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BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.L,S

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

NEW SERIES. Vol. VI.

1S9VeQ.

ASTON W. GARDNER. & CO.,
Printers, Publishers, Bookbinders, &c., &c.,

1899.

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JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

: Vol. VI,
New Series,} JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH, 1899. Parts Lt

A VISIT TO MONTPELIER.

By Wittiam Harris, Superintendent, Hill Gardens.

Montpelier, the property of the Hon. Evelyn Hillis, is situated in
the parish of St. James, on the border of the parish of Hanover, and is
1022 miles from Kingston on the Montego Bay line. This line of rail-
way is laid through some of the most fertile, and most picturesque paris
of Jamaica. Between Kingston and Montpelier there is an infinite
variety of views of hills and vales, and as the train winds in snake-like
fashion round the sharp curves through the cockpit country, the scene
is ever changing and charming. [For the tourist or pleasure-seeker
who wishes to see something of this beautiful island, no more delightful
trip could possibly be provided than the railway journey between King-
ston and Montpelier, or Montego ay which is only 10 miles further on.
Immense Guinea-grass pastures with magnificient shade trees ; Banana,
Sugar-cane, and Logwood estates ; Orange groves, Pimento or Allspice
groves, and cattle pastures are passed by in rapid succession. Tropical
fruit trees are plentiful everywhere along the line, the handsome foliage
of the useful Breadfruit tree being especially noticeable.

Montpelier is reached in due time, and the visitor cannot fail to be
struck with the general air of prosperity which is everywhere observable.
The Station is built of cut stone, and is a serviceable, yet elegant
building with a piazza right round it, and handsome foliage plants in
pots assist considerably in producing a refined effect not usually seen
in connection with buildings of this class.

A short distance from the Station the Montpelier Hotel is situated
on the summit of a low hill, and commands a fine view of the surround-
ing country.

Tobacco Cultivation.—Opposite the Railway Station may now
(January) be seen a field of tobacco, which is a model of high-class cul-
tivation. There are 60 acres of tobacco in this field, and the plants are
in 2 most excellent condition, planted in rows which are perfectly straight.
The entire field has been planted out with seed imported from Havana
and distributed by the Department of Public Gardens.

302206

2

During the month of February four more plots are to be planted
out with seedlings of the following varieties:—Sumatra (seed from Pub-
lic Gardens) Vuelta de Abajo ; Silky Pryor ; Connecticut seed leaf ;
(the three last varieties imported by Mr. Zurcher)

About six months ago this land was a pasture in bush, with a great
many large trees. The lower portion of the land was swampy and had
to be drained. The bush and trees were cut down, and ihe large roots
and rocks were blown up by dynamite. Trenches from three feet to five
feet deep were dug to carry off surface water after heavy rains. After
getting rid of the bush, the land was ploughed and cross-ploughed ;
harrowed, and broken up with clod-crushers and cultivators ; all stones,
roots and rubbish removed ; the heavy land drained, and the whole so
thoroughly turned up and pulverise? a3 to resemble an immense garden
- seed-bed. Water-pipes were laid down through the plantation so that
the young plants may be watered during dry weather till they are estab-
lished. ‘The plantation is divided into plots of equal dimensions, each plot
contains 2 acres. ‘There is a coloured plan of the plantation giving the
number of each plot, and a very carefully kept record shows the date of
planting each plot, the number and distances of plants put in, the dates
of hoeing, moulding, disbudding, topping, suckering, and of cutting.
The following is an example :—

Ist Plot planted 8rd and 4th November 1898.

1st Hoeing 14th November.

2nd Hoeing 30th November.

3rd Hoeing 16th December.

Ast Moulding 30th November

2nd Moulding 16th December.

Disbudding commenced, 9th December

Topping commenced 14th December.

Suckering 27th December.

First plants cut 28th December.

Second lot cut 30th December.

Third lot cut 5th January, 1899, and every day after.
The total plants put out, in rouud numbers, is 450,000.

The snost remarkable thing about the plantation is that there is not
the vestige of a weed to be seen. A large number of labourers are
employed, and the owners believe in thorough supervision.

Every gang of 8 to 12 labourers is supervised by a headman, and
these are in turn supervised by experts, who are again under the direc-
tion of a Cuban manager and his assistant, and the whole is under the
personal supervision of the courteous and energetic co-proprietor, Mr.
O. Zurcher. A cook and water-carrier is provided for each gang, The
wages paid are—men 1/, women 6d, and headmen 1/8 and 2/ per day.
Everything is being done, and no expense is spared, to make this exper-
iment a success. Gangs of children are employed searching for cater-
pillars and grubs. Two kinds of caterpillar are troublesome; one cuts
round holes in the leaves which render them useless for wrappers, and
considerably reduce their value; another cuts the plants below the sur-
cace of the ground and of course kills them. Thousands of these pests
are captured every day by boys and girls. Ip addition to the gangs of

3

children, about 50 turkeys are employed, and are slowly driven up and
down the rows by women. ‘he birds have become so accustomed to
their work that they seem to know what is required of them, and they
destroy enormous numbers of pests. To still further diminish the num-
bers of troublesome pests, large bath-pans are stood on elevated platforms,
about six orseven feet above the ground, and are half tilled with water with
a little kerosine oil floating on the surface. Over each bath-pan a burri-
cane lantern is suspended. The lanterns are lighted after dusk, and the
lights attract moths and other nocturnal insects, and large numbers of
them are drowned in the bath-pans. We may infer that many of the
insects thus destroyed are females about to lay their eggs, so that by this
simple, and comparatively inexpensive contrivance, much trouble and
loss are avoided. I may mention here that a small plot of land is being
culiivated in the following fashion: the bush was cleared and burnt; and
at a distance of 18 inches in the row, holes were dug 1 foot deep by 9
inches diameter; distance between the rows 3 feet. This will be planted,
and will receive the care usuaily given to the Tobacco plant, and the
results will be carefully noted. The tobacco curing houses are situated
in the midst of the plantation, on rising ground. One house was com-
plete, and at the time of my visit -vas being rapidly filled with tobacco,
another was in course of contruction; and a third one will probably be
necessary. Tho greatest care is taken that the tobacco leaves shall not
come in contact with the ground; they are gummy, and if allowed to.
touch the earth small particles of soil adhere to them, and these, when
dry, become gritty and injure the leaves, and altogether lessen their
value. The plants are cut, carefully strung on bamboo poles, and are re-
moved to the curing house without loss of time. Ths curing houses are
each 109 feet in length by 29 feet in width, and will hold about 100,000
plants each. ‘There is a path down the centre of about five feet wide,
and the sides are then divided into seven sections, each 12 feet by 12
feet. |

The buildings are substantial structures, made of good Pitch Pine
lumber, thatched with leaves of the thatch palm (Thrinax). The sides
are boarded, and the boards are placed upright from the sills to the wall
plates ; every alternate board is hinged, and they are made to open out-
wards and act as ventilators. A hygrometer is kept in the curing house
and is frequently consulted, and the ventilation is regulated according
to the moisture indicated by the instrument. The mean humidity daily
varies between 68 o/o and 88 o/o highest 94 o/o lowest 54 o/o.

An expert tobacco curer is now on the way out to take charge of
the crop during the curing process. Just behind the curing houses there
is an ash shed capable of holding 400 barrels of ashes, to be used for
fertilising the land for next crop. This will be for the present the only
form of manure, or fertiliser used for tobacco.

I was shown some corn (maize) plants, the seeds of which were
- sown on the 9th November ; two months later the ground was required
for tobacco, and the corn plants, then about three feet high, were pulled,
and are being dried, wken they will be used for feeding stock.

Dried Banana Factory. Leaving the tobacco field, the dried
banana factory was visited. Visitorsare not usually admitted to this

i

part of the establishment, a special permit being necessary. The drying
operation is a secret ; muck valuable time, and large sums of money
having been spent in perfecting the process. Failure followed failure
in the first attempts to turn out a marketable article, but nothing daunt-
ed, the proprietors persevered, and that they have at last succeeded may
be judged by the fact that the first order received by them was for five
: ea a subsequent standing order for five tons dried bananas per
week.

The bunches of green bananas are hung on racks to ripen ina
room fitted up for that purpose. They are prepared and passed through
the dryers, the machinery of which is worked by a powerful steam ea-
gine going day and night. ‘The dried bananas are then placed on sort-
ing tables and are carefully graded and packed by girls, this branch of
the establishment being under the direct superintendence of a lady.

In a line with the dried banana factory are shops for carpenters,
and blacksmiths ; a large store, fully stocked with all kinds of engineers’
carpenters’, blacksmiths’, agricultural and other tools and hardware,
everything of the best; a place for everything and everything in its
place. Adjoining are the offices of Mr. Zurcher and the manager, ete.
also a large Silo in which 2,200 cart-loads of grass are now under

pressure.

In addition to silage, hay and other cattle foods, a food made on
the premises is being tried. This, | understand, consists of green bana-
nas and the fruits of bastard cedar (Guazuma) specially prepared, and
it is said to be excellent, and nutritious.

These foods are not being given to the cattle in a careless, haphaz-
ard way, butin stated quantities at stated times and the cattle are
weighed at regular intervals and the results recorded. In connection
with the establishment there is a fully equipped laboratory in charge of
a highly qualified analytical Chemist, who is always at work analyzing
various samples.

The foregoing are only a few of the many experiments being car-
ried on at this huge Model Farm, or private Experiment Station. The
various experiments are in charge of men, each of whom is an ex-
pert in his own particular branch ; no expense is spared to make every-
thing a complete success, yet, at the same time, money is not wasted, but
is judiciously spent, and a careful account is kept of expenditure,
and of failures as well as successes.

Apart from the large sums spent on labour, and on supervision,
such an establishment must be productive of an immense amount of
good in the district in which it is located, and, also, in the surrounding

district.

The large numbers of young men and Jabourers employed are
taught to do everything in the proper way ; nothing is shirked ; sloven-
ly work is not tolerated ; everything is done thoroughly. Ploughs,
harrows, cultivators and other useful agricultural implements are in
constant use,and not merely one or two of these, but many of each ;
substantial buildings have been put up; and others are in course of

5

erection ; good stone-walls have been built, and superior fences erected :
swampy land has been drained, and dry fields have been supplied with
water ; pastures which at one time were in dense bush are now kept in
excellent order ; improved breeds of cattle have been imported at great
expense, and look sleek and happy. These are some of the object lessons
placed before the people of Montpelier and the surrounding districts,
who cannot fail to profit by them. I firmly believe that one visit to an
experiment station, conducted on somewhat similar lines, would do more
towards enlightening a sceptical man than a month’s talking, however
convincing the arguments put forward might be.

RECENT EXPERIMENTS ON DENITRIFICATION, *

Notwithstanding the high position that artificial manures now take
in the estimation of farmers in all parts of the world, it cannot be said
that they have done anything to displace the use of farmyard manure,
which must still be regarded as our most general and important fertiliser.
All the farmyard manure produced in this country is still applied to the
land, and artificials find their legitimate place as sources of plant food
on areas that the available supply of home-made manure is insufficient

to dress.

So important is the part played by farmyard manurein modern
agriculture thatit is a matter of surprise that a greater amount of scien-
tific attention has not been devoted te investigating methods by which
it may be best conserved and utilised. Recently, however, the German
Agricultural Society has turned its attention to the subject with much
vigour, and has enlisted the services of a large number of distinguished
scientists for the work, of whom perhaps the best known are Wagner
of Darmstadt, and Maercker of Halle. Although the investigations are
still in progress, they have already furnished results of such a startling
character that, whether we accept them as practically applicable or not,
we are at least forced to give them our serious attention.

NITROGENOUS CompouNDS IN FARMYARD MANURE.

The most valuable constituent of farmyard manure is undoubtedly
the nitrogen, and it is chiefly with nitrogen that investigators have
so far dealt. This substance exists in the mixed mass that we call
farmyard manure, partly in the solid faeces, partly in the liquids, and
partly in the litter ; and accordingly it becomes of importance to deter-
mine the relative values of the nitrogen in these three main groups.

In the fresh solid excreta of the horse, cow, and ox, Maercker has shown
that the great bulk of the nitrogen (generally 80 to 90 per cent) is in
the albuminoid form, the rest being present as ammonia, nitric acid and
amides. The constituents and action of sheep dung were also investi-

———

* From Journal of Royal Agricultural Society of England, Vol. VIII.

eee

6

gated, but as this manure is seldom dealt with as farmyard manure in
this country we need not occupy space in examining it.

Of the four forms of nitrogen in the dung, that present as albuminoids
is extremely slow in its action, and probably but little of it is ever as-
similated by plants at all. The other three forms are, however, easily
appropriated by plants, the ammonia and nitric acid being of equal value
with nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda,
while the amide nitrogen is also nearly as active.

The nitrogen in urine is originally, for the most part, in the form
of urea, a substance which passes with great rapidity into carbonate
of ammonia and is practically as available as sulphate of ammonia, al-
though, no doubt, more lable to waste. Wagner found that at ordinary
temperatures the nitrogen ina mixture of urine and water was practi-
eally all converted into ammonia in three or four days. The nitrogen in
straw is chiefly in the albuminoid form and is of but little value.

Action oF DuNG ON OTHER NITROGENOUS SUBSTANCES.

When various samples of pure horse, cow, and ox dung were em-
ployed for supplying nitrogen to plants cultivated in pots filled with
soil that contained abundance of phosphoric acid and potash, the results
were of a most unexpected character. Maercker found in the caso of
oats that where he applied no nitrogen the yield was 44.82 grammes of
grain and straw, and when he added 1.50 grammes of nitrogen in the
form of nitrate of soda the produce was 128.37 grammes an increase
amounting to 186 per cent. When, however, he used 2.25 grammes
of nitrogen derived from two different samples of horse-dung, from cow-
dang, and from ox-dung respectively, the yields were only 35.91, 23.33,
41.65, and 45.80 giainmes. Both samples of horse-dung reduced the
yield, in one case by 20 per cent., and in the other by 48 per cent.
while in the ease of cow dung, the reduction was 7 per cent. Of the
four kinds of dung, only that of the ox was capable of increasing
the produce, and that to the extent of but four per cent. The
apppropriation of nitrogen by the plants was in much the same ratio, in
two cases there being slightly more of this element in the yield produced
under the influence of dung than when the soil was unmanared, while in
the other two cases there was less. Maercker repeated this experiment
with white mustard, and obtained practically concordant results. With-
out any nitrogenous manure he obtained 3.1 grammes of produce, with
0.75 gramme of nitrogen in nitrate of soda the yield was 41.5 grammes,
while with 2.25 grammes of nitrogen in two samples of horse-dung the
yield was only 3.9 and 3.2 grammes, a trifling percentage of the added
nitrogen being recovered in one case and none in the other.

Wagner’s experiments were conducted with white mustard, each test,
as in Maercker’s case, being repeated three times, and the results show
great uniformity, Without any nitrogen, beyond what the soil contained
the average yield of mustard was 1.6 grammes, while it amounted to 35.6
grammes when Z grammes of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of
soda were applied to each pot. Using the same quantity of nitrogen,
the yield with cow-dung averaged 0.5 gramme, and with horse-dung,

7

0:4 grammo a drop of 69 and 75 per cent. respectively. In both cases
not only had no nitrogen been appropriated by the plants from the dung
but it was even found that the plants upon the dunged pots contained
less of this element than the plants grown without any added nitrogen.
Even assuming that the albuminoid nitrogenin dung ia absolutely in-
operative, there still remained an appreciable amount of ammoniacal and
amide nitrogen which, if applied alone, would certainly have
produced an increase in the crop. In some way or other, then, the
action of this active nitrogen was hindered and the results on certain of
the other pots throw some light on this matter. In Maercker’s experi-
ments it was found that whereas 0°75 gramme of nitrogen in the forms
of nitrate of soda and urea respectively were capable of more than
doubling the yield when applied to the soil without dung, their action
was very much less when they were added to soil that contained either
horse, ox, ov cow-dung. Bya series of experiments and calculations
Maereker showed that from 12 to 47 per cent.of the nitrogen in nitrate
of soda was dissipated through the contact with the various forms of
dung in the soil, and the loss was greatest when the largest quantity of
dung was used.

Wagner also tested the action on mustard of nitrate of soda atone
and in conjunction with horse-dung, and found that whereas 65 per
cent. of the nitrogen in the nitrate was recoverel when it was applied
alone, only 380 per cent. was recovered when it was added to
a soil holding a moderate dressing of horse-dung. And not only did the
horse-dung greatly depress the nitrogen-recovery from nitrate of soda,
but it acted in a precisely similar manner when the active nitrogen was
furnished to the soil in the form of urea and chopped lucerne. With
urea the nitrogen recovery was 60 per cent. when used alone, but
only 49 per cent. when used with dung ; while in the case of chopped
lucerne the respective figures were 38 and 8.

In another very extensive and thorough going experiment with
oats, Wagner tested the result of the application of nitrogen to pots
holding eighteen and a half kilogrammes of soil, the nitrogen being de-
rived from nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, blood meal, chopped
grass, cow urine, horse and cow-dung, and various samples of farmyard
manure. The figures are too extensive to be dealt with asa whole, but
attention may be called to some of the results obtained. Thus, when
nitrate of soda was used alone to the extent of two and four grammes
of nitrogen per pot, the nitrogen recovered in the crop increase was 77
ae cent. and 59 per cent. respectively. That the larger dose of nitrate

ad still ample opportunity to act is evident from the fact that it increased
the average yield from 244.3 grammes (the yield with the smaller dress-
ing) to 285.9 grammes per pot. ‘The fresh horse-dung, containing two
grammes of nitrogen, produced 9.1 grammes less yield than the unma-
nured pots, and the produce also contained less nitrogen. When 2
grammes of nitrogen in horse-dung were added to pots containing 2
grammes of nitrogen derived from nitrate of soda there was a depression
of the yield from 244.3 grammes to 177 grammes ; when the dung was
added to pots holding sulphate of ammonia there was a drop in the
yield from 231.5 grammes to 165.7 grammes ; when added to
pots getting chopped grass the drop in produce was from

8

156.0 to 62.6 yrammes and when added to pots getting cow-
urine, the drop was from 216.7 to 146.1 grammes. Or, from
the point of view of nitrogen recovery, the case may be stated
thus : that whereas 77 per cent. of nitrogen was recovered when nitrate
of soda was used alone, only 52 per cent. was recovered whenin the
presence of horse-dung ; the percentage reduction in the case of sulphate
of ammonia being from 69 to 50 ; in the case of chopped grass from 43
to 20 ; and in the case of urine from 69 to 40.

What, then, is the cause of the depressing action of dung, especially
horse-dung, on more active forms of nitrogen ? It might be urged that
the dung in some way or other prevents the organic nitrogen in, say,
green manure from being converted into ammonia ; but that this ex-
planation is valueless is proved by the fact-:that the dung also mater-
ially interfered with the action of sulphate of ammonia. Nor ean it
with justice be urged that the depressing action of the dung is due to
its interference with the nitrification of ammonia for the Joss was quite
as creat when a ready-formed nitrate was applied to the soil.

When fresh or comparatively fresh dung is applied to a crop, and
especially toa cereal crop, it frequently causes the plants to assume a
pale yellow, unhealthy colour. This unhealthy condition might be due
to one or other of two causes: either the dung might unfavourably affect
the physical condition of the soil ; or, while itself offering no available
nitrogen to the plants, it might have an injurious influence on the avail-
able nitrogen naturally present in the soil. Im the latter case the un-
healthy character of the crop would be due to the plants being more or
less starved as regards nitrogen, and that this is the true explanation is
clearly indicated by Wagner’s pot experiments with oats. When the
plants were about six inches high it was found that those in the dunged
pots were much yellower than those in the unmanured soil, and while in
this condition they received a weak solution of nitrate of soda. Doubt-
less some of the nitrate was rendered inoperative through contact with
the dung, but enough was absorbed by the plants to produce a marked
change in colour in three days, while in a week the sickly yellow colour
had entirely disappeared.

To show that the disappearance of the nitrogen of nitrate of soda in
presence of dung is not due to its sinking into the subsoil, and is only partly
due to its appropriation by plant-roots, Wagner carried out the following
experiment, in which no plants whatever were grown. A number of
pots were filled on Jnne Ist, with 3.4 kilogrammes of garden soil, to
which had been added 0.66 gramme of phosphoric acid and 0.49
gramme of potash in the form of potassium phosphate. Certain of the
pots received } gramme of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda ;
others received 600 grammes of horse dung, while others received both.
Six weeks later, namely on July 10th, the soluble contents of the pots
were carefully extracted with water, when it was found that where no
dung was used the nitrate of soda was still present to the extent of 93
per cent., whereas in the pots getting horse-dung only 42 per cent. of the
nitrate of soda remained. Not only had the dung dissipated a very
large quantity of the nitrogen of the nitrate of soda, but it had also acted
on the natural nitrates of the soil, and destroyed them as well. This is

gy

proved by the fact that whereas the filtrate from the soil receiving no
nitrogen contained on the average ().72 gramme of nitric nitrogen, that
from the pots which contained horse-dung showed only 0.15 gramme of
the same form of nitrogen. On other pots similarly treated mustard
was grown, the yield being much reduced by the addition of horse-dung
to the soil, whether with or without nitrate of soda.

In another set of experiments Wagner put 2 kilogrammes of soil
into a series ot basins, to all of which he added nitrate of soda containing
nitrogen varying by 5 gramme from 0.2 to 1.4 gramme per basin. Cer-
tain of the basins received no dung, while others were supplied with 200
grammes and 400 grammes of this sub tance, holding L and 2 grammes
of nitrogen respectively. The experiment lasted for sixteen days, at the
end of whichtime the soil was extracted with water, and the amount of
nitrate of soda that remained unaltered was determined. As a result it
was found that where no dung was used practically the whole of the
nitrogen of the nitrate of soda was recovered in an unaltered condition,
but where horse-dung was present in the soil much of the nitric-
nitrogen had disappeared, the percentage disappearance being, as was to
be expected, greatest (a) where least nitrate of soda had been used, and
(b) in the presence of the large application of dung. Taking the aver-
age results, it was found that where the smaller amoant of dung was used
the nitrate of soda had been reduced to the extent of 26 per cent., while
nearly 51 per cent. had disappeared under the influence of the larger

dressing.
How pogzs Dune cause WastTE OF NITROGEN ?

