, being based upon the con- 
ditions peculiar to Louisiana which has only a semi-tropical climate and a distinct 
winter period. For the most part however therules and suggestions laid down 
are of world-wide application. F. W. 


<1) Should there be a revival of the sugar industry in the West Indies the irri- 
gated districts of Jamaica offer great facilities for cane cultivation. With the 
abundant streams of the island the irrigated areas might be greatly increased. 
It is highly important to remember that the mechanical or physical condition 
of the soil of irrigated districts must be carefully attended to, thorough tillage and 
_thorough drainage must accompany irrigation. 


112 


Only in very dry seasons can badly drained lands be made to- 
yield large crops. Since these unfortunately occur only at long in- 
tervals, the average yields on such lands are far below their natural 
capacity. On badly drained lands neither fertiliser nor cultivation have~ 
their full effects, hence the discordant opinions which frequently prevail 
among our planters, from the use of the same fertiliser or the same 
method of cultivation. From the experience of this Station it is almost 
impossible to be ‘‘ over-drained,” provided the work of draining be in- 
telligently performed. It is well for every planter to study his system 
of drainage, examine his ditches, see if they be deep enough, wide 
enough and sufficiently abundant to carry off our heaviest rainfalls and 
retain the “bottom or ground water” ata constant depth below the 
surface. Excellent results can be obtained with open ditches, provided 
they are numerous, deep and wide. 


In the lower sugar districts these ditches should be at least as close as- 


100 to 152 feet, and deep enough to hold the bottom water at least 
three feet below the surface. 


The expense and attention annually required for the preservation of. 
open ditches and the loss of land incident to them, together with many 
other disadvantages would force all ot our planters sooner or later to 
adopt tile drainage, but for the great first cost, and to the absence of 
fall in the lands by which the tiles can clean themselves. 


IRRIGATION. 


The Louisiana sugar planter of to-day is confronted with low prices: 
and unreliable labour, depleted soils and reduced yields. reciprocity 
treaties and increased imports, monopolistic trusts aud monied com- 
binations, prolonged drougths and injurious rainfalls, He must therefore 
call to his aid every means which will remove the obstacles to maximum 
crop production. Next to drainage, irrigation is perhaps the most 
needed factor in the preblem of annual large crops. A full crop is 
rarely obtained oftener than once in five years, and eighty per cent. of 
the failures are assignable directly to drougths. Irrigation therefore, 
eliminates the great element of chance from our planting operations, 
and together with good drainage makes the planter nearly independent 
of the freaks and idiosyncrasies of the weather. 


The results from irrigation of cane have been uniformly successful 
and satisfactory, sufficiently so to justify the assertion that the profits of 
irrigation were very large in tonnage and with no sacrifice of the sugar 
content of the cane. : 

In establishing irrigation ditches, the reverse of drainage ditches 
must be observed. In the latter the line of lowest level from the levee 
to the swamp, is found and followed, while in establishing the main 
irrigation ditch the backbone, or line of highest elevation, is carefully 
determined and pursued. ‘This ditch transports the water through the 
plantation. From this ditch on both sides water may be drawn into 
the lateral or quarter drains, following still the lines of highest elevation. 


From these laterals, water may be drawn into the lowest parts of the 
field. Our plan in irrigating was to fill the middles of the row nearly 
full, permitting the water to remain allnight and drawing it of in 
early morning thiough the drainage ditches. By accident however, it 


113 


was found that cane would stand a complete inundation for forty-eight 
hours, with the water at a temperature of 72 degrees, while the 
maximum temperature recorded in the station’s weather bureau was 90: 
degrees F. No fears should be entertained of injuring the cane by too- 
much water, for a reasonable time, say two days, in applying it, provided 
that when it is drained off, it is well and quickly done, in other words, 
the land is well drained. 


Water can easily be drawn from the adjacent river, or bayou, by 
nearly every sugar planter in the State. ‘The erection of a boiler, pump 
and syphon will be needed to lift it over the levees. Nowhere, possibly, 
can a systematic irrigation plant be established and maintained at a less 
cost than in Louisiana, and our very variable seasons demand it as an 
adjunct to every plantation that aims to make maximum crops every 
year. 


SuGcar SoIts. 


From what has been already said, those soils which contain the largest 
fertility, and have a large water-holding capacity, are best adapted to 
large crops of cane. Requiring so much moisture, the cane, like all the 
grass family, does best upon clayey or heavy loam soils unless artifi- 
cially aided by irrigation. ven then the soils must be sufficiently re- 
tentive to prevent a too rapid downward percolation of supplied water, 
or else the profits will be exceeded by the costs of too many irrigations 
and the washing away of the soluble plant food. 


Included in “fertility” is a large amount of humus or vegetable mat- 
ter which is the controlling factor in determining the amount of fine 
earth and moisture in a soil. ‘Tropical soils, subject to heavy rainfalls, 
are almost universally adapted to the growth of sugar cane, since the 
heavy rains induce a luxuriant growth of vegetation upon such soils, 
and this vegetation, in its transition intohumus, furnishes simulta- 
neously organic acids which decompose the soil particles into very fine 
earth. Hence such soils, in the course of time, become rich in organic 
matter and very finely divided earth, the latter supplying the mineral 
and the former the nitrogenous food, and both (but particularly 
the humus) retaining that excessive moisture so essential for healthy 
cane growing. (7) Perhaps the heaviest acre crops of sugar in the 
world are taken from the soils of the Hawaiian Islands. There are four 
large islands in this group, whereon sugar is grown in large quantities. . 
Hawaii is a wet island, the cane crop depending wholly upon the natural 
rainfall. The other three use regular irrigation in the growing of cane. 
Dr. Walter Maxwell, Director of the Experiment Station at Honolulu, 
in a recent publication, gives a summary table, shewing the mean of the 
results in the examination of the soils of the four islands, which are 
based upon nearly one hundred analyses, which is here given : 


(2) At the same time it must not be forgotten that the high temperatures of the 
tropics lead to rapid decay of organic matter, so that, unless a sufficient amount of 
vegetable matter be returned to the soil, there is danger of the humus being re- 
duced to so small an amount that the soil becomes unproductive or worn out; 
obviously this risk is greater in tropical than in temperate climates. but at the 
same time, the difficulty is more easily overcome owing to the fact that crops to be 
ploughed in as green dressings can be grown almost all the year round. F. W 


114. 


Lime Potash Phos. Acid Nitrogen 

Island per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. 
Oahu *380 *342 "207 "176 
Kauai 418 309 *187 227 
Maui 396 "307 270 *388 
Hawaii *185 "346 °513 °540 


With such fertile soils, and with perfect control of the supply of water 
no wonder that ten tons of sugar have been made per acre. 

Soils are only disintegrated rocks mixed with vegetable debris and 
more or less charged with micro-organisms, through whose agency the 
food for plants is rendered available. _It is not only necessary that an 
abundance of plant food exhibited by chemical analysis be present, but 
it must be in an available form. The more finely divided the rock 
particles, the larger the quantity of available food, the greater the sur- 
face areas of its particles, and therefore a large increase in surface 
tension which gives an increased capacity for holding moisture. There- 
fore the mechanical condition of a soil is frequently of more importance 
than a chemical analysis. Formerly a soil was regarded as being a 
mass of inert matter whose ingredients were rendered soluble by the 
action of air, water and chemicals. ‘I'vis view has given way to a know- 
ledge recently gained by scientific investigations, that all fertile soils 
are swarming with microscopic organisms which are essential to the 
proper elaboration of the food materials in a soil for plant use 

Hence a thorough investigation of a soil involves a chemical analysis, 
a mechanical separation of its particles. a study of its physical proper- 
ties, and a microscopic research for its bacterial content. (*) 

A chemical analysis will give its contents of silica, iron, alumina, 
lime, magnesia, potash, soda; phosphoric, sulphuric and carbonic acids ; 
chlorine, nitrogen, etc, The total quantities of each of the above solu- 
ble in the selected solvent are given, but no definite methods has yet 
been devised by which a knowledge of the immediate availability of 
these ingredients may be obtained. Chemical analysis has, however, a 
high value in the hands of a trained chemist. 

The particles of soils vary greatly in size as well as in constitution, 
and a knowledge of the mechanical formation of a soil frequently throws 
a flood of light upon its relation to heat and moisture, as well as sug-. 
gestions upon its cultivation. It has been conventionally agreed that 
all particles in a soil between 1 and 2 mm* in diameter shall be called 
fine gravel; between -} and | mm coarse sand; between ‘25 and ‘5 
mm., medium sand; between .l and .25 mm., fine sand; between .05 
and .l mm., very fine sand, between .01 and .05 silt between .005 
and .Ul mm., fine silt and .0001 and .005 mm., clay. Such an 
analysis describes the textures of a soil and determines the crop 
which should be grown thereon, by comparing the water-carrying capa- 
city of the soil with the water requirements of the crop. To illustrate, 
the more clayey the soil, the greater its carrying capacity, and the 
nearer the approach to pure sand, the more droughty it becomes. 
Grasses, in which sugar cane may be placed as a gigantic specimen, re- 
quire at least 25 per cent. of moisture continually in the soil for best 

(3) A recognition of these points is essential if scientific and progressive agri- 


culture is to prevail. F.W. 
* Note—mm., millimetre = .0393 of an inch. 


115 


results, a condition found frequently in clayey bottoms; while some 
vegetables, as melons, do best on soils carrying only 4 per cent of water 
and hence find congenial environments in our climate on very sandy soils. 

Other crops grown in this laiitude require intermediate quantities be- 
tween these two extremes. 

It may be remarked, on the other hand, that very large quantities of 
clay or sand are often equally objectionable, giving excesses of moisture 
or dryness, both being detrimental to the welfare of bacteria, which are 
necessary to soil fertility. 

The conditions necessary for bacteriological existence in our soils are the 
presence of air and water, a favourable temperature, an absence of light, 
the presence of proper chemicals, and inoculation with the bacteria desired. 

The bacteria best known, and in which we are mostly interested, are 
those taking part in nitrification, and are of three distinct types or 
genera: 1. Those which convert nitrogenous matter into ammonia. 
2. Those which convert ammonia into nitrous acid. 3. Those which 
convert nitrous acid into nitric acid. Hach are necessary to the com- 
plete transformation of nitrogenous matter in the soil to nitric acid, the 
form of nitrogen chiefly available as plant food. Since nitrogen is the 
most costly ingredient of our fertilisers, estimated at present to be worth 
15 cents per pound, itis evident that the farmer or planter should 
endeavour to maintain such conditions in his fields most favourable to 
“these ferments, and thus enhance his harvests by drawing upon his soils 
rather than upon purchased fertilisers. 

With these preliminary remarks, let us examine several typical soils. 
of each of the sections of the sugar belt The following are given from 
hundreds of analyses made in the laboratories of the stations, and are 
selected because they represent typical soilsand have also been subjected 
to mechanical analyses, which are given further on. These soils repre- 
sent the alluvial soils of the upper and lower positions of the cane belt of 
‘the Mississippi river, the brown loam and whitish soils of the bluif for- 
mation, and the sugar lands of the Red river deposits. 


Tasuz No, 1. 
Ohemical Analyses of Soils. 


3 a 
® i 
$ ; 2 
Me ne baled |! 
Locality. » of is S/S) A] 
Lond om < <q ) 
ro i hare OE a SA Bia 
aka 3 PCRS Bec eee ian = WD 
Sieiah s | Sige) es) a| Ss 
ete | co boa a |e alololZ 
van Hall Plant. cwt. 9 ...{88.720}.092].158} .394 | .087} 1.12 |.068].028/2.96|.097 
26 .-.(83.510}.170).173} .272 | .047] 6.620|.137|.038)/4.45).118 
“ + eS .-.|50.800).133].143} .545 | .044{ 5.041/.103].038) ... | ... 
ze - "30 ...{83.680}.162).142) .313 | .025) 6.33 |.126].046/4.10).130: 
a ve 44 .../83.710].125).184| .182 | .036} 5.68 |.075).139)3.91).120: 
‘ ‘BZ ' .«/79.210).112).111, .434 we. | 6.99 |.075/.037|/3.51).117 
Home Place -»- 86.016].233/.081}1.494 | .039] 6.822) .095/.043)1.90).060 
.. (86.420). 206). 122/2.376 | .052| 5.256) .092).031/3.33/.084 
Sagar ioe Sta., dark soil .../62.550}.747|.1 1] .910 |1.361]13.444),146| ... |6.65).086 
af light .|70.102}.414).021] .787 | .814]11.28 |.161} 019/3.16).112 
State Exp. Sta., Baton a bluff 
to SSOTe -.|90.650}.100|.078] .170 | .114/4.225 |.064).036/3.15).096 
Subsoil of same 89.79 |.164|.054) .163 | .160] 6.510'.128).025/2.74!.074 
Ditto, white soil 187.72 .120|.076| .060 | .121] 6.67 |.112/.021/2.82).080 


Subsoil of same ---|83.00 |.180).123] .120 | .085! 8.80 }.106).016/4.21'.105 


116 


An inspection of the above and many other similar soils would lead 

‘to the conclusion that the contents of valuable ingredients in the aver- 
age soils of the sugar belt would be about as follows :—Lime .5, potash 
.4, phosphoric acid .1, and nitrogen .1 per cent. In an acre to the 
depth of 12 inches, estimated to weigh 5,000,000 pounds, there would 
be 25,000 pounds lime, /0,000 pounds potash, and 5,000 pounds each 
of phosphoric acid and nitrogen. An average cane crop of 25 tons in- 
cluding tops and fodder, will contain about the following: —Lime 20 
pounds, potash 60 pounds, phosphoric acid 35 pounds, and nitrogen 75 
pounds. Hence there is lime enough for 1,250 crops of cane, potash 
for 333, phosphoric acid for 150 and nitrogen for 70. 

There is, therefore, no deficiency of plant food in our average sugar 
soil, and the aim of every planter should be to extract yearly the maxi- 
mum amounts, which can be obtained only with proper drainage, supply 
of water (irrigation) in summer, and proper preparation and cultivation 
of the soil. 

Table No. 2 gives the mechanical analysis of the soils whose chemical 
analyses have been given. Additional soils characteristic of many 
localities are also given. 


TasLE No. 2. 
Mechanical Analyses of Soils 
} 
| a) & 2 
| rE ar 8) & =| = Rig He > 
— 3 cel #& | = Ve) alo] s 
S div gig=| Als Fl 8] SIS/4 
Locality. E g\3 Slat z = Fe us if S 2| 
Is sie PiSalsale Slfes| 21/315 
a NZ “15 ‘lo — - lo peir+ es 
Aig. |® la iS) |S (89 asia 
= [5 A & F&F |e fF Jo |miea 
| 
Evan Hall ewt. No. 9 ..|0.00 \v.11 0.14/0.64/47.28] 25.66| 4.88 13.40/4. 9612.96 
“ * No. 26 ..|0-00 [0.19 (0.34|0.76,22.40) 39.88) 8.30| 19.28/4.42/4.45 
‘ * No. 37 -.(0.00 0.11 (0.23)1.39)33.05| 23.58] 8.14] 24.40!5.00/4.10 
« “No. 44 {0.00 [0.09 |0.28/1.00|22.15) 25.93] 9.12] 31.25/6.27/3.91 
“ “ No. 52 ...0.00 (0.08 |0,.280.58)23.55, 37.73] 7.51) 22.44)/4,32)3.51 
Andubon Park (dark soil) _10.082'0.064 0.11/0.62/11.49) 19.54/14.94] 41.29)6.69|6.50 
«ight soil) ..|0.00 |0.055.0.11/0.71/26.22| 34.99) 6.95] 22.28/4.(0/4.64 
“ plat VIL A. "..10.00 '0.084.0.58,0.3637.82) 28.04) 6.83) 20.64/3.30|3.49 
«  « Dlat VII. D. "10:00 (0.0700.18|0.78| 4.72| 19.1612.68| 47.00/7.7815.61 
Home Place. (front) ..(0.00 |0.06 0.07|0.22/61.43) 26.37| 2.08] 6.65/1.56|1.90 
«6 4 (back) ...10.00 |0.05 0.06/0.21/36.41) 42.78] 4.26, 9.06/2.34)3.33 
State Exp. Station (bluff soil) ...|0 01 |1.08 0.40/0.55)21.65) 55.44) 9.45) 10.90)0.98/1.58 
“ « “(subsoil) (0.05 |0.14 0.31|0.37/15.75| 47.28] 9.33] 21.12)2.41/2.17 
“(white soil) —...(0.00 |0.09 0.50|0.71/19.99) 55.52) 8.78] 9.74/1.38/2.29 
é #6 Cgubsoil) (0.81 0.26 0.31|0.43)17.82| 48.69 9.50| 17.212.58]2.62 


J 


From table No. 2 it will be seen that very few of these soils can pro- 
perly be called sandy. hey are loamy silts or silty clays. Their 
water capacity is great, reqniring special attention to drainage in order 
to reduce it to the amount most favourable to soil ferments. The clayey 
content of several suggests the propriety of breaking at exactly the right 
time—neither too wet nor too dry—throwing it into ridges to relieve 
it of excessive moisture and providing for escape of flood waters. 

The red river soils, particularly the front lands, are largely composed 
of very fine sand, with small portions of clay, while the blufis .nd 
prairie soils are mainly silt. 

Numerous experiments have been made at the Sugar Experiment 


117 


“Station during the past two years to determine the rate of nitrification 
-on the different soils and at different depths, and on soils variously 
treated. 

In every instance nitrification was most abundant at a depth of three 

to four inches, decreasing in depth until at two feet it was practically 
naught. In lands in good tilth, or manured with stable manure broad- 
cast, or with a good growth of cow peas, nitrification was rapid and 
copious. It was moreabundant on the ridge of the rows than in the mid- 
dles. Drainage could almost be measured by the rate of nitrification. In 
‘badly drained soils it was almost entirely absent, while high dry ridges 
gave abundant evidence of the activity of the microbes. An immersion 
of the soil for a few hours, by a heavy downpour of rain, suspended for 
two days the process of nitrification. It was more abundant in soils 
lightly stirred than in those cultivated with the plough. 

Soils stirred daily gave increased quantities of nitrogen over those 
stirred weekly, and more in the latter than in those stirred bi-weekly. 

In fact, good drainage and frequent surface cultivations were prime 
factors in rapid nitrification. 


PREPARATION OF SOIL. 


With this knowledge of our soils we can now proceed to apply the 
well-established principles of preparation of all crops. 

Since these soils are so strongly silty and clayey, and being level, are 
‘without natural drainage, it is manifest that they should be placed in a 

condition of artificial drainage, to insure warmth and necessary condi- 

tions of bacterial growth. Every operation should look to the mainte- 
mance of these conditions. Hence flat culture is unsuccessful. They 
should be broken as deeply as possible to admit air to assist in drying 
out excessive water, and most important, to give as large an area as 
possible for the foraging of the roots of the cane, since experiments have 
shown that in stiff lands but few roots pass beyond the broken soil. 
‘They should be broken as early in the fall as possible, thrown into high 
ridges and the middles, quarter-drains and ditches well cleaned out, for 
the quick removal of winter rains. 

The spring should find each row in the condition of an ash bank, and 
the planter should endeavour to keep it so by proper cultivation through- 
out the season. 

We break land to prevent the natural tendency of all soils to return 

-4o rocks, evidenced frequently in the hardpan just beyond the plow. We 
break land to destroy weeds and grasses and relieve the soil of 
foulness, preparatory to the growth and sustenance of the cultivated 

- crop. 

We break land to control moisture, throwing up in high ridges to re- 
lieve excessive moisture and flushing or ploughing flat to conserve the 
winter's rainfall for the summer’s crop, on dry soils. If the work of 
preparation has been properly done, in accordance with the nature of 
the soil and the demands of climate, subsequent planting and cultiva- 
tion are simple processes. 

If, however, our work has been imperfectly performed then subse- 

- quent cultivation must be directed to the acquirement of tilth, which is 

simply obtaining the best conditions for the growth of crops. 

Tilth, however. should always be obtained, if possible before planting 


118 


and then cultivation would simply be a maintenance of tilth. Unfor- 
‘tunately such a happy condition does not always prevail. From haste, 
overcropping, bad weather, carelessness, and sometimes from ignorance, 


furrows are hastily thrown together, seed planted in cloddy soil, ditches- 


shallow and foul. The poor stands thus obtained are cultivated more 
with a view of getting land in good tilth than to benefit the plant. 
Again, the crop, after it has reached the age when rapid and shullow 
culture should be practised, is, from causes given above, lett to contest 
with grasses and weeds the soil designed solely for it; or perhaps untfa- 
vourable seasons may keep away ploughs until weeds and grass have taken 
possession of the land. Then come the turn ploughs and hoes, and by 
heroic efforts they are buried or removed. In either event, the results 
are the same, the crop has not been improved by such treatment. 


Pian PursvuEeD By Our PLANTERS. 


The plan usually pursued by our best sugar planters is as follows: 
Corn planted early and laid by early, and at lay-by sown in cow peas 
at the rate of one to three bushels per acre. The corn is gathered early 
and the vines turned under in August or September, with four to eight 
mule ploughs. The lands are thrown into beds or rows from 5 to 7 feet 
wide, the middles are broken out with double mould-board ploughs, 
the quarter-drains are cleaned to a depth of six inches below middles 


of the rows, the ditches are maintained at the proper depth. The 


rows are opened, the cane is planted and covered. 

If every detail has been properly attended to, the soil in the rows will 
be maintained throughout our winters in a condition favourable to nitri- 
fication and growth. No water should at any time cover the rows even 
for a short while, and the drainage should be such that none should 
ever accumulate either in the middle or quarter drains. | 

The above plan, if rigidly followed, leaves but little room for im- 
provement in the preparation of our soils for cane. (*) If the subse- 
quent cultivation of the crop was as skilfully and scientifically performed, 
our acie yields would be greater and our money returns more satisfac- 
tory. ‘he fundamental principles underlying successful agriculture 
everywhere may be expressed in the following: A thorough preparation 
of the soil, proper fertilisation and shallow and rapid cultivation. 


VARIETIES OF CANE, 


Chapter X of Dr. Stubbs’ Treatise deals with the subject of varieties® 


After alluding to the sources from which the various canes have been- 
collected the writer says :— 

These importations, together with collections of those varieties import- 
ed prior to 1585, make up the “ garden of sugar cane varieties,” which 
has been cultivated for several years with the hope that some variety 
would be found which would be better adapted to our wants then those 
now cultivated in our State. Up to date our results have not been 
satisfactory. Cane is a plant which yields slowly to its environments. 
It requires a long time and considerable patience to acclimate it. The 
inherited characteristics of tropical tendencies so unsuitable to our short 
seasons, are but slowly modified by cultivation in our climate. There is, 

(4.) The introduction ot systematic rotation of crops, and the regular use of 


green dressings with leguminous crops appears very desirable in Jamaica, and_ 
throughout the West Indies. Bi W.. 


kt ge ee ee a a ee 


119 


however, a slow but gradual chenge in nearly every variety with each 
year’s cultivation, anda few promise hope of ultimate benefit to our 
industry. But the acclimation of old varieties, with the view of obtain- 
ing those best suited to our wants, has been entirely superseded by the 
introduction of seedlings. 

After describing their attempt to obtain seedlings from their own 
seed, he says :— 

In 1893, just as we were recovering from sore disappointment in our 
failure to secure either plants from seed or seed from plants, the station 
received from the Royal Agricultural Society ot British Guiana, twenty- 
one of the most promising of the new seedlings originating at Barbados. 

The seedlings from cane seed vary very greatly in almost every re- 
spect, size, colour, sug»r content, habits of growth, ete. Out of 500 
young seedlings, perhaps only a very limited number will prove, upon 
investigation, worthy of further propagation. This property of varia- 
tion common to nearly all plants, is excessively great in sugar cane, and 
hope was entertained that through this property and by careful selection 
a cane may ultimately be obtained which will be rich in sugar and at 
the same time give a large tonnage—the goal of every sugar planter’s 
ambition. For the first time in the history of our cane culture such an 
opportunity is presented through this property of variation of seedlings: 
Heretofore any marked change in varieties came from accidental bud 
variation, which occurred at rare intervals and were often lost by virtue 
of the absence of a trained and intelligent eye to detect and utilise it. 
By selecting at maturity from a large number of seedlings those plants 
whose vigour, size, and sugar content, or some other desirable property, 
wete peculiarly marked, and propagating them, over 500 new varieties 
of cane have thus been introduced, From this large number further 
selection is being made annually, and those superior to the rest have 
been generously distributed throughout the sugar world in order to test 
them under varying conditions. Should concurrent testimony be ob- 
tained from many sources, the cane will be named and largely propa- 
gated. 

The nomenclature of the varieties of cane is execrable, No sooner 
is a cane received in a country than it is given a local name, either that 
of the introducer, or the country from which it was directly imported. 
This is especially true in this State, where we have the Utaheite cane, the 
Japanese cane, the Palfrey cane, the La Pice cane, etc. ‘The canes intro- 
duced and thus named arefrequently identical with those known in other 
countries by old and well established names. Frequently importers ignore 
old names and the countriesfrom which the y comeand call them by some 
descriptive property, more frequently colour, e.g., green, yellow, yellow- 
striped, red ribbon, etc. Several of the consuls in sending canes to the 
station, mentioned only local names or colour and omitted entirely the 
history of the canes sent. Ever since the reception of this large number 
of varieties, the station has been making earnest and persistent efforts 
to establish the identity of many of its varieties with the prominent 
ones of old sugar countries, as well as seeking the original home of each 
one, but so far very little success has been attained. It is difficult to 
compare canes and eliminate individual differences even when grown 
on the same soil and under the same conditions. It is therefore almost 
impossible to decide identities in varieties when grown under such dia- 


120 


‘metrically opposite circumstances as exist in Louisiana and a tropical 
island, e.y., Cuba. There is, however, a growing demand on the part 
-of those scientifically cultivating cane, to have all this confusion of 
names eliminated, and a movement is on foot looking to a solution of 
this perplexing problem. It can only be done by interchanging freely 
all the known varieties and have them all cultivated under exactly the 
same environments. Could this be done at all of the botanical gardens 
and experiment stations within the sugar districts, it would not only 
afford numerous comparisons of the same varieties under varied conditions, 
but, would throw perhaps a flood of light upon the im portant question of 
differentation under changed environments of the numerous varieties 
under test. oe 
This station has accordingly, after consultation with those similarly 
interested in other countries, sent samples of all its varieties to Hawaii, 
Australia, and Demerara, with a view of comparing them with the 
varieties of those countries and establishing synonymous canes _ It will 
also gladly exchange with any botanical garden or experiment station, 
the numerous varieties under cultivation here. 
By an adoption of the above suggestion, it is believed that in a few 
_years valuable information to general cane culture would be obtained. (5) 


CoMPposITION OF CANE. 
Analyses show that every ton of cane delivered at the mill removes 
from the soil 9.4 pounds albuminoids, or 1.5 pounds nitregen, and 
12 2 pounds of ash. ‘This ash would contain 2.17 pounds potash, 1.48 
pounds phosphoric acid, and .8 pounds of lime. In Louisiana the pro- 
‘portion of tops and leaves to canes is about one to three, Therefore 


(5) A study of the varieties of the sugar cane is of paramount importance, for by 
careful selection canes may be obtained suitable for cultivation under various 
conditions of soilandclimate. Equally important isa knowledge of the behaviour 
of different varieties in relation to fungoid diseases. 

Many of the West Indian Islands have suffered most severe loss in recent years from 
fungoid parasites in their canes. In some of these islands it has been demonstrated 
that there is a marked difference in the manner in which the varieties are attacked. 
This question has formed the subject of investigations in Barbados and Antigua, 
where it has been shown that while some varieties readily succumb to fungoid 
attack, others are remarkably resistant, Whether this immunity will be maintained 
in spite of the constant exposure to infection, consequent upon the fact of their 
being propagated in infected fields, remains to be seen. So far, however, the selec- 
tion of varieties would appear to constitute the most effective method of combating 
fungoid attacks : by growing the most hardy varieties, rejecting these as soon as it 
appears that they show signs of breaking down and substituting others, attacks of 
such fungi as Trichospheria sacchari, the rind fungus, may perhaps be overcome. 

So far Jamaica appears to have escaped any serious fungoid attack of its sugar 
canes This is possibly due to the fact that several varieties are cultivated, whire 
_at the same time there are but few Bourbon canes amongst them. It will be well 
for Jamaica planters to be on th2 alert to check any outbreak should such occur, 
_and this check will probably be best secured by an immediate change of the variety 
of cane under cultivation. As a preventive measure it is very desirable that a 
careful study of as many useful varieties as can be collected should be made at the 
Botanic Stations, these experiments will serve a double purpose by first leading 
to a knowledge of the saccharine richness and yield of the different varieties and 
secondly a knowledge of their freedom from or liability to fungoid and other 
parasites. An attempt is now being made to study this subject in a more syste- 
matic manner and it is hoped that in a short time there may be presented to 
‘planters information compiled from local experiments bearing upon this im- 
portant side of the sugar question.—F. W. 


121 


every three tons of mill canes will give one ton of tops and leaves. 
One ton of tops and leaves will remove 35.80 pounds of albuminoids, 
or 5.7 pounds nitrogen, and 68.8 pounds ash. Since every ton of cane 
has about one-third of a ton of tops and leaves, there will be required 
for the growth of a ton of cane, exclusive of roots, and including tops 
and leaves, 21.3 pounds of albuminoids, or 3.4 pounds nitrogen, end 
34 pounds ash. When the cane is harvested. the trash (tops and leaves) 
is left on the ground and usually burnt. In burning, the ash or mineral 
matter is restored to the soil, but the nitrogen is dissipated into the air. 
Therefore, to one burning his trash, there is withdrawn from the soil 
with every ton of cane 3.4 pounds nitrogen, 2.17 pounds potash, 1.48 
pounds phosphoric acid and .8 pounds of lime. There is a saving of 
1.9 pounds nitrogen, by burying the trash, to each ton of cane made, 
equal tothe nitrogen in 27 pounds of cotton seed meal. From the above, 
it will be seen that the quantities of elements usually supplied in com- 
mercial fertilisers are assimilated and utilised by the cane in relatively 
small quantities when compared with other staple crops. The excessive 
weight, however, of a crop of cane grown on a given area causes the 
total absolute quantities of the ingredients referred to, to more nearly 
approximate those removed from the soil by other plants. 

Forty tons of cane per acre is not unusual. This amount would re- 
quire 136 pounds of nitrogen if the trash was burnt, or 60 pounds if 
trash was turned under, 87 pounds potash, and 59 pounds phosphoric 
acid. 

The above quantities of nitrogen would be represented by 1943 and 
856 pounds cotton seed meal 

It would require over 700 pounds kainit to supply the potash and 
nearly 400 pounds of a 15 per cent. acid phosphate to furnish the phos- 
phoric acid, if none were furnished by the soil. 

BurRNInG oF Cane TRasH. 

Shall we then burn our trash or shall it be turned over? Chemically 
there is a loss of nitrogen for each ton of cane harvested, by burning, equi- 
valent tothat contained in 27 pounds of cotton seed meal. Ona field aver- 
aging 30, 20 or 10 tons per acre, there will thus be lost an equivalent of 
nitrogen contained in 710, 540 and 270 pounds cotton seed meal—a loss 
which would be serious in any other agricultural industry. Why then 
do we burn? The following reasons are given :—The cane borer, which 
at times becomes so abundant «s to seriously injure the cane, is practi- 
cally held in check by burning the tops in the trash, which contain the 
worms, thus destroying thousands annually. Ifa cessation of planting 
cane on the part of every planter in the State could be simultaneously 
practised for one year, and no cane saved for seed wherein the worms 
could hibernate, and all the trash everywhere burned, it is believed the 
borer would be exterminated in Louisiana. Since it is extremely rare 
that any are found in the stubble left after cutting down the stalks, and 
af by chance any should be so found, the cold of our average winters and 
the heat from the burning trash would destroy them. 

Again, our stubbles are liable to be killed during our winters. It 
has been clearly demonstrated that this danger is greatly enhanced by 
excessive moisture, and the latter is frequently produced during our 
winters, if the trash as permitted to remain on the ground or turned 
under with a plow. Burning trash off the stubble immediately after 


122 


the cane is harvested, leaves the cane rows clear of vegetable matter and 
enables them to shed freely the water falling upon them, and if proper 
drainage hes been established, the entire field will remain practically 
dry during our wettest winters and the stubble will rarely be injured 
even by excessive cold. Experiments in burning the trash off imme- 
diately after harvest have so conclusively demonstrated the wisdom of 
the act, that almost every planter in the States seizes the first dry spell 
after his cane is cut to fire ail his fields. If the trash be left on the 
ground it will absorb and retain a largo amount of moisture in the 
spring and thus retard the sprouting of the stubbles. Burnt fields 
always give earlier stubble stunds. 

Leaving the trash on the field is also a great obstacle to the proper 
cultivation of the ensuing stubble crop. A crop of thirty tons of cane 
will leave ten tons of a light porous trash, which during the winter and 
spring will absorb large quantities of water, and which, decomposing 
very slowly, willprevent the successful running of ploughs and cultivators. 
It is claimed by observant managers that the increase in the stubble 
crop, due to a more excellent cultivation rendered possible by burning 
the trash, will alone more than compensate for the fertilising ingredients 
lost in burning. ‘These are the main reasons for burning, and an expe- 
rience of twelve years enables the writer to pronounce them sound 
and valid. ‘The loss of vegetable matter by burning, is willingly, 
knowingly, but rigidly sustained to prevent subsequent losses of « far 
more serious nature. (°) 


VARIATION IN COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STALK 


Canes vary in composition, not only with age, in different countries 
and on different soils, and under different climatic conditions on the 
sume soils in the same country, but also among themselves Indi- 
vidual stalks rarely ever give exactly the same composition. This 
will be more fully discussed under the chapter on ‘“‘ suckers,” when it 
will be shown that in harvesting a clump of canes, no two will be found 


(6) Burnine tHe TRasa—The question whether trash should be burned or no has 
been most keenly debated. Dr. Stubbs gives excellent reasons for pursuing this 
practice under the conditions prevailing in ouisiana where it would appear the 
gains far outweigh the losses. It seems quite open to question whether under 
the conditions prevailing in Jamaica the gains would equal the losses. Some 
observers maintain that comparatively little check is givento the ordinary moth 
borer (Diatrea saccharalis) by burning the trash tops. In Louisiana with its winter 
it is highly desirable to prevent the chilling which would result from leaving a 
water soaked layer of trash covering a field during a winter, when the temperature 
for brief intervals may fall as low as freezing point. This difficulty does not 
confront the Jamaica planter, who fur the most part will find his trash of value 
asa covering to his fields, a covering which will conserve moisture snd pre- 
vent the injurious action of the direct heat of the tropical sun upon his soil or 
his young plants. 

Again not ouly does burning involve the loss of the Nitrogen contained in the 
trash, but it involves also the loss of the organic matter which by decay forms 
humus, a substance vf great value in soils, beneficiently modifying the relation of 
the soil towards water, rendering stiff close soils more easily drained and worked 
and causing light sandy soils to retain moisture more efficiently. From this 
point of view, under tropical conditions, burning probably entails considerable 
loss, particulurly if carried ou systematically year after year. lt is admittedly 
true that a heavy covering of trash is in some degree troublesome when ploughing 
the fields, but this difficulty has been overcome by the methods in vogue amongst 
West Indian planters.- -F. W. | 


123. 


of exactly the same age, and therefore variable in composition. 

Even individual canes have not the same composition throughout 
theirlength. It is well known to every planter that the butt of a cane 
is the sweetest part of the stalk, and that its sweetness decreases as 
you ascend, until finally the extreme upper part is almost devoid of 
sugar. 

So apparent is this fact to the taste, that chemical analysis is not 
needed to convince even the ‘“‘small boy” who chews the cane. Yet 
time and again has the chemist verified this fact by analysis. He has 
shown that the sucrose is most abundant in the lower portion of the 
cane with a minimum of glucose. That the former decreases and the 
latter increases as you ascend the stalk, until finally in the upper white 
joints the glucose absolutely predominates. This suggests the wisdom, 
when only sugar is desired, of lowering the knives in the field and re- 
moving the immature upper joints, which from their composition are 
bound to be melasegenic in the sugar house and perhaps restrain from 
crystalization otherwise available sugar. Again the nodes and inter- 
nodes of a stalk of cane vary in composition even when taken from the 
same part of the stalk. The following snalysis of the nodes and inter- 
nodes of twenty stalks of purple canes with normal eyes, will show the 
variation : 


go conge ey 
ro) =) 2 a >) 
ja) MN és) oD. Fy 
Nodes LB oA: obo ed 0 Oboe Baba iS 
Internodes L724 15.5 0.94 .96 8.00 


The nodes vary from the internodes, not only in the total nitrogen 
content, but also in the form of nitrogen present. The nodes contain- 
ing .!829 per cent. of total nitrog-n, of which .1778 is albuminoids, 
and .005 amides; while the internodes have only .0817 per cent. of 
total nitrogen, of which .0559 are albuminoids, and 0258 amides. It 
will thus be seen that the nodes carry much larger amounts of solids 
not sugar, fibre and nitrogenous matters, while the internodes are 
richer in sucrose and glucose. ‘T'his explains why the juices from the 
different mills in our sugar houses vary in composition, and that the 
juice from the first mill is purer and more easily worked than that 
from the other mills. The first mill extracts juice mainly from the 
internodes, which are softer than tle nodes. The second and third 
mills crush the nodes and extract from them the impurities given 
above, and the more powerful the expression, the more impure the 
juices obtained. ‘Attached to every node is an eye or a bud, destined 
to become a future plant. Around this eye is stored the food for its 
future use, and in this respect the nodes resemble the seeds of flowering 
plants with the sucrose and glucose of the internodes as a further food 
reserve. 


The excess of gums, mucilages, albuminoids and fibre in the node, is 
therefore intended as food material for the young plant until it shall 
‘become large enough to obtain its own food, and these substances are 


124 


formed in the node during the process of ripening by the condensation of 
the simple molecules into more complex and less soluble forms of gums 
and mucilages, and by the union of amides and glucoses in the presence 
of sulphur compounds, toform albuminoids. As the bud develops, the 
albuminoids are converted into soluble amides and glucoses, and the 
gums, mucilages and fibre, into soluble carbohydrates (glucose or dex- 
trose), which furnish the food for the young plant until it can draw its. 
own sustenance from the soil. In case this storehouse should be ex- 
hausted before the plant is capable of self-support, it can draw on the 
reservoir of sucrose, glucose or nitrogenous matter stored in the inter- 
nodes, as shown by the experiment of Prof. Ross. The action of fer- 
ments during germination will readily produce the above transforma- 
tions and may even convert a part of the fibre into soluble carbohy- 
drates, thus rendering a portion of this substance available for plant. 
food. The following is the conclusion of a series of investigations. 
made by Dr. J. L. Beeson in the laboratory of this Station. 


“To recapitulate: It has been found in the course of this investi- 
gation tnat the juice of the nodes of the cane is quite different from. 
that of the internodes, containing markedly less reducing sugars, more 
“ solids not sugars,” and more alluminoids bodies; that the “fibre” of 
the nodes contains more albuminoids, more insoluble carbohydrates not 
sugar, which readily pass into reducing sugars; that as the cane de- 
teriorates, reducing sugars are formed more rapidly in the nodes than. 
in the internodes. In our opinion these facts can be best explained by 
the hypothesis previously stated, namely that the physiological func- 
tion of the node in the cane is similar to that of the seedsin the case 
of flowering plants—to store food in the region of the eye for the use 
of the young plant before it has taken sufficient hold of the earth to 
draw sustenance from the atmosphere and soil. The hypothesis 1s 
further confirmed by the fact that the isolated nodes of the cane when 
planted will germinate and grow to maturity. 


“As already shown, there is a marked difference in the purity co- 
efficient of the juices from the nodes and internodes. That from the 
nodes gives an average of 81 per cent. purity, while that from the in- 
ternode an average of 89 per cent. approximo. If a machine could be 
devised by which the nodes could be separated from the internodes so 
as to work the juices separately, it would doubtless be profitable. Since 
the nodes in the samples analysed constituted about 14 to 16 per cent, 
of ‘he whole weight of the cane, it would be a great loss to throw them 
away. Since the nodes show a much lower purity co-efficient, many 
short joints on the stalk decrease the puri'y of the juice of the whole 
cane.” , 


" i PREPARATION OF LAND, PLANTING, ETC. 


Once in three yearsa restorative crop is interjected between the 
cane crops. The rotation being as follows :—First year, plant cane, 
second year, stubble cane, third year, corn and cow peas. No system 
of rotation is complete without a leguminous crop, and among the 
leguminous crops the cow pea occupies the front rank as a rapid soil 
restorer, frequently accumulating in a few months over 100 pounds 
nitrogen per acre. An examination of the roots of the cow pea vine 


125 


during rapid growth will reveal large quantities of wart-like tubercles: 
which when crushed and a portion examined under the microscope 
will reveal countless thousands of bacteria, peculiar to this plant living 

in symbiotic union with its host. Nothing can supplant the cow pea 

in the short rotation adopted by the sugar planter. Cow peas perform 

many valuable functions. By their deep roots and immense foliage 
they pump up from great depths and evaporate large quantities of 

water, and thus placing the soil in a condition relative to moisture 
most favourable to nitrification. They intensely shade the ground, 

thus protecting the nitrogen ferments from the destructive influences 
of direct sunlight, and enabling them to work directly up th the sur- 

face. Their tap roots are pumping, along with water, soluble plant 
food from great depths. 


But the chief virtue lies in its extraordinary power of utilising the 
free nitrogen of the air. Therefore, it is used once in three years to: 
restore the nitrogen exhausted by two crops of cane. 


Sometimes second year stubble is carried, and then the pea crop is: 
every fourth year. A few planters practice a continuous growing of 
cane, and in doing so plant pease in the old stubble and cut the latter 
early for seed cane, and bury the pea vines for the coming plant cane. 

A crop of corn is planted, and when it reaches the height of a few 
feet, it is laid by and simultaneously sown with cow pease, using one to 
three bushels per acre, of the Clay, Unknown or Black varieties. Early 
in summer the corn is gathered and sometimes the pea vines made into: 
hay for the stock of the plantations. In either event, the soil, with or 
without the pea vines, is turned under with four, six or eight horse 
plow in August or early in September, and the cane planted in Octo- 
ber. 


Ordinarily, the root residues of the pea vines give enough nitrogen 
for the ensuing plant cane, and many planters positively assert on this 
account that it makes no difference to future crops whether they are 
removed or turned under, but carefully conducted experiments on this 
station show that when turned under there was an average increase of 
7.42 tons of cane per acre, extending through plant and stubble, over 
soil treated similarly, with vines removed for hay. Yet where there is 
stock to be fed, it is wise to utilise the vines as hay and restore the 
manure from the stables to the soil. 

Up to date the work of inverting the corn stalks and pea vines has 
been performed by large turning ploughs with steel discs, for cutting the 
vines, attached in front. These ploughs are difficult to handle and fre- 
quently get choked, making the operation a slow, tedious and expensive 
one. Recently the disc ploughs have been placed on the market, and one 
of them has been successfully used by the station for such work. 

It has on our soil buried successfully pea vines that were waist high 
and very thick, ploughing to the depth of ten inches and cutting a fur- 
row 15 inches wide. It was drawn by three heavy mules and showed 
on the dynamometer a pull of 500 to 550 pounds. It was managed 
entirely by one hand who rode onthe plough. There was no choking 
and no stopping to clean the plough. Nearly three acres per day 
can be ploughed with thisimplement. For flushing land it has no 
equal, andthe draught is much lighter than with the four-horse plough 


126. 


usually used, and the work performed more satisfactory, there being 


‘no compression of the soil at the bottom of the plough, caused by the 
-shear and landside of the turn-plough. 


After the land is flushed, it should be bedded with two-horse ploughs 
‘into high rows, five to seven feet wide and the middles carefully ploughed 
out. ‘The quarter-drains should also be cleaned. It is thus ready for 
-planting late in September or early in October, the time at which fall 
planting is done. When ready to plant, the rows are open with a 
double mould board plough and two or more running stalks are deposited 
in this open-furrow and covered by a disc cultivator, plough, or by hoes. 
Fall planted cane is always covered deeper than that planted in the 
spring, in order to protect it against the cold of our winters. The 
open furrow in which the cane is deposited should be above the level 
of the middles between the rows, and the latter should be at least six 
inches above the bottoms of the quarter drains. Thus planted and 
maintained during the winter, there will be no trouble from either 
excessive cold or moisture. (7) 


(7) The method of working here recommended is one which may be advantage- 


ouslyfollowed in Jamaica; the intervention of a leguminous crop to be turned in 
asa green dressing is wise provision, asis fully explained ; in these islands not only 
will the cow pea serve this purpose, though perhaps it will prove as useful as any 
other, but the Gungo, No Eye Pea, or Pigeon Pea (Cajanus indicus ) and Woolly 
Pyroe (Phaseolus Mungo) and Bengai bean (Dolichos Lablab) are also employed 
to advantage, indeed it may be safely asserted that the success with which the 
cultivation of sugar was carried on, until recent years, in the Colony of St. Kitts 
was largely due to the wise manner in which the Gungo Pea or Pigeon Pea was 
employed for green dressing. 

The element of plant food which is most completely removed from the soil 
by the cultivation and manufacture of sugar is nitrogen, which is also 
the most expensive ingredient of artificial manures or fertilisers, this 
element is largely restored by a judicious system of green dressing with 
leguminous crops. The practice is by no means a new one, it was known and 
followed by the Romans, and Virgil refers to it in his Georgics. Of late years a 
great impetus has been given to the practice of green dressing by means of legu- 
minous crops owing to the discovery of the manner in which they assimilate 
atmospheric nitrogen aud thus accumulate it in the soil for the use of subse- 

uent crops. Not only do green dressings add to the store of nitrogen in the 
soil, but they improve the physical condition and texture of the soil in a marvel- 
lous manner, aiding the draining of stiff clays, and increasing the water holding 
power of light, sandy soils. In addition to this the use of a green dressing does 
much to assist in keeping down grass and troublesome weeds. There are very few 
soils that will not be materially improved by the use of green dressing. 

The planting of a corn crop a little before the cow peas or other plant used 
for green dressing, as suggested by Dr. Stubbs, is an obvious advantage ; by this 
means corn for the use of the stock is obtained while the trailing stems of the le- 
guminous plants finding some support, tend to form a denser thicker mass thus in- 
creasing the amount of vegetable matter to be ultimately ploughed in. 

This use of green dressing commends itself not only to those who cultivate sugar 
cane, but wil] prove of the greatest use in the cultivation of Bananas, Cocoa, 
Coffee, Limes, Oranges, while in growing ginger, it will probably prove an adjunct 
of the first importance as maintaining the necessary fertility of the soil and at the 
same time adding to the store of humus and nitrogen. 

The use of a fertiliser containing Potash and Phosphates (without nitrogen) 
will often result in a great increase in the growth of the leguminous crop and it 
would seem desirable to add those ingredients of the artificial manure to the 
Jeguminous crop rather than to raise the green dressing and then apply the Potash 
and Phosphates to the plant canes.—F. W. 


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127 


THE PRINCIPAL DISEASES OF CITRUS FRUITS 
IN FLORIDA. 


By Wa tter T. SwIncLE anp HEpDBERT J. WEBBER. 


Reprinted from Bulletin No. 8 of U. 8S. Department of Agriculture 
Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. 


INTRODUCTION. 


It is the purpose of this bulletin, to give in as brief and concise a 
manner as possible, an account of some of the principal diseases of 
citrus fruits, especially those occuring in Florida. The following are 
the diseases which we will endeavour to describe: Blight, die-back or 
exanthema, scab or verrucosis, sooty mould, foot root or mal-di-gomma, 
and melanose. 


The diseases of citrus fruits have received more or less attention 
from the Department, through the Division of Vegetable Physiology and 
Pathology, since the year 1886. In 1891 Prof. L. M. Underwood was 
gent to Florida to make a preliminary study of this subject. Later 
the same year one of the writers, with Dr. Erwin F. Smith, was sent 
to Florida to carry on further studies, especially on blight, and the 
following spring the former returned to continue the work. In the 
fall of 1892 a slightly increased appropriation enabled the Department 
to station both writers regularly in Florida. A laboratory especially 
erected for the purpose was donated by the citizens of Eustis, Fla., and 
this point was made our headquarters. Since the completion of the 
building both laboratory and field investigations have been carried on 
continuously, with highly gratifying results. Melanose, an entirely 
new disease, has been studied and remedies for it discovered. Satisr 
factory remedies or preventives have also been found for all the othee 
diseases mentioned above, foot rot being the only one which could b- 
said to be under control when the work was commenced. Much infor- 
mation has been collected in relation to the causes of the various dis- 
eases and their effects on the plants attacked. 


BLIGHT. 


This disease, also called wilt and leaf curl, is found only in Florida, 
and so far as known at present is incurable. Nearly all citrus fruits 
are liable to it, but in different digrees. Trees grown on light ham- 
mock soil are most susceptible, but no locality in the State is entirely 
exempt. The malady has been known for at least twenty and possibly 
twenty-five years. The first reliable account of it, however was pub- 
lished in 1891 (+) by Prof. L. M. Underwood. 

Blight never attacks trees until they have attained considerable size 
and have begun to bear fruit. In any given grove usually only a small 
per cent of new cases occur each year, but the fact that the disease is 
apparently incurable and that it attacks the oldest and most vigorous 


(1) Journal of Mycology, Vol. VII, pp. 32-34. 


128 


and fruitful trees in the grove rendersit one of the most destructive 
maladies known. It is widely distributed over the State occurring in 
the oldest and best groves and on the land best suited for profitable 
orange culture. The affected trees do not die at once, but apparently 
revive when the rainy season commences. In this way false hopes 
are aroused and the owner waits for years before he finally removes: 
the blighted trees and replaces them with healthy ones. Much time 
and money have been wasted on supposed cures, the worthlessness of 
which does not become apparent until after several years’ trial. In 
some localities from 1 to 10 per cent of the trees blight annually. The 
annual loss resulting from this disease in Florida is from one to two 
hundred thousand dollars. Within the last ten years it has caused 
losses probably amounting to several million dollars. 


Symptoms.— Blight usually appears very suddenly and on trees that. 
have previously seemed perfectly healthy. The first symptom is a. 
wilting of the foliage, as if the tree was suffering from drought. At 
first the wilting is slight and can be plainly seen only on hot, dry 
days ; but it soon becomes very pronounced, and often continue se 
during the wet season in summer, when rains are almost a daily occur- 
rence. Most cases of blight appear in early spring, from February to- 
April, which is usually a dry season. Sometimes, however cases occur 
in midsummer, when the ground is thoroughly wetted every few days. 
After the wilting becomes severe the foliage begins to drop, and in a 
few weeks to a few months, according to the severity of the case, the 
affected branches shed nearly all their leaves. In many cases the 
whole top of the tree is attacked at one time, but very often only a 
single branch shows the disease at first. In such cases, however, the 
entire tree soon becomes affected. 

As soon as the rainy season begins the trunk of the larger branches 
put forth numerous water sprouts, which grow rapidly and at first 
seem to be perfectly healthy. Lventually, however, these sicken and 
gradually die back. The branches which first show the blight usually 
retain for a year or more some foliage, which is abnormally small and 
of a dingy green colour. New growth is very sparse and does not pro- 
duce normal-sized leaves. Such branches often show green twig all 
over, even when nearly leafless. In the spring following the first 
wilting (unless it occurs late in winter, when it is not until the second 
spring following) these branches, though often nearly leafless, flower 
very profusely and continue blooming for ten days to three weeks 
after the normal period of flowering has passed. Unlike the lemon the 
flowering season of the orange is very definite, and usually is not 
longer than two weeks. This profuse and late bloom consists of small. 
flowers which almost never set fruit. In fact, very little fruit is pro- 
duced by atree after it is attacked by blight. Trees bearing a full 
crop may sometimes be attacked late in summer and mature their fruit, 
but it is only in case of late attacks that any considerable amount of 
fruit can be seen on diseased trees. Fruit borne by blighted trees is 
usually undersized, but otherwise is apparently normal. 

The contrast in the amount of fruit produced by trees attacked by 
blight and those affected with mal-di-gomma is very striking, trees 
suffering from the latter disease often bearing an unusually heavy 
crop. 


129 


In very severe cases of blight the trees succumb so suddenly that 
the leaves do not fall, but simply wither and turn brown on the twigs. 
This is also frequently the case with a single branch. In such cases. 
the trees usually die outright in a few weeks and never put out any 
new growth from the trunk. Again,a single branch may wither as 
suddenly. In the great majority of cases, however, a vigorous new 
growth pushes out from the trunk at the beginning of the rainy season 
and at first it would seem as though the tree would recover. Some- 
times such sprouts continue growing vigorously two years or more, 
but sooner or later they show small and usually yellowish leaves and 
begin to decline. Often, too, such shoots wilt and show all the symp- 
toms of a fresh case of blight. Ordinarily the tree continues to decline 
gradually and is finally removed before it dies, to make place for a 
new tree. Again, cases may linger ten years or more, making a 
slow sickly growth, and even bearing a little fruit. Cases of real re- 
covery from genuine blight are, however, almost entirely unknown, 
although hundreds of growers have been deceived by the vigorous 
growth of water sprouts sent out by blighted trees after the first 
wilting. 

A most remarkable fact is that the roots of blighted trees invariably 
seem to be entirely healthy. The vigorous growth of water sprouts 
they support shows that they are capable of considerable functional 
activity. 

No anatomical features which are characteristic of blight have yet 
been found. Under the highest powers of the microscope the tissue of 
every organ of blighted trees appears to be normal, which is in strik- 
ing contrast to foot root and die-back. The physiological activity of- 
the leaves and branches, however is very much deranged, “as has been. 
proved by experiments on the loss of water from blighted twigs. 


Varieties of trees attacked.— Almost all citrus fruits are attacked by 
blight, although some sorts are nearly exempt. Common oranges 
(Citrus Aurantium), tangerines and mandarins (Citrus nobilis), and 
grape fruit (Citrus decwmana), in about the order named, are the most 
susceptible. Lemons blight less than any of the fruits mentioned, 
while hmes and sour oranges, especially the latter, are almost exempt 
from this disease. Certainly not more than one sour orange tree in a 
thousand is blighted even in regions most liable to the malady. Cu- 
riously enough, the sort of stock used appears to have no influence in 
increasing or diminishing the susceptibility of trees to the disease. 
Common oranges budded on sour orange roots are apparently as liable 
to blight as are sweet seedling trees. 


Situations most liable to the disease.—Although blight attacks citrus 
fruits growing on all kinds of soil, it is most common on trees growing 
on very light, sandy hammock ('). Such soils are usually com- 
posed almost wholly of sand with an admixture of decaying vege- 
table matter ; sometimes, however, they are underlaid ata depth of from 
4 to 12 feet with clay or hardpan (sandstone). Trees growing on clayey 


(1) Hammock land is that which was originally covered with hard woods, es- 
pecially live oak, magnolia, hickory, etc. 


130 


hammock or high pine land (') are almost exempt from the disease. 
On flatwood land (#) the trees are less susceptible than those on light 
hammock, but more susceptible than those on high pine lands. 

As the blight is most prevalent on the best orange lands, with the 
exception of clayey hammock, which is rare, it is obviously impracti- 
cable to prevent the disease by planting on lands least subject to it. 

Cause—So far the most diligent search, both in the: field and in the 
laboratory, has failed to reveal the cause of blight. Judging from 
what is known of the disease, it is not improbable that it is caused by 
some minute parasitic organism, but the character of the soil toa 
large extent governs the entrance and spread of the organism. In 
many respects blight strongly resembles peach yellows, the exact cause 
of which is also unknown. Certain it is that blight cannot be attribu- 
ted directly to cold, drought, wet weather, close proximity of hardpan, 
or improper fertilisers, as is often erroneously believed. 

Is blight contagious ?—As before stated, this malady in many re- 
spects resembles peach yellows, which latter disease is contagious by 
budding as has been proved by experiments. Numerous experiments 
are under way to determine whether blight can be introduced by buds 
on the roots or tops of trees, but so far no conclusive results have been 
obtained. The disease attacks trees in groups, as is obvious in groves 
where it exists. A year or two after a tree is blighted it is a common 
thing to see the adjacent trees show the blight on the limbs next to 
the diseased tree. All these circumstances strengthen the belief that 
the disease is of a contagious nature. 

Preventiv Measures— Experience has taught that it is not only useless 
but dangeroustoattempt tocure blighted trees, since it is probable that 
the disease is contagious, and that a diseased tree left in the grove may 
infect surrounding healthy trees. It is by all means the safest and 
at the same time the most profitable plan to dig up and burn all 
blighted trees as soon as they appear and plant new trees in their places. 
In many instances it would seem that prompt destruction of trees as 
soon as attacked has decidedly reduced the number of new cases as 
compared with adjoining groves similar in all respects, but where the 
diseased trees were allowed to remain. In peach yellows the prompt 
extirpation of cases as they appear is the only known way of prevent-_ 
ing the spread of the disease. 

In replanting, good-sized trees are preferable to small trees, as the 
latter are liable to be overshadowed and starved out by the large trees 
surrounding them. The diseased trees when dug out can be either 
hauled away and burned, or better cut up and burned on the spot, thus 
avoiding any possibility of spreading the disease through the grove. 
It has been abundantly proved that trees planted where blighted ones 
have stood are not more likely to contract the malady than any other 
in the vicinity, and in no case are they liable to blight before they 
begin to bear. 


(1) Land covered with scattering Pinus palustris and a few trees of Quercus cin- 
erea and Q. catesbei, all growing so for apart as to allow grass to grow so thick 
that it is burned cff annually, thus preventing the growth of underbush. 

(2) Much like high pine land, but low and flat, with a subsoil near the surface 
aud more undergrowth, composed largely of shrub palmetto (Serenoa serrulata, 
and Ericacez. 


131 


The practice here recommended of extirpating all cases as they 
appear is now largely followed by those who have had the most experi- 
ence with blight and who know the uselessness of supposed remedial 
treatments. In all badly infected regions concerted action is highly 
desirable, but even if this cannot be secured the grower should not be 
deterred from eradicating the diseased trees from his own grove. 
Aside from the fact that such a course probably lessens the spread of 
the malady, it is the cheapest and best policy. 


DIE-BACK OR EXANTHEMA.(?) 


The disease of the orange and other citrus fruits, commonly known 
as die-back, is widely distributed throughout the orange region of 
Florida but is not known to occur in any other part of the world. The 
name ‘“die-back” originated from the behaviour of trees affected, a few 
inches of the vigorous new growth die back in early spring. The 
disease is not much feared by growers, because it is apparently not 
contagious; but while the damage it causes in a single grove may be 
slight, the total loss, on account of its very widespread occurrence, is 
nearly as great as that resulting from any other disease affecting the 
orange. ‘he malady is well known to most orange growers, but is 
generally poorly understood. Tt was first accurately described by J. 
H. Fowler(?) in 1875. When and where it first appeared has not yet 
been determined Growers have known of its occurrence for years, 
presumably ever since orange culture became common in the State. 


The damage caused by die-back is much greater than is usually es- 
timated. Many groves have suffered for years from slight attacks of 
the disease, the damage being caused mainly by the excessive drop- 
ping of the fruit and by the coarseness and staining of that which 
remains on the trees. In some severe cases due to improper fertilisa- 
tion and cultivation, groves have been badly injured and almost the 
entire crop of fruit lost. Frequently much loss is incurred by plant- 
ing trees on improper soils and continuing to cultivate and fertilise them 
for years after they contract the disease. Almost every grove in the 
State has a few cases of this disease. Trees growing in the vicinity of 
stubles, chicken houses, privies, e'c. are the ones generally affected, 
and also those growing on the margins of lakes, or on low, wet, poorly 
drained soils. 


The diminished productiveness of trees badly affected with die- 
back, together with the splitting and falling of much of the fruit and 
the disfigurement and coarseness of that which does develop, makes 
such trees almost worthless. ‘he malady causes great loss of fruit, 
renders moreof poor quality, frequently permanently stunts the tree and 
eventually kills it. The annual loss resulting from die-back in Florida 
may be conservatively estimated at about $100,000. 


(1) From the Greek, meaning an eruption or pustule. 


(2) Fowler J. H., On the Die-back in Orange Trees (Proceedings of the Florida 
Fruit Growers’ Association, annual meeting January, 1875 ; reprinted: Florida, 
its Scenery, Climate, and History, Sydney Lanier, 1876, J. B. Lippincott & Co., 
Philadelphia, Appendix, pp. 281-290). 


132 


Symptoms.—Die-back has probably more characteristic symptoms 

than any known plant disease, principally among which are the 
following: 
51. The ends of the very rapid growing shoots turn yellowish before 
maturing, and finally become stained reddish brown in patches or 
throughout. This appearance is caused by a deposit in the outer cells 
of a reddish-brown resin-like substance. This yellowing and staining 
of the twigs, whichis very general on the new growth all over the 
tree, is followed by the dying back of the affected twigs for a short 
distance, usually 3 to 6 inches. The reddish stain may occur on the 
twigs back of the point to which they die, and, indeed, may spread in 
irregular patches, more or less over the entire new growth. 

2. On the new growth (most frequently at the nodes, but sometimes 
in the internodes) there occur comparatively large swellings, caused by 
gum pockets formed in the wood. These pockets frequently become 
quite marked. 

3. Eruptions, caused by the bursting of the bark, very commonly 
occur on new and old twigs. In such cases the tissue swells up, pro- 
trudes from the rupture, and becomes stained by the reddish-brown, 
resin-like exudation, which is so characteristic of the disease. These 
eruptions are very numerous, and in badly affected trees many limbs, 
from an inch in diameter down to the smallest, become thickly studded 
with them. This character almost invariably accompanies the disease 
and is present at all seasons of the year, so that it may probably be 
regarded as the principal symptom. ‘Trees may be slightly affected, 
however, and not show this symptom. 

4. In diseased trees rapidly grown young shoots often droop ina 
characteristic manner. After starting to push, the twigs gradually 
bend downwards and the ends turn up alittle, giving the twigs a 
slightly S shaped curve. This however, is not always a symptom of 
die-back, being occasfonally seen in perfectly healthy trees. 

5. Young twigs frequently develop an abnormal number of buds in 
the axils of the leaves, where, under normal conditions, only one or 
two are formed. ‘This over production of buds is often followed by a 
gummy exudation at these points. Several of these buds from one 
node may develop into branches, which in connection with the short 
internodes, freqnently give the new growth a somewhat fascicled ap- 
pearance. This causes a dense foliage and after the new growth which 
produces this fascicled appearance, has died back the tree takes on a 
very regular appearance, as if it were clipped. This is very character- 
istic of cases in the middle stage of the disease. In a later stage large 
limbs die back, leaving around the trunk a dense growthof small water 
sprouts withlarge leaves. These shootsin turn become stained with the 
characteristic reddish-brown exudations and eruptions and finally die 
back. In this stage of the disease, which is one of the last, the tree 
presents a very ragged appearance, many of the large limbs being dead. 

6. The leaves on trees affected with die-back are rather larger and 
generally longer and more pointed than those on healthy trees. This 
symptom, however, is not very noticeable. 

7. The foliage of diseased trees is always a very dark green; indeed 
this colour, so much desired by some growers, indicates that the grove 
is on the verge of showing the disease. 


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133 


8. Frenching or spotting of the leaves with white and green fre- 
quently occurs in the more advanced stages of the trouble, but can 
hardly be considered a symptom. 

9. Slightly swollen, stained spots often occur on leaves of trees in a 
medium stage of the disease. Any slight mechanical injury or injury 
due to the attacks of the six-spotted mite (red spider), which works in 
definite spots, is liable to be followed by a swelling of the leaves at the 
points injured, accompanied by the characteristic stains, thus forming 
brown, swollen spots. These spots are evidently formed only in places 
where the leaves are injured. 

10. The fruits of diseased trees early assume a pale, sickly green 
colour, which is quite different from the dark-green colour of normal 
fruits. Some fruits split and fall while in this condition, but by no 
means as many as fall in the next stage of the disease. 

11. When the fruits reach a size of from 1 to 14 inches in dimeter 
they gradually change colour, turning light lemon yellow and commonly 
showing a slight brown exudation in places on the rind. At this stage 
many fruits fall; this usually occurs after the appearance of the brown 
stains, but sometimes before. On trees slightly affected many of the 
fruits fall early, while on trees badly affected it is seldom thet any 
fruits remain on the tree until they reach full size. The fruits usually 
.split before dropping. At first a slight crack appears around the eye 
end or apex.of the orange, accompanied by a slight gummy exudation. 
Finally a large split opens across the fruit, exposing the segments and 
causing the orange to rot and fall. 

12. Both the fruits which fall early and those which come to full 
‘maturity are usually more or less disfigured by irregular brown stains, 
similar to those occurring on the twigs. These stains frequently cover 
a large portion of the fruit, rendering it unsalable. 

13. Slight swellings are sometimes found on the rind, particularly in 
the sour orange. These swellings are caused by gum pockets formed 
within the tissue of the rind. Very frequently a formation of gum also 
occurs in the segments immediately around the axis, generally near the 
seeds. 

14, The fruit of trees affected with die-back usually ripens consider- 
ably earlier than that of adjoining healthy trees of the same variety. 
As a rule, however, it is large, very coarse, thick skinned, and disfigured 
with brown stains, and in consequence often unsalable. 

15. The roots of trees affected with the disease usually have a 
healthy appearance, but in severe cases, on improper soils, they fre- 
quently become ulcerated and die back for some distance, the dead 
ends rotting away. Roots which have died back frequently have large 
and somewhat swollen ends, from which later on a number of small 
roots frequently arise. 

The order in which the symptoms appear and their severity vary 
greatly, but generally are as follows: The first sign of the disease is the 
unusually dark-green colour of the foliage, rank growth, and large, 
thick-skinned fruit. These symptoms are soon followed by the staining 
and dying back of a few twigs, and by brown stains formed on some 
of the fruits. The fruits developed are very prone to split and drop 
prematurely. In the first stage of the disease either the stained fruit 
or the stained, dying twigs must be present to determine with cer- 


134 


tainty the presence of the malady. Trees affected with the disease may 
grow for years and show only one of these characters; in other cases- 
all the symptoms may be present, but to a very slight extent, so that 
careful search must be made to find them. As the disease progresses, 
the brown staining of the fruit and twigs becomes more abundant 
and the dying back of the twigs occurs all over the tree ; eruptions form 
on the young and old twigs; nodal swellings, due to the gum pockets, 
become very abundant; and the tree assumes the dense foliage and re- 
gular outline described above. In this stage of the disease many fruits. 
set, but they usually turn yellow, become stained, split, and fall before 
maturity, only a few, if any, reaching full size. Soon the gum erup- 
tions extend to the old limbs and these die back. The rank new growth 
becomes limited to the centre of the tree; here branches grow luxu- 
riantly for a time, only to become stained and die back later. The tree 
then assumes the ragged appearance described above. In this stage 
no fruits set, and, indeed, the tree has become so sick that no flowers 
are formed. This disease is not accompanied by profuse blooming, as 
is the case in blight ; on the contrary, the tendency is to produce very 
little bloom. If the disease is allowed to continue unchecked the trees 
will ultimately cease to grow and finally die. 


Cause.—The cause of the die-back is not yet thoroughly understood.. 
For several years experiments have been under way to determine 
whether various fertilisers may not produce the malady. Experiments 
have also been conducted in the laboratory with water cultures. In 
these experiments various forms of pure chemical manures were 
employed, the amounts used being under absolute control. From the 
results of these experiments and from extensive field observations in 
‘many parts of the State it seems highly probable that the disease is 
caused by malnutrition. In most cases it is probably induced by exces-- 
sive use of organic nitrogenous fertilisers. As before stated, trees near 
stables, chicken houses, privies, etc., are very commonly affected by the 
disease. Heavy applications of cotton-seed meal, dried blood, or other 
highly nitrogenous organic fertilisers are frequently followed by the 
appearance of the trouble. Groves fertilised continuously with organic 
fertilisers rich in nitrogen are usually more or less affected with the 
malady, depending upon the quantity of fertiliser used. Whether the 
chemical manures, such as nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, when 
used in excessive quantities, willfinally produce the disease, is yet ques- 
tionable, but all evidence indicates that they will not. In several 
experiments the excessive quantities of chemical manures used killed 
the trees outright, although no signs of the disease appeared. 


A form of the disease known as soil die-back is very common and is 
very evidently independent of the action of any fertiliser. Certain 
fields of limited area, which are low and poorly drained or underlaid 
with “hardpan” (a ferruginous sandstone), seem predisposed to pro- 
duce the disease. Trees set out on such soils never develop normally, 
but contract die-back in its worst form. These frequently remain for 
years in a stunted condition, each year’s growth as formed dying back. 
Such trees finally die if allowed to remain untreated. Often consider- 
able loss is incurred by planting and fertilising groves on the die- 
back soils. The symptoms of die-back are the same whether due to 


135 


excessive fertilisation or to improper soil conditions, and it is probable 
that the real cause will be found to be the same in both cases. Both 
forms of the disease appear to be greatly aggravated by excessive cul- 
tivation, which apparently destroys the sarface roots and forces the 
tree to feed lower down. 


Treatment.—When die-back is due to the excessive use of highly 
nitrogenous organic fertilisers, an effective remedy consists in simply 
ceasing to cultivate and allowing all weeds to grow. In fertilising, 
omit entirely all highly nitrogenous organic manures, but use about the 
normal quantity of potash and phosphoric acid. As the tree recovers 
a small amount of nitrogen should be given, preferably in the form of 
nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, until the tree is brought up to 
its normal condition. If the disease is produced by the close proximity 
of privies, chicken houses, barns, etc., removing these will usually 
result in the recovery of the affected trees. In the case of barns 
which can not be removed it has been found effective in some cases 
to dig trenches between the trees and the barn to prevent the feeding 
roots from running under the former. Of course the caution in regard 
to the use of organic nitrogenous featilizers given above is applicable 
in this case also. When the malady is caused by planting on die-back 
lands, treatments vary according to the character of the soil. If the 
grove is on low, wet soil, through drainage will usually be found an 
effective remedy without other treatment If the soil is underlaid 
with hardpan, mulching the trees with pine straw, oak leaves, or some~- 
thing of this nature, and stopping cultivation will allow the feeding 
roots to develop near the surface and usually bring about acure. The 
latter has been found an effective treatment in many instances. Good. 
drainage is also beneficial in such cases. 


SCAB OR VERRUCOSIS OF THE LEMON AND OTHER CITRUS FRUITS. 

The introduction of this disease into the United States is compara- 
tively recent. It first appeared in Florida about the year 1884 and 
spread rapidly over the State and to Louisiana. Although many 
thousands of trees affected with scab have been sent to California, it 
seems that the Jisease is unable to exist there permanently. The rea- 
son for this will appear later. The malady also occurs in Australia 
and Japan, from which latter country it was undoubtedly introduced 
into America. So far it is not known to occur in Europe or Africa. 
The first account of the disease was published by F. Lamson-Scribner 
in October, 1886 (Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, New York, 
Vol. XIII, No. 10, pp. 181-188), at which time Professor Scribner was 
Chief of the Section of Vegetable Pathology of the Department of 
Agriculture. A fuller account, with a coloured plate, was published in 
the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1886, pp 120, 
121. A disease undoubtedly the same was reported from Australia 
on orange and lemon leaves by Henry Tyron. (') 


The principal loss from scab occurs in Florida, where it often renders 
lemon groves so unprofitabie that they are cut off and budded to other 
citrus fruits. In many cases a very large percentage of the fruit is 
rendered unsaleable, sometimes one-third or even one-half being unfit 


le ale Senay coin” ee > ee 
(1) Report on Insect and Fungous Pests, No, 1, Queensland, 1889, pp. 144, 145. 


136 


for market. It also causes some injury to sour orange trees (before 
they are budded) when grown for nursery stock. 


Scab, or a disease closely allied to it, occurs on very young fruit of 
the lime (Citrus limetta), and in some localities is often so severe as to 
entirely destroy the crop. For example, a grove in tropical Florida, 
capable of yielding 500 boxes of fruit annually, when attacked by this 
disease produced for several years only a few hundred fruits, and the 
majority of these fell off while still very young. In Louisiana it is said 
to have attacked Satsuma oranges; in Japan it causes considerable 
damage to orange groves situated on low, moist land; in Australia it 
is reported as causing orange and lemon trees to lose their leaves and 
to yield poor crops, badly affected trees often not setting a single fruit. 
Probably the annual loss from scab in the United States is not far from 
$50,000, most of the damage being done to the lemon in Florida. 