It now becomes of interest to ascertain what becomes of the nitro-
gen that loses its nitric form in the presence of dung. Does it take the
form of some insoluble compound, or of ammonia, or of free nitrogen?
This part of the subject has been dealt with by Wagner, Maercker,
Stutzer, Pfeiffer, Dietzell, and others, and it has been conclusively shown
that the nitrogen is dissipated in the elementary form, and, of course,
escapes into the air. The method adopted to determine this point is a
very simple one, and consists in placing a given quantity of nitrate of
soda and dung in a flask of convenient size, through which air is
drawn by means of an air pump. Before entering the flask the air is
passed through sulphuric acid in order to get rid of any traces of ammo-
nia, and similarly the escaping air and gases are passed through sul-
phuric acid of known strength. At the end of the experiment the loss
of nitrogen is determined, and the difference between such loss and the
ammonia produced may fairly be taken tc represent free nitrogen. In
every case it has been found that the nitrogen has been liberated in the
elementary form, and that such liberation proceeds quite as actively
when a constant stream of air is drawn through the mixture as when
no such artificial] air-circulation is secured. If air is altogether excluded
denitrification ceases, and it is hindered more or less in proportion to the
amount of aération; but the free natural circulation of air would appear
to create as favourable denitrifying conditions as are secured by more
rapid and perfect artificial aération.

That the denitrification and liberation of free nitrogen is due to the

10

action of one or more bacteria appears to be proved by an experiment by
Wagner. Two hundred and fifty grammesof fresh horse dung were plac-
ed in a flask along with 200 cubic centimetres of carbon disulphide, and
the two substances were left in contact for six days. At the end of that
time 50 grammes of the mixture were taken out and placed in a flask
which was heated ina water-bath ata temperature of 60-65° C for
four hours. All the carbon disulphide having disappeared at the end of
that time, 800 cubic centimetres of a solution of nitrate of soda holding
0.4 gramme of nitrogen were poured over the dung. Another sample of
dung was dealt with in every respect in the same way, except that it
was not treated with carbon disulphide. In four days it was found that.
the dung which had not been sterilised with carbon disulphide had re-
duced 56 per cent. of the nitrate, whereas not a trace of denitrification was
found to have occurred in the sterilised solution. After the lapse of
other three days the whole of the nitrate had been reduced by the un-
sterilised dung, while denitrification was just commencing in the steri-
lised material. In fourteen days from the time of placing the nitrate
and sterilised dung together 12 per cent. of the nitrate had been reduc-
ed, and such reduction amounted to 19 per cent. at the end of twenty-
five days. Evidently, therefore, the carbon disulphide had, to start
with, cleared the material of active denitrifying organisms, their subse-
quent presence being due either to their development from spores that
the carbon disulphide had not affected, or to immigration from the
atmosphere. ;

There is thus no escaping from the conclusion that nitrates,
whether naturally present in manure or the soil, or when added
in so-called artificial manure, are rapidly destroyed by organisms
which are very abundantion dung, and are also present, though
to a much less extent, in soil. |Maercker carried out a large
series of experiments with a number of samples of farmyard
manure obtained from the dung heaps of various farms, and found
that although certain of the samples proved more denitrifying than
others, still the results were, on the whole much the same as those ob-
tained with pure faeces. He then proceeded to test the part played by
the straw (wheat) in farmyard manure and found that when this sub-
stance was chopped up and applied to the soil it reduced the yield of
oats by 89 per cent., and the aggregate yield of three crops of mustard,.
grown in succession in the same pots, by 74 per cent. The comparative
merits of mixtures of urine and dung containing variable quantities of
straw were also tested, and it was found that the crop was !east, and the
loss of nitrogen greatest, in the mixture that contained most straw.

Wagner’s researches into the action of straw (rye) also show that
this substance either contains denitrifying organisms in great abundance,
or else it induces conditions highly favourable to denitrification. Thus,
when a mixture of 300 grammes of dung, 2 grammes of nitrogen in
nitrate of soda, and 4 litres of water, was placed in a flask, it took twelve
days for complete denitrification to be effected, whereas seven days only
were necessary when the mixture received an addition of 100 grammes
of straw. Inanother case 2 grammesof nitrate nitrogen were com-
pletely denitrified in twenty-two daysina mixture containing rotten
dung, whereas when 100 grammes of straw were added the process was

tk

completed in eight days. Ina third series of experiments Wagner
found that ina mixture of garden soil, water, and nitrate of soda the
processs of denitrification was not quite completed even after 400 days,
whereas it was completed in six days when chopped straw had been in-
corporated with the mixture. Wagner obtained strictly confirmatory
results when he tested the action of straw on the growth of mustard.
With nitrate of soda only the yield of dry material amounted to 100.2
grammes and contained 2.45 grammes of nitrogen whereas the addition
of a small quantity of straw—equal to less than 1 per cent. of the soil—
reduced the yield to 71.5 grammes, and the nitrogen contents to 1.773
grammes.

Gan THE DENITRIFYING AcTION OF DUNG BE PREVENTED.

{f we accept the results indicated above as proving that farmyard
manure has powerful denitrifying properties and it would appear to be
impossible to escape from such a conclusion the question comes to be.
What can be done to mitigate the nitrate-destroying action of the dung ?
Both Maercker and Wagner found that the denitrifying ferments dis-
appear to some extent with age, as the following experiments will show,
Maercker prepared a series of pots which he filled with soil, and to all of
which he added fresh horse-dung holding 2 grammes of nitrogen. In
one case he applie nitrate of soda (holding 1 gramme of nitrogen)
along with the dung, in anvther case the nitrate was withheld for four-
teen days, while in another case it was not applied for twenty-eight days.
In each case mustard seed was sown at the time the nitrate was applied.
When the nitrate was applied along with the dung, the dung reduced
the yield (as compared with that got by nitrate only) by 38.8 per cent.;
when the nitrate was not applied till fourteen days after the dung, the
reduction in the yield which the dung induced amounted to 52.4 per cent;
while in the case of the latest application—namely, twenty-eight days
after the dung—the crop was reduced by 54.4 per cent. EHvidently,
therefore, four weeks had done nothing to modify the denitrifying pro-
perties of the dung—and, in fact, it proved more powerfully denitritying
after lying in the soil for fourteen and twenty-eight days than it was to
start with.

Directly after the first crop of mustard had been reaped a fresh
supply of seed was sown on all the pots, and simultaneously one gramme
of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda was applied. The result with
this second crop was ti:at the dung in one case reduced the yield by 8.2
per cent., and in another case by 5.7 per cent., while in the third case
the combination of nitrate and dung produced a yield that was 7.1 per
cent. higher than that grown by nitrate of soda alone.

When this second crop had been cleared off, seed fora third was
sown (the respective dates of the three sowings being separated by in-
tervals of about five weeks), another gramme of nitrogen in the torm of
nitrate of soda being simultaneously applied. Neither in the case of the
second nor of the third crop was any dung applied. The results were
practically the same as in the case of the second crop, the dung on two
occasions reducing the yield by 13.5 and 9.5 per cent. respectively,
while in one case it increased the yield to the extent of 2.2 per cent.

ly

Evidently, therefore, the denitrifying power of the dung is lost to a
large extent by contact with the soil for two or three months.

Wagner carried out a series of experiments which also go to show
that the denitritying bacteria are much less energetic in old than in new
dung. The system which he adopted wasas follows :—A number of
cemented pits of a capacity of one cubic metre (about 35 cubic feet)
were prepared, and into each of these 500 kg. (about half ton) of fresh
horse dung was placed. From these pits samples of dung were drawn
avery fourteen days, and the denitrifying influence of the dung was
tested by placing 300 grammes in a flask along with 4 litres
of water and 100 centimetres of a solution of nitrate of soda that
contained two grammes of nitrogen. These flasks with their con-
tents were placed in a room at a temperature of 50 to 57° Fahr., and
were daily tested with diphenylamin, so that the time could be accurately
determined when the whole of the nitrate of soda had been denitrified.
In one series of pits the dung was turned over every seven days, and in
another series it was turned once a fortnight, but so far as denitrification
is concerned no difference whatever could be detected between these two
systems. Confining our attention, therefore, to one series only—that
where turning was done every fortnight—we find that the sample re-
moved at the end of fourteen days took thirteen days to denitrify the ni-
trate solution, that removed at the end of a month took nineteen days,
that removed at the end of six weeks took thirty-one days and that
removed at the end of two months took forty-one days, while that re-
moved at the end of ten weeks took sixty-five days. Or, looked at from
another point of view, it was found that whereas dang fourteen days
old completely denitrified the nitrate of soda in thirteen days, denitrifi-
cation had only proceeded about halfway in the same time in the case of
the six-weeks-old dung. Wagner points out that the superior action of
well-rotted farmyard manure is probably in large part due to its not
destroying the natural nitrates of the soil to anything like the same
extent as occurs in the case of an application of fresh manure. This
point was demonstrated by Wagner in pot experiments with oats. Ni-
trate of soda alone produced an average yield of 244.3 grammes, while
the yield when equal quantities of nitrogen were added, in the one case
in the form of fresh horse-dung, and in the other case in the form of
rotton or ‘* humified’”’ (to Anglicise the word ‘‘ humifizierter”) dung,
was 177.0 and 243.3 grammes respectively. This variation ia the
action of the two samples of dung of different ages was also emphasised
when they were added to soil which had been manured with 2 grammes
of nitrogen derived from cow-trine. With this substance alone the
yield was 216.7 grammes, while it was 146.1 grammes when the urine
was supplemented by fresh dung and 223.5 grammes when rotten dung
was used.

Wagner and Maercker have been occupied with, and are still en-
gaged upon, an extensive series of experiments into the conservation of
the nitrogen and organic matter of farmyard manure, and the results so
far obtained are of the highest interest and value. Space does not, how-
ever, permit of our reviewing those results ; but it may be pointed out
that, although great loss of nitrogen, combined and in the elementary
form takes plaze in the dung-heaps, the loss is almost entirely confined
to the nitrogen of the urea ; the albuminoid nitrogen of the solid faeces

13

and straw being dissipated to a very slight extent. As, however, it is
only the nitrogen of the liquids that is of much value, the fact that that
element is comparatively stable in the solids cannot prove a source of
much satisfaction to farmers.

REFERENCE TO ENGLISH ResuULts.

In concluding this brief summary of a small section of recent Ger-
man work I may refer to the light which it throws on some of the re-
sults that have been furnished by field experiments in this country.
During the past few years agricultural societies, county councils, and
colleges have conducted a large number of experiments and demonstra-
tions on manuring, and one very conspicuous feature in the results that
have been obtained has been the comparative lack of action that has
frequently characterised the addition of all kinds ot artificial manures to
dung. Year after year we, in the North of England, have failed to ob-
tain any increase of crop, worthy of practical attention, when artificials
were used with dung, and indeed the artificials have sometimes positively
depressed the yield. These results have hitherto appeared somewhat
inexplicable, and were generally believed to be due to _ the
fact that an average dressing of farmyard manure offered to
crops as much nourishment as they could assimilate, and that supple-
mentary applications of artificials were therefore inoperative. Now
however, a flood of light is let in on the subject, and it is evident that
nitrate of soda, for instance, when added to dung fails to act to the ex-
tent that might theoretically be expected, for the reason that the denitri-
fying organisms so abundant in the dung instantly attack the nitrate of
soda and dissipate the nitrogen inthe elementary form. And the re-
searches of Wagner, Maercker,and others have shown that this loss of ni-
trogen is not confined to nitrate of soda, but is also met with toan almost
proportionate extent in sulphate of ammonia and in organic manures.
Probably the ammonia first requires to be nitrified, and the organic
nitrogen to undergo ammoniacal fermentation and then nitrification, be-
fore the bacteria can liberate free nitrogen, but the final result is practi-
cally the same in all cases. Hence we have an explanation of the com-
parative lack of action that hasin many English experiments attended
the use of sulphate of ammonia, bone meal, dissolved bones, and other
nitrogenous manures when added to dung. And not only has it been
found that nitrogenous manures fail to act when applied in this way, but
precisely similar results have been got with purely phosphatic and pot-
assic manures. Here it cannct be a case of volatilisation of free nitro-
gen from the artificial manure ; but Wagner’s experiments show that the
negative results so frequently obtained when mineral manures are added
to dung are intimately associated with denitrification.

It has already been pointed out that the denitrifying action of
dung is diminished with age, but it now remains to be shown that
certain substances when incorporated with dung have the power of
greatly intensifying and prolonging its denitrifying action. The two
substances used by Wagner that are of most interest to us are super-
phosphate of lime and kainit. In the end of May 1895 a number of
cemented pits were filled with 500 kilogrammes of dung (about 4 ton),
and in certain cases the dung as it was filled in was carefully mixed

14

with tha two substances referred to, in the proportion of approximately
three parts per 100 of dung. On the average the dung was turned
every ten days. At the end of ten weeks samples of dung were drawn
from tue various pits, and a given quantity used to denitrify a definite
amount of nitrate of soda. On the average the dung that had been
mixed with nothing took sixty-three days to effect complete denitrifica-
tion, whereas those samples which had been treated with superphos-
phate and kainit effected complete denitrification in forty-one days
and thirty-seven days respectively. On September 13th, after
the dung had_ been in the pits for a hundred and twelve days, samples
were drawn, and their denitrifying power tested on nitrate of soda for
fifty-six days, at the end of which time the dung which had received
nothing had reduced 8 per cent. of the nitrate, whereas the percentage
reduction with the samples treated with superphosphate and kainit was
40 and 66 respectively.

In another series of experiments, where the dung was not turned it
was found that samples taken at the end of a storage of eleven months
denitrified as follows :—

Dung without any addition completely denitrified in 31 days.
», With addition of superphosphate completely denitrified in
22 days.
,, with addition of kainit completely denitrified in 20 days.

Many other experiments could be quoted to show that when soluble
phosphates or kainit are added to dung to the extent of 3 per cent.—and
this is exactly tne proportion in which a farmer mixes an artificial man-
ure with dung when he applies 6 cwt. of the former along with 10 tons
of the latter—the denitrifying power of the dung is intensified, and also
longer maintained. The result isthat the amide, ammoniacal, and
nitric-nitrogen in the dung itself is more completely dissipated; and the
same is also true with regard to the active forms of nitrogen naturally
present in the soil with which the dung, or the ferments that it intro-
duces to the land, may come into contact.

It seems to me that this explains why, when experimenting with 12
tons of dung per acre, we found that in 1893 the average crop of swedes
on nine farms in Northumberland was 2 ewt. per acre heavier with 24
ewt. of superphosphate than when we used 5 cwt. of that substance as a
supplement to the dung. In 1894, on eleven farms in Durham, we ob-
tained an average crop of swedes which was greater by 14 ewt. per acre
when the smaller dressing of the same substance was similarly used.
In 1895, on the average of nine farms in Cumberland, Durham and
Northumberland, the crop of swedes was + ewt. per acre heavier by the
use of 5 cwt. as compared with 74 cwt. of saperphosphate ; and in the
same year on the same farms, 24 cwt. of dissolved bones produced a crop
that was 4 cwt. per acre heavier than that grown by a double quantity
of the same manure. Inall these cases the artificial manures were used
with equal dressings of farmyard manure and it is only under such con-
ditions that they have produced these anomalous results,

The German investigators whose werk we have had under review
have not offered any explanation of the prolongation of the denitrifying

15

ower of dung by the addition of such substances as phosphoric acid and
potash, but it would appear to be reasonable to suppose that it is due to
the better nourishment of the denitrifying bacteria under the influence
of abundance of available phosphatic and potassic food. They have
shown that the organisms can be largely destroyed (a) by frequently
turning dung-heaps, so as to induce rapid fermentation, oxidation, anda
high temperature, and (b) by adding certain substances, of which the
most effective were found to be sulphuric acid and copper sulphate.
And similarly, as has been indicated, there are doubtless substances that
favour the growth and development of the organisms, and it would ap-
pear that some of our commoner artificial manures must be placed
amongst the number. The whole subject is of such far reaching impor-
tance to agriculturists that it is to be hoped it will in the near future re-
cieye in this country, the scientific attention thatit appears to deserve

Witiiam SomervVILLE,

Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

—— ea

DENITRIFICATION AND FARMYARD MANURE. 1

In the preceeding article Dr. Somerville has given a clear account
of the very remarkable conclusions arrived at by modern German inves-
tigators respecting the behaviour of farm yard manure when applied
under various circumstances to the soil. These conclusions, if established,
would seriously modify our ideas as to the value of this manure, and as
to the conditions under which it can be most profitably employed. The
German experiments have been not only numerous, but have been con-
ducted with great care and skill. We have, however, always to distin-
guish between the facts proved by experiment, and the conclusions
drawn from them. The results of the experiments are undoubtedly true,
and demand most careful consideration ; but to interpret these results,
to grasp the principles which underlie the actions observed, we must
first of all be thoroughly acquainted with all the circumstances of the ex-
periments, and we must at the same time take into account any other
facts bearing on the question at issue. A true theory is one which will
explain all the facts, and not merely some of them.

The conclusions arrived at by Wagner and Maercker, with which we
have in the first place to deal, are briefly the following :—

1. The solid excrement of the horse and cow is practically without
value as a manure for plants.

2. When applied to the land, fresh horse or cow dung (2) destroys
the nitrates naturally contained in the soil, or added to it in the form
of nitrate of sodium, and the crop which immediately follows is con-
sequently less than if no dung had been applied.

(1) From Journal of Royal Agricultural Society of England, Vol. VIII

(2) In this paper the term ‘“ dung” is used to designate the solid excre-
ments unmixed with urine or litter ; while ‘‘ formyard manure” is employed in
its usual sense, as the name for the mixture of the solid and liquid voidings of

the animal with litter.

16

3. The use of horse or cow dung likewise seriously diminishes the
return obtained from applications of sulphate of ammonium, urine or
green manures.

4. Straw is also practically without value as a manure, and like
dung, energetically destroys the nitrates in the soil.

5. Ordinary farmyard manure when applied to the soil acts in the
same general manner as the dung and straw which form its principal
constituents.

6. The denitrifying power of dung, straw and farmyard manure, is
due to the presence in these substances of a special organism having
the: power of reducing nitrates.

7. The denitrifying power of dung, or of farmyard manure, is con-
siderably diminished when the manure has become old and humified.
The destruction of nitrate of sodium in the soil is also much less when
the manure has been applied some time before the nitrate.

8. When the farmyard manure has been preserved by mixing with
it superphosphate or kainit, its denitrifying power is little altered by
age.

The whole of the German experiments, showing the actual effects cf
various manures on crops, appear to have been carried out in large zine
pots. Such pots are usually without drainage. They are provided with an
outside pipe sommunicating with the bottom of the pot ; through this
pipe water is supplied. An experimental series of pots usually occupies
a truck, running on rails, and during inclement weather the whole of
the pots can be brought under cover. This mode of experimenting has
been carried to great perfection in Germany.

lt is evident, from what has been said above, that the destruction of
nitrates in the soil is regarded by the German investigators as the chief
cause of the prejudicial actions observed by them when farmyard manure
orits solid constituents, were applied to the soil; and this destruction
of nitrates they believe to brought about by a special organism which
the manure supplies. To gain a clearer light on the subject we will
therefore, in the first place, briefly consider what takes place during the
process of denitrification, and what conditions are favourable to the
occurrence of this action.

THE Process oF DENITRIFICATION.

The subject of denitrification, has been carefully investigated by
many scientists during the past thirty years, with the usual result that
a great deal of the work done has been already forgotten, and is now
buried in the ignorance of a fresh generation of workers. This scarcely
avoidable occurrence happens most frequently when as in the
present case, the modern worker belongs to a different nationality
from that which produced the earlier investigators. An historical treat-
ment of the subject would perhaps be unsuitable for these pages. Pre-
facing, therefore, our remarks by saying that Dr. Angus Smith of Man-
chester, in 1867, was apparently the first to observe the destruction of

17

nitrates with the evolution of gas in decomposing organic solutions, we
will proceed to take a general view of the facts connected with denitri-
fication. 7

The reduction of nitrates which occurs in solutions, or soil, contain-
ing readily oxidisable organic matter is of several distinct kinds. The
reduction may be simply from nitrate to nitrite; or it may be from
nitrate to nitric oxide gas; or to nitrous oxide gas; or, finally, to
nitrogen gas. - The first form of reduction does not necessarily involve
any loss of nitrogen ; all the others do involve a loss of nitrogen, as the
product escapes in the form of gas.

The reduction of nitrates is occasioned by various species of bacteria.
That the action in question only occurs in the presence of these living
organisms was first established by Meusel (1875) in the case of natural
waters, and afterwards shown by Dehérain and Maquenne (1882) to
hold true in the case of soils. Lf all living organisms are destroyed in
sewage or soil—if,to use modern language, these mediums are steri-
lised—neither nitrification nor denitrification will occur.

Bacteria reduce nitrates by bringing about the combustion of or-

ganic matter by the oxygen of the nitrate, the temperature distinctly
rising during the operation. When circumstances are favourable to the
process of reduction, the amount of nitrate reduced is determined by the
quantity of combustible organic matter present. The combustion of the
organic matter, and the reduction of the nitrate, can take place in the
absence of air in the same wayas gunpowder—composed of a nitrate,
charcoal, and sulphur—is capable of burniug under water. In the pre-
sence of air, the oxygen which it contains, takes the place, more or less,
of the oxygen of the nitrate, and the reduction of nitrate is either dimi-
,»nished, or the oxidation of the organic matter much increased. The
whole action is quite similar to the familiar combustion of food in the
animal body ; or to the combustion of organic matter which occurs in
plants, and notably in those which, as in the case with fungi, are desti-
tute of chlorophyll.

Different species of bacteria behave very differently in a mixture of
a nitrate and organic matter. Many species of bacteria are incapable of
reducing a nitrate, though quite capable of effecting the combustion of
organic matter with free oxygen. The reduction of a nitrate to a nitrite,
but not to the state of gas, is, however, a very common property of bac-
teria. Only afew species appear to have the power of reducing a ni-
trate to gas, but these species are widely distributed. Dr. P. Frankland
rew thirty-two distinct species of bacteria, obtained from atmospheric
ust, and from natural waters, ina very weak solution, containing pep-
tone, sugar, and a nitrate. One-half of the species tried reduced the ni-
trate to nitrate. The production of gas was apparently not noted, and
would be scarcely perceptible under the conditions of the experiment. In
a series of experiments conducted by myself in the Rothamsted labora-
tory, thirty-seven distinct species of bacteria were grown in clear beef
broth containing 4 per cent. of nitre, at temperatures varying fron 70 °
to 95° Fahr. Of these, fifteen failed to reduce the nitrate ; three
effected only a.small amount of reduction to nitrite while nineteen re-
duced the nitrate to nitrite with great energy, one of them producing

¥24.

18

Gayon and Dupetit (1886) were the ‘first to isolate the species of
bacteria reducing nitrates to gas; two organisms having this property
were separated by them from sewage. The action of the more active
of these organisms was most intense. Cultivated in a solution of nitre
containing asparagine and a citrate, the liquid evolved its own volume of
gas per day, while the temperature rose 18° Fahr. The action was
most energetic in the absence of oxygen, and ceased when the supply of
oxygen became abundant. The work carried out by these investigators
at the experiment station at Bordeaux should be studied by everyone
desiring to obtain a scientific view of the phenomena of denitrification.

Quite recently Burri and Stutzer (1895) have isolated denitrfying
bacteria from horse dung and from straw. These organisms differ in
several ways. The one obtained from straw is capable of reducing
nitrates to gas in the absence of oxygen, and in the presence of much
oxygen its action is hindered and finally ceases. The bacterium from
horse dung developes exclusively in the presence of oxygen, but it
can reduce nitrates only when associated with another organism of an-
aérobic character, that is, one developing in the absence of oxygen.
When the two organisms are associated, no reduction takes place in the
complete absence of oxygen, but the action becomes active as soon asa
little oxygen is present, and when plenty of organic matter is present
the process is apparently not hindered bya full supply ot that gas.
There is no evidence that either straw or horse dung contains only, or
always, the two denitrifying organisms Just described.

Soil contains an abundance of reducing organisms, including those
producing vitrogen gas. When broth containing L per cent. of nitre is
infected with « particle of surface soil, and keptin a warm place a
quantity of gas bubbles containing nitrogen is produced, and the nitrate
will entirely disappear. Soil treated witha 1 per cent. solution of sugar
containing nitre, rapidly reduces the latter ; the gas produced contains
nitrous oxide and nitrogen.

Any kind of organic matter readily oxidised by bacteria may be
ased to bring about the reduction of nitrates. Im the trials made by
various experiments, albuminoids, asparagine, starch, sugar, humus, fats,
tartrates, citrates, acetates and alcohol have all proved effective for this
purpose.

The presence of some nitrogenons plant food, and of phosphates,
potash, and the other ash constituents of plants is of course necessary for
the growth and activity of the reducing bacteria.

It is clear from what has gone before that denitrification may be ex-
‘pected to occur whenever a suitable mixture of nitrate and organic
matter is iniected by soil dust under the conditions favourable to the
action. The early observations of Angus Smith in England, and of Th.
Schloesing in France (1868),taught us that organic solutions, as sewage,
diluted blood, tobacco juice, and sugar solutions, when undergoing ter-
mentation or putrefaction, actively reduced nitrates, nitrous oxide and
nitrogen being evolved. Whence did these mixtures obtain the bacteria
necessary for this action to take place? Nothing had been done to in-

1y

troduce the organism ; indeed, at the date of these observations it was
not known that the action was brought about by bacteria. The answer
is plain ; these organic solutions obtained the organism which reduced
nitrates by ordinary contact with atmospheric air. We are now familiar
with the fact that the air is the great distributor of bacteria, yeasts, and
fungi, and that a sterilised solution can seldom remain a single minute
in contact with ordinary air without becoming infected. In Dehérain’s
experiments on denitrification, soils which had been sterilised by heat,
and had lost the power of reducing nitrates, were found frequently to re-
gain this power bv merely transferring them to another vessel.

Having grasped the facts now before us, we are disposed to smile
when we are gravely informed that straw bears on its surface the organ-
ism reducing nitrate to nitrogen gas and that itis 7% consequence of this
fuct dangerous to use it as a manure for soils. It is doubtless quite true
as we are informed by Wagner and others, that rye-straw, placed in
water containing saltpetre, slowly reduces the nitrate present, But this
result is not due to any peculiar property of straw ; the action which
occurred would egually have been observed if other forms of organic
matter contaminated with atmospheric dust had been made use of.
Bréal, in fact, experimenting in this way has obtained similar results
when using dead leaves ; the straw of wheat, maize, or haricot bean ;
lucerne silage (conserve de luzerne), or maize cake. That atmospheric
contamination was the source of the organisms reducing nitrates which
were present in these experiments is strikingly evident in the case of the
maize cake. This cake is prepared on the Continent by crushing the
embryo of maize grain, which, like other embryos, is extremely rich in
fat and albuminoids. Now, we cannot conceive that this embryo, em-
bedded in the substance of the seed, naturally contains the bacterium re-
ducing nitrates to gas. The cake must therefore have gained this or-
ganism during the process of its manufacture ; or, possibly, the organism
was supplied by the air in the course of the experiment.

It is assumed by the German experimenters that the solid excrement
of herbivorous animals, and especially that of the horse, is peculiarly
rich in the organisms reducing the nitrogen of a nitrate to gas ; the only
foundation for this supposition is, apparently the marked power of re-
ducing nitfates possessed by these excrements. Wagner tells us that if
100 grams of horse dung are added to 1,000 grams of water, containing
» grams of saltpetre, and the whole allowed to stand in a warm place, the
nitrate will disappear in a few days, the escape of gas being shown by a
brisk effervesence of the liquid. So many hasty conclusions have been
arrived at during the discussion of the question before us that we must
just point out that in the case of an action like denitrification, requiring
the concurrence of several conditions, each of them equally essential,
the activity of this action in any particular case cannot be taken as proof
of a special preponderance of one of these conditions, but rather as
showing that all are fully present.

There is, however, one reason which would lead us to expect that
animal excrement would contain a relative abundance of the denitrifying
organism. If we may assume, as we probably may, that the denitrify-
ing bacteria present in the food passed uninjured through the intestines, it

20

is evident that they will occur in larger proportion in the solid excre-
ment than in the original food. If, for instance, a horse is fed on hay,
and digests one-half of the food consumed, the dung will then contain
twice the proportion of the denitrifying bacteria originally present in
the food. The proportion of the organisms supplied by different kinds
of food must vary greatly. If the bacteria are,as we assume, deposited
from the atmosphere, and lie in all cases on the surface of the food, their
proportion must depend largely on the extent and character of the sur-
face, and on the length of exposure to the atmosphere. A hundred

ounds of hay should contain a far greater proportion of bacteria than a
Readiad pounds of clean mangel or turnips. From this point of view
there is thus some ground for assuming that horse excrement will be
richer in denitrifying organisms than cattle excrement. Wiithrich and
Freudenreich have recently attempted to estimate the relative number
of bacteria present in the dung of cows fed on fresh grass, on hay alone,
and on hay with potatoes or brewers’ grains. They fouud that when
nothing but hay was given the number of bacteria in the dung was far
greater than with any other diet amounting indeed, to the extraordinary
propertion of 165 millions per gram of excrement.

It issuggested by some who have written on the questiun, that the
denitrifying bacteria may largely increase in numbers during the pas-
sage of the food through the intestines. Of this increase there is as yet
no proof, nor does it seem very probable. The increase of an orgaaism
can only be safely assumed when the circumstances are favourable to the
exercise of its particular functions ; now, the denitrifying bacteria be-
long to a class of organisms requiring oxygen, free or combined, to ac-
eomplish their special work, and this necessary condition is absent in
the animal intestine. The bacteria which certainly flourish in the animal
intestine are those which determine the march-gas fermentation of
gellulose. It has been said. with great truth that the fermentation of
the dung heap is simply a continuation of the fermentive processes
which have commenced in the animal intestine.

Before further discussing the question before us we must turn once
more to the results of former investigations, and see what are the pre-
cise conditions necessary to induce denitrification.

Schloesing (1873), in his investigation on the rate of nitrification
in soil, kept various portions of the same moist, humous soil, in atmos-
pheres in which different proportions of oxygen were constantly main-
tained throughout the experiment. He found that.the quantity of nitrate
produced in the soil steadily diminished as the proportion of oxygen in
the air decreased ; when, however, no oxygen was present, denitrification
took place, and the nitrates originally contained in the soil entirely dis-
appeared. He repeated the experiment, this time adding a known
amount of saltpetre to the soil. He found that such a soil placed in a
vessel containing very little air, first absorbed all the oxygen present and
then evolved a considerable quantity of gas, this gas contained nitrogen
equivalent to the whole of that contained in the saltpetre added. The
consumption of the oxygen of the air had thas determined denitrification.

The supply of atmospheric oxygen toa soil is effectually prevented
if the soil is kept saturated with water ; this condition alone is suthcient

21

to set up an energetic denitrification. In an experiment made by myself
iin the Rothamsted laboratory in 1880, and publishedin the Journal of
the Agricultural Society cof England in 1881 (2nd Series, Vol.
xvii.,) Tibs of dry, finely powdered loam were placed in a percolator,
and thoroughly saturated with water ; the, column of soil was about
eight inches in depth. The nitrates naturally present having
been entirely removed by the passage of water through the soil,
a known quantity of nitrate of sodium was placed on the surface,
After a week had elapsed a smill quantity of water was placed each day
on the surface of the soil, and the drainage water removed and analysed.
When nitrates no longer appeared in the drainage water it wes found

ryt

a saturated condition, was cut across about the middle with large trans-
verse fissures, the result of the formation of gas within the soil. In
another experiment, made with the same soil under identical conditions,
in which an equivalent quantity of chloride of sodium was employed, the
whole of the salt applied vas recovered in the drainage water, and no
fissures appeared in the column of soil. .

A recently published experiment by Bréal furnishes a further ex-
cellent example of the active denitrification which takes place in a soil
kept saturated with water. He placed some garden soil in a percolator
and consolidated it by pressure ; the column was about fifteen inches
high. Water more than suflicient for saturation, was then poured upon
the soil. When the water had run through, it was poured back again
over the soil, and this treatment wascontinued forsome time. The soil
at the commencement of the experiment was in an active state of nitri-
fication, and the drainage water was at first rich in nitrates, but at the
end of three weeks the nitrate had entirely disappeared from the drain-
age water, though no water had been removed from the soil.

We have now the conditions which bring about a loss of nitrogen by
denitrification plainly before us. ‘There are needed: 1. The specific
organism. 2. The presence of a nitrate and suitable organic matter.
3. Such a condition as to aération that the supply of atmospheric oxygen
shall not be in excess relatively to the supply of organic matter, 4.
The usual essential conditions of bacterial growth as plant food, anda
suitable temperature.

Of these conditions, the supply of organic matter is by far the
most important in determining the extent to which denitrification
will take place. An abundance of the special organism is of
comparatively little importance ; for, if the conditions are made favour-
able for its growth and development, it will increase with such rapidity
that the number of organisms originally present will soon become a
matter of indifference. Nothing, however, will compensate for a defi-
ciency of organic matter ; if this is small in quantity, the action will be
strictly limited in extent, however large may be the supply of the speci-
fic organism This fundamental principle of the reaction has been
strangely overlooked by the German investigators when interpreting
the results of their experiments. They have sought to explain the deni-
trification in their experiments as due to the supply of additional orga-

22

nisms to the soil in the form of manure, when the results were really due-
to the supply of an excess of organic matter. We shall see presently
that, taking the more correct explanation of the facts, the practical con-
clusions become very different from those hitherto assumed. The prin-
ciple that denitrification proceeds, other things being equal, in direct
proportion to the quantity of combustible organic matter present is, how-
ever, so very important that we shall quote a few more experimental
illustrations of this fact betore discussing the German results from the.
new: point of view.

In Gayon and Dupetit’s investigations the preponderating influence
of the quantity of the organic manner present is fully recognised. The
same organism placed in sewage and in chicken broth, reduced in the
first instance 0.1 to 0.2 gram of nitre per litre, and in the second instance
50 grams per litre. Some experiments of my own are equally clear on.
the point. Two equal volumes of diluted urine were taken ; one received
nitre at the rate of 1 gram per litre ; the other received both nitre and
sugar, each at the rate of 5 grams per litre. Both solutions received 0.5
gram of soil to supply to the denitrifying organism. The solutions were
then covered with a layer of paraffin oil to exclude air, and thus inten-
sify the action of the organic matter, and were kept at the temperature
of 70° Fahr. In the solution containing no sugar a slight evolution
of gas occurred, and nitrites appeared in the liquid ; some reduction.
of nitrate thus took place. The action then stopped, and much
of the nitrate remained permanently in the solution. In the
secoad case, in which five times the quantity of nitre was pre--
sent, accompanied by its own weight of sugar, the whole of the
nitrate disappeared in eleven days. This experiment was afterwards.
repeated at a higher temperature, 95° Fahr. the whole of the nitrate
then disappeared in four days. The presence or absence of sugar thus
entirely determined the extent to which dentrification would take place.
An experiment of Munro’s is perhaps still more to the point, as it shows,.
that the presence or absence of organic matter is sufficient to determine
whether nitrification or denitrification will occur. Munro was experi-:
menting with a river water. When he added tothis water an ammon-
lum salt, active nitrification took place, the ammonia disappeared and
was replaced by a nitrate. If, however, to this actively nitrifying me-
dium he added a small quantity of a soluble tartrate, denitrification set
in, and the whole of the nitric acid in the water disappeared. After a
time the effect of the tartrate ceased,and the water again became a
nitrifying medium. ‘This water like ordinary soil, clearly contained
both nitrifying and denitrifying organisms. In the absence of oxidisable
organic matter the nitrifying organisms held command of the situation;
but when organic matter was introduced the denitrifying organisms
sprang into activity, and the character of the chemical changes taking
place was entirely reversed.

We pass now toconsider more particularly the German results.

23
THe German RESULTS.

The German culture experiments were mae, as already mentioned,
in large cylinders, the cylinders in each series containing the same
weight of soil. As the object of the investigation was to ascertain the
comparative value of different nitrogenous manures, applied alone or to-
gether, the quantity of each manure applied to the soil was suca that
each pot received the same quantity of nitrogen. Although, however,
the quantities of nitrogen applied wn comparative experiments were the
same, the quantities of organic matter applied were very different. When
nitrate of sodiumand sulphate of ammonium were used, the manure supplied
no organic matter to the soil. When urine or dried blood was made use
of the supply of organic mattter was very small. With green manures
(green lucerne, or young grass) the supply became much more consider-
able. With dung and farmyard manure the supply of organic matter
became very large. In the experiments with straw the maximum sup-
ply of organic matter was reached.

The details given of the experiments are frequently too incomplete
to enable us to state with perfect accuracy what was the weight of man-
ure employed in every experiment, the mere fact that it contained
so many grams of nitrogen being sometimes the only information afford-
ed. Itis possible, however, to state approximately what quantities of
manure would be required to supply the unit of nitrogen adopted, and
what quantities of organic matter would be contained in each dressing
of manure. The data required for these calculations have been obtained
from Wolff's tables when not supplied by the experimenters themselves.

Weienrs oF MANURE SUPPLYING TWO GRAMS OF NITROGEN.

Fresh Weight. Dry Organic Matter.

Grams. Grams.
Cattle Urine - att 6-10
Dried Blood - 14 12
Pasture Grass - 157 or
Young Lucerne . 200 ? 347
Sheep Manure - 200 66
Cow Dung - 524 85
Horse Dung - . 5is 103
Farmyard Manure - 500-600 65-130
Rye Straw x 500 409

If the results which followed the application of these manures are
borne in mind, it will be seen that the return in the crop for the same
-quantity of nitrogen applied became, as a rule, rapidly less as the amount
of organic matter associated with the nitrogen increased. Thus, in one
series of Wagner’s experiments, the nitrogen recovered in a crop of oats
for 100 applied as manure was in the case of :

Nitrate of Sodium 77, Farm Manure (good) 8
Sulphate of Ammonium 69 ““ (poor) 6
Cattle Urine 69

Dried Blood 50 Cow Dung z

Young Grass 43 Horse Dung 0

24

In two series of Maercker’s experiments, also made wiih oats, the
following were the proportions of nitrogen recovered in the crop for 100
supplied in the manure. As the nitrate of sodium gave the same return
in each series of experiments, we assume that the conditions were alike
throughout.

Nitrate of Sodium - 957.5 Ox Dung - 4.5
Sheep Dung - 199 Wheat Straw - 0
Farmyard Manure (4 kinds) 3:0-9°8

The influence of the decomposable organic matter in a manure is
twofold: it affects the process both of nitrification and of denitrification.

{f the conditions within the soil are suitable for nitrification, any
addition to the soil of decomposable carbonaceous matter will
tend to diminish the rate at which nitrogen is oxidised, and
may cause nitrification to cease altogether. The decomposition of an
organic manure, and its partial oxidation, must precede its nitrification.
If much of this preliminary work has to be done, the commencement of
nitrification is greatly delayed; the products of the decomposition of car-
bonaceous matter are, indeed, inimical to nitrification.

When the quantity of organic manure applied exceeds a certain
proportion, the conditions prevailing in the soil may be entirely changed,
and a nitrifying medium, converted for a time into a denitri-
fying medium, the oxygen demanded by the decomposing organic mat-
ter being now obtained by the destruction of the nitrates in the soil. An
organic manure which is effective when applied in small quantity may
thus become injurious when made use of in excess.

An illustration of the decrease in efficiency which follows an in-
crease in the quantity of an organic manure is furnished by one of Wag-
ners experiments: 157 grams of pasture grass were incorporated with
the soil of one pot, and double this quantity, 314 grams, was applied to
another pot. The return in the crop for 100 of nitrogen applied was in
the first case 43, in the second 36; or, in other words, the crop
instead of being doubled was increased by 69 per cent. by
doubling the quantity of the manure. As the total amount of nitrogen
assimilated with the heaviest manuring was far less than that taken up
when nitrate of soda was applied, the smaller return from the green
manure was clearly not due to its supplying an excess of nitrogen, but
simply to the incapacity of the soil to bring this nitrogen into a con-
dition available for the crop.

That the addition to the soil of large doses of fermentable organic
matter will retard the nitrification of other easily nitrified nitrogenous
manures is probably the principal reason of the ill-effect resulting in the
German experiments from applying horse dung with sulphate o. ammo-
nium, with urine, «nd with green manures. Wagner and Maercker ap-
plied these nitrogenous manures, both alone and with the addition of
dung or farmyard manure ; the following is a selection from their re-
sults. The produce given by dung aloue is in every case substracted
from the produce of dung with other nitrogenous manures und the re-
maining increase is credited to the respective manures.

25
Nitrogen recovered for 100 applied in Manure.

1.— Wagner's RESULTS.

Manures Manures
applied alone with Horse Dung
Nitrate of Sodium 52
Sulphate of Ammonium 69 50
Cattle Urine 69 40)
Pasture Grass ; 43 20

2.—-MAERCKER’S RESULTS.

Manures Manures with
applied alone Farmyard Manure
Nitrate of Sodium 55 cy
Sulphate of Ammonium 37 BL
Cow Urine 29 Pp

Wagner employed in the above experiments, 2 grams of nitrogen
as nitrogenous manure, with, or without, 2 grams of nitrogen as horse
dung. Maercker used ‘75 gram of nitrogen as nitrogenous manure,
with or without 1°5 gram of nitrogenas farmyard manure.

The German investigators are doubtless right in attributing the de-
crease in the return from nitrate of sodium, when mixed with dung or
farmyard manure, to the destruction of the nitrate occasioned by the
latter manures, but Wagner will aot admit that the decrease in the re-
turp from ammonia, urine, or grass is due to the diminished rate of nitri-
fication of these manures brought about by their mixture with much
organic matter. Hisargument is peculiar. He says : we cannot explain
the depressing action of the dung when applied with urine or grass as
due to any hindrance in the conversion of their nitrogen into ammonia,
because the yield of ammonium salts also suffers under these circum-
stances : and we cannot explain the depression in the case of ammonium
salts as due to want of nitrification, as the nitrates applied equally show
the injurious effects of the dung. Might we not add, with as much jus-
tice : we cannot explain the action of dung on nitrates as due to denitri-
fication, as the dung occasions an equal depression where no nitrates
have been applied ? This mode of argument is valueless : all it can pos-
sibly prove is that a single explanation will not suffice for all the results
before us.

It is'generally assumed by the German investigators that denitrifi-
cation is a sufficient explanation of all the results obtained ; it is appar-
ently supposed that the ammonia, urine, and grass have nitrified in the
soil just as usual, and thatthe nitrate produced has heen destroyed by
the dung. But it is proved in the course of the German investigations
that the reducing action of the dung is greatest immediately after its
application to the soil, and gradually diminishes with the lapse of time.
We have, then, the conditions producing denitrification set up most
actively at the first, and we may well ask—How can nitrification take
place under these circumstances ? That nitrification will eventually set

26

in is most true, but then the conditions producing dentrification will
have diminished, or entirely ceased. That nitrification and denitrification
can occur simultaneously in the same place has yet to be proved, (1) till
this is done we must assume that nitrification is considerably retarded by
the addition to the soil of large quantities of fermentable organic matter.

It is only right to add that the simultaneous occurence of nitrifica--
tion and denitrification is not accepted by all the German investigators
asa sufficient explanation of the diminished return from ammonium
salts, urine, etc., when these manures are mixed with dung. Pfeiffer
believes that an evolution of nitrogen from ammonia, due to its partial
oxidation, takes place in the soil under the circumstances in question ;
and that the considerable loss of nitrogen which occurs in an aérated
dung heap is due tothe same action, which he assumes to be brought
about by bacteria. This view is at present little more than a supposition,
but it indicates that the explanation first mentioned is by no means re-
garded as satisfactory.

When considering the action of large applications of organic man~
ure, both in retarding nitrification and in setting up denitrification, we
must of course bear in mind that all kinds of organic matter have not an
equal effect, and that mere quantity will not alone determine the result.
When, instead of fresh horse dung, Wagner used black, humified
manure, which have been frequently turned over during four months,
the injurious effect on the action of nitrate of sodium almost disappear-
ed. The return from 100 of nitrogen in nitrate of sodium was now 73,
and from 100 of nitrogen in cattle urine 63, (2) instead of 52 and 40,.
respectively, when fresh horse dung was employed. Maercker also ob-
served that if horse dung was applied to the soil two months before the
nitrate of sodium, its denitrifying action was scarcely perceivea. This

(1) In some of the recent German analyses of farmyard manure consider-
able quantities of nitrates are mentioned. In asmal] experimental mass it
may happen that the conditions suitable for nitrification may in the course of
time occur, but an ordinary dung heap seems the most unlikely situation for
the nitrifying process. The mode of determining the nitrates is not always
mentioned, but, in one paper, boiling the extract of the manure with aluminum
and soda is stated to be the method employed ; this must give far too high re-
sults, Schloesing’s method of estimation as nitrate oxide gas would give
accurate results. Reduction to ammonia with a copper-zine couple, and dis-
tillation with magnesia, would also give fair results.

(2) A hasty reader of Wagner’s paper would come to the conclusion that
the return of nitrogen in the crop was in this instance 39 and 34 per cent. re-
spectively, these being the numbers printed in the table ; they are obtained by
dividing the nitrogen in the increase by the total nitrogen applied to the pot.
This mode of reckoning fails, however, to show the return yielded by the
nitrate of sodium or urine, whch isthe pointin question. To giv» one example:
2 grams of nitrogen in the form of humified horse dung gave an increase of
‘097 gram of nitrogen in the crop; 2 grams of nitrogen as humified horse
dung, plus 2 grams in the form of nitrate of sodium, gave an increase in crop
of 1'548 gram of nitrogen. The return from 2 grams of nitrogen as
nitrate of sodium was thus 1°548—-097—1°451 gram or 72°55 per cent. The
ill-effects of mixture with dung are much exaggerated by the mode of caleula-
tion adopted in Wagner’s tables ;in his text, however, the true proportions.
will usually be found.