Symptoms.—The leaves and fruit of trees affected with this disease 
show small, wart-like excrescences. These excrescences are of various 
sizes, the diameter ranging. from 4 mm. to 1 cm. (one-fiftieth to two- 
fifths of an inch), but usually being from 1 to 5 mm. They sometimes 
run together and cover a large portion of the leaf or fruit. In case the 
fruit is attacked while still very young the tissues below the wart grow 
more rapidly than normally. This causes tha fruit to become covered 
with bumps, of irregular pyramidal shape. These grow proportion- 
ately with the fruit and on the mature fruit may sometimes be 1 to 
2 cm. across and project out nearly the same distance. At first the 
warts look like small semi-translucent pimples, of a slightly lighter 
shade of green than the surrounding healthy tissue. In a few days, if 
the weather be favourable, the warts become prominent, assume a con- 
spicuously light green colour, and look watery. After this they become 
covered with a delicate fungus, which is at first gray, then dusky, and 
at last black. Finally the infected tissue covering the tips of the warts 
is cut off from the healthy tissue below by a formation of cork, and ulti- 
mately the cork formation becomes so abundant ss to give a dingy white 
colour to the old warts. The appearance and development of the warts 
are much the same on the leaves as on the fruits. There is no forma- 
tion of a lump below the wart. When the leaves are attacked while 
still very young much the same effect is produced as in the case of the 
fruit, the leaf surface bulging abruptly outward and causing the warts 
to appear seated on hollow, conical protuberances. The leaf is often 
considerably thickened where the wart is situated, and the persistence 
of the leaves for at least a year in most cases enables the cork forma- 
tion to proceed further than is usually the case on the fruit. 


Varieties of trees attacked.—Scab attacks only certain species of cit- 
rus fruits, the sour orange (Citrus bigaradia) being particularly subject 
to its ravages. It was first noticed in the United States on this host. 
Both leaves and fruits of affected trees are often severely injured. The 
-greatest loss, however, is caused by its disfiguring the lemon. It at- 
tacks the fruits far more frequently than the leaves, and by causing 
the lemons to become bumpy and warty renders them valueless or 
-‘mearly so. On the foliage it is never abundant enough to do serious 
harm. After the sour orange and lemon the Satsuma orange is most 


137 


frequently attacked. This variety, probably a form of Citrus nobilis, 
comes from Japan. On this host scab rarely causes serious damage to 
the crop and is seldom seen on the foliage. In all probability the 
-disease was introduced from Japan into the United States on this 
-orange. In several localities in Florida the first appearance of scab on 
the sour orange and lemon was shortly after the introduction of 
Satsuma orange trees. The fact of its being usually inconspicuous on 
this host explains why it was not noticed first on this species. 
Scab, or a disease closely allied to it, occurs on very young fruit of 
the lime (Citrus limetia), causing the fruits to fall while still very 
small. It has not been found on the older fruits or leaves of this species. 
It also occurs on the Otaheite orange, a variety of unknown origin, but 
apparently having some lemon ancestry. All the common sweet 
oranges (Citrns Aurantium), the Kumquat (C. japonica), tangerine, 
mandarin, and king oranges (C. nobilis), grape fruit and shaddock 
(C. decumana) seem to be nearly if not quite exempt. Certainly no 
appreciable damage is ever caused to these sorts by scab. In Florida, 
however, it is said to occur occasionally on the tangerine and mandarin 
-or:nges. In Japan it appears to affect the ordinary cultivated oranges, 
which are largely varieties of Citrus nobilis. In Australia the disease 
is reported on orange leaves, but no informatiou has been furnished as 
to whether or not any other sorts are exempt. 


Cause.—Scab is caused by a minute parasitic fungus (Cladispiroum 
sp.). So far as known this fungus is found only on the varieties of 
citrus plants subject to the disease in question. It is a very minute 
species and usually forms a delicate dusky coating, only a few hun- 
dredths of an inch thick, on the surface of the wart. The colourless 
mycelial threads of the parasite creep about in the superficial layers of 
the warts and give rise to tufts of erect, brown, branched, and multi- 
cellular fruiting branches or hyphe. On these the dusky, spindle- 
-shaped spores are produced. The spores are borne in abundance near 
the ends of the hyphe, which often show numerous scars where spores 
have been detached. The spores are usually one-celled, but occasion- 
ally are two, and very rarely even three-celled. They are very minute, 
being only about 5545 mch long and g,45 inch wide. The spores 
germinate by pushing out a slender thread from the side. 


Conditions governing infection of the host plant by the parasite.—It has 
been found that this fungus is remarkably sensitive to weather condi- 
tions and can fruit abundantly and spread rapidly only where the air 
is moist. In Florida the disease often makes no perceptible progress 
for weeks during the dry spring, but if a few days of damp weather 
come on, it suddenly spreads and develops very rapidly. Groves in 
low, moist situations are more subject to scab than those on high 
and dry lands. The fact that the fungus depends so closely on moist 
weather for its proper development and spread doubtless explains its 
almost total absence from California, where the atmosphere is much 
drier during the growing season than it is in Florida. 


Another important condition governing infection is that the tissue 
‘must still be growing to be subjectto the invasion of the parasite. The 
period of greatest danger to both leaves and fruits is when they are 
young and tender and growing rapidly. This explains why old lemon 


138 


and sour orange fruits are not badly deformed when attacked by the 
fungus after the moist weather of summer sets in. 


Treatment.— During the spring and summer of 1894 extensive experi- 
ments were carried on by one of tne writers to discover, if possible,. 
means of preventing scab onthe lemon. Owing to the irregular bloom- 
ing of the lemon, the prevention of the disease was found to be a diffi- 
cult undertaking. However, it was demonstrated that Bordeaux mix- 
ture and ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate, if properly applied, 
are efficient. The former is very effective against the fungus, but is 
more or less injurious to the fruit and foliage of the lemon, while the 
latter is almost an absolute preventive of the disease and causes very 
little if any injury to the tree. 


It was found highly important that all infected fruits be removed 
from the tree and from the ground beneath before blooming begins. 
This measure is absolutely necessary to insure the success of any treat- 
ment, and is of itselfa great aid im checking the disease. All sour 
orange trees or sprouts from sour stocks should also be removed from 
the vicinity of lemon trees, since they are even more subject to scab 
than the lemon, and because not only the fruit but also the leaves can 
support a luxuriant growth of the fungus. 


The disease can be prevented, to some extent, by planting the trees 
on dry soil and in localities having little rainfall during and immedi- 
ately after the blooming season. Directions for treating the disease 
are briefly as follows: 


1. Carefully remove, and burn or bury all diseased lemon fruits, how~ 
ever small, either on the trees or on the ground. Cut down and destroy 


all sour orange trees or sprouts from sour stock in the vicinity of the 
lemon trees. 


2. Prepare ammonical solution of copper carbonate as follows: Take 
5 ounces of copper carbonate and stir up with about a pint of water to 
a thick paste; then dilute with 14 gallons of water in a wooden pail. 
Stir vigorously and at the same time add slowly 2 pints of strong 
ammonia (') or 54 pints weaker ammonia water. (2) Stir until all is 
dissolved, or at least all but a tew granules, and then dilute with water 
to 50 gallons. 


3. Apply the ammoniaca! solution with a pump giving a good pres- 
sure and furnished witha Vermorel nozzle. The initial spraying should 
be made when the first young fruits are exposed by the falling of the 
flowers, the second spraying usually after two are three weeks, a third 
two or three weeks later on when blooming is nearly or quite over, and 
a fourth when the fruits are of a size ranging from that of a pea to 
that of an olive. If necessary a fifth and even a sixth spraying should 
be made after particularly wet weather. In most cases four and often 
five sprayings are absolutely necessary. By carefully watching for the 
appearance of warts on the fruit, particularly during moist weather, 
the grower can determine when to spray and whether any spraying 16: 
necessary alter the third application. 


(1) Aqua ammoniz fortior (28 per cent.) of druggist. 
(2) Aqua ammoniz (10 per cent.) of druggists. 


139 


4, Direct the spray so as to coat all the young fruits evenly, but 
thinly. It is not necessary to spray the leaves, but it will not be possi- 
ble to aviod wetting them when spraying the fruit. 


5. Watch for scale insects, and if they appear in great numbers use 
resin wash, kerosene emulsion, or other insecticide. This caution is 
necessary because in some cases where trees are sprayed with Bordeaux 
mixture the fungous parasites of the scale are killed, and consequently 
the scale insects multiply very fast. As yet no such effect has been 
observed when ammoniacal copper carbonate was used, but the possible 
danger from this source should be borne in mind 


6 If preferred, Bordeaux mixture can be used in place of the am- 
moniacal solution of copper carbonate. In preparing the Bordeaux 
mixture, take 6 pounds of copper sulphate and 3 pounds of lime; add 
25 gallons of water to each, then mix, and add 6 pounds of dissolved 
soap to the mixture. This spray must be applied with care, giving 
the trees only a thin coating, otherwise the youngest foliage may be 
injured or scale insects induced. 


SOOTY MOULD.(?*) 


Sooty mould of the orange, or smut,(?) as itis sometimes erroneously 
called, is a malady which frequently causes serious damage. The 
fungus producing it is of saprophytic habit, deriving its nourishment 
from the sweet fluids (honeydew) secreted by certain insects, the 
attacks of which it invariably follows. As the honeydew falls, it 
strikes principally on the upper surfaces of the leaves and exposed 
branches and upper portions of the fruit (the stem end, as the fruit 
are pendulous), and it is on these portions that the sooty mould grows. 
It develops also to some extent on the lower surfaces of the leaves, but 
isnot soabundant here. In Florida sooty mould follows principally the 
attacks of the mealy wing or white fly (Aleyrodes citri R. & H.), wax 
scale (Ceroplastes floridensis), mealy bug (Dactylopius citri), orange 
plant louse or aphis (Aphis gossypii Glover), etc., and spreads, as these 
insect pests spread. It is only where it follows the mealy wing, how- 
ever that it becomesserious. In this State it is estimated that the loss 
it causes is not far short of $50,000 annually. . 


Besides occurring on all varieties of citrus fruits, sooty mould is fre- 
-quently found on a number of wild plants in Florida. It is particular- 
ly abundant on the gall berry(Ilex glabra), red bay, (Persea carolinen- 
sis), and magnolia. On the gall berry it follows attacks of the wax 
scale (Ceroplastes floridensis), which also infests the orange. 


Sooty mould is probably common in all orange countries of the world. 
In California it causes much damage and is considered a serious malady. 


(1) Sooty mould of the orange is probably produced by several different species 
of the genus Meliola. The forms known as Meliola penzigi and Meliola camelice 
appear to be the most common in Florida. In publications in this country the 
fungus has usually been referred to Capnodium citri and Fumago salicina. The 
disease is known in Italy under the names fumaggine, morfea, nero, etc., and in 
Germany as Russthan. 


(2) Smut is the name very generally applied to diseases produced by the true 
smut fungi (Ustilaginec). 


140 


There it follows chiefly the black scale (Lecanium ole) and the cottony 
cushion scale (Icerya purchasi). In Louisiana it is very common on 
the orange, following chiefly, as in Florida, the mealy wing and wax. 
scale. Jt is also qui'e common in Spain, Italy, and many other orange 
growing countries.(1) 

Symptoms.—Sooty mould may be readily recognised by the dense~ 
sooty-black membrane which it forms over the fruit and upper surfaces» 
of the leaves. This membrane is made up of the densely interwoven, 
branched mycelial filaments (threads) of the fungus, the individual 
filaments of which can in some cases be distinguished with a hand lens. 
When isolated the filaments are seen to vary in colour from olive green 
to dark brown. ‘They are at first loosely interwoven, but gradually 
become very numerous snd crowded. Finally they become cemented 
together, forming a dense compact membrane. The fungus as nearly 
as can be determined, is entirely superficial. Small projections occur 
on the filaments, but no proof has been found that these penetrate the~ 
tissue of the leaf. Apparently they are merely organs of attachment. 
Large disks (hypkopodia) are also frequently developed, which evi- 
dently serve as organs for attaching the mould to the leaf Reproduc- 
tive bodies of several forms are developed in great abundance, and 
these are easily carried from tree to tree or from grove to grove 
through the agency of the wind, insects, birds, or animals. 

This disease injures the plant by interrupting the process of assimi-- 
lation. This is brought about by the cutting off of light and by hin- 
dering the passage of necessary gases in and out of the plant. The 
accompanying insects further injure the plant by sucking the nutritious - 
juices from the cells of the leaves. The growth of the tree is usually 
greatly retarded, and in serious cases is frequently entirely checked . 
until some relief is found. The blooming and fruiting are commonly 
light, and in very bad cases are wholly suppressed. In slight droughts. 
the leaves wither quickly and curl up, resembling those on blighted 
trees. The young fruit becomes covered with the sooty mould and is” 
retarded in its development, frequently never reaching completematurity. 
It is usually smaller and less juicy than that normally developed, and 
remains very insipid. It does not change to the normal bright 
orange colour of mature fruit till very late, and if the membrane of 
the sooty mould covering it is quite thick the rind remains somewhat 
green, apparently for an indefinite period, rendering the fruit unsal-— 
able. The black coating formed by the sooty mould renders the fruit 
unsightly and unsalable until it is thoroughly washed, which necessi- 
tates a considerable expenditure of time and labour. Even when care- 
fully washed, a process which injures the keeping quality of the fruit, 
much of it being still small and green is unfit for market. 

Treatment.—Where sooty mould followed the attacks of the orange ~ 
mealy wing, spraying with resin wash or fumigation with hydrocyanic 
acid gas was found to be very effective. When resin wash(?) is used, 
the best time for treatment is in winter, between December and the 
first of March. During this period the mealy wing cannot fly away 


(1) In Jamaica, it is common on the Rose Apple, Eugenia Jambos, Linn. 
(2) The following is the formula for resin wash: Resin, 20 pounds; caustic™ 
soda (98 per cent), 44 pounds ; fish oil (crude), 3 pints ; water to make 15 gallons ; 


141 


to escape the spray, being in the mature larval or pupal stage and 
fixed immovably to the lower surface of the leaf. Furthermore, to be’ 
thoroughly effective, the resin wash must remain on the trees at least: 
one or two days, and as this is usually a dry season it is not likely to 
be washed off soon. If thoroughly done three or four sprayings du- 
ring the period mentioned, at intervals of one to two weeks, will be 
found an efficient treatment. It is probably best to delay the spray- 
ings until the fruit has been removed. Should it be found necessary,. 
treatments may also be made during May and the first half of June 
and again during the latter part of August and first of September. 

In spraying it is important to wet thoroughly the under surface of 
every leaf. In treating this disease it has been found a good practice 
to trim the trees within, about the trunk and main limbs, thus leaving 
the greater part of the foliage near the outer parts of the tree. This 
greatly facilitates spraying, which must be done largely from under 
the tree, the spray being directly outward in order to wet the lower 
surfaces of gthe leaves. Where trees are trimmed out in this way an 
abundance of water sprouts usually spring up onthe main limbs. The 
mealy wing generally lays its eggs on these in great numbers, and 
after a brood of mature winged insects have disappeared, it is a good 
practice to prune off these water sprouts and burn them. In this way 
great numbers of these insects may be destroyed at slight expense. 

Fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas, in the way it is generally 
used, is also a very effective remedy. One treatment during the year, 
if properly made should be sufficient. In the case of fumigation the 
treatment should be made some time between December and the first of 
March. During this period the temperature is usually much lower 
than at any other time, and this is a feature of importance. In treat-- 


Place the resin, caustic soda, and fish ‘oil in a large kettle, Pour over them 13 
gallons of water and boil till the resin is thoroughly dissolved, which requires 
from three to ten minutes after the materials begin to boil. While hot, add 
enough water to make just 15 gallons. This may be most readily accomplished 
by taking a tight keg or other tall receptacle and measuring into it 15 gallong 
of water. Then plainly and permanently mark the height to which the 15 gallons 
reach. After boiling, the hot so.ution may be poured directly into this measurins 
keg and sufficient water added to bring it up to the 15 gallon mark. This serves 
as a stock preparation. 

When this stock preparation cools, a fine yellowish precipitate forms and 
settles to the bottom of the vessel. The preparation must therefore be thorough- 
ly stired each time before measuring out to dilute, soasto uniformly mix this 
prec'pitate with the clear. dark, amber-brown liquid, which forms by far the 
larger part of the stock preparation. An instrument like a churn dasher, without 
perferations, greatly facilitlaes rapid and thorough mixing. When desired for 
use, take one part of the stock preparation to nine parts of water. If the wash 
be desired tor immediate use, the materials after boiling, and while still hot, may 
be poured directly into the spray tank and diluted with cold water up to 150 gal- 
lons. This requires the addition of about 135 gallons of water. 

lf a fluid stock solution{is preferred, the wash may be prepared as follows: Place 
the same proportions of resin, caustic soda, and fish oil in the kettle and pour over 
them from 15 to 17 gallons of water. Boil until the resin is thoroughly dissolv- 
ed and then dilute with cold water, while the solution is still very hot, to exactly 
21 gallons, To get this exact amount the barrel may be prepared and marked in 
the manner already described. This will form a clear, dark, amber-brown solu- 
tion, which at ordinary Florida temperatures will remain perfectly fluid. For 
use dilute the whole formula to 150 gallons or use in the proportions of one part 
of the stock solution to six parts of water. 


142 


ing this disease it has beenfound more effective to allow the gas to 
act for a slightly longer period than usual, say about forty minutes. 

A parasitic fungus, Aschersonia tahitensis, has been found which 
attacks and destroys the larve and pupe of the mealy wing, and bids 
fair to be of great aid in combating this pest. It forms small, wart-like 
conical pustules, from 2 to3 mm. in diameter. ‘At first these are 
white or orange yellow throughout, but in the mature stage the spore 
masses become orange red. This fungus is frequently found in groves 
affected with sooty mould. It dots the under surfaces of the leaves 
and may occasion alarm if its nature is not understood. Unless examin, 
ed in an early stage of development, no trace of the mealy-wing scale 
ean be discovered without microscopic study. — 

When sooty mould follows attacks of the wax scale, mealy bug or 
orange aphis, thorough spraying with the resin wash or standard kero- 
sene emulsion will be found effective. The time when the treatment 
should be made is not important in these cases, but if the resin wash 
is used, a dry season should be selected, when the work will not be 
rendered uncertain by the lability of rainfall. 

FOOT ROT OR MAL-DI-GOMMA.(?) 

Foot rot or mal-di-gomma isa disease chiefly of the orange and 
lemon, and is probably more widespread than any other citrus malady. 
It is known to occur in almost all countries where the orange is culti- 
vated, but so far as known appeared first in the Azores Islands, where it 
was very severe. According to the statement of Fouque(?) it was 
first noticed in this group in 1834, on the island of San Miguel, where 
it seems to have originated. From that time until 1840 he estimates 
that fully one-fourth of the trees were destroyed. It reached its great- 
est severity on the island in 1840 ; in 1842 it began to decrease, and in 
1873 it had ceased to be very serious. F. Alphonso(*) says that accor- 
ding to general report the malady appeared in Portugal in 1845, in 
Hyéres in 1851,(*) in Lago di Garda in 1855, and in Messina in 
1863. According to Briosi(*) the disease first appeared in Sicily in 
1862, and afterwards spread to Naples, Liguria, and Layo di Garda, 
everywhere destroying orange and lemon trees by thousands. Profes- 
sor Wohler mentioned in Briosi’s monograph referred to in foot-note) 
found the malady very destructive on the Balearic Islands in 1871. 
Statements differ in regard to the first appearance of the disease in 
Florida, but it seems to have been noted here some eighteen or twenty 
years ago. Dr. A. H. Curtis(®) says: “It appeared about nineteen 
years ago, though few people remember to have observed it earlier 


(1) An account of this disease, prepared by B. T. Galloway, was published in Part 
II of Bulletin No 8 of the Division of Botany, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 

(2) Voyages geologiques aux Acores, III, Les Cultures de S. Miguel (Revue des 
deux Mondes, Paris, Apr. 15, 1873, p. 837). 

(3) Alphonso, F., La coltivazione degli aranci nelle Azzorre (Annali di agricol - 
tura Siciliana, Vol. V. 1873, p. 311). 

(4) Rendu, M. V., Note sur la maladie des oranges d’Hyéres, Extrait (Commis- 
sionaires Jussieu, Gaudichaud, Decaisne) Compt. Rend., t. 33, 1851, pp. 681-683). 

(5) Briosi, Giovanni, Intorno al mal di gomma degli agrumi (Fusisporium limo- 
ni, Briosi) (Atti della R. Acad. dei Lincei, Roma, ser. 3a, Vol. II ; Memoria della 
classe di science fisiche ecc, meeting of May 5, 1878, pp. 485-496). 

(6) Curtis, A. H., Sore shin or gum disease (Fla. Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 2, June, 
1888, pp. 29-35). 


143 


than 1880.” The disease is widely distributed in Florida and has by” 
no means rua out, but, on the contrary, seems to be gradually spread- 
ing. It has also appeared in Louisiana and California, where, in 
places, it is said to be very destructive. 

The damage caused by foot rot is very great, and without question 
much more than that caused by any other orange disease. The first 
season after the trees are attacked they may bear an unusually large 
crop of fruit, but this is generally the last full crop produced. By the 
next season the tree is either killed or else so reduced that it cannot. 
support much fruit. Sometimes trees are nearly girdled in the space 
of a few months. Whole groves have been entirely destroyed in the 
course of a few years. Briosi describes its effect in Italy and Sicily as 
being most serious; he estimates the damage done in Italy from 1862 
to 1878 at more than $2,000,000. In Florida many fine bearing groves 
have been almost totally destroyed, but the malady does not appear to 
be so severe here as in some foreign countries. Tne annual damage it 
causes in Florida is estimated at about $100,000. 

Symptoms.—The first symptom of foot rot is an abundant exudation 
of drops of gum on the trunk of the tree near the base. This occurs 
over a limited portion of the bark in the first stages of the disease, and 
may appear in one or several distinct patches. In this stage the bark 
will be found to be discoloured, having become brownish, and to contain 
numerous cavities filled with gum. ‘The inner bark becomes watery 
and more or less rotten, and has a very disagreeable, fetid odour. As 
the malady develops, the demarcation between the healthy bark and 
the diseased patches becomes very apparent The plant eudeavours to 
throw off the disease and a separative layer is formed between the 
healthy and diseased portions. The patch ef diseased bark thus deli- 
mited, dries up, the edges break away where the separative layer is 
formed and gradually curve up in drying. Finally the patches of di- 
seased bark are thrown off. ‘lhe death and decay of the tissues caused 
by the disease extend through the bark and apparently for some dis- 
tance into the wood. The cambium layer, the most vital part of the 
tree, situated between the bark and the wood, is destroyed, and when 
the bark is thrown off there is no possibility of new bark growing over 
that portion The patches of bark which first become diseased, are ir- 
regular in shape and vary greatly in size, but are usually from 1 to 4 
inches in diameter. The exudation of gum occurs principally in the 
spring or in early autumn, after the rainy season, while delimitation 
and detachment of the bark usually take place during the summer or 
winter. 

As the disease progresses, gum exudes on other portions of the bark 
which are in turn thrown off. It is quite common for a circle of bark 
surrounding an old diseased spot to become affected and be thrown off, 
thus enlarging the spot. The malady gradually spreads in all direc- 
tions, but ,principally down on the main crown roots and around the 
trunk in a lateral direction. Year after year other portions of bark 
become affected, until the tree is entirely girdled and thereby killed. 
In malignant cases the disease runs its course and kills the tree in two 
years or less, while in mild cases the growth of the tree is scarcely af- 
fected, and fin a few years the wounds are often completely covered 
with the new growth from the sides. The destruction of the bark on 


144 


the trunk does not usually extend over | or 14 feet above the ground, 
but occurs on the roots for some distance below the surface. 

Trees affected with foot rot appear at first as if they were suffering 
from lack of nourishment. The foliage becomes light yellow and scanty 
the leaves developed being smaller than usual; the tree bears consid- 
erable fruit, apparently of normal size and good quality. This abun- 
dant fruiting is in marked contrast with blight, where a profuse bloom 
is formed, but very little fruit set. In trees suffering from this disease 
the small limbs die first, but as the malady progresses large limbs suc- 
cumb, thus giving the tree a ragged appearance. Again, in marked 
contrast with blight and with severe cases of die back, no water sprouts 
develop from the interior of the tree top or from the trunk. In Florida 
trees are not usually attacked until they are quite old and have been 
bearing fruit for a numberof years. In other regions, however, young 
trees are said to contract the disease. 

Psorosis a disease (1) known in Florida as “ tears” or “ gum disease” 
is often confounded with foot rot, but is unquestionably quite distinct. 
In appearance it is similar to foot rot, but with it the diseased spots occur 
on the limbs and occasionally on the trunk, but never on the roots so 
far as known. Psorosis does not kill the bark entirely, but extends 
only to the middle layer, the inner bark and cambium layer remaining 
healthy. 

Varieties of trees attacked.—Probably all species of citrus trees may 
contract mal-di-gomma, but some are very much more subject to it 
than others. Sweet seedling orange trees (Citrus Aurantium) are par- 
ticularly susceptible, and it is in old groves of these that the most dam- 
age is done. Sweet orange used as stock ror budding is also liable to 
the disease. This malady is very destructive to the lemon (C. Jimonum), 
occuring quite commonly on all varieties. Grape fruit (C. decumana) 
is frequently affected, but is much more resistant to attacks than the 
sweet orange or lemon. Indeed, it is seldom that this fruit is serious- 
ly damaged. Tangerine and mandarin oranges (C. nobilis) are occa- 
sionally affected, but the damage is not usually very great. The sour 
orange (C. bigaradia) is apparently almost wholly free from mal-di- 
gomma. ‘The writers carried ona careful search for the disease on 
this species, but succeded in finding only two uuquestionable cases. 
The sour orange used as a stock for budding, remains free from attacks, 
and in Floridaits use for this purpose is almost a sure preventive of 
the disease. It is probable that the disease occurs on the lime (C. Ji- 
metta) and citron (C. medica) also, but no cases have as yet been ob- 
served in Florida. 

Cause.—Mal-di-gomma has been studied extensively by many inves- 
tigators, but as yet the cause of the disease is not surely known. It is 
thought by many to result from the attacks of some parasitic organism, 
and Professor Briosi(?) describes and names a fungus (Fusisporium 
limoni) which he finds always accompanying the disease. He is in- 
clined to consider the fungus the cause of the trouble, but is in doubt 

as to whether it is the primary cause. He says, however: “I do 
not believe there can be any doubt that its presence accelerates the 
disorganization of the tissues and aids in extending the disease.” 


_ (1) From the Greek, meaning an ulcer. 
(2) Briosi, loc. cit., 495. 


145 


The manner in which the disease spreads, appearing at different 
dates first in one country and then in another, and extending gradu- 
ally from grove to grove, strongly indicates that it is contagious, being 
caused or at least greatly aggravated by some parasitic organism. 

Some investigators also think that the disease is due to physiological 
derangements, for instance, imperfect aeration of the roots. The most 
-effective treatment known is based largely on this supposition. 

Observation has shown that the disease is most common where any 
-of the following conditions exist: Improper drainage; planting the 
trees so close together that the ground is continually shaded and kept 

moist ; continuous use of organic fertilisers ; excessive cultivation ; con- 
‘tinuous excessive irrigation, which keeps the soil water-soaked ; and 
-deep planting. 
Trees badly affected with the disease frequently recover if trans- 
planted to some other location, on apparently similar soil, and given 
plenty of room. A remarkable instance of this was seen by the writers 
In a case where 40 acres were planted out some five years ago with 
large trees affected with foot rot. After three years every tree of the 
several thousand transplanted to this grove seemed to have fully re- 
-covered. 

Treatment.—Very many attempts have been made, both in Europe 
and in the United States, to find remedies for this malady. One of 
the most important discoveries is that it can be prevented by using 
immune or resistant stocks. It was early noticed that the sour orange 
and trees of sour orange stocks were almost absolutely exempt from 
the malady. By using this stock in setting out young grove the dis- 
ease can be effectually prevented. On high, dry soils, not suited to the 
sour orange, grape-fruit stock can be used, as it also is quite resistant. 

Many curative treatments prove more or less beneficial, and this has 
led to conflicting claims as to which is the best. In many cases it 
has been found sufficient to simply dig away the earth and expose the 
roots. This probably explains why so many different applications 
made to the roots seem to benefit the tree. The very act of opening 
the soil and exposing the roots to the air of itself tends to effect a cure. 
As the disease is probably caused by a parasite, it is important that no 
wounds be made on healthy roots in removing the soil. It is desirable 
to cut away all infected bark and wash the scars with some antiseptic 
solution, such as sulphurous acid, carbolic acid, or sulphur wash. 
Where trees are closely planted, it is usually necessary to remove and 
transplant a part of them to give light and air free access to the roots 
and trunk. The use of highly organic nitrogenous fertilizers should 
be avoided, and also excessive or deep cultivation. 

The following is a summary of the treatment recommended for foot 
Trot: 

1. Remove the earth from about the roots for 2 to 3 feet from the 
trunk, being careful not to wound the healthy roots. When the groves 
are furnished with irrigation plants of the kind commonly used in 
Florida, which are capable of delivering a stream of water under con- 
siderable pressure, the earth should be washed away rather than dug 
away from the roots. A good way to do this is to first dig a hole some 
3 feet in diameter and 2 to 3 feet deep about 6 feet from the tree; then 
stand on the opposite side of the tree and wash the soil from under the 


146 


tree, driving it into the hole previously dug. If no hole is dug before’ 
washing out is attempted, the soil is likely to bank up around the tree 
and make it difficult to expose the roots sufficiently. In all cases the 
roots should be left exposed till recovery takes place, except possibly 
during a portion of the winter when severe freezes are hkely to occur. 

2. Cut away all diseased spots in the bark or the roots or trunk and 
cover the wounds with one of the following antiseptic solutions: (1) Sul- 
phurous (not sulphuric) acid, 15 parts to 85 parts of water. This may 
be sprayed on the roots. (2) Carbonic acid, 1 part of crude acid to l 
part of water. When diluted 1 to 5 this may be sprayed over the roots. - 
(3) Sulphur wash made by putting 30 pounds of flowers of sulphur in 
an iron or wooden vessel and mixing enough water (about 12 quarts) 
with it to make a stiff paste. ‘To this add 20 pounds of finely pulver- 
ized 98 per cent caustic soda and stir vigorously. In a few moments 
the mass becomes hot, turns brown, and then boils up and becomes li- 
quid. As soon as the violent boiling has ceased, add enough water to 
bring up to 20 gallons and strain into a barrel that can be kept tightly 
corked. For covering cut places use 1 part of this stock preparation 
to 1 part of water. The roots may be sprayed with one part of stock 
solution to 10 of water.(!) All these solutions should be kept im 
wooden or glass vessels and should not be allowed to come in contact 
with metals. It is possible that any of these applications will prove of 
benefit even if the diseased spots are not cut out. In this latter case 
however, care should be taken to saturate the bark of all diseased spots 
with the solution. 

3. When the diseased trees are old and closely set, so that the ground 
is much shaded, every other tree should be removed and replanted 
in a new grove. 

4. Avoid highly nitrogenous organic fertilisers in diseased groves, 
using preferably nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia as a source of. 
nitrogen. 

5. All tools used in infected groves should be cleaned and washed 
with crude carbolic acid before they are used in healthy groves. 

6. In setting new groves dead treos should be replaced with trees. 
budded on sour orange stock.(?) 

7. Avoid excessive and deep cu!tivation in diseased groves. Injuries 
to the roots, such as are often caused by deep ploughing, seem to~ 
greatly favour the spread of the disease. 


MELANOSE.(?) 


Melanose which in some groves is causing considerable damage, was 
first brought to the attention of the writers in November, 1892, by 
Mr. J. A. Barnes, who sent specimens to usfrom Citra. It appareutly 
attacks all citrus fruits, but develops somewhat more freely on the grape 


(1) Two quarts of the stock solution to 50 gallons of water makes a very effec- 
tive remedy for rust mite, and 1 gallon to 50 gallous of water for the six-spotted 
mite. 

(2.) Sour stock does better than sweet on low, wet hammock lands, and as well 
on flatwood land. For high, dry lands grape-fruit stock may be used, since sour 
stock does not do well and grape fruit is almost exempt from foot rot. 


(3) From the Greek, black and disease. 


147 


#ruit than on the other varieties. It is known to affect the grape fruit, 
_eommon sweet orange, sour orange, lemon, mandarin, and Satsuma. 
The disease develops most freely on young, rapidly growing, vigorous 
shoots. It resembles to some extent the injury produced by the rust 
mite, and was for a time confounded with this disease. Its refusal to 
yield to the treatment for rust mite, however, led to the discovery that 
it is distinct from rust. (1) 

The disease is undoubtelily of very recent origin or introduction. 
It has spread rapidly in the region about Citra, and many of the 
groves there are badly affected. The malady has also been found to 
occur to some extent at Ocala, Stanton, and Sandford, and is apparently 
spreading rapidly. 

The foliage of trees attacked by this disease is greatly injured, and 
consequently the general vigour and productiveness of the tree much 
reduced. The growth of young trees is retarded, and they are appar- 
ently permanently stunted if the disease is allowed to continue. The 
fruit produced is mostly disfigured, some of it so badly as to be unsala- 
ble. This is particularly the case with lemons, they, unlike russet 
oranges being almost wholly unsalable. At Stanton where the malady 
occurs in lemon groves to some extent, from 3 to 4 per cent of the fruit 
was affected in 1894, and about 2 per cent rendered unsalable. On 
badly affected grape fruit and orange trees fully 90 per cent of the 
fruit may be more or less disfigured by melanose. Probably 1 per cent 
of these are rendered unsalable, The total damage produced by this 
malady is as yet slight, being about $5,000 annually. It appears to 
be spreading rapidly, however, and may ere long become one of the 
most common and most injurious diseases. Great care should be taken 
to prevent the introduction of this malady into California and other 
orange-growing countries where it is not yet known to occur. 

Symptoms—The most conspicuous symptom of melanose is the occur- 
rence of small, dark brown spots on the leaves, young stems, and 
fruits. On the leaves and fruits the individual spots, when dis- 
tinct, are nearly round and are slightly elevated above the surrounding 
surface. On the stems the spots are usually roundish, but are fre- 
quently somewhat elliptical or oblong and elevated, as on the leaves, 
Only the elevated spot is discoloured, the surrounding tissue being of 
normal colour. The spots are at first very minute and yellowish. They 
gradually increase, however, and swell up, changing to dark brown or 
nearly black. Many of the spots finally burst near the centre and show 
-a small irregular fissure. Very commonly the under side of the leaves 
‘show minute depressions, corresponding to the spots located on the 
upper surface. On young partially grown leaves this latter character 
is usually very evident, each brown spot occurring ona slight ele- 
vation of the leaf. The spots vary considerably in size, ranging usually 
from } to 1 mm. (,4, to + inch) in diameter. On the common sweet 
-orange and sour orange they range in size from } to 4 mm. (;}y to sy 
inch). On the grape fruit they are from $ to 1 mm. (¥4 to ,), inch) in dia- 
meter, the individual spots being usually much larger and more conspi- 
cuous than on commonorangeorsourorange. Onthe commonorange 388 


(1) A brown discolouration of the fruit, caused by the attacks of a surfece-feed- 
sing mite, Phytoptus. 


148 


spots were counted on a square centimetre of a badly infected leaf and 
44 spots on a square centimetre of one slightly infected. In the grape 
fruit only 130 spots to the square centimetre were found on a badly 

infected leaf; these were partly confluent, forming an almost continu- 

ous blotch. Where the spots are very abundant, they frequently 

run together, forming large, irregular, dark brown blotches. This. 
frequently occurs on all species of citrus trees affected with the disease, 

and is found on stems, leaves, and fruits. On the fruits in particular 

this is of frequent occurrence. As the fruit ripens, the blotches, which. 
are hard and brittle, sometimes become considerably checkered and 

fissured, similar to the cracking of mud in drying. . | 

The spots are to some extent formed on both surfaces of the leaf, but 
are much more abundant on the upper surface. This character is more 
particularly noticeable in the grape fruit than in other species of cit- 
rus. On grape fruit the spots are almost wholly limited to the upper 
surface. In the common sweet orange and sour orange they occur 
abundantly on the lower surface, but are still more numerous on the up- 
persurface. On the different portions of the fruit and young stems the 
spots are apparently uniformly abundant. This malady is most 
severe on the lower portions of the tree, but the characteristic spots: 
are also found on the leaves and twigs in the tops of large trees, nearly 
30 feet from the ground. 

The infection, it appears, usually takes place at an early stage in the 
development of the leaves and stems, and if the disease becomes severe 
the affected organs are considerably modified in appearance. The 
Jeaves become greatly distorted and wrinkled and remain much smaller 
and more pointed than normally. Many of the leaves fall before reach- 
ing maturity, only a scanty foliage remaining on badly affected 
branches. The branches are also considerably contorted and stunted. 
in severe attacks. 

Cause.—F'rom studies that have been made of this disease it seems: 
very probable that it is caused by some vegetable parasite, although the 
microscopic siudies which have thus far been carried on have failed to 
reveal the presence of any such organism. The disease is apparently 
contagious, spreading from definite centres. In some groves infected 
areas are plainly seen. In the centres of these areas, where the disease 
first started, the trees will be found to be very badly affected, but 
toward the margins the malady gradually becomes less apparent. 

Melanose appears to be of an entirely local nature. In its growth 
and development each spot is entirely independent of any other spot,. 
probably being caused by a separate infection. The tissue between 
the diseased spots is evidently perfectly healthy outside of the gen- 
eral debility which results from the infection of such a large portion 
of the leaf. The strict localization of the disease, so similar to what 
occurs in scab, again strongly suggests that the disease is caused by 
some vegetable parasite. Infection can take place apparently only 
when the tissues are quite young. If the leaves and stems escape the 
disease until they are nearly full grown the danger of infection is past. 
This is the case also with fruits, and therefore spraying to prevent the 
disease must be done early, while the fruits are small. After they 
reach an inch in diameter they appear to be safe from infection and- 
Spraying may then be discontinued. 


149 


Preventive measurea.In the summer of 1894 experiments with vari- 
ous fungicides were carried on at Stanton and Citra, with a view to 
find a preventive of the disease. The copper fungicides, i. e., Bor- 
deaux mixture and ammonical solution of copper carbonate, were 
found to almost wholly prevent the disease if properly applied. In 
two plats of lemon trees at Stanton, sprayed with Bordeaux mixtures 
(6 pounds of copper sulphate and 34 pounds of lime to 50 gallons of 
water), melanose was absolutely prevented, the most careful search 
failing to disclose a single fruit showing the characteristic spots. The 
sprayings were made once a week and twice a week, respectively, for a 
term of ten weeks, beginning February 3. On an orange tree sprayed 
at the same time with the lemons the treatment was equally effective. 
However, both the lemon trees and orange trees were somewhat injured 
by the Bordeaux mixture, probably largely because of the numerous 
sprayings given. On adjoining unsprayed lemon trees from 2 to 4 per 
cent of the fruits and a larger per cent of the foliage were considerably 
spotted with the disease. Perhaps half the spoted fruits were so badly 
disfigured as to be unsalable. In a plat of lemon trees sprayed weekly 
with ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate (5 ounces to 50 gallons), 
beginning February 24 and continuing eight consecutive weeks, no 
melanose could be found on any of the sprayed trees. However, very 
little developed on the unsprayed trees adjoining this plat. 

In another series of experiments at Citra, several plants of very badly 
infected orange trees were sprayed with Bordeaux mixture (6 pounds 
of copper sulphate and 34 pounds of lime to 80 gallons of water). In 
one of these plats sprayed twice, April 19 (shortly after flowering) and 
May 16, melanose was almost wholly prevented. Only two slightly 
spotted fruits were found on the entire plats of twenty-five large trees. 
Certainly not one-tenth of 1 per cent of the fruit showed even a trace 
of the disease. On the adjoining unsprayed trees fully 90 per cent of 
the fruit was diseased, some 50 per cent of it being very badly dis- 
figured. In these experiments the trees also were injured to some ex- 
tent, probably largely because of the abundance of scale insects on 
sprayed trees. As melanose was absolutely prevented by Bordeaux 
mixture of the strength above, it is highly probable that weaker sprays 
would be equally effective. It is likely that more sprayings will be 
necessary in treating melanose on the lemon than on the orange be- 
cause of the more extended flowering period of the former. Although 
the experiments were mostly with Bordeaux mixture, which has proved 
fully effective in preventing the malady,it is very likely that ammonia- 
eal solution of copper carbonate will be the most practical remedy, be- 
cause it is not so apt to injure the trees and will probably prove as 
effective as Bordeaux mixture 

The following is a summary of practical directions for keeping mela- 
nose in check: In treating the lemon for melanose, spray with Bor- 
deaux mixture(!) or ammoniacal solution of coppor carbonate.(?) Spray 
first about a month after the beginning of the spring blooming, or 


(1) Take 6 pounds of copper sulphate and 3 pounds of good lime to 80 gallons of 
water. Slack the lime carefully and dissolve the copper sulphate ; then dilute eaeh 
constituent with water to 25 gallons and mix. Add 6 pounds of soap, dissolved in 
as many gallons of hot water, and finally add enough water to bring the mixture 
up to 80 gallons. A resin soap suitable for adding to fungicides can be prepared 


150 
~when the oldest of the young fruits are about the size of an olive. 
Spray again about a month after the first application, after flowering 
has ceased and the youngest fruits are the size ofa pea. A third 


spraying may be made a month later if it is found necessary, but two 
sprayings will probably be sufficient. 


In treating the orange and grape fruit for this disease, use Bordeaux 
mixture or ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate, prepared as indi- 
cated above. Two sprayings should be made, the first about two weeks 
after the flowers have fallen and the second about a month later. A Ver- 
morel nozzle and a pump giving a good spray should be used. The 
spray must be applied to the fruits in the form of a fine mist, covering 
them thinly and evenly. In this way the leaves will be sufficiently 
coated without any special effort being made to wet them. 


SUMMARY. 


1. Blight attacks trees only when over 5 years old and which are in 
bearmg. It is first manifested by a sudden wilting of the leaves, 
which soon becomes so bad as to continue even in wet weather. At 
the beginning of the rainy season follewing the wilting, vigorously 
growing sprouts start from the trunk and larger branches. These often 
continue growing several years, but finally sicken and gradually 
decline. ‘The spring following the wilting of the top, the branches, 
which have now become nearly leafless, bloom profusely. These flow- 
ers continue to appear for two or three weeks after normal blooming is 
over. They are small, however, and almost never set fruit. Very little 
fruit is produced by blighted trees After flowering the branches 
usually die, often leaving only the sprouts from the trunk alive and 
growing. The whole top may be attacked at once or only a single 
branch, but in any case the entire top ultimately becomes blighted. 
The affected trees usually linger for many years and rarely die out- 
right, though they may be finally reduced to mere stumps. The roots 
for the first year at least, seem perfectly normal. The annual loss 
from this disease in Florida is about $150,000. The cause is unknown 
but it is probably a contagious malady, and, so far as known is incur- 
able. Affected trees should be dug up and burned as soon as they 
show the disease and healthy ones set out in their places. 


2. Die-back or exranthema isapparently caused by mal-nutrition, accom- 
panied by improper drainage, improper cultivation, etc. The disease 


very easily as follows: Take 4@ pounds resin, 20 pounds sal soda (crystalline), and 
water to make 25 gallons. Place the resin and sal soda in a comparatively large 
kettle with 5 quarts of water. Boil, meanwhile stirring briskly, until the resin 
and sal soda are thoroughly melted together and form a frothy mixture without 
lumps. Now add 20 gallons of cold water, pouring it in rather slowly and with 
short intervals between, and avoid chilling the mixture too suddenly. When all 
of the water is added, bring to a boil; then pour out the hot solution, straining 
through a coarse cloth, and add sufficient water to make 25 gallons of the solution. 
This, if correctly made, forms a thick, dark-brown, translucent, syrupy solution, 
which may be preserved as a stock preparation- About 2 pounds of soap are con- 
tained to the gallon and the cost is only about 14 to 24 cents per gallon, while 
ordinary good hard soap costs five to twelve times as much. 
(2) See directions for making on p. q). 


: 
r 
] 
. 


151 


‘may be recognised by the very large, dark, pointed leaves, and the 
reddish brown stains on certain of the new growth twigs, which latter 
die back fora considerable distance. Brown eruptions occur very 
-abundantly on young andold twigs, allot which finally dieback. Swel- 
lings produced by gum pockets in the wood occur very abundantly on 
theyoungtwigs. Multiple buds form in the axils of the leaves. Diseased 
trees bear little fruit, and that formed soon assumes a pale green colour, 
then a light lemon yellow, becoming coloured prematurely. The fruits 
are very commonly more or less disfigured by the characteristic red- 
dish-brown stain. A very large percentage split open and drop 
before ripening. The loss from this malady is about $100,000 
annually in Florida. Withholding all organic nitrogenous manures, 
ceasing to cultivate, and mulching the soil have been found beneficial 
treatments. In cases where the disease has been produced by wet soils 
good drainage will frequently be found an effective remedy. 


3. Scab or verrucosts attacks principally sour oranges and lemons, 
the common sweet orange being exempt. It occurs in the United 
States, Australia, and Japan, from which latter country it was prob- 
ably introduced into America. It causes small excrescences to appear 
on the young leaves and fruits. These excrescences are at first of a 
pale, watery green colour, but soon become coated with a dusky fungous 
growth composed of a species of Cladosporium (the parasite which 
causes the disease). The tissues of the warts infested by the fungus 
are cut off from those below by a formation of cork, which ultimately 
becomes so abundant as to give the excrescence a gray color. The 
full-grown warts are 5/, to $ of an inch in diameter and are often con- 
fluent. When attacked while still very young, the leaves and fruits 
are greatly distorted by the disease. In the fruit, especially, the warts 
cause the tissues below to grow too fast and to form large bumps. 
These, with the gray excresences, so disfigure the fruit as to render it 
nearly valueless. The fungous parasite causing scab is able to spread 
and infect new spots only during moist weather. For this reason very 
dry regions are nearly exempt from the malady. The loss from this 
disease results principally from its action in disfiguring lemons. It 
does most harm in Florida, where it causes an annual loss of not far 
from $50,000. The disease can bepreventedonlemons by spraying the 
young fruits from three to five times with ammoniacal solution of 
-copper carbonate. 


4. Sooty mould is a black fungus, which follows the attacks of certain 

‘honeydew-secreting insects. It may be recognized by the sooty black 
‘membrane which it forms principally over the upper surfaces of the 
leaves, fruits, and stems. The disease greatly reduces the productivity 
of the trees, and the oranges formed are so badly disfigured by the 
covering of sooty mould as to be rendered unsalable. The annual 
loss in Florida is not far from $50,000. Thorough spraying with resin 
wash has been found very effective. Between December and March of 
each year three sprayings should be made. Fumigation with hydro- 
eyanic acid gas has also been found an effective remedy. The applica- 
tions should be made during the winter. A parasitic fungus has 
‘been found which promises to be a very great aid in combating this 
malady. 


152 


5. Foot rot or mal-di-gomma is the most widespread of all orange dis- 
ease. The total damage which it causes is greater than that resulting 
from any other one malady, in Florida alone, amounting to nearly 
$100,000 annually. It may be recognised by the exudation of gum 
from definite patches of the tree near the base: <A separative layer 
is formed by the tree delimiting the diseased bark; the edges of the 
bark, thusfreed, curve up away from the tree, dry out and finally fall off. 
These patches are enlarged by the disease spreading to the adjoining 
bark. Other patches also form on fresh bark. The malady spreads 
down the roots and latterly around the trunk, It extends through the 
bark and cambium layer into the wood, killing:all the tissues as far as 
it extends. In many cases the tree is finally girdled, which of course 
results in its death. The accompanying or premonitory symptoms 
are sparse foliage small yellow leaves, and the dying of small limbs: 
over the tree. The disease is apparently contagious probably being 
caused by some minute parasitic organism. It is also thought that 
improper aeration of the roots induces the disease. Sweet seedling 
range trees and lemons are particularly subject to the malady, while 
grape fruit is but slightly subject to it, and sour orange is almost 
wholly exempt. The malady may be prevented by using sour 
orange stocks on lowland, and flat woods, and grape fruit stocks on 
high and dry pine lands. Removing the soil from around the crown 
roots is the most effective treatment. This can be best done by using 
a stream of water under considerable pressure. This washes the soil 
away without injuring the roots, cutting away the diseased portions 
of bark and wood and washing or painting the wounds with a solution of 
sulphurous acid, carbolic acid, or sulphur wash is recommended as bene- 
ficial. Avoid the excessive use of nitrogenous organic manures, ex- 
cessive cultivation, and immoderate irrigation. Give good drainage in 
all cases and if the trees are planted too thick, so that the ground is 
shaded, thin them out. 


6. Melanese, which attacks all citrus fruits is a new disease. It 
is as yet known only from a few points in Florida and does not cause 
much damage, probably only about $5,000 in 1894. However, it 
seems to be spreading, and is capable of causing great losses should it 
become widely distributed. It forms minute brown spots on the leaves, 
twigs, and fruits. These brown spots appear when the fruit and leaves 
are still young, and do not form on old tissue. They reach a size of from 
too to zs; of an inch in diameter and are often very numerous some- 
times running together over large areas, greatly staining and disfigur- 
ing the fruit. In bad cases the trees are much injured by the malady, 
but ordinarily most of the damage results from the disculouring of the 
fruit. Lemons particularly are unsaleable if attacked by melanose to 
any considerable extent. ‘Che cause of this disease is not certainly 
known but it is very probable some minute vegetable parasite- 
Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate are 
very effective remedies if applied two or three times to the young fruits. 


152 


FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—LII. 


Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja- 
maica. By G. S. JEnMAN, Superintendent Botanical Garden 
Demerara. | 


29. Acrostichum cervinum, Swartz.—Rootstock ligneous, short repent,. 
densely clothed with brown or ferruginous long filamentose silky scales ; 
stipites contiguous or apart, erect, light brown, #-1? ft. 1, clothed at 
the base like the rootstock ; fronds pinnate, erecto-spreading or pen- 
dant, 14-24 ft. 1. 3-14 ft. w., composed of a terminal pinna and few or 
several inequilateral oblong-lanceolate lateral ones, which are 6-9 in. 1. 
14-23 in. w. the upper base deeply rounded, the inferior gradually cut 
away to nothing, the apex tapering and acuminate, subcoriaceous, light 
green, glabrous; veins patent, simple and forked, close connected in the 
thickened margin ;*fertile fronds regularly bipinnate, the pinnae linear 
acuminate ; segments very numerous, 8-6 li. |. about 1 li. w. soriferous 
on both sides. Pl. Fil. t 154 SL Hist. t. 37. 41. f. 2. Herb. pp. 79-87. 
Fil. Exot t. 48. Osmunda, L. Polybotrya, Kaulf. Olfersia, Kze. 

Common in moist forests up to 3,000 or 4,000 ft. altitude. Fronds 
are occasionally found intermediate in character between the normal 
barren and fertile, with the pinnae pinnatifid, the veins curiously pin- 
nate and areolated in the narrow pectinate segments, barren through- 
out, or partly, or completely fertile. 


30, A. nicotianefolium, Swartz.—Rootstock ligneous, free-creeping, 
paleaceous ; stipites apart, erect, 1 - 2 ft. 1. dark scaly at the base, light 
brown, fronds erect, 1 - 13 ft. 1. # - 1 ft. w., composed of a large termi- 
nal pinna and 2 - 4 pairs of smaller erecto-spreading lateral ones, which 
are oblong or orate-lanceolate, acuminate, rather rounded or subcuneate 
at the base and stipitate 6 - 10 in. 1. 14 - 3 in w., even or somewhat 
repand or sinuate, light or dark green, chartaceous, naked; veins co- 
plously areolated, areola very fine, with stronger transverse arched veins 
connecting the primary costate series; fertile fronds on long stipites, 
the pinne greatly reduced. —Pl. Fil. t. 115. Sl. His. t. 39. Herb. p. 
84.Hook. garden Ferns, t. 26. Gymnopteris, Bernh. G. acuminatum, 
Willd. 

a. var. saxicolum, Jenm—Rootstock ascending, stipites and rachises 
fibrillose, texture thinner, fertile pinne larger and usually rather more 
in number. 

Common in woods and forests among the lower hills ; variable in the 
number of pinnz and size of the fronds. The type creeps horizontally 
under ground, while a, which has a darker colour, is more generally 
scaly, with more decidedly oblong, rather than ovate formed barren late~ 
ral pinnz and somewhat larger fertile ones, grows above ground ascend- 
ing the sides of rocks or stumps. Both are equally common on the 
mainland. 


31. A. alienum, Swartz,—-Rootstock free-creeping, scaly, stipites 
erect, scattered, 1 - 14 ft. 1, deciduously fibrillose below, light brown ; 
fronds 1 - 14 ft. 1. 4-1 tt. w., pinnate, with a pinatifid and lobed acu- 
minate upper part; pinne several erecto-spreading, oblong-lanceolate, . 
acuminate, the lower ones atipitate, the upper adnate and decurrent on 
the rachis, 6 - 8 in, 1. 1 - 2 in. w. roundly lobed on each side, the lowest: 


154 


pair often pinnatifid and enlarged on the inferior side membrano-char- 
taceous, naked, dark green, costz and ribs prominent beneath; areole 
copious, angular, a line of narrow arches along the coste on each side 
devoid of included smaller meshes, no stronger transverse veins ; fertile 
fronds on longer stipes, similar in form, but the pinne much reduced 
and less lobed, or occasionally entire. Pl. Fil. t 9 - 10 Hook. Gen. t. 
85. Gymnopteris, Bernh. 

a. var. fl agellum, Jenm.—Fronds large, upper part much prolonged 
into a distantly pinnatifid or lobed and winged tail, which is vivipar- 
ous at intervals; pinne more numerous and deeply cut. 

b. var. G. semipinnatifida, Fée. Pinne 2-4 te a side, 2-4 in. w. entire cre- 

nate-sinuate or the lowest pair lobed on the under side and forked, with 
a large, depending, inferior segment; terminal pinna usually trilobed, 
texture thicker ; fertile fronds reduced, but confirm in shape of the 
‘pinne. 
_ Frequent in the eastern parishes, on rocks by streams or in very 
moist forests among the lower hills up to 1,000 or 1,500 ft. alt. A 
highly variable species, of usually membranous texture, dark cloudy 
green colour but unmistakable in all its forms. 

32. A. aureum, Linn.—-Rootstocks stout, erect, solitary or in masses 

-forming large elevated clumps, paleaceous on the crowns; stipites 
caespitose, erect ligneous, naked above the paleaceous base, 14-24 ft. 1. 
straight or somewhat flexuose, flattish channelled, impressed laterally 
with pale green vertical streaks and having two or three alternate pairs 
of black indurated spinescent spurs ; fronds erect stiff very coriaceous, 
glossy, light green, simply pinnite, oblong-lanceolate, 3-4 ft. 1. 1-14 
ft. w.; pinnz more or less distant, erecto-spreading, converging for- 
ward, a dozen less or more toa side and asimilar free terminal one 
6-10 in. 1. 14-14 in. w. obtuse or emarginate-apiculate, cuneate at the 
base and petiolate, black and indurated in the acute axils, pellucid, car- 
tilagenous-edged, the superior fertile throughout, the lower half or two 
thirds as uniformly barren ; venation translucent areole fine, directed 
at an oblique angle to the margins; sori covered by amorphous corpus- 
cles which are pelate and obtusely angular or radiate, coffee-coloured 
and finaliy displaced by the bursting of the sporangia, which then alone 
appear.— PF]. Fil. t. 104. SL Herb. p. 50. Chrysodium vulgare, Fée. 

Abundant in lagoons and other wet places, preferring alluvial litto- 
ral situations and brackish water. This is the true typical species, in 
which the fructification is uniformly confined to the upper pinnae only 
of the fronds and the corpuscular covering of the sporangia is coffee-co- 
loured, the individual corpuscles being, variably, distortedly club shaped ; 
a, stiff, ligneous, coriaceous species, once much regarded by herbalists, 
according to Sloane. 

33. A. lomarvoides, Jenm.—Rootstock, erect, massive, paleaceous 
stipites caepitose, erect, stout, subfleshy, 14 - 24 ft.. 1.4 in., or more 
thick, prominently ribbed longitudinally, subangular, naked, except a — 
few basal scales arising from the caudex ; fronds erecto-spreading, pin- 
nate, 3 - 4 ft. 1., 1 - 2 ft. w.. a little reduced at the base, suddenly so at 
the apex coriaceous, light or dark green, naked, pinne patent, 2 - 24 
doz. to a side, close or crowded, the face turned up and transverse with 
the rachis, slightly petiolate or quite sessile, ? - 1} ft. 1, 14 - 2in. w., 
the base cuneate, the apex acute, margins even, undulately repand, car- 


155 


tilaginous-edged ; venation translucent, areolae very fine, oblong, di- 
rected to the margin ; fertile fronds, quite erect, much taller, on stouter 
more fleshy and longer stipites; corpuscles pruinose, darker with age,. 
sausage-shaped, pale and translucent. Chrysodium Jenm, in ‘l'imehri, . 
vol. LV, part 2, A. aureum, Linn. Kat. Fer. N. Am. p. 58., Bermudas. 
A much larger species than the last, of shuttlecock habit the sterile 
fronds shorter, spreading on the exterior, the fertile taller, and erect 
in the centre. It is marked by numerous distinguishing characters: 
from the last with which it has been long confounded, the more ob- 
trusively obvious of which are—its much larger size, numerous crowd- 
ed fronds, the barren and fertile being uniformly separate—all the pin- 
nae of the one being barren and all of the other fertile——much more 
numerous sessile leaflets (turned transversely with the rachis, the plane 
to the sky like the blades of a step-ladder) intestiniform translucent 
pale-—coloured corpuscles covering the sporangia, which give a pale prui- 
nose colour to the soriferous under surfaces. As indicated above, this 
is the plant figured in Hat. Fern. N. Am. for 4. aureum, though true 
aurewm is also found in Florida. It ranges from Florida and the Ba- 
hamas down through the West Indies and Guianas to the Brasils. 


TRIBE XV. CERATOPTERIDEA. 


Sori linear or interrupted, on the longitudinal veins, diffuse ; sporan- 
gia sessile, rather large globose, very fragile, having broad rudimentary 
or more or less extended or complete striated vertical ring, splitting 
at length crosswise ; spores rather large granular. inane 

This is a singular division, of very doubtful affinity, represented by 
a single anomalous species. I follow Eaton in placing it after Gleichen- 
iacee. It is marked from any other by the globose sessile capsules 
having to some, much varying, extent a broad vertical band. 


Genus XXXVII. Crxatorreris, Brona. 


Sori linear, in one to two rather irregular rows; receptacles formed 
of the longitudinal distantly connected veins, upon which the sporangia 
are luxly arranged or scattered, and covered by the membranous re- 
flexed conniving induseform margins; fronds herbaceous, barren and 
fertile difform. 

The linear sori covered by the membranous margin which forms an 
adventitious involucre, might seem to suggest to ally this genus with. 
Pteridew, from which however the character of the sporangia distinctly 
and widely removes it. The only representative is a widely spread and 
variable acaulescent aquatic plant. 


1. C. thalictroides, Brong.—Stipites several, springing from central 
scaly buds, which by adhesion form the short herbaceous rootstock, rib- 
bed, with rather large longitudinal air vessels ; fronds herbaceous, light 
grass green, of two kinds; the barren 8-6 in. each way, roundly lobed 
or pinnatifid, viviparous in the axils, the veins freely reticulated, the 
stipites short ; fertile 6-18 in. each way, on stipites 6-10 in. 1. decom- 
pound, tri-quadri-pinnatifid ; ultimate segments linear, convolute but 
flattened, divaricating, a line or less wide, and 1-2 or 3 in. 1. the mar- 
gins conniving beneath over the sori; veins in narrow longitudinal 
Aga Hat. Fer. N. Am, pl. 80. Parkeria pteroides, Hk., Hk. & Gr 

il. . 97. 


156 


Frequent in still shallow waters of the central and western parishes. 
“The sterile fronds are prostrate and rest upon the surface of the water 
or mud, the fertile are erect or erecto-spreading held up clear of the 
water, and while the former are leafy and more or less subentire, the 
latter are much divided, all the parts being narrow and linear or acicu- 
lar. A transverse section of the stem shows numerous vascular bundles 
mainly arranged at intervals on the outside, with abundant intervening 
air channels. It possesses great fecundity, and multitudes of spores 
germinate on moist surfaces, where the great majority eventually perish 
-from lack of water. It also grows from the axillary buds which are 
produced by both kinds of fronds, though chiefly by the barren, those of 
which, too, develop more constantly into leafage. Young barren plants 
are often nearly covered by the pale developing plantlings that spring 
from the surface buds. 


TripeE XVI. OsmuND@z. 


Sporangia crowded on the spikelets of contracted branch-like pinnze 
or on the veins of the underside of normal ones, shortly stipitate, globose 
reticulated, splitting vertically on one side when mature into open equal 
valves, with a rudimentary transverse ring near the apex on the oppo- 
site side. 

A small tribe consisting of only two genera Osmunda and Todea 
which are widely separated in their geographical range, and beyond the 
agreement in the character of the sporangia, have not much in common 
in the physiognomy of their general features. One genus is confined to 
the south temperate zone and the other principally to the north. The 
rudimentary state of the ring, more globose form, and pedicellate base 
of the sporangia distinguish this tribe from the next. 


Genus XXXVIII. Osmunna, Linn. 


Barren and fertile fronds, or portions of fronds, distinct; the former 
leafy, the latter mere rachises devoid of membrane, both compound ; 
sori on the final ribs in cuntiguous sub-convolute or lobed spikelets, 
veins free. 

The few species of Osmunda have their head quarters and chief range 
in the north temperate zone, but three or four extend to the equator 
and one even to the south temperate zone. Two species are found in 
the West Indies both of which have a wide range both north and south 
on the mainland. In all cases they are subaquatic or aquatic plants, in- 
habiting marshes, flooded ditches or shallow ponds, the roots being 
flooded and the fronds held erect above the water. 

Barren and fertile fronds separate. 


1. O. cinnamomea. 
Fronds fertile at the top ; the inferior pinnz barren. 


2. O. regalis. 


1. O. cinnamomea, Linnu.—Rootstock upright or oblique; stipites 
ceespitose, erect, 4 - 14 ft. 1. flattened at the base, glabrous; barren 
fronds 1 - 21 ft. 1. 34-5 in w., bi-pinnatifid, light green ; sub-coriaceous 
the pinne numerous, spreading, sub-distant in the lower part, 2 - 3 in. 
1, 4 - 3ths in. w., sessile and jointed at the base, the apex blunt, deeply 
cut throughout into rounded segments which are 2 li. w., and rather 


157 


more deep; the margins faintly crenulate, the rachis strong, light brown 
and cost rather flexuose and tome ntose at the base ; veins forked ; fer- 
tile fronds bi-tri-pinnate, the sori abundant occupying completely all 
the pinne; pinnules close, 2-3 li. 1. cylindrical; stipites and rachises 
tomentose.— Pl. Fil. t. 155. Hat. Fer. N. Am. pl. 29. 

Infrequent in marshy and wet situations; gathered in Salt Pond, 
near Guava Ridge, beyond Gordon Town, where it is plentiful in beds 
of Sphagnum, with Nephrodium unitum. Distinguished from other 
species by the entirely separate barren and fertile fronds. 


2. O. regalis, G.—Stipites erect, cespitose from an erect simple 
or fasciculate rootstock, a foot. more or less 1., flattened at the base, 
brown or stramineous, channelled, naked; fronds erect about as long as 
the stipites, 4 - 8 or more in. w., bi-pinnate, subcoriaceous, naked, pale 
green ; pinnz in 2 - serial opposite or sub-opposite pairs, sub-distant, 
or distant, not sessile, 3 - 5 in. |. 14 - 24 in. w, witha distinct terminal 
segment ; pinnulz opposite or alternate, sessile and rounded at the base, 
the point obtuse-acute, linear oblong, #$-14 m. 14-4 m w,, 
broadened or not toward the base ; margins faintly serrate ; veins free 
twice forked, close curved, visible; upper pinne fertile, divided the 
same as the barren ones, spikes 4 - ? in. L., sub-cylindric.—O. spectabilis 
Willd. 

The authority for the Jamaica habitat is taken from a specimen in 
the British Museum Herbarium collected by Roger Shakespeare in 
1777, and there ascribed to Jamaica. Shakespeare collected also on 
the mainland, where this species is very widely and generally spread, 
so that the Jamaica habitat may possibly be an error originated in a 
transposed label; but as it is plentiful in the neighbouring island of 
Cuba, only the fact that it has not turned up in the close scrunity be- 
stowed by several collectors on the Jamaica ferns during the last half 
century makes the locality at all doubtful. The tropical state is much 
dwarfer than the ordinary temperate region one, varying from half to 
one fourth the size, but the cutting and physiognomy are thesame. It 
is found usually at high elevations. 


Tre XVII. Scuizmm. 

Sporangia oval or oblong, sessile, attached by the base or side, open- 
ing from top to bottom on the outer side, the apex rather contracted 
striated and crownlike, sori on distinct much contracted branches, or 
rarely separate fronds, naked or concealed by imbricating scales, or 
partly by the membranous sub-revolute margin and filamentose scales. 

Of the five genera here connected four are represented in tropical 
America and three of these in the West Indies. In all its primary 
characters it is an exceedingly distinct Tribe, the sori being generally 
in contracted panicles or racemose spikes, destitute of membrane, or in 
marginal fringes. The two genera in which this is not the case are 
both monotypic, and out of the range of this flora, one being Brasilian 
and the other African. The sporan zia are remarkable for having the 
ring in the form of a complete crown on the contracted apex.. 

Fertile appendages terminal on the fronds; capsules attached by the 
base ; bi-or quadri-serial in linear segments, the margins of which at 
first more or less enclose them.— 

1, Schizea, 


158 


Fertile and barren fronds or portions of fronds difform ; capsules at- 
tached by the base, biserial on the face of naked flattened short ultimate 
segments. 


2. Anemia 


Sporangia attached by the side, solitary at the base of shell-shaped 
imbricating scales, biserial in short 4-gonal marginal spikes. — 


3. Lygodium. 
Genus XXXIX. Scuizma, Smiru. 


Fronds with or without a distinct leafy division ; fertile portions dis- 
tinct, borne at the apex of the rachiform frond, or fringe-like, on the 
excurrent veins along the outer margin of the leaf-blade, pinnate or 

edato-digitate the segments linear and costeform, with membranous 
folded or sub-revolute margins, bearing 2-4 series lengthwise of small 
crowded capsules, which are attached by the base and have long flex- 
uose ferruginous scales mixed with them. 


This is a very peculiar group, generally of a stiff grass or rush-like 
habit, though two or three possess broad fan-shaped lamina. They 
grow in shady places or deep forest, two or three of the mainland species. 
sometimes inhabiting, as well, the trunks or branches of trees. About 
a score of species are known, occupying tropical or warm temperate 
regions. Tropical America and Australia are the chief centres. S. 
pusilla, Pursh, found in the pine barrens of New Jersey, U.S. A., is 
the only northern species. 


Fertile appendages pinnate ; sporangia biserial in the segments. 
Blade palmate-flabellate. 
Blade dichotomously divided. 


1. S. elegans. 


S. eleyans Sw.—Rootstock horizontal, shortly repent, clothed with 
soit hair-like ferruginous scales; stipites tufted, few or several, erect, 
strong, channelled, stramineous or light brown above, darker at the 
base and deciduously scaly-furfuraceous; fronds spreading, fan-like, 
dichotomously flabellate, 5-10 in. w. 3-6 in. d, the divisions wedge- 
shape 4-3 in. w., at the truncate outer margin which is erect and 
often deeply incised, coriaceous, glossy, striated, glabrous ; veins free, 
dichotomously forked; fertile appendages terminal on the incisions of 
the outer margin, fringe-like, the segments spreading and 10-18 to a 
side,linear, 2-3 li. 1. 4 li w.; capsules biserial, mixed with undulate 
castaneous hairs.—Hk. & Gr. Icon. Fil. t. 54. 

Gathered by Purdie in 1844, in the Bluefield mountains, Westmore- 
land, in dry marly woods, at 2,000 ft. altitude. ‘The fronds are the 
shape of a partly folded fan, but are cut dichotomously into several 
nearly parallel divisions, the fertile appendages forming a chestnut- 
brown fringe along the outer margin. It varies greatly in the number — 
and breadth of the divisions of the fronds, and the various forms present 
a gradual passage so that all might be regarded as varieties of a single 
plastic type. 


159 


Genus XL. Anemia, Swartz. 


Barren and fertile parts difform, combined in the same frond or as 
separate fronds, compound or decompound, the former laminate, the 
latter rachiform-paniculate ; capsules attached by the base, biserial on 
the face of short flattened ultimate ribs, which they cover, no mem- 
brane being present ; veins free or united. 

. These are small plants, from a few inches to a foot or more high, 
which grow on open or shaded banks, rocks or stony places. In the 
majority the fertile and sterile divisions are combined on the stem of 
the same frond, in the others they form separate fronds. There are be- 
tween thirty and forty species, all of which with a solitary exception 
belong to tropical America. They possess a striking general family 
resemblance. and to the least observant form a clearly defined group, 
known in the West Indies, where about one-third of the species belong, 
as flowering Ferns, in consequence of the paniculate form of the sori- 
ferous divisions. 

Barren and fertile fronds separate. 


1, A. aurita. 
Barren and fertile divisions combined in the same frond; the latter 
paniculate. 
Veins areolated. 
2. A. Phyllitidis. 
Veins free. 
Fronds simply pinnate. 
3. A. oblongifolia. 
4. A. hirta. 
5, A. mandiocana. 
Fronds simply pinnate, or the pinnz again lobed or incised, 
6. A. Breuteliana. 
7. A. filiformis. 
8. A. hirsuta. 
Fronds bi—or tripinnatifid. 
9, A. adiantifolia. 


1. A aurita, Swartz.—Stipites subtufted from a shortly repent root- 
stock, stiff and wiry, 3-6 inl. pubescent; fronds distinct, barren 4-6 
in. 1. 2-3 in. w., broadest at the base, and bipinnate ; pinnz close, petio- 
late, with 1-3 pairs of lateral segments and a larger rounded terminal 
one; rachis channelled, dark pubescent; pinnule rounded, the outer 
subrhomboidal and somewhat lobed, 4-4 in. or more in diameter, sub- 
coriaceous pellucid, slightly deciduously ciliate, pubescent on the ribs 
the upper glossy, the margins dentate-crenate ; veins forked, flabellate 
fertile fronds on much longer more slender stipites, the divisions dis- 
tant, segments soriferous on the upper side, flat, pinnatifid, about 2 li. 
w. each way.—Hook. Icon. t. 903. Coptophylium, Gard. 

On calcareous rocks and dry banks at low elevations and up to 2,000 
ft. altitude. All the specimens I have seen were gathered in St. Ann, 
and the western parishes. The rootstock is clothed with stiff black hairs. 
There are two or three other species belonging to this section found in 
_ the West Indies (in Cuba, Haiti and other islands near), that have not 
ae been gathered in Jamaica when possibly some of them may sxist, 
endemic. 


160 


2. A. phyliitidis. Sw.—Rootstock short, upright, fibrous; stipites 
exespitose, usually few, erect, $ - 1 ft. 1 slender, light coloured, naked 
or fibrillose, pubescent ; fronds, barren division sessile, simply pinnate, 
deltoid or oblong-deltoid, widest at the base, 4-1 ft.1,4-8 in. w. 
with a terminal entire or lobed pinne and 4 - 9 pairs of spreading la- 
teral ones, which are 2 - 4 in. 1,  - 1 in. br, caneate or rounded at the 
base, thence tapering to the acuminate apex, thin or papyraceous, pale 
or grey green, slightly fibrillose or pubescent chiefly on the ribs, the 
margins finely serrated or crenate, veins very oblique, freely areolated, 
forming long narrow meshes; panicles two. on slender stems 4 - 6 in. 1. 
which they equal or exceed, cylindrical, compound, the branches 1 - 4 
in. 1—Pl. Fil. t. 156. Anemedictyon, J. Smith. 

Infrequent on rocks and banks up to 4,000 ft. alt. A larger species 
than hirta, with longer branches to the panicle, and distinguished 
above all by the areolated venation though in external aspect the two 
are much alike. Plumier’s figures are represented with free veins. 

3. A. oblongifolia. Sw. Rootstock erect, clothed on the crown with 
ferruginous tomentum; stipites tufted, slender 1-3 in. 1 straminous, 
fibrillose ; fronds: barren division 2~4 in. l. 1-14 in. br. composed of 
few pairs of patent, oblong, or ovate-oblong opposite, entire pinnae, 
which are 4—# in. 1. 2-3 li. b., obtuse the margins dentate the base 
cuneate or unequal and obliquely truncate, subcoriaceous, nearly or quite 
naked or the rachis fibrillose, termiral one border; panicles two, 
sessile, 1-2 in. |., on every slender petioles, A humilis, Sw. 

Gathered by Purdie according to Grisebach, probably in central or 
western parishes. I have only seen Cuban specimen (Wright n. 3933), 
from which my description istaken. One of the smallest species of genus. 

4. A. hirta, Sw.—Rootstock small, fibrous, erect, clothed with brown 
tomentum ; stipites tufted, erect usually few, slender, 4—8 in L., fib- 
rillose—pubescent ; fronds: barren divisions, sessile, deltoid-oblong, 
broadest at the base, 3-6 in. |. 2-4 in. b. simply pinnate with a terminal 
entire or lobed pinne 3-8 spreading lateral ones, which are 1-2 in. 1., 
1_# in. w., cuneate or rounded at the sessile base, thence tapering to the 
acuminate or acute point, pellucid, papyraceous, light green, slightly 
pubescent or ciliate on ribs and veins, the margins crenate; veins very 
oblique, close, fine, repeatedly forked, free; panicles cylindrical 1-3 in. 
1, on slender pubescent stems, as long or longer, the branches, short and 
compact. PI. Fil. t. 157. 

Frequent on rocks and banks from the lowlands up to 4,500 ft. alt. 
It is often confounded with phyliitidis from which its generally smaller 
size and free veins (though an odd pair do casually unite) distinguish 
it. From mandiocana its fewer pinne and different shape mark it. 
Plumier’s figure is an excellent representation of the species. 

5. A. mandioeana, Radd.—Stipites tufted erect, pale brown, pubes- 
cent or naked 4-1 ft.1 fronds; barren divisions pinnate, chartaceous, 
gray-green, pubescent or glabresent, oblong-lanceolate, 4-1 ft. 1. 2-34 
in. br. composed of a terminal pinnae and 8-12 or more spreading late- 
ral pairs, which are 1-14 in. 1. 4-5 im. b. serrulate, the point obtuse-acute 
the base inequilateral, veins forked, flabellate, oblique, panicle petiolate, 
reaching to the top of the leaf.—Hook & Grev. Gard. Fer. t. 36, 

Jamaica according to Grisebach, who correctly describes it, but I 
have only been Brasilian specimens. It differs from phyllitidis by its 


161 


quite free venation, more oblong-lanceolate shape of frond, and more 
numerous differently shaped pinnae. Plum. Fil. t. 157 quoted by 
Grisebach does not agree with his description or with the Prasilian 
plant while it corresponds entirely in shape of frond and pinnae with 
phyllitidis except that, as previously mentioned, the veinsare shown asfree. 

6. A. Breuteliana, Presl —Stipites tufted from a small upright 
rootstock, slender, slightly tomentose light coloured, 3-6 in. |. ; fronds: 
barren division or sessile, oblong-lanceolate, broadest at the base, pin- 
nate, 24-6 in... 14-3 im w. the rachis slender, pale brown, tomentose- 
fibrillose ; pinnae 6-10 to a side, with their own width or more between 
them, spreading obliquely, cuneate at the base, the point subacute or 
bluntish, #-1-$ in. 1. 2-6 li. b,, the upper ones entire, the lower with 
one or two incisions on one or both sides ; thin and papyraceous, pellu- 
cid, gray-green, more or less ciliate, margins finely serrated; veins 
very close and oblique, forked, no distinct midrib only at the base of 
the larger pinnae panicles two, 4 or $ as long as their slender stipites 
shortly branched and linear.—A. mandiocana, Hook. Gen. Fil. t. 90. 

Infrequent on rocks and wayside banks from 1,000 - 3,000 ft. altitude 
or higher. It has somewhat the aspect of a weaker state of hirta, with 
the lower pinnz somewhatincised. ‘Ihe pinnz however are less pointed, 
rather more numerous, and more graduaily decrescent from the base to 
the pinnatifid apex than in that species. ‘lhe veins casually unite. 

7. A filiformis, Presl.—Rootstock short densely rusty-tomentose sti- 
pites tufted, $ - 1 in. 1, rusty-tomentose, fronds: barren division sessile, 
14 -4 or 5in. 1. $ - over 1 in. b., simply pinnate ; pinnz with once or 
twice their own width between them, 14 - 3 li.w.,4- in. 1, sessile 
and cuneate at the base, rounded and slightly broadened at the apex, 
firm, rachis and general surfaces especially the under sides rusty-tomen- 
tose ; margins irregularly toothed or incised; veins fine, close, forked, 
spreading, no distinct midrib ; panicle single, on a slender stem as long as 
the sterile division, which it overtops by 1 - 3 in.—A. humilis, Swartz. 

This was gathered by Purdie, but no locality is marked with his spe- 
cimens which are in the Kew Herbarium. it is nearest in relation to 
hirsuta, trom which it may be at once known by the single fertile divi- 
sion and the very short stipites. 

8. A. hirsuta, Swartz. ootstock small, fibrous, densely clothed with 
pale brown tomentum ; stipites tufted, slender, erect, stramineous, very 
slightly scaly, 2-6 or 10 in. 1; fronds: barren divisions sessile, oblong 
or oblong-lanceolate, 14-4 in. 1. 3-14 or 2 in. w., broadest at the base, 
and bipinnatifid, decrescent to the apex, rachis straw coloured, slender, 
scaly ; pinne spreading, apart, 4rd 1 in. 1. 2-6 li. w. 5-10 to a side, 
sessile, toothed at the rounded point, both sides deeply cut into narrow 
segments, which also are toothed on their blunt outer edge, papyraceous, 
pellucid, gray-green, striated, finely scaly; veins fine, close, forked 
spreading no distinct midrib, panicles two, compact 4-14 in. 1. oblong or 
linear oblong, on long slender petioles which considerably over-tops the 
leaf.— Pl. Fil. t. 162. Sl. Hist. t. 25. £. 6. Herb. 39. A. dissecta, Presl. 

Abundant, on rocks and banks from the lowlands up to 5,000 it. alti- 
tude. This is probably the commonegt species. It is well marked by 
its long petioles, small much dissected tronds and short considerably 
celevate# spikes ; small specimens are much less cut than the larger ones. 

9. A. adiantifolia, S@artz.—Rootstock slender, creeping dark tomen- 


162 


tose ; stipites erect, 4 - 1 ft. 1. scaly or naked; fronds, barren divisions 
deltoid, usually petiolate, very variable in size, from 1 in. to a foot each 
way. bi-tripinnate; pinne lanceolate, stipitate gradually reduced from 
the basal pair to the apex of the frond; tertiary segments (secondary in 
the smaller states) ovate or obovate, cuneate at the.base, the outer edge 
dentate entire or lobed, chartaceous; striated, the upper side glossy, 
slightly ciliate beneath, the rachis, costze &c., more so ; veins fine, close, 
forked, spreading ; panicles two, branches open or spreading, close or 
distant, petioles as long or shorter—PIl. Fil. t. L58. Sl. Herb. p. 38. 
Eat. Fer. N. Am. Pl. 15. A. asplenifolia, ‘Swartz, Hook and Grev. 
Icon. t. 16. 

Abundant on open banks and rocks in the lowlands and among the 
lower hills reaching 3,000 it. altitude. It is exceedingly variable in 
size and consequently in cutting, some fully fertile fronds being hardly 
more than an inch each way, while the largest are nearly a foot. In 
some specimens the fertile fronds are distinct from the barren, as in 
coptophylium but with normal fronds on the same rootstock and in 
others the lower pinnz are contracted and fertile, the upper remaining 
leafy, combining both states in one leaf. Usually the barren division 
is petioled above the point from which the fertile branches spring, but 
the character is only constant in large fronds. 


Genus XLI. Lygodium, Sw. 


Sporangia attached by the side, lying singly at the base of shell- 
shaped biserial imbricating induszeform scales on the back of oblong 
or linear spikes which terminate the excurrent veins and form a fringe 
along the margins; barren and fertile pinne leafy, but the latter usually 
somewhat narrowed in the pinnules ; veins free or united ; fronds flexuose 
turning. 

This is a peculiar genus, the fronds having slender turning stems 
which ascend often 20-30 feet on trees, with distant barren pinne 
below, and fertile ones at the top either palmately or pinnately divided. 
There are between twenty and thirty known species, widely diffused 
round the world, but mostly within the tropical belt. 

Inferior pinnules usually auricled or lobed at the base, rarely all, 
entire. 

| 1. L. volubile. 

Pinnules generally auricled or lobed at the base surfaces pubescent. 

2. L. venustum. 

1. L. volubile, Swartz.—Rootstock short, with strong, wiry descend- 
ing roots, and densely clothed with minute black glossy scales, stipites 
tuited, erect, straight, 2 ft. or more l.; fronds several or many feet l., 
twining, bi-tripinnate ; pinnae opposite, spreading, freely. petiolate, 
composed of 3—4 alternate, linear-oblong spreading pinnules, which are 
subcoriaceous, glabrous, bright.green, 3-4 in. 1. $—} in. w. subcuneate, 
cordate or truncate at the base and jointed at the top of the 4-4 in. |, 
petioles, which, with the slender, stramineous, flexuose costae are slightly 
margined and faintly puberulous-pubescent, entire, or auricled lobed or 
with a short pair of spreading pedicillate pinnae at the base, the apex 
generally obtuse; veins conspicuous, free, 2-3 times forked, very 
oblique ; spikes contiguous, 30-40 to a side {th-4 in. 1. the scales 5-20 
in a series. Sl. Hist, t. 46 £. 1. Ophioglossum, Linn, |... 


163 


Plentiful from the lowlands up to 4,000 ft. altitude, twining and 
ascending trees 20-30 ft. high ; variable in the length of the sporangife- 
rous spikes, and in the presence or absence of the pair of auricles, lobes 
or segments at the base of pinnules, which however are usually more or 
less developed in the basal pair, and often petiolate. In this character 
it shows close affinity with venustum. 

2. L. venustum, Swartz. Rootstock short, clothed with dark tomen- 
tum : stipites tufted, slender erect 1-2 ft. 1. brownish; fronds bitripin- 
nate, twining several or many feet high, pellucid, chartaceous, light 
green, pubescent, the rachis flexuose; pinne in numerous opposite sub- 
distant pairs, petioled, with a terminal pinnule and several (4-7) alter- 
nate spreading lateral ones 14-4 or 5 in. 1. 4rd-4 in. w. stipitate, the 
base cordate and expanded on each side into auricles, furcate lobes, or 
fully separate pinnules, margines serrulate; cost straight or flexuose, 
light brown or stramineous, margined on the face, pubescent; veins re- 
peatedly forked, or fascicled, evident; spikes not numerous, generally 
confined to the inner half or two-thirds of the pinnule, surrounding the 
auricles, but occasionally reaching nearly to the end, 1-6 li. |. pubes- 
cent; 4-16 in a series—Pl. Fil. t. 92. Sl. Herb. p. 100. LZ. polymor- 
phum H. B. K. Ophioglossum scandens, Linn. 

Much less common than volubile, gathered in the Spanish Town dis- 
tricts. It is distinguished by the generally pubescent surfaces, narower 
and more numerous pinnules, with a distinct terminal one, nearly all of 
which are much expanded hastately the auricles with a furcate tenden- 
cy. The barren pinnules are often tripartite the central segment much 
the longest, and the lateral ones furcate. 


ADDITONS AND CONTRIBUTONS. 
May. 


Lisrary. 
Botanical Magazine. May [ Purchased. ] 
British Trade Journal. May. [Hditor. | 
Chemist & Druggist. Apr. 9 to 30. [Editor.] 
Garden. Apr. 9 to 30. [Purchased. | 
Hooker’s Icones Plantarum. Apr. [Bentham Trustees. | 
Journal of Botany. May. [Purchased.] 
Journal, Royal Horticultural Society. 
Journal, R. Colonial Institute. Report for 1897. 
Nature. Apr. 7 to 28. [Kditor.] | 
Pharmaceutical Journal. Apr. 9 to 30. [Editor.] 
Sugar. Apr. 16. [Editor.] 
Sugar Cane. May [LEditor.] 
W.I. & Com. Advertiser. May. [Editor. | 
Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. Apr. 12, 18,26. May. 3. [Hditor.] 
Tropenpflanzer. May. [Hditor. | 
Palermo Bol. Ort. Bot. Dec. 1897. 
Bulletin de L’ Herbier Boissier. May. [Conservateur.] 
Algologiska Bidrag. Uebereinige Algen aus Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto-Rico. Bot. 
Notis. 1887. Af. G. Lagerheim. 
Agr. Ledger, 1897. No.19. [Supt. Govt. Print. Calcntta.] 
Madras, Agr. Hort. Soc. Oct.—Dec. 1897. [Superintendent.] 
Times of Ceylon. Mar. 17-31. Apr. 6.14. [Editor.] 
Tropical Agriculturist. Apr. # 
Queensland Agr. Journal, Mar. ([Seey. Agr.] ; He 
Sugar Journal, Mar.15. [Hditor.] 
Cape of G. Hope. Agr. Journa!. Mar, 17-31. 


164 


Central African Times. Feb. 5-26. Mar. 5. [EHditor.] 

Maritius Revue Agricole. Feb. [Hditor.] 

Report -f Bot. Gardens in Africa. 1897. [Curator.] 

Reports of Bot. Garden B. Guiana 1896-1897. [Hditor.] 

Bot. Gard. Bulletin. Trinidad. Apr. 

Report Govt. Stock Farm. 1897. [ Director. 

American Journ. Pharmacy. May. rHaitor} 

Torrey Club, Bulletin. May. 

Contribution from Gray Herb. of Harvard Uni. Cambridge. Maas. 
Bulletins of Exp. St. :— 


Kansas Massachusetts Montana 
Maryland Michigan. Morgantown 
New Jersey 


Bot. Gar. Rio Janeiro. Palmae Mattogrossenses. [Director.] 
(ndustria Agricola. Apr. No. 1. 

Montreal Pharm. Journal. 

Hawaiian Planter’s Monthly. Apr. [Hditor.] 


SEEDS. 
From State Gardens, Baroda. 
Acacia alta Nephelium -Lit-chi 
Agati grandiflora Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis 
Albizzia lebbek Phoenix dactylifera 
Azadirachta indica Putranjiva Roxburghii 
Bauhinia purpurea Sapindus sapenaria 
Casuarina sp. Santalum album 
Clerodendron viscosum Streblus asper 
Crescentia cujete Tamarindus indica 
Duranta white _ Vectona grandis 
EKhretia aspera . Tecoma stans 
Hrythrina indica ; Terminalia belerica 
K. speciosa “ catappa 
Gauzuma tomentosa ; Thespesia populnea 
Guatteria longiflolia Ulmus integrifolia 
Ixora brachiata Wrightia tinctoria 


Nauclea Cadamba 

from Botanic Station, British Hondwrase 
Tabebuia pentaphylla 

From Botanic Garden, Ootacamund. 
Kixacum bicolor 

rom Mr. J. Gillet, Congo Free State, 
Musa (2 spp.) 


Buss. 
From Botanic Gardens, Ootacamund. 
Lilium neilgherrense 
JUNE. 
LIBRARY. 


Bulletin, Kew Gardens, Dec. 1897. Jan. Feb. & Mar. 1898. [Director.] 
Chemist & Druggist. May 7-28. [EHditor.] 
Garden. May 7-28. [Purchased,] 

Gardens’ Chronicle. Apr. 28. [Purchased.] 
Journ R. Colonial Institute, May. [Secy.] 
Nature. May 5-26. [Purchased. ] 
Pharmacutical Journal. May 7-28. [Editor. } 
Produce World. May 6. [Editor.] - 
Sugar. May 1b. [Kditor.] 

Sugar Cane. Junel. [Editor.] 

W. I. & Com. Advertiser. June. [Editor. | 


Memo. Purchase in Europe of Carrot Seed for Famine Relief in N. India. 


G. Birdwell, M. D. 1896. 
Sucrerie sr aa et Coloniale, May 10-24, (Editor,} 


Sir 


165 


Tropenpflanzer. June. ditor. : 

Ballets de Herbier ae J hoe [ Consefvateur. | 
Times of Ceylon. Apr. 20. 28 May 5. 12. 

Trop. Agriculturist. May. [Purchased.]} 

Agr. Gazette. N. S. Wales. Mar. Apr. 28. [Dept. of Agr.] 
Queensland Agr. Journal. Apr. [Secy. Agr.] 

Botany F. Manson Bailey. Ext. Queenland Agr. Journ. Vol. 1. Pt. 6. [Author.] 
Sugar Journal. Apr. 15. [Editor.] 

Cape of G. Hope Agr. Journ. [Kditor.] 

Central African Times. Mar. 12-26. Apr.2 &9. [Kditor.] 
Manritius Revue Agricole. Mar. [Editor.] 

Jamaica Agr. Socy. Journal. June. [Secy. |] 

Report Bot. Garden, Trinidad. 1897. [Supt]. 

Proc. Agr. Society, Trinidad. Apr. 12. [Secy.] 

Antigua Report on Exp. Fields L897. [Superintendent. | 
Montreal Pharm. Journ. June. [Editor.] 

Exp. Stations Records. 8.9.10. [U.3. Dept. Agr.] 
Botanical Gazette. May. [Editor. | 

American Journ. Pharmacy. June. [Editor. | 

Torry Club Bulletin. June. [Editor.] 

Year book U.S. Dept. Agr. 1897. [Dept.] 

Report Fruit Exp. Station, Ontario. 1897. [Director.] 
Report Fruit Growers Association, Ontario. 1897. 

Report Entomological Society, Ontario. 1897. 

Hawaiian Planter’s Monthly. May. [Editor.] 

Bulletins of Exp. St. :— 


Arkansas Missouri Ottawa 

Geneva ; New Hampshire Oregon 

Indianopolis North Dakota Texas 

Maryland Ontario Wyomlng 
SEEDS. 


From Botanic Garden, Demerara. 
Castilloa elastica 

From Royal Botanic Garden, Shibpure. 
Ficus altissima 

From Botanic Garden, British Guiana 
Castilloa elastica , 

From Dr. Franceschi, California. 
Swietenia Mahagoni 

From Mrs. Sullwan, Halfway Tree. 
African Plant 


PLANTS. 
From W. Jekyll, Esq., Robertsjield. 
Coreopsis 
Lobelia cordinalis 
L. erinus 

BuLBs. 
From Botanic Gardens, Durban. 
Begonia geranioides 
Nerine flexuosa 
N. pancratioides 

JULY. 

Liprary. 


Annals of Botany. June. [Purchased.] 

Botanical Magazine. June & July. [Purchased.] 
British Trade Journal. June & July. [ Editor. 
Bulletin, Kew Gardens. Apr, May & J hs ae ] 
Pamphlets, [Kew.] 


166 


Chemist and Druggist. June & Jaly. [Editor.] . 
Garden 4.11.18. June 2,9 July. [Purchased. | 
Journal Board of Agri., England. June. [Seéy.] 
Leaflets of Board of Agri., England. Nos. 41, 46-49. ([Secy.] 
Journal of Botany. June & July. [ Purchased. ] 
Journal R. Hort. Society. June. ; 
Nature. 2, 9, 16,23 & 30 June, 7 July. [Purchased.] 
Pharmaceutical Journal. June & July. 
Produce World. June & July. [EKditor.] 
Sugar. June. [Editor] 
W. Indian & Com. Advertiser. July. [ Editor. 
Sucrerie, Indigéne et Coloniale. May, June & July. [Editor.] 
Agricultural Ledger, Nos. 18 & 20. [Govt. Printer, Calcutta. ] 
Times of Ceylon. 18,26 May. 1, 9,16, 23 June. 
Reports of Agricultural Stations, Java. 1898. 
Agricultural Gazette of N.S. Wales. May & June. [Dept. of Agri.] 
Queensland Agri. Journal. May & June. [Secy. of Agrl.] 
Sugar Journal. May & July. |Editor.] 
Report Botanical Station, Lagos. 1897. [Editor.] 
Cape of Good Hope, Agri. Journal. May & June. [Agri. Dept.] 
Central African Times. April & May. [Editor.]} 
Mauritius, Revue Agricole. May. [Editor.] 
Barbados, Agri. Gazette. Apr. Editor. ] 
Journal, Jamaica Agricultural Society. July. [Secretary.] 
R. Bot. Garden, Bulletin, Trinidad. July. [Superintendent.] 
Proc. of Agri. Soc. June. [Secretary. 

Publications of the following Agr. Exp Stations U. S. A. 


Kansas Michigan New Jersey 
Kentucky Minnesota Vermont 
Virginia 


Bulletin Bot. Garden, New York, July. [Director.] 
Botanical Gazette. June. |Editor.] 

American Journal of Pharmacy. July. [Editor.] 
Bulletin, Torrey Club. July. [EKditor.] 

St. Louis, Trans. of Acad. June. |Editor.] 
Minnesota Botanical Studies. [Editor.] 

Report Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. 1898. 


SEEDs, 

From Royal Gardens, Kew. 
Nepal capsicums 
From Botanic Gardens, British Guiana. 
Cucumber variety 
From Botanie Gavdens, Calcutta. 
Sterculia alata. 
From R. Botanic Gardens, Trinidad. 
Livistona altissima 
From Mr. Esme Howard (through Trinidad Gardens). 
Widringtonia Whytei. 
From Mr. H. Dizson, Sydney. 
Archontophoenix Cunninghamii 
A. Alexandree 
Macrozamia Hopei 

«  Pauls-gulielmi 

“ ~~ Moorei 


PLANTs. 
From Mrs. Gosset, Halberstadt. 
Zephyranthes tubispatha (bulbs). 


[Issued 12th Sept., 1898. ] 


ae Po a ae | ate ert / . Po, 7. Ae gm i y 
eal dae a SA Age: Oe a ty 
ee AiG Pence nba 8 Ver 
a - » shed i ¥ ft ae 
é 3 ‘ ' ’ 


New Series. ] AUGUST, 1898. Vol. V. 


‘BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA. 


“a. 2 —— -s * " 


ee a 


EDITED BY 
PS WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc. F.LS. 


-Direetor of Public Gardens and Plantations. 


CONTENTS: 


Agriculture of the Sugar Cane—II Pacer 167 
Soil Inoculation 174 
Tamarinds | a BS Sak a Mate | 186 
Ferns: Synoptical List—LIII | 187 
Contributions and Additions : 189 


P RIC E—Threepence. 


A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and 
Address to the Dir eetor of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. 


KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
GOVERNMENT Printine.Orrice, 79 DuKE StREsr. 


1898. 


JAMAICA. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


Vol. V. 


New Series. ] AUGUST, 1898. ne Ea 


AGRICULTURE OF THE SUGAR CANE,—II. 


Extracts from “Sugar Cane, Vol. 1.” by Dr. Wixttam Srusss, 
Director of the Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station. 


Edited by Francis Warts, Government Chemist, Jamaica. 
MANvRIAL REQUIREMENTS oF SuGAR CANE. 


Commercial fertilisers are valued chiefly for one or more of the fol- 
lowing ingredients: Nitrogen (ammonia), phosphoric acid, and potash. 
They should be used whenever crops are grown which do not attain 
their maximum production on account of a deficiency in the soil of one 
or more of the above ingredients. But the deficiency of plant food is 
not always the cause of small returns. Water, as already remarked, so 
essential to crops and needed sometimes in great abundance, is fre- 
quently, on our soils, and in this climate, productive of great harm. 
Hence drainage for its speedy removal is absolutely essential. A 
drought, on the other hand, may call for irrigation. Want of porosity 
so common to our black lands, seriously impedes root development. 

Some soils bake or cake after very hard rain, and thus by excluding 
the air and checking evaporation, work disaster to the plant. A great 
defect with many of our sugar soils is the impermeability of surface 
water, forming, unless high ridges with deeply ploughed middles pre- 
vent, stagnant water at or near the surface, which brings disaster and 
sometimes death to a rapidly developing plant. 

Humus, so essential to every soil in this climate, is frequently badly 
needed. 

Climatic conditions of a purely local character may temporarily pre- 
vail, such as alternations of temperature, hot, parching winds, as in 
south-western Kansas, often destroying a crop in afew days, 

It may therefore be asserted that whenever a soil from a physical, 
chemical or climatic defect, forbids the growth of large crops, even 
when well supplied with fertilizing ingredients then the application of 
.commercial fertilizers is a waste. The amelioration of its environ- 


168 


ments is now more needed by the plant than manures. It is better to 
seek a remedy in drainage, irrigation, deep ploughing, better cultivation, 
harrowing, hoeing, incorporation of vegetable matter, etc. After these- 
ameliorating conditions are established, then, and not till then, should 
a liberal use of fertilisers be practised. It must be remembered that. 
every improvement in the quality of the soil increases its capacity for 
absorbing large quantities of manure and its transmutation into maxi-- 
mum crops. Heavy plant growth and excellent soil culture mean an 
enormous conversion of plant food into crops. Where the largest crops- 
are produced there will be the heaviest demand for manure. Hence 
rich soils can succesfully appropriate heavy applications of fertilisers, 
while poor soils must be fed with great care. Perfect all the other con- 
ditions of heavy plant growth, and then there will be a demand for 
commercial fertilisers, not a demand to appease hunger, but one to 
fatten. In fattening domestic animals, all of the conditions of diges- 
tion are first perfected, and then they are given all they will eat, not 
what they need. The object is to transform a larger amount of plant 
food into fat and muscles within the animal’s frame than is required 
for its maintenance, and this is accomplished by a carefully com- 
pounded ration, known to be digestible and palatable. So in farmmg, 
whenever practicable, plants of known capacity for absorbing fertilisers 
should be cultivated, and then these plants should be stimulated toa 
most intensive assimilation of plant food by the application of suitable 
manures. While the better class of soils always respond more liberally 
to fertilisers than poorer ones, still the latter, under favourable condi- 
tions, often yield remarkable results. Great care should be exercised. 
to see that the favourable conditions are fully attained, and unless they 
are, very unsatisfactory results may follow the use of commercial fer- 
tilisers. Sometimes the use of fertilisers overcomes the unfavourable 
surroundings. They cause a larger and deeper root development in 
early growth and thus enable the plant to withstand a subsequent 
drought. They frequently cause an early shading of the ground, thus- 
preventing surface hardening and encouraging nitrification, and with 
the sugar planter enabling him to give an early “lay by” to his crop. 

These brief remarks are made to suggest to some planters the cause 
of their failures sometimes in the use of commercial fertilisers. They 
may ascribe the failure to the worthlessness of the fertiliser used when 
it should be ascribed to some defective quality of the soil, rendering it 
ineapable of appropriating the applied fertiliser. (') 


An examination of the cane plant by Prof. Ross revealed the fact 
that for each ton of cane removed from our soil, with the tops and 
leaves left in the field which are subsequently burnt, there are re- 
moved 3.4 pounds nitrogen, 1.48 pounds phosphoric acid and 2.17 


(1) The tendency to imagine that short crops are, as a rule, due to deficiencies 
of plant food in the soil which can be remedied by the application of artificial 
manures, isa most common one. Itis very desirable that every one who is in- 
terested in the use of artificial manures should thoroughly understand these points 
with which Dr. Stubbs wisely prefaces his remarks on the manurial requirements 
of the sugar cane, for ualess this is the case, there can be no intelligent use of 
this valuable, but somewhat expensive, aid to modern agriculture. The use of ar- 
tificial manures renders desirable increased care in cultivation, weeding, draining 
and similar operations.—F. W. 


169 


pounds potash. A crop of thirty tons will therefore remove about 102 
unds nitrogen, 45 pounds phosphoric acid, and 65 pounds potash. 
ow much of these ingredients are supplied by our soil? This ques- 

tion can only be answered by experiments. For twelve years the Su- 
gar Experiment Station hus tried to solve this problem by a series of 
systematic experiments.(?) ‘Three permanent plats have been dedicated 
to replies to this question, known respectively as the nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid and potash plats. These plats have been divided into 
twenty experiments, and the question asked of the 


NITROGEN PLAT 


is: “ Does this soil need nitrogen to grow cane successfully ?” “If so. 
what forms of nitrogen are best adapted to the wants of cane and soil, 
and in what quantities shall they be supplied? The forms of nitro- 
gen used were Nitrate of Soda, Sulphate of Ammonia, Cotton 
Seed Meal, Dried Blood, Fish Scrap, and Tankage. These were used 
in such quantities as to furnish twenty-four and forty-eight pounds ni- 
trogen per acre, former experiments having demonstrated that larger 
quantities could not be appropriated in our average season. These 
forms were used alone, and combined with excessive quantities of phos- 
phoric acid and potash in highly available forms. At regular intervals 
through the plat there were left experiments unfertilized to test the 
natural fertility of the soil, and to each group of nitrogen experi- 
ments was attached one containing only phosphoric acid and potash. 
These experiments have been conducted on this plat for eight years 
and will be continued indefinitely in the future. The results up to 
date show conclusively, that this soil needs nitrogen to grow cane suc- 
cessfully, and while sulphate of ammonia has shown annually slightly 
better results, the high cost gives no advantage over the lower priced 
forms. Cotton seed meal comes next to the sulphate of ammonia, fol- 
lowed closely by dried blood and nitrate of soda. Fish scrap and 
tankage are slightly behind the rest, for reasons assigned below. 

It has been found also that but very few of our seasons give us rain- 
falls in quantity and distribution sufficient to enable the cane plant to 
appropriate 48 pounds of nitrogen. Hence a larger quantity is exces- 
sive, and it may be a waste. It is therefore safe to recommend quan- 
tities of nitrogen varying between 24 and 48 pounds per acre for our 
cane crop. Again, different soils and different kinds of cane require 
varying quantities of nitrogen. Plant cane upon pea vine land, will 
not require the same amount as upon “succession” land, i.e., upon soils 


(2) Field experiments are absolutely necessary in order to answer questions of 
this kind. ltis a mistake to suppose that analytical investigations of the soil 
can supply the answer. Chemical analysis can indicate broadly the character of 
a soiland show what elements of plant food are present in large or in deficient 
quantities, but it is impossible by this means to indicate with certainty whether, 
for instance, it will prove remunerative to apply, say, 40lbs, of potash per acre to 
a particular soil ; nor is this to be wondered at when we remember that an acre 
of soil to a depth of 12 inches weighs about 5,000,000 pounds, so that 40 lbs of 
potash would represent -00008 per cent., and yet the addition of 4) lbs. of potash 
per acre may result in a large increase in the yield, and that, perhaps, on soil al- 
ready containing from -2 to -5 per cent, or 10,000 to 25,000 pounds of potash, 
combined in various ways. [tis now universally admitted that laboratory in- 
vestigations must be supplemented by field experiments.—F. W. 


170 


from which a crop of stubble cane has just been taken and which has 
been continuously in cane for years without the intervention of a legu- — 
minous crop to restore the nitrogen. Indeed such soils are frequently 
in an execrable physical condition, which not only precludes the possi- 
bility of themselves furnishing plant food, but also prevents them from 
assimilating much of that presented in theform of commercial fertilisers. 
Hence the unsatisfactory results from manuring succession canes, so 
often experienced by planters. It is doubtful whether one-half of the 
plant food applied to succession canes in commercial fertilisers, is re- 
covered in the canes in the average season. 

Pea vine lands put in plant cane, on account of their excellent phy- 
sical conditions, not only yield up readily the nitrogen stored up by 
the peas, but can also assimilate large quantities of plant food supplied 
as fertilisers. Hence such canes usually make large crops. 

Since nitrogen is the chief ingredient taken from the soil by a crop 
of cane, it follows that with each successive crop of cane grown on the 
land, without the intervention of a restorative leguminous crop, there 
arises an increased demand for nitrogen. Hence stubble canes require 
larger quantities than plant cane, and the older the stubble, the larger 
its requirements for this element to make a given tonnage. (°). 


EXPLANATION OF THE FORMS OF NITROGEN. 


Sulphate of Ammonia, is a by-product in the manufacture of coal 
gas of cities. It is the recovered nitrogen stored up in the plants 
which made the coal ages ago. It is the most concentrated form of 
nitrogen found on our markets, containing 21 pounds in every 100 
pounds of salt. It is especially adapted to sugar canes on clayey soils, 
giving larger returns than any other form. Its high price, however, 
will always prevent its extensive use. Its present price is from $60.00 
to $80.00 per ton. It is used, like nitrate of soda, as a top dressing 
for small and stunted canes, with most excellent results. 

Nitrate of Soda, is a partially refined product from the mines of 
Chili and Peru, and contains 15 to 16 per cent. of nitrogen. The out- 
put of the mines is controlled by a syndicate which regulates its price. 
Hence its values change but little from year to year, its present price 
being about $40.00 to $50.00 per ton. It is the most soluble form of 
nitrogen and should be used with great care to prevent loss. Small 
quantities at short intervals applied as a top dressing, are frequently 
used with excellent results on grass lands. It is believed to be too so- 
luble, in this climate of heavy rainfall, for the best results. 

The above, sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda, are mineral 
forms of nitrogen. 

Of the vegetable forms of nitrogen available to our planters, cotton 
seed meal is by far the most extensively used. Sometimes a ton or 
two of castor pomace finds its way to Louisiana, but the aggregate 


(3) This is practically the universal experience of sugar growers on all kinds of 
soil. In most places it is impossible to grow ratoons or stubble canes so as to 
produce 15 or 20 tons of cane per acre without the use of a fertiliser rich in nitro- 
gen. Sulphate of ammonia is the nitrogenous fertiliser which most commends 
itself to West Indian sugar growers. It isa very concentrated manure, easily ap- 
plied and readily assimilated by the cane plant.—F. W. 


171 


quantity used as a fertiliser in this State is so small that a discussion 
of its merits may be omitted. 


Cotton seed meal is a by-product from the the cotton seed oil mills 
Cotton seeds are first hulled, and the k ernels, after being steamed, are 
subjected to hydraulic pressure to remove the oil. This leaves cotton 
seed cake, which is largely exported for use as a cattle food in England 
and continental countries. Nearly three-fourths of the products of our 
mills are thus disposed of. The remainder is consumed in this country, 
both as food stuff and fertiliser. However for use in this country, the 
cake is ground into fine meal and sold on our markets as “ Cotton 
Seed Meal.’ When fresh and free from hulls, it has a bright yellow 
colour, oily appearance and nutty odour. The presence of comminuted 
hulls darkens the colour and lowers the percentage of nitrogen. Age 
and ferments also darken the colour without lowering the content of 
nitrogen, and therefore cause little or no injury to it for fertilising 
purposes, but seriously destroy its feeding values converting the nitro- 
genous matters into poisonous ptomaines. 


Cotton seed meal has an average composition of 7 per cent. nitrogen 
3 per cent. phosphoric acid and 2 per cent. potash. Being a southern 
product, the prices paid by our planters may be regarded as initial 
values, without charges, insurance and freight necessary to place it on 
the world’s markets in competition with other forms of nitrogen. 
Therefore, it may be asserted that it is to our planters the cheapest 
form of nitrogen. Occasionally, with low markets elsewhere for ferti- 
lising material, tankage, fish scrap, etc., may find purchasers in our 
midst at prices for its nitrogen content slightly below the prevailing 
rate for nitrogen in cotton seed meal; but as a rule, the cost of nitro- 
gen in cotton seed meal to our home planters is less than in any other 
form. Experiments in the laboratory upon the different forms of ni- 
trogen have shown that next to the mineral forms (sulphate of am- 
monia and nitrate of soda) stand the vegetable, in their order of availa-- 
bility as plant food. Cotton seed meal especially was shown to have a 
high co efficient of availability. as much as 78 per cent. of its nitrogen 
having been appropriated directly as plant food the first year. 


It is, therefore, extremely gratifying to our planters to know that a 
home product furnishes them with the cheapest and best form of 
nitrogen. 


The following animal forms of nitrogen are found on our markets :-— 
(1) Dried blood, (2) Tankage and (3) Fish scrap. 

Dried blood is a by-product of our slaughter-houses and comes into. 
markets under two heads Red blood and Black blood. The former is. 
dried slowly at a low temperature, and is believed to be slightly more 
available than black blood which is rapidly dried at high temperatures 
by steam. Dried blood contains 12 to 16 per cent. of nitrogen, with 
practically no potash or phosphoric acid. It is the most available of 
animal forms of nitrogen, ranking in the trials given above, next to 
cotton seed meal. 

Tankage, is a mixture of the refuse of the slaughter-houses and con- 
sists of dried blood, pieces of meat, particles of bone, etc., all of which 
have been rendered to remove the oil or fats, and the residue is then 
dried and ground into fine powder and sold as tankage. 


172 


Tankage must be examined from two standpoints to determine its 
value as a fertiliser, viz., mechanically and chemically. On account of 
the bone present as a constant ingredient, a mechanical analysis is al- 
ways in order, since the availability of bone, slow in its best condition, 
is believed to be directly as its pulverisation. Fragments of bone, or 
even coarsely ground bones, are very slowin decomposing. “ Too slow 
in this busy age when every hour must .chase its sixty minutes to its 
death.” Therefore, it is of first consideration that all tankage be very 
finely ground. 


Chemically, tankage is a mixture of blood and meat, substances rich 
in nitrogen, and of bone high in phosphoric acid. Therefore it may 
vary greatly in composition, between wide extremes; bone with 4 per 
cent. nitrogen, and 24 per cent. phosphoric acid, and blood with 16 per 
cent. nitrogen (only). Usually it is sold, as it should be, by chemical 
analysis only. The higher the nitrogen content, the more valuable the 
tankage, both in dollars and cents, and in availability in the field, 
since this high content indicates an excess of dried blood or meat, both 
highly available forms of nitrogen, over bone, a very slowly available 
form. 


When an analysis of tankage is given, the percentage of bone pre- 
sent may be roughly calculated. Suppose analysis shows 9 per cent. 
of nitrogen and 9 per cent. phosphoric acid, what part of tankage is 
bone? Bone contains on an average, 4 per cent. nitrogen and 24 per 
per cent. phosphoric acid. Therefore, the nitrogen corresponding to 
the 9 per cent. of phosphoric acid is 1 5 pounds, calculated by follow- 
ing proportion : 24:9 :: 4:x=1.5 pounds. Since there are9 pounds of 
nitrogen present, and 1.5 pounds of this adheres to the bone, then 7.5 
pounds, or the remainder, comes from the blood and meat. Since 100 
pounds of bone contain 24 pounds phosphoric acid and 4 pounds nitro- 
gen therefore, it will require 37.5 pounds of bone to furnish the 1.5 
pounds nitrogen and 9 pounds phosphoric acid found inthe tankage. 
Therefore, the tankage consists of 37.5 parts of bone and 62.5 parts of 
blood and meat scrap. 


This example is given to illustrate the difference in values between 
different grades of tankage and to show that its value asa fertiliser 
largely depends upon the amount of nitrogen furnished by the blood 
and meat scrap, and not that supplied by the bone. Tankage is a pop- 
ular fertiliser with our planters just now, and the difference of opinion 
prevailing as to its value is doubtless largely due to the difference in 
composition of the various brands offered on our markets. Low grades 
are universally unsatisfactory in their results, while high grades fre- 
quently give most excellent returns. 


Fish Scrap, the dried and ground residue from fish after the oil has 
been extracted, is used more to ammoniate manipulated fertilisers than 
as a direct fertiliser in the south. Like tankage, its value depends 
upon the relative proportion of meat to bone in the fish worked. A 
part of the nitrogen always present, is inherent in the bone and is 
therefore not as available as that in the meat. The action then of fish 
scrap as a fertiliser is necessarily slower than the highly active forms 
of cotton seed meal and dried blood. 


178 
NITRIFICATION. 


It must be borne in mind that all of the above fertilisers, save ni- 
trate of soda, must be decomposed and converted into soluble forms be- 
fore they can be appropriated as plant food This process of conver- 
sion is usually denominated as “ nitrification.” 

Nitrification must go on in every cultivated soil in order that plants 
may grow therein, and the more rapid this nitrification “ ceteris pari- 
bus,” the greater the growth of the plants in a given time. The pro- 
cess of nitrification is accomplished through the work of micro-organ- 
isms (bacteria) of which there are three different types: Ist, those 
which convert nitrogenous matter into ammonia; 2nd, those which 

-convert ammonia into nitrous acid, and 3rd, those which convert ni- 
trous acid into nitric acid. Hach of these is necessary to the com- 
plete transformation of cotton seed meal, dried blood, tankage, ete., into 
nitric acid, the form of nitrogen chiefly available as plant food. 

It should be the aim of every cultivator to maintain his field in 
conditions most favourable to the development of these soil ferments, 
upon whose activity,not only the plant food already in the soil, but also 
that applied in the form of fertilisers, depend for their solubility. The 
conditions for the rapid multiplication of these ferments are given in 
the chapter on cultivation. It will be apparent, however, from the 
above, that it is a misuse of fertilisers to apply them to soils that have 
been badly ploughed, imperfectly drained, and in bad tilth. Every 
planter, before resorting to the use of fertilisers, should see that the 
soil upon which they are to be applied should be in a condition to aid 
in the most rapid nitrification possible. Only by the observance of 

_gonditions most favourable to nitrification, can the full effects of the 
applied fertiliser be obtained. (*) 


NITROGEN REQUIRED IN A ROTATION, 


From investigations made by this station, a crop of cow peas when 
turned under at the proper time, will add at least 100 pounds of nitro- 
gen per acre, most, if not all of which, it is believed, is gathered from 
the air. (°). The average crop of plant cane grown upon pea vine 
land is not far from thirty tons per acre. The first year stubble fol- 
lowing this plant, should give twenty tons per acre, and if kept for 
the second year stubble, a crop of at least 15 tons per acre should be 


(4) These modern views which regard the soil as a complex workshop, full of 
living organisms busy preparing nitrogenous matters in order to fit them for the 
use of plants, have done perhaps more than anything else to place agriculture on 
a scientific basis; we now know why it is that tillage and drainage are such im- 
portant factors and why if they are neglected poor crops are obtained even when 
an abundance of plant food is present in the soil. It will be seen that most agri- 
cultural operations are directed towards maintaining the s»il in such condition 
that the nitrifying bacteria may best flourish in it ; this being accomplished, good 
crops may be expected._F. W. 


(5) This use of green dressings is of the first importance to sugar growers. Thi 
100 pounds of nitrogen is equal to about 500 pounds of Sulphate of ammonia 
so that a green dressing in addition to improving the texture of the soil and add- 
ing humus to maintain this improved condition, draws from the atmosphere up- 
‘wards of £3 worth of nitrogen per acre and adds it to the soilin a condition well 

suited to the requirements of the sugar cane.—F. W. 


174 


obtained. The three year cropping would give 65 tons of cane which,. 
together with tops and: fodder (which are burned) would remove from: 
the soil 221 pounds nitrogen. Of this amount, 100 pounds would be 
furnished by the peas, most of which would go to the plant cane, leay- 
ing 121 pounds to be supplied by fertilisers in order that the soil may 
retain the original fertility. It will require over 1,700 pounds of cot- 
ton seed meal to supply this quantity of nitrogen, or 970 pounds for 
first year stubble and 730 pounds for the second year stubble. These 
quantities are usually in excess of practice, because there is a certain 
amount of nitrogen furnished by the soil every year, and secondly our 
crops of pease give frequently larger quantities of nitrogen than given 
above, and, lastly, such tonnage through three years are rarely obtain- 
ed. However, this will serve as an illustration of the value of nitrogen 
to the sugar cane crop. 


(Zo be continued.) 


SOIL INOCULATION. 


By N. H. J. Miter. 
Reprinted from Journ. R. Agri. Soc. England, Vol. VII. 


Whilst the demonstration, some ten years ago, by Hellriegel and 
Wilfarth of the fixation of elementary nitrogen during the growth of 
certain plants bearing nodules on their roots, is undoubtedly one of the 
most interesting and important of recent discoveries—extending our 
knowledge of the powers exercised by micro-organisms, showing the 
element nitrogen in an entirely new light, and explaining, to some 
extent, the exceptional position in agriculture which our leguminous 
crops have for centuries been known to occupy—it has seemed to some 
that the amount of labour devoted to the nitrogen question, interesting 
as are the results which have been obtained, is out of proportion to the 
practical benefits likely to be derived from it. The question which 
concerns agriculturists is whether they will be enabled, by growing 
leguminous crops, to draw upon the practically unlimited store of at- 
mospheric nitrogen, and thus be less dependent upon the most costly 
of manures—combined nitrogen, in its different forms. 


To Dr. Salfeld, of Lingen, in Hanover, belongs the credit of being 
the first to put Hellriegel’s discovery to a practical test in the field, 
his earliest experiments in this direction having been made as far back 
as 1887. And he has recently collected and published (1) the results of 
his own and of other experiments made in Germany, Austria and Swe- 
den, some of which it is proposed in this paper to notice. But, before 
doing this, a few words on the present position of the nitrogen ques- 
tion will be useful. 


In the first place, it may be stated that the higher chlorophyllous 
plants, of whatever order, are totally unable, per se, to assimilate free 
nitrogen. Evidence has, it is true, from time to time been adduced in 
support of nitrogen fixation by individual plants, but such results will 

ee OR Ts RS ONE i 


1 A. Salfeld, Die Boden-Impfung zu den Pflanzen mit Schmetterlingsbluten in» 
landwirschaftlichen Bertriebe, Bremen, 1896. 


175 


frequently bear another interpretation, or, if not, are refuted by the 


overwhelming amount of evidence against such an assumption furnish- 
ed by exact experiments, as well as by general experience in agricultu- 
ral practice. And as even yet the experiments made between forty and 
fifty years ago by Ville are sometimes quoted as being the first to prove 
that fixation of nitrogen takes place during the growth of plants, it 
may be mentioned that some, at any rate, of his results, which showed 
an enormous gain of nitrogen, are now known to be incorrect. The 


conditions under which the experiments were made were such as to 


exclude the action of micro-organisms which are now known to be 
essential ; and fixation of nitrogen by non-leguminous plants in absence 
of any combined nitrogen is disclaimed even by Frank, who, although 
he believes that all plants have the power of fixing nitrogen, considers 
the presence of some combined nitrogen necessary to enable non-legu- 
minous plants to make a start. 


At the present time we are acquainted with three processes by which 
free nitrogen may be brought into combination, and thus rendered 
available to plants: (1) By atmospheric electricity, (2) by a micro-organ- 
ism in the soil, (3) by the symbiosis of certain plants and micro-or- 
ganisms. 

1. The amount of nitrogen brought into combination by electricity 
is very limited, and quite inadequate to the wants of any crop. As it 
is, moreover, equally available for all crops it need not be specially con- 
sidered here. 


2. As regards fixation in the soil, we include fixation by the micro- 
organism (Clostridium Pasteurianum) isolated by Winogradsky, (?) and 
fixation by algae (Schloesing and Laurent), (*) as it seems likely that 
we have to do with one and thesame process. For it must be bornein 
mind that in Schloesing and Laurent’s experiments the algae contained 
bacteria, and although it is not impossible that Nostoc and some other 
algae can fix nitrogen, there is, so far, no evidence that algae, in the 
absence of micro-organisms, have that power. Kossowitsch’s experi- 
ments (*) with different algae, with and without bacteria, favour the 


view that it is the bacteria which fix nitrogen when supplied with suita-- 


ble carbonaceous matter, such as sugar ; and that certain gelatinous algae, 
e.g. Nostoc, take the place of sugar in furnishing the bacteria with 
carbon. This would account for the fact that some soils, when exposed 
to light, gain nitrogen, whilst in absence of light they do not. In the 
first case there is a development of algae, in the second case no algae 
are formed; and without algae to supply carbon for the bacteria, fixa- 
tion of nitrogen cannot take place. It is, however, doubtful whether, 
as has been suggested, we have here to do with a true symbosis, as in the 
case of root nodules, which are special organs formed on the roots of the 
plant under the influence of the bacterium, and in which the bacte- 


rium itself undergoes modification. ‘Lhis change in the form of the 


micro-organism seems to be essential; no appreciable fixation has, at 
any rate, been observed in pure cultures of the unmodified form. 


2 Archives des Sciences Biol, 1895, tome 111., p. 279, et. seq. 

3 Ann. Inst. Pasteur, tome vi, p. 824. Also Fream, “ Fixation of Free Nitro~- 
gen by the Lower Green Planis.”’ Journal R.A.S.E , 1892, [3] Vol. 111 p. 427. 

4 Bot. Zeitung, 1894, Bd. 52, p. 97. 


176 


Although Winogradsky showed that the nitrogen-fixing power of 
this soil organism, growing in sugar solutions, is very considerable, we 
are quite in the dark as to the extent to which fixation of nitrogen 
goes on in the soil—whether it is even in excess of the amount lost by 
drainage, &c. The greatest gain would presumably be in soils contain- 
ing plenty of organic matter and on uncultivated and undrained land ; 
the smallest gain if any, would be on ordinary arable land. 

Whilst, according to Berthelot, there are a number of soil organisms 
which fix nitrogen, Winogradsky found only the one referred to which 
possesses this power ; and, although he isolated fourteen other micro- 
organisms from the soil, none of these fixed nitrogen to an appreciable 
extent in absence of combined nitrogen, although two of them showed, 
perhaps. a very slight gain when grown in presence of a small amount 
of combined nitrogen. 


3. It is, then, with the third process, fixation in the root nodules 
—that we have to deal. It is not necessary here to go into the history 
.of the subject, as that has already been been pretty fully discussed 
(°). That fixation does take place has been confirmed over 
and over again. The biology of the subject has also received a good 
deal of attention, important results having been obtained by Marshall 
W ard—who made clear the process by which the micro-organism invades 
and enters the root tissues—by Tschirch, Brunchorst, and others. And 
the relation between the plant and its nodules has, to some extent, been 
explained by the Rothamsted experiments, in which the growth and 
ripening of the plant were shown to be coincident with progressive ex- 
haustion of the nitrogenous matter of the nodules whilst on the other 
hand, with plants not ripe, or of more than annual growth, there was 
accumulation in the nodules—that is, provision for future growth. (°) 
‘It must, however, be admitted that we are still corapletely in the dark 
as to the nature of the chemical process by which nitrogen is first 
brought into combination within the nodules, and what is the first com- 
pound formed. 

As far as agricultural plants are concerned, it is only those of the 
leguminous sub-order Papilionacez on the roots of which nodules occur, 
and which in consequence can thrive without external application of 
combined nitrogen. It may, however, be mentioned that the symbosis 
prevails in the case of other leguminous plants—for instance, of the 
-sub-orders Mimoseze and Cesalpiniez, (7) and even of non-leguminous 
‘plants such as the common alder. (*) 

The methods employed in pot experiments for inducing the forma- 
tion of nodules have been the application of a soil extract (Hellriegel), 
of soil itself (Frank), or the inoculation has been made directly from 
the contents of a nodule. Hellriegel’s earliest results showed that all 


5 Lawes and Gilbert, Journal R.A.S.E., 1891. [8] Vol. 11., p. 657. 

6 Lawes and Gilbert, loc. cit. Also Gilbert, U.S. Agric. Dept. Office of Experi- 
ment Stations, Bul. No. 22, p.136, et seq. 

7 Morck “ Ueber die Formen d. Bakteroiden b. d. einzelnen Spezies d. Legumi 
nosen.” Inaug. Diss. Leipzig, 1891. 

8 L. Hiltner, “ Ueber d. Bedeutung d. Wurzelknollchen y. Alnus glutinosa f.d. 
Stickstoffernahrung dieser Pflanze, “ Landw. Versuchs-Stat., 1895, Bd. 46, p. 153, 
and R. Dinger, De els als stikstofverzamelaar. Landbouwnkundig Tijdschrift, 
1895, p. 167. 


177 


goil extracts are not equally suitable for inoculating certain plants; but 
the most systematic and conclusive experiments on this part of the 
subject are those of Nobbe, who concluded that there is only one micro- 
organism concerned (Beijerinck’s Bacillus radicicola), but that it becomes 
so altered in the symbiosis with certain plants as to be rendered useless 
for the purpose of infecting others. (9) This is, however, not always 
the case, since the bacteria from pease and vetches, for instance, seem to 
be, mutually available. On the other hand, the bacterium as modified 
by the pea (or vetch) is useless for serradella, robinia, and for red and 
other varieties of clover Nobbe thinks this may account for the diver- 
gent results obtained by different observers, some of whom found 
‘Tupins, others serradella, &c., to be the greatest nitrogen collector; the 
difference being in reality, most probably due to the inoculation having 
been more or less suitable or unsuitable. The importance of this ques- 
tion will be better realised in discussing the results of the field experi- 
ments. 


FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON SOIL INOCULATION. 


The greater portion of the inoculation experiments described by Sal- 
feld were made on peaty soils (Moorland,) and it was at the then new 
Experiment Station of the Central Moor-Kommission on the Great 
Bourtanger Moor that the first trials were made in 1887 (i.e. immediately 

after the announcement of Hellriegel’s discovery) when the usual me- 
thods of reclaiming the land seemed almost hopeless. It had generally 
‘been found possible on old cultivated, peaty soils, which had been man- 
ured with dung, to obtain satisfactory crops of horse beans and peas, 
after the application of quicklime or marl, with kainite and phophates, 
but on the new land these plants did not thrive unless supplied with 
mitrogenons manure. The attempt to commence with buckwheat, as a 
peaty-soil plant, instead of horse-beans, did not meet with success in 
presence of large quantities of lime (82 cwt. per acre), and it was not 
advisable to apply less lime on account of the clover. 

The first experiments made in 1887, in which horse-beans, grey. 
Prussian peas, field peas, garden peas, and Ervum monanthos were in- 
oculated by applying soil to the field, afforded clear indications of a 
favourable character, but as no numerical results are given for the 
different plots, we will pass on to the second series of experiments, 
«made in 1888. 

The land selected had an area of 1 hectare (about 24 acres). The 
northern half of the field had been twice burnt, and in 1886 received 
32 cwt., of lime per acre. Kalnite, containing 140 lb., of potash, basic 
slag containing 107 lb., of phosphoric acid, and ammonium sulphate and 
sodium nitrate, containing together 54 lb., of nitrogen per acre, were 
applied, and a yield of 18.74 cwt., per acre of winter-rye grain obtained 
in 1887. In the 1888 experiments the land was divided into eighteen 
plots, about five yards wide, and separated from each other by a path 
and a ditch alternately. The plants employed were: (1) Peas, four 
‘plots; (2) horse beans mixed with peas, eight plots; (3) horse beans 
and lentils (Ervum), four plots; (4) Pisum arvens, two plots. The 


9 Landw. Versuchs-Stat. 1891. Bd. 39, and 1893, Bd. 42; also Hannov. Land u 
Forstwirtschaftl. Zeit. 1894, p. 79. 


178 


manuring for all the plots was potash (in kainite) 140 lb., phosphoric 
acid (in basic slag) 107 lb., per acre applied in September, 1887. In 
October three kinds of inoculating soils were applied, and were worked. 
in to a depth of 4 inches in April 1888. 

The plants were damaged by a late frost (May 29), the horse-beans: 
being the least affected. By June 13 a decided effect was visible on 
the plots inoculated with the two fertile soils, especially the loam, and 
the peas so treated had a dark green colour, whilst those which were not 
inoculated were yellowish green. By the end of June the effect of the 
bean soil was most striking, being visible from a great distance, and was 
camparable with the effect of 3 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre on rye, 
as compared with unmanured rye. 

In the table below are stated the particulars as regards the soils ap- 
plied, and the total produce obtained, under the different conditions. - 
Average results, in pounds per acre are given :— 


Field Peas. | Beans and | Beans and Peas. 
Pease. _ Lentils. 

Inoculating Soil. F x ; 2 : ‘ : : 

Soup Bol sell Bele ee hee 

o Li oO 2 oO 9) Oo 2) 
No soil applied ...| 791 [2,299 | 615 |1,453 | 283 |1,935 | 327 | 2,832 
Uncultivated vee — | 396 |1,027 | 298 |2,068, — -— 
Arable Loam (beans) ...| 496 | 3,760 |1,027 |2728| —| . | —| — 
Loamy marsh Soil -»-| 1,062 | 4,286 | 1,171 |3,155 | 873 |3,576 | 387 | 3,120 


An examination of the roots of the plants showed that those grown 
in inoculated soil were thickly covered with nodules; where there had 
been no inoculation, nodules were only occasionally found. The increased 
production, brought about by the application of soil to the land, could 
only be due to the introduction of appropriate micro-organisms. It 
could not be owing to the soil being improved physically, since the un- 
cultivated loam was without effect; and the manurial value of the soil 
applied was practically nothing. , 


In 1891, an experiment on peaty soil was made with a mixture of 
grey peas and horse-beans, in which the effects of different soils for in- 
oculation, and of varying amounts of lime were investigated. One por- 
tion of the field had been burnt, the other not. The inoculating soils 
were (1) mud from tte Zuider Zee; (2) a sandy soilon which the peas 
had grown well; and (3) an old very light, sandy lupin soil, The whole 
field, about 24 acres had been dug to the depth 10 inches in 1889, har- 
rowed in June 1890, then slaked lime was very carefully distributed 
over the land, in quantities of 16, 24 and 32 cwt. per acre, and harrowed 
in. In July the land was forked to a depth of 4 inches, in October to- 
a depth of 8 inches. Kainite (1,070lb. per acre) and basic slag (535 1b.) 
were sown in November. The inoculating soils were applied the follow- 
ing April, and were well harrowed in betore the seed was sown. ‘he 
seeds were covered over by harrowing. By May 26 leaves were formed 
on the young plants, but no difference was perceptible between the plots. 
On June 13 the plants which received the greatest amount of lime (32 


179 


wt. per acre) were satisfactory, the others less so; and as yet there was 
no decided effect from inoculation. By July 7 the plants, except those 
inoculated with peasoil, where mostly yellow and unhealthy looking, 
and generally no nodules were to be found on their roots; only a few of 
them were normally developed, and these had nodules. On the other 
hand, the plants, both beans and peas, growing on the plots inoculated 
with pea soil were strong, dark green, and healthy generally ; all of 
them had numerous nodules on their roots. 

The effect of inoculation with pea soil was more marked on the burnt 
portion of the ‘field than on the other. On the unburnt plots the num- 
ber of stronger plants (beansand peas) increased (July 14) where no peat 
soil, but 32 cwt., of lime per acre, had been applied; but the majority of 
the plants on these plots remained yellow, and without nodule forma- 
‘tion. 

On July 28 the relative differences remained the same for the different 
plots. ‘lowards the end of August the horse beans were all attacked 
‘by rust, seed production being thus much hindered, and the plants had 
to be harvested before ripe, so as not to damage the next crop (winter- 
tye). The weather had been very wet, but the delay in ripening may 
have also beten due to the symbiosis, which would be in accordance with 
observations made by Hellriegel and by Nobbe. 

The table below gives the tutal produce, generally averages of two or 
more plots. 


Lime applied Inoculating Produce (lb.) Produce (Ib.) 
wt. per acre. soil, on burnt soil. on soil not burnt. 
32 Not inoculated 103.14 166.59 
24 - us oe LL 
16 cf uf a 48.69 
32 Pea sandy soil 237.14 255.02 
24 = 5 —— 220.14 
16 ca iate - ——- 97.15 
32 sea mud 76.84 Se 
32 lupin soil 96.49 —— 


The results show that in absence of stable manure, peaty soil poor in 
mitrogen, and not containing the micro-organisms necessary to enable 
leguminous plants to utilise free nitrogen, may be cultivated after 
inoculating with a suitable soil in the quantity of 16 cwt. per acre, 
such inoculation being more essential and more productive of good re- 
sults, in freshly burnt soils, than on land which has not been recently 
burnt. The selection of suitable soil for inoculation is again shown to 
be of great importance, lupin soil being, in these experiments, useless 
when applied for peas and beans. Finally, the presence of sufficient lime 
is clearly shown to be essential for the production of a good crop. Ap- 
plications of 16 cwt. per acre were quite insufficient, and better results 
were obtained with 32 cwt. than with 24 cwt. peracre on the peaty soil 
on which these experiments were made. 

_ After the harvest, another field was inoculated by means of some of 
the surface soil of the successful plots (i.e. those which had received pea 
soil), and peas and beans were sown in it. The plants developed well, 


180 


but were destroyed bya late frost. The next year (1893), however,. 
after manuring with lime (32 ewt.) keinite (8 ewt.) and basic slag (2.4 
ewt. per acre), the following amounts of beans and pease were obtained. 
per acre :— 


Corn. Straw. 

cwt. cwt. 
Horse-beans " a 11.4 oo ae 
Peas ie; 12.5 27 8 
Total 23.9 51.5 


These results are interesting, as they were obtained by inoculating 
from the recently inoculated peaty soil. 

Similar results were obtained by Dr. C. von Feilitzen on the raw, . 
peaty soil of Jonképing, in Sweden. In experiments with peas he ob- 
tained an increase of 105 per cent. of corn and 238 per cent. of straw, 
and the corn was much better developed under the influence of inocu- 
lation. 

Some very interesting results were obtain in experiments on laying a 
field down to grass. The land selected for this purpose was again peaty 
soil which had been burnt, and on which buckwheat had been grown 
without manure. It had then been left for about five years, and had 
produced but little vegetation, mainly Holcus mollis, Molinia caerulea. 
and rushes. In 1887, kainite, and basic slag, were applied and buck- 
wheat sown. Slaked lime (32 cwt. per acre) was very carefully spread 
over the field and worked into the soil to a depth of five inches, after 
which kainite and basic slag were applied, along with marshy soil for 
‘Inoculation. There were twenty plots, which received, in groups of 
four, 32, 24, 16, and 8 cwt., of soil respectively, whilst those of the 
fifth group were not inoculated. In April, 1889, oats were sown, re- 
ceiving 170 lb. of nitrate of soda per acre. In May, clover and grass- 
were sown in the following amounts per acre :— 


Ib. per acre. 
Trifolium pratense Ss: 0.4 
¢ hybridium hi 0.8 
< repens aes 1.2 
Lotus corniculatus eS, 6.1 
Grass o = 33.4 


The oats grew well all over the field, but were, of course, not in the 
least influenced by inoculation. When, however, the oats were cut the 
favourable effect of the marshy soil on the clover was very marked, 
whilst without inoculation the plants were generally feebly developed,. 
and there were many gaps. With the smallest amount of inoculating 
soil (8 ewt. per acre) the clover was more dense, and of a much darker 
green colour, than where no soil had been applied; and on the roots of 
the plants nodules were abundant. The luxuriance of the clover in- 
creased with the amount of marshy soil applied, but the differences 
with the various amounts of soil are not to be compared with the effect of 
the smallest qnantity as compared with the uninoculated plots. It is 
proposed, in future, to apply 16 cwt. of soil per acre to other fields. 
For the field on which the above experiments were made it will. only 


181 


be necessary to manure with potash and phosphates. In 1890 the: 
yield of clover-grass hay was 3 tons 7 cwt. per acre, and was of the 
best quality. | 

We will mention one more experiment made on new peaty soil, namely, 
with serradella (Ornithopus sativus), not so much on account of the 
legiminous crop itself, which is not grown in England, as for the ef- 
fect produced on a subsequent crop of potatoes by ploughing it in. 
After an application of lime (82 cwt. per acre), rye, potatoes, and 
again rye, were grown in 1889-91, the land being, each year, manured 
with kainite, basic slag, and sodium nitrate. The results were, how- 
ever, unsatisfactory when the amounts of manure given are considered, 
owing to the nitrogenous matter of the soil having been dissipated by 
frequent burning. In 1891 the land was divided into ten plots of 
about 0.25 acre each, and carefully manured and limed; plots 1, 2, and 
3 received 8 cwt. of soil per acre from a serradella field, and after rye 
was sown the whole of the field was harrowed. Serradella was then 
(May) sown on plots 1to6. The rye grew uniformly over the whole 
field. The serradella germinated well, but failed on the plots which 
were not inoculated, whilst on the inoculated plots it was most luxu- 
riant. In October samples of the serradella were taken, after which 
the rest was ploughed in. The yield of serradella was estimated at 7 
tons 4.25 cwt. per acre green: this, when ploughed in, corresponds 
with a dressing of 3.2 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre. In 1893 pota- 
toes were sown, being manured with dung (about 10 tons per acre) and. 
artificial mauures, on all the plots. The following quantities of pota- 
toes were obtained per acre with and without the green manuring :— 


tons cwt. qrts. 
without green manuring mle ae 6 cea 
with af a Lh Bin): Bite 


In the case of rye, which followed the potatoes, there was also a con- 
siderable gain, both in grain and in straw, due to the green manuring, 
after inoculation. The profit(!°) per acre, due to inoculation, in the 
years 1898 and 1894 was as follows :— 


tye, Oe 
In 1893, an excess of 1 ton 16 cwt. 3 qrs. of po- 
tatoes per acre deels| Mie eeu ee 
In 1894, saving of 0.8 cwt. nitrate of soda per 
acre BE | Cis at | 
Hs an excess of rye grain —2.9 cwt. Peale 
iM gi straw—2.8 RS BE ERO 
Total PO SR UE: 


Tho soil of the field was employed for inoculating other land in- 
tended for serradella. The green manuring rendered a heavy applica- 
tion of stable manure unnecessary for potatoes, and it will probably be 
possible to limit the number of cattle kept, and the growth of fodder 
crops, much more than was hitherto thought possible. 

Let us next proceed to consider some results obtained on sandy soils. 
In 1890 a field near Lingen was selected for experiment. It was a 


10 The serradella seed, 36lb. per acre, cost about £1. 


182 


poor sandy soil, thinly, but uniformly, covered with heather. In No- 
vember, kainite and basic slag were sown all over the field, and in May 
1891, a strip about eleven yards wide and forty-eight yards long was 
inoculated with surface soil, from old cultivated lupin land (8 cwt. 
per acre). The whole was harrowed and sown with lupins, The 
wet weather at the commencement of the experiment was unfa- 
-vourable, but soon after the first leaves were formed the inocula- 
tion was shown to have been effective by the presence of nodules on 
the roots of the young plants. The plants growing on that part of the 
field which had not been inoculated had, as was expected, no nodules, 
with the exception of a few isolated plants. The difference in the ap- 
pearance of the above-ground growth was soon very marked, the ino- 
culated plants being quite normal in growth, the others light-red and 
yellowish. The amount of produce without, and with, inoculation, was 


100: 582. 


Similar results were obtained with while clover, the heather being 
completely suppressed by the clover under the influence of inoculation. 


In experiments with lupins growing in a heavy loam Schmitter ob- 
tained an increase of only 11 per cent. of corn and straw by inocula- 
tion. But, as Salfeld points out, such a soil is most unsuitable for lu- 
pins ; moreover, the quantity of inoculating soil employed by Schmit- 
ter was very small. With regard to the effect of the physical nature 
of soil on the growth of lupins, it may be mentioned that in the 
pot experiments at Rothamsted(11) there was far more growth in loose, 
white sand, than in the lupin sandy soil itself from which the sand 
was inoculated. Billwiller (1?) in discussing green manuring, gives two 
groups of plants suitable for different soils :— 


1. For light to medium soils, white, yellow, and blue lupins, and 
serradella ; and for calcareous soils, kidney-vetch, and lotus. 


2. For medium to heavy soils, peas, scarlet, clover, sand vetch, Bok- 
hara clover, red clover, alsike, and yellow clover; and for mixtures, 
horse-beans. 


Light, sandy soils which are unsuitable for clover are chiefly to be 
utilised for green manuring—in Germany with lupins or serradella. 
It was, however, hoped that it might be possible to grow peas, and 
similar plants, successfully on such land, and some experiments were 
instituted in which garden and field peas were inoculated from pea 
soil. Lentils were also included, but there was no suitable.soil availa- 
ble for their inoculation. The land was well manured with kainite 
and basic slag, and the two halves received respectively quicklime and 
marl (carbonate of lime). On the limed portion of the plants nearly 
all failed, and it was found that the roots were quite free from no- 
dules, the microbes having apparently been destroyed by the lime. 
On the marled half of the field vegetation was luxuriant. The ques- 
tion of the effect of lime is one of considerable importance for some 
soils, and Dr. Tacke, of Bremen, accordingly made a number of pot 
experiments with the view of solving it Itis not necessary to give 


11. Lawes and Gilbert, Journal R.A.S.E., 1891. 3 Vol. 1L., p. 683. 
12. Inaug. Diss. Bern, 1895. 


182 


the details of Tacke’s experiments ;(13) he found that in sandy soil an ap- 
plication of lime corresponding with 24 ewt. per acre did not destroy the 
bacteria, and the results obtained with peaty soils were similar. It is 
therefore, concluded that in the field experiments above described the 
injury which still remains unaccounted for, was, at any rate, not due 
to thelime. The subject is now being investigated jointly by Drs. 
Salfeld and Tacke, and no doubt some explanation will, before long, be 
forthcoming. 


IMPORTANCE OF SOIL INOCULATION IN AGRICULTURE. 


It may be remarked, in the first place, that the results of Salfeld’s 
and other experiments show that there exists soils which are so poor 
in nodule bacteria (Bacillus radicicola) as to require inoculation before 
certain leguminous crops can be suceessfully grown on them in ab- 
sence of available nitrogen in the soil. 


The most striking results were obtained with the poorest soils, new- 
ly cultivated peaty land giving luxuriant crops when suitably inocu- 
lated, after being limed or marled, and sufficiently manured with po- 
tash and basic slag; whilst without inoculation the same crop com- 
pletely failed. The plants successfully grown were red, white, and alsike 
clovers, lotus corniculatus, serradella, horse beans, field and garden 
peas, etc. The same holds with sandy soils, which when inoculated 
gave good crops of lupins, serradella and clover. No experiments 
seem to have been made as yet with new loamy soil, but there can be no 
doubt that such land could be successfully brought under cultivation 
by similar treatment. On old cultivated land inoculation has not the 
same importance, but experiments alone will show whether it is bene- 
ficial or not. 


Whether the bacteria of the different root nodules are different spe- 
cies, or modifications of one species, it is clear that judgment must be 
exercised in selecting soils for particular crops; and in some cases it 
may be desirable to experiment with different soils. But when a field 
is once suitably moculated the soil of the field is available for any 
number of other fields which may require inoculation for the same 
crop. The quantity of soil to be applied will depend on the number 
of bacteria present in the soil, and also on the physical nature of the 
soil; the finer the soil, the better it can be distributed, and a small 
quantity of a readily pulverised soil will, of course, go further than a 
large quantity of soil which forms hard lumps. The amount of soil 
necessary may thus vary from about half a ton to a ton and a half per 
acre. Thorough incorporation with the land is most important to en- 
sure proper infection of the young plants. 


When a leguminous. crop fails, the first thing to do is to examine 
the roots to see whether nodules are present ; if absent, inoculation ex- 
periments should be made the following year. But there may, of 
course, be other reasons for the failure, such as acidity of the soil. 


13. Mittheilungen d, Ver. z, Ford. d. Moorkultur, 1895, Bd, 13. No. 22. 


184 


The presence of plenty of lime is essential, and there must also be a 
sufficient supply of potash and phosphoric acid. 

Results obtained by different investigators respecting the effect of 
the symbiosis on the character of the plant, especially as regards the 
production of roots, stems and leaves on the one hand, and of flower 
and seed on the other, are somewhat conflicting. Both Hellriegel and 
Nobbe found seed production to be retarded, whilst the yield of straw 
was increased. Nobbe, therefore considers the action of the bacteria 
more favourable to the production of fodder, and for green manuring, 
than for the production of seed. Salfeld thinks that the nature of the 
soil, and of the season, have a good deal to do with this. Peas grown 
in peaty soil often ripen very late, and the yield of corn was not always 
satisfactory as compared with the enormous production of stem and 
leaf, but this is ascribed mainly to the unfavourable weather and other 
conditions. In the case of lupins, very good seed was obtained on 
unmanured soil, whilst when heavily manured with potash and phos- 
phates, the plants did not ripen at all. It is, therefore, proposed that 

‘in growing lupins, or clover for seed, potash and phosphates should 
be applied sparingly, if at all. In von Feilitzen’s experiments with 
peas, referred to at p. 180, it will be remembered that the gain due to 
inoculation was chiefly in the production of corn, and that the quality 
of the corn was also improved by inoculation. However, it may be 
concluded that on the whole it is for fodder, and for green manuring, 
that soil inoculation will be chiefly employed. 

The practice of green manuring, which has extended a good deal in 
Germany, will no doubt receive an impetus from the success which the 
numerous inoculation experiments have met with. Although it would 
seem especially adapted for improving poor soils, its adoption in 
ordinary farming will be watched with much interest. In connection 
with this part of the subject we cannot perhaps, do better than refer 
to the results of G. Dehlinger, of Weilerhof. Dr. Dehlinger, soon 
after taking possession of a farm near Darmstadt, decided to sell nearly 
all the cattle, of which a considerable number had been kept, keeping 
only sufficient to supply his own wants, and to adopt green manuring, 
supplemented with artificial manures, in the place of stable manure. 
Several years’ experience convinced him that the system is more econo- 
mical than any other, the cost of nitrogen in pea and vetch manuring 
being estimated at rather less than a penny per pound, as against about 
seven-pence in nitrate of soda, and tenpence in stable manure. Dr. 
Dehlinger also considers the system more unrestrained than when 
cattle are kept. Finally, he states that good crops were obtained after 
green manuring, and that the system is, on the whole very remunera- 
tive. It should be mentioned that two-thirds of his land is a heavy 
loam, and the rest a sandy loam. (!*). 