27

result is not obviously explainable if we assume that. the denitrifying
action of fresh horse dung in the soil is to be attributed to the organisms
which the manure supplies, for there is no reason to suppose tkat these
organisms would die in a soil which naturally contains them ; but the re-
sult is at once understood if we grasp the fact that denitrification is de-
termined by the presence of fermentable organic matter.

Several results which greatly puzzled the German investigators ap-
pear capable of explanation, if we regard them from the point of view
just taken. Thus, Wagner found that when dung was preserved by the
addition of superphosphate, or kainit, it possessed a greater denitrifying
power than when these substances were omitted. His temperature de-
terminations, in fact, show that these substances decreased the fermen-
tation in the manure heap.

The much better results obtained by the German experiments from
sheep manure than from horse or cattle manure are apparently to be
explained by the fact that the sheep manure contain a much greater pro-
portion of easily nitrifiable nitrogenous matter, and a distinctly smaller
proportion of organic matter per unit of nitrogen. The German inves-
tigators are fully alive to the importance of the first point, but give no
weight to the second. The far smaller denitrifying power of sheep
manure is, however, quite in accordance with its much smaller propor-
tion of fermentable organic matter per unit of nitrogen. Its compara-
tive freedom from denitrifying action certainly does not support the idea
that this action is due to the presence of a special organism derived from
the animal intestine, for in this respect sheep dung must stand on a par
with the horse or cow dung.

Attempts to destroy the denitrifying organisms in dung and thus
alter its action on nitrates, have met with no success. Wagner sifted
a quantity of horse dung, and desiroyed the living organisms in one por-
tion by treatment with bisulphide of carbon. After removal of the
bisulphide, the denitrifying power of the treated horse dung was
compared with that of the untreated. It was of course expected
that, the denitrifying organism having been destroyed, the treated
horse dung would be found comparatively harmless when applied
to the soil along with nitrate of sodium or other nitrogenous
manure. To the surprise of the experimenter, however, the treated
manure proved more injurious that the untreated. We could not have
an experiment showing more conciusively that the presence or absence
of organisms in the manure is a matter of indifference so long as the
necessary organisms are present in the soil. (1)

eee

(1) In Maercker’s Second Report, which has come to hand after the above
was written, experiments are described in which wheat and oat straw were
soaked for two days in | per cent. sulphuric acid, with a view of destroying the
denitrifying organisms present. The straw thus treated was found, however,
when mixed with soil, to reduce the yield of nitrate of sodium to the same ex-
tent as the untreated straw. Two other germicides were tried, with a similar
failure of result. Straw sterilised by steam had a worse effect on crops than
unsteamed straw; the prejudicial effect in this instance is considered by
Maercker as due to the formation of acid humus. All attempts to prove that
the depressing action of straw and horse dung is due to the organisms whish
they contain have thus failed.

28

If we have by this time made good our contention that the injurious
action of fresh farmyard manure observed by the German experimenters
is due to the fermentable organic matter which it contains and is generally
in proportion to its amount, we have next to ask: What proportions of
manure to soil were used in German experiments. If these proportions
were the same as those employed in ordinary agriculture, then our
farmers may expect to meet with the same results when they em-
ploy farmyard manure under similar circumstances. If, however, far
more of this manure was applied to the soil in the German pot experi-
ments than is used in practical agriculture, we must clearly take the
German results simply as illustrations of the properties of farmyard man-
ure, and not as examples of what we have to expect in practice. Organic
matter in the soil acts, in fact, in an injurious manner only when it is of
such kind and quantity that it changes the character of the soil from an
oxidising to a deoxidising medium.

For our present purpose we may assume that the depth of soil
turned over by the plough—the quantity in fact with which a dressing of
farmyard manure would be mixed in practice—will weigh, when dry,
1,000 tons per acre. 1t follows that an ordinary dressing of 10 tons of
manure per acre will amount to 1 per cent. of the soil. A farmer may
now and then double this proportion, but 2 per cent. will very rarely be
exceeded. In the experiments which Wagner first describes, each pot
held 7,000 grams of soil, and the quantity of dung employed was about
500 grams, or 7 per cent. of the soil, representing, therefore, 70 tons per
acre. In his main series of experiments the pots contained 18,500 grams
of soil, but the manure was only incorporated with the upper portion, 15
em. in depth. The surface area of the soil is mentioned in this case 3 we
are thus able to state that his ordinary dressing of dung, 500 grams, was
equivalent to 40 tons per acre, incorporated with about sis inches of
soil ; this amount was doubled in a few instances. In experiments on
denitrification, in which no crop was grown, the dung employed
amounted to 10, 18 and 20 per cent. of the soil. Maercker does not
give the details of his experiments so fully as Wagner, but from one
sentence it would appear that his pots held 6,000 grams of soil. His
unit of nitrogen is larger than Wagner’s so that about 600 grams repre-
sents his ordinary application of dung, which thus amounted to 10 per
cent, of the soil, or 100 tons per acre. In some of his trials with farm-
yard manure the dressing was three times this amount.

It is, then, quite evident that the quantities of dung mixed with the
soil in the German experiments were far in excess of the amounts com-
monly employed by a farmer and that a great delay oi the process of
nitrification, and a production of actively denitrifying conditions, was
only what might naturally be expected under the circumstances of the
experiments, and is no proof that the same actions will occur to the
same extent in ordinary arable farming.

That the farmyard manure was used to great disadvantage in the
pot experiments we have just described is indirectiy admitted by Wag-
ner, for at the commencement of his paper he tells us that his former
experiments have shown that, under the conditions which occur in prac-
tice 251b. of the nitrogen contained in farmyard manure may be expected

29

+o be on an average recovered in the crop for LOOlb. applied to the land.
He also quotes field experiments by J. Kiihn in which 24 per cent. of
the nitrogen of farmyard manure was recovered in the crop. Yet in the
experiments on the action of dung and farmyard manure, which he pro-
ceeds to describe, the fresh dung in every case but one yields a crop be-
low that giveo by the unmanured soil, while farmyard manure gives an
average return of only 5 per cent. of its nitrogen in the produce. The
conditions of the experiments were thus clearly not such as to allow
these manures to be employed to advantage, and the results obtained
cannot be taken as indicating what may be expected to happen in the
ordinary use of farmyard manure in the field. (1)

The results obtained by Wagner have naturally excited attention in
France, and experiments on the subject, also conducted in pots, have
been made by Pagnoul at the Experiment Station of Pas de Calais
(1895). His pots were large, containing 25,000 grams of soil, and the
quantity of horse dung employed was 500 grams, or 2 per cent. One
set of pots remained six weeks without seed and was then sown with

eee

1 In Maerecker’s later experiments, just published, much better results
were obtained from the use of farmyard manure in pot cultures.

He experimented with 45 kinds of manure, the history and composition
of which we are fully given. Applied at the rate of one gram of nitrogen per
6,000 grams of soil, which, omitting the sheep manures, was equivalent to 17-61
ons of manure per acre, he obtained from 38 samples the following results:—

4 decreased the yieid of nitrogen in the crop.
7 yielded in increase less than 5 per cent of their nitrogen.
‘ se ns

8 : 5-10 per cent of their nitrogen.
7 “a “c “ 10-15 46 “é (6
7 “6 sé “ 15-20 6c 6 te
5 6c £6 it over 90 6c “ec é

In the last group. one manure yielded 37°4 per cent. its nitrogen in the
increased crop which it produced. As 2 rule, the most nitrogenous manures,
of which consequently, the smallest weight was applied, gave the best return.

When Maercker nsed smaller quantities than before of farmyard marure and
straw, with nitrate, the depressing effect of the farmyard manure practically
disappeared, butthat of the straw, was still very marked. The return of ni-
trogen in the crop for 190 applied as nitrate of sodium was—

Nitrate alone 66°6 Nitrate with horse dung 57-2
- with cow manure 66:0 ‘~ ‘* oat straw 23:0
es ‘sheep manure 62°7 $ “wheat straw 21.8

The farmyard manure was used at the rate of 3°3 per cent. of the soil or 33
tons peracre. The straw was half this weight, but nevertheless supplied the
soil with considerably more organic matter than the farmyard manure.

These new results appear to be in accordance with the views we have ex-
pressed above. Maercker does not relinquish in the least his belief in the
preponderating influence of the organisms present upon the results obtained ;
when any specimen of farmyard manure gives results better or worse than its
analyses would indicate, he at once assumes that this is due to the absence or
abundance of the denitrifying organism.

30

grass, A second set was sown with mustard two weeks after the addi-
tion of the manures. The weight of crops harvested was as follows:—

Grass Mustard

Grams. Grams.
Nitrate of sodium 184 234
Nitrate of sodium with horse dung 251 357
Sulphate of ammonium 182 69
Sulphate of ammonium with horsedung 190 229

These few experiments leave much to be desired; but it at all events
appears that with a more moderate application of dung, amounting to
about 20 tons per acre, the return obtained from nitrate of sodium and
sulphate of ammonium is_ not decreased, indeed, in every instance the
dung has itself contributed to the increase of crop.

RoTHAMSTED RESULTS BEARING ON THE QUESTION.

The field experiments at Rothamsted furnish abundant examples of
the action of farmyard manure on various crops, and also of the after-
effect of residues of the manure remaining in the soil. The alteration in
the character of the soil by the continued use of farmyard manure, and
the relative production of nitrates in manured and unmanured land, are
also well shown in these experiments. Keeping, however, to the points
before us, we shall here simply inquire what have been the results of the
Rothamsted experiments on the employment of farmyard manure with
nitrate of sodium, and with other nitrogenous manures ; and what have
been the results of the application of straw in conjunction with nitrogen-
ous manures.

The practical question whether farmyard manure can be used econ-
onomicaliy with artificial manures is one of great importance to the
farmer, and can only be satisfactorily settled by field experiments. The
irregularities of field experiments are, however, very great, and the most
potent cause of irregularity, namely, the great variety in the seasons,
and especially the wholly variable and uncertain distribution of rain, is
unfortunately beyond the control of the experimenter, and assumes its
greatest proportion where large quantities of manure have been applied.
It is necessary therefore, to take the average result of many years if
trustworthy conclusions are to be drawn from field experiments.

In the field devoted to the culture of roots at Rothamsted
a considerable portion of the land has received annually for many years
14 tons of farmyard manure peracre. One-half of this land has received
in addition 34 cwt. of superphosphate each year. ‘These two farmyard
manure plots are each divided into five portions, one receiving no fur-
ther manure, the others cross-dressed respectively with nitrate of sodium,
sulphate of ammonium, rape cake, and sulphate of ammonium with rape-
cake. Each cross-dressing supplies a known quantity of nitrogen.
What has been the effect of these cross-dressings ?

From a practical point of view the farmer will be content to ascer-
tain what increased weight of roots has been obtained by the use of each
cross dressing, and to compare the value of the roots with the cost of the

r 31
artificial manure producing them. To obtain an exact knowledge of the
return yielded by the artificial manures when employed with farmyard
manure we must, however, go a step further, and ascertain what propor-
tion of the nitrogen of the artificial manure has been recovered in the
crop. It is the more necessary todo this, as a heavily manured root
crop is harvested in different seasons in very different stages of maturity,
and an immature crop, which an unfavourable season has prevented from
forming a large weight of root, may yet contain in rvot and leaf
almost as great a quantity of nitrogen, and furnish consequent-
ly almost as large a return for the nitrogen applied, as that which would
have been realised in a season of greater production of roots. ‘The less
mature root is in fact more nitrogenous than the perfect root rich in sugar
and the green leaf far more nitrogenous than the root which itis its

function to produce.

Determinations of nitrogen were made at Rothamsted in the roots
of all the plots of mangel-wurzel receiving farmyard manure during the
five years 1878-82. The amount of nitrogen in the leaf when the roots
were taken up was not determined, but the weight of the leaves, and the
amount of dry matter which they contained, were recorded. Determina-
tions of nitrogen were, however, made during these years in the leaves of
a series of other plots in the field receiving the same cross dressings.
By assuming that the dry matter of the leaves from the farmyard man
ure plots contained the same percentage of nitrogen as was found during
the same years in the leaves of plots receiving the same y Peay aah ade
we may arrive very nearly at the total nitrogen contents of the farmyar
manure crops. In a later ycar, we shall presently mention, the amount
of nitrogen in both roots and leaves of all the mangel plots receiving the
farmyard manure was actually determined.

Sir J. B. Lawes and Sir J. H. Gilbert bave most kindly placed at
my disposal the results of the calculation we have just described. In the
the table on p. 32 will be found the average results of the farmyard
manure plots during six years, 1878-83. In calculating the nitrogen
contained in the roots of 1883 the average percentages of nitrogen in the
roots during the preceeding five years have been employed.

Before considering the results it will be well to mention in what
manner the manures were applied during the years in question. At
Rothamsted the mangels are grown “on the ridge.” During the years
in question the whole of the manures, save the dung, were sown broadcast,
and harrowed in before the application of the farmyard manure ; the only
exception being that the superphosphate was occasionally sown after-
wards by drill on the top of the ridge. The cross-dressings having
been thus applied, furrows were opened, and the farmyard manure was
placed in the furrow; the land was then bouted, the furrow being con-
verted into a ridge, along the top of which the seed was dibbled.

The application of the nitrate of sodium at such an early date, and
before the farmyard manure, is clearly not what would now be recom-
mended in the light of recent knowledge, and we shall see presently that
this mode of proceeding has in later years been altered; but sven with
this disadvantage the returns yielded by nitrate of sodium and ammonium
salts applied with farmyard manure are seen to be remarkably good.

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34

Wagner mentions, at the commencement of this paper that, under
the conditions of practical agriculture, 55 per cent. of the nitrogen of
nitrate of sodium may be expected to be recovered in the crop. In the
pot experiments we have earlier mentioned the return has varied from
53 to 77 per cent. In the Rothamsted field experiments with barley,
nearly 60 per cent. of the nitrogen of a moderate dressing of nitrate of
sodium has been on an average recovered in the increased produce where
a liberal amount of ash constituents has been supplied. Sulphate of
ammonium Wagner finds to give on an average one-tenth less return than
nitrate of sodium for the same amount of nitrogen applied. Bearing
these facts in mind, the percentage of nitrogen recovered in the in-
crease of crop by the use of nitrate of sodium and sulphate of ammonium
in the mangel experiments appears quite satisfactory. The nitrate of
sodium employed as a cross-dressing is utilised to the extent of 53.6 per
cent where 14 tons of farmyard manure are applied, and the utilisation
reaches 68.9 per cent. where superphosphate is also employed. With
ammonium salts, the utilisation under these two conditions is respec-
tively 58.0 and 67.3 per cent. It will be observed that although super-
phosphate and farmyard manure give no greater crop of roots than farm
yard nanure alone, yet, when nitrate or ammonia is used in addition, the
presence of the superphosphate produces a considerably greater increase
of crop. The supply of phosphates becomes insufficient only when the
supply of nitrogen is increased. We shall see presently that still bette.
results were obtained when potash was supplied as well as phosphatesr
The cross-dressing of rape-cake bas been utilised to the extent of 47.3
and 50.7 per cent. without, and with superphosphate. As the rape-cake
itself supplies both phosphates and potash, the effect of additional
superphosphate is here little perceived. The very heavy cross-
dressing of ammonium salts and rape-cake, supplying 184 lb. of nitro-
gen per acre, is utilised to the extent of 48.6 and 50.7 per cent. under
the conditions already mentioned.

{t may fairly be objected that the return for the nitrogen applied is
exaggerated in the statement just made, as, in fact, all the mangel leaves
from every plot are returned to the soil. To estimate the influence of
this return of the mangel leaves on the results before us we need to
know what proportion of the nitrogen in mangel leaves spread on the
soil in November may be expected to appear in next year’s crop of man-
gels. If we assume that one-quarter of the nitrogen in the leaves will
reappear in the next year’s crop, we shall probably be making a liberal
concession to the objection urged. In using this correction we have to
deduct from the average amount of nitrogen in the increase by nitrate of
sodium, or other cross-dressing, one-quarter of the average nitrogen in
the leaf ; the remainder will then, according to our assumption, repre-
sent more nearly the amount of nitrogen derived from the cross-dress-
ing. The difference made by this alteration in the calculation depends
on the proportion of leaf to root usual on the different plots ; the
alteration in the figures is quite small where nitrate of sodium is the
cross-dressing, and becomes much more considerable where ammonium
salts, and especially ammonium salts and rape-cake are applied.

Nitrogen recovered in increase of mangel crop per 100 applied at
cross-dressing on dung, after deducting from the increase one-quarter of
the average nitrogen in the leaves.

3D

CROSS-DRESSINGS.

Pantene eee nee nceennn en ennn ec tanens eeeeeaeeneeee het sa see taenmn seane ann seeseneene Snes Saneeaenenena se emeemegnansenatsetwatensenssesawacaaaraasararanear seats Gun Gu Rernene@enesennasassueeeeeniu@entaseumeneen ese aeeinateeeteseeeee senee tans eeee

Nitrate of Sodium,} Ammonium Salts, | Rape-cake | Ammonium Salts.

Plot; 86lb. nitrogen. 86lb. nitrogen. |96lb. nitrogen.| ete., Rape-cake
184lb. nitrogen.

eee

—— eS

SS ee

per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
1 515 54:3 45°5 45:1
2 65°3 61:9 45'°3 470

These corrected estimates still show a very good return from the use
of nitrate of sodium and ammonium salts when applied to land receiving
farmyard manure; this is especially the case on plot 2, where super-
phosphate was used.

In the figures just given we have had to use an approximate esti-
mate of the nitrogen in the leaves in the absence of actual determina-
tions ; we may, however, arrive ata practical conclusion as to the effi-
cacy of nitrates, etc., when applied with farmyard manure, without taking
the leaves at allinto consideration. Below is a comparison of the average
return of nitrogen in the mangel roots only given by nitrate of sodium,
ammonium salts, and rape-cake, when used both with and without farm-
yard manure. It is clear that if the aitrogen of these three manures is
utilised to the same extent under the two conditions named,we shall have
good ground for concluding that the farmyard manure has had no pre-
judicial influence upon their action. The figures given are the average
for the same six years already mentioned.

CROSS-DRESSINGS.

neon esnannaaneeeensaneeasheaassmncenaneaesenseesaseeeassueastesenensssssnewesersssonensssnewnaaaesassenaaserensnaeaasene —

Stranparnp MANURKS. Nitrate of |} Ammon- | Rape- | Ammon-
Sodium. |ium Salts.| cake. | ium Salts
| and Rape-

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Farmyard manure and super- |

phospate 54°4 45°2 40°9 35°5
Superph osphate and potassium

sulphate | 58-1 44°5 51:8 45°5

Farmyard manure and supher-

phosphate i 193 260 176 255
Superphosphate and potassium

sulphate 169 186 148 235

oe

36

It will be seen that when nitrate of sodium, or ammonium salts,
were applied to land manured with superphosphate and sulphate of
potassium, the increase in the quantity of nitrogen in the roots by the
addition of these manures was practically the same as was obtained when
these cross-dressings were applied to land receiving farmyard manure ;
the 14 tons of farmyard manure had thus no depressing effect on the
action of the nitrate or ammonia. That the leaves, if taken into account,
would not alter this conclusion is shown by the fact that the proportion
of leaf is greatest in every case on the farmyard manure plot ; the pro-
portion of nitrogen recovered in the crop would thus be more increased
on this plot than on the other, if the nitrogen in the leat was taken into
account. Where rape-cake is used with the farmyard manure we do not
get so good a return in the roots as where the rape-cake is used without
dung ; with 2,000lb. ot rape-cake and 14 tons of farmyard manure we
apparently reach an amount of organic manure in excess of what can be
economically employed in an average season.

Notwithstanding the excellent utilisation of the nitrogen of the
nitrate of sodium or ammonium salts when applied with dung to man-
gels, the increased weight of crop obtained from these cross-dressings is
by no means so great as when the same cross-dressings are applied
without farmyard manure. Thus the increase in root and leaf yielded by
the nitrate of sodium on the farmyard manure and superphosphate plot
was 9 tons 9 cwt., and that yielded by the ammonium salts 8 tons;
while, without farmyard manure, the increase from similar dressings
applied to land receiving superphosphate and sulphate of potassium was
respectively 14 tons 5 cwt. and 11 tons 19 ewt. Thix considerable dif-
ference is due to the fact that nitrate of sodium or ammonium salts give
asmaller, but much more nitrogenous increase when applied to dunged
land than when applied to land receiving no other nitrogenous manure.
The fact is of considerable practical importance to the farmer, but it has
nothing to do with the question before us, which is: Does farmyard man-
ure interfere with the assimilation of nitrogen from other manures ?
That a smaller return is obtained in crop, per init of nitrogen, as the
supply of nitrogenous manure is increased is a fact sufficiently familiar to
the agriculturist.

Since 1895 some alterations have been made in the mangel field at
Rothamsted; 500 lb. of sulphate of potassium per acre are now applied
to plot 2; and since 1896, 450 |b. of basic slag have been applied to this
plot instead of superphosphate. The supply of ash constituents is thus
made far more complete, and opportunity is given for the heavier dress-
ings of nitrogenous manure to disilay their greatest effect.

The mode of applying the manures has also been changed. In
1896 and 1897 the basic slag, sulphate of potassium, and rape-cake were
broadcast towards the end of April, and ploughed in ; furrows were then
opened, the dung applied, and the land thrown into ridges. Seed was
drilled the first week in May. The nitrate of sodium and ammonium
salts were applied as a top-dressing in July, being distributed along each
side of the drills. In 1896 the top-dressing took place on July 7th, in
1897 on July 20th. The lateness of the application in 1897 was due to
the drought in that season. When nitrogenous manures have been

37

applied too late, a large proportion of leaf to root is found when the crop
is taken up, time not having being allowed for root formation.

In the crops grown with farmyard manure in 1897 the nitrogen
has been determined both in root and leaf. For the crop grown in 1896
the nitrogen in the root is known, and the weight of the leaf ; the per-
centage of nitrogen in the leaf is assumed to be the same as in corres-
ponding experiments. The results of these two years have been kindly
supplied by Sir J. B. Lawes and Sir J. H. Gilbert ; they will be found
on p. 38.