With regard to the more frequent growth of such plants as clover 
and peas, which are liable to sickness, it seems best for the present to 
keep to the old rules. We, are, as Dr. Salfeld says, still uncertain 
what the failure of these crops is due to, though Liebscher considers 


14. G. Dehlinger, Viehlose grundungwirtschaft auf schwerem Boden. Berlin, 
1892. Also Fream, “Farming without live stock,’ Journ. R. A. S. E., 1891, 
{3}, Vol. IL.,‘p.870, ; 


185 


that his observations indicate that it is caused by a nematode. 
Leibscher found that peas when grown ten times in thirteen years 
(with beans three times), on the same land were very stunted. By 
July the plants which had no nitrogenous manure were all dead, whilst 
those which were manured with nitrogen though still growing were 
unhealthy. The plants were found to have no, or very few nodules, 
on their roots, whilst similar plants in a rotation had many nodules, 
except where nitrogenous manure had been applied, in which case they 
were less abundant. An attempt to cure pea-sickness by inoculation 
from a good pea soil had no effect, and it was found that the roots of 
the unhealthy plants were covered with nematodes. Leibscher then 
grew about 100 varieties of plants of a pea-sick field, and obtained the 
following remarkable result. All the peas, and some varieties of vetch, 
had swarms of nematodes. Other varieties of the vetch, chick-peas 
(Kicher), Lathyrus Cicera and Cicer arietinum had fewer nematodes. 
The three kinds of lupins had very few, whilst Phaseolus, and all the 
various clovers which were growing in the field, had none at all, 
The gramineous and root crops were also free from nematodes. 


The question arises, whether it is not possible that the attack by the 
nematodes on the plantsnamed was the result, rather than the cause, of 
the sickness, The fact that peas and vetches were simultaneously 
attacked by the nematodes reminds one that both these plants grow in 
symbiosis with the same modification of the nodule bacterium, whilst 
clover, for instance, which was not attacked in this experiment, requires 
another modification and lupins which were very slightly attacked, again 
another modification. This seems to point to the total failure of one 
particular microbe (or modification, as the case may be) as the cause of 
failure of the corresponding plants; and the presence of nematodes 
on the roots of the peas and vetches might merely be due to decaying 
vegetable matter, as being to them a more suitable kind of food than 
the healthy roots of other plants. The fact that in Liebscher’s first ex- 
periments the manured portion of the field suffered less than the 
unmanured would then indicate that the nitrogen supplied enabled 
the plants to at any rate keep alive without the symbiosis, and thus, to 
some extent, resist the attacks of the nematodes. We have a somewhat 
similar case in the clover experiments at Rothamsted. In a rich garden 
soil, thirty-seven cuttings of clover were obtained in twenty years 
(being resown only four times), whilst on arable land close by, it will 
not grow even once every four years in arotation. Leibscher’s view, 
that the peasickness was caused by nematodes, involves the assumption 
that clover has a special nematode, sinceit wasnot attacked in the least on 
the pea-sick land. The theory of the failure being due to the absence 
of the pea (or vetch) micro-organism is consistent with the fact that 
clover did not fail; since clover requires, and no doubt had, its own 
particular modifications. Against this we have the fact that inoculation 
with pea soil failed to cure pea-sickness; and this might be due to 
accident. ‘The results are full of interest, and the question deserves 
thorough investigation. 


Although it has been shown that adequate inoculation of the soil is 
essential, it has been as clearly illustrated that a greatly increased 
growth of leguminous plants cannot be attained without a liberal supply 


186 


within the soil, especially of lime, potash and phosphoric acid, and also 
of other ash constituents. (1°). 

In concluding, attention may be called to the paper relating 
to the recent patent taken out by Professor Nobbe and Dr. 
Hiltner for “ Nitragin,” (1°) the object of which is to provide singlelegu 
minous seeds with the appropriate nodule organisms, instead of inocu- 
lating the land by means of cartloads of soil The question put by Sir 
J. B. Lawes, (*’) more than a yearago. ‘“‘ Will the day come when 
seeds are sent out furnished with the appropriate organisms to supply 
the deficiency in our fields ?” is thus already answered, 


TAMARINDS. 


The method of preparing tamarinds for the British market is the 
subject of a note in a Madras contemporary, from which it appears 
that the process is a very tedious one, requiring great care in packing. 
The fruit is first of all allowed to ripen on the tree, the shell being 
perfectly dry and coming away from the fruity part without any ad- 
herence. In preserving, the longest and most developed pods are 
chosen and shelled, the stalk, fibres, and seeds being allowed to remain 
intact. A syrup of crystallised sugar and water is then made over a 
slow fire, into which the tamarinds are carefully put piece by piece, and 
allowed to simmer until the pulp of the fruit has absurbed the syrup, 
care being taken not to allow the pulp to separate from the fibre. The 
vessel it then removed from the fire, and on cooling, the tamarinds are 
packed in earthenware pots glazed on the inside only. At the bottom 
of the pot a layer of white sugar is placed, on the top of which a layer 
of tamarinds is put, the gaps being filled by bending the fruit ; over 
this is poured more syrup and another layer of sugar, and go on, layer 
after layer, until the jar is full. Circular paper saturated with brandy 
is placed on the top, the pots securely corked and stored away until the 
preserve becomes mellow, when they are ready for export. Jor this 
purpose jars with names or initials burnt or blown in are not used, as 
the contents may be removed before being passed through the Customs. 
(Chemist and Druggist). 


15. See also concluding paragraph of Lawes and Gilbert’s paper, already referred 
to (Journal R. A. S. E., 1892, [3] Vol. 1L. p, 701). 

16. Deutsche landw. Zeitung, 1896, 40, No. 34. 

17. Agricultural Student’s Gazette, April, 1895. New series, vol. 7, 72. 


187 


FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—LIII. 


Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja- 
maica. By G. S. Jenman, Superintendent Botanical Garden 
Demerara. 


Sus-Orper II, Mararttacea, 

Sporangia destitute of a ring or crown, biserial, free, or fused into 
concrete linear, oblong, boat-shaped or circular masses (synangia), 
superficial or,immersed in moulds, or with an inferior fimbriated invo- 
lucral membrane, and opening by slits or small round pores ; vernation 
circinnate; stipites enlarged and articulated at the base which is en- 
closed by a pair of projecting stipuliform gills; fronds varying from 
simple to decompound ; veins free or united. 

‘There are four well marked genera in this sub-order. In one, 
Angiopteris, the sporangia are quite free, but in the others they are 
combined into concrete synangia. Two, Angivpteris and Kaulfussia, 
are exclusively Hastern and Australian; one, Dana, is exclusively 
Western ; and the other, Marattia, is widely spread in the tropical re- 
gions of both worlds, extending south to New Caledonia and New 
Zealand. The individual sporangia are more or less oblong or oval in 
shape, but variable as the blocks into which they are fused. All 
the species occupy wet forests, are of a dark dull colour and have fleshy 
root-stocks bearing large scars, the articulations of past stipites, with 
thickish cord-like roots. 

Synangia sessile or stipitate, oval or roundish before dehiscence, after- 
wards boat-shaped, sporangia opening by short slits. 1. Marattia. 

‘Synangia linear, reaching from midrib to margin, sporangia opening 
by pores. 2. Danza. 


Genus I. Mararria, Swartz. 

Synangia dorsal on the veins, small elliptical or roundish, sessile or 
pedicilate, bivalved, opening medially across the top at maturity into a 
boat-shaped form, the apertures in the 2-serial sporangia transverse to 
the line of dehiscence, and about six to a side; frond large, decompound, 
petioles without nodes, but articulated at the auricled base ; veins free. 

The members of this genus occupy damp forests and are usually 
gregarious. The swollen caudicular joints, common to all the 
species which remain for a time on the rootstock after the fronds have 
perished, produce a meal, which is used as food by some of the tribes of 
the Pacific islands, and is frequently to be seen on the rootstocks of J, 
alata. 

Synangia sessile. 
Fronds tripinnate, 
1. M. alata. 

1. HM. alata, Smith.—Rootstock large and cone-like, marked with 
the scars of the joint like bases of past stipites; stipites 3-5 ft. 1. 2 in., 
thick at the articulated base, cylindrical, early clothed with small, 
very deciduous, scales; fronds nearly deltoid, 3-5 ft. 1, and nearly 
as w., tripinnate, chartaceo-herbaceous, dark green, paler beneath with 
a few deciduous scales: pinne spreading, opposite or sub-opposite, the 
lowest pair largest or hardly so, 2-3 ft. 1, 1-i4 ft. w. petioled and with 
a fleshy swelling at the base; abruptly acuminate at the apex; pin- 


188 


nule numerous, contiguous, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, the point 
sharply serrate, slightly stipitate; tertiary segments ovate-oblong, 
cuneate at the sessile base, bluntish, 4-8 li. 1, 2-3 li. w., serrated ; 
costee interruptedly winged in the outer part, costule so throughout ; 
veins simple or forked; synangia one to each vein, a short way within 
the margin, the valves at length spreading —W. levis, J. Sm. 
Dicostegia, Presl. 

Very abundant, gregarious in forests at 5,000-6,000 ft. alt., often 
covermg extensive areas. When the petiole drops away, it leaves a 
a short joint at the base with the gills adhering to it. This is vivipa- 
rous in the axils of the large auricles or gills, two buds appearing above 
and two below on the rounded back. One only however is usually de- 
veloped, and this from either of the basal axils. The joints lie about 
plentifully, and when the plantlets are strong enough they root into 
the ground and proceed to maturity. Reproduction seems to be carried. 
on much more largely in this way than from spores. The whole frame- 
work of the fronds is fi shy, and in drying becomes shrivelled and flat. 


G.nus II. Danza, Smith. 


Synangia linear or oblong, more or less immersed, running from the 
midrib to the margins on the free veins, very close and covering, ex- 
cept the cost, the whole nder surface, sessile, and broadly attached 
by the base, each one composed of a double row of numerous sporangia 
fused and blocked together, opening eventually by small apical pores ; 
fronds simple or pinnate, dimorphous, the fertile somewhat reduced ; 
stipites with or without distant nodes, and articulated at the auricled 
base. 

This is entirely an equatorial American genus, and the largest of the 
sub-order. ‘There is no great diversity of form in the genus, and the 
members differ chiefly in size and substance, number of pinne, number 
of nodes to the stems, and direction of growth of the rootstock. ‘he 
sporangia are biserial, fused together into concrete linear synangia, 
which are immersed in a gum, or, when dry, gray-parchment-like sub- 
stance, which surrounds them like a mould and forms thin partitions 
between their sides. The sporangia are multitudinous. Moderate sized 
fronds of WZ. nodosa contain from 300,000-400,000 each. 

Fronds pinnate. 

Stipites with 1-4 nodes. 

Pinne under | in. broad. 
1, D. alata. 
2. D.stenophylla. 

Pinne over 1 in, broad. e 
3. D. elliptica, 

Stipites devoid of nodes. 

| 4, D. nodosa. 

1. D. alata, Smith.—Stipites fleshy czspitose, erect, 6-9 in. L, 
scaly throughout; nodes 1-2; fronds oblong pinnate, usually rather 
narrower at the bottom and top, no terminal segment; beneath scaly, 
chiefly on the ribs, both sides rather pale green ; rachis fleshy, scaly, 
narrowly winged interruptedly, with a small bud at the apex; pinnze 
8-12 or 14 to a side spreading, shortly stipitate, rounded at the base, or 
the lower ones sometimes more cuneate, the apex acute, or cuspidate 


189 


often, 2-3 in. 1., 2rds. in. w.; margins finely serrate in the outer part ; 
plain within ; veins very close, spreading at nearly right angles, simple 
or forked from the base; fertile fronds smaller, pinne 14-14 in. 
1,4 in. w.; stipites longer, stouter, dark coloured, without joints, more 


scaly. 

Frequently in very moist forests in the eastern parishes at 2,000- 
4,000 ft. alt., marked by its interruptedly winged rachis, and the absence 
of a terminal pinna. Sometimes a pinna appears to be terminal, but 
it is always at the side of the terminal bud. The name seems to be 
founded on Plumier t. 109, which is true D. stenophyila, Kz. Both 
names are so characteristically applicable to the respective species that 
it seems a pity to disturb them now. 


CONTRIBUTONS AND ADDITIONS TO THE 
DEPARTMENT. .; 


LIBRARY. 


Botanical Magazine. August. [ Purchased. ] 

British Trade Journal. August. [Hditor.] : 

Chemist & Druggist. July 30. Aug. 6. [Editor.] 

Garden. July 16,23 &30. Aug.6. [Purchased. |’ 

Journal of Botany. Aug. [Purchased.] ae 

Journal, R Horticultural Society. July. 

Nature. July 14,21, 28. Aug.4. [Purchased.] 
Pharmaceutical Journal. July 30. Aug. 6. 

Produce World. Aug. [EKditor.] 

Sugar. July. [Editor.] 

Sugar Cane. Aug. [Editor.] 

W. Indian & Com. Advertiser. Aug. [Editor.] 
.Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. July. Aug. 2&9. [Kditor.] 
Notizblatt, Berlin Gardens. July. [Director.] 

Tropenpflanzer. Aug. [Hditor.] 

Bulletin de L’Herbier Boissier. July. Aug. [Conservateur.] 
Report of Govt. Gardens, Mysore. 1396-97. [Curator.] 
Circulars, R. Bot. Gardens, Ceylon. May 2. Junel1l. [Director.] 
Times of Ceylon. June 30. July 7,14, 21. [Editor.] 

Tropical Agriculturist. July. [Hditor.] 

Reports Bot. Gardens. Hong Kong. 1897. [Director.] 
Report Agri. Stations, Java. Apr. 24. [ Director. ] 

Report Bot. Gardens, N.S. Wales. 1897. [Director.] 

Sugar Journal, Queensland. June. [Editor.] 

Queensland Agr. Journal. July. [Secy. Agr. | 

Cape of G. Hope. Agr. Journa!. June. July 7. [Agr. Dept.] 
Central African Times. June 10. [Hditor.] 

Mauritius Revue Agricole. June. [Editor.] 

Report of results obtained on Exp. Fields. Dodds Ref. Barbados. 1897. By 

J. R. Bovell & Prof d’ Albuquerque. [Authors.] 

Journal Jamaica Agricultural Society. August. [Kditor.] 
Bulletin R. Bot. Gardens Trinidad. July. [Editor.] 
Proceedings Agr. Society, Trinidad. July. 12. [Secy.] 
Publications of the following Agr. Experiment Stations, U.S. A. [Directors. ] 


Alabama Illinois 

Florida Michigan 

Idaho Maine 
Virginia 


Montreal Pharmaceutical Journal. August. [Editor.] 
Reports on Agriculture Nova Scotia. 1898. [Hditor.] 


190 


Agr. College Reports, Ontario. August. ([Secretary.] 
Experimental Farm Reports & Bulletins, Ottawa. 1897. [Botanist.] 
Year book U.S. Dept. Agr. 1896. [Corisul L. A. Dent.] 
Hawaiian Planter’s Monthly. July. [Editor.] 
HERBARIUM. 
From Mr. E. J. Campbell, Superintendent Botanie Gardens British Honduras. 


Yellow or Broadleaf Logwood (Wood Specimens & Leaves). 


Catzim “ (Wood Specimens). 

Charack 5 (Wood Specimens). 

Nicaragua “ (Wood Specimens & Leaves). 
PLANTS. 

From Royal Gardens, Kew. 

Andropogon Nardus Crinum careyanum 

A. Schoenanthus C. sp (Accra) 

Dracaena sp. (O. Calabar) Garcinia ternophylla 

Hedychium Horsfieldii Honckenya ficifolia 

Malpighia coccigera Musa “ albo-indica”’ 

Mysore Cardamoms M. = Livingstonei 

Pandanus pacificus M. Manni 

Papaya Changona M. Martabanica 

Tacca viridis M. Martini 

Tephrosia Vogelii M. rosea 

Urostigma Vogelii M. Sumatrana 

Adenium obesum M. superba 

Agave albicans x mitis M.  textilis 

A attenuata M.  vittata 

A. geminiflora KEchidnopsis dammaniana 

A. kewensis Euphorbia bupleurifolia 

A. marmorata EK. Caput-Medusae 

A. spicata K. lactea 

Aloe gasterioides E. meloformis 

A. sp. (Somali land) Phyllocacti (6) 

A. sp. (Hallack) Pitcairnia coerulea 

A. saponaria var. maculata P. _ ferruginea 

A. lineata _ Puya chilensis 

A.  variegata Sansevieria cylindrica 

Beschorneria yuccoides 8. EKhrenbergii 

SEEDS. 


From Botanic Gardens, Singapore. 
Mezoneurum sumatranum 
Albizzia moluccana 
From Botanic Gardens, British Guiana. 
Dypsis madagascariensis 
From Royal Gardens, Kew. 
Tacca pinnatifida 
Villebrunea integrifolia 
Uapaca Kirkiana 
Toxicodendron capense 
From H. Dizxson, Esq., Sydney, Australia. 
Cycas Normanbyana 
From Curator, Botanie Gardens, Durban, Natal.* 
From Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon.® : 
* Burnt on receipt, as there is a Government prohibition against receiving seeds 
or plants from these colonies for fear of introducing the Coftee Leaf Disease, 
Hemileia vastatriz. 


[Issued Ist October, 1898. ] 


New Series.] | SEPTEMBER, 1898. Vol. V: 
| Part 9. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE — 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA. 


KDITED BY 
: ‘WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc, F.LS. 


Direstor of Public Gardens and Plantations. 


: Agriculture of the Sugar Cane—III__. PaGE 191 
» Banana Meal . 200 
Jamaica Satin Wood : 201 
Plants in the Gardens Ry is 201 
San Jose Scale Insect : ‘ 203 
Notes on Extract of Ginger : 207 
3 Ferns: Synoptical List—LIY ; 208 
‘ Contributions and Additions Pris 213 


P RIC E—Threepence. 
A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who wilt send Name ia 
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingsten P.O, 
te raw ‘ 


KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
GovERNMENT Pxintine Orrice, 79 DuKe Srrzer, 


1898. 


Q aw. 
hr tie,. 


te * 


qo 
oat sc 


. t ‘ ym Dats ? F oh oe 
: : - y ry a? Pe 


JAMAICA. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


Vol. V. 


New Series. | SEPTEMBER, 1898. 1 0 gp 


AGRICULTURE OF THE SUGAR CANE.—IiI. 


Extracts from “Sugar Cane, Vol. 1.” by Dr. Wittiam Srvusss, 
Director of the Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station. 
Edited by Fspancis Watts, Government Chemist Jamaica. 


MANURIAL REQUIREMENTS OF SuGaR CANE. 
(continued). 


PHOSPHORIC ACID PLAT. 


Similar questions as to the requirements of this soil for phosphoric 
acid, to those given under nitrogen, have been propounued to this plat, 
viz.: First—Does this soil need phosphoric acid to grow cane? Second 
—If so, in what form can it best be prescribed ? and Third—-In what 
quantities per acre? The forms of phosphoric acid used were, “ Dis- 
solved Bone Black.” ‘‘ Acid Phosphate,” ‘‘ Ground Bones,” ‘‘ Thomas. 
Slag,” “Charleston Floats,” and Natural Phosphates or Guanos They 
were used in such quantities as to turnish thirty-six and seventy-two 
pounds of phosphoric acid per acre. Larger quantities than seventy - 
two pounds per acre have proven by experiments to be unprofiiable. 
These forms were used alone, and combined with excessive quantities of 
nitrogen and potash. The most available and adaptable forms to cane 
were used, viz.:—Sulphates of Ammonia and Potash. As in other 
plats at regular irtecvals, there were the usual number of unfertilised 
experiments, and experiments containing only Sulphates of Ammonia 
and Potash. Like the nitrogen experiments, these have already ex- 
tended over eight years, and will becontinued indefinitely. The results 
so far indicate positively the value of phosphoric acid in manures for 
sugar cane on these soils, but the demand for this ingredient is small in 
comparison to that for nitrogen, the smaller quantity given above 
(thirty-six pounds per acre), proving so far an ample quantity for maxi- 
mum yields. Results further show that the soluble forms of phosphoric 
acid are preferred, followed in order by slag meal, and finely ground 
“‘ floats,” etc. Therefore, quantities of phosphoric acid, from thirty to 
forty pounds per acre, in a soluble form are to be recommended for 
sugar cane on our soils. Phosphoric Acid unlike nitrogen, can not be 


192 


drawn from the air by leguminous crops. It is true that the latter, by 
their deep tap roots, pumpit up from the lower strata of the subsoils 
and by turning them under as green crops, the phosphoric acid is trans- 
ferred from the subsoil to the surface soil, and is thus placed within the 
reach of the roots of the subsequent cane crop. If, however, both soil 
and subsoil be deficient in this ingredient, recourse must be had to some 
commercial fertiliser containing it, in order to grow maximum crops. 
A crop of cow peas can and does supply a soil with nitrogen drawn 
directly from the air, and in doing so makes a positive addition to the 
store of fertility in the soil. By its tap roots it may transfer phosphoric 
acid from subsoil to surface soil, but in doing so it has not increased 
the stock of plant food on hand, but simply transferred it to a more 
eligible position for assimilation by cane. Therefore phosphoric acid is 
equally needed by both plant and stubble cane. (') 


EXPLANATIONS OF FORMS OF PHOSPHORIC ACID. 


Dissolved Bone Black.—Bones are subjected to destructive distilla- 
tion in the process of “Charring,” by which the larger part of their 
organic matter is driven off, and with it their nitrogen. A part of the 
carbon existing in bones as organic matter, is now left as charcoal, en- 
crusting each grain of phosphate of lime. When thus prepared it is 
called “ Bone Black,” or ‘ Bone Charcoal,” which is extensively used in 
sugar refineries for decolourising and defecating syrups destined for 
white sugar. After constant use, the bone black becomes “spent,” i.e., 
no longer exercises a decolourising influence upon syrups. It is then 
sold for fertilismg purposes. Sometimes it is without further treat- 
ment, applied directly to the soil, but without immediate benefits, since 
the phosphates, being encased in charcoal, are protected from rapid de- 


(1) The part played by phosphatic fertilisers in relation to sugar cane presents 
features which at present are involved in some obscurity. While for the most 
part it may be assumed that on the majority of soils canes are benefited by the 
application of small doses of phosphates, other experiments have shown that 
moderately large applications are not beneficial, and may even result in dimin- 
ished yields. The experiments conducted at the Antigua Experiment Station 
tended to show that, under the conditions of soil and climate prevailing there, 
the application of phosphates, instead of increasing, actually diminished the yield, 
and this, whether the phosphate was applied in the form of super-phosphate, 
mineral phosphate or basic phosphate. Again, at the Barbados Experiment Sta- 
tion in the first series of experiments conducted, it was observed that while a 
small application of super-phosphate increased the yield of canes somewhat, 
larger applications resulted in smaller yields, and in later experiments during 
1896 and 1897 similar results are arrived at. Experiments conducted in Demerara, 
give results tending in the same direction. It is significant that unexpected re- 
sults of this kind should be reported from places so distant and widely separated 
as Demerara, Barbados and Antigua. 

Although on the whole phosphatic manures may be desirable and beneficial, it 
is evident that considerable care should be exercised in their use. It is frequently 
suggested that the prejudicial action is due to a deficiency of carbonate of lime in 
the soil. Itis true that the soil on which the Antigua experiments were con- 
ducted was very deficient in carbonate of lime, but it appears improbable that the 
injurious action of the phosphates can be wholly traced to this as a cause, seeing 
that not only super-phosphate, but also neutral and basic phosphates exercised 
similar influence. The Barbados soil contains more carbonate of lime than that 
of the Antigua Station, though in this case the quantity is but small. This ques- 
tion calls for careful investigation. It seems possible that the application of phos- 
phates, even when in a neutral or basic form, may so affect the activity of various 
soil ferments as to lead to the results observed.—F. W. 


198 


composition. To overcome this slow action and render it immediately 
available, it is treated with sulphuric acid, and the resulting product is 
‘“‘ Dissolved Bone Black,” a most valuable and available form of phos- 
vphoric acid, containing usually about 16 per cent. to 18 per cent. solu- 
ble phosphoric acid. 

Acid Phosphate—Formerly Bone Black, Bone Ash, or Ground 
Bones were used for treatment with sulphuric acid, but the demand be- 
coming greater than the supply, recourse was had to the newly dis- 
covered beds of mineral phosphates and to-day much the larger quan- 
tity of soluble phosphates are mannfactured from the mineral phosphates 
obtained in various parts of the world; South Carolina, Florida and 
Tennessee each furnishing large quantities annually. These mineral 
phosphates, after being cleaned from adhering dirt, sand, etc., are 
ground to a fine powder by the “ roller” process, and sold on the market 
as “floats,” or are treated with sulphuric acid and converted into solu- 
ble phosphates which are called “ Acid Phosphates,” “‘ Superphosphates,” 

_or “Dissolved Bones.” The amount of soluble phosphoric acid which 
they carry varies from 10 per cent. to 20 per cent., according to the 
purity of the phosphate from which they were made. If phosphoric 
acid is used to dissolve the bone black or mineral phosphates, the re- 
sulting product will be much higher in soluble phosphoric acid. In 
this way are made the so-called ‘ Double Superphosphates” which are 
sometimes found on our markets, and which contain from 40 per cent. 
to 50 per cent. of soluble phosphoric acid. 

In the treatment of either bones, bone black, or mineral phosphates, 
with sulphuric acid, if enough of the latter be used, all of the sulphuric 
acid will become soluble in water. The above substances are tricalcic 
phosphates, containing three molecules of lime to one of phosphoric acid, 
-and are soluble only in acids. ‘They are, therefore, slowly soluble in 
soil water, and are not a readily available form for plant food. 

Treated with sulphuric acid, they lose two molecules of lime, which 
are appropriated by the acid, and recover in exchange two molecules of 
water, leaving one molecule of lime combined with one molecule of 
phosphoric acid and two molecules of water. The resulting products 
are now monocalcic phosphates, and are very soluble in water, and there- 
fore readily available to plants. 

Should a deficiency of sulphuric acid be used in the manufacture of 
soluble phosphates, a quantity of the tricalcic phosphates will be left 
unacted upon by the acid while another portion will be converted into 
monocalcic or soluble phosphate. 

If this mixture be permitted to remain in bulk any length of time, ache- 
mical reaction takes place, by which a dicalcic phosphate is formed, which 
is insoluble in water, but soluble in certain salts, notably the citrate of am- 
monia, and is called “‘ reduced,” or ‘‘ reverted,” phosphates. The change 
is as follows :—One part of insoluble phosphate, containing three molecu- 
les of lime, and one part of phosphoric acid, reacts upon another part of 
soluble phosphate containing one molecule of lime and one of phosphoric 
acid to form two parts of “reduced,” or “ reverted,” phosphate, which con- 
tains two molecules of limeand one of phosphoricacid. These three forms 
_of phosphoric acid are found in every “ Acid Phosphate,” or fertiliser, con- 

taining acid phosphate. They are usually denominated as “soluble,” 
“reverted,” and “insoluble,” and to the Chemist are known as “‘ water 


194 


soluble,” “ citrate soluble,” and “acidsoluble” phosphoric acids. In some. 
States the soluble and reverted are classed together as ‘‘available” phospho- 

ric acid, a term which has been adopted by the manufacturer rather than- 
the agriculturist, since the question of availability in the soil is yet an 
undetermined one and varies greatly with the character of the soil. It 
is true {that the soluble phosphoric acid, when applied to the soil, after 

a while reverts, from contact with basic principles in the soil, but before: 
doing so it diffuses itself throughout the soil, and by this initial velocity 

becomes thoroughly incorporated with it, and when precipitated in the. 
reverted form, each particle is so minute as to be readily available to. 
the acid secreting roots of plants. The reverted phosphates being in- 

soluble in water, lack this initial diffusion, and therefore rem ain in the’ 
exact position in which they were placed by the planter. The particles- 
are more segregated and less diffused, and therefore less available. 


In buying phosphates, therefore, due regard should be given to ob- 
taining the highest possible content of soluble phosphoric acid. 


Slag Meal is a by-product in the manufacture of steel or wrought: 
ron by the “Thomas Gilchrist” process, from pig iron rich in phosphoric. 
acid. The pig iron is melted in converters lined with lime and when 
thoroughly melted, the lime unites with the phosphoric acid present, 
and forms a slag which floats on the surface of the melted iron. This. 
slag is removed, cooled and ground into a powder, and sold as ‘“ phos- 
phoric slag,” or “slag meal.” Besides phosphate of lime, it usually 
contains goodly quantities of lime, and therefore cannot be mixed with- 
out injury with fertilisers containing either ammonia or soluble phos-- 
phates. It usually contains 15 to 20 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and 
upon some soils, with certain crops, is highly esteemed. It has not 
proven as valuable under sugar cane as the soluble forms. There is a 
promise of a large supply of this slag in the near future by the manu-- 
facturers who work iron by this process. 


Natura. PHospHateEs. 


Besides the mineral phosphates already described, there are found on. 
the smaller islands of the ocean, immense deposits of phosphates, which 
require little or no manipulation to prepare them for use. ‘hey are be- 
lieved to be the residues from the deposits of fish-eating birds. Ina 
rainless climate, like Peru, such deposits give us the celebrated Peru~ 
vian guano, rich in both ammonia and phosphates. In a rainy climate, 
such as prevails in the Caribbean Sea, the ammonia and other soluable 
matters have been washed out, leaving only the insoluble phosphates. 
In such a manner has originated the natural guanos, known as Grand 
Cayman, Redonda, Orchilla, Carib, etc , all coming from islands in the- 
Caribbean Sea. These natural guanos should be used with great care, 
since they are simply phosphates, and not what their name imports: 
“* suanos.” 

In selecting phosphates for use, intelligent farmers, both in Kurope 


and America, give preference to “super,” or “acid phosphates” a fact. 
evidenced by the ever-increasing demand for these goods. 


195 


Potrasu Puat, 


On this plat, the Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid are the constants and 
“the form and quantity of potash the variable. Does this soil need po- 
tash to grow cane? If so, in what form, and in what quantity shall it 
be used? The nitrogen in this plat has been furnished in the form of 
Sulphate of Ammonia and the Phosphoric acid in Acid Phosphate. The 
“potash has been supplied in Kainite, Muriate of Potash, Sulphate of Po- 
tash, Carbonate. of Potash, and Nitrate of Potash. Such quantities of 
each were used as to furnish 25 to 50 pounds of pure potash per acre. 


There were also present the usual Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid. 
These experiments have extended over eight years, and are being con- 
‘tinued. 


So far, no results of any character, either in the increased sugar con- 
tent or tonnage per acre have been visible from the use of any form of 
potash, upon the alluvial lands of the lower Mississippi. Several forms 
of potash, notably the carbonate, and ashes of cotton seed hulls, have 
rather decreased the yield of cane and injured the physical qualities of 
the soil, by causing it to ‘run together.” That this soil should not re- 
quire potash in fertilisers adapted to them is to be anticipated from its 
chemical analysis given elsewhere, which shows an abundance of potash. 
It is further corroborated by the Jmagnificent growth of white clover, 
wild alfalfa, and melilotus officinalis, growing luxuriantly over almost 
every headland, and by the excellent crops of cabbages, red clover, 
alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and cow peas, cultivated more or less exten- 
sively throughout this section. All of these plants are known to require 
large quantities of potash for their best development Where are they 
grown better and more successfully than in the alluvial lands of South 
Louisiana ? 


In New England and the north of Germany, potassic manures are 
‘held in high esteem.(?) The application of potash manure has proven 
a panacea for “clover sickness” on the the soils of Scotland. On soils 
rich in humus, potassic manures are said to release nitrogen, and thus 
give excessive growth to plants grown thereon. This isa familiar oc- 
currence to all farmers in the spots where log heaps have been burned. 
Such spots withstand drought well, since they are better supplied with 
«moisture by capillarity. 


Sourcss oF Porassic MANURES. 


Formerly ashes and green sand marl (Glauconite) furnished all the po- 
tash for commerce and agriculture, but the opening of the Strassfurt and 
Leopoldshal mines of Saxony have furnished the world with every form 
of potash. ‘The following are the products :— 

First-Kainite. a crude product of the mines, containing 12 per cent. 
of potash, and is a mixture of chlorides and sulphates of potash, soda, 
and magnesia. 

Second-Muriate of Potash, a manufactured article containing 50 per 
cent. of pure potash. 


(2) The experiments conducted at the West Indian Experiment Stations lead 
to the conclusion that, under the conditions of the experiments, the use of potash 
.@s a fertiliser is beneficial to sugar canes in the West Indies.—F. W. 


196 


Third-Sulphate of Potash of varying purity, containing 24 per cent.. 
to 50 per cent. of potash, is also a manufactured article. 

From these forms the others, carbonate and nitrate, are manufac- 
tured. 


How sHALL FERTILISERS BE APPLIED ? 


A rational discussion of the properties of each one of the three ingre-- 
dients of commercial fertilisers will enable us to intelligently appreciate 
the proper methods of applying them. Nitrogen, the ingredient most 
desired by cane plants, is the transitory one of commercial fertilisers. It: 
is to-day a gas, forming a part of the atmosphere; tomorrow it is asolid 
in the plant. It is now an ingredient of soil water, and is either ap- 
propriated by plants, fixed by the soil or leached out into springs and 
rivers, to be finally ‘‘ in the dark bosom of the ocean buried,” there to 
be abstracted and appropriated by fish, which in time furnishes pabulum 
for man or manure for plants. The idea of rest or permanence is for- 
eign to the chemistry of this element, as to the atmosphere of which it 
forms so largea part. Therefore, all nitrogenous manures should be 
used with care and caution, especially those which contain actual ammo- 
nia and soluble nitrates. Therefore, in using Nitrate of Soda, it should 
be applied as a top dressing only on the growing crop, and at short in- 
tervals in small quantities. Sulphate of ammonia is also liable to leach- 
ing, but may be lost by excessive use, or application, at an improper 
time. The organic nitrogenous fertilisers mentioned above must be 
gradually oxidized and converted into nitrates as explained elsewhere 
under “ Nitrification,” before they can become available as plant food. 
Soil conditions determine largely the rate at which this nitrification takes 
place, andexcellent tilth with subsequent frequent and shallow cultivation 
favour the rapid decomposition of organic nitrogenous fertilisers. Messrs. 
Lawes and Gilbert have found that cotton seed meal formed, when ap- 
plied to a soil not too dry, aslow but continuous supply of nitrates. 
The oil present perhaps cripples the nitric ferment, and prevents: too 
rapid nitrifaction. As shown elsewhere, nearly all of its nitrogen 18 
available in one season. Dried blood is a quickly acting manure, re- 
quiring only a slight covering in the soil for conversion into available 
plant food. It may even be used as a top dressing. 

Tankage, so far as its content of blood goes, has similar properties. 
The bone and meat portions, particularly the former, are much slower 
of action. Fish scrap acts more slowly, and there is no evidence 
that all its nitrogen ever becomes available. However, in the South, if 
turned too deeply in a warm mellow soil with moderate humidity, the 
results are fairly satisfactory. It cannot be profitably be used eitner as 
a top dressing or when turned too deeply, since in both instances fer- 
mentation is prevented ; nor will it yield good results in early spring 
upon cold, damp, soils, but in warm sunshine it may do excellent ser- 
vice upon both corn and cane. : 

It has been shown elsewhere that soluble phosphates, soon after their 
application to the soil, revert to insoluble forms. It was also shown: 
that before reversion, its solubility rendered its distribution through the 
soil more thorough and uniform, thus securing advantages not obtained. 
by other forms of phosphoric acid. In such soils the roots of crops grow 
regularly, continuously, and rapidly, and not spasmodically and inter-- 


197 


mittently, as when they pass through spaces of soils free from phos- 
phates. Again, these micro-organisms, regarded now as essential to 
soil fertility, and which specially favour fermentations, and which con- 
vert inert plant food into assimilable forms, can prosper only when phos- 
phates everywhere abound. Besides superphosphates are exceedingly 
beneficial to young crops, in hastening them beyond the period when 
they are most susceptible to the attack of parasitical insects. 

Potassic manures are so readily fixed by the double silicates in loams 
and clays that.it is almost impossible to secure their proper dissemina- 
tion through a soil. They are, therefore, asa rule, not to be recommended 
as atop dressing. Properly speaking, they should be applied some 
time before the crop is planted, so that by repeated ploughing and har- 
rowing, they may become well mixed with the soil However, salts of 
potash have different diffusive powers in themselves, which are greatly 
modified by admixture with other manures. Hence, the refinement of 
fertilisation would require that in compounding commercial manures, 
that form of potash should be used which would be increased in diffu- 
sive power by the presence of the forms of nitrogen and phosphoric 
acid used. 


AT WHAT TIME SHOULD FERTILISERS BE APPLIED ? 


From what has been said, it is evident that the separate application 
of each ingredient of commercial fertilisers at such a time and in such 
quantity as the characteristics of the individual soil and crop would 
suggest, would be the most scientific course of procedure. 

Potassic manures could properly be applied several months before 
planting a crop. Super or acid phosphates a little before or at the time 
of planting, while nitrogen should be furnished only to meet the de- 
mands of the growing plants, and then only in such quantities as will 
supply immediate necessities. The above are the suggestions of science, 
but unfortunately, in our present stage of advancement, they cannot be 
rigidly followed. The larger part of the supply of our commercial fer- 
tilisers are manipulated goods containing two or more ingredients, and 
therefore separate applications cannot be followed.(*) 


DEPTH AT WHICH FERTILISERS SHOULD BE PLACED. 


As already seen, potassic fertilisers should never be applied on the 
surface of growing crops, since fixation would occur there and the root- 
lets of plants never find it. It has been found that the more these fer- 
tilisers are diffused through the soil the better the results obtained. 
Depths of two to ten inches is the range of cane roots in an average 
clay soil. Therefore, an application at four to five inches, to be subse- 


(3) It is quite within the power of planters to purchase the potassic, phosphatic 
and nitrogenous constituents of fertilisers separately and to apply them at such 
times as experience shows to be most suitable. Potash and phosphates may be ap- 
plied during the period of preparing the land for plant canes, or, in the case of 
ratoons, soon after the plant canes have been cut. In this way they become well 
incorporated with the soil by the operations of tillage and weeding before great 
root development takes place. The nitrogenous fertilisers can be applied tu the 
growing crop at a later period in small quantities, as top dressings at such times 
as the crop appears to demand an application of assimilated nitrogen, a condition 
which, in the case of the sugar cane, the experienced planter has little difficulty in 
recognizing, 


198 


‘quently mixed by the plough and cultivator, will probably be the best 
depth for all potassic manures. Super or acid phosphates require a 
small depth, but a very extended width, covering, if posible, the entire 
distance to be manured, ‘They should be scattered at a depth of two or 
three inches over the area to be occupied by the roots of plants. 

Nitrates and Salts of Ammonia are always best used as a top dress- 
ing at short intervals, in small quantities. 

Dried Blood requires but little depth, provided moisture necessary 
for conversion into available plant food be present. 

Cotton Seed Meal requires a little more depth than Dried Blood, 
while Tankage, Bones and Fish Scrap must be sunk to deeper depths 
to obtain fermentation necessary to their conversion into soluble plant 
food. 

None of the above should be turned too low, especially in stiff soils, 
since air, moisture and heat are the factors needed in decomposition. 
Here as elsewhere in good agriculture, the judgment of the planter 
must decide, after a thorough acquaintance with his soil. Proper 
depths may vary from two inches in a stiff clay soil to six or eight 
inches in loose sands.(*) 


CONCLUSIONS. 


Shall our manipulated fertilisers, such as Tankage, Cotton Seed Meal 
or complete fertilisers, be applied at the time of planting, or later 
during growth? Shall they be applied broadcast or in drills? Shall 
they be applied in large, or small quantities? Positive replies to these 
questions suitable under all circumstances, cannot be given, and here 
again the farmer must use his judgment after stndying his environ- 
ment. The following will aid him, however, in deciding, Under 


PLANT CANE | 
a small quantity of readily available fertiliser directly under and near 
the cane is highly beneficial, since the double line of rootlets which are 
disposed in concentric rays around the stalk develop simultaneously 
with the bud and feed the young shoot. Experiments given elsewhere 
show the superiority of stalks thus manured over those unfertilised. 
Especially is this true when the seed is more or less ungound. 

Again, the rootlets emerging from the base of the young plant simul- 
taneously with the sucker, finding food at hand, aid greatly in develop 
ing a healthy sucker, and thus give the entire plant a vigorous send off 
in youth. This is especially desirable in Louisiana, where we harvest 
cane after a growth of a few months, and doubly desirable for that cane 
destined for the mill in early fall. 

In Louisiana, cane is planted from September to April. The planter 
should decide from the character of his soil, whether the loss from 
leaching to his nitrogen, during the winter would be greater than the 
benefits to his crop, and act accordingly. The simple question is thus 
presented. Nitrification goes on throughout our entire winters, and if 
some crop is not present to consume the nitrates formed, they will leach 


(4) The practice of placing fertilisers in small holes near to the cane plants, 
e€ommon in some places, is to be condemned, for when such a method is followed 
only the more soluble and diffusible constituents become avai'ab!e for the crop to 
which they are applied. : 


199 


‘more or less, depending upon the character of soil) into the drain- 
age waters, and be lost. Sugar cane grows very little during the win- 
ter, and is, therefore, incapable of utilising much nitrate. Will, there- 
fore, the benefits accruing to the cane be more than counterbalanced by 
the losses from nitrification and subsequent leaching ? 

Again, it may be said that in fall or winter planting of cane, the good 
judgment of the planter must be used in determining whether fertilisers 
shall be simultaneously applied. In spring planting, no doubts exist as to 
the advisability of placing a small quantity of readily available fertiliser 
directly under and near the cane, provided two applications can be made 
—the other in the month of May. If, however, only one application ig 
feasible, let this be made at the time of planting in the spring. It is 
too necessary to give a vigorous start to a young plant, to withhold man- 
ures until you have a stand. (°) Usually the more perfect the incorpo- 
ration of a manure in a soil, the better the results to be expected, and 
therefore, in countries where short seasons and flat culture prevail, 
‘manures are usually broadcasted and thoroughly mixed with the soil 
before planting. Such a procedure here would be reckless in the ex- 
‘treme. ‘The character of our lands and the methods of preparation and 
cultivation, forbid broadcast manuring. The manure must be deposited 
in an open drill. Into this drill it should be broadcasted, and machines 
which deposit fertilisers in continuous rolls should be amended by a 
shaker placed just below each sprout, so as to scatter the fertiliser with- 
in the open furrow. After scattering, the fertilizer should be well 
mixed with the soil by a fluke or double mould broad plough. 

In the spring, after the cane is closely off-barred, the fertiliser, if not 
applied at planting, should be scattered on both sides of the plant, from 
the centre of row to the off-barred furrow. In reversing the furrow, 
‘the manure is covered, and subsequent cultivation will mix the latter 
with the soil If the cane has received the first application at plant- 
ing, the second one should be given in May on both sides of the row, 
-off-barring lightly with a one-horse plough at a distance on each side of 
at least one foot from the centre of the row of plants. 


STUBBLE CANE 


‘Should not be fertilised very long before each sprout has sent out its own 
rootlets, since prior to this no good could be accomplished, and there 
would be a waste of manure. ‘he quantity to be used under both 
plant and stubble cane, has already been discussed. 

Upon a pea fallow, plant cane requires but little nitrogen and goodly 
quantities of phosphoric acid. ‘ney should be used in the proportion 
of at least one of nitrogen to two of phosphori¢ acid. An acid phos- 
phate, containing 14 per cent. of phosphoric acid, mixed with an 
equal quantity of cotton seed meal, will give a mixture containing these 
proportions. On ‘ succession” cane, nitrogen should be largely increased 
for reasons given elsewhere, and may sometimes reach with propriety 
two of nitrogen to one of phosphoric acid. This is very nearly the 


(5) In most parts of the West Indies an effort is made to apply either a green 
-dreasing or an application of pen manure, (farm yard manure,) to the fields during 
the preparation for planting; where this is done a good supply of available plant 
‘food will exist in the soil ready for the nourishment of the young rootlets of the 
O@ne. , 


200 


proportion that these ingredients occupy in good cotton seed meal, hence 
the excellent results obtained by some planters on black land, and with 
succession” cane, by the use of this fertiliser alone. Ordinarily, on 
sandy or medium lands, a mixture of two parts of cotton seed meal and 
one part of acid phosphate will be found most desirable. This same 
mixture will also best serve first year stubble coming from plant cane 
which succeeds a pea fallow. 

In fertilising cane, due regard should be had for the character of the 
soil and its ability to furnish the much needed element, nitrogen, and 
the distance of a crop from a pea fallow. 

Knowing these factors the proportion of nitrogen to phosphoric acid 
must be varied accordingly. extending from one of nitrogen to two of 
phosphoric acid, to two of nitrogen to one of phosphoric acid. 

Cotton Seed Meal has been used in the above calculations, simply be- 
cause it is a most excellent source of nitrogen, and a home product. (°) 
Tankage or any other form may be used for the cotton seed meal, by 
taking enough of the former to replace the nitrogen contained in the 
latter. Potash is not believed to be necessary in manures for cane on 
Louisiana soils. 

A considerable space has been devoted to a discussion of fertilisers, 
because there is no element of farm expense so cheap as the rightly 
compounded manure, especially under cane. 

Under this crop, the right manure not only shows itself in the in- 
creased tonnage of cane and yield of sugar, but in the increased vitality 
of the succeeding stubbles. : 

(To be continued.) 


BANANA MEAL. 


The following information on the difficulty of finding a market for 
Banana Meal is supplied by a local correspondent :— 

Apparently the only chance for success is the possibility of reducing 
the cost of production to such a figure that the banana meal may com- 
pete with flour orcorn meal. This could only happen when the bananas 
were practically waste, e.g. small bunches in the season for bananas, and 
even large bunches when out of season 

“With reference to Banana Meal, there is really no market nor 
outlet for it, and I have been working the thing for all it is worth, 
and have spent about £300 over it, trying to get a satisfactory market, 
but all to no purpose. 

“ Quotations have been made by Messrs. John Haddon & Co., Belve- 
dere House, Salisbury Square, London EC, as being worth about £27 
a ton of 2,240lbs. ex warehouse the docks, London, I have offered to 
supply at those rates. 

“| have sent tons of the meal to various countries all to no purpose — 
as the market seems to want it to compete with wheat or rice. 


(6) The proper use of green dressing and of pen manure, will do much to- 
maintain an adequate supply of nitrogen. j 

Oil crops, such as Castor or Ground nut (Pindar) might be profitably grown in 
most of the West Indian Islands, then a supply of the residual meal would be 
available to planters for fertilising purposes. 


201 


<< All I can manage to sell isa barrel now and then. [I sell at 3d. 
per lb. landed in Kingston. ; 

“The dried banana, as a fig, is a failure, as the vinous fermentation 
sets in so quickly that by the time the fruit has been in England 2 
or 3 months, it is too unsightly to look at the second time, or as my 
London Agents wrote to say. ‘ Its too suggestive.’ 

“T am sorry I cannot give you a brighter account. 

“Mr. Geast, if he could have got the meal in free to the States, would 
have taken all the island could have produced at £30 per ton ex ware- 
house New York. He wanted it for a new kind of beer.” 


JAMAICA SATIN WOOD. 


In the Bulletin for April, 1897, a description of the tree and wood. 
of Satin Wood was given, and later in October, a Market Report on: 
Cabinet Woods gave prices from different localities. 

A query was addressed to Messrs. Churchill and Sim as to the rea- 
son for the difference in quoting price, and tbe following information was 
received :— 

‘In reply to your enquiry about quotations for Satin Wood, we beg 
to say the reason why Jamaica wood is quoted at per ton weight, is that 
the logs shipped from that Island are generally of small sizes —say from 
+ to6or8 inches at the utmost, and they are often shipped in the 
round; whereas from Porto Rice and St Domingo the logs are 
always hewn square, and range from 10 inches and upwards. Wide 
wood of these sizes sell better by measure but the small wood gives the 
best results when sold by weight. For quality, Porto Rico Satin Wood 
is the best, then St. Domingo and then Jamaica. Squared logs of Sat.n 
Wood usually yield from 280 to 300 superficial ft. of 1 inch thick. Lon- 

don Brokers Sale Measure per ton of 2,240lbs. weight, the measure by 
which this wood is sold here is a measure with allowances according to 
the custom of the trade, and is about 20 per cent. less than the actual 
or extreme measure in the log, in Liverpool the Sale Measure is about 
10 per cent. more in Buyers’ favour.” 


PLANTS IN THE GARDENS.* 


ARTABOTRYS ODORATISSIMUS, R.Br.—This is a large woody climber 
with strongly scented yellow flowers, the odour of which is closely 
allied to that of the Jlang-Ilang (Cananga odorata). 

Climbers have many adaptations for attaching themselves to other 
plants, and so rising to the light above. The means by which this plant 
does so is a flower stalk, which bends round and becomes hard and 
wootys forming a strong hook by which it clings fast and climbs up- 
wards, 

It is a native of India, Ceylon, Java and China. (Anonacee.) 


* These can all be obtained on application to the Director. 


402 


Arrocarpus Laxooena, Roxb.— A large tree, nearly allied to the 
‘Bread Fruit and Jack Fruit. It is not so important for its small fruit 
awhich is eaten in curries, as for its wood, which is hard and yellow, 
taking a good polish. A fibre is prepared from the bark, used for 
-gordage. 

It is a native of India and Ceylon. (Urticacee.) 

ARTOCARPUS NOBILIS, Thw.— Another species of the same genus, also 
a large tree. The seeds ‘are roasted and eaten. The wood is used for 
furniture and canoes, as in A. Lakoocha. 

It isa native of Ceylon. (Urticacew.) 


BAUHINIA VARIEGATA, Linn.—A_ small shrubby tree with deciduous 
‘leaves and very ornamental large flowers, which vary greatly in colour 
from ‘white variegated with yellowish green to rose variegated with 
crimson, cream-colour and purple. Bauhinia candida is a white variety. 

It is native of India and China, but is common in Jamaica. 

The bark is described by Watt as “alterative, tonic, and astringent, 
useful in scrofula, skin diseases and ulcers.” It is also used in dyeing 
and tanning. ‘The root in decoction is given in dyspepsia and flatu- 
lency ; the flowers with sugar as a gentle laxative.” (Leguminose.) 


BAUHINIA MEGALANDRA, Griseb., is another tree of the same genus, a 
native of some of the W. Indian Islands. It is one of the trees known 
as Mountain Ebony, but the wood of the Bauhinias, though tough and 
hard, is too small to be of much value. 


Bavuinta Vani, W. & A. is an enormous climber, doing in this 
way damage to forest trees in India. but it is very useful, as the strong 
fibre of the bark is made into ropes. 


CARAPA GUIANENSIS, Aubl. The Carapa tree of Guiana grows toa 
height of 60 to 80 feet. The timber is light, having a specific gravity 
of 0.608, but it takes a good polish, and is used for making furniture ; 
also employed for shingles, and for masts and spars of ships. The bark 
is astringent, is used for tanning, and medicinally as a febrifuge. The 
large, round fruit contains several oily seeds, from which is obtained a 
lamp oil. It also grows in Brazil and some of the West Indian 
Islands.—(Meliacee.) 


CoUROUPITA GUIANENSIS, Aubl., the Cannon Ball Tree, so-called from 
‘the size and shape of the fruit. The pulp is of a pleasant flavour, 
-and the hard, wooden shells are used as drinking vessels, &c. The 

flowers ars large, whitish or rose coloured, forming clusters on the trunk 

-and branches, The stamens are remarkable; they cover a ring round 
the centre of the flower; this ring is expanded on one side , the expan- 
gion is as broad as the ring, flat, and gradually turns over the centre, 
forming there a semi-globular hood, concealing the ovary, and covered 
on its inner surface also with stamens, which alone are fertile.—Lecy- 
thidee ; Myrtaceae. 


Ttospyros piscoLor, Willd,, the Mabola tree, is one of the woods af- 
fording Ebony. It isa native of the Phillipines The fruit, called 
Mzbola, is edible.—(Ebenacee.) 

Prerocarpus Draco, Linn. This is a native Dragons Blood Tree. 
“When an incision is made in the bark, drops of red sap ooze out, which 


2038 


flow slowly down the bark and gradually harden. This was formerly ex- 
ported from Cartagena to Spain as “Sangre de Dragon.” It does not- 
however agree in composition or properties with the dragon’s blood from. 
the East Indies. It should be classed as a kino, and if found in suffi- 
cient quantity, might be used medicinally. (See Bulletin, August, 1895). 

The tree has compound leaves, somewhat like the common cedar,. 
yellow pea-like flowers, half an inch long, and a flat, rounded pod, con- 
taining one seed.— (Leguminose). 


SAN JOSE SCALE INSECT. 


A plant-pest known under the above name has recently attracted a- 
good deal of attention in the United States and Canada, as well as in: 
England and on the Continent. A special Bulletin has been issued 
on the subject by the United States Department of Agriculture.* 
The original home of this scale (Aspidiotus permiciosus) is at present 
unknown. It was observed in an epidemic form in the San Jose 
Valley in California, about 1870. Since then it has rapidly spread in 
every direction in the United States. The seriousness of its attacks 
may be gathered from the following extract :— 

‘There is perhaps, no insect capable of causing greater damage to 
fruit interests in the United States, or perhaps the world, than the 
San Jose, or pernicious scale. It is not striking in appearance, and 
might often remain unrecognized, or at least misunderstood, and yet 
so steadily and relentlessly does it spread over practically all deciduous 
fruit trees—trunk, limbs, foliage, and fruit—that it is only a question 
of two or three years before the death of the plant attacked is brought 
about, and the possibility of injury, which from experience with other 
scale enemies of deciduous plants, might be easily ignored or thought 
insignificant, is soon startlingly demonstrated. Its importance from 
an economic standpoint, is vastly increased by the ease with which it 
is distributed over wide districts through the agency of nursery stock 
and the marketing of fruit, and the extreme difficulty of exterminating 
it where once introduced, presenting, as it does in the last regard, 
difficulties not found with any other scale insect.” (l.c. pp. 9-10.) 

Aspidiotus perniciosus belongs to the sub-family Diaspine of the 
Coccide. It is a small soft insect which secretes a scale separate from 
itself much like the shell of an oyster. This scale is very minute, 
round, flattened, and in the case of the male is “ grayish, hardly black 
with a light dot and ring.” 

The illustration reproduced in the Gardener’s Chronicle (Feb. 12, 
1898, p. 1038, figs. 37-40) will afford some idea of the appearance of 
the insect. In fig. 37 it is on a Californian pear and of the natural 
size. 

Outside the United States the insect is known to occur in Australia, 
Chile and Hawaii. It is now spread throughout the States of Cali- 


* The San Jose Scale: its occurrence in the United States, with a full account 
of its life history and the remedies to be used againstit. By L. O. Howard and C. 
L. Marlatt. Bulletin No. 3. New Series. United States Department of Agri- 
culture. Division of Entomology. With a map and numerous woodcuts, [ Wash- 
ington. Government Printing Office, 1896, | 


204 


fornia, Oregon and Washington, reaching British Columbia during the 
last few years. It has extended southward to Nevada, Arizona and 
New Mexico. In the Eastern States its occurence has in many cases 
been traced to two large New Jersey nurseries “ from which infested 
plants had unwittingly been sent out for certainly six or seven years.” 
The Southern States, such as Louisiana and Florida, appear also to be 
infected, but so far not to the same extent as the Western States. 
Altogether “the San Jose scale has in a few years gained a foothold in 
no less than fourteen States east of the Rocky Mountains. Its latitu- 
dinal range extends from 28° S. lat:, to 50° N. lat. 

As regards the plants attacked, it is stated that, “ practically all 
deciduous fruit trees are subject” to its attacks; also “many shade 
treesand ornamental shrubs. The pear, peach ,plum, apple and cherry are 
almost equally liable to injury”; also currant and gooseberry bushes. 

All parts of the plants become eventually covered, giving them the 
appearance of a “ grayish, very slightly roughened, scurfy deposit.” 

Various methods are suggested as remedies and preventives. A lime- 
sulphur wash is said to be used during the dormant season as a winter 
application ; a resin wash both as a winter and summer wash, chiefly 
the former; while a kerosine emulsion is used in the summer only. 
In addition, there is the hydrocyanic gas treatment applied to nursery 
stock. In all cases of recent attack, and this is of special interest in 
this country, “the affected stock should be promptly uprooted and 
burned. No measure is so sure as this; andsthe danger of spreading is 
so great that this course seems fully warranted.” | 

As precautionary measures the United States Department of Agri- 
culture suggest the following :— 

No orchardist should admit a single young fruit tree or a single 
cutting from a distance into his orchard without first carefully exam- 
ining it and satisfying himself conclusively that it does not carry a 
single specimen of the San Jose scale; he should insist also on a 

uarantee from the nurseryman of such freedom. In addition, no fruit 
should be brought upon the premises wlthout previous careful inspec- 
tion.” (Lc. p. 66.) 

As wasnaturally to beexpected, all Huropean countries receiving vege- 
table production, such as fruit, &c., from the United States have been 
keenly anxious not to introduce so serious a pest as the San Jose scale 
into their nurseries or orchards. 

As far as England is concerned, according to an extract pub- 
lished in the Gardener’s Chronicle of March 19, 1898, ‘‘ Mr. Newstead, 
an authority on scale insects, is satisfied that the insect has not yet 
established itself in this countay, either upon fruit trees or cultivated 
plants of any kind, whether grown in the open air or under glass, or 
upon indigenous plants.” How long this immunity will last it is diffi- 
cult to say. 

In the meantime, according to a letter to the Times, from Berlin, 
dated February 3, an order has been issued by the German Govern- 
ment to control, by careful inspection, importation of all fresh fruit 
from America, When the same is discovered to be infected with the 
San Jose scale it is at once refused. The importation of windfalls, 
packing material and plants is entirely forbidden. 
~ La Semaine Horticole for May 7, states, however, that “ L’entrée des 


205 


fruits dAmerique est prohibée en Allemagne, au moins temporaire- 
ment.” 

According to the Revue Horticole for May 16, “Le gouvernement 
hollandais a interdit pour quatre mois l’entrée des arbres et arbustes, 
fruits frais ou secs, de provénance americaine. . . . . De son 
edte, le conseil fédéral suisse vient de prononcer la méme interdiction.” 

The contiguity of the Dominion of Canada to the United States, and 
the consequent greater danger of infection with which it is threatened, 
has led to the passing of a law by the Canadian Parliament prohibit- 
ing the entry of all nursery stock from the States. It regards an 
effective inspection of such stock as impossible. Hence the prohibition 
is absolute as in the case of Germany. 

The following correspondence, communicated to Kew by the 
Secretary of State for the Colonies, indicates the strong position taken 
up by the Dominion Government in endeavouring to deal with the 
subject :— 


CoLonrAL Orrcre to Roya Garpens, Kew. 
Dowing Street, 
May 6, 1898. 
‘Sir, 

I am directed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to 
transmit to you, for your information, a copy of a despatch which has 
been received from the Governor-General of Canada with its enclosures, 
.on the subject of the Canadian law prohibiting the importation of 
nursery stock from the United States entitled the ‘San Jose Scale 
Act.” 

I am, &e., 
_ (Signed) Epwarp WINGFIELD, 
The Director, 
Royal Gardens, Kew. 


Lorp ABERDEEN to Sir JULIAN PAUNCEFOTE. 


Ottawa, 
April 9, 1898, 
Stir, 

Wir reference to Your Excellency’s despatch No. 42 of the 
28th ultimo on the subject of an Act recently passed by the Parlia- 
ment of Canada, prohibiting the importation of nursery stock from the 
United States, I have the honour to enclose herewith copy of an ap- 
proved minute of the Privy Council explaining the considerations 
which led to the enactment of this measure and representing that 
present circumstances do not admit of any modification of its pro- 
visions. 


I have, &c., 
(Signed) ABERDEEN, 


His Excellency Sir Julian Pauncefote, G.C.B., 
&e., &e. 


206 


(ENCLOSURE). 


Exrracr from a report of the Committee of the Honourable th® 
Privy Council, approved by His Excellency on the 7th April, 1893. 

The Committee of the Privy Council, have had under consideration. 
a paraphrase of a despatch Secret of March 28, 1898, and a despatch 
dated March 28, 1898, from Sir Julian Pauncefote, Her Majesty’s 
Ambassador to the United States, intimating that some modification in 
the recent law prohibiting nursery stock from the United States is-- 
urged by the State Department of that country, owing to the disas- 
trous effect on the interests of American dealers whose contracts are to 
be filled. 

The Minister of Agriculture, to whom the said despitches were refer- 
red, states that the very serious depredation caused by the ravages of 
the San Jose scale in the United States of America, induced Canada, in 
self protection, to take immediate and extreme measures to prevent the 
introduction of the pest into the Dominion. 

The Minister further states that 32 of the States of the Union as well 
as the District of Columbia are now known to be infected with this pest 
and that so alarmed are the authorities of the different States at the in- 
crease of this insect, which is acknowledged to be by far the worst enemy 
of trees which has ever been studied by entomologists, that many of the 
States are now for this reason actually passing legislation as drastic as 
possible in their circumstances, with the object of preventing the ship- 
ment of infested stock from State to State. } 

The Minister submits that, in the opinion of all entomologists who 
have studied the subject, inspection is insufficient ; the Dominion ento- 
mologist claims that thorough inspection is impossible. 

The Minister observes that the following sentence appears in the latest 
publication on the subject by the United States’ Entomologist, Bulletin 
12, New Series, United States Department of Agriculture, page 25: 

“ The insufficiency of inspection certificates has been insisted upon 
again and again.” 

The Minister further states that the San Jose scale has been found at 
a few localitiesin the province of Ontario, in one of the most important 
fruit growing districts of the Dominion. 

That the Provincial Government of Ontario recognizing the serious 
nature of this pest, has passed legislation with a view to its eradication, 
which is confidently believed will soon he accomplished if no further in- 
troduction of the pest from abroad occurs. 

That so important was immediate action for the protection of Cana- 
da’s most important fruit industry, and so numerous were demands from 
fruit growers, fruit growers’ associations, and others in all fruit growing 
sections of the Dominion, that the members of both Houses of Parlia- 
ment, upon the introduction of the Bill, suspended the rules of the 
Houses and passed the Bill at once. 

That this was done with the full knowledge that a number of Cana- 
dians would suffer in consequence of the sudden prohibition of all nur- 
sery stock, they having been agents for the distribution of this stock 
and in many cases having been paid for it in advance. 

That the results of the Act were referred to on a subsequent date in 
the House of Commons, and the Members evinced a strong determina- 


207 


aa not to recede in any particular from their action in passing the 
ill. 

The Minister, under the circumstances, is unable to recommend that 
for the present any modification be made to the provisions of the “ San 
Jose Scale Act.” 

The Committee of the Privy Council, on the recommendation of the 
Minister of Agriculture, advise that Your Excellency be pleased to sub- 
mit an answer, in the sense of this Minute, to His Excellency Her Ma- 
jesty’s Ambassador to the United States. 

All which is respectfully submitted for Your Excellency’s approval. 


(Signed) Joun J. McGuez, 
Clerk of the Privy Council. 
(Kew Bulletin.) 


NOTES ON EXTRACT OF GINGER. 
By T. H. W. Inpris. 


Tt is well known that alcoholic extract of ginger, commercially 
known as “ gingerine,” does not contain all the aromatic principles of 
the root, as most of the essential oil is carried over the recovered 
alcohol. 

In the course of experiments to produce extract of ginger that would 
contain the whole of the flavouring and odorous principle, it was found 
that acetone was the most suitable solvent, boiling as it does at 56° C. 
and being miscible with water in ail proportions. The apparatus used 
consists of a modification of a Soxhlet on a manufacturing scale. If 
some powdered ginger be exhausted in a Soxhlet with acetone, and 
afterwards with alcohol, we find that the whole of the aromatic and 
pungent principles have been removed by the acetone, showing that it 
compares favourably with alcohol as a solvent. The acetone extract 
does not appear to have lost any of its volatile oil in the process of re- 
covery, as is so markedly the case when using alcohol, whilethe last trace 
of acetone is easily removed by agitation with a little water. This ace- 
tone extract is a dark-brown substance of a treacly consistency, inten- 
sely pungent and at the same time possessing a full ginger aroma, the 
quality of which largely depends on the variety of ginger used. 

It is readily soluble in alcohol, forming a deep brown liquid. If 
steam be passed through the extract and then condensed, it carries 
over a quantity of the volatile oil with it. This oil floats on the 
surface of the condensed water, forming a yellow layer, and can be 
easily removed. ‘The difference in aroma of the various kinds of 
ginger though noticeable enough when examining the rhizome, is 
much more apparent when dealing with the oils themselves, and in 
this way a method of distinguishing the variety of ginger used is 
obtained. ‘The various tinctures and essences of ginger may be very 
conveniently and readily prepared from this extract without the usual 
loss of alcohol, and syrup may be flavoured with it by proper diffusion 
at a suitable temperature without the use of any spirit, and a further 
saving may be thus effected in manufacturing ginger-flavoured 
beverages.— (American Journal of Pharmaey). 


208 


FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—LIV. 


Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja- 
maica. By G. S. Jenman, Superintendent, Botanical Garden, 
Demerara. 


2. Danea stenophylla, Kze.—Stipites 10-18 in. 1, erect, slightly scaly 
throughout, joints usually 3 ; fronds pinnate, 10 - 15 in. L, 5 - 8 in. w., 
somewhat narrowed both at top and bottom; naked ora few minute 
scales at the base of the ribs beneath; dark-green above, very light 
beneath, pinnee spreading, consisting of a terminal and nine to a dozen 
lateral ones, which are 3-4in.1, $rd in. w., shortly stipitate, and 
cuneate rounded unequal and deeper on the upper side, at the base, the 
apex acute acuminate or cuspidate; margins sharply serrated in the 
outer part, but plain their greater length ; rachis slender, light coloured 
beneath, slightly scaly, margined at the top; veins close and fine, 
spreading almost horizontally, forked at varying points from the base 
outwards: fertile fronds reduced, the pinne 14 - 24in1, 3-41. w., 
stipites longer and jointed. 


Plentiful in moist stony forests at 5,000 ft., altitude. More nearly 
allied to alata than any other Jamaica species, but from which the 
terminal pinna, which is rather larger than the rest, rachis not winged 
except at the top and jointed stem of the fertile frond clearly distin- 
guish it. The pinnz too are longer and more acuminate. Sometimes 
the fertile are as long as the sterile. | 


3. D. elliptica, Smith.—Rootstock erect ;_ stipites czespitose, erect, a 
span to a foot |. slightly furfuraceous or, at length, naked, with 2 - 4 
nodes; fronds erect or spreading, # - 1 ft. 1, and nearly as much w., 
composed of 3 - 5 pair of lateral spreading pinne and a similar termi- 
nal one which are cuneate or rounded and shortly stipitate at the base, 
the apex acute, acuminate or cuspidate, 5- 7 in. 1. 1 - 14 in. w, or 
rather over, dark or light green, with a few minute scales on the ribs 
beneath ; chartaceous, margins plain within, the outer part freely or 
faintly crenulate ; veins nearly horizontal ; mostly forked from the base ; 
fertile fronds similar, but reduced ; on longer stipites, with 2 - 4 nodes 
Hook & Grev. Icon. t. 51. 


a var. major.—Rootstock erect, fronds larger, with 5 - 7 pinne to a 
side ; 3 - 4 nodes to the stipes ; velms more open. 


b var. repens.—Rootstock prostrate or repent; nodes 1 - 2; pinne 
4-6 toa side. 


In moist forests, often very plentiful especially in Manchester, St. 
Elizabeth and Clarendon. The larger states of this approach nodosa 
closely in size and number of pinne, but are readily distinguishable by 
the nodes in the petioles. Their number varies in the different varie- 
ties, but they are never entirely absent. Having examined in the 
forests a very large number of plants, though the extremes are distinct 
enough, this character of the absence or presence of nodes seems to me 
the only certain character to rely upon for determimining the two 


species. 


209 


4, D. nodosa, Smith—Stipites erect, strong, 1 - 4 or 2 ft. 1, without 
nodes, furfuracous ; fronds 14 - 24 or 3 ft. L., 1 - 14 ft.w.; pinne 6 - 12 
or more, spreading, stipitate and rounded or cuneate and often unequal 
sided at the base, the apex acute cuspidate or acuminate, 6 - 10 in. 1. 
1 - 2 in., w., very variable in shape ; margins usually plain within, the 
outer part crenulate, sometimes serrate at the point, often somewhat 
repand ; surfaces nearly or quite naked; rachis slightly furfuraceous ; 
veins exceedingly fine and close, simple or forked ; fertile fronds simi- 
lar, but the pinne narrower.—Hook. and Grev. Icon. t. 51. 


Frequent in moist woods among the lower hills and widely distributed. 
Usually a large and robust species but variable in the number size and 
form of the pinnz. In all states however it may be recognised from 
elliptica by having no nodes in the petioles. 


Sus-Orper IIT, Ophioglossacee. 


Sporangia globose, plain and destitute of a ring or crown, opening 
transversely to the base (bi-valved), or by a lateral vertical slit, biserial 
or clustered, free or connate in flattened spikes which are simply pin- 
nate or paniculate ; rootstock epigeous ; vernation straight; fronds her- 
baceous, small or medium sized, the respective fertile and barren divi- 
sions entire, pinnate or decompound ; vernation reticulated or free. 

This sub-order differs from the two preceding by the vernation or 
evolution of the fronds being straight instead of coiled and crosier-like. 
It consists of the three small genera, one of which is ugually regarded 
as monotypic; the other two having six to a dozen species each. The 
former ranges from India to Australia while the distribution of the lat- 
ter two is general through the temperate and tropical regions of both 
hemispheres. The rootstock is in all cases permanent, but even in the 
tropics, In some instances the fronds which are naked, membranous or 
fleshy, are annual and die after a few months duration. 

Sporangia united in simple linear spikes; fronds simple, forked 
or palmate; veins reticulated. 


1. Ophioglossum. 
Sporangia free in compound panicles ; fronds compound ; veins free. 


2. Botrychium. 


Genus I. Ophioglossum, Linn. 


Sporangia united laterally, splitting transversely at maturity, 
biserial on flattened linear spikes which are 4-2 in. 1., petiolaet 
solitary, or several, shortly or long-petiolate, springing from the 
common stem, at the base of the leaf-blade ; leaf-blade simple, forked 
or palmate ; membraneous; veins reticulated ; rootstock small, fleshy 
and sometimes subtuberous. 


This is asmall genus of about a dozen species, many of which 
vary, and are perplexing to define the limits of. The majority are 
terrestrial, and grown in open places, such as meadows or highland 


210 


moors. Some prefer wet situations, and the sides of rivers where they 
are regularly inundated. Two or. three tropical species are epiphytal 
and grow on trees. They are distributed throughout the temperate 
and tropical regions of the world and are about equally divided between 
both hemispheres. 


Plants terrestrial: fronds entire; spikes single, erect. 
1. O. nudicaule. 


2. O. vulgatum. 
3. O. reticulatum. 


Plants epiphytal ; fronds palmate: spikes several, pendent. 
4, O. palmatum. 


1. O. nudicaule, Linn, fil—Rootstock small, descending sheathed 
with brown scales; stipites slender, erect 4-2 in. l.; leaf-blade erect 
oblong or ovate-oblong, 1-3 in. 1, 4-1 in. w., shortiy and equally 
pointed at apex and base, thinly membranous ; veins copiously areolated, 
the larger series containing a smaller, a distinct vein forming a slender 
midrib spike single, slender, $}-14 in. 1, on a slender erect petiole 1-3 
in. 1, continuous with the stipe—Hat. Fer. N. Am. pl. 81. O. 
sarinamense, Reich. 


Variable in size. A much more slender plant than the two 
following, with uniformly ovate-oblong leaf-blades, which are the same 
form at each end, and slightly pointed. It is generally dispersed from 
the Southern United States to Brasil. 


2. O. vulgatum, Linn.—Rootstock as thick as cord, creeping under 
ground, producing buds at intervals which throw out roots and leaves ; 
stipes 1-2 or 3 in.1., erect; leaf-blade 4rd. 1 in. each way, subovate, 
but variable in shape, acute pointed, the sides rounded at the base and 
suddenly contracted and shortly extended into the petiole, but not dis- 
tinctly cordate ; firmly membranous: veins copiously reticulated, with 
more slender divaricating venules or finer meshes within the larger 
areolae, no midrib; spike single, springing erect from the top of the 
stipe at the base of the leaf-blade, $rd—? in. 1, on a stem 1-2 or 3 in. 
].,—Hook. Brit. Ferns. t. 46. Hat. Fer. N. Am. pl. 81. 


Abundant, forming extensive patches often several feet wide, on 
open slopes and ridges at 5,000 ft. altitude and higher; mature in 
December and January. This is found in the same habitats as 
Botrychkium ternatum, under bracken on open moorland. The fronds 
are one or two from each bud-stock. Distinguished from reticulatum, 
to which it approaches nearer in the form of the leaf-blade than to 
nudicaule, by the large patches which it forms, the smaller size, firmer 
texture, and leaf-blades not cordate at the base. : 


The creeping horizontal cord-like rootstocks form a close net-work 
two or three inches deep under ground, and when the plants are pulled 
up by hand only the small thickened bud-stock is obtained ; the former 
must be dug up with some sharp instrument. Ata lower elevation 
plants are found intermediate between this and reticulatum. 