As'soon as we deal with the results of individual seasons we en-
counter the irregularities inseparable from field experiments. In the
results before us more than one of the applications of nitrogenous manure
has apparently yielded double the return of nitrogen in the crop in 1897
than it did in 1896 ; this is notably the case where rape-cake has been
applied. The increased utilisation of the manures in 1897 is but little
shown by the weigh: of crop per acre ; the severe drought of July and
August arrested the developmeni of the mangels. and when taken up in
November they contained an undue proportion of leaf, the materials accu-
mulated in which had not had sufficient time to bring about the elabora-
tion of sugar, and the construction of a larger root.

Taking the mean of the figures at the bottom of the table, wher®
a correction is made for the effect of the leaves left on the land in the
previous season, we have the following proportions of nitrogen recovered
in the increase of produce for 100 supplied in the undermentioved man-
ures, applied as cross-dressings on dunged land, with and without the
addition of basic slag and sulphate of potassium.

See eee p= es -—onseDRS RRS RSE SESE Eee Sess HANS bees Renneesnes aban wnt son ari hooanouenessnsaen sa hsennewsesepoushatisensenkeaeam

Nitrate of] Ammon- |Rape-cake|/ Ammon-
Sodium |ium Salts |96lb nitro-| ium Salts
86lb. nitro-\86lb nitro-| gen. jand Rape-

gen. eon. || | eake 184)b
————____|_— Sa
Farmyard manure alone | 81:9 59°7 | 58°9 39°3
_ “with slagand |
potash | 95 9 778 | 58°7 49°5

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Jomparing these figures with those previously given, we especially
notice the increased return from the nitrate, due doubtless, to its applica-
tion later in the season. The farmer must not, however, apply the nitrate
too late, as happened in the present case, for nitrogenous leaves will be
no compensation to him for the lack of roots. The higher return given
by nitrate of sodium than by the other manures is doubtless in part due
to the soda supplied ;in the mangel-field, the plot receiving soda and
magnesia, in addition to potash and phosphates, is the one giving the
highest return, excepting the two plots manured with farmyard manare.

it is now, | think, clear that under the conditions in which farm-
yard manure is employed in the mangel field at Rothamsted the

38

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addition of a dressing of nitrate of sodium is attended with a good return
for the additional nitrogen applied ; this fact is shown by the earlier re-
sults when the nitrate was applied before the dung ; it is shown still
more in the later experiments, when the nitrate was applied as a top-
dressing to the young plants, and when the supply of potash to the crop
was at the same time increased. The amount of farmyard manure
employed in the Rothamsted field is a moderate quantity, and we must
not therefore conclude that no deterioration in the action of nitrate of
sodium will take place where much larger quantities of dung are made
use of. The danger of denitrification reaching considerable proportions
will increase as the amount of fermentable organic matter in the soil
increases, and will be much aggravated by a wet condition of the land.
Tho horticulturist who employs dung in large quantities is much more
likely to suffer from denitrification than the farmer,

The mode in which farmyard manure is applied, and the extent to
which it is incorporated with the soil, must have some influence upon its
action. When farmyard manure is ploughed in, it is not intimately
mixed with the whole soil, as in a pot experiment, but is left in a succes-
sion of layers separated by unmanured soil. When roots are grown on
the ridge system, the farmyard manure is confined to the centre of the
ridge. In either case the denitrifying zone is limited in extent, and does
not include the whole of the soil penetrated by the roots. There is
clearly much scope for careful enquiry as to the most proficable method
of employing dung with other manures.

We now turn to the experiments made at Rothamsted with straw.

During twelve ycars, 1868-79, the straw of the preceding year’s
crop was applied to one-half of certain plots in the experimental wheat
field. None of these plots received nitrate, but nearly all of them am-
monium salts. We will take as our first illustration Plot 7, which re-
ceives a complete supply of ash constituents, with 400 lb. per acre of
ammonium salts, supplying 86 lb. of nitrogen.

During sixteen years before the straw was applied the average total
produce of the two halves of Plot 7 was, for 7a, 6,339 Ib. and for 7b.
6,412 |b. per acre per annum, or a difference in favour of 7b, of 73 lb.
During the twelve years, 1868-79, the straw of the previous season,
amounting on an average to about 3,000 ib. per acre, was cut into chaff,
spread on Plot 7a, and ploughed in during October. The other manures,
including the ammonium salts, were applied at the same time in ten
years out of the twelve; in the other two years the ammonium salts were
applied as a top-dressing in the spring. During the twelve years in
which straw was applied the average produce of 7a, was 4,973 lb. and
of 7b, 5,185 lb., or a difterence in favour of 7b of 212 |b. ; from this we
may deduct 73 1b., representing the original superiority of 7b. We
have thus an annual loss by the use of straw amounting to 139]b per
acre, diminishing the produce of Plot 7a by 2.7 per cent.

On Plots 6 and 8, also receiving a full supply of ash constituents,
with 200 |b. and 600 Ib. respectively of ammonium salts, the return of
the straw, carried out in the same manner as just mentioned, occasioned,
in the case of 6a an average diminution of 38 lb. of total produce, and

42

in the case of 8a an average increase of 128 Ib. of total produce, allowing
in every case for the original difference between the two halves of the
plots. The influence of the straw in diminishing the effect of the am-
monium salts is thus altogether doubtful.

Ir the experiments on permanent grass, the addition of 2,000\b. of
cut wheat straw to a complete manuring with ash constituents and am-
monium salts has apparently increased the annual produce of hay by 7
cwt. on an average of forty years, 1856-95. In this experiment the
straw is applied to the land; in January, and the ammonium salts in
February and March.

The results furnished by the field experiments at Rothamsted, both
with farmyard manure and straw, do not thus substantiate the conclu-
sions of the German experimenters ; the results obtained by the latter
were due to the special conditions of their experiments, and especially
to the large quantities of dung or straw which they employed.

Apart from the subject of denitrification, there are many facts of
great practical value which are taught by the German experiments we
have had under consideration. Persons unfamiliar with the method of
pot experiments are apt to disregard the results obtained in this way ; it
is foolish to do so. Pot-culture, with the opportunity it gives of main-
taining exact experimental conditions, is, indeed, the only trustworthy
method for the solution of many questions.

One fact which comes into great prominence in the German experi~
ments is that ordinary farmyard manure is valueless as food for plants
until it is nitrified ; this is surely the only conclusion we can draw from
the want of action of the manure when applied in large quantities in the
pot experiments. In the light of these results the economy of large
dressings of farmyard manure becomes very questionable.

The conditions most suitable for the nitrification of considerable
masses of organic matter deserve attention. Dehérain’s few experiments-
on the subject are very suggestive. He mixed 100 parts of ordinary dry
soil with 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 parts of water ; placed these mixtures in
a saturated atmosphere, so as to preserve unchanged the proportion of
water added ; and at the end of ninety days determined the quantity of
nitric acid produced. A similar experiment was made with soil with
which 2 per cent of farmyard manure had been mixed. The resuits
found were as under :—

ee ee ee ee ee
mew nae nnn nee een ee es

Nitric acid formed per million of soil. —

i
: eee ee eee ree oe oes seem es eeees ens HOF HOSTESS ee Sees wen, eel

Water added to 100 soil. { Natural Soa - Soil with Farmyard
Manure.
Gea og a Res 7” “ee 270
Lo 260 360
16 270 490
20 290 290

ea)

We see, then, that while nitrification proceeded more energetically
in the natural soil with each increase in the amount of water added, up
to 25 per 100, this was not the case when farmyard manure, equivalent
to 20 tons per acre was present. In the case of the manured soil, much
the best result was obtained with 15 of water per 100 of soil. With 20
of water per 100 of soil there was no benefit from the addition of the
manure ; and when the water reached 25 per cent. the soil contained
much less nitric acid than if no farmyard manure had been applied ;
denitrification had clearly been active in this case. Dehérain’s results
were not free from irregularities, and deserve careful repetition ; they
are, however, quite consistent with the general ideas as to the most suit-
able conditions for the nitrification ot organic matter furnished by the
prolonged experience gained in France as to the most profitable way of
managing artificial nitre beds, which in that country were kept under
cover. These beds consisted of heaps of organic matter undergoing
nitrification. The proportion of water present was found to be of great
importance. As nitrification advanced this proportion was carefully
diminished. It this precaution was neglected very little nitre was
finally obtained. We should judge, therefore, that moderately dry soils
are those most likely to yield a profitable return with farmyard manure.

The immense difference between the manurial value of the solid and
liquid excrements of aainalsis shown in a striking manner in the Ger-
man experiments; and the analysis of the dung, and of the farmyard
manure which they employed, showed that there eftect cn crops was
plainly connected with the proportion of soluble and active nitrogenous
matter which they contained. The original voidings of the animal have
afar greater manurial value than the final product of the manure heap
which the farmer carries to his fields. In the whole progress from the
stables to the field the loss of nitrogen is going on, this loss falling on
the most valuable constituent of the manure, and resulting finally ina
residue of comparatively inert matter (1). Maercker estimates the loss
of nitrogen in the ordinary preparation of farmyard manure as equal to
45 lb. per beast in one year. One practical conclusion from these state-
ments is the economy of feeding animals on the land whenever prac-
ticable. The whole subject of the economic preparation and _preserva-
tion of farmyard manure is being actively investigated in Germany.

R. WaARINGTON,

Harpenden, Herts.

(1) It is unfortunate that the Germans use the term ‘‘ albuminoid nitro-
gen” for all forms of insoluble nitrogenous matter, and thus favour the idea
that albuminoid nitrogen has but little manurial value. One has only to re-
member that the whole of the nitrogen in dried blood, fish manure, powdered
horr, and oil-cakes is in this condition to see the falsity of such a notion. The
albuminoids of fresh dung (chiefly nuclein) are specially insoluble, as they
‘have resisted the process of digestion. Theinsoluble nitrogenous matter of
humified manure cannot with any propreity be called albuminoid ; it falls in
the same analytical class as albuminoids simply by virtue of its insolubility.

44
NOTES ON INTERESTING CONTRIBUTIONS.

Kikuyu Ciover, (Trifolium Johnsoni, Oliver.)

Sir W.T. Dyer, Director of the R. Gardens, Kew, sends seeds of
a white clover collected by Mr. A. White in the Kikuyu district of the
British East African Protectorate. Mr. Whyte states that it was gath-
ered in rich short pastures at an elevation 6,500 feet, and that he be-
lieves it will prove most useful in other tropical and sub-tropical coun-
tries. It is nearly allied to the white or “ Dutch” clover (Trifolium
repens) which grows wild in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica.

SouDAN WarsErR Luity.

Sir W. T. Dyer also sends seeds of a large Water Lily from Bahr
el Zerat in the Soudan, the flowers of which are said to be eight inches
in diameter.

BerGaMonT Oranau. (Citrus Aurantium, var. Bergamia, W. and A.)

Messrs. Damman, of Naples, forwarded a small case of Bergamot
Oranges. A consignment in a former year was unsuccessful, as not a
seed grew. We have also nad seeds from Kew in the dry state which
did not germinate. The seed evidently cannot last long. If unsuccess-
ful, growing plants will be imported. Mr. J. C. Sawer, author of
“ Qdorographia, a Natural History of Raw Materials and Drugs used in
the Perfume Industry,” wrote to the Director of Public Gardens some
time ago that this variety of Citrus should be cultivated in preference
to any other, as the essential oil of the rind was very valuable.

JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS (Juniper.)

Seeds received from Messrs. Damman. This Juniper grows in
Kurope, N. Africa, N. Asia, and N. America. The oil distilled from
the unripe fiuit is used medicinally, as it possesses carminative, stimu-
lant, and diuretic properties. Formerly the berries were used asa
spice in food. ‘A spirit of which wormwood was an ingredient,
was obtained from them by fermentation and distillation. This spirit
called in French ‘ Geniévre’ became known in English as ‘ Geneva’
a name subsequently contracted into ‘ Gin.’” It is said that the famous
quality of Westphalian hams is partly obtained through their being sub-
jected to the smoke of juniper wood.

ERYTHEA KDULIS.

This Fan Palm is native on the island of Guadalupe off the coast
of California ; seeds received from Messrs. Reasoner, Florida. It at-
tains a height of 40 feet with bunches of fruit 6 feet in length and
weighing 50lbs. The fruits are as large as plums, and the outer portion

is edible.

45
JAMAICA CHALK.

By F, Warts, F.I.C., etc., Government Chemist, Jamaica.

In connection with the question of the production of citrate of lime, it
is interesting to note that carbonate of lime suitable for the manufacture
may be procured in many parts of Jamaica where lime-stone abounds.
For this parpose the material should bein a friable condition so that
it may be reduced to the state of a fine powder without much labour
it should also be jiree from notable quantities of impurities such as
Magnesia, Iron, Alumina and earthy matters.

Analyses have been made of two samples to ascertain their suit-
ability for this purpose, the results are as follows :—

ANALYSES OF JAMAICA CHALK.

I. II.

Carbonate of Limo 94°51 91°55
Carbonate of Magnesia “59 36
Oxides of [ron and Alumina traces only Be
Earthy matter insoluble in acid 3°51 2°00
Water ‘63 4°69
Undetermined loss ‘76 1°29

100-00 100-00

No, I.—Is a specimen of compact friable chalk, almost perfectly
white in colour, obtained froma site. on Chalky Till Road, about four
miles from St. Ann’s Bay, at an elevation of about 600 feet.

No. IL.—Is a friable chalk, less compact than I. of a pale cream
colour, obtained on road trom Papine Corner to Hall’s Delight

No doubt these samples represent the character of numerous simi-
lar deposits widely scattered over the island.

———————

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT.

ee

LIBRARY.

ee

Annals of Botany. Dec. 1898.
Botanica: Magazine, Nov. and Dec. 1898, Jan, 1899. [Purchased.]
British Trade Journal, Nov. and Dec. 1898. [Editor. ]
Bulletin Royal Gardens, Kew. Add. Series 11, and App. 1. [Director.]
Chemist and Druggist, Nov. 5-26, Dec. 3-31, Jan. 7. [Editor]

Garden, Nov. 5, 12, 19, 26, Dec. 3, 10. [Purchased]

i

46

Gardener’s Chronicle, Nov. 5, 12, 19, 26, Dee. 31, Jan. 7. [ Purchased]

Journal Board of Agriculture, England, Dee. 1898 [Secretary]

Board of Agriculture, England, Leaflets, Nos. 50, 51, 52, 33. [Secretary]

Journal Royal Agricultural Society, England. Dee. 1898. [Purchased[

Journal of Botany. Nov. Jan. 1509. [Purchased]

Journal Royal Colonial Institute, Dec. and Jan.

Nature, Dec. 1, 8, 22, Jan. 4, 12, 19. [Purchased]

Pharm. Journal, Nov.

Produce YVorld, Jan. [Editor. |

Sugar, Nov. Dee. [Editor]

Sugar Cane, December, January [Editor]

West India aud Commercial Advertiser, Nov., Dec. 1898, Jan. 1899 [Editor]

Sucrerie Indigene et Coloniale, November December, January, [Editor] ‘

Bullettino Laboratorio Orto Betanico, December [Editor]

Notizblatt Berlin Gardens, December and Novemoer, [Director]

Tropenpflanzer, Decembe and January. [Editor]

Boletim Institute Agronoinico, S. Panlo, Brazil, August.

Bulletin, L’Herber Boissier, November and December. [Conversateur]

Agricultural Ledger, Nos. 12, 13, 14, 15. (Caleutta) [Lieut, Gov. Bengal]

Times of Ceyion, November January [Editor. ]

Tropical Agriculturist. November, December, [Purchased.]

Proefstation E. Java [Director.]

Proefstation Voor Suikerrietin W. Java [Direetor]

Agricultural Gazette N.S. Wales. Sep. Oct. Nov. [Dept. of AgriJ

Study of Prickly pears in N. 8. Wales by J. ti. Maiden. [Anthor.]

Queeusland Agricultural Journal, November [See. Agr.]

Sugar Journal, Queensland October, November [Editor]

Agri. Journal, Cape of Good Hope, Oct., Nov , Dee. [Agr. Dept.]

Central African Times, September, October, November. [Editor.]

Trans. Agricultural Society Trinidad, Deeember [Secretary.]

Journal Jamaica Agricultural Society December January |Secretary.]

Farmers Bulletin 15, 17, 33. 38, 53, 68, 75. [U.S. Dept. of Agr-]

Pamphlets Flora of N. Guinea & Queensland. by F. M. Bailey. [Author]

Bull N. Jersey Agri. Exp. Station, 92, 93,102,1 05, 107, L038, 139,110, L111, 132

Report Kentucky Agricultural Exp Station for i896.

Mycological Notes by (.G. Lloyd. [Author.]

Exp. Station Reeord X, 3. Washington. [U. 8. Dept. Agri.]

Report of Secretary of Agriculture, Wasiin gton. 1898.

Reports for 1897 of the following Agricultural Experiment Stations :-—
Storrs ((onn) Kingston (Rhode Is.)

Publications of the following Agricultural Experiment Stations [Directors.]

Florida 41, 46, 47 Minnesota 59), 6.

Towa 3 New Hampshire 53, 53, 53. 56.
Kansas 81. New York (Geneva) 145.
Kentucky 78 Ohio 95

Massachusetts 56. Rhode Island 49.

Virginia 77, 78, Washington 15,17.

The Plant World, October 1897, September 1893, Vol 1. [Publishers. }

Experiment Station Record, viz.—
Vol L—No. 1.
Vol. 11.—Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12.
Vol. [i{1.—Nes. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
Vol. [V.—Nos. 1, 2, 3,
Vol. V—Nos. 1, 2,3 4, 5,
Vol. VI.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4,4
Vol. VII.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 4
Vol. Vill.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 :
Contributions from Prof, P. H. Rolfs State Experiment Station, Lake
City, Columbia. [Author] ;
Contributions from A. D, Selby, Columbus Horticultural Society [Author]
Contributions from Botanical Department, lowa Coll Agr. [Authors] .. -
Hawaiian Planters Monthly, November and December, 1898. [Editor.}

=
QO
sS
JN
P
SS
—
id
—_
dg
eo
bo

9
9, 10, 11, 12.
8,9, 10, 11, 12.

47

Special Contributions from the Division of Entomology. [| Dept. of Agr.|

Walsh, Benjamin Dann (and Chas. Valentire Riley) Bibliography of the more
Important Contributions to American Eeonomiec Entomology. Pts. I, Il.
and [I{. Prepared by Samuel Henshaw. Washington, 1890. 8vo,

Henshaw (Samuel) Bibliography of the more Important Contributions to
American Economic Entomology Pts, LV. and V. Prepared by S. Hen-
shaw. Washington, 1895, 1896 8vo,

Banks (Nathan) Bibliograghy of the more Important Contributions to Ameri-
ean Economic Futomology. Pt. VI. Prepared by N. Banks. Wash-
ington 1898. 8vo

Comstock (J. Henry) Report upon Cotton Insects. Washington. 1884. Svo.

Bailey (Chas. Valentine) Fourth Report on the Cotton Worm, together with
a Vhapter on the Boll Worm. Washingtou. 1835, 8vo.

Packard (Aipheus 8.) Fifth Report, being a Revised and Enlarged Edition of
Bulletin No.7 on Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. Wash-
ington. 1890. 8vo,

Riley { Chas. Valentine) The Ox Bot in the United States.

Howard (L._.) ‘The use of steam Apparatus for spraying.

Howard (L. 0.) Danger of Importing Insect Pests.

Howard (L. 0.) Some Seale Insects of the Orchard.

Chittenden (Ff. H ) The Asparagus Beetles.

yt nea (F. H.}) The more Important Important Insects Injurious to stored

rain.

Riley (©. V.) Report of the Entomologist for 1839, 1890, 1891, and 1892.

The following Bulletins, (Periodic2i):—Insect Life Vol. [.Nos, 1-2 1858-89,
Vol. iV. Nos. 3-6 1891. Vol. VII. Nos. 1-5 1894-95.

{Technical Series):—Revisions of the Aphelininae of North Amsrica, No. 1.

The Grass and Grain Joint Worm Flies,

A Study in Insect Parasitism, No 5.

Revision of the Tachinide of America North of Mexico No. 7.

(New Series) :—Proeeedings of the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion of Eeonomie Entomology No, 2.

The San Jose “cale: its Occurrences in the U. S. No3.

The Principal Household Insects of the U. 8. No. 4.

Insects Affecting Domestic Animals. No. 5.

Proceedings of the Eight Annual Meeting of the Association of Economic
Entomologists No. 6.

Some Miscellaneous Results of the Work of the Division. No, 7.

Some Little known Insects Affecting Stored Vegetable Products, No. 8.

Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Association of Economic
Entomologists No. 9.

Some Miscellaneous Results of the Work of the Div. of Entomology No. 10.

The Gipsy Moth in America. No. 11.

The San Jose Seales in 1896-1897 No. 12.

Recent Laws against Injurious Insects in North America, together with The
Laws Relative to Foul Brood. No. 13.

The Periodical Cicadas. No. 14.

The Chinch Bug, No. 15.

{Farmers Bulletins):—Important Insecticides : Directions for their Prepara-
tion and use. No. 19.

Some [nsects [njurious to stored Green. No. 45,
Insects affecting the Cotton Plant. No. 47.
Bee Keeping. No. 59.

‘he Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape. No. 70.
The Boll Worm of Cotton. No. 24.

Destructive Locusts. No. 25.

Report on the Damage by Locusts during the Season of 1891. No. 27,
The more Destructive Locusts of America North of Mexico, No. 28. --
Report on the Boll Worm of Cotton. No. 29,
Catalogue of Exhibit of Economic Entomology at the World’s Columbian

48

Exhibition, Chicago Ill. 1893. No. 31.

Reports of Observation and Experiments. No. 4, 14, 22, 23, and 32,

An Enumeration of the Published Synopsis, Catalogue and Lists of
North American Insects No. 19,

The Chinch Bug. No. 17.

ai ee and Majlophaga affecting Man and the Lower Animals.

The Imported Elm-leaf Beetle. No. 6 (2nd Series.)

General Index to the Seven Vols. of Insect Life 1888-1895. Washington

1897.
Cireulars;—No. 2 (2nd Series) No. 36.
SEEDS.
From Botanic Garden, Saharanpur.
Zivphus Xylopyrus Pheenix acaulis
Kydia calyecina Smilax sp.
Ipomeae sp Stereosperum chelonoides
Blumea sp. liaudia dumetorum
Albizzia procera Combretum Vanun
Coix lachryma Flacourtia Kamontchi
Terminalia Arjuna Odina Wodier
Withania somniferum Stephegyne parvifolia
Diospyros tomentosa Zizyphus rugosa
Smilax maculata Smilax macrophylla
Alangium Lamarkii Spatholobus Roxburghii
Bignoniacee sp. _ Indigofera pulchella
Hymenodictyon excelsum Woodfordia floribunda
Lagerstroemia parviflora Solanum sp.
Dioscorea Diemona Semecarpus Anacardium
Erycibe paniculata Vitex canescens
Solanum indicum Randia uliginosa
Vernonia cinerea Sagittaria sagittifolia
Compositzx sp Ardisia humilis
Holarrhena antidysenterica Crozophora plicata
Apocynacee sp. Khretia acuminata
Diospyros tomentosa Maesia indica
Clausena pentaphylla Leonotis nepetaefolia
Caesalpinia sepiaria Corchorus capsularis
Adenanthera payonina Nicotiana Tabacum
Sterculia sp. Clerodendron phlomoides
Zizyphus Jujuba Terminalia Chebula
Jasminum pubescens Glycosmis pertaphylla
Diospyros Melanoxylon Ochna pumilio

Premna latifolia var mucronata

From Messrs, F. Sander & Oo. St. Albans, England.

Cardnus tauricus ‘Amaryllis sp.
Platycerium sp. Bambusa sp.
Delphinium, mixed Caryota mitus
Scabiosa atropurpurea Begonia glaucophylla
Clematis paniculata Bertolonia, mixed
Dracaena Draco Mimosa pudica
Streptocarpus Digitalis vars.

From Commissioner Imperial Department of Agriculture, Barbados.
Kucalyptus tereticornis

From Mrs. Munn, Strawberry Hill.
Melangene (Garden Egg)

EE NON nn ne neem an none mn an nnn nmnnateneeen@eesrnrstsketsneneranenaseneehs MUSTERECENensseeenmeengewes as sneceeennceeenesenesanssenterensatecenenesaet name monensin meen aetmmme ngewe enamenmnmans can an < dee ewes oe nae eeennnemescewmresesene

[Issued 6th April 1899]

JAMAICA.

ee es 2 5-908 ee a

OF THK

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

“aii : : Vol. Vi.
New Series,} APRIL, 1899. ae

BACTERIA IN THE DAIRY.

Minor industries in their total volume are of immense importance
to the welfare and happiness of every country.

During the year 1897-98 the Collector General reports that of Butter
and its substitutes there were 884,624 lbs. imported into Jamaica valued
at £26,325 ; of Condensed Milk 39,006 cases valued at £28,662 ; of
Cheese 253,581 lbs. valued at £6,340 ; that is, the value of imported
Dairy products amounted to £61,327.

In the days when cattle were bred principally as draught animals
for sugar estates, it did not pay the pen-keeper to attend to Dairy work,
but times have changed, and the Dairy business is assuming impor-
tance. Those who take it up, will only be able to compete with the
imported articles by keeping themselves abreast with the scientific ad-
vances of the day.

Attention has already been called in the Bulletin to the importance
of bacteria in the dairy, and the following pages taken from the Annual
Reports of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, Connecticut
for 1894, 1895, deal with the commercial importaace of a particular
bacterium, which is now distributed from the station to dairies, and has
the effect of imparting a delicious aroma ad flavour to butter, besides
preventing the growth of hurtful bacteria, and improving its keeping
qualities.

1. By Pror. AWATER..

BACTERIA IN MILK.

Bacteria or microbes, as they are often called, abound in air, water,
and soil,in animal and vegetable substances, and in living plants and
animals. They are extremely minute and multiply with wonderful
rapidity wherever the circumstances are favourable. Cold hinders their
development. When heated long enough at the temperature of boiling

D0

water they are killed, but their spores, which correspond to seeds, may
endure even this temperature for some time, though higher heat kills
them speedily.

Bacteria grow with the greatest readiness in milk and cream.
Hence they collect in milk and cream exposed to the air, and multiply
rapidly.

A large number of different species of bacteria are found in milk
and cream. Different species have different effects. Many of them sour
and curdle milk at some temperature. A few induce changes that render
milk alkaline with or without the formation of a curd. When a curd is
formed, it differs in character with different species of bacteria. The sour-
ing of milk is more compiex than has been supposed ; and while without
much doubt souring always depends upon the action of bacteria, any one
of a number of species, or several combined, may be the cause.

The longer a specimen of milk has been exposed to the action of
bacteria, other things being eqnal, the greater will be the number of
bacteria present. Hence it follows that cream will usually contain a
very large number. The presence of these organisms, so far from being
injurious, is of a positive advantage to the butter maker, since it is by
their action that cream is ‘‘ ripened.”

Vessels in which milk and cream are to be kept are a great source
of contamination by bacteria. The latter gather upon the sides and in
the joints, and develop in the minute portions of milk, grease, or other
matters from which it is difficult to free the walls of the vessels com-
pletely by washing.

Two important points in the handling of milk and cream are
brought cut by these considerations :

First.—The importance of keeping milk, so far as possible free
from bacteria by the exercise of the greatest cleanliness.

Second.—The importance of cooling milk immediately after it is
drawn from the cow in order to prevent the souring as long as possible.

BactTERIA IN CREAM.

Besides the ordinary souring of milk, there are many other changes
which are produced by bacteria, as the ripening of cream, the ripening
of cheese, butter becoming rancid and others less common.

The chiet object of the ripening of cream is to produce the butter
aroma and flavour which, though very evanescent, control the price of
the butter. This aroma and flavour the butter-maker owes to the bacteria;
for by their growth the materials in the. cream are decomposed and
the compounds formed which produce the flavours and odours of high
quality butter.

Different species of bacteria vary muchas tothe flavours which
they produce, some inducing good, some extra fine, and others a very
poor quality of butter. A majority of our common dairy species pro-
duce good, but not the highest quality of butter. Up to the present

51

time the butter-maker has had no means of controlling the species in his
cream, but has had to use those furnished him by the farmer. The
bacteriologist can isolate and obtain in pure cultures the species of bac-
teria which produce the best flavoured butter. He can then furnish
them to the creameries to use as starters in cream ripening.

Bacituus No. 41.

Among the food products exhibited at the World’s Fair in Chicago,
was a can of so-called preserved milk from Uruguay, which on
testing was found to have been inadequately sterilised so that it
was somewhat decomposed. Mr. W. M. Esten, of Middletown, was
at the Fair in charge of an exhibit of the bacteria of milk, prepared by
Prof. Conn and shown as part of the Experiment Station exhibit of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture. The milk was placed in Mr. Esten’s
hands for bacteriological examination. He isolated several species of
bacteria and took them to Middletown, where they were further inves-
tigated by Prof. Conn, who was then engaged in the study of a consid-
erable number of species, found by him in specimens of milk obtained
in and near Middletown. The tests of the Uruguay species were begun
in the autumn of 1893. In Decenber of that year it was found that
one of the species, which had been designated for convenience during
the process of the investigation as No. 41, produced such an effect
in the ripening of cream that the butter from the cream was pronounced
by experts as haying the flavour of the best June butter. _ It is an in-
teresting circumstance that this bacillus, which has proved of so great
practical value, should have come from a specimen of milk from the other
side of the world, and that the accident by which the milk had been im-
properly prepared for preservation should have resulted in so useful a
discovery.

The investigations by Prof. Conn have been carried on at Wesleyan
University in the biological laboratory, of which he has charge.

Il. By Pror. H. W. Conn.

EXPERIMENTS IN RIPENING CREAM WITH BaciLtuus No. 41.

The organism, while forming an acid in its growth in milk, is not
to be regarded as one of the milk-souring organisms. Milk under its
influence becomes acid, but the acid production is quite slight and the
milk, under no condition, becomes curdled. Even when growing at a
warm temperature the milk.remains limpid for weeks finally becoming
somewhat brownish. After cultivation of the organism for a year or
more in the laboratory, its acid producing powers seem to be somewhat
greater than at first.

This organism has proved the best of all of the many species of
bacteria thus far studied in its effect upon cream in ripening.

52
MetTuHop oF EXPERIMENT.

It may be well first to explain the method of experiment which
has been found after considerable trial to be, all things considered, the
most satisfactory.

When experiments in the creamery or elsewhere are desired, the
procedure is as follows : There is first placed in an ordinary flask a half
pint of mils, and this is sterilized by discontinuous steaming for three
or four successive days. ‘This sterilized milk is inoculated with a small
amount of the Bacillus No. 41, and the culture thus made is allowed to
grow at about 23° C. (74° F.) for a couple of days. The object of
this growth is merely tv increase the number of bacteria and thus make a
larger inoculation in the creamery possible. After two days’ growth
the culture is sent to the creamery and the rest of the experiment is
performed there by the butter-maker.

A lot of cream, amounting to six or eight quarts, is placed ina
metal vessel and pasteurized, by being put into a tub of water into
which steam is allowed to run. The temperature of the cream is allow-
ed to rise to about 69° ©. (156° ©.) and to remain there for some ten
minutes. The cream vessel is then removed and placed in cold water
and cooled as rapidly as possible. When the temperature has fallen to
about 23° C. (74° F-.) the milk culture of the hacillus above described
is poured into it and is thorouguly mixed with it by stirring. The vessel
is then covered and placed in the ripening room of the creamery for
two days, at the end of which time the cream is churned and the butter-
milk reserved for further use. The object of this ripening of a lot of
six quarts of cream is to increase the number of bacteria in order that a
large and stroug culture may be obtaiued for use in the large vat of
cream in the creamery. The buttermilk from the churning of the six
quarts of cream is then inoculated into the day’s cream as soon as the
cream is placed in the vat for ~:pening. The cream in the large vat
receives no preliminary treatment, the prepared milk being poured
into it directly. The cream is theu allowed to ripen at a normal tem-
perature for about twenty-four wours and churned as usual. Before the
churning two or three gallons of the ripened cream is set aside to be
added to the next day’s cream collection to insure a continuation of the
process. In this way tue ripening is continued day after day, a small
amount of each day’s churning being set aside for the next day’s inocu-
lation, and the process is continued as long as the good effects otf the
original culture are seen. _In the series of experiments which were in-
stituted it was found that the effect of the first culture could be kept up
in this way from three to six weeks, after which a new pure culture
from the bacteriological laboratory was needed.

It will be noticed in these experiments that in practical use the
cream of each day’s gathering is not pasteurized nor treated in any way
to insure remova! of the bacteria which chanced to beinit. It may seem
strange that under these conditions the addition of a pure culture would
have decided effect upon the ripening of the cream. The explanation
of the matter seems, however, to be simple. As is well known,a proper-
ly ripened cream needs to be slightly acid in order to give the flavour

53

which is usually desired. Now Bacillus No. 41 does not produce suffi-
cient acid to give this flavour, and in laboratory experiments with
strictly pure cultures upon pasteurized cream it is found that the
flevour of the butter is somewhat too flat. The cream as is ordinarily
coliected for the creamery contains organisms which render it acid, and
when, therefore No 41 is added to the ordinary cream the effect of this
culture is enhanced by the acid produced by the organisms already pre-
sent. There isthus obtained a cream which is acid an‘l also influenced
by the peculiar effects of No. 41. Moreover, the culture bacteria were
always auded in excess. By cultivating as above described for several
days in larger lots of cream, and by adding the day’s collection of cream
two or three gallons of buttermilk or ripened cream, the number of bacte-
ria of Bacillus No. 41 added to the lot of cream was so great that their
effects were plainly noticeable, in spite of the presence of the other
species of bacteria which were in the cream as originally collected.

RESULTS OF THE INOCULATION.

In a long series of experiments the effect of the method of inocula-
tion above described was always uniform and as follows: The first lot
of cream, six or eight quarts, give a butter which was moderately
good, containing a somewhat pleasant flavour, but not quite the
typical flavour desired. The first churning in the large lot of
butter from the ordinary cream vat gave butter slightly superior to that
in the small churning. Then, on each day for several successive
ehurnings, the quality of the butter improved. Tor perhaps one or two
days it was a little difficult to say that the artificial culture had produc-
ed much of an improvement,the butter having about its ordinary flavour
But after two or three days there began tobe noticed a pleasant added
flavour which was not there at first and after several days’ churning this
adced flavour became very pronounced and noticeable to all who examin-
ed the butter. This delicate, exquisite flavour now continued and re-
mained in the butter of each day’s churning for some time, the length
of time varying with, at present unknown conditions. Ifthe flavour be-
gan to deteriorate it could be immediately restored by the addition of a
new culiure from the laboratory by the same metiiod above described,
and there is thus no difficulty in constantly maintaining this flavour in
the butter.

The general results ir the creamery at Cromwell where most of these
experiments have been performed, have been as follows: The experi-
ments began in November 1893, and there was noticed an immediate
improvement in the butter. These experiments have been continued
constantly with the exception of the months of July, August and Sep-
teutber, until the present time and with uniform results. During this
time pure cultures have been sent to the creamery upon many different
occasions and have been used according to the above method. In each
case there was an improvement in the butter, and the experiment was
continued for three, four, five and six weeks, until the butter-maker
noticed a distinct deterioration in the quality of his butter. Then a new
culture was sent to the creamery which immediately restored the quality
of the butter. | | |

D4

At four distinct periods the butter from the creamery was sent to
an expert for rating, together with a lot of butter made from half of
the same cream of the same day, but without the artificial inoculation.
In every case where the butter was thus sent, the butter made by the
artificial culture was rated higher than the butter made without it. It
was marked from four to fifteen points on a scale of 100, ahead of the
normal butter, the improvement being chiefly in the flavour. In one
case the inoculated butter was 18 points ahead of the uninoculated butter.
In another case three Jots were sent to the expert, oue made with a.
culture of Bacillus No. 41, a second made with the artificial culture sold
by Carl Hansen’s dairy company, anda third lot by a combination of
Bacillus No. 41 and Carl Hansen’s ferment. The butter made from
Bacillus No. £1 rated highest, 95 points, the combination next 8% points,
and Carl Hansen’s lowest. In addition to the rating by the butter ex-
pert the butter was in all cases carefully examined by individuals who.
were more or less connoissieurs of proper butter flavour, and in each
instance the butter made by the artificial culture was rated as better
than that made without such culture. In most of these tests the indivi-
dual examining the butter had no knowledge of the experiment.

Perhaps the most satisfactory experiment of all was one made early
in June. June butter, as is well known, isin flavour about the best
that is produced during the year, and the effect of Bacillus No. 41 upon
June butter was therefore especially interesting. Early in June, when »
the amount of cream collected by the creamery was very large, two:
large vats full of cream were collected. One of these was inoculated
with No. 41 and the other was uninoculated. They were then
allowed to stand in the same room at the same temperature for
the same length of time to ripen, and were subsequently
churned. The effect of No. 41 even here was exceptionally striking,
Both lots of cream produced, as was to be expected, an excellent quality
of butter, but No. 41L had an aroma more pronounced and more
agreeable than that of the butter made without the inoculation. In
both taste and odour the butter made by inoculation was decidedly
superior to that made without it. This butter was submitted for testing
to a large number of persons, and no one had the slightest hesitancy in
deciding that No. 41 made the superior quality of butter. It was most
strikingly noticed just as soon as the wrapper was taken from the butter,
the pleasant aroma of the inoculated butter filling the nostrils at once,
while the uninoculated butter did not possess this decidedly pleasant
aroma and taste.

The general result of experiments thus carried on now for at least.
twelve months in the Cromwell creamery, has been that this artificial
culture uniformly improves the value of the butter. The effect of the
pure culture is seen best after two or three days’ ripening, and lasts
from three to six weeks, but by the constant use of the culture it may
be kept up indefinitely.

Mr. EK. D. Hammond, the superintendent of the Cromwell creamery,
has put into my hands the following letter, indicative of the experi-
ments carried on in his creamery:

55
December 20th, 1894.
H. W. Conn:

My dear Sir:—In reply to yours of the 19th [ will say that
we have used your culture the past year, with the exception of the sum-
mer months when you were away and we could not getit. There can
be no doubt as to its producing butter of a superior and uniform quality.
In every instance where we have taken a quantity of cream, thoroughly
mixed, and divided it into two parts, and have treated one in the usual
way and have inoculated the other with the culture, and have sent the
product to an expert to be judged, the culture has scored the highest.
It produces a fine, sweet flavour which leaves a most pleasing taste in
the mouth, For the sweet butter trade it is decidedly superior.

Yours truly,

E. D. Hammonp.

It was, of course, desirabie that these results should be confirmed
in other places, and for this reason the culture has been used in several
localities. These experiments have been as follows :

One lot of the culture was sent to Mr. George M. Whitaker of
West Dudley, Mass. The creamery of which he is president was
making at the time the highest quality of butter, which commanded a
very high price in the Boston markets. The culture sent was broken
in the journey and only a small amount of it reached the creamery.
It was, however, used by Mr. Beck, the butter-maker of the creamery,
and his statement was that he noticed a decided improvement in the
quality of his butter as the result of it. Owing to the distance and the
consequent difficulty of furnishing the culture at this creamery, the ex-
periments were not continued, only one churning being made with the
culture.

A culture of the bacteria was sent to Mr. Hollister Sage, Superin-
tendent of the creamery at Stepney Depot, Conn. The culture sent to
this place for necessary reasons, was not a culture in milk, but an ordin-
ary bacteria culture on agar-agar, and required the use of certain bac-
teriological methods in its practical application to cream. Mr. Sage,
however, seemed to have no difficulty in making use of it as directed,
and reported, after the proper length of time, that he had noticed a de-
cided and pleasant flavour in his butter, which was not there before
and which gave it an enhanced value.

Up to this point the experiments had been practically confined to
Middletown and the immediate vicinity. It was ot course very desirable
that they should be repeated in other localities and by other persons,
in order to determine whether the effect was local only, and to what ex-
tent other creameries besides the Cromwell creamery would be benefited
by the use of Bacillus No. 41. During the last three months therefore,
arrangements have been made by which the organism has been used in
other States. These experiments have now been made in the States of

56

Indiana, in the creanery of R. W. Furness, Indianapolis. In Pennsyl-
vania the organism bas been introduced into some thirty-five different
creameries through the assistance of Mr. John Jamison, a large com-
mission merchant of Philadelphia. In Lowa it has also beeu introduced
into twenty-eight creameries controlled vy Wm. Beard & Sons, commis-
sion merchants in Decorah, lowa. The experiments in this Jarge num-
ber of creameries have been most rigid. In many eases a lot of cream
has been divided into two portions, one of which has been inoculated
and the other not, the resulting butter being compared carefully. In
some instances the organism has been inoculated into old cream
which had acquired considerable odour by standinz. In several
instances it has been used in creameries in which the quality of the
butter has not been first-class, and in others it has been used in cream-
eries of the highest grade, whose butter commanded high market prices.
In two instances it has been used in creaiueries which were at the time
troubled with an undesirable flavour due to what is known as “ frost
weed.” The butter made in the various creameries has been submitied
for testing to experts, who in some cases knew of the experi-
ments, and in others knew nothing of them. The butter made by
the use of the culture was kept in tue creamery side by side
with the ordinary butter to test its keeping property. In
short, the greatest variety of tests have been tried in this
large series of creameries to determine whether the organism really
possesses in other localities the valuable property that it has appeared
to possess in the experiments conducted in Connecticut.

The results of these experiments have been highly satisfactory and
to me somewhat snrprising, in spite of my belief in the value of the
organism in butter-making. With a single exception none of this large
series of creameries has failed to report an improvement in their butter.
The creamery which did not find such improvement was reported as
failing to have proper care for cleanliness in its butter-making process,
and the failure to find an improve ent has not tuerefore been thought
to be significant. All other creameries in this large number of over 60
have found an improvement in their butter, sometimes appearing at
once, and in other cases appearing after a few days’ use of the artificial
inoculation.

So uniform have been the results of the use of this organism that
it must be regarded now as beyond the reach of experimentatioa, aud
Bacillus No. 41 takes its rank as a species of organism whose artificial
use in the ripening of cream will produce a striking improvement in
the flavour of the butter. The effect of the culture upon the various.
grades of butter is not exactly what might have been expected, and I
have been considerably surprised tne:eby. When the experiments were
begun I had supposed it probably that the use of the artificial culture
might improve a poor quality of butter but was very doubtful whether
it would have any effect, at least any advantageous effect, upon first-
class butter. Experiments, however, has shown that the organism
appears to be of decided value even in first class creameries. As already
mentioned, the eftect of the organism appears to be to add to the butter
an especially delicate aroma and taste, and this delicate aroma and taste
is added equally to hutter of a poor grade and medium grade, or to

57

butter of the very highest quality. In the light of the present experi-
ments, therefore, it appears that all grades of butter may be somewhat
improved by the use of artificial cultures.

Another matter of some interest is the fact that Bacillus No. 41 is
not a milk souring organism. The “ ripening ” of cream is in. many
places called the “ souring ” of cream, and it has been supposed by all
experimenters hitherto that the souring was identical with the ripening.
For this reason all of the species of bacteria which have hitherto been
used in ripening cream have been acid producing organisms. Experi-
menters have not thought it worth while to investigate whether or not
the aroma of butter might not be due to species of organisms that do
not normally sour the cream. Bacillus No. 41, while it produces a very
slight acid reaction, does not sour cream, and it belongs therefore, to
an entirely different class of organism from those hitherto used. This
is especially interesting as indicating that probably the aroma of the
butter is entirely distinct from the souring of the cream and may be
produced either by acid organisms or by organisms that do not produce
acid.

In one other respect Bacillus No. £1 appears to show itselt as de-
eidedly more advantageous in practical use than the organisms hitherto
used. As will be seen above no previous treatment of the cream is
needed in order that Bacillus No. 41 may produce its appropriate re-
sults. This of course, greatly simplifies the use of the organism and
makes it much more probable that artificial inoculation of cream for
ripening may in the future become a somewhat universal pro-
cess. So long as butter-makers are obliged to heat their cream
before artificial inoculation, in order to destroy bacteria already
present in it, so long will they hesitate about adopting any form of artifi-
2! inoculation. When however, the butter can be improved from
three to eighteen points by the simple addition of the culture of the
proper species, the use of the organism becomes decidedly easier. When
first undertaking these experiments, 1 was extremely incredulous as to
the likelihood that artificial ripening of cream would ever be very com-
mon among butter-makers. Having, however, seen what good results can
accrue to al] grades of butter by the simple addition of a culture to the
cream, | am now prepared to believe that the artificial ripening of
cream will have a growing popularity among the batter-makers of this

eountry.

ad

THE WOODPECKER.
Attention has been drawn to the loss to which Cocoa planters in
the Castleton Garden district are subject through the Woodpecker.

The Woodpecker is on the list of birds that are protected by law
during the whole year. Under Law 32 of 1885 it is forbidden to kill,
wound or take these birds at any time, and their eggs are also pro-
tected.

It feeds not only on seeds and berries but on insects as well, and
and it is as an insectivorous bird that it is placed under protection.