211 


3. O. reticulatum, Linn.—Rootstock small, incased in brown sheath- 
like scales, emitting numerous fleshy spreading roots; stipes erect, 
2-4 or 6 in. l., broadened gradually at the top; leaf-blade sessile, or 
with a short petiole-like base, sub-ovate and acute at the top, or orbi- 
cular reniform, fully cordate at the base, often deeply, with rounded 
auricules, or subcordate-cuneate, thin and membranous when dry; 
veins visible, copiously areolated, the larger meshes containing fine 
ones, no midrib; spike single, 1—2 in. 1., on a petiole 3-6 in. 1., which 
is erect, and continuous with the stipe. Pl. Fil. t. 164. Hook. and 
Grev. Icon. t. 20. 


Frequent from the lower hills up to 3,000 or 4,000 ft. alt., occupy- 
ing grass-banks, meadows and similar places. The leaf-blade varies 
from suborbicular, the outer part rounded and the base deeply cordate 
with rounded lobes, to subovate, the outer part acutely pointed, the 
base less distinctly cordate, and tapering in the centre haft-like, but is 
much longer. 


4. O. palmatum, Linn.—Rootstock short, fleshy, the crown clothed 
with pale dense tomentum ; stipites 14-2 li. thick, 4-1 ft. 1. leaf-blades 
pendent, 4-1 ft. each way, V or W-shaped, palmate, the base cuneate, 
the sides curved and entire, deeply cut from the front towards the 
base into 2-4 or 5 lobes, which are 4-8 in. |. 1-24 in. w., tapering out- 
wards to the point ; texture flaccid, fleshy, but membranous when dry ; 
forming copious oblong hexagonal areolae, which are directed from the 
base outwards; spikes 3-6, or, perhaps, more, pendent, at short inter- 
vals along the top of the stipites, or rarely on the sides of the base of 
the leaves, 1-14 or 2 in. 1, on petioles + or 4 in. 1—PIl. Fil. t. 163. 
Hat. Fer. N, Am. pl. 81. Cheiroglossa, Presl. 

Infrequent, on trees in moist forests or overhanging rivers, from the 
lowest to nearly the highest elevations (6,000 ft). A peculiar and 
beautiful plant. The plants from the high mountain forests are 
coarser than those from the lower habitats. It grows in peat formed 
of the rootfibres of other plants, and often in a mass of several indi- 
viduals together, sometimes in company with Vittaria stipitata. 
The fronds are three or four or more to each plant. The range is pro- 
bably general as I have gathered it in most of the eastern parishes, 
and west as far as Manchester and St. Elizabeth. 


Genus Il. Botrychium, Swarts. 


Capsules free and apart, globose, splitting when ripe to the base, 
biserial on short flattened spikes; fertile and barren divisions of the 
fronds alike pinnate, or more or less decompound; veins free; stipites 
da from a membranous sheath, which crowns the fleshy root- 
stock. 

There are about eight or a dozen species in this genus, which vary 
in character as do those of the preceding, and follow, likewise, gene- 
rally, the same geographical distribution. In one form or other all 
but two or three are found on the American continent, though only 
the two following penetrate the tropical limits, and are there confined 
to temperate elevated regions. Both are deciduous, the fronds dying 
away when growth is matured. | 

Fertile division springing from near the base of the petiole. 


212 


1. B. ternatum, 
Fertile division springing from the top of the petiole. 
2. B. virginianum. 


1. B. ternatum, Swartz; stipites erect, 1-4 in. 1., leaf-blade ternate 
in a small state, regularly pinnate in a large, subdeltoid, biquadripin- 
natifid, 2-6 in. 1. nearly twice as broad, naked, firmly herbaceous; pin- 
nz and pinnulae petioled equal on both sides, the former shaped like 
the whole leaf, ultimate segments 14-5 li. b. rounded on the outer mar- 
gin and finely toothed ; rachis, costae, &c., flat, membrane-margined in 
the outer part; veins forked, very oblique, pinnate spreading ; panicle 
shaped and divided much like the leaf-blade 1-5 in. |. and b., greatly 
overtopping the leaf, on a petiole 6-8 in. 1.—PIl. Fil. t. 159. Eat. Fer. 
N. Am. pl. 20. 

Common on open moors and slopes, often, or perhaps chiefly, under 
bracken (Pteris aquilina), at 5,000 to 6,000 ft. altitude, mature in De- 
cember and January. Normally this is a much smaller species than 
the next, but it is sometimes found with fronds (produced without the 
fertile division) that are a span long and much more broad. They 
completely contrast however in their features. The broadly rounded 
segment of the leaf, and fertile division springing from the base of the 
petiole, are sufficient characters to mention to distinguish this. 


2. B. virginianum, Swartz—Stipe erect, 4-1 ft. 1.; leaf-blade mem- 
branous, naked, subdeltoid, 5-9 in. |. more broad, triquadripinnatifid, 
the parts regularly pinnatiform, pinne spreading or erecto-spreading, 
lowest pair largest, petioled, acuminate; pinnulae similar in shape, 
more or less decurrent at the base, pinnatifid to the winged costulae ; 
tertiary segments 3-5 li. 1. 14-24 li. b., acute, lobed or toothed, largest 
finalsegments a line or less w. and d. ; rachis winged in the upper part, 
and costae nearly or quite to the base; veins simple or forked, pinnate 
in the more entire segments ; panicle similarly shaped and divided, 3-5 
in. each way, on a petiole 4-6 in. l., not much overtopping the leaf- 
blade.—PI. Fil. t. 159. Hook. Gard. Ferns t. 29. Eat. Fer. N. Am. 


pl. 33. 

Common in forests at 4,000-6,000 ft. altitude; mature in March and 
April. The usually larger size, acurninate and more finely cut divi- 
sions, and their texture, distinguish this at sight from the preceding. 
There are two fronds to each plant, one without and the other with 
the fertile division. As ¢ernatum is confined to open situations, so 
this is confined to deep forest shade. In both the fronds perish after 


fruiting. 


215 


CONTRIBUTONS AND ADDITIONS TO THE 
DEPARTMENT. 


LIBRARY. 


Botanical Magazine. Sept. [Purchased.] 
British Trade Journal. Sept. [Editor.] 
Chemist & Druggist. Aug. 13, 20,27. Sept. 3. [Editor.] 
Garden. Aug. 13, 20,27. Sept 3. [Purchased. ] 
Journal of Botany. Sept. [Purchased.] 
Nature. Aug. 11,18,25. Sept.1. [Purchased. ] 
Pharmaceutical Journal. Aug. 13, 20,27. Sept 3. [Editor.] 
Produce World. Sept. [Editor.] 
Sugar Cane. Sept. [Editor.] 
W. Indian & Com. Advertiser. Sept. [Editor. ] 
Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. Aug. 16, 23,30. Sept 6. [Kditor.] 
Notizblat, Berlin Gardens. Sept. [Director. | 
Konigl. Botanische Gart. und Museum, Berlin. 1897-98. [ Director. ] 
Plantae novae Glaziovianae. II. Prof. Urban. [Author.] 
Tropenpflanzer. Sept. [Hditor. | 
Extra-Bei!age Tropenpflanzer. Liberia-Kaffee. [Kditor. | 
Agricultural Ledger 1898. No. 1. Calcutta. [Lieut. Governor Bengal. ] 
Madras Agr.-Hor. Soc. Annual Meeting, Jan.-Mar., 1897. [Secretary.] 
Times of Ceylon. July 27. Aug. 4,11,18. [Editor.] 
Tropical Agriculturist. Aug. [Purchased.] 
Proefstation East Java. Inhoud ed Index van Mededeiling, 1-49. 1893-98. 
[ Director. | 
Proefstation E. & W. Java. Levenswijze en Bestrijding der Boorders. [Director.] 
Agricultural Gazette, N. 8. Wales. June. [Dept. of Agr.] 
Report Bot. Gardens and Domains, N.S. Wales. 1897. [Director.] 
Queensland Agr. Journal. Aug. [Secy. Agr.] 
Sugar Journal, Queensland. [Editor. 
Agr. Journal. Capeof Good Hope. July 21. Aug. 4. [Agr. Dept.] 
Central African Times, June 24. [Kditor.] 
Mauritius Revue Agricole. July 15 & 30. [Editor.] 
Journal Jamaica Agricultural Society. Sept. [Editor.] 
Report Connecticut Agr. Exp. Station. 1897. 
R. Com. Agr. Depression. J. Lawes & J. H. Gilbert. [Rothamsted Com. ] 
Valuation of Manures obtained by the consumption of foods for the production 
of milk. By J. Lawes & J. H. Gilbert. (Extract). Jowrnal R. Agri. Soc. Eng. 
IX. i. 1898. [Rothamsted Committee. | 
Sugar beet in the United Kingdom. J. Lawes & J. H. Gilbert, (Extract) Journ. 
R. A. 8S. E., 1X. ii. [Rothamsted Com. ] 
Rothamsted Experiments, Origin, Plans & Results. By J. H. Gilbert. [Roth- 
amsted Com. 
Do. Plans and Tables. [Rothamsted Committee. | 
Report Govt. Botanical Gards. Saharanpur & Arnigadh. 1898. [Govt. N.W.P.] 
Report Govt. Horticultural Gards. Lucknow 1898. [Govt. N.W.P.] 
Publications of the following Agricultural Experiment Stations U. S. A. 
[ Directors. | 
Arkansas. Utah, 
North Dakota. Tennessee. 
Rhode Island. 
Winter Wheat Ontario Coll. & Farm. [Minister of Agr. ] 
Report Dept. of Agriculture, Canada, 1897. [Director. | 
Report Missouri Bot. Garden. [ Director. | 
Montreal Pharmaceutical Journal. Sept. [Editor.] 
Report U. S. National Museum. 1895. [Direetor.] 
Botanical Gazette. Sept. [Editor.] 
Field Columbian Museum. Publications 24 & 25. [Director F. C. M.] 
Ontario Bureau of Industries. Bulletin LXVII. [Dept of Agr.] 
Proc, & Trans. Nova Scotia Institute of Science, 1896-97. [Librarian.] 


214 


Torrey Bot. Club Bulletin. Sept. [EHditor.] 
Boletim Museum Paraense, Brasil. June. [Director.] 
Hawaiian Planter’s Monthly. August: [Editor.] 


SEEDS. 


From Supt. R. Botanic Gardens, Trinidad. 
Livistona Jenkensiana. 


From Dr. Franceschi, Acclimatizing Association, California. 


Tabebiua Donnelsmithii. 
« sp. probably rosea. 


PLANTS. 


From Mrs. Zeledon, San Jose, Costa Rica. 

Cattleya Dowiana. 

Stanhopea sp. 

Oncidium sp. 

W oops. 

From Dutton Trench, Esq. 

Red Wood. 

Blind Eye or Yucca. 

Cacoon Withe. 

Mosquito Wood. 

Red Wood. 

Wild Orange. 


HERBARIUM SPECIMENS. 

From Dutton Trench, Esq. 

Blind tye or Yucca. 

Mosquitoxylum jamaieense. 

Red Wood. 
From G. A. Douet, Esq. 

Acacia tortuosa. 

Canella alba. 


[Issued 19th October, 1898. 


— EEE 


New Series.] «OCTOBER, 1898. Vol. V. 
Part 10. 


- BULLETIN 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA. 


——_ -—-- —se-5-s—_ ——_-—- 


EDITED BY 
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS. 


Direetor of Public Gardens and Plantations. 


Bao | CONTENTS: 


4 Agriculture of the Sugar Cane—IV_. Pace” - 215 
! Entomological Notes | 293 
Co-operative Farming | | 997 
Ferns: Synoptical List—LV : 230 
Contributions and Additions 237 


P RIC E—Threepence. 


A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident wm Jamaica, who will send N 
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P. 0. Ae 


AOD eh ab Chit Val tT Vel cT Yah Yah Cn Ye 


KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING Orrice, 79 Duke SrrRezr, 


1898. 


Y 


JAMAICA. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


New Series. ] OCTOBER, 1898. Wel. om 


—————— 


AGRICULTURE OF THE SUGAR CANE.—IV. 


Extracts from “Sugar Cane, Vol. 1.” by Dr. Wittiam Srusss, 
Director of the Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station. 


Edited by Francis Watts, Government Chemist Jamaica. 


CULTIVATION OF CANE. 


In previous chapters, detailed instructions have been given for the 
preparation of the soil, and the planting of the cane. If every operation 
has been performed carefully, the early spring will find the planter 
working hard to secure a stand. If his cane has been planted in the 
fall of winter, the early spring will find the young shoots struggling to 
penetrate the three or more inches of dirt with which the cane was 
covered in the fall to protect it against the winter’s cold. The earliest 
work is to remove this excessive dirt, and permit an early and rapid 
germination of the cane. To this end, two furrows on each side of the 
row are reversed, and the extra dirt on the top of the cane removed 
with hoes. In practice, the hoes “find” the embedded cane and leave 
only a thin layer of dirt, well pulverised above them. By this treatment 
the canes, if good, are soon warmed into a vigorous germination, and 
continuous stands are soon visible on every row. Some planters “scrape” 
their canes before off-barring with the plough, preferring to maintain 
the established winter drainage through high ridges and quarter drains, 
until the approach of the usually dry weather of spring. Cane planted 
in the spring is not so deeply covered, and frequently gives a stand 
without the aid of off-barring and scraping. However, the efforts of 
the planter are mainly directed in early spring to the securement of a 
stand of cane, and his judgment, disciplined by experience, will fre- 
quently suggest the best methods to be pursued to attain this important 
end. 


Having secured a stand of cane, many planters concentrate their next 
efforts to the encouragement of suckers, which develop with great rapidity 


Part 10, 


216 


during May and June. Others pay but little attention to the encourage-- 


ment of suckers, feeling assured that this natural process will go unaided. 


and begin at once the work of fertilisation and cultivation. Ifthe cane 
has not been fertilised at planting, the first application should now be™ 
made before the furrows are returned to the cane and the middles- 
“‘bursted out.” In applying the fertiliser, which is usually placed on: 


both sides of the row in the open furrow made by the two-horse plough, 
great care should be exercised to see that it is well distributed across 
the narrow ridge of cane and throughout the open furrows. The pro- 


per distribution of fertilisers at this stage of the growth of cane may 


well be styled “ broadcasting in the drills,” and the latter should not be 
too deep, else some of the fertiliser may never become available. At 
this stage in the cultivation of the crop, many planters use the subsoil 


plough before returning the dirt to the cane. On either side of the 


narrow ridge on which the young canes stand, in the open furrow made 
by the two- horse plough, the subsoil plough is drawn by four mules, to 
the depth of six to ten inches. 


The advantages of this subsoiling are not always clearly apparent... 


Before the invention of good pulverising turn ploughs, subsoiling was 
quite fashionable. ‘To-day it is used in but few localities. | Upon our 


alluvial soils, where drainage is of such prime importance, and in our 


climate of heavy summer rainfalls, subsoiling must be practised with 
judgment and skill, else injury to soil and crops may result. It is safer 
and perhaps better, to precede the cane crop with deep tap-rooted legu- 
minous plants, and let them do the subsoiling. After the fertilisers 
have been applied and the subsoiling (where practised) performed, the 
soil is returned to the cane, and the middles broken out with a large 


double mould board plough, and quarter drains opened, Emphasis is- 


laid upon the importance of cleaning quarter drains immediately after 
each cultivation, since a heavy rainfall, flooding even temporarily the 


field ut this period of the growth of the cane, may inflict an injury upon. 


the soil which may last through the season and materially lower the 


yield of the cane. Not only the tilth, for which all the previous operations - 


of ploughing, etc, have been conducted for the purpose of establishing, 
will be destroyed, but the bacteria upon, whose activity the plant relies 
for food, will be literally drowned by the million and time will be 
required for their restoration. Many cultivations will also be necessary 
before the conditions known as “ tilth” will be re-established. 


Having returned the soil to the cane and split out the middles, the 
process of cultivation begins. It has not been very long since the 
two-horse and four-horse ploughs were the only implements used in 
cultivating cane in this State. Within the last ten or fifteen years the 
cultivator has been introduced, and to-day may be found on nearly 
every plantation. Many varieties are used, covering the double shovel, 
solid, and sectional disc patents. Since the cane rows are usually six 


to seven feet wide, these cultivators cannot reach more than three to- 


four feet around the cane. Hence, the middles of the rows are worked 
with the two-horse and four-horse turn ploughs, or with the double 
mould board plough. A few planters still prefer the turn ploughs for 
all the operations of cultivation, and use them continuously for “ off 
barring and throwing back the dirt,” until the cane is laid by. The 


ee 


217 


first plan of combined cultivator and plough is partly mght and partly 
wrong; the second one wholly wrong. 


Experiments in different methods of cultivation conductel at the 
Sngar Experiment Station through several years have shown that the 
exclusive use of cultivators has annually increased ‘the yield of cane 
over ten tons per acre, and the sugar product 700 pounds. The follow- 
ing is an outline of the method pursued, from the preparation of land 
to the lay-by of the cane. ‘ne land is broken “flush” with a large 
plough (now use the Disc Plough), pulveris:d with a harrow, and 
bedded with two-horse ploughs. The rows are opened with a double 
mould board plough, cane planted and covered, and the middles broken 
out with the double mould board plough. The quarter-drains are 
opened six inches below the middles of the rows, and ditches cleaned. 
At the proper time the cane is off-barred with two-horse ploughs, 
scraped with hoes, and when large enough is fertilised by scattering the 
mixture across the open furrows and narrow ridge of cane. ‘The dirt. 
is returned as soon as fertiliser is applied, the middles broken out deep 
and clean, and the turn ploughs sent to the barn to remain until the 
next season. The disc cultivator with the three small discs on each 
side, is used for throwing dirt to the cane at the first working, and the 
middle, or diamond cultivator for breaking out the middles. In the 
sccond and third cultivations, two middle discs replace the three used 
in the first and are set at such an angle as to throw the desired amount 
of dirt to the cane, and is followed each time by the middle cultivator, 
thus completing the work with the two implements. At lay-by, the 
large, or “‘lay-by,” discs are used, followed by the middle cultivator, 
with its two front shovels removed. By proper adjustment of the two 
instruments, ridges of any desired height can be made and the cane 
properly laid by. | 

Some contend that insufficient dirt is thrown to the cane for the 
preservation of the stubble. In reply, the station would point toa 
most excellent stand of three-year-old stubble now growing on its 
grounds, which has been thus treated from planting, four years 
ago. (1.) 

The rationale of this inethod will be apparent by a discussion of the 
principles underlying general cultivation of crops; and our soils and 
crops should not be exceptions. 


If the work of preparation has been performed as described in a 
previous chapter, subsequent planting and cultivation are easy processes. 
If badly done, then subsequent cultivation is not, properly speaking, 
cultivation at all, but efforts in the direction of securing that tilth 
which a good preparation would have insured. An excellent prepara- 
tion always secures tilth, and after cultivation should be simply a 
maintenance of this tilth. 


Some of our readers may desire a definition of tilth. In reply, we would 


(1.) With the cheap labour of the West Indies, there has been but little 
tendency to resort to weeding and tilling by means of implements. ‘The methods 
of planting are better adapted to the use of the hoe than of draught implements. 
More attention might be given profitably to the use of implements.—F.W.; 


218 


say that the word involves two principles, viz.: first, the maintenance 
of such conditions as will promote the most rapid and beneficial 
chemical changes in the soil, and second, the conservation of the 
proper amount of moisture. 


The chemical changes in a soil are most complex. Formerly the soil 
was regarded as dead inert matter, totally devoid of life, and until 
recently there was no suspicion of living organisms within it, except 
the plants that emerged therefrom. But the up-to-date agriculturist 
now knows that every well cultivated and fertile soil is penetrated with 
living beings, in fact a living mass of matter. ‘The mineral part of the 
soil is to-day regarded as the environment of living organisms, from 
which the latter may draw a part of its sustenance. While air, water, 
and mineral matter furnish the materials of plant growth, they must 
all be digested before they can be assimilated. The mineral matter of 
every soil must suffer complete disintegration before assimilation, and 
the only forces so far known capable of accomplishing this work are 
the secretions of the plants, the vital activity of rootlets, organic acids, 
and the influence of soil ferments or micro-organisms. It is well 
known that soil ferments are intimately associated with the rootlets of 
some plants, and hence the leguminous plants are selected for soil 
improvement. Hundreds of micro-organisms exist in every fertile 
soil; some are useful to vegetation, some are noxious. In butter 
making, it has been found that certain bacteria ripen cream, while 
others prevent, and the former are now specially prepared on a large 
scale in the laboratory of the chemist and furnished as bacteria No. 41 
to the butter makers of the world. Soin the soil it has been discovered 
that organisms favourable to the preparation of plant food are accom- 
panied by others nearly allied, whose chief function is to destroy the 
work performed by the former. The object, then of science is to 
discover some process by which the former may be multiplied and the 
latter destroyed. Accompanying the ferments already mentioned, are 
sometimes found others of a pathogenic nature Hpidemics among men 
and animals are frequently due to germs which preserve their vitality 
in the soil, and passing with plant structure, or into wells or springs, 
are thus conveyed to animals and men, producing disease. Typhoid 
fever, lockjaw, charbon, cholera, and by many malaria, now better 
styled “‘malaqua,” are believed to be thus propagated The recent 
spread of charbon throughout the alluvial section of Louisiana, 
emphasized this fact. Every effort should be made to prevent infect- 
ing the soil with the germs of any zymotic disease. Oremation of dead 
carcasses, and the dejecta of living patients, are the best preventives. 
Health officials in cities have therefore wisely prohibited the use of 
sewage for agricultural purposes. 


The attention of bacteriologists has been devoted almost exclusively 
to the study of nitrifying organisms of the soil, and these only in their 
relation to the collection and preparation of nitrogen as plant food. 
It is believed, however, by some, that all plant food of every character 
is the work of micro-organisms within the soil. The relatively high 
price for nitrogen (or ammonia) in our fertilisers has been the cause of 
the patient investigation of bacteriologists along the exclusive line of 
nitrifying and denitrifying germs. Nitrogen is the most costly in- 


219 


gredient of plant food. It is the most fugitive. Our largest supply 
comes mainly from organic matter which by a process of oxidation 
through the work of organisms, is converted into nitric acid. The 
salts of nitric acids, are extremely soluble, and if not utilised at once by 
growing plants, are washed out by heavy rains. Hence,a gradual 
development of nitric acid during the period of growth of plants, and 
the process by which this oxidation is accomplished, is called “ nitrifica- 
tion.” This oxidation is going on in every fertile soil, and when stopped, 
even though the soil be rich in vegetable matter containing nitrogen, 
the plants thereon must also stop growth. 


The nitro-bacteria taking part in complete nitrification are of three 
distinct types of genera: First those which convert nitrogenous mutter 
into ammonia. Second, those which convert ammonia into nitrous acid. 
Third, these which convert nitrous acid into nitric acid. Each are 
- necessary to the complete transformation of nitrogenous matter into 
nitric acid, the form of nitrogen chiefly available as plant food. A 
complete demonstration of this transformation can be made in any 
laboratory by analyses of samples of the same soil, after the lapse of a 
month, the one sterilised and the other not. The unsterilised soil will 
always give the largest amounts of nitric acid. These ferments work. 
together synchronously, each one waiting on the other. 


It is the aim of every cultivator to maintain his fields in conditions. 
most favourable to the development of these soil ferments, upon whose 
activity the abundunce of his harvests so intimately depends. W hat 
are these conditions ? 


1. They are the most numerous and active near the surface, dimin- 
ishing in quantity and vitality as one descends. Hence, surface culti- 
vation required for all crops for maximum reeults. 


2 Aération—an abundance of air needed The necessity of deep 
preparation or breaking of land to insure thorough aération of soil. 


3. A high temperature. The maximum activity is developed be- 
tween 85 degrees and 100 degrees. We all know how rapidly plants. 
grow when both days and nights are warm, and how they are checked 
by a fall of temperature. 


4. The absence of light. While parts of plants above the ground 
require sunlight for their functional full activity, these soil ferments 
diminish in activity to the vanishing point as the sunlight intensifies. 
Hence shading the ground in any way enables them to work nearer the 
surface, and warm nights are more favourable to their development 
than warm days Hence many plants make phenomenal growth dur- 
ing warm nights. 


d. A certain amount of moisture. Excessive moisture must be re- 
moved by drainage, since it excludes air needed for nitrification, yet a 
certain amount is indispensable to these ferments. For the most rapid 
work, experience has shown that from one-third to one-half of the 
capacity of the soil is the proper amount. 


_ 6. Since the final action of these organisms results in nitric acid, it 
is necessary that there be present in the soil some base which can neu- 
tralize it and prevent its accumulation in the soil; killing the ferments 


220 


and injuring the growing plants. Some lands will produce neither 
ferments nor crops, while limestone lands are everywhere very fertile. 
Hence, small quantities of lime or some other base, are essential to nitri- 
fication. 


7. The most essential condition of all, the presence in the soil of some 
organic matter containing nitrogen, Ifthe soil be deficient in this, it 
must be artificially supplied in some form, stable manure, cotton seed 
and meal, dried blood, tish scrap. etc. The use of stable manure and 
compost as a manure is doubly valuable. They not only supply directly 
the plant food, but nitrifying organisms of a particularly vizorous 
character in great numbers, and the latter, when incorporated with the 
soil, together with their progeny, exercise their activity upon the inert 
nitrogen of the soil, when the more nitrifiable portions of the manure 
are exhaus'ed. Hence, stable manure and compost produce fertilising 
results beyond what was expected from the quantity of plant food con- 
tained therein. Even our poorest soils are tound by chemical analyses 
to contain plant food amply sufficient for remunerative crops, and this 
addition of “ferments” by the compost renders much of it available. 
It may be asked here whether much of the infertility of some of our 
soils may not be due to the ubsence of these fermeuts and, if so. cannot 
they be supplied? In reply, I say, certainly Different soils vary 
greatly in the quantity and vitality of these ferments, and frequently 
good results have followed the thin sprinkling of a rich garden loam 
over a poor field. ‘This has been frequently done on reclaimed swamp 
lands, rich in vegetable matter, sterilised by long inundation A dose 
of lime anda small quantity of ferment scattered over them, have 
quickly converted them into fertile s: ils. 


But science has gone further and prepared the way commercially for 
another class of fertilisers which are now on the market. Professor 
Nobbe, Director of the Experiment Station at Tharandt. Saxony, is 
now preparing for the m»rket “ pure cultivation of the bacteria.” The 
preparations consist of ‘colonies of the bacteria on agar gelatine enclosed 
in sealed bottles, each one of which contains organisms enough for half 
an acre of land.” These preparations are diluted in water, and sprinkled 
over the soil, or over the seed to be sown, or diluted in water and then 
mixed with about fifty pounds of the soil, and the mixture scattered 
over the land. He has named the preparations from the roots of 
seventeen different legumes, “ Nitragin,” and thev are for sale on the 
market. 


Besides producing nitric acid from organic matter through nitric 
ferments, the leguminous plants, particularly our own cow pea and some 
cryptogams, have through the colonies of bacteria which infect their 
roots, the power of converting free nitrogen of the air into plant food, 
and it is also believed that other organisms which are capable of oxidiz- 
ing free nitrogen of the air, exist in soils that are devoid of organic 
nitrogen. 

As I have remarked, these beneficial bacteria are accompanied by 
ferments inimical to agriculture; e.g., a ferment has been discovered 
which will decompose nitric acid, and has been styled “ denitrifying 
ferment.” A study of this ferment has developed the gratifying fact 


221 


‘thas under favourable circumstances they are not propagated in such 
~numbers as to prove destructive. From the above it can readily be 
seen how cultivation tends to maintain the conditions for rapid nitri- 
‘fication. 


Many beneficial effects of cultivation can now be easily explained. 
We cultivate shallow because such a process not only prevents destruc- 
tion of roots of the plants, an evil always to be avoided, but also because 
nitrification takes place in the upper layers of the soil, and by the act 
of cultivation the ferment is well scattered. Again, the temperature 
_at which fermentation is most active is about 90 degrees to 100 degrees, 
and this temperature obtains in the upper layers of the goil. The 
action of the ferment is suspended at or about 50 degrees on the one 
hand, and 150 degrees on the other. It is destroyed by high heat and 
electricity ; hence, when lightning strikes a soil, nothing will grow 
‘where it struck for some time afterward. The presence in small quan- 
tities, of lime, highly favours nitrification. Moisture in excessive 
quantities excludes the air and suspends the vital activities of the fer- 
ment; hence the necessity of drainage. The absence of moisture is 
equally as objectionable, and here the second object of cultivation pro- 
motes the first. 


From these considerations it will be seen that frequent cultivations, 
provided no roots are cut, are favourable to rapid nitrification. Soils 
cultivated daily produce better than the same soils cultivated weekly, 
and the latter better than those cultivated less frequently. (*) 


Besides the beneficial effects of rapid nitrification, other chemical 
changes of great practical value are induced by shallow and frequent 
cultivation. The soil is a great laboratory, and the chemical changes 
-taking place there are complex and continuous, and frequent stirrings 
-accelerate these changes and give increased available plant food. One 
practice must be emphasized here as both wise and expedient, ice., of 
breaking the crust after every rain to let in fresh portions of air and to 
gid nitrification, but under no circumstances should it be done while 
soil is wet, since this destroys, rather than aids, the ferment. 


The second object in cultivation is to conserve the moisture. On the 
approach of a drought, cultivators should be run very shallow and 
almost continuously. In this way the thin layer of earth removed from 
the great mass of soil is laid as a mulch on the surface, and the con- 
tinuous upward movement of the water through the soil into the air, 
is checked just below the surface, and the roots of the plants can then 
appropriate it. The continuity of capillary pores is broken, and the 
-water therefore passing into the air is arrested just below the surface, 
-and is conserved for the use of the plant. Hence, cultivate continuously 
‘in dry weather. One other point: finely divided soils have the power 
(varying according to character from 15 to 23 per cent.) of absorbing 
hygroscopic moisture from the air, a not insignificant property in a 


(2.) Hence the constant weeding with the hoe, as carried out so largely in the 
“West Indies, exercises beneficial results beyond the mere removal of weeds. The 
surface soil being gently stirred, nitrification is accelerated, and at the same time 
moisture is conserved by the loosened conditions of the surface soil_—F. W. 


222 


prolonged drought with heavy dews at night. These are the reasons’ 
why we cultivate. With these reasons before us, the question may be 
asked, which best promotes the above changes and conditions, the culti- 
vator which stirs only to limited depths and never inverts? or the 
plough which runs six to twelve inches deep, completely inverting the 
soil and frequently burying plant foods and ferments beyond resurrec- 
tion for the growing crop? ‘The plain and candid reply, is, the culti- 
vator. Again, but little stress has been laid upon the damage done the 
cane by the frequent cutting of its roots by the turn ploughs, a damage 
often fatal to good crops, and recognised in the adage among our older 
planters “that the cane never grew until it was laid by.” 


It is almost impossible to estimate correctly the annual damage to 
the cane crop of this State by the use of turn ploughs in its cultivation. 
Happily the custom is fast disappearing, and the presence of the middle 
cultivator on our market, and its trial by many planters this year, gives . 
promise of an early adoption of cultivators alone, as implements suitable 
for the cultivation of cane. (*) 


The element of cost in the use of plough and cultivator has been left to- 
the last ; because scientific and practical reasons were convincing with- 
out it. But in this day of strong competition between the new and the 
rapidly developing beet sugar industry and the ancient, but seriously 
imperiled, sugar cane plenting and manufacturing, every possible 
economy will be practised. Only by the adoption of the most improved 
and economical methods can the tropical sugar cane be maintained in 
the race with beets. 

A comparison of the cost of cultivating a thousand acres with the 
plough and with the cultivator, will show an enormous balance in favour 
of the latter. With two good cultivators and four strong mules, from 
four to ten acres (depending on width of row) of cane can be completely 
cultivated in a day, whereas, with ploughs two or three acres per day 
are reckoned goodly amounts. Again, hoeing, now such an expensive 
factor in the growing of a crop of cane, can be greatly reduced if not 
entirely eliminated (after scraping the cane) by the proper and rapid 
use of cultivators. 

So strong are all the reasons, scientifically, practically and financially, 
for the substitution of cultivators for plough in the growing of sugar 
cane, that the assertion is made that all planters will ultimately use 
them, ‘if not to-day, they will to-morrow.” 


CULTIVATION OF THE STUBBLE. 


Of prime necessity for securing a good stand of stubble is the burning 
of the trash as early after the cane is harvested as possible. The 
advantages of burning have been given elsewhere and need not be 
repeated here. After burning, provided the drainage is good, the cane 
rows should remain high and dry during the winter and ready for off- 
barring early in February. This latter operation is usually performed’ 
with two or four horse turn ploughs, the stubbles being left on a narrow’ 


(3) Dr. Stubbs remarks must here be taken as applying to cultivation of grow-- 
ing canes and not to the preparation of the land for planting.—F. W. 


223 


ridge. Formerly the stubbles were dug with grubbing hoes down to 


the mother cane and left shaking in the breeze. Happily this custom 
has very generally disappeared and is now supplanted by the use of an 
implement called the stubble digger, which is-run several times over 
the stubbles loosening and pulverising the earth, admitting air and 
heat and causing early germination in the buds. The stubble digger. 
when properly operated, is a most effective and economical implement. 
The rapidity with which it may be operated, covering ten to fourteen 
acres per day, coupled with the good work performed, makes the cost 
of digging stubbles very small compared with the old grubbing hoe 
method. Improperly handled, especially upon very old stubblea, injury 


may result from its use. Upon old ratoons on the station, it would 


occasionally pull up a stubble in spite of our best efforts, to prevent, 
thus injuring a future stand. However, the amount so injured 
especially upon first year stubble, is small and insignificant beside the 
great saving of cost in the work performed. (*) 


(4.) The methods of dealing with the stubble, or ratoon canes, will naturally 
differ in a country like Louisiana which has a definite winter, from the methods 


followed in the tropics where growth in continuous and efforts are made to secure: 


an early and rapid spring of ratoons.—F.W. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES. 


By J. HE. Duerven, Curator of the Museum of the Institute of Jamaica.- 


Tur Army WorM IN St. ANN. 


The following communication was received by the Director of Public 
Gardens : — 


Richmond Estate, 


Laughlands, P.O. 
8th August, 1898. 


By to-day’s post I send you 4 specimens of caterpillars that are destroying canes: 
on this estate. You some time ago advised green dressing of “Cow Peas.” I 
sent to America for two bushels which I planted in two fields of young plant canes. 
They bore abundantly, but to-day I noticed in one field in which the peas are not 
yet reaped, that about three acres of canes were completely eaten by caterpillars 
and there are hundreds of the kind sent on the canes. I fear | have introduced, 
with the peas, another insect pest. Can you advise me what todo? Please let 
Mr. Duerden see them. Unless stopped at once they will destroy the whole piece, 
as they evidently are increasing rapidly. The peas are not touched. I have been 
15 years a planter and have never seen canes atracked in this way. 


I have put on children to pick them off and destroy them and I am having the 
piece well cleaned, and the peas reaped. I shall be grateful for any advice you 
cal give me. 


Yours faithfully, 
Freep. L. Ciark. 


Mr. Fawcett accordingly forwarded Mr. Clark’s letter along with the™ 


specimens of caterpillars to the Museum. Upon examination the latter 
proved themselves to be closely allied to, if not absolutely identical 


224 


vith, the well known “ Army Worm,” Leucania untpuncta, of America. 
The same caterpillar was the cause of considerable damage to guinea 
grass pastures last year, more especially on the south side of the island, 
numerous communications appeared in the press and were received at 
the Museum in reference tothe matter. The present, however, is the 
first occasion on which complaints have been received this year. On 
exhibiting the specimens at a meeting of the Board of the Agricultural 
Society, it was affirmed by several of the members that the caterpillar 
is still present, though in much reduced numbers, in many of the 
localities affected last year. It is therefore necessary that attention 
should still be jdirected to the pest to prevent if possible its further 
excessive increase. 


The Army Worm has been the subject of much consideration in 
America, where occasionally it develops in vast numbers, and causes 
great damage from place to place. The “ Army” habit is assumed 
when the caterpillars occur in such numbers as to exhaust the supply 
.of food in the field in which they hatch; they then begin to crawl 
along the ground in almost solid masses towards adjacent fields. 


The caterpillar is found to be most destructive in seasons following 
years of unusual drought, and this condition was certainly exemplified 
in the case of Jamaica last year; the proper seasonal rains occurred 
after an intermission of two or three years had given rise to a most 
serious want of water. Again the Army Worm is found to be seldom 
injurious in a given locality for two successive summers. 

W hen an outbreak is first noticed, and if confined to a limited area, it 

is generally worth while to cut down the grass infested. The worms 
will remain beneath its shelter for two or three days, and as soon as 
the cut grass is dry enough it should be burned, thus destroying the 
pests and preventing the invasion of neighbouring fields. It is difficult 
to apply any remedies which will save a field already infested. The 
worms may be destroyed by spraying them with strong kerosene 
emulsion; and when in vast numbers the construction of barriers, 
ditches, or furrows has to be resorted to in order to prevent their 
‘migration. 


In a later communication Mr. Clark states that it was impossible to 
burn his piece of land infested, as the canes were young plants, just 
growing. He had, however, all the peas reaped and the field thoroughly 
cleaned and irrigated, and then put ona gang of children to pick off 
the caterpillars and destroy them. He writes that the field now seems 
iree of them and is recovering from the attack. 


Any similar occurrence elsewhere should be made known at once, 
when proper remedial measures can be indicated. It is also very 
desirable to obtain specimens of the adult moth, so that its specific 
determination can be carried out. 


A BrancH-euttTinc BEETLE. 


Examples of fallen brauches of various kinds of trees are often 
brought to the Museum one end indicating that the branch has been 
amputated by some gnawing or cutting action. In several instances a 


225 


-gtout, dark brown, longicorn Beetle has been found associated with the 
‘branches. In all cases the appearance is the same: the branch has 

been gnawed away in a circular somewhat rounded manner almost to 
‘the middle, and has then broken off by its own weight. Branches of 
_ over an inch in diameter have been severed in this way. 


Mr. John Cooper. Giddy Hall, St. Elizabeth. some time ago brought 
a branch of Casuarina in which this had been carried out. Mr. Arthur 
George bas contributed similar specimens from the cotton tree, Erto- 
dendron anfractuosum,, and from the Congo Pea, Cajanus indicus. 

Specimens of the beetle and the branches were sent to Pr. L. O. 
Howard, Chief of the United States Depurtment of Agriculture, and 
he has very kindly replied as follows: 


“‘T have your letter of the 10th of December and the very interesting 
specimen of a Longicorn beetle and of its work. There is no doubt that 
the beetle is the cause of this amputation of the branches, as is indi- 
cated not only by its specific name, but by earlier references to the 
literature. My assistantin Coleoptera. Mr. E. A. Schwarz, determines 
it as Oncideres amputator, Fabr. ‘Che original descriptions make use 
_of the following words: “ Habitat in Americe insulis ramos etiam 
crassiores abscindere dicitur” Fabricius, (Entom System. 1, 2, p. 276). 
‘The larva is described and figured by W. Kirby (Trans. Linn. Soc., 
XIII, 1821, p. 604; tab. 2u, figs. 1-4). I am glad to receive the 
specimens, which will be deposited in the U.S National Museum. We 
have in the United States four congeneric species, which have precisely 
the same habit. but they are smaller insects and confine their attacks 
‘to very much smaller twigs. 


I am, &c. 
L. O. Howarp.” 


Other specimens in the Institute’s Museum, such as Lagochirus 
araneiformis, wre closely allied to the Oncideres amputator, and no 
doubt have the same destructive action on trees. It does not seem 
likely, however, that the loss of branches ever becomes so great as to 
be regarded in a serious light by the agriculturist. 


STINK-BUGS ATTACKING THE IRIsH Porato. 


A short time ago Mr. J. G. Stewart, Westphalia, Guava Ridge P. O. 
wrote as follows of some insect attacking his Irish Potatoes :--I have 
planted some Irish Potatoes and they are just growing. Last week 
when I went to inspect the field I found these insects swarming upon 
nearly all the plants. . Whenever the insects swarm in this way the 
plants always fade away and die.” 


On examination of the specimens accompanying the letter showed 
- them to be one of the stink-bugs. They were kindly identified by Mr. 
W. H. Ashmead, of the United States National Museum, as Spartocera 
-batatas, Fabr., who also states that it is a well known pest of the potato. 
The stink-bugs belong to the order Hemiptera, which includes many 


226 


well known insect pests, such as the true bugs, lice, aphides or plant 


lice, and scale insects. They all gain their livelihood by piercing and. 


sucking the sap of plants or the blood of other insects, their jaws form- 
ing a special sucking beak. In the stink-bug family the insect has a 


nauseous taste and odour, the latter being caused by a fluid excreted 


through two openings situated near the attachment of the middle pair 
of legs. 

Spartocera batatas, Fabr. is a member of the family Coreidz and is 
closely allied to the squash-bug, Anasa tristis, well known as a pest in. 
America. The present species is a dark brown insect with bright yellow 


spots around its posterior lateral margin, and is about three quarters of 


an inch in length. The earlier stages of development display the 
bright yellow spots more distinctly than the adult. Both in the larval 
and adult condition the insect is to be feared, as by sucking the sap of 
plants they soon cause the death of the latter. 

The remedies recommended for such insects as suck their food are the 
contact insecticides, kerosine emulsion or whale-oil soap. Where these 
can not be applied, it will be found best to institute a thorough picking 
of all the insects. They are large enough to be readily seen and handled 
and are sluggish in their habits. All the rubbish should be cleared off 
the ground and burnt. 


Tue Sweet PoragTo. 


Mr. J. V. Calder, Malvern, St. Elizabeth, has forwarded to the Agri- 
cultural Society samples of badly diseased tubers of the sweet potato, 


Ipomea batatas. ‘The tubers are found to be tunnelled throughout by 


a small footless grub or larva, about a quarter of an inch in length, 
while here and there are specimens of the quiescent pupal stage, and 
also of a Curculionid beetle. Examples of the larve have been kept 
and develop into the weevil. This is dark blue, metallic looking, spin- 
dle-shaped behind, narrow and brownish in the middle, and the head 
terminates in a long beak. From all accounts the disease extends over 
a wide area, and the damage caused by the grub is very considerable. 
At the United States National Museum, the weevil has been deter- 
mined by Mr. W. H. Ashmead as Cylas formicarius, Fabr. Mr. 


Ashmead further adds that the species is a well-known pest of the 


potato and was imported from India, and is now found infesting the 
sweet potato in Florida and Louisiana. 


It is very necessary that steps should be at once taken in Jamaica to 


check or thoroughly eradicate this pest of one of our important articles- 


of tood. The tubers are quite useless as food when infested with the 
grub. It is strongly recommended that all diseased tubers should be 
at once burnt, or in some way destroyed, so that no possibility remains 
of the larve attaining the adult condition and so continuing the species ; 


all rubbish on the ground should also be burnt to destroy whatever live” 


weevils may be hiding amongst it. 

Further, a rotation of non-tuberous plants, such as corn or cane, 
sheuld be grown in order that the ground may become thoroughly clean. 
A somewhat similar disease amongst the sweet potatoes is known in the 
other West Indian Islands, and the rotation of crops has proved a most 
effectual remedy. 


————————— 


227 
CO-OPERATIVE FARMING IN GERMANY. 


A Consular Report on this subject, says the London Standard, has 
‘lately been issued by the Foreign Office, bringing into strong relief the 
auses which have enabled German so much more successfully than 

British agriculture to fight against depression. Some of those burdens 
which press so heavily on our home industry are unknown in Germany, 
while at the same time her farmers have enjoyed the benefit of Pro- 
ection, which, however mischievous in its general effects, undoubtedly 
answers its purpose in the case of those for whom it is primarily in- 
tended. The Report has been received from Mr T. R Mulvany, our 
Consul at Diisseldorf, and is drawn up by an expert, Mr. F. Koenig, 
who is said to be specially well qualified for the purpose. They agree 
in attributing the most salutary effects to fair freights and moderate 
Protection. But Mr. Koenig brings together a great mass of evidence 
to show that other causes have contributed very largely to the same 
result, though he does not go so far as to say that these alone, without 
the other two, would have enabled the German farmer to prosper as 
he does. 


State aid in Germany has been carried out on a scale wholly unknown 
in England. The State has founded Agricultural Colleges at many 
of the old Universites—at Berlin, Gottingen, Leipsic, Halle, Munich, 
and Bonn, among others; and where there are no Colleges there is a 
Chair of Agriculture, with Professors to lecture on the subject. Thus 
an amount of scientific knowledge has been disseminated among the 
German farmers which has qualified them to cope “‘ with the dishonesty 
of dealers in cake, meal, seed, and mineral manures ; has taught them 
how to feed their stock so as to produce either meat, milk, or muscle; 
and what quantites of nitrogen, phosphates, and potash a crop needs, 
and which must be replaced.” Our expert assumes that the British 
farmer is deficient in this kind of knowledge. If so, it is a pity, since 
he can buy all mineral manures, cakes, and meal much more cheaply 
than his Continental rivals. While plenty of scientific agricultural 
knowledge exists in England, we fear that it is not diffused, but sticks 
fast somewhere among the capitalists. It is not, however, only the 
Agricultural Colleges at the Universities to which our attention is 
directed. By means of schools established all over Germany, and 
maintained or subsidised by the State, agricultural science is brought 
home to the peasant farmer. In Wurtemburg there is a special school 
for the training of farmers’ sons. There are dairy and farriery schools. 
“One of the greatest of German institutions is the State Experimental 
Stations, established for the purpose of making experiments of all 
kinds, and for testing fodder, manure, seeds, &c., for farmers, at quite 
a nominal fee. There are some private establishments of the same 
kind, but the greater part are subsidised by the State. Even local 
Chambers of Agriculture receive State assistance, and travelling agri- 
cultural lecturers are also supported by Government. But the Report 
attributes even more to the principle of co-operation than to State edu- 
cation. ‘ Co-operation is the German farmer’s stronghold and bulwark, 
and he means to stand by it.” It is of various kinds. There are co- 
operative Credit Banks, the working of which is fully explained in the 


228 


Report, co-operative dairies, co-operative steam ploughs, and co-opera~ 
tive drainage and irrigation. “Co-operation,” says Mr. Koenig again... 
“has proved to be the key to success in Germany, and has saved many 
thousands of farmers from ruin.” 


The Banks conducted on this principle enable farmers to obtain loans 
on personal security only, the collective guarantee of all the members. 
or depositors being considered sufficient. ‘ Wealthy banking firms 
and rich capitalists were all willing enough to lend money on real 
estate if sufficient security was forthcoming; but personal credit is: 
what German farmers wanted. It is indispensable to buy stock, mineral 
manures, cake, meal, seeds, tools, machinery, and to pay wages — in short, 
to run the business. All the Union requires is the co-operative guarantee 
of the members of the Co-operative Society, a body of men of recognised 
standing.” As all the members are personally acquainted with one 
another, the risk is next to nothing. That the system is a sound one - 
seems to be proved by the results of the audit. In February, 1897, the - 
auditors reported that of 649 Banksin Wurtemberg, 450 were thoroughly 
satisfactory, 192 were satisfactory with room for improvement, and only 
seven wereunsound. In Germany,the Government, by having the man- 
agement of the railwaysin their hands. are able to arrange an equitable 
system of freightage, while, thanks totheco-operative principle, the far- 
mer “can avail himself of the lowest freights on all the materials he re- 
quires, and on all products sent to market, by loading in quantities of - 
at least one ton.” Under this system preferential rates are in Ger- 
many “an immense advantage to the farmer, whereas in England they 
are dead against him, the advantages there being reaped by his foreign 
competitor.” Mr. Koenig is surprised that this state of things should. 
continue to exist in England, and also that English farmers do not 
form Co-operative Banks. 


How much longer this ancient industry will retein its position, even 
in Germany, seems a little uncertain. It is already beginning to yield 
to time and fate and the competition of the New World. A large pro- 
portion of the soil is in the hands of peasant proprietors : some of it 1s 
let as in England: anda considerable extent, the property of the 
nobility, is farmed by the owners. The proprietor cultivates his estate: 
with the labour of the peasantry, who are practically ascripti gleba, re- 
ceiving only a small modicum of wages in cash, and the rest in kind, . 
being boarded and lodged at the landlord’s expense. It seems to us. 
that if the proprietors in Great Britain chose to do the same thing, 
and to work as hard as the Germans, they might not only improve 
their financial position, but regain much of their former influence. 
In Germany, though the fall in rents would indicate a decline in the 
returns from agriculture, this class of proprietors make their own rents, . 
and “appear to thrive.” They live the life of an English country 
gentleman. They shoot partridges, roe deer, and hares, and the sugar 
beet crops afford such excellent cover that the birds will he till they 
are trodden ow. But the exodus of the farm labourers has 
commenced in Germany, where more profitable industries are be- 
ginning to draw them from their native fields. | The supply of labour 
is growing daily more scanty. Men are imported from Russia and 
Poland; and the increase in the number of women and old men em~ 


229 


ployed in field labour shows that the pick of the peasantry are turning” 
their thoughts elsewhere. It is important to observe that this tendency 
on the part of the rural population to gravitate towards the towns is: 
not in Germany, at all events, owing to any difficulty experienced by 
the agricultural labourers in obtaining land. “The farmers dre 
only too ready to let small holdings at a nominal rent, or to sell out a. 
few acres to their men to induce them to remain in the country.” But 
even this temptation fails to retain them. In Bavaria rather a curious. 
custom prevails with regard to small holdings. ‘‘ Land is not sub-- 
divided among the children of the family. As a rule, one of the 
children inherits the whole farm at a fair price during the life of the 
parents, when the latter reach their ‘sixties. The remaining children 
get ‘pid out,’ but retain the right of living in the honse if ill-luck 
meet’ them in life.” Elsewhere, to prevent the evils of sub-division, 
the State has intervened, every parish being now empowered to take 
measures for reclaiming very small patches and bringing them back 
into one plot. “Every workman ,” says Mr. Koenig, “has the option 
of acquiring land and building his own cottage, and this very fact 
forms, socially and politically. the mainstay of the country.” Yet, as 
we see, it will not keep the peasantry in the land. 

Turning to live stock, we find that sheep farming in most parts of 
Germany is on the decline, owing to the fall in the value of wool. 
Cattle are kept chiefly with a view to milk and draught purposes. But 
in Westphalia, Mecklenberg, and Saxony sugar beet roots, in the lan- 
guage of the Report, seem to be “the order of theday.” The difficulty 
with this crop is the number of labourers which it requires and the 
increasing scarcity of skilled hands, owing to the higher wages to be 
obtained intowns. Agricultural wages, vary, of course, in different 
districts. The ordinary labourer earns ls. 9d. a day in Summer, 2s. a 
day in harvest, and is. 6d. a day the rest of the year. But then he 
gets a cottage free, a small plot of ground for potatoes, and another 
for linseed ; and he has the use of the farm horses to work his allot- 
ment. Piece work is paid much higher; and in Saxony it seems that 
this system is the commoner of the two. Beer is one of the 
staple products of Bavaria, where great attention is naturally paid to 
the barley crop. It has been found that by careful selection of varieties, 
&c., the quality of malting barley can be greatly improved. The 
brewer then pays a higher price for it, and the farmer makes a profit 
where formerly there was a loss. Bavarian beer may only be brewed 
from malt and hops, and this regulation is enforced by very heavy 
penalties. Here, at all events, is something made in Germany which 
Englishmen may well covet. We have no space for all that the 
Report says of the reclamation of moorland and its beueficial results, 
which the writer thinks might be reproduced in Ireland. Nor can we 
more than mention generally what he says about the excellence of 
German agricultural implements. These “are as good as those of any 
country, with the exception of mowing machines and binders, in which 
the United States are first, and of steam ploughs and _ treshing 
machines, in which England excels.” It seems, ou the whole, to be 
the writer’s opinion that if British farmers had the scientific knowledge 
of German ones they would be able to hold up against taxes, and. 
railway rates, open ports and foreign competition, ‘‘ We must never 


230 


forget that medical science at one time was revolutionised by chemical 
analyses and physiological studies, whereas in olden days medicine was 
practised much as a matter of routine, simply by experience. It is an 
incontestable fact that the chemical laboratories of the Agricultural 
Colleges have revolutionised agriculture. . . . Nowadays we 
‘know the chemistry of the soil, the plants, the live stock, the manures, 
the foods. Thus agriculture to-day is as much a science as in olden 
times it was a matter of purely practical experience.” The Report 
concludes as follows :— 


« The best foundation a State can give to its people is a thorough genuine and 
technical education, to fit them out adequately in order to be able to successfully 
fight their way; it affords them the best chance of being able to work against long 
odds, so that they may hold their own in bad times, and even through a crisis. 
The German farmer has had to fight against agricultural depressiou, but, by 
means of his thorough education and resources, backed up by science and State 
help, he has withstood bad seasons and low prices; he has been going ahead all 
the time, learning how to increase his crops and increase his income per acre in 
the same proportion as prices receded ; with this object in view, no stone was left 
unturned, and his resources were strained to the utmost; he found great help in 
co-operation, as I have tried to show. Co-operationin credit, loans, purchase and 
sale of produce, purchase of foods, seed, mineral manures, in drainage and irriga- 
tion works of large dimensions, and in dairying. In all his struggles the State 
helped him, by encouraging scientific research at its cxperiment stations by gratis 
advice, and farmers recognised:the value of unions and combined efforts to fight 
and swim up stream. He recognised that, single-handed, he was powerless to 
achieve anything, but, although not individually intrinsically wealthier when 
combined, he found himself, when united, and working hand in hand co-opera- 
tively, strong enough and able to withstand worse times than before.” 

In England State Aid hasa bad name; and, though all classes 
are ready enough to take it when they can get it, most of them 
denounce it when offered to any but themselves. The prejudice, how- 
ever, has its good side; andif the land were treated fairly in other 
respects, we doubt if English farmers would either require or desire 
such fostering care as is bestowed on their calling elsewhere. Ifa 
great industry like agriculture cannot rest upon its own bottom, there 
must be something wrong in the conditions under which it is pursued. 
Nor are we at all satisfied that the present Report makes out a case 


for German agriculture which political economy could approve. 


FERNS : SYNOPTICAL LIST—LV. 


Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja- 
maica. By G. S. Jemman, Superintendent, Botanical Garden, 


Demerara. 
Order IIT —Hquisetacee. 


Rootstock creeping ; stems erect, cylindrical, longitudinally furrowed, 
jointed at intervals, hollow except at the joints, which terminate in a 
completely circular monophyllous dentate-margined sheath ; branches 
simple, springing through the lower part of the sheaths, whorled or 
irregular, and spreading ; no distinct leaves; fructification terminal on 
simple persistent or fugacious stems, in cone-shaped heads, which are 
composed. of several horizontal tiers of peltate stipitate scales that bear 


231 


on their underside 6-9 pale membranous sporangia that open longitu- 
dinally in a slit on the inner side; spores minute, green, united to 
wool-like threads (elaters) that are spontaneously irritant while dry. 

A single genus represents this order, numbering about twenty or 
thirty species, the principal part of which are spread through the north 
temperate zone, where they are, in several Kuropean countries, common 
and well-known marsh plants, which in Britain go by the name of 
horse-tails and paddock-pipes. In some species the barren and fertile 
stems are alike, in others they are different. They form no leaves 
proper, but these organs are represented by the membraneous sheaths 
of the joints. The branches are produced after the stems have deve- 
loped, and they grow through the base of the sheaths. 


Genus I.—EKquisetum, Linn. 


For characters refer to the order— 

1. E. giganteum, Linn —Stems 4-6 or more ft high, 4 in. thick, 
stiff and erect; furrows very numerous (two dozen or more); sheaths 
whitish, 4 in deep, teeth as numerous as the furrows of the stems, 
acuminate, blackish with white scariose edges; ribs keel-like; branches 
numerous, virgate, spreading ; furrows few (seven); sheaths correspond- 
ing in number of teeth; spikes apiculate, terminal on the twigs, 2-8 
li. 1, oblong or ovate; fertile shorter than the barren branches.—SIl. 
Herb. Brit. Mus.; Baker, Fern. Al. p. 4. 

Infrequent in marshy places and by the sides of rivers, from the low- 
lands up to 3,000 or 4,000 ft. alt.; gathered on the banks of the npper 
part of the Yallahs river, above Pleasant Hill, first collected by Sloane, 
and again by Purdie, Wilson and March at the ferry, Morant Bay. 
The species is widely spre:.d and variable in size and other characters, 
which has led to its having received several names. It is said in 
some instances to grow 20 ft. high. 


Order III.—Lycopodiacee. 


Stems erect prostrate or pendent, with terete or flattened branches, 
which are more or less repeatedly dichotomous (except in Phylloglossum) 
and leafy throughout ; leaves relatively small, often minute, simple or 
forked, one-nerved, many seried and irregularly whorled, or, rarely, 
distichous; usually linear or subulate, close and imbricatng or more 
apart, rarely distant; sporangia bi-or trivalved, single, sessile and 
axillary in the leaves of the normal or modified branches, or in special 
spikes ; spores of one kind, abundant and dust-like. 

Four genera comprise thi- order, but only two of them are repre- 
sented in this flora. The others, Phylloglossum and T'msipteris, are 
confined entirely to Australia and the adjacent islands. 

Sporangia 2—lobed.—- Lycopodium. 

Sporangia 3—lobed.—~Psilotum. 


Genus [. Lycopodium, Linn. 


Sporangia reniform, one-celled, bivalved, axillary in the normal or 
modified leaves of the outer parts of the branches, or in the imbricating 
scales of special spikes ; leaves of one or two kinds, multifarious, rarely 
distichous or biserial, generally close and often imbricating ; stems and 


232 


branches mostly terete, dichotomously or pinnately branched, leafy 
throughout. 

These are the true club-mosses, and their aspect, except in a few in- 
stances, is very different from that f their allies the Selaginellas, from 
which they are technically distinguished by having o:ly one kind of 
spores and spore-capsules. They number about a hundred species, which 
are spread over the torrid and warmer regions of the globe, but most 
concentrated in the equatorial belt. Some of the species range widely 
in both the old and new worlds. ‘They are divided in their habits of 
growth into two divisions— terrestrial and epiphytal, though in regard 
to some few species the line is not st:ictly drawn. Tne for uer grow 
in moist ground generally, either open to the direct sunlight or in forest 
shade. ‘Two or three species, however, appear to prefer well-d:ain d 
ground. Both are erect, or prostrate in growth, and more or less gre- 
garious. Of the epiphytal, sume are strictly pendent, others have a 
tendency to be pendent with tho gradual lenthening of t:eir weak 
flexible branches, while still maintaiing vertical growth. These 
generally gow in forests on the branches of trees. ‘the spores of « 
clavatum and L. selago are highly inflammable, and are sometimes em 
ployed under the name of vegetable brimstone in fireworks. Some few 
species are known to be purgative and others emetic 

Fructification in dense, terminal, catkin-like spikes. 

Spikes on slender peduncles, 


Leaves dimorphous, branches flat with a distinct upper and un- 
der side. 


1. L. scariosum. 
2. L. complanatum. 


Leaves all conform ; branches cylindrical. 
3. L. clavatum. 


Spikes sessile on normal branches. 
4, L. cernuum. 


Fructification in the unmodified outer parts of the branches 
Leaves subulate. 

. verticellatum. 

. reflexum. 

. intermedium. 

. dichotomum. 


oe 
Sia Cae gh 


Leaves broader. 
9. L linifolium. 
10. L. taxifolium 


1. L. scariosum, Forst, var. L. Jussicei, Desv.—Coriaceous, stiff, light- 
green and rather glossy above, paler and duller beneath ; stems terete, 
2-3 or more ft. l., a line thick, stiff, prostrate, often forked from the 
base, clothed laxly with minute lacerate-edged leaves, distantly altern- 
ately pinnate ; branches pinnate ; branchlets forked 1-2 or more times ; 
divaricating flat, din. w. 14-4 in. 1; leaves of two kinds, the larger 
superior, 2-serial, spreading laterally, 14 li. 1. # li. br. flat, close, spread- 
ing, oblong-dimidiate, the base adnate-decurrent, upper edge nearly 
straight, the lower up curved to an acute point; smaller inferior minute 
linear lanceolate, appressed to the underside, 2—3-serial, lax, pale and 


233 


scarious ; spikes linear-oblong, cylindric, 14 in. 1 , more or less, in single 
pairs terminal on forked peduncles which are 3 in. or more l. from the 
base; bracts peltate, sub-deltoid or diamond-shaped, acuminate, sca- 
rious-edged ; sporangia cordate-——Hook. Icon. t. 126. Bak. Fer. Al. 
p. 29 


Infrequent in moist places at 5,000 ft. alt., growing with sphagnum 
moss, gathered at Morce’s Gap, near the Govt. Cinchona Plantation, 
the locality where Purdie and Bancroft previously gathered it The 
American var ety differs from the type by the long forked peduncles. 
The branches are flat, and spread flatly over the surface, with diffused 
growth. The lateral leaves are attached longitudinally, not transversely 
as in the other species, and the branchlets resemble fronds of Polypo- 
dium trichomanoides. The smaller leaves are exceedingly minute and 
confined to the underside. 


2. L complanatum, Linn.—Stiffly coriaceous and rigid, light green ; 
stems prostrate. 1-2 ft. 1. or more, a li. thick, terete, clothed laxly or 
more closely with small subulate leaves; branches erect, or spreading, 
alternate fasiigiate, rather flattened, repeatedly dichotomous; the final 
branchlets very numerous and crowded, linear, #-1 li. w. 1-24 in. 1. 
from the fork, convex above, sub-concave beneath ; leaves of two forms : 
the larger lateral, keeled, concave entire, sharply cartilaginous-pointed, 
transversely adnate and decurrent, 4 li. 1. sub-deltoid; the smaller 
uniserial on both the upper and undersides, adnate and decurrent, 
narrow, entire, cartilaginous pointed, those of the former series larger 
and lanceolate-acuminate, filling the spaces between the lateral ones; 
posterior much smaller, subulate with vacant space around; peduncles 
2-4 in, l., 1-3 from each branch, repeatedly dichotomous ; spikes vary- 
ing from two to upwards of a dozen together, #-1# in. Ll. cylindric ; 
bracts peltate, sub-deltoid cuspidate, the base rather cordate but also 
pointed ; sporangia reniform-—Bak. Fer. Al. p. 28. 


Abundant on open banks and waysides, often spreading over exten- 
sive spaces and covering the ground as densely as grass, at 4,000-6,009 
ft. altitude. It may be readily recognised by the copious crowded nar- 
rowly linear branchlets, and numerous spikes. The latter are either in 
pairs or solitary on the final peduncles. All parts are very rigid. ‘he 
lateral leaves of the branchlets are folded with a sharp angle and attached 
transversely, and adherent half their length. The int-rmediary ones 
are also adherent in like manner but narrow. Though in this and the 
two preceding, the branchlets appsar flattened, and the upper and under- 
sides distinct and different the leaves are really all round them as in 
the truly cylindrical species. 


3. L. elavatum., Linn.—Stems repent, rooting here and there and 
branching laterally, 2-3 ft. 1. cylindric; leaves lax, showing the stem 
between ; branches erect; freely again branched but not in a dichoto- 
mous manner, densely clothed with leaves, which are in several series, 
rather stiff, subulate, 4 li. w., 14-2 li. 1. with a hair point, incurved ; 
fertile branches 1—3 in. 1., slender, terete, erect, with minute verticil- 
late leaves at interval; spikes in pairs or alternate, 2-6 in all toa 
branch ; bracts ovate-acuminate, attenuated, undulate-margined, some- 


what spreading. Pl. Fil. t 165 B. Baker, Fern. Al. p. 26. 


234 


A very stiff species, both in stems and leaves, but variable in its 
degree of branching in some cases lax, in others very dense, and 
having the branchlets short. The stems of the spikes are several 
inches high, and decrescent in size upwards, and thinly clothed with 
minute subulate leaves. The spikes have shorter pedicels from 4-2 in. I. 
The leaves quite conceal the stems of the ordinary branches, though 
not of the primary and final ones In forest anl half-open places at 
3,000-5,000 ft. altitude it covers acres in uninterrupted extent in many 
places. JL. aristatum, H. B. K. is the common American form. 


4. L. cernuum, Linn.—Stems cylindric, strong, repent, thinly clothed 
with small linear-acuminate leaves, and throwing up at intervals erect 
pyramidal or plumose fertile branches, which are i-14 ft. high, with 
numerous tiers of spreading branches alternate in direction to each 
other, thus forming the plumose habit; these branches again freely 
branched with spreading branchlets, which are fertile at their tips ; 
leaves in several series, dense, not flat, spreading and up-curved, } li. 
w., 1 li. 1. seta-like, main rachis clothed sparsely like the primary stem ; 
spikes from a line toanin.1, 1-1} li. diameter; bracts ovate-acuminate, 
the margins fringed. Pl. t. 163, Bak. Fern. Al. p. 23. 


Readily recognised by iis pyramidal or plumose habit, resembling » 


young fir trees, each branchlet terminated by a pale coloured recurved 
catkin. These vary in length in the plants from different countries. 
In the local states they are from 1-6 li. 1. so far as [ have seen, but 
may perhaps be in some cases more, as specimens from Venezuela and 
Brazil have them from #-1 in. 1. It grows both in shaded and exposed 
places, and on both wet and dry ground. In (iuiana it reaches 8 ft 
high, supported by the bushes among which it grows. 


5. L. verticillatum, Linn.—Stem erect, forked nearly from the base ; 
branches erecto-spreading, many times dichotomous, leafy throughout, 
1-14 li. in diameter including the foliage ; not decrescent outwards, or 
hardly so, stiff; final branchlets 1-1} in.1 from the fork, widely 
divaricating ; leaves flat, stiff, straight, rather spreading, 1-2 li. 1, 
subulate, whorled and close, in several series; fertile leaves rather 
widened at the base over the capsules, which are orbicular-cordate. 
Baker Fern Al. p. 14. L. acerosum, Sw. 


Infrequent, terrestrial in shady places; gathered at Old Hngland, 
near the Govt. Cinchona Plantations, at 4,000 ft. alt. ‘Though the 
slenderest, this is the stiffest plant of this division. The leaves are 
larger than in cernuum, and flat stiff and straight, about {th of a line 
w. or less. The multi-forked branches rise to about 6 or 9 inches above 
the ground and extend laterally as much, forming low compact spread- 
ing plants. Of all the species it is one of the most freely branched, 
and the leaves are so inconspicuous that the plants appear to consist of 
little more than flexuose much forked diverging sleuder branches. 


6. L. reflecum, Lam.—Branches erect, from 4-1} ft. high, repeatedly 
dichotomous, close and parallel, strong and rather stoutish, ribbed ; 
leaves plain-edged or faintly serrated, reflexed, }in.1. frd—j lh. w. 
broadest at the rather rounded base, linear-subulate, crowded, in several 
series; sporangia abundant, exposed, reniform 4—% li. w., much expanded 
Pl. t. 166. L. reversum, Presl. Baker Fern Al. p. 11. 


TE 


235 


A terrestial species, growing on open banks and other grassy places. 
The stems are erect, but as they bifurcate and lengthen they curve and. 
rest on the ground. it isa stiff species, but tne stems are not rigid, 


being fleshy. While green they are 1-2 li. thick without the leaves. 


7. L. intermedium, Spreng.—Branches slender, ribbed, distantly 
dichotomous few or several times, reaching 2 ft. long, the divisions 
relatively few, parallel or spreading more or less, not decrescent ; leaves 
recurved throughout, 7-or 8-farious, linear-subulate, 2-4 li.l. $l. w, 
very laxly arranged on the ribs; margins even or slightly serrated ; 
sporangia about | li. w. reniform 

A more slender stemmed species than Z. reflecum, of which Mr. 
Baker regards it a variety with longer interbranches, and smaller more 
recurved and laxer leaves. The branches are the same size and the 
leaves the same length from the primary stem to the ends of the 
branches. ‘The top of the recurved leaves is turned quite round to the 
base, and thus they form nearly a circle. 


8. L. dichotomum, Jacq.—-ranches strong, leafy from the base, 
once to several times dichotomous, parallel or divaricating, firm, erect 
or spreading, ribbed; leaves 8-farious, close, ravher crowded, linear- 
subulate, straight, or curved, spreading variously,- -horizontally. de- 
flexed or up-curved, often falcate, trd-4 li. w. #-1 in. 1, even-edged, 
purple at the base, not decrescent upwards, the outer ones often seeming 
longer but really not so; abundantly fertile, the sporangia cordate, 
much exposed —Bak. Fer. Al. p.16. L. mandiocanum, Radd. 

‘Terrestial, near Blue Mountain Peak, epiphytal at low altitudes. 
The leaves are very close and spread in various directions, the outer of 
the branches often uppearing to have longer ones than the inner parts, 
but it is only in appearance and due to the angle at which they spread. 
The species is a characteristic one, variable in its extent of branching, 
with a more or less upright (not pendent) but ultimately, as in ZL. re- 
flecum, spreading growth. ‘he leaves als» vary in width, some plants 
from this cause having a much finer aspect than others. 


9 L. linifolium, Linn.—Branches ribbed, very slender, leafy from 
the base of the primary stem, flaccid, repeatedly dichotomous, pendent, 
reaching 2 ft. long or over, final branches few or many, often very 
numerous; leaves lax, 3 serial, spreading, linear or linear-subulate, 
often rather falcate, 4-2 or 1 li. w., 4-3 in. 1, herbaceous in texture, 
with a distinct mid.rib, even-edged ; abundantly fertile, often from the 
inner bifurcations; sporangia fully exposed, reniform PI. t. 166. c., 
Bak. Fern. Al. p. 16. LZ. flewibile, Fée. 

This differs from the two preceding species by its slender thread- 
like in size, branches, having the leaves only 3-farious, the flaccid tex- 
ture, and loosely arranged leaves, between which the stem is visible 
from $ to}+inch. It is so pliant that a plant might be rolled into a 
ball between one’s hands without injury. ‘The var. of L. taxifolium 
passerinodes, as I have pointe.l out, in some of its states comes near it, 
but in that the stems are never so slender or flaccid, nor the leaves so 
few in series or so loosely placed on the ribs. Some specimens have 
nearly 100 final branches, all developed by repeated forking from a 
single primary stem. It extends from the lower hills to the high 
mountains, 


236 

10. L. taxifolium, Linn.—Stems ribbed, leafy from the base, pen- 
dent, spreading, or more or less erect, repeatedly dichotomous, from 6 
in. to 2 ft. 1., primary divisions spreading, or close and parallel as in 
the final branches, all decrescent or not outward; leaves close but not 
crowded, straight, linear-acuminate, even-edged, erecto-spreading, 
several-serial, flat, firm but not stiff, 1-14 li. w., $-? in. 1. very little 
narrowed at the transversely attached base; final branches fertile ; 
sporangia reniform, copious.—Baker Fern Al. p. 16. 

var. L. passerinoides, H. Bb. K.—Branches usually longer between 
the forking, more supple, always pendent, from 1-6 ft.1, decrescent 
outwards; leaves of inner stems as large, outer 4-2 in. 1 4-# li. w., 
all linear-lanceolate ; branches fertile often a considerable length. 

Nearest L. linifolium, but with much stiffer and thicker stems and 
and firmer stiffer leaves. The habit of the type varies a good deal. 
Young plants are quite simple and erect, and grow either on the ground 
or on trees, though genereally on the latter; older plants have laxly 
spreading branches, while others again are quite pendent. The pri- 
mary stems are } in. thick, and have 5-7 ribs, and consequently the 
leaves as they are attached to the ribs number. the same series. The 
var. is marked by its more uniformly pendent habit, often much greater 
in length, (I have gathered it 6 ft. 1., in forests at 6,000 ft. altitude,) 
and branches decrescent outwards, while some of its forms touch JZ. 
taxifolium on the one hand, others seem to pass quite into L. linifoli im 
on the other. It extends from 1,000—7,000 ft. altitude. 


Genus II. Pstlotum, Swartz. 


Sporangia sub-globose, trilobed, opening vertically down the centre 
of the lobes into three equal valves, axillary in the minute distant 
leaves; spores very minute, oblong, exceedingly copious; branches 
very slender, repeatedly dichotomous, trigonal or flattened; leaves 
simple or bipid.— Bernhardia, Willd. 

This small genus consists of only two small species, which however 
make up for the paucity of type in their abundance and wide distribu- 
tion. They are small twiggy plants; starting from a simple base, 
and repeatedly forking till they become a broom-like fascicle of twigs, 
with distant and very inconspicuous leaves. 


Branches triquetrous. 
1. P. triquetrum. 


Branches flat. 
2. P. complanatum. 