Gosse in his “ Birds of Jamaica,” says:—‘“ This is among the
commonest of Jamaican birds, being abundant in all situations, from the
shores to the summits........ .. His food is not confined to boring
larvee; the large red ants, so common in the woods, I have found numer-
ous in his stomach; and at other times, hard strong seeds enclosed in a
scarlet pulpy skin. In March we sometimes find him filled with the
white pulp and oval seeds of the soursop. He is said to feed on the
beautiful cherries (Cordia collococca) which in brilliant bunches are
ripe at the same season; and I[ have seen him engaged in picking off the
pretty crimson berries, that hang like clusters of minature grapes from
the fiddlewood (Citherexylum). Sometimes he extracts the pulp of the
orange, having cut a hole through the rind; and mangoes he eats in the
Autumn. He does damage to the sugar-cane, by chiselling away the
woody exterior, and sucking out the juice, and gets skot for this feat
by the owners.”’

No complaints have so tar been received trom Orange growers.
that the Woodpecker damages Citrus fruits, but the extract from Gosse
suggests that there is danger, and attention should be directed to this
point by those interested in the industry.

Information is however to hand that it has acquired a taste for
Cocoa-beans, and that while rats destroy only ripe pods, the Woodpecker
attacks the pods in all stages of growth, causing the destruction of
thousands of pods every season.

Correspondence is invited from planters on the following points :—

What districts of the island sufter through the Woodpecker ?
What kind of damage is done ?

What amount of loss is suffered ?

At what seasons of the year is damage done ?

What kinds of insects, fruits, seeds, etc., does it feed on ?

Is the good done by destruction of insects more than counterbal-
anced by the loss of fruit ?

Is it wise to protect the bird at all ¢
If so, is it necessary to protect it all the year round ?
Or is a close season required only during a part of the year ?

Is it feasible to allow it to be killed in certain districts only, and
protected in the rest of the island ?

59
TESTS OF SOME NEW VARIETIES OF SUGAR CANES.

By F. Warts, F.1.C., Government Analytical and Agricultural Chemist

—_———. -——

In October 1896, Mr. R. Craig of Danks Savoy procured from
Hope Gardens ten varieties of sugar cane ; these were planted in nur-
sery beds on somewhat stony land of the estate. On August 28th 1297
these canes were cut and used for planting the field on which the fol-
lowing experiment was conducted ; both tops and lower joints ef the
canes were used for planting. The trial plots had each an area of one
forty-fourth of an acre and the canes were planted in rows 6ft. apart
and 24 feet apart in the row. The soil,a friable loam, was in good
condition ; no manure was used. The piece of land employed is in
a somewhat shady place screened by a hill from any rapid circulation of

alr.

At the request of Mr. Craig analyses of the juice were made : in
order to effect this appliances were taken to the property and the
anaiyses were made in the boiling house at Danks. It must be pointed
out that the specific gravities of the various samples of juice were
taken by means of a Beaumé’s hydrometer, hence no high degree of
accuracy can be claimed for the figures representing total solids and
purity. Cane sugar and glucose were determined in the usual

manner.

The canes were cut, weighed and crushed and the analyses were
made on February Ist and 2nd, 1899.

In the following table the canes are arranged in the order of the
yield of cane sugar in the juice per acre; the table shows the weight
of canes per acre, the gallons of juice, the percentage of juice expressed
by the mill, the composition of the juice, the number of pounds of cane
sugar (unmanufactured) contained in the juice from an acre, together
with the proportion of rotten or “ rum ” canes.

A sample of 2nd Ratoon Caledonian Queen canes from the ordi-
nary crop of the Estate was examined at the same time for purposes of
comparison.

It will be observed that the saccharine richness of the juice in
every case is exceedingly low while the proportion of glucose is very
high : in only two cases, China and No. 78, does the cane sugar rise
as high as 1°4 pounds per gallon, while in one instance Po-a-ole it is
below 1 pound. It is difficult to account for these anomalous figures;
at first sight they are suggestive of unripe canes, but it will be seen
that the canes were over 17 months old: on the other hand it does
not seem probable that the low saccharine richness and high glucose is
due to over ripeness for the canes were juicy and in no way dried.
The season during which they were growing was pronounced a good one.
Probably the situation with insufficient sun and air may be held to
account largely for the poor quality of the juice. It is thought prob-
able that if grown in a more sunny position these canes would give

60

much richer juice, as they have done in other countries. It is to be re-
gretted that there was not a plot of Caledonian Queen cane, the char-
acter of which is locally well known, pianted in this same field.

Of these canes, six are referred to in the analyses made by Mr.
Bowrey and published in this Bulletin, October 1897, pp. 227-231.
Those are 81, 78, 95, 115 Po-a-ole and 74. In the case of three of the
varieties the quantity of cane sugar per gallon of juice agrees very
closely with the figures now given ; these are 81, 78 and Po-a-ole, in the
last case the comparison being made with Po-a-ole 2nd Ratoons in Mr.
Bowrey’s table. In the other three cases Mr. Bowrey’s analyses show
larger amounts cane sugar which would give support to the view that
those three varieties 95, 115 and 74, particularly the first two, will
yield rich juice under favourable conditions.

The weight of cane yielded by some of the plots was very great, the
greatest weight being given by No. 116 viz. 146,168 pounds, or over 68
tons consequently the yield of sugar per acre is also large in spite of the
low quality of juice, but with the muscovado process,boiling the sugar in
open pans, the process of manufacture would be unsatisfactory ; indeed
it is doubtful whether some of the samples of juice would yield syrup
which would granulate in the coolers.

The following notes were made of the condition of the canes in the

fields.

No. 116—Kept well, arrowed freely first week in January 1898.

81—Badly laid, heavy top, much prickle on leat, sheath arrowed
first week in January.

China—Low, scrubly and tangled, arrowed second week in Decem-

ber, 1897.
78—A very upright cane ; sound ; did not arrow.

95—Suckered heavily, many unsound canes, arrowed third week
in December, 1897.

102— Upright cane, arrowed first week in December, 1897.

89—Cane very much tangled, arrowed heavily tirst week in
December, 1897.

115—Upright cane, arrowed second week in December, 1897.
Po-a-ole—Badly |aid, arrowed third week in December, 1897.

74—-Cane with heavy trash and many suckers ; badly Der
Did not arrow.

Rind fungus (Trichospheria sacchari) was found in many cases,
No. 74 was closely attacked by the Weevil Borer(Sphenophorus sacchari.)
In this connection it’ is important to note that the crop canes of the
Estate, chiefly Caledonian Queen, were very free from fungoid and insect
parasites; amongst the canes in this mill yard it required some little search
to discover a “bored” cane, one that had been attacked by the Moth
Borer so common in Barbados, the Leeward and Windward Islands: no.
evidence of rind fungus was seen in the Ualedonian Queen canes.

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62

This single series of experiments with these varieties should by
no means be considered as final. It is probable that much better
results might be obtained on a different site. The large proportion
of rotten cane in some of the varieties is 2 most serious matter,
particularly when the great loss sustained by some of the West
Indian Colonies is remembered. Hitherto the canes of Jamaica
have been free from serious pests.

Specimens of the canes were sent to Kingston; when those were
examined at the end of about eight weeks indications of Rind fungus,
(Trichosphaeria,) were found on many of them. It is uncertain what
significance attaches to this manifestation of Rind fungus during the pro-
cess of drying which the canes have undergone, but it is well to place
the observations on record. The following table indicates the condi-
tions of the canes after being kept for about eight weeks.

Signs of Rind Fungus on canes, about 8 weeks after being cut.

102—Extensive.
116—Extensive.
81—Moderately extensive.
95—Fairly marked.
115—Fairly marked.
78—Fairly marked.
China—Shi ght.
74—Free trom visible signs.
89—Free _,, " ‘
Po-a-ole—Free _,, me a

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT.

LIBRARY.

Botanical Magazine. Feb., Mar. {Purchased.]

British Trade Journal. Jan., Feb. [Editor. ]

Chemist and Druggist. Jan.. 14, 21, 28. Feb., 4, 11, 18, 25, Mar. 4. [Editer.]
Garden. Dec. 17, 24, 1898. Jan., 21. 28. Feb., 4, 11, 18, 25. [Purchased. |
Gardeners’ Uhronicle. Jan, 14, 21, 28. Feb. 4, 11, 18, 25. Mar. 4. [Purchased.]
Journ. of Botany. Jan., Feb., Mar., [Editor.]

Journ. R. Horticultural Soc., England Jan.

Journ. R. Colonial Institute. Mar.

Board of Agr, Leaflet. ‘o. 28. [Secretary.]

Royal Hort. Society Report for 1898-99.

Royal Hort. Soc. Arrangements for 1899. |
Nature. Dec., 22, 1898. Jan., 26. Feb.. 2, 9, 16, 23. Mar. 2. Pare
Pharmaceutical Journal. Jan. 14, 21,28, Feb., 4, 11, 18, 25. Mar. 4. [Editor.]
Produce World. Feb. [Editor.]

Sugar. Jan., Feb. [Editor.]

Sugar Cane. Mar. [Kditor.]

W. I. and Com. Advertiser. Feb., Mar, [Editor.]

63

Bermuda Juniper and its Allies. By M. D. Masters, M.D., F.R.S. (Extract.
Journ of Bot. Jan. 1899.) [Author.] ,
Suererie Indigéne et Coloniale. Jan., 17, 24, 31. Feb., 7, 14, 21, 28. Mar. 7
{ Editor. ] |
Rosae novae Galliam austr-orientalem colentes. Fasc.1,1I. 1877-78. By
M. Gandoger. [Author,]
mee ncaa Novarum. Fase,i, Il. 1875-76. By M. Gandoger.
Author. ]
Hssai sur nouvelle classification des Roses. By M. Gandoger 1876. [Author.]
Flore Lycennaise. By M. Gandoger, 1875. [Author.]
Flore Europe. Vols. II.-XXVII. 1884-1891. By M. Gandoger. [Author.]
Tropenpflanzer. Feb., Mar. [Editor.]
Bulletin L’Herbier Boissier Jan., Feb. [Conservateur]
Agr. Ledger. Nos.8 16,17. (Calcutta) [Lieut. Gov. Bengal]
Proc. Agr. Hort. Soc. Madras. July-Sept. 1898. [Secretary]
Report on Odeypore Gardens. 1897-98 [Curator]
Times of Ceylon. Nov., Dec., 1898, Jan., Feb. [Editor]
Report on Indian and Colonial Addendum to the British Pharmacopoeia of
1898. (1899.) [Secretary]
Tropical Agriculturalist. Jan., Feb. [Purchased]
Agr. Bull. Malay Peninsula. Dec. 1898. [Editor]
Proef. station EK. Java. No. 8. [Director]
Agr. Gazette N. S. Wales. Dec., 98., Jan. [EKditor]
bear by F. Mason Bailey, F. L.S., Colonial Botanist, Queensland.
Author]
Pamphlets by J. H. Maiden, Colonial Botanist Sydney, N. S. Wales. beers
Agr. and Forestry. (Report on, to 3lst Dee. 1897) N.S. Wales. [Secretary
Queensland Agr. Journal. Dec., 98, Jan, [See. Agr. ]
Report Dept. of Agr. Queensland. 1897-95. [Secretary.]
Report Queensland Acclimatisation Soc., to 3lst March 1898. [Secretary]
Sugar Journal (Queensland) Dec. 98 Feb. [Editor]
Central African Times. Nov., Dec., 1898, Jan. [Editor]
Report on Bot. Gards. Old Calabar, Niger Uoast Protectorate. 1896-87.
Rapport sur la situation de l’agriculture dans quelques colonies voisines pre
senté 4 M. Gouverneur de la Martinique par. M. G. Landes. Cole-
nies anglaises. [Author]
Supplement to Bulletin Agricole. Jan. [Author]
Journ. Jamaica Agr, Soc. Feb., Mar, [Secretary]
Proc. Agr. Socy. Trinidad. Jan., Feb. [Secretary]
Report Govt. Farm Trinidad. 1898. [Supt]
me ri neal Cubana. ' By Dr. Manuel Gomez de la Maza. 1896
Author
Catalogo de Plantas Cubanas (Extract Prog. Med. May 1896) By Dr. M. Gomez
de la Maza [Author]
Catalogo de las Periantiadas Cubanas. (Extract Am. Soc. Espanola Hist.
Mat. XXIII. 1894.) By Dr. M. Gomez dela Maza [Author]
Nociones de Botanica sistematica. By Dr. M. Gomez de la Maza. [Author]
Bulletins U.S. Dept, of Agr., Div. of Biological Survey. Nos. 9, 10, 11
. Bulletins U.S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Exp, Stations 49.
Experiment Station Record. U.S.A. Vol. TX. No.12. Vol. X. 2, 4, 5, 6,
[Director.]
American Journal of Pharmacy. Feb. Mar.
Botanical Gazette. Dec. 1898 Jan. Feb. Mar.
Publications of the following Agri. Exp. Stations U.S. A. [Directors.|

Alabama 100, 101, 102 Michigan 5, 6, 162, 163, 164, 166.
Arkansas 54, 55 New Hampshire 58, 60, 61.
Florida 47, 48 (and report New Jersey 133, 134.

of Biologist)
Georgia 41, 43 ttawa 31, 32.
Geneva, N. Y. 146, 147, 148 Texas 47, 48, 49 and 1897-98 Report.
Idaho 1€ Tennesssee j, 3 4, (Press Bul. 1, 2, 26,

28, 29.)

Kingston, Rhode Island 50,51 Utab

64

Maryland 59 Virginia 79, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87.

Wyoming 40.

Minnesota Bot. Studies. Feb, [Editor,]

Trans. of the Academy of Science St. Louis, Vol. VII. Nos. 17, 18, 19, 20. Vol:
Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7. [Secretary.]

Report of Biologist and Horticulturist. P H. Rolfs. [Author]

Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club. Mar. [Editor.]

The Philadelphia Museums. {[Secretary.]}

Montreal Pharm. Journ. Jan. Feb. Mar. [Editor.]

Agr. Resources of Nova Scotia. [Sec. Agr. Nova Scotia.]

Report Secy. Agr, Nova Scotia 1898. [Secy.]

Report on a Visit to Great Britain and the Continent. By Dr. Duncan
MecKachran. [Author.]

Evidence of Dr. J. Fletcher before the Committee of the House of Commons
on Agr. and Colonization. May 1893. [Author.]

Plant World. Jan. Feb. Mar. — [Editor.]

Report Ontario Agr. Coll. and Exp. Farm. 1898.

Hawaiian Planters’ Monthly. H. Jan. Feb. [Editor.]

Plantae Mattogrossenses. Ly J. Barbosa Rodrigues. Rio de Janeiro. [ Author

Plantas Novas Cultivados. Rio de Janiero. By Barbosa Rodrigues. [Author

Boletim Instituto Agromico. §. Paulo. Brazil. Nos. 7, 8,and 9. [Secretary.

———

SEEDS.

From Messrs. Reasoner Bros. Florida.
Erythea edulis.
Melia azedarach var. umbraeuliformis.
Prunus carolinana.

From Messrs. Dammann & Co., Italy.
Juniperus communis.

From Botanical Gardens, British Guiana.
Pritchardia, Dwarf sp.

From Thos. P. Roxburgh, Esq.
Grevillea robusta.
Eucalyptus Globulus.

From Royol Gardens, Kew.
Trifolium Johnsoni, Oliv. (Kikuyu Clover)
Soudan Water Lily.

From J. V. Calder, Esq,
Erythrina umbrosa (Bois Immortelle)

Woop.

From B. S. Gosset, Esq.
Bauhinia variegata

[Issued 1st May, 1899.]}

——eese—e —— ee

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. Vi
New Series. ] MAY, 1899. eer

JAMAICA DOGWOOD.

Proxmate ANALYSIS OF THE BarRK oF PiscrpiA Hrytarina, Linn

———_

By Herman Berpericn, P.D.

Piscidia Erythrina, or Jamaica Dogwood, belongs to the natural
order Leguminosae, and is a native of the West India Islinds.

A fluid extract of the bark was several years ago introduced to the
notice of the medical profession, and it is stated by physicians to bea
direct sedative, producing narcotic effects, which are refreshing, and
not followed, asin the case of opium, by hyperaemia of the brain,
nausea and general nervous disturbance. _It is said to be also of value
in bronchitis, asthma, spasms of the muscles, due to flunctional
causes, chorea, tetanus, and especially in toothache, to relieve pain.

By treating the fluid extract of the bark with slaked lime, Edward
Hart* obtained a crystalline sub-tance which he considered to be the
active principle of the bark. The crystals separated on the sides and
bottom of the flask after the mixture had stood for two or three days.
They were accompanied by a resinous subtance. The crystals were
purified by recrystallization from alcohol, and were finally obtained in
a nearly colourless condition. After repeated recrystallization from
alcohol, the substance was obtained in the form of small, yellowish
crystals, which under the microscope, appeared to consist of
four-or six-sided prisms. The same investigator further de-
scribed the crystals as “insoluble in water; slightly soluble in cold,
much more in boiling alcohol; only slightly soluble in ether;
easily soluble in benzene and chloroform. It is dissolved by strong
hydrochloric acid, and sulphuric acid, but reprecipitated apparently
unchanged by dilution with water. Fehling’s solution failed to detect

a a Ameriean Chem. Journal, 1883, p. 39 ; Therapeutic Gazette, 1883, pp.

66

slucose or sucrose. The alcoholic solution is neutral to litmus paper.
Alcoholic lead acetate solution does not produce a precipitate.” The
crystals melted at 192° C. An elementary analysis of them led to the
formula, Co9 Hes Og . They were named piscidza.

The work of the present writer consists of a proximate analysis of
the bark and a special search for the principle called piscidia. The ap-
proximate analysis was conducted according to the scheme of Dragen-
dorff. The material was used in No. 40 powder. The percentages
stated are for the air-dry bark.

Per cent.
Petroleum ether extract :
Caoutchouc, saponifiable wax and fat, etc. 0°61
Ether extract:
Glucose, saccharose, resin, piscidia, etc. 0°36

Absolute alcohol extract :
Glucose, saccharose, resin, ete. 0°51

Water extract:
Mucilaginous and albuminous substances, 14.78
per cent.; dextrin, 3°38 per cent.; saccharose,
1.20 per cent., ete 22°43
Alkaline water (2 per cent. NaOH solution) extract: 7
Mucilaginous and albuminous substances, 1°28

per cent., etc. 4°40
Acidulated water (1 per cent. HCl solution) extract :
Pararabin, 1°35 per cent. 4°00
Starch 1°34
Moisture 9-95
Ash:
Potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, chlor-
ine and phosphoric oxide 10°55
Cellulose and undetermined substances 46°05
Total 100-00

_-_
a

Tannin was not found. The acidulated water extract contained
calcium phosphate but not calcium oxalate.

After completing the proximate analysis a special search was made
for the principle piscidia. The method used by Hart was followed.
For this purpose a fluid extract was made by exhausting 500 grammes
of the bark with an alcohol of 78 per cent. strength. The extract was
concentrated by distilling off the alcohol until about 100cc. of liquid
remained in the flask. This liquid was poured intoa beaker containing
30 grammes of quicklime,which had been previously slaked with enough
water to make a thick paste. The milk of lime and concentrated
extract were intimately mixed, the mixture allowed to stand in a warm
place for a half hour, then strained, and the residue pressed. The liquid
was then filtered through paper to obtain it ina clear condition.

67

Waiter was now added to the clear filtrate until the latter was rendered
slightly turbid. The liquid was then set aside for crystallization to take
place. After two or three days crystals separated upon the sides and
bottom of the beaker. They were accompanied by a resinous substance
from which they were purified by recrystallization from alcohol. By
adding water to the mother-liquor from these crystals, a second crop,
still more impure, was obtained. These crystals posesssed all of the pro-
perties assigned to piscidia by Hart.—( American Journal of Phar-
macy.)

20:

PEPPERS OR CHILLIES.

Pod peppers or Capsicums, the fruits of Capsicum annuum and allied
species, are a well known spice and condiment. They are an indis-
pensable ingredient in curries and are largely consumed in the fresh and
dried state and in pickles. Some forms of Capsicums known as Bell
peppers are entirely free from the acrid and burning pungency so char-
acteristic of these fruits, and may be eaten cooked as a vegetable or in
salads.

Chillies, Bird or Guinea Peppers the fivits of the shrubby Cap-
sicum minimum (usually much smaller than the preceding) grow gene-
rally in tropical countries. These are in chief demand in commerce.
When thoroughly dried and pounded, and afterwards passed through a
hand mill and shifted, they are the principal source of the well-known
Cayenne pepper.

It is estimated that about 100 tons of dried chillies are annually
received into England from the West Indies and the Kast and West
coasts of Africa. The price at which they are sold appears to be liable
to considerable fluctuation. In April 1899, “ fair red Zanzibar sold
at 29s. 6d. : and good red Japan sold at 33s. 6d. to 34s. per cwt.” A
sample of capsicums grown in the West Indies, dull and uneven in
colour, were valued at 20s. per cwt. What is evidently required
is an article bright in colour, even in quality, and possessing great purn-

gency.
ZANZIBAR CHILLIES.

In the Kew Bulletin (1892, p. 85) the tollowing information re-
specting chillies was given in an article on the Agricultural Resources
of Zanzibar, contributed by Sir John Kirk.

“* The small red peppers or chillies are largely grown in the more
dry and rocky pari of the island, where the upheaved coral presents a
honeycombed surface, that favours the accumulation of rich soil in the
crevices. The pods are picked when ripe, sundried and packed in mat
bags made of the split frond of the Hyphaene palm for shipment. This
is an industry that has sprung up within the last 30 years.”

Zanzibar chillies, as they appearin the market ina dry state, are
small, red, thin, carrot-shaped fruits about an inch in length.

08

The following further particulars are contained in a Report on the
Spice and other Cultivation of Zanzibar and Pemba (F. O. Report, 1892
Mise. Series, No. 226) :—

‘The pepper plant growing in the island is Capsicum minimum,
usually termed the ‘ shrubby capsicum,’ and producing the bird’s-eye
chillies forming the basis of cayenne pepper. This isto be found ina
small degree in every shamba, but the principal source from which the
annual exports are derived is the eastern side of Zanzibar, and the cul-
tivation here is chiefly in the hands of the Wahadinu people.

‘Judging from observations made during my brief visit to this
portion of the island, east of Dunga, the chillie cultivation struck me as
being of a very scattered nature, generally small isolated patches from
half to one or two acres in extent, and combined with tobacco, tomato,
pumpkins, &. I regret my inability to quote the annual total exports,
but 1 believe they are large, and an unduubted source of revenue. As
the chillie is, as yet, the only product of any value grown in this less
favoured portion of the island, 1 consider that this cultivation could be
extended, and that a little fostering care might be productive of much
advantage. It is a cultivation easily carried on, and calling for no
special trouble or skill, and the returns are certain and profitable. At
present the people are so blind to their own interests as to purposely
depreciate the value of this product. I understand through fear of
possible shortage by theft on the way down, owners actually damp the
chillies before dispatching, and it is often necessary, on their reaching
the Government ‘’ustoms godowns, to dry them as quickly as is possi-
ble as the only chance of saving them.