1. P. triquetrum, Swartz. —Rootstock composed of few wiry deeply 
penetrating roots; stem few inches to a foot long, strong, wiry, erect 
or pendent, cylindric below, ribbed and angular above approaching the 
first furcation; branches triquetrous, with sharp angles, repeatedly 
dichotomous, decrescent outwards, forming a brush-like head, slender, 
virgate, short and stiff or longer and very flexile; leaves minute, 
simple or forked, at intervals in dentations on the edges of the branches ; 
capsules in the axils of the leaves, 3-lobed. Bak. Fern Al. p. 30. 
Lycop odium nudum, Linn. 

A more repeatedly branched bushy and stiffer species than the other, 


EE 


237 


easily recognised by the three cornered branches. ‘The final branches 
are usually very numerous, about 4-4 li. w. 1-2 or 3 in. 1, sharply 
trigonal, fluted between the angles. The plants grow in fissures of 
rocks and between the roots of trees, the roots penetrating deeply. 
In some cases the branches are short and stiff with the capsules reach- 
ing to the ends; in others long and pliant extending much teyond 
the capsules. ‘lhe capsul:s are like the fruit of many Kuphorbiaceous 
plants in miniature—Hevea, for instance. It varies a good deal, and 
many species have been made by Kar!, Muller, and other authors, of it. 
It is most common in the middle altitudinal region, but occurs quite 
frequently both above and below that range. 

2. P. complanatum, Swartz.--Stems few to several in. |. cylindric at 
the base, becoming gradually t:iquetrous below the primary furcation, 
stiff or pliant ; branches flattened, flaccid, repeatedly dichotomous, 1-14 
li. w., with a distinct midrib; leaves minute, 4-4 li. 1., hardly more, 
simple or forked, pointed, forming mere dentations along both margins 
at intervals of 4-2 in. apart ; capsules 2-3 valved, auxillary, dehiscent. 
Bak. Fern Al. p. 380. 

Included on the authority of Swartz, who founded the species, but I 
have seen no local specimen myself. Grisebach included i: in his FI. 
B. W. I. Islands but had seen no specimen. However, as it is 
undoubtedly found in Cuba (Wright n. 947), the locality is not 
unlikely. Differs from the preceding by its flat 2-edged broader 
branches with a rib down the centre. Jt varies from 6 in. to 2 f. lt 
in different parts of the world. 


ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE 
DEPARTMENT. 


LIBRARY. 


Annals of Botany. Sept. [ Purchased. | 

British Museum, Annual Returns. 1897. [Virector Nat. Hist. ] 

British Trade Journal. Oct. [Hditor.] 

Chemist & Druggist. Sept. 10,17, 24. Oct.1. [Editor.] 

Garden. Sept. 10,17,24. Oct. 1. [Purchased. | 

Journ. Board of Agr. England. Sept. [Hditor. | 

Journal of Botany. Oct. [Purchased.] 

Nature. Sept. 15, 22,29. [Purchased. | 

Pharmaceutical Journal. Sept. 10,17, 24. Oct. 1 

Sugar. sept. [Hditor. | 

Sugar Cane. Oct. [Editor. | 

Cantor Lectures. Plants yielding Commercial India- Rubber. By Dr. Morris. 
[ Author. | 

Flax Culture. By C. R. Dodge. [Author.| 

Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. Sept. 13, 20,27. Oct. 4. [Kditor. | 

Bulletin Koloniaal Museun:, Haarlem, No. 19. July. [Director.] 

Bulletin L’Herbier Boissier. Sept [Conservaieur. ] 

Bulletino, Laboratorio ed Orto Botanico, Siena. Fasc. 2,3. [Kditor.] 

Reports, 1895-96, Bot. Gardens, Old Calabar, Niger Coast Protectorate. [Cu rator. | 

Times of Ceylon. Aug. 24. sept.1,7,15. [Editor.] 

Tropical Agriculturist. Sept. [Purchased.] 

Proefstation E. Java, Selectie van Suikerriet. [ Director. ] 

Proefstation E, Java. De Mineerlarven van Suikerriet op Java. [ Director. ] 

Agri. Gazette, N. S. Wales, July. [Dept. of Agr. ] 


238 


Queensland Agr. Journal. Sept. [Secy. Agr.] 

Bulletin Dept, of Agri. Brisbane. June. [Colonial Botanist. | 

Queensland Sugar Journal. Aug. [Editor.] 

Agr. Journal. Capeof Good Hope. Aug. 18. Sept. 1.[Agr. Dept. ] 

Central African Times. July 9, 16, 23,30. Aug. 6,13. [Hditor.] 

Mauri'ius Revue Agricole. Aug. [Editor.] 

Journ. Jamaica Agri. Soc. Oct. [Editor.] 

Bulletin R. Bot. Gardens, Trinidad. Aug. & Oct. [Superintendent. } 

Proc. Agricultural Society, Trinidad. Sept. [Secretary.] 

Synopsis, Meteor. Observations. May-Aug. St. Lucia. [Curator. | 

Experiment Station Record, U. 8. Dept. of Agri. [Editor. ] 

Univ. of Wisconsin, Bulletin No. 25. [Editors.] 

Fern Bulletin. Oct. [Editor.] 

!rans. Annual Meetings (1895-96.) Kansas Academy of Science. [ Librarian. | 

American Ginseng. George V. Nash. [Dr. True.] 

American Journal of Pharmacy. Oct. [Editor.] 

Publications of the following Agricultural Experiment Stations U. S. A. 
[ Directors. | 


New York (Geneva), 144. Kentucky, 76, 77. 
Idaho, 14, 15. South Dakota, 58-60. 
Texas, 46. 


M«ntreal Pharmaceutical Journal. Qct. [Editor.] 

Boletim, Inst. Agronomico, 8. Paulo, Brazil. June. [Secy.] . 

Revista do Mus. Paulista. By Dr. H. von Thering. S. Paulo, Brazil. 1897. 
[ Director. 

Hawaiian Planter’s Monthly. Sept. [EHditor.] 

Japan, Tokyo, Coll. of Agri. Bulletin, III, 4. [Editors.] 


SEEDS. 


From Bot. Gardens, Demerara. 
Castilloa elastica. 
Manihot Glaziovii. 


From Bot. Gardens, Hong Kong. 
Sterculia lanceolata. 


From Messrs. Reasoner Brothers, Florida. 
Serenoa serrulata. 
HERBARIUM SPECIMENS. 
Fsom J. Shore, Esq. 
Canella alba. (Bark and leaves). 


From Miss A. G. Roper, Unity Valley, St. Ann’s. 
Ornithidium vestitum. 
Epidendrum rigidum. 

From Mrs. Sewell, Arcadia, Trelawney. 


Mirabilis Jalapa. 

Euphorbia hypericifolia. 
Hupatorium villosum, 

Cassia emarginata, (Candle Wood). 


{Issued 5th Nov., 1898. | 


New Series.] ‘NOVEMBER, 1898. . Vol. V. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA. 


EDITED BY 
WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS. 


Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. 


CONTENTS: 


Ginger in Jamaica “a PAGE 239 
Tobacco in United States | | 246 
Cotton Seed Oil Industry : 249 
Gas Lime in Agriculture | 251 
Ferns: Synoptical List—LVI 255 
Contributions and Additions ; 262 


P RIC E—Threepence. 


A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and 
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. 


SM CDD CAM CAL CLD WLM ChAT abd hl Yoh Yo 


KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
GovVERNMENT Printine Orrice, 79 Dux Srrzsr. 


1898. 


JAMAICA. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


Vol. V. 


New Series. | NOVEMBER, 1898. al JDP arern. 


GINGER IN JAMAICA.* 
By F. B. Kitmer. 


One of the essential requirements for the growth of this plant is 

‘sunshine. 
Another requisite for growth—moisture—is also here in plenty. 

In some portions, 281 inches, or 23 feet, is recorded as an annual down- 
pour. In the “ ginger districts,” 88 inches, or over 7 feet, has been the 
mean annual rainfall for the last twenty years. While ginger grows 
at suitable elevations all over the island, it is mainly produced in the 
central western portion, along the borders of the Parishes of Westmore- 
land, St. Elizabeth, Manchester, Clarendon, Trelawny and St. James. 
The underlying soil of this district consists of white and yellow lime- 
stone, with trappean formation ; this is covered in some of the nooks or 
valleys with a pulverent mould or loam deposit several feet in depth. 
The plant grows luxuriantly in such soil, but apparently will not thrive 
in marshy soil, nor where there is present more than 10 to 20 per cent. 
of clay or 30 per cent. of sand. ‘he government returns for the whole 
island give only about 250 acres of land devoted to ginger. This 
amount of acreage would not yield the crop harvested. But the real 
cultivation is not in acres, many cultivators having beds varying from 
6 feet square up to the size of a building lot. A few cultivate from 
one to six acres. Large plots are very rare. Tor the most part, it is 
put in the ground in any convenient spot, alongside pineapples, yams, 
cocoa, cassava or other plants, often in the midst of a dense growth of 
bush or weeds. 

In the statistics of this island this article does not figure in pounds, 
shillings and pence as largely as do some of its other products. Econo- 
mically speaking, however, ginger is one of its most important articles 


* Extracts from an ‘article in the American Journal of Pharmacy, entitled “In 
the Land of Ginger—Jamaica,”’ 


240 


of commerce. In my judgment, from 25,000 to 50,000 of its people~ 
are more or less dependent upon the ginger crop for such ready money 
as is essential to maintain their existence. 


To the price or crop prospects, improvements in cultivation, difference 


in quality, the ginger planter gives little thought or care. He divides. 


ginger into “blue” and “yellow” from the colour of the rhizomes. 


These are also known as, respectively, ‘‘ turmeric” and “ flint.” I was- 


unable to see any botanical difference in the plant producing the two 
different coloured root-stocks, and many intelligent planters were un- 
able to distinguish the kinds without first examining the root. If any- 
thing, it seems to me that the blue was a degenerate species. The root 
of the blue is hard and fibrous, yields a much less proportion of powder, 
is less pungent, and therefore less valuable commercially. 


There is also a division into “plant” and “ratoon” ginger. Plant 
ginger is ginger that is planted each season ; “ratoon” ginger, is really 
a product of laziness. It is a return crop, secured by leaving a part of 
the “hand” containing a bud in the ground when the crop is harvested. 


Ratoon ginger is much smaller in size of hands than the planted, and 
loses each year in flavour, each successive crop being less and less in. 


amount. 


GinGER PLANTING, 


Ginger is planted in March and April. The planting process consists 


in burying the divided fingers, each division containing an “ eye” or 
embryo, in trenches or holes a few inches below the surface and about 
a foot apart, similar to the process of planting potatoes. The small 
grower simply digs a hole in aconvenient spot. The thrifty planter 
first burns over his plot, to destroy weeds and insects, then ploughs and 
lays the plot out into beds and trenches. 


The growing plant needs plenty of sun, and the weeds and bushes 


must be kept down. 


‘This latter is a perplexing problem, unless the weeds have been 
destroyed before the ginger has been planted. If the weeds are pulled 
or the ground disturbed while the plant is growing, water is apt to 
settle around the roots, and this rots them. 


_ The reed-like ginger plant, with its leafy stems, grows sometimes to 
a height of 5 feet; its cone-topped flowering stems reach from 6 to 12 


inches, and in a well-cleaned field, make a pretty show when in their 


September bloom. 


On wet soil and during very rainy seasons the root is subject to what 
is termed “ black-rotten.” ‘This is a rotting induced by warm, soggy 
soil. The root swells in spots, fills with water, turns black, and emits 
an offensive odour. In this condition it is attacked by insects and 
worms which has given rise to the belief among the planters that the 
rotting is caused by a so-called ginger worm. (It is possibly a fungus 
disease). 


Growing ginger must be well watered. Irrigation is practised to a 
limited extent, but in most of the parishes this is unnecessary, as the 
rainfall is abundant. Fertilisation, though highly important, is rarely 
attempted, partly owing to the small profit, but largely owing to the 


241 


customs of the country. The most that is ever done is to plough in the 
weeds and cover the ground with banana trash. 

An all-important feature is the rapid impoverishment of the soil that 
follows the ginger culture. One planter told me that only ferns would 
grow on the soil after exhaustion by this crop. There is thus a con- 
stant demand for virgin soil to secure the best-paying crops. This is 
attained by sending valuable timber up in smoke, as one authority 
tersely expressed it. “ Dried-up streams, general barrenness, in fact a 
wilderness marks the progress of ginger culture.” 

An examination of the exhausted soil revealed the fact that it was 
deficient in organic matter, lime, phosphoric acid and soda. Attempts 
made, at my suggestion, to supply these deficiencies by the use of mar- 
ket fertilisers of various kinds were not productive of any favourable 
results) Stable manure alone resulted in a failure, as likewise did the 
use of a bat guano found in the island. The use of a marl, especially 
when mixed with stable manure, was a partial success. 

Lhe solution of the problem of reclaiming land exhausted by the gin- 
ger and other crops, and the prevention of the further wasteful des- 
truction of valuable soil, is in Ginger Land one of great moment. 
There is in this fair island thousands upon thousands of acres of aban- 
doned land, lying within easy reach of roads and ports; much of it has 
been abandoned because the soil has been exhausted by ginger or coffee. 
If by suitable tillage and manures it can be reclaimed, great benefits to 
the inhabitants will follow. 

Ginger, as we know it, is the root-stock of the plant. The root pro- 
per or root fibres are about 4 inch long, not very numerous. dying off as 
the rhizome advances and leaving a slight scar. As regularly- shaped 
hands, with more or less straight fingers, command the higher price in 
markets, experiments were made to secure a regular-shaped growth. 
The fact was developed that a sprout starts from the parent eye, and 
from this stem, in turn, lateral shoots or branches develop in pairs. 
These side branches again develop in pairs, these pairs generally 
alternating to opposite sides. It was found that if the soil 
was well worked and pulverized before planting, the growth was 
straighter than when planted in hard soil. Some difference was noted 
also in the condition of the parent plant ; if this was well developed and 
vigorous, the resultant root-stock was of a better type than where the 
parent was small, knarly and crooked. 


GATHERING THE GINGER OrRoP. 


Ratoon ginger is gathered from March to December, but planted 
ginger is not ready for digging until December or January, and from 
then until March is the “ ginger season.” 

Ginger is known to be ready for harvest when the stalk withers. 
This begins shortly after the bloom departs. The rhizomes are twisted 
out of the ground with a fork. In this operation, every bruise or in- 
jury to the hands is detrimental to the market value. There is quite a 
knack in doing this, and it takes long practice to become expert. 

The hands are thrown in heaps, the fibrous roots are broken off. and 
the soil and adherent matter removed. This must be done quickly 
alter removal from the earth, for, should the ginger be dried with the: 
soil and roots still adhering, the product would not be white, and, if it 


242 


lies in heaps before drying, it will mould. The custom is to throw it 
immediately into a dish of water; it is then ready for the uncoating or 
peeling operation ; this is done by hand... . 


PEELING GINGER. 


Ginger-peeling is an art, and there are many expert peelers in 
Jamaica. The ginger knife is simply a narrow-edge blade riveted to the 
handle. In large operations an expert peels between the fingers of the 
hands, less experienced hands peeling the other portions. Examina- 
tion of a transverse section of ginger will show the importance of the 
operation. There is an outer striated skin under which there are 
numerous layers of very thin-walled cork cells. This layer contains 
numerous oil cells, the oil cells being most numerous at the bud points. 
The oil contained in these cells, in specimens fresh from the ground, 
is almost colourless, very pungent and exceedingly aromatic. It 
becomes yellow very quickly on exposure to the air, and even upon 
drying without removing the epidermis, its delicate aroma is found to 
be fleeting. Ondrying the ginger the contents of these cells appear 
as yellow, pithy mass. (It has been stated that this colouring matter 
is identical with that of Curcuma). As this cork layer is the seat of 
the greatest amount of oil and resin cells, it will readily be seen that 
the deeper the peeling so much the more of these substances will be 
carried away with the epidermis, and more cells opened from which 
these principles may be excluded. 


As fast as peeled, the roots are thrown into water and washed. The 
purer the water and the more freely it is used, the whiter will be the 
product. Generally a very little water washes a great deal of ginger. 
The hands are peeled during the day, and allowed to remain in the 
water over night. This water acquires a slimy feeling and, if concen- 
trated, becomes mucilaginous and acquires a warm and aromatic taste. 
The natives claim that this process soaks out the “ fire and poison” from 
very hot ginger. I placed some pieces in a stream of running water 
for twelve hours and succeeded in making them several shades lighter in 
colour. This sample proved to be less pungent to the taste, and it is 
quite possible the force of the water carried away some portion of the 
aromatic principles. 

A few planters use lime juice in the wash water. This gives a whiter 
root, having some solvent action on the colouring matter, but, as the 
lime juice contains saccharine and pectose matter, it prevents drying, 
and mildew follows. In another experiment I supplied the natives 
with citric acid, vinegar and acetic acid. They all worked fairly well, 
citric acid being the best whitening agent, but it was reported that the 
process was expensive and troublesome, 


It is generally stated that ginger is deprived of its coat by being 
plunged into boiling water before being scraped. This practice is not 
used to any extent in Jamaica. Its effect is to swell the starch and 
bassorin-like gums. I found that after keeping the freshly-pulled root- 
stocks in boiling water for an hour they were considerably swollen and 
the steam was filled with the aroma of the ginger. Under this treat- 
ment the coating comes off easily; but if the action of the boiling water 
is prolonged, the starch and fibre are acted upon, the product dries hard 


243 


and the colour is darkened. In fact, what is known as “black ginger” 

of the market is the result of this process. Ginger is found in the mar- 
ket coated with calcareous matter, such as carbonate of lime, etc., this 
is said to be to fill a demand for “‘ white ginger.” Such a proceeding 
is apparently unknown among the planters. Well-cured ginger has a 
decided white coating and that is all they know about it. 


I tried chlorine gas as a bleaching agent, but at best the product was 
of a dirty yellow colour. By using the fumes of burning sulphur, the 
whole being partially enclosed in glass the heat of the sun aiding in the 
experiment, the ginger was whitened and mildew prevented. I found 
on irial that it might be of service to place the ginger in a weak solu- 
tion of chloride of lime before drying; this would aid in bleaching and 
prevent mould. 


CurING GINGER. 


After washing, the process of drying follows. The tropical sun is the 
drying agent in all cases. Large operators have what is called a “ Bar- 
becue.” ‘This is a piece of ground several feet square, levelled off and 
laid with stone and the whole coated with cement. It is placed so as to 
receive the greatest amount of sunshine. The small planters use what 
is called a ‘“ Mat,” consisting of sticks driven into the ground, sawbuck 
fashion, and across these sticks are laid boards, palm, banana or other 
large leaves; oftener than otherwise, the place for drying is a few palm 
leaves spread upon the ground. 


Careful handlers put their ginger out as the sun rises, and turn it 
over at mid-day, taking it in at sundown. Rainy or cloudy weather 
invites mildew. It requires 6 to 8 days for the root to become 
thoroughly dry. 1 made several tests to ascertain the loss in weight 
by drying in the sun, and found the average to be nearly 70 per cent. 


Ginger dried in the sun for the market examined for moisture gave 
the following results : 


Six samples, well-dried specimens, showed a further loss when dried 
at 100°C. as follows: 7:2, 8°5, 8:9, 9°5, 10, 11, 12 per cent. 

Several poorly-dried specimens, some of which were damp and 
mouldy, gave from 15 to <6 per cent. moisture when dried at 100°C. 
During the progress of my attention to this subject, several attempts 
were made to utilise artificial heat in drying ginger. Such a course 
would, in some respects, be a very desirable one. 7 


In a portion of the island given almost entirely to the cultivation of 
this product, a few years agoa wet season prevailed. It was impossible 
to dry the crop in the sun; as a consequence there was a loss of crop, 
followed by considerable distress among the planters. 


During my observations an attempt was first made to dry without 
a Sl of the skin coat. This, if successful, would have meant the 
saving of considerable labour. The product was quite dark, the flavour 
not as good as that of the sun-dried. By removing a part of the coat 
the drying was hastened. Dr. A. G. McCatty, a practising physician 
and owner of a plantation, at my suggestion, placed in operation an 
American fruit evaporator. It was necessary to use wood as a source 


244 


of heat and, partly owing tothe high temperature and partly. from 
the ignorance of the operator. the product.so far has been rather poor 
in quality, the colour many shades darker, much of the aroma was lost, 
and a smoky, burned flavour acquired. 


My conclusions were that, when well conducted, the native method 
of careful peeling and curing in the sun would produce a handsomer 
and a better product than any process yet suggested. 

These observations were not undertaken with a view of making any 
complete analysis, and it was found that a macroscopic examination by 
expert judges was far more. reliable than any assay that could be made 
with limited facilities present in the ginger fields. 

In these experiments some observations were made that were inter- 
esting, though of no particular value. In the extracts from ratoon ginger 
there was evidently a more fiery taste and less flavour than in the 
planted ginger. This was also true in regard to the extracts from the 
blue and yellow varieties, the yellow having a much finer odour and 
taste. Upon the addition of water to these extracts in sufficient 
amounts to precipitate the dissolved resins, it was observed that in the 
case of the well cured specimens of plant ginger a delightful aroma was 
imparted to the water, a true ginger flavour, without fire or pungency. 
But in extracts from old ratoon ginger, from mildewed specimens 
spoiled in drying, this aroma was greatly changed, becoming musty 
and weak, the taste in some instances being decidedly bitter. Ninety- 
five per cent., alcohol was found to give better results as to the flavour 
of extract than that of lower strength. 


In tHE GINGER MARKET. 


The highest grades are large-sized hands of light and uniform 
colour, free from evidence of mildew. This grade is brittle and cracks 
easily, but broken pieces depreciate the value. Buyers also require 
the hands and fingers to be firm and full, without wrinkles or spots. 
They generally assort into four or five grades, that which is shrivelled 
and small being the lowest. The dark varieties form another, the 
heavy, tough end flinty a third. These four are finally assorted by 
placing hands which are small but of good texture and colour as one 
grade, the larger-sized, well-bleached hands into the highest grade. 

The ratoon finger sorts generally bring the lowest price, as they are 
small, soft and soggy, and lack flavour. Ginger gathered reen 
shrivels much in drying. and is less aromatic and pungent than when 
fully matured. Ginger that has mildewed is spotted, and the mildew 
starts a decomposition that affects the flavour. Ginger put in bags or 
laid away before being thoroughly dried will mould and acquire a 
musty odour and flavour, which it is impossible to remove. BEY? 

The largest sized hands are carefully selected by buyers and shipped 
to special markets, usually to England. I noticed hands weighing as 
much as eight ounces; many of them weighing from four ounces 
upward. ; 

Ginger is packed in barrels for shipment. 


ECONOMICS. 


The amount of ginger exported from this Island during the last ten 
years is shown in the following table :— 


245 


, Pounds. 
1887 oa 1,121,827 
1888 i. 1,141,877 
1889 » | Bs 1,002,653 
1890 (4-year) i re | §54,198 
1891 af 1,219,197 
1892 uy 1,822,531 
1893 ft 1,526,884 
1894 sf: 1,672,384 
1895 sve 1,736,460 
1896 1,960,609 


The yield and profit of the ginger crop depend somewhat upon the 
mature of the soil. In favourable seasons rainfall, sunshine, planting, 
care and curing, are also factors. An average yield can be estimated at 

from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds dried ginger per acre. In exceptional 
cases, 2,000 pounds have been gathered. There are planters in Jamaica 
who plant ginger here and there in patches, and gathering as little as a 
‘hundred pounds in a year. Ginger is well adapted to the small planter, 
-and admirably suited to the peasantry of Jamaica, who by slow evolu- 
tion, are passing from serfdom to manhood and independence. 

The exact cost of producing this crop is difficult to calculate. The 
present output is largely the product of domestic labour, whose value is 
hard to compute; when this class of labour is hired, it becomes very 
costly. The figures in the following table are approximate only ; as 
mow conducted there is chargeable against the crop the item of rent or 
tax, (if the cultivator is an owner), the labour is mainly that of the 
family. 

An approximate estimate of the expenditures ani receipts on an acre 
of land planted in ginger are as follows : 


Ground-rent or tax an ¢ 5.00 
Clearing land, ploughing and planting 40.00 
Cost of plants Py. 50.00 
Digging and preparing oy 15.00 
Peeling sey 45.00 
Drying ade 25.00 
Delivery at market ave 10.00 
| $190.00 

Fertiliser, (if used) Ee 50.00 
Superintendence fe 2000 
$260.00 


Yield: 1,500 to 2,500 pounds (cured ginger), at 12 cents per pound‘ 
Viewed from this standpoint, the cultivation of ginger on a large 
-seale would be far from remunerative. 


246 


TOBACCO IN THE UNITED STATES.* 
A bulletin by Mr. M. Whitney, Chief of the Division of Soils of the 


U.S. Department of Agriculture, gives a brief review of recent litera- 
ture on tobacco, statistics of tobacco production in the different tobacco- 
growing districts of the United States, meteorological conditions in the 
great tobacco regions, and texture and water content of typical soils of 
the various tobacco-growing districts. 

The conclusion is drawn that there is not sufficient difference in the 
meteorological conditions in the different regions, as ordinarily recorded, 
“to explain the distribution of the different classes of tobacco, yet this 
distribution is probably due mainly to climatic conditions... . 


“One must still judge, so far as the climate is concerned, mainly 
from the experience of others as to the class of tobacco to be raised, as- 
the ordinary meteorological record will be of very little value in determin- 
ing this point. The plant is far more sensitive to these meteorological 
conditions than are our instruments. Even in such a famous tobacco 
region as Cuba, tobacco of good quality can not be grown in the imme- 
diate vicinity of the ocean or in certain parts of the island, even on what 
would otherwise be considered good tobacco lands. This has been the 
experience also in Sumatra and in our own country, but the influences 
are too subtle to be detected by our meteorological instruments. 

‘Little therefore, can be said at the present time in regard to the 
suitable climate condition for tobacco of any particular type or quality.” 

Next to climatic conditions the class and type of tobacco depends 
more largely upon the character of soil than upon any other condition. 
The present bulletin reports and discusses mechanical analysis of @ 
large number of samples of soil and sub-soil collected in the more im- 
portant tobacco districts, and also gives records of determinations of the 
moisture content during several years ‘in one or two localities in some 
of the principal tobacco districts.” 

The results show that the cigar tobacco soils of the Connecticut Val- 
ley contain on an average considerably less than 5 per cent of clay and 
maintain on an average about 7 per cent of water throughout the sea- 
son. ‘These soils are too light in texture for any of the staple farm 
crops. They are adapted to the quick-growing spring vegetables. The 
conditions seem to be peculiarly adapted to a particular grade of wrap- 
per leaf tobacco.” Attention is called to the fact that a few years ago, 
when there was a greater demand for heavier cigars, these light soils 
had little or no value for tobacco, the tobacco being grown mainly on 
the heavier soils and on the “ meadow lands” of the Connecticut Valley. 
These meadow lands differ from the light tobacco soils now cultivated 
principally in containing a larger proportion of silt, which enable them 
to maintain a water content of from 23 to 27 per cent. 

The tobacco lands of Pennsylvania, which are also devoted mainly 
to growing cigar tobacco, are confined chiefly to a comparatively narrow 
belt along the Susquehanna River and to the limestone soils, “typically 
developed in York and Lancaster Counties.” The amount of clay in 


*Tobacco Soils of the United States, M. Whitney. (U. S. Dept. of Agri., 
Division of Soils Bul. 11, pp. 47, pls. 13.) Review in Experiment Station Record, 
IX, 11, Edited by Dr. A. C. True, &c. 


247 


these soils varies from 13.8 per cent in the river soils and shaly lime- 
stone soils to 29.27 per cent in the pure limestone soils. They main- 
tain on an average about 18 per cent. of water, the amount rising to 
22 to 23 per cent. in the heaviest limestone soils. The best wrapper 
leaf is produced on the lighter soils. 

“The cigar tobacco district of Ohio is situated in the south-western 
part of the State and includes the country bordering on the Miami 
River, Montgomery, Darke, and Preble counties forming the centre of 
the district. The soil is derived from drift material which has been 
worked over and modified by subsequent action of water.” <A typical 
soil from this region was found to contain 44.01 per cent. of silt and 
27.52 per cent. of clay. It thus appears that the soils of this district 
are as heavy in texture as the limestone soils of Pennsylvania. During 
the season of 1897 they maintained a moisture content of a little more 
than 27 per cent. ‘It is probable that the mean water content of 
these soils in an average season would amount to about 23 to 24 per 
cent. of water. The tobacco grown under these conditions is used al- 
most exclusively as a filler leaf. 

“The Wisconsin tobacco is used both as a wrapper and filler leaf to 
some extent.” It is grown on soils a typical sample of which was found 
to contain 36.05 per cent. of silt and 22.76 per cent. of clay. No 
determinations of the moisture content of these soils have been made. 

The Cuban type of cigar wrapper and filler and some Sumatra to- 
bacco are grown in Florida, especially in western Florida, although a 
new tobacco district is being opened up in the region of Fort Mead, on 
the peninsula, The tobacco lands of western Florida are “a light loam 
about 12 in. deep, resting on a heavy red clay, which is naturally well 
drained. The hammock soil of Fort Mead is, on the other hand, a very 
light, sandy soil, extending down to avery considerable depth.” The red. 
subsoils of Western Florida contain about 30 per cent. of clay, but main- 
tain on an average only about 8 or 10 per cent. of moisture. The ham- 
mock lands “ contain on an average less than 4 per cent. of clay and less 
than 6 per cent. of silt, fine silt,and clay. They contain over 50 per cent. 
of fine sand, so that they are relatively rather coarse and open. Notwith- 
standing this open texture... [they | contain an average8 percent. of water 
throughout the season, which is about as much as the tobacco lands of 
the Connecticut Valley contain. This water content, moreover, is for 
some reason more uniform, and the land can go for some time without 
rain with no serious injury to the crops. Nevertheless the planters have 
been greatly benefited by judicial systems of irrigation through over- 
head sprays. By thus keeping the plants continually and rapidly grow- 
ing” the crop will mature in 45 days from the time the plants are set 
out.” 

The soils of the cigar tobacco districts which are being developed in 
Texas and Southern California have not been thoroughly studied, but 
the analyses which have been made indicate that the soils ‘agree very 
well with the finer grades of cigar tobacco lands. The general climatic 
conditions, however, are different.” 

‘The bright yellow tobacco used for cigarettes, plug wrappers, fillers, 
and cutting is grown mainly in Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, and Kast Tennessee. ‘The typical bright tobacco land consists of 
a loose, porous sand, containing not more than 8 or 10 per cent. of clay- 


248 


This sand must be at least 12 in. deep. Many areas are cultivated in 
which the sand extends to depth of 5 or 10 ft..or more, and a very fine 
quality of tobacco is produced.” | 

The average of analyses of 44 samples of bright tobacco soils shows 
‘that they contain about 8 per cent. of clay. They maintain on an average 
-about 7 per cent. of water 

** Where the soils contain less than this the leaf inclined to be finer 

‘in texture and to have a better colour, but the yield per acre is small, 
nd the most economical conditions on the whole are maintained by 
those soils having from 7 to 8 per cent of clay and maintaining on an 
average about 7 or 8 per cent of water. As the soil becomes heavier in 
texture and the amount of water increases other grades and types of 
tobacco are produced .... As the relation of the physical properties 
of the soil is not thoroughly understood or practically recognised by the 
growers, a large amount of land is now cultivated in bright tobacco 
which is not suited to this plant and which does not produce a good grade. 
‘On the other hand, there are large areas not at present under cultivation 
which could be developed into very ‘fine tobacco lands. The typical 
bright tobacco soil is of little value for any of the sample farm crops, 
although, when suitably located near transportation lines, it is admirably 
adapted to the production of early vegetables, watermelons, ani sweet 
potatoes.” 

The manufacturing tobacco of Virginia and North Carolina is grown 
principally on the red clay soils located mainly on the gabbro, gneiss, 
and Lafayette clays. The subsoils of these areas contain from 30 to 50 
per cent of clay, and although no observations have been made on the 
moisture content of these soils it is probable from observations made on 
adjacent soils that the mean water content is not far from 20 or 22 per 
cent. Since the introduction of White Burley tobacco the cultivation 
of the heavier types of tobacco has noticeably decreased in Virginia and 
North Carolina. ‘The industry is confined now principally to small 
areas along rivers, streams, or creaks, and upon recent deposits which 

-cannot well be referred to any of the older geological formations and 
which can not well be examined without a detailed examination of the 
larger part of these States. 

“The White Burley tobacco is confined to the well-marked type of 
soil of the Lower Silurian limestone in central and north central Ken- 
tucky, and the adjacent countries of Ohio. This embraces the blue 
grass region of Kentucky, and it is upon these fine, fertile, blue grass 
soils that the White Burley is grown.” ‘The soils are all heavy clays 
of a uniform deep red colour. ‘he sudsoils contain on an average 
about 30 per cent of clay. ‘The characteristic soil of the limestone 
area of Kentucky, adapted to the White Burley tobacco, as the result of 
several years’ investigation, may be said to maintain on an average 
about 2U per cent , of water.” 

Export tobacco is grown in Kentucky and Tennessee on silty soils 
which are quite fertile in character. ‘These soils are derived chiefly 
from the St. Louis group of the subcarboniferous. They contain from 
40 to 60 per cent. of silt and 22 to 23 per cent. of clay, and maintain 

an average water content of about 15 per cent. ) 

‘The object of the daily record of moisture in the soil is not only to 
determine the average amount soils contain, but to determine the 


249 


normal as well as the extreme variation.... It is possible from such 
records to show the character of a season.. The methods of cultivation 
should have for their prime object the maintenance of the water supply 
above the line of drought, so that the growth of the plant shall receive 
mo check. If this can not be done by the ordinary method of ecultiva- 
‘tion, irrigation must be resorted to upon such occasions, if the crop is 
to be maintained in its best condition.” 


THE COTTON-SEED OIL INDUSTRY IN GEORGIA. 


By JosEPH JACOBS. 


In the present paper I shall endeavour to give some account of the 
cotton-seed oil industry, confining the statistical portion of the article 
mainly to my own State, Georgia, as this is one of the typical Southern 
States, and what is said in that connection is measurably true of the 
other Southern States of our Union; though the industry is by no 
means confined to the South. 

While the Southern States of our country now principally supply the 
world with cotton, the cultivation of the plant is not at all confined to 
that section. Egypt, India, Australia, portions of China and many of 
the Stutes of South America, as well as many of the islands of the seas, 
cultivate the variety of the Gossypium plant, known by the common 
English name “ cotton.” 

In England there are now about twenty-five oil mills in operation, 

-consuming principally black seed of the sea island plant transported in 
ships from Egypt, and the Hollanders are, perhaps, as largely engaged in 
theindustry. The oil has been made in those countries for many years. 

The superiority of the oil made in our Southern States is due partly 
to the fact that the seeds can be secured fresh from the fields, near the 
oil plants, whereas in England and Holland some months are often re- 
quired to bring them over in sailing vessels. Besides, the English and 
Holland oil is not so clear as ours because the seed there treated is 
Egyptian or Indian, and is not decorticated, owing to the difficulty of 
picking it. Our cotton seed parts with its fibre more readily, and in 
every way yields better to treatment. 

The first mill for the manufacture of the oil in this country was, per- 
haps, the one near Columbia, 8. C., mention of which is found as early 
as 1826; though it was probably operated prior to that date. One of 
the mills in New Orleans before the war used a 35 hors2-power steam 
press, producing 500 gallons of oil and 5 tons of oil cake a day. It re- 
quired, as stated in the Southern Farmer and Planter, about 15 tons of 
cotton seed to produce this amount of oil and cake, or each ton yielded 
about 40 gallons of oil and 700 or 800 pounds of cake. In Memphis, 
Tenn., it was also made in large quantities. At this period we find the 
following published statement of the uses of the oil :—“ This oil, refined 
by a secret process. is made of two qualities—the best use for illuminat- 
ing and lubricating purposes and for currying leather, and the inferior 
for making soap equal to the palm soap. Cotton-seed cake was then 
considered of about equal value with flax-seed cake.” 

_ Prior to the war the cotton seeds were very little used as a stock food. 
‘Some farmers sparingly used them after boiling. They were abundantly 
applied as a manure, but only in their uncrushed condition. Browne, 


250 


in his “ Field Book of Manures,” says: “They abound in a mild oil,. 
and are acconnted very nutritious after the oil is expressed, a bushel of 

seeds weighing 30 pounds, and yielding 24 quarts of oil, and 124 pounds 
of finemeal. The oil cake is very brittle, and breaks down more readily 
than linseed cake. The taste is not unpleasant, and it is stated it can 

be used with success in fattening stock.” 

In the Patent Office Reports, 1855, p 234, can be found “some 
chemical researches on the seed of the cotton plant,” by Prof. Chas. T. 
Jackson. He refers to a patent taken out by D. W. Mesner. for 
separating the “hulls” from the cotton-seed. Analyses are given of the 
oil, the seed, the cake, etc. Professor Jackson employed ether to 
separate the fixed oil, and it was found that 100 pounds of the dried, 
pulverized seed gave 40 per cent. of pure fatty oil. The specific gravity 
of the oil is given as 0.9238, which he states is the specific gravity 
of pure whale oil. He recommended its use for lubricating machinery, 
burning in lamps and for making soaps, and suggested its use as a sub- 
stitute for olive oil, and use as a salad oil, it having no disagreeable odour 
or taste. On examining the cotton seed oil cake, he found that it 
possessed “a sweet and agreeable flavour, and was much more pure and 
clean than linseed oil cake.” One hundred grains of the seed leave 60 
grains of the oil cake. This cake examined for sugar was found to 
contain 1.1 grains, and for gum 35 grains. Iodine gave no proof of 
any starch in the cotton-seed, nor in the oil cake. 

Since the war, the cotton-seed oil industry of the South has grown to 
immense proportions. The number of mills has increased from four in 
1867 to over 300 at the present day. In 1872 the export of cotton oil 
only amounted to 4,900 barrels; in 1896 about 30,000 barrels, and the 
present products amounts to about 28,000,000 gallons per annum, worth 
about 30 cents. per gallon, causing the consumption of about 800,000 
tons of cotton-seed. The product goes to nearly every Kuropean port, 
to Africa, Australia, India, the South American Republics, West Indies 
and Canary Islands and Japan. The Germans and Americans are said 
to prefer animal fats to vegetable oils, contrary to the taste of all other 
civilised people. The capacity of the various mills varies from a con- 
sumption of 250 tons a day by the larger mills to 15 tons by the 
smaller. The total capacity of the Georgia mills is about 2,000 tons @ 
day, which, if run on full time, would consume more than the total seed 
product of that State, if all were available; but the fact is that much of 
the seed used by the Georgia mills is brought from Alabama, Missis- 
sippi, Florida and Carolina. The annual out-put of Georgia from the 
200,000 tons of seed, is about 150,000 pounds of oil, 70,000 tons of 
meal, 8,000 bales in linters and 80,000 tons of hulls. The average 
value of the annual product is about $2,750,000. 

I have thus endeavoured to give some of the facts connected with 
cotton-seed oil, its history and its quantity and production in the hope 
that our trade may find it a profitable product to deal in. I will now 
enumerate some of the uses to which it has been applied, hoping that. 
they may suggest others even more in line with our especial interests. 

The principal use to which it is put is for food purposes. The claim 
that itis more healthful than many animal fats has been largely respon- 
sible for its extensive adoption in this connection. Nearly seven-eights 
of the 38,000,000 gallons produced per annum probably find their way 


251 


4nto “refined lard” and salad and cooking oil. It is used for illuminat- 
ng, in the manufacture of bolts and nuts ; for all kinds of soap, bath, 
laundry and toilet soap. It is used as a substitute for olive oil as an 
emulsion in medicine; it has been prescribed as a substitute for cod-liver 
oil, and for olive oil in packing sardines, and in many other ways. It 
is said that its non-drying properties debar its use as a wood filler, or 
for stuffing hides in making morocco and other leathers. No treatment 
as has yet been discovered which will give it the ‘‘ drying” properties 
of a good menstrum for paint. As a soap for woolen mills, it has been 
extensively adopted in America, England and Scotland. 

As an illuminant, a writer claims that its place is midway between 
sperm and lard oil. It can be burned alone or mixed with petroleum. 
On the coast of Maine there are a number of establishments shipping 
“sardines” and “ shadines,” which are said to be cooked and then placed 
in boxes containing cotton-seed oil; and it has been charged that of the 
immense quantity of sardines exported from France and other European 

countries, largely more than three-fourths are now treated with cotton- 

seed oil instead of olive oil, as was formerly the exclusive practice. It 
has been suggested that the oil could be used in gandle-making and for 
steel tempering. —( American Journal of Pharmacy. ) 


USE OF GAS-LIME IN AGRICULTURE. 
By Dr. J. A. VortcKer.* 


Lime, it is well known, is largely employed in gas-works for the pur- 
‘pose of removing from crude coal gas, as it issues from the retorts, sul- 
phuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid, which deteriorate its illuminating 
‘powers. After having served some time in the gas-purifiers and hecome 
more or less saturated with these and some other impurities, the lime is 
replaced by a fresh quantity of quick-lime and thrown aside for the use 
of the agriculturist. This gas-lime, or refuse lime from gas-works, is 
generally obtainable at a much more reasonable expense than most 
other forms in which lime is usually employed in agriculture, and con- 
stitutes a refuse material which, in many instances, has been applied 
with marked beneficial effects both to light and heavy land. The suc- 
cessful application of Gas-lime to the land, however, depends, like that 
of marl, chalk, and quicklime, upon a variety of conditions, some of 
which are peculiar to Gas-lime. These conditions we purpose briefly to 
examine, after having referred more particularly to the composition of 
gas-lime. Different samples, as may naturally be expected, vary to 
some extent in their chemical constitution, but the differences are not 
so great as to lead to the conclusion that whilst some samples are very 
efficacious as fertilising agents, others possess little or no manuring 
property. Judiciously used, all samples are economical means for in- 
creasing the productiveness of land adapted for its reception. In order 
to guard against disappointment, it may be well to state at once that 
gas-lime is not a universal manure like farmyard manure, benefiting 
more or less every description of crop on every variety of soil, nor that 
itjis a concentrated fertiliser acting in a similar manner to Peruvian 


* Journal of Gas Lighting, April, 1865. 


252. 


guano, nitrate of soda, or bone manures. In point of fact, gas-lime- 
exercises a most’ decidedly beneficial effect upon some soils but has no 
effect upon others; success in its application, therefore depends mainly” 
upon the proper selection of the land upon which it is intended to be- 
put. On this point we shall have, presently, to make some special 
remarks. 

In the first place it will be desirable to inquire a little more closely 
into the | 


CHEMICAL CoNSTITUTION OF GAS-LIME. 


As already stated, the sulphur compounds and carbonic acid in crude- 
coal gas transform the slaked quicklime in the purifiers more or less 
into sulphuret of calcium, a combination of sulphur with calcium, the 
metallic base of lime, and into carbonate of lime. At the same time- 
some tarry matter, a little ammonia, and other volatile substances pass. 
into the gas-purifiers and are partially retained by the lime in a me- 
chanical way. Tresh gas-lime has a bad smell, arising mainly from the’ 
sulphur compounds contained in it, and should not be put on the land 
in this condition, for the ameliorating influence of a copious supply of 
air is required to transform these injurious sulphur compounds into fer- 
tilising materials, the presence of which, in some respects, rendera gas- 
lime exposed to air for some time superior to quicklime. The oxygen 
of the atmosphere completely destroys the bad smell of fresh gas-lime, 
by changing the sulphuret of calcium in it, first into sulphite, and finally 
into sulphate of lime, or gypsum. ‘There is thus an essential difference 
between Gas-lime newly removed from the purifiers, and after it has 
been freely exposed to the atmosphere. In a fresh state it contains sul- 
phur compounds, which give off sulphuretted hydrogen and are injuri- 
ous to vegetable life ; in the latter condition it contains gypsum, a well- 
known fertilising substance. ‘The longer this refuse material is kept 
freely exposed to the air, the more completely these baneful changes are 
effected, and the more efficacious it becomes asa manure. In addition 
to the constituents already mentioned, Gas-lime contains a variable 
quantity of water, more or less unaltered quicklime, and all the impuri- 
ties originally contained in the quicklime employed in the gas-works. 
In fresh Gas-lime the proportion of water varies usually from 30 to 40° 
per cent.; in old samples there is much less. The following analysis 
of a sample of Gas-lime, kept long enough to be used with safety as a. 
manure, will show at a glance its complex character :— 


Composition of Gas-LIME (dried at 212° Fahr.) 


Water of combination and a little organic matter . 7.24 
Oxides of iron and alumina, with traces of phospho- 2.49 
ric acid : 
Sulphate of lime (gypsum) . ; 4.64 
Sulphite of lime. ; urges pis Bee 
Carbonate of lime . ; : . 49.40 
Caustic lime ot) DBs 23 
Magnesia and alkalies : 2.53 
Insoluble siliceous matter ’ 0.28 

100.00 


253 


The efficacy of all fertilisers is due to the material substances which- 
enter into their combination; and as many of the usual components of 
manures have a specific effect upon vegetation, it cannot be reasonably” 
expected that Gas-lime, abounding in combinations of lime should pro- 
duce the same results in the field as those which a phosphatic or ammo- 
niacal manure is capable of producing. 


A glance at the preceding analysis shows plainly that gas-lime acts. 
as a fertiliser solely in virtue of the lime compounds which occur in it. 
Like quicklime, it discharges the four following important functions : 
(1) Gas-lime exercises a beneficial mechanical effect upon land, by ren- 
dering stiff, heavy clay land, more porous, friable, and consequently 
better adapted for cultivation, and by consolidating, on the other hand, 
light, sandy soils. (2) It supplies food to plants. All our cultivated 
plants on burning furnish ashes, containing a good deal of lime, which 
is essential to the healthy development of all vegetable produce. As 
plants have not the power of generating lime, it is clear either the soil 
upon which they are grown or the manure which is put upon it must 
contain a sufficient amount of this constituent, so necessary for the very 
existence of all plants. Gas-lime not only supplies lime to plants, but 
also sulphuric acid, a combination not present in any quantity in quick - 
lime. For leguminous crops, such as Peas, or Beans, for Clover, and 
other crops specially benefited by sulphate of lime or gypsum, Gas-lime 
when obtainable, as is generally the case, ata trifling expense is cer- 
tainly preferable to quicklime asa manure, (3) Gas-lime, in virtue of 
its alkaline properties, exercises a beneficial effect upon the organic 
matters in the soil. In this respect its action is similar to that of quick- 
lime. Both facilitate the destruction of organic matters, the remains 
of previous crops, and their conversion into plant food. (4) Gas-lime,. 
like quick-lime, has the power of unlocking, so to say, the naturally un- 
available mineral stores of plant food in the soil. In many soils, but 
more especially in clay land, we find portions of granite and other 
minerals from which clay has been originally produced. ‘hese minerals 
are the chief sources from which the necessary amount of alkalies re- 
quired by plants is furnished. But as their decomposition proceeds 
slowly, a long time must pass before potash and soda can be rendered 
soluble, or made available for the use of the plants. Gas-lime, like 
quicklime, materially hastens this decomposition, and thus produces an 
effect similar to that of a prolonged fallow. 


Its Uszs. 


These remarks on the functions of gas-lime in relation to vegetable 
life at once point out the crops which are benefited by its applicati: n, 
and in a special manner, the kind of land upon which it produces the 
most striking results. 


The crops which are particularly benefited by Gas-lime are: Clover, 
Sainfoin, Lucerne, Peas, Beans, Vetches, and Turnips. It is also a 
most useful fertiliser for permanent pasture, especially if the land is na- 
turally deficient in lime. On natural grasses the best farmyard manure 
often produces little improvement until a dressing of lime, marl or Guas- 
lime has been applied. The latter more particularly destroys the coarser 


254 


grasses and favours the growth of a sweeter and more nutritious her- 
‘bage. Gas-lime also kills Moss, Heath, Feather Grass, and other plants 
characteristic of peaty land, and is, therefore, a valuable means for im- 
-proving peaty or mossy meadows. For improvement of peat land, the 
‘liberal application of Gas-lime cannot be too highly recommended. On 
such land it is best to use Gas-lime in the form of a compost, which 
should be kept in a heap for a period of ten or twelve months, and 
turned once or twice before spreading. On land naturally deficient in 
‘lime, Turnips often refuse to grow, or, if they grow at all, produce but 
a scanty crop, which is moreover very liable to be attacked by a disease, 
‘known to practical farmers, as “finger and toe.” A large dose of Gas- 
lime applied to the stubble land in the autumn, before it has been turn- 
ed up by the plough, in many instances is an effectual cure for this 
disease. An interesting instance of the prevalence of “finger and toe” 
in a Turnip crop grown on a light, sandy soil, and the complete cure of 
this disease by a liberal application of gas-lime, was brought under my 
notice some years ago. On visiting the field where the Turnips were 
affected by wart-like excrescences, and forked and twisted into the most 
fantastical forms, I noticed a spot on which the roots were nearly all 
-gound. On stooping down and examining the soil, I picked up some bits 
of a whitish-looking substance, which appeared to me like dried Gas- 
lime, and I learned afterwards that on this very spot a cart of Gas-lime 
had been unloaded the year before. ‘The chemical examination of the 
goid on this field showed merely traces of lime, and, at my recommen- 
dation, the occupier applied a heavy dose of Gas-lime, which completely 
cured the evil. 

With regard to the quantity of Gas-lime which ought to be put on the 
Jand, no general rule can be laid down, for the quantity should be regu- 
lated by the relative deficiency in calcareous constituents which different 
soils exhibit. Speaking generally however two tons per acre may be 
used with safety, and in many instances a heavier dressing will not be 
amiss. The proper time for application is autumn or during the winter 
months, when vegetation is at a standstill. On arable land gas-lime 
should be applied to the stubble, spread out evenly, and left exposed to 
the air before ploughing up for three or four weeks. On grass land it 
should be spread during the months of December or January, or at uny 
rate before vegetation is making a fresh start. | 

In conclusion, I may observe that it is well to remember that gas-lime 
acts beneficially as a fertiliser mainly in virtue of its calcareous consti- 
tuents, and therefore is most usefully supplied to land naturally deficient 
in lime. On land abounding in this substance it has little or no effect. 
Though by no means a substitute for farmyard manure, guano, and 
other concentrated artificial manures, Gas-lime judiciously used is un- 
questionably a valuable auxiliary manuring agent which frequently can 
be used with greater economy than quicklime or marl. 


255 


FERNS : SYNOPTICAL LIST—LVI. 


Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Ja- 
maica. By G. S. Junman, Superintendent, Botanical Garden, 


Demerara. 
Order 1V.—Selaginellacee. 


Sporangia of two kinds, larger and smaller; the former (macrospo- 
rangia) containing macrospores ; the latter (microsporangia) containing 
microspores ; borne separately in the axils of normal or modified leaves, 
in which they are single, and free or partially embedded; the macrospo- 
rangia being calcareous-white and inferior in situation to the microspo- 
rangia. : 

This order consists of two very dissimilar genera if only the physiog- 
nomy or conformation of the respective members be regarded. They 
are associaved however by the character which they possess in common, 
of the sporangia and spores being of two kinds, one larger than the 
other, generally considerably larger; each kind of the spores possessing 
separate sexual potentiality, generation resulting from the interaction 
of the contents of the cells that are produced on their germination ; if 
this union is not affected the antecedent germs perish. 

Fructification in terminal spikes in the axils of imbricating keeled 
bracts ; leaves usually dimorphons. 

1. Selaginella. 

Fructification embraced in the clasping case of the normal leaves ; 
the plants rosette-like in form, 


2. Isoétes. 


Genus I. Selaginella, Beauv. 


Sporangia bivalved, uniform, orbicular, or subglobose, borne in modi- 
fied 4-gonal spikes, at the end of the branches ; mucrosporangia inferior, 
usually few, containing few large white macrospores ; microsporangia 
superior, usually numerous, containing multitudinous minute micro- 
spores; leaves small or minute, generally of two kinds—rarely of one- 
major and minor, each kind bi-serial, imbricating or slightly apart, the 
larger series lateral and spreading from the axis obliquely or horizon- 
tally, the smaller intermediary, more or less in a line with and dorsal 
on the axis and appressed thereto; fronds generally pinnately or 
irregularly divided, rarely simple, often decompound; more or less 
copiously leafy throughout ; prostrate, sub-erect, erect or scandent. 

Selaginellas differ trom their allies the club-mosses by possessing two 
kinds of sporangia and spores, the generally distichous arrangement of 
the leaves, which gives the stems a flattened appearance, their more or 
less prostrate or subscandent habit of growth, their uniformly commu- 
nal association and, as a rule, terrestrial location. ‘lhree or tour Lyco- 
podia have a somewhat similar arrangement of their leaves, and a con- 
siderable number are terrestrial, and some too are communal, but among 
the selaginellas these are nearly constant characteristics. In a few 
species, none of which is native within the limits of this flora, the leaves 
are all of one kind and multifarious, the stems being consequently con- 
volute, as is the rule in the Lycopodia. In nearly all the species there 
rm some variation of shape in the fronds, and in many this is consider- 
able. 


256 


Bracts of the fruit-spikes all of one kind. 
Fronds prostrate or sub-erect, not flagelliform at the apex. 
Rachises not exceeding 1-1} li. wide across, the leaves included. 
1. S. caribense. 
2. S. porelloides. 
3. S. denudata. 
4, 8. confusa. 
Rachises not exceeding 14—2 li. w. across, the leaves included. 
5. 8. alvonitens. 
6. S. serpens. 
7. 8. didymostachya. 
Fronds prostrate or suberect, flagelliform at the apex. 
8. 8. patula. 
9. S. setigera. 
10. S. stolonifera. 
Fronds erect. 
| : 11. S. cuspidata. 

1. S. caribensis, Jeonm.—Fronds prostrate, very delicate, 1-2 in. 1, 
usually leafy to the base, the shorter ones quite simple, the longer with 
short alternate mostly distant branches which are 1-6 li. 1., #-1 li. w. 
over the leaves ; leaves contiguous, apart, or the lower ones subdistant, 
about 4 li. 1. or less and rather less w. point rounded or subacute, base 
subcordate, the upper auricled side ciliate and deeper than the rather 
contracted lower ; minor leaves minute, apart, aristato-acuminate, sub- 
cordate, the outer side longer than the inner, the margins slightly cili- 
ate, spikes about a li, 1. the bracts not distinctly keeled, ciliate-marginal, 
lax or spreading and revealing the sporangia. Baker, Fern Al. p. 68. 

Rare in forests at 5000-7000 ft. alt. on trees and decaying logs. In- 
termediate between confusa and rotundifolia, much weaker and more 
delicate than the former, and not so lax and delicate as the latter. 
The leaves only imbricate at the tips of the short branches, elsewhere 
they are more or less apart, increasingly so downwards. Both the main 
rachis and branches are the same width over the leaves. ‘The fertile 
bracts are rather broader, but otherwise conform with the intermediary 
leaves. The sporangia are very few to a spike, only 2-3 or 4 in my 
specimens. 

2. 8. porelloides, Spring—Fronds rooted at the base, variable in out- 
line-subdeltoid or irregular, bright or dark green, membranous, freely 
but openly branched, twice-pinnate, the branches about 1 li. w. over 
the leaves; rachises very slender and angular; major leaves apart, 
oblique, ovate-oblong, $ li. 1. less w. barely pointed, inequilateral, the 
rounded and broader superior base imbricating on the rachis, the mar- 
gins faintly spinulose-cil ate, minor leaves apart, ovate-cuspidate, the 
margins ciliate, the outer side extending beyond the rachis ; spikes co- 
pious, 2-5 li. 1.; outer bracts sharply keeled, cuspidate, inferior open.— 
Fée, Fil. Ant. t. 34. fig. 3. Baker, Fern Al. p. 85. : 

Forests at 6,000 ft. alt. In its leaves this resembles confusa but it is 
quite differently branched, and is of a much broader and different shape. 

3. S. denudata, Spring—Fronds 6 in. |. irregularly branched, the 
branches flaccidand laxly sparingly again branched: major leaves apart 
on the rachises, but crowded on the outer part of the final branches, 
ovate, subobtuse, 1 li. 1. horizontal, subequilateral, the base equally 


257 


cordate, firm in textr~e ; minor leaves but little smaller, ovate, acute; 
spikes short, 4-stichous, square; bracts ovate-lanceolate, strongly 
keeled, Bak. Fern. Al. p. 55. Lycopodium Willd. Jamaica; collected 
by Swartz. This I have not seen and the description is made up from 
Mr. Baker’s, in his synopsis of the genus, which again is made from 
Spring’s Monograph 11. 84. Grisebach supposes it to be a form of 
confusa devoid of marginal bristles to the leaves, but in every species 
almost these bristles are a varying character, and their absence, with- 
out other characters, would not constitute a specific difference. 

4. S. confusa, Spring —Fronds 3-4 or 5 in. 1 2-14 in. w. pale green, 
composed of the central axis and few or several distant alternate sim- 
ple or again branched branches, which are 4-1 in. L., and 1 li. w. over 
the leaves, below which is a slender decrescent stem 1-3 in. 1. very 
laxly clothed downwards with decrescent minute leaves; major leaves 
lax, spreading with usually half or fully their own width between 
them, flat, ovate rather pointed subcordate and ciliate on the rounded 
wider upper base, # li. 1. rather less w., minor leaves ovate, aristate- 
pointed. 4 li. 1., the margin ciliate, reaching from one to the other al- 
ternately, but not imbricating; spikes 1-3 or 4 li. 1, 4-stichous; bracts 
keeled loose, ciliate-margined ; sporangia smaller. Baker, Fern Al. p. 85. 

a var. densa Jenm. Fronds shorter, all parts more compact, lateral 
leaves rather narrower both kinds closely imbricated. 

Frequent in forests at 5,000-7,000 ft. altitude on trees and rocks, A 
slender weakly species of uniform width in all its parts, rather lax in 
leafage and variable, but still well marked, inform. There is gene- 
rally a slender threadlike stem bearing root-fibres at the base, the small 
scattered leaves on which increase in size upwards towards the 
branches. In branching it is variable. In some of the weaker states, 
though regularly pinnate, the branches run together at the top, while 
in others they spread laterally as regularly as in serpens. Perhaps 
these are distinct varieties, as the leaves in the former are much 
smaller and the general habit weaker. The spikes are often flattened 
in dried specimens though strictly 4-stichous in life. Vara is much 
shorter, very much denser in habit and a dark green. It is my n. 30 
of 1876, in part in Herb. Kew. 

S. rotundifolia, Spring Fée. Fil. Ant. t. 34 is likely an inhabitant of 
Jamaica, but has not yet been gathered there. It grows on stems of 
trees and on logs. 

5. &. albonitens, Spring.—Stems short and threadlike if any clear 
of the leafy base of the fronds; fronds delicate, pale or dark green, 
spreading, from 1 in. each way to, rarely, 2 or 3 in., twice or thrice 
pinne.e, the lateral branches extending generally nearly or quite as much 
as the central making the outline more or less flabellate ; 1-1} or rarely 
2 li. w. over the leaves; leaves with a short space between them half 
or fully their own width; the major one spreading, oblong, obtuse or 
rounded at the end, #-1 li. 1., barely 4 li. b.; minor very small, ovate- 
lanceolate, with a long spinescent somewhat cuspidate point; spikes 
3-5 li. L., hardly 4 li. w., 4-stichous; bracts ultimately loose; sporangia 
very minuie.—Baker, Fern Al. p. 72. 

Infrequent on open banks at 3,000-5,000 ft. altitude. A very 
small species, generally not much over an inch high, consisting of a 
few irregular branches, nearly 2 li. w., with spoke-like, relatively long, 


258 


fertile spikes. Its distinguishing features are the spreading habit of 
growth, oblong lateral leaves, that are not at all pointed, long-pointed 
intermediary ones, which under a strong lens are faintly denticulate, 
and long fertile spikes. The latter, as in confusa, are compressed in 
dry spec'mens. 

6. S. serpens, Spring.-Fronds prostrate throughout, 4-1 ft. 1. 1-4 in. 
w., pinnately branched from the base upwards, tri-quadripinnate, the 
leaves unmodified both at base and apex, varying in colour at different 
times, elastical-membranous in texture, pinnary branches 1-13 li. w 
over the leaves, variable in length and gener irregular or unequal 
in the same frond, 1-4 in. 1.; secondary 4-4 in. 1; tertiary (if present) 
only rudimentary, but fertile ; leaves slightly imbricating generally, 
but often not, or barely, on the primary rachis; major subovyate, 
spreading, nearly equilateral, cordate, with rounded auricles at the base, 
the point blunt or rounded, #-1 li. 1., and as wide, the inferior basal 
margin ciliate; minor leaves attached laterally near the base, ovate, 
pointed but not spinulose, eee margin spinulose—ciliate all round, 
4 li. l.; spikes 1-6 li. 1, 4 li. w. 4-stichous, square but loose ; bracts 
sharply keeled.— Baker, Fern Al. p. 46 

Very abundant on oper banks and rocks, spreading in large patches, 
which completely conceal the surface, the fronds quite flat, with hair- 
like roots from the joints of the rachises on the underside ; chiefly at 
low altitudes and among the lower hills. The colour changes during 
the day and varies from a very pale green to purplish-brown in 
different parts. The texture is rather elastic, and contracts somewhat 
when dry. The branches are 14-2 li. w. The lateral attachment of 
the intermediary leaves, which makes them ear-shaped, the sharp rib 
of the rachis showing between the two rows, are reliable and certain 
characters for determining the species. 

7. S.didymostachya, Spring —Fronds stiff, light wiry, or dark green, 


4-1 ft. or more l repeatedly and much branched from the base upwards, © 


prostrate, with long filiform stramineous roots descending from the 
joints beneath; the branches 1-2 li. w. over the leaves; rachises 
throughout flexuose, glossy stramineous, stiff, and wiry, but not rigid, 
the leaves conform, but rather more lax than those of the branches ; 
major leaves ovate-oblong, inequilateral, rounded but with an indis- 
tinct point at the apex, the joint at the base raised, 1 li. 1. ? li. w., not 
imbricating, or only slightly so in the final branchlets, the margins 
usually naked; minor leaves ascending in the line of the rachis, cuspi- 
date, subkeeled in the outer branches, faintly spinulose-ciliate, $ li. 1. 
or less, little imbricating or not; spikes 2-4 li. 1. 4 li. b., square, bracts 
appressed or loose, keeled. Baker, Fern Al. p. 55. 

a, var. integerrima, Fée. Fil. Ant. t. 34, fig 4.—Fronds smaller and 
more compact, with narrower parts. 

b. var. densa, Jenm.—Habit very dense, final branches very numer- 
ous, lying close together. 

Abundant in mountain forests, principally in the middle region, 
from 2,000—4,000 ft. alt., covering the ground, to which it is lightly 
attached by the long stilt-like stramineous glossy descending roots. It 
is a well-marked species characterised by the wiry roots, its usually lax 
freely branched habit, strong, stiff, and constantly zig-zag rachises, 
which are quite cylindric, and raised joints of the leaves. 


259 
8. §. patula, Spring.—Fronds light green, often silvery beneath, 


membranous, quite prostrate, triquadripinnate, 4—6 or 12 in. |. 1-3 or 
4 in. b., branched and often reduced from the base upwards, rachis dis- 
tinct throughout, very slender, and extended beyond the upper decre- 
scent branches in a threadlike tail, quite laxly clothed throughout 
with minute leaves of one kind only, which are not spinulose-pointed, 
the outer margin at the base spinulose-ciliate; primary branches 
spreading, about 1 li. w. over the leaves, the inferior ones with a ter- 
minal tail like that of the primary rachis; leaves imbricated, the ma- 
jor spreading, oblong, the point acute but not pungent, outer margin 
ciliate, $ li. 1. }-4rd li. w.; minor leaves ovate, spinulose-pointed, 
spinulose-ciliate on the outer margin, $rd-4 li. 1.; spikes short, $ li. w., 
4-stichous; bracts loose, ciliate-edged or not; sporangia minute.— 
Baker, Fern. Al. p. 46. 

Infrequent on open rocks and banks at various altitudes up to 3,000 
or 4,000 ft. This like setigera, is marked by the slender elongated 
rachis, clothed above and below the frond portion proper with small 
difform leaves of one kind, that run through the fronu, extending 
tail-like at the top, and also in the principal branches. The contrast 
is the greater owing to the leaves of the intermediate parts being close 
and imbricated. Though distinctly 4-stichous, the spikes are so short 
and the bracts so lax that they are not very distinctly angular. The 
leaves of the stem and rachis resemble in character the lateral leaves 
of the branchlets, but are reduced in size and more ovate in shape. 

9. S. setigera, Jenm.—Stems firm, slender, suberect, clothed with 
firmly appressed minute leaves throughout, ribbed when dry, and 
stramineous ; fronds compact or lax, somewhat variable in shape, ovate, 
deltoid or lanceolate, extending into a long slender rauicant flagelli- 
form tail, tripimnate, the primary branches sometimes extended like the 
main axis of the frond and radicant, dark green, firm; major leaves 
onthe main axis contiguous or close, obliquely and flatly spreading, 
sub cordate, ovate-deltoid, hardly acute, 4-# li. 1. less w., the base 
ciliate: those of the outer branches imbricating, oblong or linear-ob- 
long, obliquely acute-pointed ; the branches 1-1} li. w., over the leaves, 
minor leaves ascending, close or contiguous, ovate, spinulose-pointed, 
inequilateral, the base cordate, ciliate or spinulose-edged all round, 
about $ li. 1. and extending to the end of the thread-like tail which is 
devoid of major leaves; spikes 1-2 l1. 1, the shorter ones lax, with 
open convex, keeled acuminate bracts, pressed back by the large 
sporangia. Baker, Fern Al. p. 75. 

By its habit of extending and rooting at the end of the tail, and 
there producing new-growth, this resembles in hab t patula as before 
said, but is a larger and darker coloured plant. The slender unbranched 
stem at the base is 2-6 in. 1.; the frond 3-6 in. and the extended 
outer part from a few inches to a span or more. Sometimes short al- 
ternate sub-distant branches extend upwards on the prolonged outer 
part, thus making the frond a foot or less long. 

10. S. stolonifera Spring.—Fronds trailing, a foot cr more l,, 
extended into a whip-like tail at the end, freely decompound; rachises 
angled, jointed at the nodes; branches short, compound ; major leaves 
apart on the rachises, close in the outer parts, oblique, oblong or 
oblong-lanceolate, acute, sub-cordate, nearly equilateral but laterally in- 


260 


serted, the superior base more rour ded andciliate, not imbricated on the 
rachis, firm in substance and stiffish, 1-1} li.1. 3 minor leaves 4 to 4 as 
long as the major, sharply pointed ; spikes 1- 4 in. L, tetragonal. 4 li. 
w., bracts imbricating, keeled, acute. —Baker, Fern Al. p. 61. Lyeopo- 
dium, Swartz. 

Gathered by Swartz in Jamaica, but not since his day. 


11. S. cuspidata, Link.—Stems, erect, rigid, terete, 4-1 ft. L, 1 li. 
thick, sometimes branched, generally with few or several abortive 
spurlike buds 1-2 h. | along the sides, clothed throughout with im- 
bricating ciliate-edged, clasping leaves, which are 3-4 serial and all of 
one kind; fronds erect, stiff, light green, subovate or ovate-deltoid, 
usually broadest at the base and narrowed upwards, 3-5 in. ae we 
repeatedly pinnate; the branches very dense and close and 4-3 li. 
over ae leaves; major leaves very densely imbricating, ovatelacemeese 
ate, # li. J. 4-2 li. w., the inner (or upper) margin ciliate; minor leaves 
alee half the size, spinulose-pointed, faintly denlicalie towards the 
point, inequilateral, the double series imbricating one with another ; 
spikes very numerous, occupying all the branches, densely 4-stichous, 
1-3 in. 1. 4 i. w., brects faintly ciliate on the margins; sporangia very 
minute.—Baker, Fern. Al. p. 89. 


Infreqnent on open banks and waysides in the Port Royal mountains 
at 2,000-4,000 ft., altitude, having stiff,erect stems, with a spreading 
usually deltoid frond at the top, very dense in all its parts. The pin- 
nae more or less over-lap, and the branchlets are rather concave on the 
upperside and convex or almost keeled on the under. Throughout 
the leaves are so very densely imbricated that no part of the stems or 
rachises is visible. The spikes are long, square-edged, the sides rather 
concave. . 


Genus II. Jsoétes, Linn. 


Sporangia contained in the axils of the leaves, partly immersed in 
the interior of the base, the macrosporangia in the inferior and micros- 
porangia in the superior ones. Microspores spherical ; microspores 3- 
gonal; leaves herbaceous, from a few inches to a foot or more high, 
springing in a dense rosette from a thickened corm-like rootstock, 
acaulescent, the expanded base clasping, tapering thence upwards to the 
acuminate, often convolute point. These, the Quillworts of Britain, are 
herbaceous bog or aquatic plants, with numerous leaves, appressed 
together at their expanded clasping bases, from whence they taper 
rapidly to the much reduced point, the height varying with the 
different species, forming a dense upright cluster cr open rosette. The 
sporangia are concealed in theclasping bases, and must be sought for by 
removing the leaves. I have seen no Jamaica species, but it is possi- 
ble the genus may be represented in the higher regions as it is in the 
countries around for to the inexperienced the plant might be passed as 
small tufts or aquatic ridge. The Cuban species in I. cubana, Englm., 
which has a trilobed rootstock, few or numerous thinly grass-like, 
acuminate, filiform leaves, reaching from a few to several in. lL, the 
base delated and clasping with relatively small sporangia macrospores 
and microspores. Baker, Fern Al. p. 133. 


261 


OrveER V. Marsileacee. 

Capsules scattered or serial ou the root-stock or the base of the 
petioles, globose or ovate-oblong, coriaceous, 2-4 valved, dehiscent, 
sporangia membranous, indehiscent ; spores of two kinds, macrospores 
‘and microspores. Rootstock free-creeping, slender, vernation circinate. 
Leaves linear-filifor1a, or 4-foliate, at the summit of slender erect 
petioles. 


This order like the preceding contains two dissimilar genera. One, 
Pilularia, is confined to temperate regions, the other, Marsilea, to the 
warm temperate and tropical, and is here represented. 


Genus I. Marsilea, Linn. 


Capsules stipitate, 1-2 li. diameter, serial on the rootstock or the base 
of the petioles, coriaceous, dehiscent, bivalved, containing numerous 
sacklike membranous transverse sporangia which contain both macros- 
pores and microspores; rootstock creeping; leaves 4-foliate, at the 
summit of slender erect petioles. 


These are small perennial plants that grow gregariously in still fresh 
water, floating on the surface, and are distributed through the tropical 
and the warm and cool temperate regions of the world. About iorty 
or fifty species are known. ‘lhe capsules are small pea—or bean—like 
bodies, leathery in substance, containing a series of pale thinly-mem- 
branous transverse sack-like cells, in which the:spores stand length- 
wise, 3d-serial, the larger oblong, (macrospores) forming one series, the 
central, and the smaller (microspores) two. The former are several 
times larger than the latter, which, till removed, they quite conceal. 


1. WW. polycarpa, Hook and Grev.—Rootstock thick as small cord, free- 
creeping, naked, with filiform long descending roots and scattered 
ascending petioles, that are slender, 4-8 in. |. naked; leaves 4-foliate, 
terminal on the summit of the petiole ; leaflets wedge-shaped, the outer 
edge rounded, at first folded together, spreading subsequently ; #-1+ 
in. in diameter each way, sessile, membranous, herbaceous; venation 
reticulated, fine, with no primary ribs, anastomosing, forming narrow 
elongated linear meshes ; sporangia subylobose 14 li. diameter, serial 
on the lower part of the stipes above a vacant space at the base, shortly 
stipitate, few or many, densely tomentose, but becoming eventually 
naked.— Icon. Fil. t. 160. Baker, Fern Al. p. 189. WW. brasiliensis, 
Mett. 


Common in ponds and trenches, lagoons, and other still water, 
covering where found, the surface densely, with oxalis, or clover like 
foliage, and spreading over large areas. The Jamaica plant, gathered 
by Purdie, Feb. 1844, in ponds at Hodge’s Penn. St. Elizabeth, is M. 
subangulata, A. Br., and regarded by Mr. Baker as a variety of poly- 
carpa. It is much smaller, with densely tomentose rootstocks and 
buds, fewer and smaller sub-angular very tomentose capsules. A speci- 
men gathered by Miss Taylor at th: Cedars, St. Catherine, is larger 
but not in fruit. Another small species with tomentose capsules, Jf, 
Berteroi, A. Br. is found in St. Domingo, The general range is Cuba 
southward to Brasil, 


962 
ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS. 


LIBRARY. 
Botanical Magazine. Oct. [Purchased. | 
Chemist & Druggist. Oct. 8,15. [Hditor.] 
Garden. Oct. 8,15. [Purchased.] 
Nature. Oct. 6,13. [Purchased.] 
Pharmaceutical Journal. Oct. 8, 15, 
Produce World. Gct. [Editor.] 
Sugar. Oct. [Kditor.] 
W. I. & Com. Advertiser. Oct. [Editor.] 
Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. Oct.11. [Hditor.] 
Tropenpilanzer. Oct. [Editor.] 
Bulletin de L’Herbier Boissier. Oct. [Conservateur.] 
Agricultural Ledger. 1893, 2-6. (Calcuita). [Lieut, Governor, Bengal.] 
Pro. Agri.-Horti. Society, Madras. June. [Secy.) 
R. Bot. Garcens, Ceylon. Circular 8. Aug. 20. [Director]. 
Times of Ceylon. Sept. 21,29. [Editor.] 
Agricultural Gazette, N. S. Wales. Augast. [Dept. of Agr.] _ 
Contributious to the Flora of New S. Wales. By J. H. Maiden. [Author.] 
Sugar Journal, Queensland. Sept. [EHditor. ] 
Agr. Journal, Cape of Good Hope. Sept. [Agr. Dept.] 
Agri. Gazette, Barbados. July—Oct. [Editor.] 
Bulletin Bot. Sta. Barbados. 9. [Superintendent. | 
Journ. Royal Agri. & Com. Soc. British Guiara. [Editor.] 
Proc. Agricultural Society, Trinidad. Sept. 30. [Secretary.] 
Publications of the following Agri. Experiment Stations U.S.A. [Directors.] 
Arizona, 29. Arkansas, 53. Iowa 37, 38,39. Ohio, 84, 90, 91, 92, 93. 
Botanical Gazette. Oct. [Editor.] 
Photogravures of Amer. Fungi, 25, 26 Oct. By C. G. Lloyd. [Author.] 
Contributions from the Bot. Dept. Iowa Coll. Agr. [Authors.] 
Comparative Phenological Notes. By H.G. Irish. [Author] 
Seeds and Tests of Some Cruciferae. By L. H. Pammel. [Author.] 
Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin. Oct. [Hditor. ] 
Ontario Agr. Coll. and Exp. Farm. Bulletin 109. Sept. [Dept. Agr.] 


SEEDS. 
From Royal Botanic Gardens, Demerara. 
Castilloa elastica. 
Manihot Glaziovii. 
From G. French Esq., Melbourne. 
Atriplex semibaccatum 
Cassia floribunda 
Pittosporv™m crassifolium | 
Eucalyptus citriodora 
E. rudis | 
Sterculia acerifolia | 
S. popylneum 
Acacia acinacea 
A. elata 
A. lophantha 
Cordyline nutans 
Hardenbergia monophylia 
From H. Dixsow, Esq., Sydney. 
Xanthorrhoea sp. 
From St-rling Fisher, Esq., Mahogany Hall, Jamaica. 
Bread Nut (Brosimum alicastrum) 
From James Gall, Hsq., Kingston, Jamaica 


Laburnum | 
HERBARIUM. | 

From D. Trench, Esq., Hazelymph, Jamaica. | 
Blind Eye leaves . 


[Issued 26th November, 1898. ] 


New Series. } DECEMBER, 1898. Vol. V. 
Part 12. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA. 


EDITED BY 


WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS. 


Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. 


CONTENTS: 


— Citrate of Lie nod Concentrated Lemon and 


Lime Juice : PaGE 263 
Jamaica Woods for the Royal Yacht . 270 
Experiments with Insecticides on Scale Insects 971 
Ferns: Synoptical List—LVII . 272 


Contributions and Additions : yw 


P RIC E~Threepence. 


A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will d N 
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Ridcdoa ess and 


AICI VAD UAT CAD CAD CAD WHAT hed 


KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
GovERNMENT PRINTING Orrice, 79 Duke Srezzr. 


1899. 


2) 


JAMAICA. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


New Series.] DECEMBER, 1898. Vol. V. 


CITRATE OF LIME AND CONCENTRATED 
LEMON AND LIME JUICE. 


By Francis Warts, Government Chemist, 


Some attention has lately been directed to citrate of lime and it has 
been suggested that this should form an article of export from Ja- 
maica. 

It is well known that lemon and lime juice constitute the raw mate- 
jal from which citric acid is manufactured ; these juices usually con- 
tain from 10 to 15 ounces of citric acid per gallon, sometimes exceed- 
ing these limits from exceptional causes; if exported in this condition 
the cost for freight and packages would be exceedingly high, hence 
efforts are made to obtain the citric acid in a more concentrated form. 
Three methods of doing this have been suggested, concentration of the 
juice by boiling, the preparation of citrate of lime, and finally the pre- 
paration of citric acid in the country where the fruit is grown. The 
first two have for their object merely the production of raw material 
for the manufacturer iu a concentrated form. 

The preparation of concentrated lemon and lime juice is a very sim- 
ple matter: The juice is passed through strainers to remove seeds and 
floating impurities, and is then boiled down to a proper degree of con- 
centration, in copper or iron vessels, over open fires much in the same 
way that cane juice is evaporated in the old fashioned muscovado pro- 


cess of sugar making. When several evaporating vessels are placed — 


in a series over the same fire, forming a battery, it is important to 
notice that the vessel or pan in which the juice is brought to its high- 
est state of concentration is furthest from the fire while that containing 
the fresh juice is over the fire itself; thus a battery for lime juice is 
hung in the reverse way to a sugar battery. 

In concentrating lemon juice efforts are made to obtain a product 
containing 64 ounces of citric acid per gallon, this being regarded as the 
standard strength, and a pipe of 108 gallons being regarded as a stan- 
dard package; hence when the market price of concentrated juice is 


191) ree 


264 


quoted at so much per pipe these standard quantities are assumed. Ip 
reality these quotations refer to an arbitrary quantity of 432 pounds of 
citric acid. In the production of concentrated lime juice in the West 
Indies it has been the practice to carry the concentration to a higher 
degree than this, sothat concentrated lime juice usually contains upwards. 
of 96 ounces per gallon ; a good rule in practice is to endeavour to pro- 
duce concentrated juice which will have a uniform specific gravity of 
about 1°300. In dealing with lime and lemon juices a particular 
form of hydrometer, known as a citrometer is frequently made use of, 
though its use is less common than formerly. Knowledge of the or- 
igin of its scale and the meaning ofits indications appears to have 
been lost ; from experiments which I made some years ago I came to 
the conclusion that the instrument is so constructed that when placed 
in hot (boiling) lemon juice it willindicate the same degree as a Twad- 
del’s hydrometer will show when floating in the same juice in the cold. 
It is thus a useful instrument in the hands of the man in charge of 
the concentrating pans, for he can from time to time test the juice 
rapidly, in a hot condition, and arrest the boiling when the citrometer 
indicates the same degree which on a Twaddel’s instrument will corres- 
pond to the specific gravity 1:300; this of course is 60°. Hence the 
rule for concentrating becomes :—Carry on the concentration until the 
citrometer, when immersed in the juice at the boiling temperature, shows. 
a density of 60°, The product thus obtained is a dark, nearly black, 
thick liquid. 

It is often urged that there is very considerable loss of citric acid 
when juice is treated in this manner. My own experiments lead me 
to suppose that when juice of good quality is treated, the loss is about 
7 to 8 per cent. of the original acid; when juice of poor quality is dealt 
with, this loss may reach 10 or 12 per cent. probably owing to the 
greater length of time required to concentrate the poorer juice to the 
required density. If concentration is carried beyond the point indi- 
cated the loss rapidly increases. The concentration here recommended 
is that which I believe to afford the maximum concentration with the 
minimum loss of acid. 

The concentrated juice should be thoroughly cooled before being 
placed in casks or the casks will leak : indeed leakage from the casks 
is one of the most serious troubles which the maker of concentrated 
juice has to contend with. Casks containing 54 gallons are usually 
employed. 

The suggestion that the concentration of the juice should be con- 
ducted in steam heated evaporators naturally occurs : it is open to ques- 
tion whether these would offer such advantages as would compensate 
for the increased complication and expense of the plant: the loss of 
acid from over heating might be reduced somewhat. Only when the 
manufacture is conducted on a very large scale will the question of the 
use of steam evaporators arise, and here it might be desirable to con- 
duct the first part of the evaporation over an open fire, while finishing 
the evaporation of the thick juice in steam heated pans. 

The process as now conducted is a simple one, its defects are that it 
necessitates the employment of a considerable quantity of fuel, it m- 
volves the loss of about 8 per cent. of acid, the product is dark im 
colour, is liable to leak from the casks and requires expensive packages.. 


265. 


In order to minimise these defects it has been proposed to conduct 
the first part of the manufacture of citric acid on the spot, and produce 
citrate of lime. This idea has been afloat for upwards of thirty years - 
in the last few years it appears to have been acted upon with some 
degree of success : in fact it is stated that this article has entirely taken 
the place of shipments of concentrated lemon juice from Palermo. 

Iam unable to ascertain the actual quantities imported into Eng- 
land and other European countries, but Messrs. Gillespie Bros. & Co. 
of New York, who have made enquiries on the subject,inform me that 
the imports into the United States for the past few years have been as 
follows :— 


Years. Quantities. Values. Value per unit of quantity. 
Lbs. $. 

1887 42,558 6,00 .14 
1889 47,890 8,569 .18 
1891 28,358 4,337 Es) 
1892 220,468 30.459 .14 
1893 629,739 75,271 .12 
1894 443,891 52,137 ~A2 
1895 608,214 59,458 0 
1896 668,106 66,388 .097 
1897 496,291 42,090 .085 
1898 1,026,467 84,789 . 082 


Up to the present this appears to have been entirely produced in 
Italy or Sicily, none having been imported from the West Indies. 

The preparation of citrate of lime is the first step in the manu- 
facture of citric acid from lemon or lime juice. We are well aware 
that when the juice of the sugar cane is concentrated to a suffi- 
cient degree, the active principle, cane sugar, separates out in the form 
of crystals ; the active principle of lemon or lime juice, citric acid. will 
not separate in acrystaline form when the juice is simply concentrated, 
owing to the presence in the juice of a large quantity of gummy or 
pectic impurities. In order to overcome this difficulty the citric acid is 
brought into combination with lime, the citrate of lime thus formed 
being insoluble in water can be separated from the gummy matters 
which remain dissolved. In order to effect this the juice is neutralised 
with chalk, the resulting citrate of lime is allowed to subside and finally 
separated by straining by means of linen or canvas. The resulting cit- 
rate may now be dried for shipment or be treated with sulphuric acid 
for the manufacture of citric acid. 

Simple as the above process appears, there are many practical difficul- 
ties, particularly in the preparation of the dried citrate for export. 

In the first place the chalk employed must be of very fine quality, 
free from magnesium salts and from more than a trace of iron, alumina, 
and phosphates. Hither of these impurities exercises a prejudicial 
action at one or other stage of the manufacturing process. Again the 
chalk must be of such a quality that it can be readily mixed into se 
cream with water, it must be free from lumps. In order to obtain 
chalk of proper quality English or French levigated whiting was for a 
long time imported into Italy and Sicily for the preparation of citrate 


266 


of lime: now, however I believe suitable forms have been found closer 
at hand. To get over the difficulty of obtaining chalk possessing the 
necessary fine powdery character and the requisite purity, the use of 
slaked lime suggests itself, this latter substance occurs in the form of a 
fine powder, easily mixed with water and can be obtained in a state of 
great purity; in default of other pure sources of supply, coral may be 
used, this will yield lime containing a negligable amount of impurity. 
Analyses af several kinds of coral showed Carbonate of lime 9537 to 
98:07 per cent. Phosphate of lime ‘32 to ‘84 per cent., Organic matter 
1:93 to 3°79 per cent. 


Should slaked lime be used, care must be taken not to neutralise the 
juice completely or impurities will be precipitated with the citrate, and 
these impurities will interfere with the subsequent manipulation and 
the production of citric acid: where slaked lime has to be employed it 
would appear desirable to complete the neutralisation with chalk, using 
the lime only for the neutralisation of the greater part of the acid. 


In producing citrate of lime, the lime or lemon juice is placed in a 
suitable mixing vessel, large enough to prevent loss from overflow 
from the foaming effervescence which takes place when chalk is added. 
A sufficient quantity of chalk is made into a cream with water and the 
mixture poured cautiously into the juice with constant stirring, pro- 
ceeding cautiously as the acid is neutralised. There is some difficulty 
in ascertaining when the exact point of neutralisation is arrived at, for 
in the presence of certain impurities, notably phosphate of iron, the juice 
remains acid although an excess of chalk may have been added. To 
ascertain how much chalk is to be used it is best to proceed as follows, 
—when the greater part of the chalk has been added, the mixture is 
well stirred and the effervescence is allowed to subside, a small quantity 
is then taken out and tested by the addition of a little of the mixture 
of chalk and water; if this produces an effervescense more chalk must 
be added to the main quantity, proceeding cautiously and testing at in- 
tervals, until no effervescence is produced. A further test is now 
made,—a little of the mixture is withdrawn and heated, as soon as bub- 
bles of gas cease to be given off, a few drops of acid, fresh lime juice 
will answer, are added, this will produce a slight effervesence if chalk 
has been added in right amount, and a brisk effervesence if too much 
has been used. In the latter case, more juice must be added to the 
mixture and the process of testing repeated. 


Having added the correct quantity of chalk it is desirable to heat 
the mixture for a few minutes nearly to boiling point, actual boiling is 
not necessary, this causes the citrate of lime to become crystalline and 
to subside rapidly in a condition in which it is easily manipulated. 

In the earlier attempts to prepare this substance the heating at this 
stage was omitted, the juice was neutralised and the citrate of lime was 
separated from the cold liquor and dried. In consequence of this me- 
thod of working the finished citrate contained many impurities, it dried 
in the form of hard lumps or of a powder fnll of hard knots so that 
grinding had to be suggested, it was difficult to powder and when 
thrown into water it was wetted with difficulty so that the manufacturer 
had difficulty in acting upon it with sulphuric acid when converting it 
into citric acid. Owing to the presence of impurities the citrate often 


267 


became dark on drying, and yielded a dark coloured liquor in the citric 
acid factory, a liquor which filtered with difficulty. All these features 
were very objectionable to the citric acid maker, and led him to prefer 
concentrated juice to citrate of lime as his raw material. Heating, by 
rendering the citrate crystalline, permits of its purification, many of the 
impurities are removed with the water and can be easily washed away. 
It seems very important that heat should be used at this stage; it 
is probablv due to its omission that the earlier experimenters with 
citrate of lime encountered so many difficulties. 


As soon as the citrate is seen to become crystalline and subside rapidly 
the heating is stopped, the citrate quickly settles leaving a clear yellow 
liquid above, this liquid is poured off or syphoned off, as much water 
being removed as possible. Washing the citrate a few times with hot 
water is advantageous, this removes the gummy matters which cause 
the citrate to cake into lumps in drying and which may give rise to 
darkening in colour and the subsequent production of dark and trou- 
blesome citric liquors in the manufacture of acid. The earlier samples 
of citrate contained so much impurity and were so difficult to manipu- 
late that they found little favour with manufacturers. 


The method of dealing with the citrate at the next stage of the pro- 
cess will depend entirely upon the scale upon which the manufacture is 
conducted ; when the operation is conducted on a small experimental 
scale, the citrate may be thrown upon a stout cloth supported on a sieve 
or strainer, as soon as the water has drained away the residue is tied or 
folded securely in the cloth and submitted to pressure, to remove as 
much water as can be thus got rid of. 


When a large quantity of citrate is made, a filter such as is used in 
citric acid works, may be employed, this consists of a “ deal floor with 
boards round the edge; the floor has one inch splines nailed on it one 
inch apart, and canvas (36 in. “forfar’) is stretched on the splines: a 
convenient size is 16 ft. x 12 ft. by 1 ft. deep. It should be slightly 
tilted and exit holes provided.” (Grosjean) The citrate is allowed to 
drain upon the filter; when draining ceases the substance is put into 
canvas bags and submitted to pressure. 


Ona large scale it will be found more convenient to use filter 
presses ; by their use the combined operations of filtering and pressing 
can be expeditiously performed, a great saving of time and labour can 
be thus effected, while the factory can be rendered much more com- 
pact owing to the small area occupied by the filter presses as 
compared with the space requiried for filters and the presses for the 


bags. 


After as much water as possible has been pressed from the citrate 
by whatever process is adopted, it has to be dried. This part of the 
process demands great care, and is attended by considerable risk of 
loss; there is great tendency on the part of the citrate, when ina 
damp state, to ferment ; asa result of this fermentation, the citric 
acid is destroyed and carbonate of lime, the original chalk from which 
the manufacture started, is left; there is little to indicate to the eye 
that this fermentive change is taking place, so that an unskilled or 
careless operator may find his finished product to contain no citrate 


268 


of lime at all, but to consist entirely of chalk. To avoid 
this risk of loss it is only necessary that the citrate of lime 
should be brought quickly into some form of drying apparatus where 
a temperature of from 150° to 200° Fh. (66-93° C.) can be maintained, 
while at the same time there is a free circulation of air through the 
drying chamber in order to carry away the moisture. For a long time 
the difficulty of obtaining a satisfactory and efficient drying apparatus 
was a great stumbling block: the problem of drying the citrate of lime 
is very similar in its nature to that of drying fruit, so that a good fruit 
dryer will answer well for experimental purposes, while larger forms of 
apparatus, worked upon the same principles, can be constructed for use 
where the manufacture is conducted on a large scale. Where much 
work is to be done it would appear desirable have several sets of drying 
apparatus, so that one lot of material may be thoroughly dried before 
it becomes necessary to introduce fresh, wet citrate into the same appa- 
ratus. Any form of apparatus in which the temperature can be main- 
tained at from 150° to 200° Fh. or even somewhat higher, while at the 
same time permitting sufficient ventilation to remove the moisture ra- 
pidly, willprove efficient. It is important to lay stress on the ventilation. 
As has been stated the proper drying of the citrate is of paramount im- 
portance, should it remain damp, or in any way become damp from 
careless handling, or careless storing, fermentation will speedily spoil 
the product. 

Messrs. Warrington and Grosjean* made an investigation of the 
amount of water remaining in citrate of lime dried at 212° F. (100° C.) 
they found this to range from 5-90 to 7°68 per cent., this exists as water 
of crystallisation; when dried at 392° Fh. (200° C.) the substance con- 
tained no water. Fermentation readily takes place if more than 
12 per cent. of water is present, there is however no danger of 
fermentation as soon as the proportion of water has been reduced 
to 10 per cent. but it is desirable to continue the drying until less than 
that amount exists : if the temperature of the drying apparatus canuot 
be raised above 212° Fah. the product, as shown by the investigations 
just referred to, may contain over 7 per cent. of water, if however the 
drying can be finished at a higher temperature, say from 248° — 302° 
Fah. (120 to 150° C) the proportions of water may be reduced to below 
5 per cent. : efforts should be made to secure this thorough drying. 


When prepared in the manner described citrate of lime is a white 
powder free from hard lumps; when thrown into water it is easily 
wetted and is readily diffused through the liquid on stirring. If kept 
in a dry place it will remain good indefinitely. For shipment it should 
be tightly packed in paper-lined barrels. It should contain over 60 
per cent. of citric acid; a sample prepared by myself contained 65.5 
per cent. of citric acid 2.5 per cent. of other organic acids and .5 per 
cent. of carbonate of lime. Warrington states that the best sample of 
commercial citrate he has met with has contained 72 per cent. of citric 
acid, and this is about the hightest percentage that can be reached 
— the citrate contains no excess of chalk and has been thoroughly 
dried. 


* Journ. Chem. Soc., Oct., 1875. 


269 


Citrate of lime is bought and sold on the same basis as concentrated 
lemon and lime juice, namely on the basis of citric acid contained. Quo- 
tations are made for the same arbitrary quantity as in the case of con- 
centrated juice. In this case the standard is the cask of 675 pounds 
of citrate, containing 64 per cent. of citric acid; this being equal to 
432 pounds of citric acid. As to price, citrate sells at about the same 
rate as concentrated juice, sometimes realising a little more, sometimes 
_a little less than that article. 

From the point of view of the manufacturer of citric acid, citrate 
of lime possesses some advantages over concentrated juice. It 
can be stored without loss, while juice is liable to leak from the casks : 
the first stage of the manufacture of the acid has been already com- 

leted and the manufacturer can dispense with the neutralising vats 
and the filters, thus there is much economy of space and of labour ; 
finally owing to the fact that citrate of lime is white, while concentrated 
juice is black from the charring action of the heat used in its produc- 
tion, the resulting citric liquors obtained from citrate are a better 
colour, yielding whiter crystals of citric acid, thus reducing the opera- 
tions of refining the citric acid and saving both labour and material. 

Possessing these advantages it seems probable that citrate of lime 
will ultimately displace concentrated juice, provided that an article 
thoroughly suited to manufacturers requirements is produced ; as com- 
petition becomes keener in the production of raw material-—and this is 
likely to ensue from the attention being given to tropical products and 
the difficulty experienced in finding new and profitable ones—there will 
arise competition between these two forms of raw material, when the 
preference which the manufacturer of citric acid will give to well pre- 
pared citrate will no doubt enhance its value in comparison with con- 
centrated juice. Hitherto the production of citrate of lime has been 
relatively small so that competition between the two forms of raw ma- 
terial can hardly be said to exist: it is not unlikely that this condition 
may be altered in the near future. 

It has been proposed to undertake the manufacture of the citric 
acid itself in the countries where the juice is produced; this offers 
many obvious advantages, but at the same time is beset by some diffi- 
culties. The chief difficulty would appear to be a trading one; the man- 
ufacture of citric acid is in the hands of a few firms against whose in- 
terests small manufacturers could not contend, so that the probability 
of citric acid being made in the countries producing th2 raw materials 
seems remote unless the venture is undertaken by one of the already 
established citric acid-making firms. 

The discussion of the pros and cons of this question would be too 
lengthy and technical to be profitably dealt with in this article; I 
therefore propose to reserve it, if necessary, for future consideration. 


270 


JAMAICA’ WOODS FOR THE ROYAL YACHT. 


The following letter has been received by the Director, Public Gar- 
dens, from Sir Frederick Abel, the Hon. Secretary and Director of the 
Imperial Institute, asking for samples of marketable woods and quota- 
tions of cost delivered in London. 

The use of the woods in the interior fittings of a new Royal yacht 
would be an excellent advertisement. 3 

Whenever possible, the samples should be planks showing average 
width obtainable and 8 ft. long, by 6 inches thick. 

The Director, Public Gardens, can forward information and arrange 
for transport of samples, but cost of freight must be borne by those 
who are interested. 

Woods that might be submitted are Satin Wood, Mahogany, Yacca,. 
Mahoe, West Indian Cedar, Juniper, Coccus Ebony, Lignum Vite, . 
Yellow Saunders and perhaps Yoke Wood and Santa Maria. 

It.is not necessary that all should be supplied by one person. 

The woods sent should be true samples of what could be supplied in: 
London, and should be sent before 31st March next. 


Sir F. A. Abel to Director, Public Gardens, Jamaica. 


Imperial Institute, 
London, S. W., 


6th October, 1898. 
Sir, 


Enquiries have been made of the Imperial Institute as to whether it 
may be possible to obtain some Colonial Woods to be used in the inte- 
rior fittings for the new Royal Yacht which will shortly be built, but 
it is desired to confine the selection to such woods as are either al- 
ready, or likely to be, marketable. I shall therefore feel obliged if you 
will kindly make enquiries in Jamaica, with a view to samples and quo- 
tations being forwarded to me at the Imperial Institute within the next 
six months, together with information as to the probable cost at which 
such woods could be delivered free in London, in a properly seasoned 
condition, and within what date they could be so delivered. 

You may perhaps be enabled to place me in direct communication 
with some individual firm or possible source, in the Colony, whence I 
could obtain the desired information and samples, it being of impor- 
tance that definite intelligence on the subject should be received with. 
as little delay as possible. 


I am. etc., 
FF. A. ABEL, 
Hon. Secretary and Director. 


271 


EXPERIMENTS WITH INSECTICIDES ON SCALE 
INSECTS. 


It is so important for the future of the Orange industry that Scale- 
insects should be kept under control, that all should combine in at- 
tempts to destroy them. 

Experiments are being carried on at Hope Gardens with insecticides, 
and many formulae have been tried. The following has so far been 
more successful than all others, and as it is cheap, and easily made, it 
is hoped that others will experiment with it, and note results. 

Take a perfectly clean and dry bowl of a good size, pour into it half 
a pint of the cheapest Kerosine, add two pounds of soft soap, and work 
through the fingers vigorously until both constituents are thoroughly 
incorporated ; the compound will then be of the consistency of putty 
and soluble in water. 

It is advisable to mix only sufficient for one spraying, as it loses 
some of its insecticidal properties if kept for any length of time. It is 
also advisable to mix it in the sun as the warmth makes the ingredients 
combine more readily. 

Disolve six ounces of the compound in halfa gallon of rain (or boiled) 
water that has been warmed by the sun. When dissolved add a further 
24 gallons of soft water. The insecticideis then ready foruse. Spray- 
ing should be carried out late in the afternoon, thus allowing the in- 
secticide to remain in solution for amuch longer time than if applied in 
the heat of the day. é 

With some scales one spraying is sufficient ; but at other times three 
ee sprayings, four days between each are necessary to destroy 
- them. 

If the scales readily rub off after the application, it is a sign that 
they have been killed. Sometimes it happens that the spraying has no 
effect,—the scales adhere so closely that the insecticidal mixture does: 
not penetrate, and then the scales do not rub off. In such cases the 
scales must be watched, and after a few days or a few weeks, spraying 
can be tried again. The best time to attack them is when the young 
ones have come from the mother scale, and are starting in life for them- 
selves. In one case a yellow waxy-looking scale was noticed, on which 
the mixture had no effect until in about 6 weeks it turned colour and 
became a brown scale, then it was killed. 

If only two or three shrubs in a Garden are affected, they can be 
treated with a feather, but it is generally necessary to use a spray 
pump, which can be purchased now in Jamaica.—(See Bulletin, Feb-- 
ruary, 1897.) 


272 


FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST—LVII. 


Synoptical List, with descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of Jae 
maica. By G. 8. Jenman, Superintendent, Botanical Garden, 
Demerara. 


OrvEerR VI1.—Salvinice. 


Annual aquatic floating herbaceous plants, of small or diminutive 
size, with imbricating or pinnatiform fronds and membranous major 
-and minor capsules, which are situated in the axils of the leaves be- 
neath, or in inferior clusters on branched filiform threads, and that con- 
tain, separately, sporangia of two kinds. 

These are, in size, inconsiderable aquatic herbs, which exist usually 
in great abundance, floating on the surface of still water, and are espe- 
cially common in Guiana. The known species are about a score or 
more, which are spread through the torrid and the warm temperate re- 
gions of both hemispheres. 

Genus I. Salvinia, Schreb.—Capsules membranous, indehiscent, glo- 
bose, clustered in descending panicles, singly at the end of short pedi- 
cels, borne among the roots, the smaller, which are fewer, superior, and 
on longer pedicels, containing few reticulated macrosporangia ; the 
larger, inferior, more numerous, on shorter pedicels, containing multi- 
tudinous reticulated microsporangia. 

Small floating aquatic herbs, communal in habit, with serial fronds 
on a more or less shortly-extended rachis, entire, flat or partially folded, 
with close parallel pinnatiform veins, and tufts of numerous, descending 
simple villous roots) Like the next, all the plants of this genus bear a 
common general resemblanc2, differing mainly in the degree of elongation 
of the axis, and size, form, colour and vestiture of the leaves, &c. The 
capsules are globose, and hang in loose clusters among the leaves, each 
one on separate pedicels which radiate more or less from the common 
axis. Those containing the macrosporangia, though situated above, 
reach out beyond those containing the microsporangia, which are larger, 
having pedicels twice or more aslong. The fruit, roots, and fronds 
all spring from the joints in the rachis, which is the thickness of mode- 
rately thin string, the intevening space being destitute. 


1. S. auriculata, Aulet.—Rachis horizontal, cord-like, nearly a line 
thick, puberulous with slight scales, extending a few inches and branch - 
ing; fronds contiguous or apart, two at each joint, spreading at right 
angles, on petioles + - 4 in. 1. which are clothed like the rachis, the 
blades folded at first, rounded, cordate at the base with rounded 
auricles, 4 - 3th in. each way, herbaceous. cloudy green, pubescent 
‘beneath, densely strigose above with elongated glands that are 
divided into three or four filaments at the end, and mixed with 
finer ones; veins very close and numerous; capsules of micros- 
porangia nearly 1 li diameter about 2-6 in number, those of the ma- 
-crosporangia half the size and about 1-3 ; both pubescent.—Aubl. guian. 
2,969 t, 367. Bak. Fern Al. p. 1386 8S. rotundifolia, W. S. Hispida, 
H. B. K. 8S. biloba, Raddi. Ihave not seen Jamaica species but in- 
«clude it to be looked for, for it is probably found on some of the Bri- 


273 


tish West India Islands, though not yet recorded. In estates’ trenches ” 
ponds and ornamental waters, this plant is a pest, from the freedom 
with which it multiplies and the multitudinous number of the indi- 
viduals. The capsules are two to nine in number, or perhaps more, 
about from one to three (sometimes none) of each cluster containining 
macrosporan gia. 

Genus II: Azolla, Lam. Capsules situated in pairs in the axils of the 
leaves beneath, of two kinds, membranous, indehiscent; the larger, 
subglobose, containing several or many microspores ; the smaller ovoid, 
containing a solitary macrospore. Very small communal floating 
weeds, branched, with miuute imbricating leaves in a double series, 
sessile, with no veins, a central rib only in each, the inferior smaller 
than the superior, and descending filiform simple villous roots. The 
members of this genus like the last are communal and form a sheet 
over water, often quite concealing the surface. They are exquisite 
little plants in structure and colour, with minute imbricating leaves, 
varying from green to dark purple in colour, branched in the form of 
little prostrate trees. The species are about half-a-dozen, tropical and 
subtropical, found in America, Asia, Africa and Australia. 

1. A. Caroliniana, Willd.—Entire plant 4—} in. each way, deltoid 
-or flabellate in outline, pinnate or bipinnate, obtuse, lower branches 
longest, the lowest shortly branched again at the ends, leaves all united 
at the axis, biserial on each side, those of the upper series larger, 
more fleshy, brighter coloured, more erect and less appressed, subovate, 
4-71i.1, less broad ; those of the under side gray, appressed one on 
the other; sporangia in pairs, one of each or both of one kind together 
in the axils of the leaves ; macrosporangia several times larger than the 
microsporangia, globose-oblong, the sack tender, membranous; spores 
uniform or variable in size spherical, pitted or reticulated, 6 - 24 toa 
capsule, microsporangia ovoid, dark coloured, or striated, at each end. 
The colour varies from light green to dark purple, but there seem to 
be two varieties—green shading to pink, and pink shading to deep 
purple, the former being larger in both plant and leaves. The spo- 
rangia as a rule can only be detected by the use of a simple microscope, 
but the macrosporangia may sometimes by the naked eye be seen to be 
of a pale green colour, protruding between the leaves. Bak. Fern. Al. 


p. 1388. My description is taken from Cuban specimen. The range is _ 
so wide that there can be little doubt the species only waits to be re- - 


corded from Jamaica and some of the other islands. 


TriszE XIV.-—Gleicheniew.* 


Sporangia sessile, globose or subglobose, having a broad, complete g 
transverse equatorial jointed band ; eventually bursting on one side 
from top to bottom ; sori superficial on the back of the veins, puncti- 
form, composed of few or several sporangia; involucres none. 

The principal characters which distinguish this tribe are,—sporangia 
sessile, globose, ring horizontal, equatorial, the rupture vertical. The 
physiognomy, general habit, and manner of development of the fronds 
are also singular. There is only one American genus. 


* This tribe was unfortunately omitted in its proper place. It ought to have 
.come in at page 155 of this volume. 


274 


Genus XXXVI. Gleichenia, Smith.—Fronds with distant opposite 
lateral pinne, which spread at a wide angle from the stiff erect and 
often subscandent stems; sori punctiform, superficial, medial on the 
veinlets ; sporangia 3-12 (rarely more) to a group; veins forked, free ; 
pinne in most cases repeatedly forked and flabelliform, having scaly 
or leafy auxillary buds; pinnule or ultimate branches pectinate. 

A well marked group of plants, of singular habit and communal 
proclivities, diffused very abundantly throughout the country from 
the lowest to the highest elevations, covering roadside-banks and ex- 
tensive tracts of open land and not very densely shaded forest, where 
they form entangled and hardly penetrable thickets, andin open situa- 
tions monopolise the entire possession of the ground. Im all the spe- 
cies the rootstock is slender, wide-extending and branched, and runs 
under the surface of the soil, the fronds arising at intervals on its 
axis. They have slender but stiff more or less glossy stems about as 
thick as a quill, from one or two to several feet long, to the upper part 
of which the branches or pinne, developed, as before said, in opposite 
pairs, are confined. In mostof the species here included the sori often 
present a diffused character, from the varymg number of capsules to 
each group. 


Sporangia 3-5 in each sorus. 
Pinne flabellately forked, 
Fronds densely tomentose beneath. 
1. G. pubescens 


Fronds paleaceous, 
2. G. furcata. 


3. G. Matthewsii. 


Pinne not dichotomous, but regularly pinnatiform in branching. 
4. G. Bancroftii. 
Sporangia 12 or less in a sorus ; rachises zigzag. 
5. G. dichotoma. 
6. G. pectinata. 

1. G. pubescens, H. B. K.—Stipites and rachises strong deciduously 
furfuraceous or paleaceous; pinne in 1-4 distinct pairs, dicho- 
tomous, the primary petioles 2-5 in. 1, scariously margined, 
with a few shortened leaf-segments at the base on the inner side only 
reaching a third or half way up, or entirely devoid of any, deciduously 
furfuraceous or paleaceous; secondary petioles lined with leaf-segments 
throughout, or a few absent only on the outer side; pinnule pectinate, 
$-2 it. 1, 14-3 in. w., broadly divaricating, rigid, gradually tapering 
outwards ; ultimate segments linear, 3-14 in. 1. 1- 2 li. br., obtuse or 
acute, expanded and contiguous at the base; the upperside naked 
or deciduously furfuraceous, especially on the costules, beneath very 
densely coated with a thick layer of rusty or grayish feltlike tomentum, 
the costules naked or paleaceous; the margins flat or reflexed ; veins 
once forked ; sori copious; sporangia 3-5 ina group, immersed and 
more or less concealed in the tomentum.—Hertensia immersa, Kif. Ht. 
ferruginea, Desv. 

General throughout the country, forming thickets in open and half 
open situations from sea-level up to 5,000 or 6,000 ft. altitude. 


275 


Readily recognised by means of the undercoating of dense fur-like 
tomentum, and long rigid tapering pinne. The vestiture of the stems 
and rachises varies considerably, the Jamaica specimens being mostly 
naked. The colour of the tomentum varies too from gray to rufus, 
The large states are often mistakingly ascribed to G. longipiumate, 
Hook., (Mertensia, Kf.) a quite distinct plant, founded on Hostman, 
n. 228. 

2. G. furcata, Spreng.—Stipites and rachises strong, the immature 
clothed with ragged rufous scales, that ultimately become pale and drop 
away; pinne in two or three pairs, spreading fan-like, the ends of the 
pinnule drooping, tri-or quadri-chotomous ; primary petioles devoid of 
leaf-segments, as are also the secondary, but more or less clothed with 
red laciniate scales; costule scaly beneath, and rusty tomentose above, 
13-2 in. w.; ultimate segments linear, close and parallel, -1} in L, 
1-1} li. w., naked above, but with very minute scattered grayish stel- 
late scales beneath ; veins once-forked; sori not plentiful; sporangia 
3-4.—PIl. Fil. t. 28. Polypodium, Sw. Mertensia furcata, Willd. 

Very common in the mid-region of the great mountain range, above 
and below 4000 ft. altitude, in forest and on more or less open banks 
and waysides. Distinguished from the preceding by the plentiful rufous 
scales, its more repeatedly divided pinne, narrower and closer ultimate 
segments, which, too, are absent from the petioles of the primary and 
secondary divisions, and unmistakeably by the absence of the under- 
coating of matted tomentum which characterises that species. When 
growing in the open, the scales contribute a faint aureous tinge to the 
leafage, by which it may be recognised at a distance. The opposite 
pinne spreading from, and laterally toward, each other, with the ends 
of the pinnule drooping, are altogether quite umbrella-like in form. 
The texture is rather brittle and both the pinnule and segments of old 
leaves are often much broken, The segments are usually somewhat 
irregular in length. This by its more repeated branching is the most 
leafy of the associated species. 

3. G. Mathewsii, Hook.—Stipites and rachises strong, dark brown, 
deciduously paleaceous ; pinne in two or three spreading pairs, di-tricho- 
tomous; primary petioles usually lined on both sides at the base with 
leaf-segments, secondary ones lined thus throughout; pinnule 6-10 
in. 1. 4-1 in. w., naked on both sides, beneath slightly glandulose and 
subglaucous; gemmae foliaceous, and with the petioles and costule 
densely clothed with chesnut-coloured lacinate-edged acuminate 
broad-based scales,—the costule so only beneath; ultimate segments 
rather bluntish or acute, $ over 4 in. 1. 1-14 li. w. the edge often revo- 
lute ; veins once forked, sori sparse; sporangia 3-4 in a group.—Hook. 
Sp. Fil. p. 9 t. 7 B. Mertensia farinosa, KU. 

Exceedingly abundant along the ridges and higher slopes of the Blue 
Mountain range, ascending the highest peaks, where it forms dense 
thickets. It is separated from G. furcata by its smaller and less com- 

und pinnz, which are more copiously clothed with scales and more 

landulose, by the absence of the stellated scattered scales on the un- 
derside of that species, and by the presence of the leaf-segments at the 
base of the primary petioles. The presence or absence, more or less, 
of this petiolar leafage is a good, though slightly variable, character in 
distinguishing one from another this and the two preceding species, 


276 


The scales of the stems are appressed and more or less imbricated, 
especially about the nodes and buds, but deciduous. The outer pin- 
nule are much more curved generally than in either of the allied pre- 
ceding species, of which character the inner ones in a lesser degree 
often partake. ‘There are two forms—a broader and narrower, a va- 
riation which, perhaps, may be due to difference in altitude. The lat- 
ter, in which the ultimate segments are only + inch long, and the 
edges revolute, comes near G. revoluta, H. B. K., for which species a 
specimen, gathered by Purdie in January 1843 onthe top of Blue 
oa ee peak, was mistaken and is so ascribed in Hooker and Baker 
yn. Fil. 

4. G. Bancroftii, Hook.—Stipites and rachises strong, glossy, naked, 
with one or two (usually one) pair of long, oblong, acuminate pinnae 
at the top extended at right angles, arch-like; terminal bud densely 
clothed with linear-acuminate light-brown scales; pinnae bipinnate, 
3-5 ft. 1, 15-20 in. w.; pinnule close and very numerous, spreading 
at right angles and parallel, 6-10 in. 1. 1- 14 in. w,, sessile, acuminate ; 
ultimate segments close, linear, acute, the edges often reflexed, 
#-lin.1.1-141.w.; the inferior ones free and subcordate at the 
base on the upper side, adnate and shortly decurrent on the lower; 
costae with two raised light-coloured marginal lines down the face, 
surface glabrous, pale green above glaucous beneath; texture rigid; 
veins once, or rarely twice, forked, sori sparse or copious ; capsules 3 - 5 
in acluster; receptacle ciliate with a few lanate scales. Mertensia glauca 
Jamaicense, Swartz. WU. Bancroftii Kze. Pl. Fil, t. 25. 

a. var gracilis, Jenm.—Pinnae 1 - 2 ft. 1.; pinnulae finely pectinate, 
4 in. w.; segments $ li. w. 

Very abundant on the skirts of forests and more open places at 5,000- 
6,000 ft. alt. A fine well marked species of singular habit, not to be 
confounded with any of the rest included here. Generally it has only 
one pair of pinnae which spread like outstretched arms on opposite 
sides at the top of the petiole. There is a form in which the segments 
extend into a pectinate state like the normal pinnules. In Hook and 
Bak, Syn. Fil. this is included with the Old World G. longissima 
Blume. 

5. G. dichotoma, Willd.—Stipites and rachises naked ; pinne in two 
or three pairs, flabelliform, di-tri-chotomous, having in addition to the 
auxiliary foliaceous bracts a pair of divaricated deflexed basal pinnule 
with serrated or subentire points, subtending the forks, uniformly pec- 
tinate, but much shorter than the primary pinnule; the latter 6-10, 
in. |. 14-2 in. w.; petioles slender, not flattened or margined on the 
face, and naked ; ultimate segments #-1 in. 1. 14-2 1. w. at the dilated 
and slightly connected bases, the margin slightly reflexed or revolute, 
obtuse or acute and emarginate at the point; surfaces naked pale green 
above, glaucous beneath; veins 1-3 times forked; sori copious; spo- 
rangia 12 or less in each cluster. Mertensia, Willd. Dicranopterts, 
Bernh. Sl. Herb. p. 168. 

Abundant in situations from the lowlands up to 5000 ft. altitude, 
but not so common and generally diffused as its close ally pectinate. 
Its more compact habit, strictly and uniformly di-or trichotomous pin- 
nee, with the pair of deflexed accessory inferior pinnules to each fork, 
unmistakably mark it, | 


277 


6. G. pectinata, Pr.—Stipites and rachises naked; pinne in two or 
more laxly extending pairs, 1-2 ft. 1., with distant alternate branches, 
which are once-forked, or the inferior ones again branched with similar 
forked pinnule, petioles slender, cartilaginous-margined, devoid of leaf- 
segments but usually with foliaceous bracts in the axils at the base; 
pinnule 6-10 in. 1. 14-2 in. w., linear lanceolate acuminate, outer side 
wider at the base than the inner, which is usually somewhat reduced 
there ; ultimate segments linear, bluntish, emarginate, 1-14 in. 1. 21. 
w. at the rather dilated and connected bases, pale green above glauc- 
ous beneath, naked or slightly rusty-tomentose on the veins, which are 
2-3 times forked, sori usually not plentiful; sporangia in clusters of 
12 (18) or less; Hook. and Grev. Icon. t. 14. Mertensia, Willd. 
Dicranopteris, Bernh. 

Generally diffused among the lowlands, and ascending to nearly 
6,000ft. elevation. Much more common than its ally, dichotoma, to 
which it bears a general resemblance but is clearly distinguished by 
habit. Its chief features are the long lax pinns, the branches of 
which are arranged alternately, the slender petioles being flattened on 
the face and slightly margined by cartilage, and the absence of the 
axillary pair of pinnule which subtend the fork of that species. There 
is an intermediate form common about Mt. Moses, broader with the 
habit generally of pectinata but approaching dichotoma by a tendency 
to develop a pair of deflexed basal pinnule. The mainland form, found 
too on some of the West India Islands, is much narrower in its leaf- 
age, and with rusty hairs clothing the veins beneath. 


ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE 
DEPARTMENT. 


LIBRARY. 


Bulletin, Kew Gaidens. July-Nov. ([Director.] 

Chemist & Druggist. Oct. 22, 29. [Hditor.] 

Journ. R, Horticultural Soc. Oct. 

Garden. Oct, 22,29. [Purchased.] 

Gardeners Chronicle. Oct. 22,29. [Purchased.] 

Nature. Oct. 20,27. [Purchased. ] 

Pharmaceutical Journal. Oct. 22, 29, 

Produce World. Nov. [Editor.] 

Record R. Bot. Soc. London. Jan. Feb. Mar. [Secretary.] 
Sugar Cane. Noy. [Editor. | 

Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale. Oct. 18,25. Nov.1. [Editor.] 
Annales L’ Institut Coloniaie de Marseille, 1895-98. [Editor.] 
Tropenpflanzer. Nov. ([Editor.] 

Mycologische Studien von G. Lagerheim, I. Stockholm, 1898, [Author.] 
Agricultural Ledger. No.9-11. [Supt. Govt. Ptg. India. ] 
Report Govt. Cinchona Dept. Madras. August. [Govt. of Madras. ] 
Tropical Agriculturist. Sept. Oct. [Purchased. | 

Queensland Agr, Journ. Oct. [Sec. Agri.] 

Agr. Journal, Cape of Good Hope. Sept. 29. [Agr. Dept.] 
Bulletin Agricole de la Martinique. Aug. Oct. [Editor.] 

Journ, Jamaica Agr. Soc. Nov. [Sec. 

Proc. Agricultural Soc. Trinidad. Oct. 18. [Sec.] 

Central African Times. Aug. 20. Sep. 3, [Editor.] 


278 


Bulletin U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Div. of Pomology No.7. The Fruit Industry. [See. 
Trans. Massachusetts Hort. Soc. 1897. Pv. IIT. pee] ; 
Journ. Cincinnatti Soc. Nat. History. IV-XVIII, XIX, 4. [Editors.] 
Fern Bulletin. July. [Editor.] 
American Journal of Pharmacy. Nov. ee 
‘Trans. Kansas Academy of Science. 1893.94. Vol. XIV. 1896. [Librarian.] 
Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club. Nov. [Editor. 
Publications of the following Agricultural Experiment Stations U. S. A. 
(Directors. ] 
California 120 Ohio 94 
Illinois 51, 52, 53 Wyoming 37 
Origin of Gymnosperms and the seed habit. Prof. J. M. Coulter. [Author. 
Contributions from the Dept. of Botany, Columbia Univ. Vol.6. Nos. 126- 
150, 1897-1898. [Prof. L. M. Underwood. | 
Montreal Pharmaceutical Journ. Nov. [Editor. 
‘Hawaiian Planters Monthly. Oct. 1898. [Editor.] 


SEEDS. 
From Supt. Botanic Gardens, Demerara. 
Castilloa elastica. 
From Dr. Plaxton, Kingston. 
Erythrina sp. 
PLANTS. 
From Botanic Station,Dominica.* 
Durian. 
Talauma Plumieri. 
Tubers Wild Yam (Rajania pleioneura). 
From Dr. G. C. Henderson, Kingston. 
Laelia albida. 
HERBARIUM SPCIMENS. 
From G. Ewen, Esq., Falmouth. 
Canavalia obtusifolia. 
Phaseolus sp. 


|g 


* Omitted by oversight from a previous list. 


[Issued 80th January, 1899.] 


New Series. } APPENDIX, 1898. Vol. V. 
App. 


BULLETIN 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA, 


EDITED BY 


WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS. 


Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. 


CONTENTS: 


Report of the Director on the Department of Public Gardens and 
Plantations for the year ended 3lst March, 1898. 


P RIC E—Threepence. 


A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and 
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O, 


ATM CAF CAT CAF CAD CAA CAM CAMA CAM CAM dh 


KINGSTON, JAMAICA: 
GOVERNMENT Printine Orrice, 79 DuKe StrReEzEr, 


1899, 


JAMAICA. 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. 


Vol. V. 


New Series. | APPENDIX, 1898. ree 


Report of the Director on the Department of Public Gardens and 
. Plantations for the year ended 81st March, 1898. 


Page. 
‘W. I. R. Commissioners on Botanic Gardens ~ 279 
Imperial Department and Jamaica Dept. - 281 
Hope Gardens and Distribution of Plants - 282 
Visits to Public Gardens - - 283 
Bulletins - - 284 
Correspondence = - 284 
Field Instruction - - 284 
Herbarium and Library - - 292 
Industrial School ~ ~ 293 
Apprentices from W. Coast ~ 294 
Reports of Superintendents - 296 
Appendix—Meteorological Tables. - 315 


W. I. R. Commisstoners on Boranic GARDENS. 

Since the appearance of the last Report, the West Indian Royal 
Commissioners have presented their Report to Parliament. Init they 
state in paragraphs 121—127 :— 

‘The Botanical establishments in the larger Colonies, such as Ja- 
maica, Trinidad, and British Guiana, have already rendered considera- 
ble assistance in improving agricultural industries, and they are capa- 
ble of being made increasingly useful in this respect. In the Wind- 
ward and Leeward Islands and Barbados, small establishments called 
Botanic Stations were established a few years ago on the advice of 
the Director of Kew Gardens, and the results, though not yet exten- 
sive, have been of a distinctly promising character. It is evident that 
to grapple with the present circumstances, there is required for the 
smaller islands a special public department capable of dealing with all 
questions connected with economic plants suitable for growth in tropi- 
cal countries, and we recommend the establishment of such a depart- 
ment, under which should be placed the various botanic stations al- 
ready in existence. These stations should be enlarged in their scope 
and character, and be organized on the lines found so successful in 
Jamaiea, In the latter Colony it is admitted that intelligent and 
progressive action in the direction of encouraging a diversity of indus- 


. 


280 


tries has produced most satisfactory results:; To achieve this result 
has, however, taken more than 20 years of persistent effort, and the 
Government has spent more than £100,000 during that period on its 
botanical establishments. The department has distributed seeds and 
Bene at nominal prices by means of the Post Office, Government 

ailways, and Coastal Steam Service; it has supplied information 
orally, or by means of bulletins, regarding the cultivation of economic 
plants, and has encouraged the careful preparation of the produce 
by sending agricultural instructors on tour through the island, to give 
lectures, demonstrations, and advice.” 

“The special department recommended for carrying on similar 
work in the Windward and Leeward Islands should be under the 
charge of a competent Imperial Officer, whose duty it would be to ad- 
vise the Governors.in regard to all matters affecting the agricultural 
development of the Islands. He would take part in consultation: 
with the object of improving agricultural teaching in colleges ar: 
schools, and of training students in agricultural pursuits, and wouk 
attend to the preparation of suitable literature on agricultural subjects 
The existing botanic stations should be placed under his supervisior 
and the charge of maintaining them transferred to Imperial funds 
Each botanic station would be actively engaged in the introductio: 
and improvement of economic plants, and in propagating and di: 
tributing them throughout the Island. It would carry out the ex- 
perimental cultivation of new plants to serve as an object lesson ‘« 
cultivators, and it would be prepared to give the latest informat 
to enquirers regarding economic products, and to provide suitable me» 
as agricultural instructors. ‘T’o effect all this will require funds entir®’ 
beyond the present resources of the smaller Islands. We are, ther 
fore of opinion that as the necessity for such a department is urger 
the cost should be borne by the Imperial Exchequer.” 

“The promising experimental work connected with raising 
varieties of canes, and increasing the production of sugar by the 
of manures and other means should receive special attention. Thr u 
of some of this work would be a legitimate portion of the charge above 
stated. The chief experiments might be carried on as hitherto by the 
officers in charge of them in British Guiana, Barbados, and Antigua, 
but continued and extended, if found desirable, in Trinidad and Ja- 
maica. In addition, the botanic stations in the Windward and Lee- 
ward Islands, would maintain nurseries for the introduction of all new 
and promising canes, and would andertake the distributing them within 
their respective spheres of action.” Sao te ; 

«At the present time a system of training in agricultural occupa- 
tion is much needed. We think that some, at least, of the botanic 
stations should have agricultural schools attached to them, where the 
best means of cultivating tropical plants would be taught, and if 
elementary training in agriculture were made a part of the course of 
education in the public schools generally, the Botanic Department 
would be in a position to render valuable assistance.” 

« Agriculture, in one form or another, must always be the chief and 
the only great industry in the West Indies, but a system of training 
in other industrial occupations, on a limited scale, is desirable, and 
would be beneficial to the community.” | 


281 


IMPERIAL DEPARTMENT, AND JAMAICA DEPARTMENT. 

The Royal Commissioners thus appear to have founded their recom- 
mendations for the new Imperial Department, mainly on the work 
which they ascertained, was being carried on in Jamaica. 

It will be useful to compare the area, population and revenue of the 
Islands which will receive the fostering care of the Imperial Govern- 
ment, and the expenditure proposed under the new Department, with 
the area and the expenditure of Jamaica. 

The figures in the following table are for the year 1896, and are 
taken from the Colonial Office List :— 


Area Sq. Miles. Population. Revenue. 
Leeward Is. ) | 
Windward Is. 
Bo Absos r 1,508 480,076 471,606 
Tobago J 
Jamaica 4,207 694,491* 777,188 


Comparing these figures. it would appear that approximately for 
every £2 spent by the Imperial Government on the other [Islands, 
Jamaica should spend £3 or half as much again. 

The following table compares the estimates by the Imperial Govern- 
ment of the expenditure’which they consider necessary, and the esti- 
mate for the year 1898-99 of the Jamaica Department :— 

Department of Agriculture in Lee- Department of Public Gardens 


ward and Windward Islands., and Plantations in Jamaica 
Barbados and Tobago. 


Chief Officer... - £1,000 Director ise £600 
Clerk and travelling Super- Clerk and Assistants 368 
intendent 600 
Eight Curators and ten In- Six Superintendents 903 
structors 3,070 
Travelling and Office ex- Travelling and other charges 
penses 600 including Bulletin 502 
Bulletins and Leaflets 500 
Nine Gardens and experi- Six Gardens} 2,332 
ment stations 4,630 
Total £10,400 Total £4,695 


Four Industrial Schools £2,000 
Additional grants :— 


Horticultural Shows 500 

Agricultural teaching in 
elementary schools 500 

Agricultural teaching in 


Colleges and Schools 2,600 
Sugar Cane experiments 
in British Guiana 1,000 


a et 


Grand Total £17,000 


Other charges not on Esti- 
mate- 
One Industrial School £680 
Agricultural Society 2,000 


Grand Total £7,375 


* From the Report of the West India Commissioners. 
+ Including three—King’s House, Bath and Kingston Gardens, ‘which are not 


Agricultural Gardens. 


| 
; 


282 


The Commissioners have doubtless put the expenditure which they 
considered necessary at the lowest possible figure ; and if we remember 
that the area of Jamaica is nearly three times that of all these Islands 
put together, and the population and revenue half as much more, the 
proportionate expenditure on the Jamaica Gardens should be nearer 
£16,000 than £5,000. The Department is run very cheaply, but the 
saving effected in this way, cripples its work, and prevents expansion 
in many directions. 


The expansion that is more particularly required is in the direction 
of more agricultural instruction. Mr. Cradwick’s whole time could 
very usefully be employed in travelling throughout the length and 
breadth of the land, showing the peasantry, and others who desire 
help, improved agricultural methods. In order to reach children in 
elementary schools, the students in training colleges should be enabled 
to have 2 or 3 months of work annually at the Gardens. Agricultural 
training of higher grade might be commenced in a tentative way. 


Experimental station work comparable in any degree with that in 
the United States can only be undertaken at a cost which at present 
appears to be prohibitive. Scientific experts would be required for 
each branch, laboratories with appliances and instruments, plots of 
ground, and farm animals for experiment with the labour necessary in 
each case. 


Horst GARDENS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 


Hope Garden is now the head-quarters of the Department. The 
Director’s residence and office, the herbarium and library, are all 
situated there. 


The area is altogether about 212 acres, and of these about 120 acres 
are cultivated and kept in order. A part is laid out as a botanic gar- 
den; a portion is devoted to growing Sugar Canes, Pine Apples, To- 
bacco, Citrus Plants, etc., for distribution and experiment; and part 
serves as pasture for mules, etc. 


Hope is also now the centre of distribution of plants and seeds. 


The propagation and distribution of plants, generally a quarter of a 
million in number, during the year, will compare favourably with the 
work of the largest Nursery Gardens, and if the whole cost of the De- 

rtment, including salaries, were placed against these plants, the cost 
to the Island would in that case be only about 3d. each. Mistakes are 
occasionally made, and accidents occur, but I believe the following let- 
ter expresses the general opinion throughout the Island :-— 


“Tf the Public Gardens did nothing beyond supplying plants to ap- 
plicants in different parts of the Island, it would have conferred con- 
siderable benefit on the Island. I have heard on all sides that the va- 
rious plants supplied by the Gardens have given great satisfaction. 
My attention has been particularly directed to the beautiful and effec- 
tual manner in which Urange and Grape Fruit plants are put up for 
distribution. 'The excellent Cocoa plants supplied me some little since 
time are doing exceedingly well, and all the ornamental shrubs sup- 
plied have proved a success.” 


283 
The expenditure at Hope Gardens may be arranged under the fol- 


lowing heads :— ro Be, + Be 
Maintenance of Garden ae 394. 0 0 
Plant Nurseries ae 496 0 0 
Labour on Economic Plants oa 160 0 0 
Transport md 170 0 0 
Packing Cases, Bamboo Pots, etc. ... 200 0 0 
Sheds, Carts, Harness, Tools, Fences )} 100 0 0 
and Water Pipes s 

Water Supply Ae 131 11 0 
£1,651 11 0 


Of this amount £1,116 11s. 0d. is provided on the Estimates,—the 
expenditure on transport, packing cases, etc., and on part of the nur- 
sery work being met by the receipts from sales of plants. By the aid of 
the receipts for the past four years, [ have been able to increase the 
distribution of plants to an unprecedented extent, and to place the 
benefit of the Nurseries at the disposal of planters in all parts of the 
country, without regard to distance. Wherever the Coastal Steamer 
stops in her voyage round the Island, wherever there is a Railway Sta- 
tion, there plants are sent at exactly the same cost to the purchaser as 
if he were living in or near Kingston. In fact, failing the Railway 
and the Steamer as means of transport, wherever the Mail Coach or 
the peripatetic postman penetrates, parcels of plants from the seed- 
beds as well as cuttings and seeds are distributed. The humblest pea- 
sant without having to pay postage, can send a half-penny to the Di- 
rector and get a Cocoa plant in a bamboo pot in return, at any port or 
railway station ; or he can have at any Mail Coach or Parcel Post Of- 
fice, if there is no port nor station convenient, such a plant as an 
Orange or Grape Fruit seedling which does not require a pot, or he 
can get seed of the finest cocoa. By simply stating the area he in- 
tends to plant in tobacco, anyone can have free as much as he requires 
of Havana or Sumatra tobacco seed. 

A planter and pen-keeper writes as follows :—“ I look upon all the 
Public Gardens as immense blessings to the Island, the more we can 
spread economic plants over the whole Island, the betterfor our ex- 
ports, and the more we can foster the love of flowers among the people 
the happier they will be. With all our present lack of money | hope 
nothing will be done to curtail the usefulness of the Public Gardens, 
which are a credit to the Island and to all who manage them.” 

| VIsITs TO THE GARDENS. 

Visits to the Gardens for the purpose of learning something about 
products new to planters are frequent. One writes :—“ Information 
that I have got from you, and by my several visits to the Gardens 
have been invaluable to me, and has opened quite a new era for me in 
cultivating. I wish the Gardens every success, as they have benefited 
me and indirectly hundreds of small settlers in this district, for they, 
seeing the benefits accruing to me from improved methods o. cultivat- 
ing and the introduction of new plants to the district, are following 
suit,—and thereby increasing their prosperity, and also that of the 
country.” 


284 


BULLETINS. 
The Bulletins published during the year contained [articles on the 
following subjects :— 
Satin Wood. 
Pea-nut or Pindar-nut. 
Oil Tree. 
Coneys and Nutmeg Tree. 
Notes on Recent Additions to the Gardens. 
Reasons for Cultivating the Soil. 7 
Commercial Fertilisers. 
Coccide, or Scale insects. 
Ramie. 
Ferns—Synoptical List. 
Grape Industry. 
How to gather Logwood Seed. 
TLeguminous plants for green manuring. 
Barnyard Manure. 
Movements of Plants. 
Analysis of Sugar Cane. 
Elementary notes on Jamaica Plants. 
Cabinet Woods: Market Report. 
Rhythmic growth in Citrus. 
Ceara Rubber. 
Carob or Locust Bean Tree. 
Citric Acid. 
Plants grown in Castleton Gardens. 
The History of the Public Gardens and Plantations. 
Notes on Orchids. 
Cocoa in Trinidad, Venezuela and Grenada. 
Rubber. 
Note on Ceara Rubber. 
Wax Palms of the Andes. 
Oka of Peru. 
Agricultural Chemistry of Cocoa. 
CoRRESPONDENCE. 

The correspondence has been as large as usual. It is impossible to 
attend to all the foreign letters that are addressed to me, and I have 
had to adopt some rule in dealing with them. I answer letters of en- 
quiry asking for information about the Island and its products, from 
persons who are thinking of settling here; I try to help those who 
have any claim on the Island by reason of being countrymen, or being 
willing to reciprocate; but wherever there already exists a botanic gar- 
den, I think it only right to confine my correspondence to the Officer 
in charge, and leave him to supply information, seeds, plants, &c., to 
local people. 

Fizip Insrrucrion. 

Mr. Cradwick’s work is exceedingly important, and it would be well 
to vote such money as would allow him to devote his whole time to it ; 
—say, £400 for travelling expenses, and £250 for a Superintendent 
to take his place at Hope. 

It has been remarked that it would be well that Mr. Cradwick’s in- 
struction should be more systematic, and on the lines of that given by 


285 


the lecturers for the County Councils in England. This is a some- 
‘what unfortunate statement, for it is pretty generally known that the 
system pursued in England has been somewhat of a failure, whereas 
the plan in Jamaica has been most successful. Without more detailed 
criticism than this, it is impossible to do more than zuess at the mean- 
ing here of “systematic”. Probably it means that a series of lectures 
running through the fundamental principles of agricultural science 


should be given in definite centres at stated times. This might an- — 


swer in countries that are more advanced in general education and 
knowledge of agricultural practice. But our chief aim at present is to 
reach the peasant class, who cannot read well enough to appreciate 
printed matter, or who cannot get just the kind of information he re- 
quires. 


He wants to know why his cocoa tree is not bearing as well as the 
trees on the big estate close by; why his trees are always covered with 
moss, while his neighbour’s are clean; why some trees have died out 
completely from the roots up ; how he can cure his cocoa, so as to get 
the best price for it. The Instructor must go into the fields with the 
people, he must see their cultivation, and point out what is wrong, and 
how to improve; he must talk over with the people their difficulties, 
do some work on the spot with their own land and their own plants, 
that they may watch what difference the draining of the land or the 
pruning of the trees makes in the crop, and in the general health of the 
trees. This method is truly scientific and truly systematic. It is sup- 
plemented by talks (a lecture, if the term is preferred) to larger audi- 
ences in school-rooms wherever there is a good centre. These talks 
also are much appreciated ; they last about an hour, and then for about 
another hour or two, the Instructor is engaged in answering questions 
put by his hearers. The questions are generally very much to the 
point, and show a strong desire to learn, and to improve their practice. 

Our system with regard to choice of centres is to try to confer the 
greatest good onthegreatest number. In the first place our hands are 
tied by want of money. Instructors will not travel round at their 
own expense from philanthropic motives. Again I cannot detach men 
from work which has a prior claim, and would fall through if left. 
We want moremen and money. With the limits imposed at present, 
we cannot do anything on what may be called the missionary side 
of agriculture,—going into new districts, and stirring up people to re- 
cognise their agricultural sins. The Instructor is not sent to any dis- 
trict, unless the people in large numbers desire it, and manifest their 
wish by signing a petition to the Government. Even then, unfortu- 
nately, we are not able always to comply with the request. Some 
choice must be made with our limited means, and as I have said, our 

choice is determined by the principle of the greatest good for the 
greatest number. | 


If the method were adopted of giving a series of lectures at eac 
-centre, I feel sure that the result would be failure. The people are 
mot accustomed to leave their work and walk miles day after day to 
‘listen to a lecturer. 


T have to thank the Clergy and others in various places for kind 
‘help in arranging for Mr. Cradwick’s visits. Whatever success we 


286 


may have had, depends in very great measure on the interest taken im 
this work by local men ‘“‘ of light and leading.” 
The following extracts are from reports by Mr. Cradwick — 


Portland. 


“T beg to submit the following report on a lecturing tour in the 
Parish of Portland. 

“ Tuesday, April 27th, 1897. Lectured in the Belle Castle School. 
Room, on the subjects advertised :—Cocoa, Coffee, Oranges and Grape 
Fruits, to an audience of about 60 adults. 

“ Wednesday, 28th. Demonstrated on the above subjects in several. 
Gardens at Belle Castle, and also paid a visit to Hector’s River in order 
to advise the proprietor_with reference to his Cocoa cultivation. At 7 
p.m. the same evening delivered a second lecture, pointing out and. 
emphasizing the mistakes and errors observed when going through the 
district. . 

“Thursday, the 29th. Lectured to an audience of about 100 in the 
School Room at Manchioneal, and afterwads demonstrated in some 
Gardens near by. 

“Friday, the 30th. Rural Hill. Only about 30 people turned out. 
The people here seemed to be prejudiced against anything of the kind 
through their disappointment in connection with their efforts to se- 
cure crown lands, which they assert had been promised them, and for 
which they had paid money to some agent of the Government as 
long ago as last year, and up to that time no land had been allotted 
them, but that the Government still had their money. | 

“Saturday, May Ist. Boston. Here an audience of about two 
dozen only had gathered ; the people were also aggrieved or sympa- 
thised with the people who have a grievance over the Crown Lands. 
‘However the people who did come out were of the best, and the most 
industrious of the neighbourhood ; they were really interested in what 
I had to tell and show them, and expressed strong hope that I would 
return at an early date. | 

“The portion of the Island visited during this tour, is, I regret to 
‘say, one of the most backward agriculturally which I have yet visited. 
The coffee and chocolate are simply allowed to grow,—no attempt at 
planting at a proper distance is made; no attempt at regulating the 
growths of the large trees through which the coffee is growing; no 
attempt at pruning; in fact no attempt (with just here and there a 
feeble exception) at any kind of cultivation is made at all. Chocolate 
is simply allowed to grow up into huge poles with scarcely even a pod 
outhem. The district is famous I am told for good grape fruits, yet 
the people are not planting,—I did not see one single young plant 
outside the large properties except such as had grown spontaneously. 
A large number of young sour oranges were growing through the 

district, and I carefully showed the people how to bud these, and hope 
that they will carry out theinstructions. I carefully impressed on them 
the need of a more systematic style of cultivation, for it is really piti- 
ful to see so much fine land put to so little use. The audiences, al- 
though small, were I think of the right class of men, and I think that 
some at least in every district will try to put my ideas to a practical. 
application. 7 


287 


St. Ann. 

Monday, 17th May.—Lectured at Mount Moriah at 2 p.m. about 40 
adults present, subject treated, the growing, pruning and curing of 
coffee, also the growing and pruning of oranges; rain prevented any 
demonstration in the fields. 

Tuesday, 18th.—Johns Hall. Lectured on growing, pruning and 
curing of coffee, also growing budding and pruning of oranges. This 
being a wet district and the soil heavy and retentive, particular stress 
was laid on the proper methods of draining, and the benefit ‘to be de- 
rived from a properly carried out system of drainage. Demonstrated 
on pruning coffee and budding oranges. 

Wednesday, 19th.—Clarksonville. Gave a demonstration on Mr. 
Head’s property, on the proper way to manure, fork, and to prune 
coffee; also how to bud and prune oranges. Some coffee which Mr. 
Head had taken in hand since the occasion of my last visit and had 
forked and manured, but not so effectually as it might have been done, 
had improved wonderfully. The improvement no doubt would have 
been still more marked but for the late severe drought. 

Lectured at noon in the Baptist Chapel to about 100 people on the 
same subjects as at the two previous centres. Afterwards gave de- 
monstration on pruning and manuring coffee, and on budding oranges. 
This would have been continued to a greater length but for the rain 
which put a stop to it after about an hour. 

Thursday, 20th.—Lectured and demonstrated at Stepney. Only 
a small audience was present here, but those who were present were 
people who attended on the occasion of my previous visit to this place, 
and who had made use of my suggestions, and were keen to see further 
demonstrations. 

Friday. 21st.—Lectured and demonstrated at Linton Park. This is 
a remarkably fertile district only as yet partially settled. This is one 
of the finest districts for settlers that I have ever seen. The people 
were particularly interested in the budding, as the district is full of 
young sour orange trees, which they are anxious to turn into grape 
ruit. 

Saturday, 22nd.—Visited the cultivation of Mr. Moulton Barrett, of 
Stewart Town. Mr. Barrett is growing grafts and was very anxious 
to get my advice on them, he had also an acre of excellent Irish pota- 
toes. 

Monday, 24th.—Iectured and demonstrated at Lower Buxton. The 
people were quite enthusiastic over my coming. Some of them have 
been successful with the budding, others have treated their decaying 
coffee with lime and seen the beneficial results. I was unable to visit 
the fields where this had been done as it rained heavily all the after- 
noon; the demonstrations were given before the lecture while the peo- 
ple were gathering. 

Tuesday, 25th.—Lectured and demonstrated at Grateful Hall. 
Here again the people were quite interested. One man after my last 
visit had treated three of his poor drooping coffee trees with lime. 
These trees I went and saw with all the people who had attended the 
lecture, and there those three trees stood out in bold relief through the 
coffee walk, being vigorous, covered with young growths with dark 

healthy green leaves,—the untreated trees being still yellow and sickly- 


288 


looking with scarcely any young growths on them. So impressed is 
the man with the good of the lime that he has burnt a large kiln solely 
for the purpose of manuring the rest of the coffee. 

The people in this district are anxious to try other cultures, and I 
advised them to try grapes, pine-apples and tobacco and gave them in- 
structions how to grow them. 

Wednesday, 26th.-—Lectured at Sturge Town. This is a new centre. 
‘The people have excellent land, yet make very little use of it. They 
were however quite interested and anxious to gain information,—one 
man remarking that he thought it a great pity that the Government 
had not thought of sending lecturers round thirty years ago. 

As aresult of my visit I may mention that the following plants 
have been ordered solely by small settlers through the Rev. Geo. Hen- 
Aerson. | 

: Stepney. 
62 Kola. 
3 Nutmegs. 
Grateful Hill. 
16 Ripley Pines. 
16 Grape Vines. 
6 Kola. 
12 Chocolate. 
2 Cocoa. 
Sturge Town. 
24 Pines. 
18 Kola. 
30 Nutmegs. 
Lower Buxton. 
12 Nutmegs. 
6 Kola. 
6 Grapes. 
4 Cocoa Pods. 

Thursday 27th.—Visited Rev. J. P. Hall, relative to plants required 
‘for the Brown’s Town Church Yard. Visited Hon. Dr. Johnston, and 
discussed with him the prospects of introducing new cultures among 
the people of St. Anns. The conclusion arrived at being that it would 
be better to try to get the people to improve their present cultures ra- 
ther than risk introducing cultures which might turn out failures ; the 
exception being articles which could be used as food by the peasantry 
about which there could be little risk. 

Visited Mr. Braham’s coffee cultivation at Moneague, discussing 

runing, shading and manuring. 

Friday 28th.—Visited the orange grove of Mr. Conran, at Wood- 
field, Mr. Conran has planted very large groves in the most approved 
style wholly with budded stock. | 

Westmoreland, St. James and Hanover. 

Monday, 27th Sept.—Lectured in the School Room at Bruce Hall 
(Retrieve Bridge) to an appreciative audience, nearly all of whom are 
land owners, chiefly on the tillage of the soil, draining, etc., explain- 
ing how the general principles laid down affect all crops. 

The Rev. P. Williams, of Bethel Town, Vice-President of the Lambs 
River Branch of the Jamsica Agricultural Society, presided. The 


289 


-audience listened most attentively to a lecture of an hour and ten 
“minutes, expressed themselves highly pleased thereat, and as a prac- 
tical way of showing their interest asked a series of questions bearing 
on the different points whieh occupied nearly another hour in answer- 
ing. Nothing can better indicate the interest or the grasp an audience 
has on a subject than the nature of the questions afterwards asked. 

Tuesday 28th.—Lectured in the School Room at Lambs River. The 
audience consisted largely of members of the Lambs River Branch of 
the Jamaica Agricultural Society,—the subjects treated were the same 
as at Bruce Hall. 

The President of the Lambs River Branch of the Agricultural So- 
clety, J. R. Williams, Esq., Inspector of Schools, presided. Arch- 
deacon Ramson, A. Farewell, Esq., and G. A. Douet, Esq., were 
-also present. Mr. Douet brought samples of growing and manufac- 
tured Ramie. Heearnestly advised every one to plant some, so that 
they might gain some experience of the plant at once, which would pre- 
vent their wasting time in the event of the plant becoming a remu- 
nerative crop. 

Mr. Douet also brought samples of Farine and explained how it was 
‘manufactured. 

Wednesday 29th.—Lectured in the School Room at Bethel Town. 
‘The subjects dealt with being practically the same as at the two pre- 
‘vious meetings. J. R. Williams, Esq., again presided. The Rev. P. 
“Williams and Rey. E. J. Hewitt were also present. These gentlemen 
expressed the liveliest approval of the lecture, and of the work of the 
Government in instituting such lectures for the people. 

At all the places the people expressed their gratitude for the Lec- 
‘tures, and the hope that I would return in the near future to deliver 
others. . 

: St. Ann. 

I beg to report that in accordance with instructions received from 
you, I visited and gave lectures and demonstrations on the cultivation 
of Tobacco, Coffee, Cocoa and other products at the centres and on 
the dates given below, illustrating by actual demonstration the pro- 
per way to fork and treat soil when planting out crops and taking 
steps to ensure the proper condition of the soil for the after well- 
being ot the plants. 

The demonstrations were badly attended save at Ramble Pen, The 
local organizers of these meetings should take the greatest care to. be 
very explicit as to dates, etc., or the meetings in point of numbers are 
doomed to be a failure. A really good gathering was present at Ram- 
ble, fully 60 men being present. The lecture in the evening at Clare- 
mont was unfortunately spoiled by rain. 

The following were the centres visited :— 

February 1st, Bensonton. 
“« 2nd, Ramble 
“ s- 2nd, Claremont 
“ 8rd Walkers Wood. 
‘Manchester, Westmoreland, Hanover, St. James Trelawney and St. 
Ann. 

Visited Grape Farm, and prepared cuttings. The Grape Farm is 

looking well, the vines have not yet commenced to grow to any appre- 


290 

ciable extent, but they look nice and green and should make good pro- 
gress as soon as the proper season arrives. People are still planting 
grapes extensively. Plenty of good bunches of black grapes are ripen- 
ing. For want of thinning they are of only ordinary quality, but with 
a little care and skilled attention they might easily be made first-class. 
I sent up seven baskets full to the Secretary of the Agricultural So- 
ciety. 

I have given directions for the whole of the cleaned land at the 
Grape Farm to be planted with grape cuttings. I think the slight 
shade of the various crops now growing will prove beneficial to the 
young vines; in such a hot place it certainly will not be harmful. 

The remainder of the land should be cleaned and covered ready 
for planting in the spring and and autumn. I do not recommend that 
anything more than a very small trial of say three plants of any va- 
riety other than Muscats be made. The common black is the best 
black without a doubt for present purposes. The Muscats, however, 
are so superior in flavour, that a good trial of these should be made. 
There is reason to believe that they will thrive, as some plants of Mr. 
Shaw’s are doing well; one plant which he got from Hope in May last 
year, has made a growth of 30 feet. Some plants of Muscat Ham- 
burgh have done fairly well also, but the other varieties do not appear 
likely to thrive. ; 

Wednesday Feby. 16th—Visited Carmel, lectured and demonstrated 
there on coffee and oranges and on tobacco-growing to about 70 or 80 
men and a number of women. ! 

Tuesday, Feb. 22nd.—St. Ann’s Bay. Demonstrated on Mr. Nunes’ 
vines on pruning, and illustrated the proper treatment of them by 
means of the material found there. About 15 people attended, the 
number would have been double as Mr. Nunes had taken the trouble to 
properly advertise my coming, but unfortunately influenza was raging 
in St. Ann’s Bay. 

Manchester. 

Tuesday, March Ist, 1898.—Lectured at the Court House toa fairly 
good meeting of about 30 men on cultivation, management of soils, 
draining, manuring, liming, &c., and afterwards gave an ocular demon- 
stration thereon, also on pruning coffee. 

Wednesday, March 2nd.—Lectured and demonstrated at Devon on 
the same topics with the addition of tobacco, about 30 people being 
present. | 

Friday, March 4th—Lectured and demonstrated at Walderston to 
about 60 people who seemed very intelligent and very interested. 

General Remarks. 

I was very pleased to see the good quality of the coffee grown about 
Christiana, but grieved to see the way in which the people spoilt it in 
curing. ; 

I was much pleased to see the good result of an experiment in 
forking and manuring land for ginger. | 

A piece of land which had formerly been planted with ginger and 
consequently was now looked upon as worthless, worn out, &c. had 
been forked and manured simply with rotten cane trash. With this 
simple treatment it had produced excellent ginger, thus showing that 
ginger can be grown on land for a term of years. 


291 


St. Thomas. 


Tuesday, March 8th.—Lectured in the Court House at Morant Bay 
to about 50 people on the management of soils, manuring, &c., also 
on cocoa, tobacco, coffee, oranges and grapes. 

Afterwards demonstrated on the budding of oranges and pruning of 
coffee and cocoa. 

Thursday, March 10th.— Whitehall. Lectured in the School-room 
+o a room full, on coffee, oranges, tobacco and cocoa, and afterwards 
demonstrated on budding of oranges and pruning coffee and cocoa. 

Friday, March 11th.—Johnstown. Lectured in the School-room to 
an audience of about 25 men and a number of women and the bigger 
School children, the subject being the same as the day before. 

Saturday, March 12th.—Visited Dr. Neyland’s cocoa cultivation at 
Bachelor’s Hall, and visited numerous people’s cultivations on the road, 
gave advice to Mr. Stewart in particular regarding his grapes, peaches, 
coffee and oranges. 

Monday, March 14th.—Lectured in the School-room at Thornton. 
While dealing with the crops fit for the locality, particular stress was 
laid on the way in which the people waste the land, and yet are dis- 
satisfied that they cannot get more. 

Tuesday, March 15th.—Lectured at Chigoe-foot Market to a good 
audience of 50 or 60 adults and about a dozen of the biggest boys from 
the Seaforth School, dealing with tobacco, oranges, coffee and grapes ; 
the soil here is light and sandy and should grow, I think, grapes of a 
good quality. 

Wednesday, March 16th.—Lectured at the Wilmington Sohool-room 
to a house full of people. 

The large attendance was doubtless due to energy, and the interest 
taken in the people by the Rector of Morant Bay. 

The people hereabouts are very land-greedy ; many think an acre of 
land not worth bothering with and because they cannot become the 
possessors of a large tract they simply sit and grumble. I therefore 
devoted a good deal of time after lecturing on tobacco, oranges, treat- 
ment of ground provisions, and cocoa, to show what might be done 
with an acre of land and I think I succeeded in impressing a few of 
them with the idea that an acreof land would really produce some- 
thing if properly cultivated. 

St. James and Hanover. 


Wednesday, March 30th.—Lectured and demonstrated at Retrieve 
School on cultivation of coffee, oranges, ginger, and tobacco to about 
30 men besides women and the biggest School-children. Also demon- 
strated with the aid of a skilled labourer from the gardens the use of 
the ordinary digging and Assam forks, and on draining the land. 
This is a most favourable locality for such a demonstration, the land 
being rich but heavy and in some instances badly drained. 

Thursday, March 3lst.—Lectured at the Mt. Hermon School-room 
to about 30 men, chiefly members of the Lamb’s River branch of the 
Agricultural Society, the subjects dealt with being the same as at 
Retrieve. The land in the immediate vicinity of Mt. Hermon was not 
favourable to a demonstration of implements, but many of the audience 
swere from surrounding districts where such implements would be ex- 


292 


tremely useful and were much interested in them, the Assam forks: 
especially appealing to their fancy. 
Herparium & Liprary. 

Numerous plants and specimens have been sent up to the Herbarium- 
for information respecting their names, their value, properties, &c. 

A merchant, perhaps, requires a certain product, a sample of which 
has been received from London or New York, and he enquires what it 
is, where it may be obtained, in what quantities, &. Whether the 
product would pay to export or not, or whether it is even known in 
Jamaica; the examination and research consume a considerable amount 
of time.—I may instance the West India Dragons Blood, of which an 
analysis was made by the late Prof. Trimble in Philadelphia, who re-- 
ported that it would be of value as a medicinal kino, if found in 
sufficient quantities.. A perfume-maker in England writes about an 
extract from a native plant for use in perfumery. A pen-keeper again, 
finds some of his cattle dying, suspects that they have been poisoned 
by eating a certain plant, and submits it for examination. Another 
is troubled in his pastures with a weed, and asks whether it is hurtful 
to cattle, or exhausting to the soil. Another notices a new grass, 
which on examination turns out to be a native of Australia, and of con- 
siderable value as fodder. A planter comes across a tree on his estate, 
bearing fruit said to be edible, and asks if it is so. Another finds on a 
newly-purchased estate an avenue of trees, sends up specimens, and 
enquires about the value of the tree. 

Several correspondents have forwarded specimens of diseased plants, 
wanting to know their nature, and whether there are remedies for the 
pests. Others who take an interest in botany, wish for the scientific 
names of plants, especially of examples of our native flora. 

The Herbarium collections are continually being increased by addi- 
tions, and Mr. William Harris, Supt. of the Hill Gardens, is as assidu- 
ous as ever in collecting. 

Rare Ferns. —Several have been found, but the three following may 
be mentioned :— 

Lonchitis aurita, Linn.—Mr. G. 8S. Jenman writes—“ Plumier 
gathered the plant in Martinique about 220 years ago, and it 
was not re-discovered till 1880, when Mr. Nock found a single 
small plant below John Crow Peak in Jamaica. Nock only 
gathered two specimens, one of which is at Kew, and the other 
was mislaid or lost. He was unable to find his plant again, 
although he searched repeatedly for it.” 

This plant was re-discovered by Mr. Harris, in another locality, 
in the early part of 1898. 

Polypodium jubeforme, Kaulf.—Mr. Jenman writes—“ Gathered by 
Swartz, whose specimen is in the British Museum, but collectors 
since have not re-discovered it. I failed to find it, although I 
searched far and wide for it.” Re-discovered by Mr. Harris in 
1898. 

Anemia mandiocana, Radd.—Mr. Jenman in speaking of the 
habitat of this plant says :—‘ Jamaica, according to Grisebach, 
who correctly describes it, but I have only seen Brazilian- 
specimens.” 


Collected by Mr. Harris in 1898. 


293 


Insect pests have become exceedingly troublesome in the destruction: 
of dried specimens since the Herbarium has been moved to the warmer 
climate of Hope Gardens ; and more time and labour are consequently 
required than formerly in the preservation of the dried plants. 

Books have been added from time to time to the Library, that are 
necessary in the determination of plants, or that put forth new truths 
in the science of agriculture and their application in practice, or sum- 
marise experimental scientific work that has been carried on invarious 
parts of the world. Without a properly equipped Library, the De- 
partment would quickly fall behind in a knowledge of the wonderful 
advances that are continually being made in the science of plant life. 

The vote is spent partly on books, partly on periodicals for the Li- 
brary, partly on periodicals (Kew Bulletin and Gardening Papers) for 
the Superintendents’ Offices, and partly on binding. 

The exchange of periodicals effected by sending the Bulletin to 
foreign correspondents, has enriched the Library shelves with a mass 
of literature, which deals with current questions about agriculture and 
botany, and gives details of actual work and experiments in progress 
elsewhere. 

In this connection I wish especially to call attention to the Bulletins 
issued by the Experiment Stations of the United States, which are 
very kindly contributed by the Directors. ‘The value of these Bulle- 
tins is greatly increased by the publication of an Index. ‘For some 
time the office of Experiment Stations has been engaged in the pre- 
paration of a subject index of the literature of Agricultural experi- 
ment stations and kindred institutions. The general plan on which 
the index is constructed may be briefly outlined as follows :— 

“The subjects with which Agricultural Science deals have been 
grouped under a limited number of general topics. These topics have 
been divided and sub-divided only so far as seemed necessary to facili- 
tate references to the individual entries of the index. As the work of 
the stations reaches out in many directions into the domain of pure as 
distinguished from applied science, a section of the index has been set 
apart for entries relating to the general principles of the various sci- 
ences which lie at the foundation of experimental investigations in 
agriculture. This affords a wide opportunity for the extension of the 
index by individual students for their own special purposes. 

“The index is printed on cards of a standard library size. The di- 
visions and sub-divisions are arranged on a decimal system and are 
plainly indicated by the use of division cards of different colours. 

‘Hach index card contains the title of an article, the name of its 
author, a reference to the publication in which it appeared, and to the 
Experiment Station Record, and a condensed statement of its con- 
tents. At the upper right hand corner of the card is a number indi- 
cating under what head the card should be placed in the index.” 

This index is in the Library. By means of it students, wishing to 
see the latest information on any particular subject worked out by the 
Experiment Stations, can without loss of time, turn up the Bulletins 
referring thereto. 

InpustriaL ScHoot. 

The Industrial School has been conducted on former lines. I am 

anxious that some means may be adopted whereby it is possible to ad- 


294 


mit others who would pay for diet, clothing, etc., and so not cause any 
extra expense to the Institution. It seems to me that the only way 
to start the plan would be to take some few of the best of those who 
pass the Pupil Teachers’ Examination, admit them to the school, and 
charge them nothing for their board and education. When a begin- 
ning was once made in this way, and the standing of the School 
thereby raised, parents would probably be found willing to pay a cer- 
tain sum for their boys at the School. But the free apprenticeship 
system should precede that of payment. If necessary the Gardens 
Department would refund the Treasury the amount of these appren- 
ticeships, as the labour of picked boys would be of equal value to the 
Gardens. It may be said that money is not voted by the Legislature 
for the purpose of providing such apprenticeships, but if part of the 
sum voted for labour were spent in this way, and the value for that re- 
ceived in labour by the Gardens, neither the Government nor the De- 
partment would suffer any loss, and the country would gain in the 
training given to afew boys. The Report of Mr. Hopwood, the Master 
in charge, is published separately. 
APPRENTICES. 

Boys from West Coast.—The Colonies of the West Coast of Africa 
have adopted a general scheme whereby picked boys shall be sent for 
training in horticulture and economic agriculture, first to Jamaica and 
afterwards to Kew Gardens. 

This scheme is due to the success that has attended the experiment 
initiated by the then Governor Sir A. Moloney, of sending in 1890 
two native lads from Lagos to be trained as Gardeners at the Jamaica 
and Kew Gardens. After spending two years and a half in Jamaica, 
they were attached to Kew Gardens for some months, and now are in 
charge of branch Botanic Stations in Lagos, growing and preparing 
agricultural products, and giving instruction. 

The following are the Regulations under which boys are apprenticed 
at the Gold Coast :— 

1. ‘“‘ Two apprenticeships are offered by the Government for the 
purpose of teaching to natives of the Gold Coast Colony the 
details of horticulture and economic botany in tropical coun- 
tries. 

2. “Candidates must fulfil the following conditions as to age, pa- 
rentage, residence, scholarship and physical fitness :— 

Conditions. | 

(a.) “ Age.—A candidate’s age must be not less than 16 and 
and not more than 20 years on the first day of the year in 
which the apprenticeship is offered. 

(b.) “ Parentage.—The parents of the candidates must be, or if 
dead, must have been, natives of the Gold Coast Colony, 
or resident in the Colony for not less than five years be- 
fore the first day of the year in which the apprenticeship 
is offered. 

(c.) ‘“ Restdence—The candidate himself must be a resident in 
the Gold Coast Colony. 

(d.) “ Qualifications —A candidate will be required to pass 
an examination in English equal to that required for Stan- 
dard VI. in the following subjects, Reading, Writing, 


ee 


295 


Arithmetic, or must produce other such evidence as shall 
satisfy the Government of his general fitness and ability 
in English. 

(e.) Physical Fitness.—“ Each selected candidate must produce 
a certificate by the proper Medical Officer of his physical 
fitness. : 

3. “Selected candidates will be apprenticed to the business of 
tropical horticulture and economic botany and agriculture. 

4, “Each apprentice will be required to sign indentures with 
two sureties in the sum of £250 binding him as an appren- 
tice for four years, and further binding him after the comple- 
tion of his apprenticeship to serve the Government of the 
Gold Coast Colony at any botanical station or experimental 
farm or garden for 7 years as a garden assistant under the re- 
gulations in force for the time being, as to pay, promotion 
and leave 

5. “ Anapprentice will be required to provide himself at his own 
expense and to renew from time to time as required, with 
the following outfit . . . . . 

6. © Apprentices will be sent to Jamaica to undergo training at 
the Hope Gardens and. afterwards at the Royal Gardens, 
Kew. A second class passage will be provided by the Govern- 
ment of the Gold “oast. 

7. “During the period of their residence in Jamaica or at Kew, 
they will be required to attend diligently to the work allot- 
ted to them, and to obey all lawful commands of their supe- 
rior officers. Half yearly reports of their conduct and pro- 
gress will be obtained from the Government of Jamaica and 
the Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. 

8. “A sumof£ a year will be allowed for the board, lodging 
and training of each apprestice during his training, and the 
proper authority will decide where apprentices shall board 
and what propertion of the allowance shall be paid for board 
and lodging, and what sum shall be allowed for pocket money 
and maintenance of stock of clothing subject to good beha- 
viour. Necessary supplies of clothing in Jamaica will be 
charged as an advance against the first year’s salary of the 
apprentice on his return to the Colony. . . 7 

10. “‘ Upon the expiration of the course of training and upon the 

receipt of a satisfactory certificate of conduct and proved 
ability from the authorities at Kew, the apprentice will be 
sent back to the Gold Coast Colony, a second class passage 
being provided by the Government. 

11. *Ifin consequence of idleness, disobedience, insubordination 
or other misconduct of an apprentice, the Government of 
Jamaica shall decide that he is unfit to remain at a Govern- 
ment establishment to be trained, he may be sent back to the 
Colony at any time, and in that case the cost of his passage 
both ways, and the aggregate sum paid for his maintenance 
under clause 8 above will be recoverd from his sureties. 

12, “ Upon his return to the Gold Coast Colony with a favourable 
report andcertificate of capacity from the authorities at Kew, 


296 


an apprentice will be entitled to be appointed to be a garden: 
assistant at a botanical station or experimental farm or garden 
of the Gold Coast Colony on a salary of £50 a year rising by 
annual increments to £80 a year. ! 

13. “ His further progress will depend upon his ability and 
trustworthiness, and there is no reason why he should not rise 
to be an Assistant Curator on £100—£150 a year.” 

Under this scheme two apprentices are under preliminary training 
under the Curator of the botanic station of the Gold Coast, and if fa- 
yourably reported on, will proced to Jamaica. 


Horr GARDENS, 


‘The following report is by the Superintendent, Mr. Wm. Uradwick :— 

Economie Plants :—Nutmegs. ‘The tree which bore such a heavy 
crop in 1895-96, bore only a few fruits this year; this tree produces. 
small round fruits. One of the trees producing the large elliptical 
fruits has a much heavier ciop, as near as can be estimated, about 
500 fruits, but they are not quite so fine as last year. The trees on. 
the whole look very well indeed, which proves after so dry a year as 
we have just passed through that the nutmeg is a tree which can be 
cultivated successfully even with only partial irrigation. 

Unsuccessful attempts have been made to bud nutmegs. but inarch- 
ing will now be tried. 

Liberian Coffee. The old trees of Liberian Coffee have improved. 
a gcod deal during this year, I can scarcely give a reason, except that 
the improvement is the result of two year’s careful cultivation watering 
and manuring. 

The young plantation of Liberian Coffee has also greatly improved,. 
most ot the trees look nice and green and many have flowered. Scale 
insects are a great pest on these plants however, and it is necessary 
to be continually spraying scme ot the trees. Some ot the trees are 
now nearly six feet high and have good strong laterals, some of the 
trees will be topped and some allowed to grow naturally. 

Arabian Coffee. The small plantation of Arabian Coffee now two 
and a half years old is still thriving, some of the trees yielded as 
much as 6lbs. of coffee and there is a promise of a large crop this year. 
The trees are in many cases putting on secondary branches, and in 
every way look very strong and vigorous, at present they are superior 
to the Liberian with identical treatment. Another planting of trees 
has been made numbering 52 plants. 

Abbeokuta Coffee. ‘This still looks as healthy as ever, except one 
or two trees which have been troubled with scale insects in the same 
way as the Liberian: it is just commencing to flower. 

Stenophylia Coffee. These plants have improved in appearance and 
look fairly well, one tree began to flower abut the middle of Febru- 
ary. Another plantation of 21 trees has been made further down the 
economic ground. ) 

Mocho Coffee, so called. The plants of the supposed Mocho Coffee 
have grown fairly well, but itis now apparent that there are two 
varieties fiom the seeds we received, one apparently ordinary Arabian, 
the other a much more upright growing tree with smaller leaves which 
are also more upright than those of the ordinary Arabian. 


297 


Cocoa. Several trees of worthless varieties have been destroyed and 
we have now none but Red Caraccas, Red Forastero, Yellow Forastero 
the true Criollo and good hybrids of these. 

The Criollo tree is a very fine one and produces especially on the 
main stem some splendid pods’ A tree of Forastero in the Nursery 
also shows what can be done by good cultivation and plenty of water. 
I propose to increase the number of Cricllo trees and of the best types 
of other varieties 

The plant of Theobroma bicolor is now about 5 feet high, it has not 
branched ; 6 more trees of this species have been planted out. 

Sugar Canes. Nearly all the plant canes were analysed by the late 
Island Chemist, but owing to his death very little has been done with 
the ratoons. The results of the analysis have been published in the 
Bulletin for October and November, 1897. 

Owing to the large demand for tops of No. 95 canes, the area under 
this variety has not been increased so much as I had hoped it would 
have been. During the unusually heavy ‘‘ seasons” in October a large 
quantity of tops which had just been planted were washed away in 
the floods. But we shall be able to supply about 10,0 0 tops this year 
and four times that quantity next year besides increasing our own 
stock. 

The land which is available for Cane cultivation at Hope has been 
under that cultivation for so long that it is absolutely necessary now 
to cultivate in an expensive manner. When replanting, trenches 2 
feet wide and 2 feet deep are dug, the top soil is returned to the bottom 
thoroughly manured and the balance of the trench filled up with the 
lower strata of soil. Irrigation has to be strictly attended to, and the 
plants of course kept clean. Manure is an expensive item ; we have a 
stock of sheep manure purchased for our future planting, and manure 
is being continually carted from Gordon Town. Nos. 115, 116, 95, 
74 and Po-a-ole are all proving themselves good ratooning canes. 

Grape Vines. Vines were pruned the first week in October with 
the object of getting ripe fruit in February, but owing to Yellow Fever 
breaking out at the Gardens the vines did not get the attention they 
should. The varieties pruned were Black Hamburgh and Black 
Alicante. The Hamburgh always required a greal deal of attention 
with regard to thinning, this they did not get this year for the reason 
stated. Mildew also infested them badly, consequently only one or 
two bunches came through and these were inferior. It is a great pity 
that this grape is so troublesome to grow for its exquisite flavour puts 
it far ahead of the common biack grapes so much grown in Jamaica. 

Lack too of thinning went a long way tvuward spoiliag the Ali- 
cantes, but very little mildew appeared on this variety. I hope to try 
this variety again next year under more favourable circumstances. 

Muscat of Alexandria. There is no doubt that this is the most 
desirable grape for Jamaica, being a strong, hardy grape, which does 
not require much thinning, and its flavour has no equal. Unfortu- 
nately we had very few plants of this variety, but a large quantity of 
cuttings have been imported from England. 

Raisin de Calabre. This variety also did extremely well at Hope, 
and is a desirable grape, but requires a good deal of thinning. 


The large, black grape from King’s House, probably the same variety 


2498 


0 common on the Savannah’s, grew vigorously, bore fairly well, but it 
does not ripen up evenly. 

Black Hamburgh and Black Alicante ripened up nicely during the 
summer crop, but they require a very great deal of thinning. 

All the varieties received from Chiswick last year have grown well, 
but of course have not fruited. Some may do so this year. 

The American varieties are, in my opinion, quite unsuited for the 
tropics, they have grown very badly. A gentleman in Kingston tells 
me that he has had some of these for over seven years and they have 
done nothing. 

A new arbour 2034 yds long, 12 ft. wide, has been erected and 
looks well. I would recommend any one wishing to erect one to imi- 
tate it 

Pines. As stated in my Report for last year, particular attention is 
being paid to selecting the best variety of Ripley Pines. I also stated 
that the quality of the future fruits of these plants could be largely 
determined by the markings of the leaf. The plants have been kept 
under strict observation with a view to determine what difference 
might be made by selection and cultivation. Plants have been pro- 
pagated by slips only of fifty-five plants, thus raised from plants with 
correct markings which are now about a year or nine months old, 
Many of them will fruit this year when fuller information will be pro- 
curable. Twenty-three have developed bad markings, i.e. red marks 
on outside of leaves ; thirty-two plants have the correct markings. Of 
eleven plants raised from parents with markings on the outside of the 
leaf as well as the centre, 10 have developed bad marks, one only 
developing correct marks. Of 17 plants raised from parents with 
markings on the outside of the leaf, only 15 have developed bad marks 
and 2 have leaves devoid of colour. Another curious thing noted, is 
that in the two latter instances, in same eases, the main stem has failed 
to develop, assuming a twisted form, and developing side shoots only, 
so that no fruits will appear on these plants this year. Five plants 
of the 11 mentioned as having markings, on the outside of the leaf as 
well as in the centre, have degenerated in this way, and 3 out of the 
batck of 17, none of the plants raised from parents with correct mark- 
ings have degenerated in this way. | 

Artificial manure for Pine Apples has proved of the greatest value, 
increasing the vigour of the plants wonderfully, and adding nearly 
14 lbs. to the size of the fruit, as well as hastening their ripening by 
fully two weeks. A trial to determine the relative merits of slips or 
suckers is also being carried out. 

Oraxges, &c., The old budded trees by the glass house continue to 
look well, but are not fruiting much. 

The grove of budded plants is doing well on the whole, except 
where sweet orange has been used as a stock, out of these 7 are dead 
and 8 are looking poorly. Iam afraid that this is not a good stock 
for Hope. : 

The 18 Tangierenes on rough lemons are growing well. 

\~ The 18 sweet oranges on rough lemon stock are all growing and 
look healthy. 

The 19 sweet oranges on sour oranges have all grown well with one 
exception which has gummed a little, but will, I think, recover. 


299 


Of the 6 Imperial Lemons on sweet orange stocks, two have died, 3 
are looking fairly well, one has died back but is springing again. 

Of the 10 Imperial Lemons on Rough Lemons, 3 have died, the 
others, with one exception, are looking extremely well. 

Of the 5 Grape Fruit, Castleton varieties, on Rough Lemons, one 
has died, the others look well. 

Of the 6 Grape Fruits, Castleton variety, on sweet orange stocks, 3 
have died, two look poorly, the remaining one looking very well. 

Of the 12 Grape Fruit on Rough Lemon stocks all are growing ex- 
ceedingly well. 

The 4 Melrose shaddocks on Rough Lemons are all growing very 
well. 

Of the 32 Navel Oranges on Rough Lemons, one has died, the rest 
look now fairly well, but many of these have gummed considerably, 
not so much at the collar, but in the branches, the formula recom- 
mended in the Bulletin (Sept. 1887) has been tried for the gumming 
and seems to be very effective. 

The grove has been extended by 6 Navel oranges, 14 Grape Fruits, 
all on sour orange stocks. 

Mangoes.—The inarching of Bombay mangoes during the past year 
has been very successful, chiefly owing to the raising of better kinds 
of stocks after the methods mentioned in last year’s Report. We have 
been able for the first time to keep the supply of grafted plants equal. 

~to the demand which is‘still small as these exquisite fruits are not wel 

known, and we have a stock on hand of about 50 grafted plants. 
Seeds of Mexican mangoes, supposed to be something very superior, 
have been received and a nice stock of plants raised. 

Several plants of mangoes imported some years ago from Martinique 
have also fruited, one very freely, this is a fine fibreless mango with a 
yellow skin and of good flavour, but not so good as our variety of the 
Governor Grant Bombay mangoes, the Nagapoury. 

Ramie — The plantation has been kept clean but not extended. 

Ginger.—One acre of land was thoroughly forked up and thrown 
into beds and planted with ginger, 1,000 feet of # inch galvanized 
iron pipes with fittings, etc., being laid down to enable us to water it, 
with the object of testing various manures. The result has been dis- 
appointing and it has been decided to leave them in the ground until 
next year. 

Canaigre —12 roots of Canaigre were planted and yielded a little 
more than the weight put. The crop was planted out near the ginger 
but unfortunately all but three plants were washed away during the 
October floods, these plants look very much better than they did last 

ear. 

2 Tobacco.—The first planting of tobacco suffered severely from the 
October floods but in spite of that, we have been very successful and 
shall have seeds in abundance for distribution. The main crop has 
been raised from Cuban seeds, but we are told: by many Cubans that 
our plants are better than the finest grown in Cuba. We have also a 
square chain of Jand in Sumatra tobacco which has also grown well 
and we shall have an abundance of seeds of this variety. Besides 
these well known varieties we have 5 other varieties. 

The object is primarily to raise seeds of Havana and Sumatra to- 


300 


bacco for distribution, secondarily to make a trial of the other varie- 
ties. With regard to raising plants for seed we are careful to destroy 
any weakly plants so that the whole of our seeds are raised from 
strong healthy plants only. 

Logwood.—A plantation 1 chain wide and 3% chains long of British 
Honduras logwood has been planted. 

htubber.—The Hevea rubber, now two years old, are from 10 to 15 
feet high and are looking very healthy. We have also another plan- 
tation of 126 Castilloa elastica and they are looking fairly well. 

Figs.—The fig cuttings received from Chiswick have grown nicely 
and are commencing to fruit. 

Correspondence. —The number of letters despatched is 4,598. 

«received ‘ 5 346. 

Buildings. —We are still badly off for buildings and T hope that 
during the coming year we shall be able to put them up at the ex- 
pense of the Gardens, although this is a heavy charge on our finances. 
We want a new stable anda “packing shed. Few people realize what 
the nursery business is at Hope 

A shelter for visitors is also wanted and will be more so hen the 
Electric Car ruus up to Hope. A new glass house is badly needed for 
seeds. 

Roads.-—Fifty-four chains of road have been repaired some twice 
and thrice over, owing to the heavy October floods. 


Fences.—Sixteen chains of new fence have been made by the side of 
the road over the conduit and fifty-one thoroughly repaired. 

28 chains of new fence have been made elsewhere. 

A new iron gate has replaced the old lumbering wooden one at the 
entrance from the Hope Road. 


The Ornamental Section of the gardens has been kept in good 
order, the only plant calling for any special comment this year being 
the “ Double Poinsettia.” 

A Rockery, 2 chains long, four feet in width, has been made to ac- 
commodate succulent plants 

The following plants have been planted out in their proper places :— 
Nephelium Litchi. 

Shaddock. 
Adenanthera pavonina. 
Eugenia malaccensis. 
Mesua ferrea. 
Gynocardia odorata. 
Caesalpinia sappan. 
Barringtonia speciosa. 
Acalypha Wilkesiana. 
Licula elegans. 
Licuala spinosa. 
Livistona chinensis. 


Raphis flabelliformis. 


Hope Industrial School.—The teaching has been the same as last 
year and the practical work the same. 

Nursery.—To meet the increased demand for economic and orna- 
mental plants, shade trees etc., it has been found necessary to still 


NO ll onl leet \o) 


301 


further extend the nursery, covering at present a little over 3 acres 
-of ground. 

A large quantity of seeds have been wasted during the past year 
owing to inadequate glass accommodation ; seedlings need shelter until 
strong enough to bear the battering which they get during heavy 
“rains. 

The Orchids have been highly appreciated by the Public, their gay 
appearance when interspersed with ferns and the comparative ease 
with which they can be successfully grown, provided they are placed 
at once under the right conditions have induced several gentlemen in 
the Island to make collections. 

The Divi Divi walk continues to be an ideal place for the Orchids 
during the growing season, as it affords many different positions with 
varying degrees of heat, moisture, light, and shade to meet the require- 
ments of the different species, 

A large number of Dendrobium phalaenopsis var. Schroederiana, 
and Dendrobium formosum giganteum, were received from Messrs. 
Sander & Co., St. Albans, England. These have turned out quite a 
success, nearly every plant flowering and lasting in flower for fully 
three months. 

Several of the new varieties of Begonia rex from Sander, promise 
to become as well established as the older varieties, the following new 
varieties will shortly be ready for propagating :— 

Begonia rex vars. Lebrun, Mrs. W. Elphenstone, Decorator, White 
Collarette, Hatfield Gem. Among the plants received from Kew and 
Sander & Co., may be mentioned Maranta Sanderiana, Dracaena San- 
_ deriana, Ficus Canoni, Alloplectus Lynchii, and Graptophyllum pic- 

tum, as being notable acquisitions in the way of ornamental pot plants. 

The Palms and other plants in pots have received the necessary at- 
4ention and are looking well, and the usual general nursery work has 
been carried on with ever increasing pressure. 

Plants Distributed. 


oe Sold. 
Economic Plants :— 

Kola Sai as 24,475 
Coftee re a 11,706 
Nutmegs bo ate 2,297 
Oranges 4 as Loe 34,341 
Grape Fruit Ae i 1,976 
Rubber ais ee 635 
Ramie ae oe 24,520 
Cocoa rs Sais BUCH 
Tangierine sig fe 1,200 
Grape Vines ae ie 724 
Pine Suckers iek Ses 2,330 
‘Canetops ae -_ 9,024 
Miscellaneous Fruit and Economic Plants... 5,371 

120,776 


Ornamental fPlants .. rues 14,229 


302 


Free Grants. 
Economie Plants :— 
Miscellaneous (including Timber and shade trees) 10,951 
Ramie roots ie a 16,024 


Ornamental Plants iz | fe 4,214 
Total number of Economic Plants Distributed 147,751 
74 Phe “ Ornamental “ ak 18,443. 
Total number of Plants Distributed i 166,194 
Kucalypti Plants distributed Free ue 2,281 
168,475 

Visitors. 


The number of Visitors to the gardens were from March Ist, 1897,. 
to March 81st, 1898, 18,071. 

The elevation of the garden is 700 feet above sea-level. 

The average annual mean temperature is 71.6° F., and the average 
annual rainfall 52.18 inches for seventeen years. The amount of rain 
that fell during the year was 62.39 inches. The wettest months were 
May, September, October, and the driest were December, January and 
March. The mean temperature for the year was 77.3° F. The 
Meteorological Tables for the different months are given on page 317. 

CasTLETON GARDENS. 

The following Report is by Mr. William Thompson, Superinten- 
dent :— 

The walks have received the usual attention, and have been kept 
free from weeds, etc.. The heavy rains in the Autumn, caused extra 
work in replacing soil and gravel that had been washed off. The old 
stone gutters have been dug out and replaced in concrete. 

New fencing has been erected several chains in length, and the old 
fencing has been repaired. The fence on each side of the main road is 
in need of new posts. This will be expensive, as good hard wood posts 
are needed. 

The lawns, verges, grass-pieces and pastures have received the usual 
attention and are in good condition. Most of the narrow turf verges. 
have been widened. | 

The beds and borders of mixed plants have had the soil well forked 
and manured. Several shrubs have been transplanted and other 
plants, trees and climbers have been pruned. Many border plants 
were planted out. The plan has been adopted of putting into separate 
beds collections of such plants as Dracaenas, Ixoras, Hibiscus, ete. 

Two royal palms, Oreodoxa regia, have been planted at each side the 
main entrance; two plants of Lagerstroemia Flos-reginae have been 
planted on two conspicuous hills on the north west side of the garden, 
also a royal palm on the lawn in front of the office in commemoration 
of Her Majesty’s Jubilee of 1897. 

A number of young trees, palms, climbers and shrubs have been 
planted, most of them being new to the garden :—see list of plants 
planted out. 

Several tree-ferns have been planted out in different parts of the 
garden. A number of young trees of kinds in the garden already, 
that grow very large, have been planted in the outer parts of the 


303 


garden with a view to removing the old trees in the future, and so 
giving more room in the inner parts of the garden. 

The smaller trees of the Amherstia have made good growth and 
bloomed freely. Thirty young Amherstia have been raised from seed 
and sent out; also seedling plants of Mesua ferrea, Jacaranda filicifolia 
and Colvillea racemosa. 

The old Rose-garden has been reformed. Half the small walks have 
been closed, the remaining walks have been made nine feet wide. The 
Arches over the walks have been widened three feet. The beds have 
been trenched, manured, and some fresh soil added, and the plants — 
transplanted. 

Two beds of roses have been planted in other parts of the garden, 
and some on the open lawn on the economic side of the garden. This 
is the lund cleared from bamboo two years ago, with the result that it 
is the best place in the garden for roses. There are enough rose plants 
to provide all the rose wood needed for propagating; this year four 
cae rose plants have been propagated from wood grown at Cas- 
tleton. 

Large labels have been attached to the different kinds of plants in 
the nursery and to all the large trees in the garden. 

The nursery has been still more enlarged this year, by the addition 
of beds for seeds and cuttings. ‘The nursery is now large enough to 
turn out at least 10,000 plants in pots and five times as many from 
beds. 

Liberian Coffee plants have been given away in large numbers to 
settlers. ; 

I wish to point out that it costs much more to have to keep the 
same plants in the nursery all the year through, than it would cost to 
grow twice the number, if the plants could be sent out as soon as they 
are in a fit condition to go away. 

We have 4,000 rose plants in stock; this is, I believe, the largest 
number of rose plants that has been in the nursery at one time. 

I have been able this year to begin to work up the collection of 
plants. One shed 40 feet long is filled with about 100 different kinds 
of Jamaica ferns. Anotuer shed 40 feet long is filled with such plants 
as Begonias, Caladiums, Alocasias, Authuriums, Ferns, &c. 

There is now a large stock of Ornamental pot plants in hand for 
sale. Another plant shed has been erected. All the other plant sheds 
have been repainted. 

The orchid shed had been removed from the upper part of the Gar- 
den down to the nursery. The imported Orchids have made remark- 
able growth and a large number have flowered. The Cattleyas, 
Vanda tricolor, Dendrobiums and Calanthes gave a good show of bloom 
for months. The garden is being well stocked with native Orchids, 
and Broughtonias. Hpidendrums, Phaius and Oncidiums have flo- 
wered well. 

We have now six plant sheds in all, and there is still need for more. 

A large number of Orchid baskets have been made and all Orchids 
repotted that needed it. 

A new thatched-roof has been put on the old fern house. I have 
added several windows to this house, but I have come to the conclu- 
sion that it will never be any good for growing ferns in, unless the 


304 


roof is raised about three feet. The ferns grow much better in the 
open plant sheds; in fact they grow as well as can be wished for. 
The old fern house is available for visitors to shelter in. A new 
open thatched roof house 386 feet by 20 feet has been erected on the 
economic side of the garden for the better accommodation of Visitors ; 
it has also been fitted with benches and moveable tables. The rest of 
the benches and tables about the garden have been repaired and 
painted as required. 

The gutter that ran along side the Liberian Coffee field has been 
filled in with large stones. 

The garden is very much in need of some cement or iron tanks for 
the nursery. 

The tanks that were built three years ago by the Public Works 
Department have been invaluable. This year, as last year, the rain- 
fall has been only one-third of what we generally get for the first 
three months in the year. Although the tanks have helped us to tide 
over the dry season, something should be done to buy the land that 
covers the head of the springs. At the present time this land, about 
ten acres, is being cleared of all its vegetation, and if this kind of 
work is allowed to continue, the gardens in a few years time may be 
without any water in the dry season. 

The Boston Fruit Co. have given up about ten acres of the wood 
land that was leased to them. 

The garden line has been opened by the Surveyor General’s Depart- 
ment. ‘Trees have been planted to mark the points. The trees used 
are Spathodea campanulata, and Dracaena draco. 

About 50,000 Sweet Orange seeds have been sown. 

Many Mango and Imperial Lemon plants have been raised by in- 
arching. 

The large Climber of Norantea guianensis has had to be cut back 
as it was killing several other large trees. Two more young plants of 
the same species have been planted out in suitable places with large 
trees to run upon. 

Several climbers have been planted to run on suitable trees. 

The roots of the bamboo that were cut down on the economic side 
of the Garden have been dug out, and several economic trees planted 
out on the ground, 

The Liberian Coffee has borne well. The Coffea stenophylla flo- 
wered in March. 

About 100 plants of the Coffee arabica have been planted out in 
order to compare the growth with the other species. 

The Mangosteen fruited again, but I am sorry to say some of the 
fruit was stolen. 

The Durian is making good growth. ‘wo more Durian Plants 
have been received and planted out. 

Two more plants of the Coco-de-Mer have been planted on the eco- 
nomic side of the road, those planted last year are making good 

growth. 

The new land opened near the banana walk has been terraced on the 
lower side to prevent the heavy rains from washing away the soil. 

«! The banana and cocoa land has been thoroughly forked and the dif- 
erent kinds of economic plants are looking all the better for it. 


SE ee ee 


* 
4 
i 
c 
} 
3 


305 


The small old trees of Bertholletia excelsa, that had been planted 
about the banana walk, have made wonderful growth since the land 
about them was trenched and manured, some have made three feet of 
growth. 

This has been the driest Spring on record for Castleton ; we would 
have had to carry water from the river if the drought had continued 
another week, although we have good tanks. 

The mango trees have fruited on account of the unusual drought. 

The sloping land on the North West part of the Garden has been 
cleared of the bush, fenced and planted with a good collection of tim- 
ber and flowering trees. Four acres of bush land have been cleaned for 
grass and planting trees at some future time. 

64 lots of seeds have been collected for distribution. 

A large bell has been bought for the Gardens. 

Visitors to the Gardens are on the increase. 

The office and Coolie barracks have been reshingled and painted by 
the Public Works. 

530 letters have been received and 1,192 despatched. 


Plants Distributed. 
“ Plants sold :— 

Ornamental plants. sie 1,410 
Economic “ Bhs 4,192 

5* Plants sent to Hope Gardens :— 
Ornamental plants ee 3,259 
Economic ff a 5,196 
: Total number of plants sold A 5,602 
“« sent to Hope a 8,455 
at “sent out ws 14,057 


List of Plants planted out at Castleton Gardens, 1897-98. 
Albizzia odoratissima, Benth. E. Indies. 
Antidesma Bunius, Spreng. E. Indies, Malay. 
Aristolochia indica; Linn. E. Indies. 
Aristolochia Tagala, Cham. Luzon. 
Barklya syringifolia, F’. Muell, Australia. 
Bassia butyracea, Roxb. E. Indies. 
Bauhinia Hookeri, F. Muell. Australia. 
B. picta, DO. N. Granada. 
Bougainvillaea spectabilis, Willd. Brazil. 
B. ei var. speciosa 
Brunfelsia jamaicensis, Griseb. W. Indies. 
Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Sw. Tropical regions. 
‘Camoénsia maxima, Welw. ex Benth. Tropical Africa. 
Canarium commune, Linn. Moluccas. 
Cassia Fistula, Linn. Tropical Asia. 
C. glauca, Lam. Tropical Asia, Australia, Polynesia. 
C. grandis, Linn. Panama. 
C. pistaciefolia, H. B. & K. N. Granada. 
<. siamea, Lam. E.Indies Malaya. 
Catalpa longissima, Sims. W. Indies. 
Chamaerops humilis, Linn. Western Mediterranean. 
Cinramomum Camphora, Nees & Eberm. China. Japan. 


306 


Cocos nucifera, Linn. Tropical regions. 

Cocos Yatay, Mart. Argentine. © 

Colvillea racemosa, Boj. Madagascar. 

Corypha umbraculifera, Linn. ‘Tropical Africa HE. Indies:. 
Dzmonorops propinquus (from Kew, Aug. 1897.) 
Daturajcornigera, Hook. Mexico. 

Dioon sp. Mexico 

Draceena Godseffiana, Hort., W. Trop. Africa. 
Durio zibethinus, Murr. Malaya. | 
Erythrina umbrosa, H. B. & K. South America. 
Ficus Benjamina, Linn. Trop. Asia. 

F. lucida, Ait. Hort. Kew. E Indies. 

F stipulata, Thunb. China & Japan. 

Fugosia flaviflora, F. Muell. Australia 

Geonoma Swartzii, Griseb. Jamaica and Cuba. 
Grevillea robusta, "A. Cunn. Australia. 
Hemanthus multiflorus, Martyn, South Africa. 
Hematoxylon Campeachianum, Lian. (Honduras.) 
Hyophorbe amaricaulis, Mart. Mauritius. 
Jacaranda filicifolia, D. Don. Panama. 
Juniperus virginiana, Linn., N. America. Jamaica. 
Kicksia africana, Benth. Tropical Africa. 
Lagerstremia Flos-regine, Retz. Tropical Asia. 
Landolphia sp. Africa. 

Latania Loddigesii, Mart. Mauritius 

Licuala grandis, H. Wendl. N. Britain. 
Livistona australis, Mart. Australia. 

L. Jenkinsiana, Griff. Himalaya. 

Macaranga sp. 

Monodora tenuifolia, Benth. Tropical Africa. 
Mouriria guianensis, Poir. Guiana. 

Oreodoxa regia, H. B.& K. Cuba. Panama. 
Pandanus utilis, Bory. Madagascar. 

Pentadesma butyracea, Sabine. Tropical Africa. 
Phoenix dactylifera, Linn. Africa, Arabia. 

P. pusilla, Gaertn. E. Indies. 

P. tomentosa. 

Pithecolobium pruinosum, Benth. Australia. 
Poinciana regia, Boj. Madagascar. 

Polyalthia suberosa, Benth & Hook. E. Indies, Burma. 
Pritchardia pacifica, Seem & H. Wendl. Fiji. 
Raphia vinifera, Beauv. Tropical Africa. 

Sabal havenensis (from Vilmorin-Andrieux. ) 
Schotia latifolia, Jacq. South Africa. 

Spathelia simplex, Linn. Jamaica 
Spathiphyllum commutatum, Schott. Philippines. 
Spathodea campanulata, Beauv. Tropical Africa. 
Sterculia acerifolia, A. Cunn. Australia. 
Stevensonia grandifolia, J. Duncan. Madagascar. 
Strelitzia Augusta, Thunb. South Africa. 
Strophanthus hispidus, DC. South Africa. 
Taxodium distichum, Rich. N. America. 


307 


Tecoma serratifolia, G. Don. W. Indies. 

Thrinax argentea, Lodd. Jamaica, Cuba, Haiti, Bahamas. 
T. barbadensis, Lodd. Barbados. 

Vanilla africana, Lindl. Tropical Africa. 

Verschaffeltia splendida, H. Wendl Seychelles. 
Wallichia sp. 

The elevation of this Garden was supposed to be 580 feet above sea- 
level, but this appears now to be incorrect. 

«“ After the readings have been reduced to the standards of Kew 
(—.005), gravity (—.063) and 82°, and compared with the Kingston 
readings, the height of Castleton appears to be 496 feet above sea- 
level there being used the following approximate formula : 


1 — Bg. 
Height —48,727 + 58.3(T, + T,) — 
B, + B,. 

where [= temperature, and B= reading of barometer.” (Weather 
Report for January, 1898.) 

The average annual mean temperature is 76.1° F., and the average 
annual rainfall 113.29 inches for twenty-six years. The amount of 
rain that fell during the year was 116.77 inches. 

The wettest months were April, May, September, October, and the 
driest were June, January, February and March. 

The mean temperature for the year was 75.0° F. 

The Meteorologial tables for the different months are given on 
page 317. 


Hitt GARDENS. 


The following Report is by the Superintendent, Mr Wm. Harris :— 

The usual work of manuring, forking beds and borders, pruning, 
cutting lawn grass, sowing seeds, propagating, potting and watering 
plants, was attended to during the year, and the gardens and surround- 
ings were kept constantly in excellent order. 

In the maintenance of a good garden there are numerous matters 
of detail requiring unremitting care, which would be tedious to enu- 
merate fully in an annual report. The beds in the old nursery garden 
have been renovated and planted with the better kinds of Geraniums, 
Fuchsia, etc. These are intended to form stock plants to supply ma- 
terial for propagating purposes. 

A portion of the lawn, in the garden proper, suddenly sunk consi- 
derably below the proper level, thus forming a basin which was filled 
with water during rainy weather. It became necessary to lift the 
turf, level the ground, and re-lay the grass. This was done most suc- 
cessfully. 

Orange Garden at Resource. 

The work of getting this garden into a good state of cultivation 
has received special attention, and, so far, the results have been sa- 
tisfactory. Weeds grow so rapidly that continual hoeing is necessary 
and, as they are not allowed to seed to any extent, they will, in time, 
be got under. 

Nearly all the plants have had a dressing of good rotten manure, 
carefully forked in, and the surface then covered with litter to pre- 
vent excessive evaporation. This treatment has had a most beneficial 


308 


effect on the growth of the plants, and can be recommended for 
oranges planted in similar comparatively dry situations. 

Leguminous plants, such as Cow Pea, Hairy Vetch, and Congo 
Pea have been largely grown through the plantation. These not only 
shade the ground, and, to a certain extend retard, or altogether prevent 
ee growth of weeds, but they also increase the supply of nitrogen in 
the soil. 

Nitrogen is ap. important part of the food of plants, and as matters 
containing it exist only sparingly in most soils, and as they are easily 
exhausted, it becomes necessary to adopt other means of keeping up 
the supply of this aliment. Mr. H. J. Webber of the U.S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture speaking of nitrogen as a fertiliser for oranges says:- 
“A grower may with considerable certainty determine by the ap- 
pearance of his trees the condition of his grove in respect to the supply 
of nitrogen available in the soil. An abundance of nitrogen is indi- 
cated by a dark green colour of the foliage, and rank growth 
. . . Ifthe trees have a yellowish foliage, with comparatively small 
leaves, and show little or no growth, there is probably a lack of nitro- 
BER i's . If the tree is starving from a lack of nitrogen,. 
the foliage will become very light yellow, and sparse, and the small 
limbs will die, as will also the large limbs in extreme cases. If the 
starvation is continued, no fertiliser being added, the tree will finally 
die back nearly to the ground, and probably die out entirely.” 

Fertilisers are expensive, and require to be applied with considera- 
_ ble judgment and care, the use of green manuring, therefore, is advo- 
cated as being a more economical and less risky method of supplying 
the desired elements. 

Citrus.—The following is a list of the Citrus plants now under culti-- 
vation at Resource :— 

Orange—Dom Louise, Messrs Rivers, England. 


Bitten Gault “ 

‘6 St. Michaels xs ‘ 
as Botelha AS ee 
é¢ Py, c¢ ce 
66 738, ce 6¢ 
ss Maltese Blood Fe 4 
i Silver, or Plata a 2 
cs Jaffa Blood cf 4 
he Pernambuco 3 Ri 
zx Embiguo, or Navel “ is 
ae Sustain a 4 
66 Oval ‘cc (73 
73 White (73 66 
& Seville es “s 
F Tangierine : os 
fs Centennial, Messrs. Bespanee Bros., Florida. 
3 Whitaker - 

as Tardif rf 3 
3 Dancy’s Tangierine ‘‘ A 
fe Parson Brown eS % 
EC China Mandarin ap i 


‘é Satsuma Mandarin 


309 
Orange—Ruby Blood, Messrs. Reasoner Bros. -, Florida 


Majorca 

ns Homasassa = “ 

“c Kin “cc “ce 

a Boone’s Early “ 

ae Beech’s No. 1 ne a 

" Otaheite 46 a 
Pomelo, or Grape Fruit, Royal, Messrs, Reasoner Bros., Florida.. 

«¢ Pernambuco as sc 

cc ce «¢ Aurantium 74 cc? 

c sd ‘<  Tresca Blood - é¢ 
Lemon. Sweet Brazilian. From Messrs. Rivers, England. 

. Imperial = ” 

‘ce Sweet (74 ce ¢¢ 

“ce Common ‘ce (73 “ 

ee Blair Premium. From Messrs. Reasoner Bros., Florida. 

cs Villafranca = Ke 

“ Genoa ‘<c ‘cc cc 


-. Rough (Wild) 
Shaddock. From Messrs. Rivers, England. 
Forbidden Fruit - 
Citrus corniculata. From Messrs. Reasoner Bros., Florida. 
Kumquat, round r¢ 
$ oval 
Citron s 


6 «sé 


ce 


Also a large number of plants received from California and Florida 
the names of which were lost in transit. In addition to above, we have 
the ordinary Jamaica orange, the very best variety of Jamaica Grape 
Fruit and Navel vrange from buds obtained in Jamaica from Hon. J. 
T. Palache and Hon. Col. Ward; also ordinary Shaddock, (3 kinds) 
- and Lime (Sweet and Common). 


Timber Trees.— We have at the present time a large number of 
seedling West Indian Cedar, and young plants of Juniper Cedar which 
will be distributed when large enough to send out. Many of the Juni- 
per Cedars are large enough now, but they have just been trans- 
planted. West Indian Cedars, and Pinus sinensis have now been 
planted at regular intervals along all our line, and dividing fences. 
These will form permanent growing posts in time. 


Widdringtonia Whytei, the Mount Mlanje Cypress. We have suc- 
cessfully raised a large number of plants of this valuable African tim- 
ber tree, and they look healthy and promising. 


Blue Mountain Cuffee.—A large quantity of seed of the best Blue 
Mountain Coffee. was sown during the year, and an extensive nursery 
of young plants is being formed to supply planters who experience 
difficulty in obtaining supplies of young plants when required. 

Cassava.—An experimental plot of Cassava, both bitter and sweet, 
has been established, and the plants are growing luxuriantly. 

Budding Oranges etc.,—It is still a question which months, or sea- 
sons of the year are the best to perform this operation. As far as our 


310 


experience goes, plants budded during July and August gave de- 
cidedly the best results, whilst those budded in January were a com- 
plete failure. 


It ought to be mentioned, however, that the latter plants looked 
very promising for about a fortnight, during which period the wea- 
ther was cool, but dry, then showery weather set in with the result 
that not a single bud survived. Now that stock plants and buds are 
available, experiments in budding will be carried out every month, 
and the results carefully noted, and it is hoped that we shall then be 
able to arrive at some definite conclusions as to the best time, or 
times of the year to carry on this work. 


Fruit Trees.—The European fruit trees are thriving remarkably 
well and two of the imported young Apple trees bore good crops of 
fruit. _The following also fruited : ~Mulberry, Fig, Peaches, Straw- 
berries, and a small tree of Ruby Blood Orange. Strawberries grew 
_very freely, but the varieties of these and of Peaches under cultivation 
are not of the best. , 


Fodder Plants. In last Annual Report mention was made of Teosinte. 
I am now enabled to supply some further information about this 
valuable fodder plant. 


Teosinte (Huchlaena Mezicana,) Schrad, is a native of north and 
south Mexico, the mountains of San Miguelito, San Luis Potosi, San 
Augustin near the Pacific, and Guatemala. It is an annual but readily 
reproduces itself on good land from seed shed. 


Seed was sown at Resource in April, at an elevation of 3,600 feet- 
The soil, which is a gritty loam with a good deal of clay intermixed, _ 
resting on a sub-soil of red clay, was turned up to a depth of one foot, | 
and, after exposure to the sun and air for a few days, was thoroughly 
broken up. The seed was then planted in much the same way as 
Maize or “great corn” is planted, 7.e. shallow holes were made about . 
20 inches apart with a “ digger,” and 2 or 3 seeds dropped into each 
hole, and covered with surface soil. The seeds soon germinated and 
the young plants grew quickly. The ground between the plants was 
hoed twice. Vegetation was so rapid that the foliage of the plants 
soon covered the ground, and prevented the growth of weeds. 


Teosinte began to flower on the 10th October about six months from 
the date of planting the seeds. On the 23rd October as the piants 
were in full flower, with several immature spikes of seed to each 
stem they were thought to be in good condition for feeding purposes, 
and half the crop was cut down to test the yield, and its value as 
green fodder. 


Fifteen to eighteen stems were produced from each root, and they 
had attained a height of 8 to 10 feet. They were cut at six inches 
above the ground, tied in bundles and carefully weighed, when the 
yield was found to be at the rate of 44,000 lbs. or over 194 tons per 
acre. The stems were then given to horses and mules and were readily 
eaten. One or two of the horses ate everything but the others re- 
jected the hard lower portions of the stems, or about one-eighth of the 
total weight given them. 


311 


The rainfall during the time the plants were growing amounted to 
28.83 inches distributed as follows :— 


April ae a 2.03 
May pe ys 6.30 
June ae ae 1.00 
July -2 ce 2.43 
August NE ot S50 4.10 
September - Ke 0.72 
October to 23rd__.. te 7.25 


28.83 inches. 


with a larger rainfall, it is possible that the yield, heavy as it was, 
would have been much heavier. 

The plants are said to ratoon freely, but ours did so but sparingly. 
The stems were probably cut too close to the ground, if 1 to 2 feet of 
each stem had been left they might haye ratooned more freely. 

For fuller information, and an analysis of the seed, see Bulletin for 
February, 1896. This plant ought to be suited for growing in shel- 
tered valleys along the coast from St. Margaret’s Bay to Manchioneal 
where Guinea grass has failed to establish itself. 

Himalayan Grass (Pennisetum orientale, Rich.).—-This splendid grass 
contiuues to grow luxuriantly and, as it produces seed freely, it will, 
no doubt, spread in the course of time. 

Bermuda Lilies.—This experiment has not proved a success. 

There is no resting period during which the bulbs may be lifted and 
shipped ; before the old growths are ripened new shoots are formed and 
grow vigorously. Ina drier district it may be possible to grow this 
jily successfully. 


Plants Distributed. 
Economic Plants :— 


Sweet Oranges athe ei 21,850 
Sour do. s es x 11,000 
Grape Fruit-seedlings Poe 3H, 3,240 

Do. budded — ap 300 
Shaddock im ad 775 
Tangierine Oranges a es 506 
Limes 2 200 
Budded Navel Oranges and Citron... 6 
Blue Mountain Coffee we od 14,750 

Free Grants.’ 

West Indian Cedar Ly oe 11,560 
Ramie a 4 1,000 
Other Economic plants... re 909 
Ornamental—various ihe ae 603 
Total Economic plants distributed aoe 66,096 
Ornamental is 603 


Total number of plants distributed ... 66,699 


312 


The following seeds were also distributed :— 
15 quarts of Tea seed 
1 lb. Cinchona “ 
1 lb Tree Tomato “ 
and of Tree Tomato fruits, 76 lbs. or 38 dozens. 

The elevation of the Hill Garden House, where the instruments 
are placed, is 4,907 feet above sea-level. 

The average mean temperature there is 62.6° F., and the average 
annual rainfall 102.2 inches for 27 years. 

The amount of rain that fell during the year was 96.08 inches June, 
July and January were the driest months, and September, October and 
November the wettest. The mean temperature was 62.9° The 
sieges iy tables for the different months are given on pages 315, 

6. 

The rainfall at the Orange Garden, Resource, was 58.70 inches for 
the year. The driest months were June, July, and January, and the 
wettest months—May, October and November. 


Kines Hovus—E GarpEN AND GROUNDS. 
The following Report is by Mr. W. Walker, Superintendent :— ) 
Having only assumed charge in November last I can simply state 


that I found the grounds and garden in excellent condition. The — 


lawns, paths and borders showing that care and attention have been 
bestowed on them. All was clean and in good order and the plants 
in the nursery and at the house were in a healthy and flourishing con- 
dition. 

At the request of His Excellency Sir A. Blake, the long grass was 
cut on the pleasure ground southwest of the vinery, and all along 
inside the borders each side of the avenues, the road itself has been 
cleaned frequently, the borders from east to west have been dug up 
‘ and kept well watered but I should recommend they have a thorough 
overhauling and renovating, the larger growing plants removed from 
the front and vice versa, keeping in view the proper blending of the 
different colours. . 

A kitchen garden has been established but is very limited in size. 
The produce is very satisfactory, giving some very fine Tomatoes, 
Cabbages, Carrots, T'urnips. Beet, Lettuce, Beans, etc. | 

The large vinery was pruned and well cut back in February, and 
has broken well and shows for a very good crop. ‘The smaller one 
was attended to 6 weeks later and is now showing well for a good 
crop. 1 should recommend the extension of the larger one and the 
planting of some young vines. 

The Victoria Regia in the large tank, which was planted in January, 
1897, is not doing at all well, the leaves never fully develop but get 
black and rot off. I attribute it to the cold nights we have had. A 
plant or two put in in April might prove more satisfactory. 

The Rosaries have been well manured and dug up, but with the 
exception of one small bed, they are old and worn out, and I should 
recommend that a new Rosary be established as soon as possible. 

The elevation of the garden above sea-level is 400 feet. 

The average mean annual temperature is 78°4 F., and the average 
annual raintall 48.20 inches for eighteen years. The amount of rain 
that fell during the year was 64.66 inches. 


313 


The wettest months were May, August, September, October, and the 
driest were June, December, and March. 

The mean temperature for the year was 77.2° F. The Meteorological 
tables for the different months are given on page 318. 


Kineston Pustic GARDEN. 
The following Report is by Mr. J. Campbell, Superintendent :— 


During the year under review the garden operations have beeen car- 
ried on to ‘the greatest extent that its allotment would allow. The 
beds and borders have been heavily manured twice, and on both oc- 
casions deeply forked, been frequently weeded, the necessary pruning 
done, plants trimmed, trees divested of dried branches, verges and 
edges cut and trimmed, watering, sweeping, cleaning up, and carting 
away of rubbish, daily attended to. ; 

The garden suffered from a continuous drought for a lengthened time 
which necessitated continued watering daily, and sometimes at night 
until the autumnal rains which lasted sometime this year; some of the 
large trees had commenced to fade, but by the incessant rains they 
were all invigorated. 

Plants of Oreodoxa regia have been planted out, and are growing; 
they will make a fine appearance when developed, as they are planted 
at the angles, and sides of pathways. ) 

The Euphorbia which was planted along the side of the aqueduct, 
mentioned in a former report, has developed into a finé hedge, and is 
an improvement. 

The lawns which hadbecome quite bare of grass, from the trampling 
of the people, I am glad to report, have been since enclosed with an 
iron fence, with gates opening to each enclosure Grass has been 
planted throughout the plots, which has grown, and covered the area, 
giving a pleasing appearance. After the erection of the fence, some 
evil disposed persons have from time to time maliciously destroyed 
the wires, and in some parts drawn them out. I have now turned the 
top and bottom ends of the jrires, which makes it impossible for any- 
one to take them out. I have repaired the fence throughout. The 
Police authorities have been informed; they now send Constables in 
plain clothes to detect the depredators. Having discovered that they 
had again commenced to damage the wires by inserting a stick, and 
twisting them out, I instructed the Constable in charge to keep a 
watch near by the following night, when a man was discovered 
maliciously damaging the fence. He was brought up at the Police 
Court, and fined heavily. 

The manure pit enclosure has been repaired, and painted, which is 
an improvement to that part of the garden. The bridges require re- 
pairing and the walks gravelling. 

The tanks have been cleaned out, and fresh mould put in the mounds 
for replanting aquatic plants. 

The infringements on the Garden Regulations have been dealt with 
at the Police Court. 

The elevation of the Garden above sea-level is 60 feet. 

The average mean annual temperature is 79° F., and the average 
- annual rainfall 35.16 inches for twenty-eight years. The amount of 
rain that fell during the year was 46.78 inches. The wettest months 


314 


were May, September, October, and the driest were November, De- 
cember and January. 

The mean temperature for the year was 79.4°F. The Meteorolo- 
gical tables for the different months are given on page 318. 


Batu GARDEN. 


The following report is by Mr. A. H. Groves, Overseer of the Gar- 
den :~— 

The unusually dry weather that prevailed during the earlier part of 
last year had its effects. The Garden, however, did not suffer se- 
riously. This is undoubtedly owing the free use of water from the 
well throughout the Garden, and the seasoning showers of rain from 
April last year to the earlier part of February this year. 

As the dry weather set in about this time and extended to the end 
of March, watering apart from the usual supply to the plants, has had 
to be resorted to, so as to keep the plants fresh and green. 

With the exception of a few patches here and there, the garden 
had been forked throughout. This work has been tedious, owing to 
the roots of the trees in the ground, and therefore a much larger 
amount has been spent in comparison with a piece of land of the same 
area freed of roots, ete. 

However, this work has benefited the Garden to a very great extent, 
and I feel confident in saying that the present state of the Garden is 
due in some measure to it. 

The usual work has been performed. I had felled a large Spa- 
thodea which was decaying, as I feared it would do serious damage to 
the fence and plants if allowed to fall. The felling was done by first 
removing the branches, and cutting off pieces of the trunk to avoid 
injury to the fence, plants, etc. 

The benches have been repainted. Owing to the dampness of the 
climate here, paint mildews quickly. 

I think a small pump and a sufficient quantity of hose, as recom- 
mended in my last Report, would suit the Garden admirably. 

I shall again call on the Parochial Board to deepen the trenches 
along the south and west of the Garden. At present it cannot well 
relieve itself of the water during rainy seasons, the trenches outside 
the Garden not being deep enough; those in it are shallow, and get 
filled up with dirt, thus causing the water to flow back into the Gar- 
den. | 7 

The standards, droppers and gate have been painted. The fence 
around the Garden is in fair order. 

I have to thank the many persons in and around Bath for rose 
plants received from them, particularly Mrs. A. C. Neyland who has 
given me several cuttings from her choice Roses. 

W. Fawcett, 
Director. 


315 


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Horr Garpens.- Elevation, 700 Feet. 


Temperature. Dew |Humidi-| 3 
Pressure. Degrees Fahrenheit . Point. ty. a 
Month. x 
: : : Sy : . £ 
eel ae) ek ioe lle} ele] a) a 
= 3 
re a EB se = = Ci lao | elo | & 
1897. inven S52 4.9 e oy te o|2 
April _.../29.24 |29.24 |72.0/83.6) 88.3 | 67.8 |20.566.7/69.9 84 | 63 | 2.12 
May ose]. | aa 21 |73.4'183.7| 87.3 | 68.6 |18.7/70.4|69.3| 87 | 60 | 7.56 
June .26| .27 |74.3/86.7/ 89.9 | 69.5 |20.4/69.9/71.6| 87 | 61 | 1.10 
July | .26| .27 |73.7/84.3] 89.3 | 69.6 |19.7/68 3/72.5) 79 | 66 | 2.89 
August ...| .27| .28 |73.4/86.4) 90.3 | 70.3 |20.0/72.0)71.5| 90 | 63 4.82 
September | .24| .23 |73.2/82.8) 87.9 | 69.8 |18.1/69.5174.1| 90 | 74 {10.43 
October ...| .18 .19 |71.5/80.2| 83.9 | 68 4 |15.5/69,7|74.4) 93 | 82 |24.60 
November) | .21 | .22 |71.1/82.1) 87 9 | 67.2 |20.7/66.7|73 7| 87 | 76 | 3.82 
December .24] .25 |68.3/84.3). 88.8 | 65.3 |23.5/66.3/75.5) 87 | 65 | 0.75 
1898. | 
January ...| .27 | 28 |65.6|82.3| 87.7 | 63.2 |24.5/62.1/69.7| 90 | 67 | 0.92 
February...| .24 .25 \65.1/80.3| 86.8 | 61.4 |25.4160.7/69.5| 87 | 71 | 2.72 
March ...| .22) .25. |67.1/82.6) 86.0 | 62.3 |23.7/61.7|/67.0| 84 | 58 | 0.66 
Means ...|29.23 |29.24 |70.7/83.2| 87.8 | 66.9 |20.9167.0|71.5| 87 | 67 |62.39 
. . WV -—s--- 
Mean 77.3 Total. 
CasTLETON GARDENS—Elevation, 496 Feet. 
Tem perature. Dew Hu- gs 
Pressure,” Degrees Fahrenheit. Point. | midity. = 
: La 
Month. a 
; . © ot s 
A sd jigidl ole ild@idial a 
3 oF Ss | s : s/ e/a] a/]|a| ‘3 
~ co |e | = = Sim liaol Ee | o = 
1897. In. In, pith ld Q ° e}o sa 
April _ ...|29.99 |29,90. |69.8/80.6] 85.9 | 62.8 |23.1/68.3/72.0) 93 | 74 | 13.42 
May | -90) 86 |72.6/81.9) 86.4 | 64.6 |21.8/70.1/78.2) 90 | 88 | 17.06 
June .... .93  .88 |73.0/84.5) 89.1 | 64.7 |24 4/69.8/71.4) 90 | 62 | 4.31 
July | 94) .91 |73.0/83.1) 86.6 | 67.8 |18.8/69.6/75.5) 85 | 77 | 5.95 
August ..., 96 .91 |72.0/83.4| 87.4 | 67.5 |L9.9/69.8/77.3) 90 | 79 | 9.09 
September| .93  .87 |70.9/81.0) 86.7 | 67.3 |19.4/68.2/74.7) 88 | 82 | 17.15 
October ..,, .88  .82 /71.7/79.0| 84.6 | 68.1 |16.5)68,8/72.9) 90 | 78 | 20.88 
November | .92 | .86 |70.7/80.2) 84.3 | 66.3 |18,0)68.0/72.4) 90 | 76 | 12.68 
December | .97 | .90 |69.1/80.3) 83.5 | 64.4 /19.1/67,2/72.1) 85 | 71 | 7.75 
1898, 
January .99 | .92 |65.7/78.2) 84.8 | 60.4 24.4/64.8/70.0) 88 | 72 | 4.67 
February .99 || .92 |64.8/77.2) 81.8 | 60.6 |21.2/60.9/69.7|) 86 | 74 | 1.44 
March 97  .90 |66.6/79.6) 82.4 | 63.6 |18.8/64.2/70.0) 89 | 70 | 2.37 
Means 29.94 |29\88 69.9180.7| 85.3 | 64.8 |20.5/67.4/73.0) 88 | 75 |116.77 
\ 2 iad RS 
Mean 75°,0 Total. 


* The Barometer pressures are reduced to the Standards of Kew, 32°, gravity 
at Lat, 45°, and mean seaevel, 


318 
King’s House Gardens.— Elevation, 400 Feet. 


Temperature. Dew | Humi- 3 
Degrees Fahrenheit. Point. | dtiy. 5 
Fa 
Month. | if 
ed Bie a fee oe 
a 5 id a) ee] A 
3 oF s = eo | os | Gl = | S| oe 
1897. ae bon ea ee 
April ..| 71.6 | 85.9 | 90.5 | 65.0 |25.5 167.9 72.5] 87 | 65 1.85 
May ...| 74.3 | 83.6 | 89.8 | 67.1 |22.7 |70.4 69.3/| 87 | 60 5.75 
June ...| 74.5 | 88.1 | 92.5 | 67.6 |24.9 170.8 75.8| 87 | 67 0.54 
July -..| 73.7 | 86.8 | 91.2 | 66.8 25.4/70.7 77.9| 96 | 74 | 2.08 
August ...| 74.3 | 88.7 | 92.7 | 68.3 |24.4/71.3 79.7| 90 | 74 5.95 
September -.| 73.4 | 84.2 | 89.6 | 67.3 |22.3/70.7 77.7| 93 | 82 | 10.40 
October | 73.1 | 81.4 | 86.7 | 66.3 |20.4/71.0 75.6] 93 | 84 | 28.75 
November ...| 72.1 | 82.6 | 89.4 | 65.1 (243 68.7 (6.0) 394-79 2.75 
December .--| 69.3 | 83.5 (589.1 | 62.5 |26.6 65.5 73.3| 90 | 70 0.34 
1898. AEN 
January | 66.4 | 82.6 (988.4 | 60.7 [27.7 a 72.2} 90) 69} 1.45 
February .»-| 65.2 | 80.9 | 285.9 | 60.8 |25.1|62.2 75.1| 87 | 82 4.00 
March ..| 67.3 | 85.6 |g88.2 | 63.2 |25.0 v5 5 73.3| 91 | 65 0.80 
Means ...| 71.2 | 84.5 | 89.5 | 65.0 |24.5'68.0'74.8| 90 | 72 ‘64.66 
Sear ee <8 
«Mean 77°2." ii Total. 
| 2 
Kineston Pusric GarprEn.—Hlevation 50 Feet. 
ae . 
Temperature. = = . 
Pressure. cv ie ae o 
Degrees Fahrenheit. 5 5 A s 
Month. ee a ea 7 
ieee Vales 3 
a | & |e] ala] o| 2) 4/4 didige] sal 
eS oF 3 ro = = es | QQ &/a).4-q ‘S 
bX ar) | eS cle: | Ra ileeeed os & | ay = Pa 
1997. | In. | In. [2 [2 |-@ |e | ce] ef o | 
April .|29 .935|29 .922/74.6 84.086 .9'72.114.8/67 .3/70. ol78 63 SSE|94.0 | 2.00 
May 129.881 29.888/78 185.187.973.614 3/70.7|73. 078 66. SSE 84.7 | 3.47 
June .|29.942 29.93479.3 86.5 89.174.5, 14.670.0 71.4)/73.61 SSE/|119.0} 0.58 
July . (29.957 /29.945.77 .5 86.2 89 173.5) 15. -669. 4\72.57765SSH/94.6 | 1.74 
August. 29.995/29.935/76.386.8'89.5/74. 015. 5/70. 4\72.9|83/64 SE |89.5 | 2.13 
September 29.927 /29 87376 .485.188.873. 9) 14, 871. 1\73.2/'84168 SE |74.7 | 8.84 
October ./29.887 29 826/74.2/82.2 85.4172. 2/13. 2'71.4/73.191 76 SE |32.8 23.45 
November 29 931 29.862 72.783.988.371. 3/17. 0168.5 ‘ee 087/66 N /34.5 | 0.48 
December |29.965: RRA ee aa 7|18.965.7/68.583/58 N /41.1 | 0.09 
1898. | 
January .|30.001|29.92669.284.1 36. 868. 1}18.7/62.7|66.68057,SE 56.8 | 0.03 
February (29. 970|29.907\68. 2/82. 2:84. 8166. 4118, 4.62. 2/67 .181/61; SE [36.3 | 2.66 
1.38 


March _ .|29.962) 29.892 69. di 785.767 .4]18 .3'63.5}66 .0/81/56) SE |41.7 


SS ae SS eee ee oe ee 


Means _ .|29.946/29.90073.984.587.571.3|16.267.7/70.5/81 63 SE |66.6 |46.78 
| pa SC | Total. 
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