““ Another variety of pepper (? Capsicum annuum) bearing a larger
red and yellow pod is also cultivated, but the produce from this is all
consumed locally.”

The latest account of Zanzibar chillies is contained in the Report of
Mr. Consul Cave on the Trade and Commerce of Zanzibar for the year
1897 (Foreign Office, 1898, No. 2129 Annual Series) :—“ The pro-
duction of Chillies has risen from 16,336 frasilas in 1896 to 17,698
frasilas in 1897, an increase of 77,670 lbs. The average price was 2
dol. 37c. per frasila as against 2 dol. 57c. per frasila during the previous
year.* A better price than this could doubtless be obtained for Zanzi-
bar produce if a little more care and attention were devoted to its culti-
vation and harvesting, but up to the present time it has been allowed
to grow almost wild on the coral outcrop which covers the eastern por-
tion of the island, and the slight personal discomfort which attends the
handling of pods prevents the native from exercising any care in its
picking and subsequent preparation for market. Attempts have lately
been made to obtain a better sample on ground which has been specially
cleared and prepared for the purpose, but the results are not yet to

hand.”

* A frasila — 35 lbs. avoir.

ee a ees ee —_

HY
JAPANESE CHILLIES.

In a note on Recent Additions to the Museum of the Pharmaceu-
tical Society (Pharm. Journal, Dec. 11, 1897), Mr. E. M. Holmes,
F.L.S., furnished the following interesting particulars at an evening
meeting of the Society, respecting Japanese and other Chillies.

“ During the last three or four years there has been in commerce
a very bright red variety of Capsicum minimum, Roxb. ((. fastigiatum,
Bl.) said to be imported from Japan. In consequence of its clean,
bright, and attractive appearance it has commanded a higher price than
other varieties. Mr. J. C. Umney has recently directed my attention
to the fact that this variety is less pungent than the Sierra Leone and
Zanzibar varieties, although far superior to them in colour. On further
inguiry I find that this fact is well known to drug and spice brokers.
Mr. Umney points out that when an alcoholic tincture of the Japanese
and Zanzibar varieties are respectively diluted with about 14 parts of
water, the former gives a much clearer solution than the latter, indicat-
ing less oily matter. All the bright red Cayenne pepper until recently
in commerce is said to have been imported from Natal in that state.
The entire pod pepper imported trom Natal isa variety of Capsicum
annuum, much larger than the chillies, and of a dark red colour and
very pungent, whereas the powdered Japanese and Natal Cayenne pep-
pers placed side by side are indistinguishable in point of colour. The
other principal varieties of chillies at present in English commerce are,
I am informed, those of Sierra Leone and Zanzibar, the former being
of a yellowish-red tint, and the latter of a dull, dark red, and often of
inferior quality, con‘xining badly-dried fruits, stalks ani foreign
matter, but both are more pungent than the Japanese kind.
The latter is, however, quite pungent enough for most people,
although perhaps unsuitable, by reason of its lesser pungency, for
medicinal purposes, as an outward application, etc. 1 am indebted
to Mr. Young, of the firm of Messrs. Dalton and Young, for in-
formation concerning the different commercial varieties and for
specimens illustrating them. My object in directing attention to these
commercial varieties is to point out to students and to retail chemists
that there are often differences in the qualities and appearance of the
same drug, which are worthy of careful observation, not only from a
scientific, but also from « commercial point of view. Nepal Uayenne
pepper is made from a small variety of Capsicum annuum, and is re-
markable for its violet odour. Neither this kind nor the Zanzibar gives
a red, but a brownish, powder.

The tollowing comments on Mr. Holmes’ paper were made at the
meeting by Mr MacKwan:—

“ The subject of cayenne pepper was interesting to many chemists
quite apart from medicinal purposes, probably more capsicim being
sold for feeding birds than for any other purpose. The pepper used in that
way was tasteless, and seemed to contain a large amouni of fatty matter.
Ii was dark in colour, and the object was to heighten the colour of the
feathers. It was. supposed to come from Capsicum annuum, and he
should much like to know where it came from. It was only supplied

70

by two or three houses, and attempts by others to obtain it had not been
very successful. There was no doubt that the pepper as used was an
untreated product. The late Dr. Brady, on his return from Japan,
passing through Vienna, came across a comparatively tasteless pepper,
which caused considerable discussion at the time, as there was a large
amount of iton the market, but the substance had been pretty much
lost sight of since. He thought it would well repay inquiry, as very
little had been done on the subject of peppers since Dr. Thresh dealt
with it about 1& years ago.’

According to a writer in Spons’ Encyclopedia, Div. V., p. 1803 :—

“ Several varieties of C. annuum have little or no pungency ; one
of these isabundantly grown in Hungary, forming the paprika of the
Magyars. Another variety, cultivated in Spain, is imported into this
country in powder for giving to canaries, to improve the colour of their
feathers. The Nepal capsicums, which have an odour and flavour re-
sem bling orris-root, are the most esteemed as a condiment.”

SoutH AMERICAN PEPPERs.

The following interesting account of the use of peppers in South
prone appeared in the Saturday Review of the 15th tis
1886 :

‘¢ Aji-ajt.—Pepper of peppers is the meaning of this compound
Quichuan word, and both word and thing are largely distributed over
South America, extending from the Bibo-Bio in the south to the
Atrato in the north ;it is also found in the dialects of the Gran Chaco ;
in _Aymara, i in Andaqui, among the Agricultural Indians of meas the
mining Indians of Potosi, and the Cerro de Pasco. :

“There are two kinds of aji; but there is only one way of
preparing it. The best is that which is made from the greatest
variety of peppers. The pods of these are taken when fresh,
stripped of their seeds, and ground into a paste of the consistence
of fresh spring butter. The paste is put into a small, well-dried gourd,
prepared on purpose, of the size and shape of a well grown orange.*
The gourd, when thus charged, is then coated with a layer of well-tem-
pered clay, and placed in the sun to dry, or to ripen, as the simple peo-
ple who prepare it say in their own tongue. By the time when the clay
is well baked, the pulp or paste within has been dried into a fine yellow
powder, and is then fit for use. Many peopie, ignorant of this fine art
of the Incas, have supposed, quite naturally, that these aji-laden gourds,
with their exqusite flavour and refined taste, were some uncommon and
little-known natural fruits. The other method of preparing aji is te
grind the seeds with the pods, which simply adds great pungency to the
pepper, and is always used in the preparation of maize or Indian corn,
which is boiled in its own husk with much aji, and surpasses in flavour
and pleasantness any vegetable curry of the Hast. The gourds of aji,

* Specimens of these gourds are an the Kew Museum labelled ‘* Gourds used
in tee epee oa red pepper ‘ aji’ (Capsicum spp.), from Mr. H. F. Stahl-
midt, 1885,”

71

when thoroughly ripe, are cleansed of their coating of clay, tied up in
suitable leaves, well secured by the fibre of the aloe, and much resem-
ble when ready for market reeves of large onions, a dozen gourds mak-
ing up one reeve of aji. The cost of these in the good old times was
fifteen pence for a dozen gourds; what the price may be now is only
known on the exchange. Time was when some of the old families of the
interior who had passed their lives in ignorance of railways, daily news-
papers, and quotations of the state of the markets, had their own special
way of preparing aji, mixing with it some delicately scented bark
ground to powder, or other salutary substance known only to the reticent
Indian. From such houses no visitor was ever allowed to take his de-
parture without carrying with him a supply of the latest-made aji ; no
traveller went to the capita! or any of the coast towns but he carried
with him some of this excellent pepper as a present to the archbishop or
bishop ot the diocese, the ladies of Santa Rosa, or the good Fathers
who once a year went long journeys to baptise the children, marry their
parents, and otherwise maintain the influence and authority of the
Church in the remote parts of the earth. But even this good custom is
fast dying out.” —( Kew Bulletin.)

20%

VEGETABLE SOAP.

By Dr. AntHony Rosinson. *

The Coratoe or Curaga (as Dr. Browne calls it in p. 199 of his Nat-
aral History of Jamaica) is a species of the Agave. [A. Morrisii,
Bak.| There are but few plants more common than this in Jamaica,
where it grows naturally upon the most barren rocky hills, and is so
generally well known to the inhabitants of this island, as to render a
botanical description unnecessary.

The Vegetable Soap mentioned in my petition to the honourable
house of assembly, and with some of which sundry experiments were
tried before a committee thereof, is prepared from the leaves of this
plant.

The lower leaves of the moderate grown plants may be cut off for
use, without injury to the other parts ; but care must be taken not to
cut off so great a quantity as to prevent the plants from flowering or
seers: for by such means, the planter will never be able to increase
his stock.

The plant blossoms in the spring, and the whole top of many of
them is then covered with a number of little plants, which are to be
carefully gathered as the stem withers, and planted in the fissures of
the rocks where there is some soil, and at a proper distance, making
allowance for the spreading of the plants which when arrived at
maturity, expand 14 or 15 feet.

* From the “ Columbian Magazine,” January, 1798, Published in King-
ston, Jamaica.

72

Ur they may be planted in the worst savaanah soil, where the
prickly pears and such like plants are usually found.

When the leaves are cut off for use, the most expeditious way of
obtaining the juice, is by passing them singly with the point foremost
through the rollers of a common cane mill, and straining it through an
hair cloth, crocus, or coarse blanket.

The leaves after being pressed and the juice strained, ia this man-
ner, may be strained and soaked in water a few days and then dried,
cleansed, and the fibres manufactured into ropes for plantation use.

In places where the convenience of cane mil!s cannot be had,
proper hand mills with two or more rollers of Lignum Vite or other
hard wood, may be erected at a very trifling expense.

Where these are not erected, the juice may be obtained for the use
of private families, by cutting the leaves in pieces and bruising them
with a heavy pestle in a wooden mortar, and then pressing the bruised
pleces in a cassava or other press, or finally with hands, if other means
are wanting.

The juice being thus extracted and strained may be inspissated by
three several processes.

The first, by common concoction in a copper, tin, or iron vessel
over a small fire, frequently stirring the liquor during the cperation, to
prevent its burning which it will be apt to do without proper care, and
thereby loose somewhat of its detersive quality.

The second, is by coction in Balneo Mariae. For example, put the
extracted juice into a tache or boiler, and place the tache or boiler
within one of the largest coppers upon a trivet or other support, in such
a manner so as to prevent the tache or boiler from touching the sides
or bottom of the copper. Put such proportion of water into the copper
that in case of ebullition, it may not flow into the tache or boiler and
mix with the juice. Let the water in the copper boil with a brisk fire,
and continue the process until the juice in the tache is gradually
brought to a due consistence ; by this method of preparation it will be
effectually secured from burning.

The third method is by insolation, or exposing the juice after strain-
ing in a large shallow receiver of wood or metal of any kind, to the
action of the sun and breeze. The Soap prepared in this manner, is
found to be the most detergent.

When the juice or extract is by either of the preceding methods
brought to a due consistence, it may be manufactured into balls of the
size of common wash balls, dried in the shade and kept for use, and to
prevent them sticking together, or to the hands, nothing is more proper
than the fine ashes of the lye tub, which may be found on most estates,
or may be prepared occasionally, being first dried and sifted.

A caution must be used, never to compound the extract with tallow
or any other unctious materials, for any mixture of that kind will ren-
der it much less efficacious.

December 17th, 1767.

73
THE ELENGI TREE.

Mimusorps Exenei, Liny.

The Elengi is a large tree, a native of India and Malaya. It is
often cultivated in India on account of its ornamental appearance and
its fragrant flowers.

The flowers contain a volatile oil, and, when distilled, yield a sweet-
scented water which is esteemed by the natives as a perfume, and is
sometimes employed jas a stimulant. Dried, they are used for stuffing
pillows. 1t is reported that “‘ a snuff made from the dried and powder-
ed flowers is used in a disease common to Bengal, called ahwah. The
symtoms of this disease are strong fever, headache and pain in the neck,
shoulders, and other parts of the body. The powdered flowers induce a
copious defluxion from the nose, and relieve the pain in the head.”

The unripe berries are astringent and are chewed for fixing loose
teeth. The ripe berries are sweetish and astringent, and have been
known to cure chronic dysentery. A preserve is sometimes made of
them.

From the seeds a fixed oil is expressed, used for culinary purposes,
tor burning, and medicinally. Reduced to a paste, the seeds are used
to form suppositories in cases of obstinate constipation.

The wood is close and even-grained, taking a good polish—weight
about 60 lbs per cubic foot. It is employed in house-building, for cart
shafts and cabinet work, and is said to last for fifty years.

A decoction of the bark makes an astringent gargle.

This tree is very nearly allied to Naseberry Bullet Tree, and is also
related to the Naseberry and Star Apple. All along to the family Sap-
otaceae. (See Dictionary of Economic Products of India, Watt).

:0:

RUBBER.

SOME RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN RUBBER-CULTIVATION.

During a trip of several months through the old rubber-producing
regions of Central America and the northern states of South America,
I found a great interest in Rubber cultivation, and preparations were
being made to start very considerable undertakings, particularly in the
British West Indies, where the fact that rubber never has been indig-
enous to those islands is not considered in the enthusiasm ot the people.*
On the island of Trinidad I found this enthusiasm increased, to a sub-
stantial boom. Rubber seeds were selling at five cents each and young
trees were wanted at fifty cents, though owners were refusing to sell

——— =

* The Milk-withe of Jamaica (Forsteronia floribunda) yields an excellent
rubber. See Bulletin, July, 1894. [Ed. Bulletin, Bot. Dept.]

i4

year-old trees about two feet high for less than a doilar a piece. It was
reported that two English companies were about to begin operation in
Trinidad and were proposing to invest a combined capital of $5,000,000
while private enterprise would probably bring $2,000,000 more to the
island, making a total $7,000,000 prospective capital to be invested in
that one locality. Other islands were becoming interested. In Gren-
ada seeds were in demand, with the prospect that a very considerable
acreage will be set out.

The most interesting point under discussion in relation to rubber-
planting in the British West Indies is a series of experiments now
being carried on in London and Trinidad, by which it is proposed to se-
cure rubber from year-old trees of the Castzlloa elastica. It has been
found that seeds sown broadcast over a prepared field will yieid an
abundant crop of young trees, which at about a year old can be cut and
sent to a factory where, with ordinary machinery operating a simple
process, 8 per cent. of fine rubber can be extracted from the young
shoots. This can be done in the laboratory. It is claimed that the pro-
cess is a simple one, that but little machinery is necessary, and that in
the future the world’s rubber supply will be secured from an annual crop
of young trees sown on cultivated estates, and not from remote forests as
at pre-sent. A series of experiments has shown the young tree contains
about 8 per cent. of rubber, which would at present prices return an es-
timated profit of $200 to $400 per acre. The extraction of rubber from
young shoots has been accomplished chemically in the laboratory, but
whether it can be applied to economic production of rubber on a large
scale remains to be seen.

Castilloa elastica will grow almost anywhere, but it will yield a
profitable flow of milk only under favourable conditions, and these con-
ditions are dependent on the geological formations and topographical
features surrounding the trees. To form an opinion in regard to these
matters requires an economic geologist of some skill, and because of this
tact the greatest losses will be made, for, as it is in mining and kindred
enterprises requiring technical skill, uninformed people always consid-
er themselves competent to judge, and most of them will have no use
for the trained observer. As rubber-trees will grow almost anywhere,
and as the period of waiting before a crop can be expected is a long one,
the success that some will make, afford an example on which to secure
muney and lose it, to the profit of promoters and their associates who will
claim to be thoroughly posted and to control lands that fulfill every re—
quirement.

By forestry cultivation | mean the care of rubber trees in their
natural forests, assisting nature to reproduce them; by husbandry 1
mean the cultivation of rubber-trees in plantations and an attempt to
force them under conditions different from their natural surroundings.

Opinions in regard to suitable rubber lands vary to an unusual
extent. This is because many observers have noted one species of rub-
ber-producing tree and its special surroundings, but have never noted
all the conditions common to the several species. In America rubber is
mostly produced from Casttlloa elastica, and several species of Hevea

75

ach of which is found under quite distinct surroundings. Asa result

eneral opinions on rubber lands, are three times differently expressed.
no man will feel assured that rubber to he successful must be planted
on land that is inundated a few feet at least once a year ; another will
say that low ground near a wet swampy country is the only available
locality ; while still another will talk of the medium upland country as
the most promising.

These are widely different opinions, yet each is correct. Some
species of Hevea do best on low ground that is subject to slight annual
floods. Other species of the tree thrive over low, rich woodlands just
beyond the reach of floods. Castilloa elastica does well on the foot hills

wherever there is a rich, clean soil and abundant water. It is also
found in low swampy ground, but amid such surroundings does not
yield as fine rubber as in the healthier localities.

Rubber is taken from a number of trees and vines, but the species
that I have noted, yield the commercial suppliess of America ; of these
Castillou elastica is of the most interest to peopie who think of planting,
because it does well on healthy ground where a man from the temperate
regions can expect to live and see his trees develop. |

The proper land should be clean, rich, and abundantly watered,
with a good drainage. Such lands give the best returns. The trees
grow abundantly on low unhealthy lands, but do not yield so good a
quality of rubber, for which reason if one proposes to cultivate, it is well
to have the best, and on this much will depend, for it will have an im-
portant bearing on results. Of the two methods of cultivation that are
being tried little has been done with forestry as yet, but the few ex-
periments made have been almost universally successful and promise
important developments for the future. Husbandry so far has not been
a great success, and in many places rubber trees have been carefully
planted and tended for along term of years but have not given any
returns, though it is claimed that some of the trees are twenty to forty
years old.

The claims in favour of husbandry are that a great number of trees
ean be planted on one acre, and that all are within easy reach, while
better returns can be expected from cultivation than from the natural
conditions of the forest. It must be borne in mind, however, that
Castilloa elastica is a tree of the shade, and that the flow of sap, and not
beautiful proportions or an abundant yield of fruit is the object sought.
Another important point is that the tree has a comparatively tender
bark in the shady woods, which in an open cultivation becomes much
heavier as a protection against the sun and dry air at the expense of the
flow of sap, and the provisions of nature which permit the tree to grow
anywhere defeat the objects of a planter and makes rubber-cultivation
a doubtful undertaking. Hence in many cases the thousands of dollars
that are being invested in such enterprises will be the source of grievous
disappointment. On the other hand, a careful selection of a run of for-
est property where rubber-trees reproduce themselves naturally, must
yield returns that will surprise even the most sanguine expectations.

16

Castlloa elastica reproduces itself freely. It has been compared to
the pine—a slow-growing tree which does not propagate itself rapidly.
It should however be compared with the chestnut of our northern forests.
If a stretch of well-situated land were allowed to grow up wild here at
the north, it is certain there would bea fair proportion of chestnut-
trees that would probably come up on the property. _If, besides these
natural results one or two camps were established on the place anda
few men were kept working about through the woods planting chest-
nuts and looking after the trees, it is certain that the care and attention
would result in a heavy percentage in favour of the planter. Similar
results can be expected in the tropical forest, using the same methods
but substituting the care of rubber-trees for the chestnut-trees that I
have taken as an illustration.

I have noted strong evidence in the tropical forests that rubber-
trees will reproduce themselves whenever the locality is naturally
adapted to such reproduction, and witha little care such as could be
given by three to ten men according to the size of the property taken
in hand the results will be beyond the most sanguine expectations.
The great question is to secure a good run of healthy forest land ina
suitable location. This being done but little more is required. A few
ordinary labouring men and the investment of a small amount each year
will after a time return thousands annually. In the forests the rubber-
tree can be relied on to produce an abundant flow of sap. In open
cultivation it must protect itself from the sun and dry air, and the
results are doubtful, though some well-situated plantations will certainly
yield bountifully. Another important point is that forest land is cheap
in most rubber countries, and it is no object to secure a maximum yield
from a given amount of land. The object should be a minimum cost of
production without regard to the amount of land employed.

After having travelled through all the desirable rubber regions in
Central America and northern South America, I am satisfied that suit-
able tropical forests which can be had now at alow prise—often for a
few cents an acre—present an oppcrtunity for the profitable employ-
ment of capital such as has seldom been offered in the world’s history,
but the serious point is to secure the proper land, Those who acquire
it wil] have more than they expect, but natural rubber lands are not to
be had by simply making a chance location. Though the tree will grow
almost anywhere, it is only the most favoured spots that will yield those
spontaneous returns that are so very profitable. It is fair to state that
if people go to taking up tropical forests promiscuously ten will be
disappointed tc every one who secures a prize.—Indiarubber World.

77
NOTES ON [INTERESTING CONTRIBUTIONS.

PARMENTIERA CEREIFERA, Seem. ‘* Candle Tree.” Plants of this
interesting tree have been received from Mr. H. Campbell, Curator of
the Botanic Station in British Honduras.

On the Isthmus of Panama this tree, according to the 7reasury of
Botany, is called the Candle Tree or Palo de Velas, because its fruits,
often 4 feet long, have the appearance of yellow wax-candles suspended
from the stems and older branches of the trees. “ The fruits have a
peculiar apple-like smell which communicates itself in some degree to
the cattle fattened with them, but which disappears if a few days pre-
vious to killing, the food is changed.” There are two other species,
natives of Mexico, the fruits of which are also edible. Parmentiera is
nearly allied to the genus Jacaranda, which is so ornamental on account
of its bunches of blue or violet coloured flowers and finely divided leaves,
natives of South America. Both belong to the family Bignoniaces.
The flowers of Parmentiera have a corolla which is almost bell-shaped
and of a white or greenish colour.

The genus is named after the French botanist Aug. Parmentier
who did so much for economic botany.

Mr. Campbell also sent plants of :—

CocHLOSPERMUM HIBIScOIDES, Kunth, a native of Mexico, a tree
with large yellow flowers. The generic name refers to the shell-like
form of the seeds; and the specific name, meaning hibiscus-like, refers
to the shape of the flower. It is nearly allied to the Annotto shrub,
both belonging to the family Bixineew. There is a coloured plate in
Biologia Centrali-A mericana.

PENTAPETES PH@NICEA, Linn, a native of the East Indies. This
is an annual growing from two to five feet high, with large red flowers
which open at noon, and close at the following dawn. It belongs to the
same family as Kola and Cocoa,—Sterculiaceae.

HirTELLA DODECANDRA, DU., a native of Mexico, belonging to the
same genus as a native Jamaica tree, H. triandra, Sw., and nearly allied
to the Coco-Plum. Family—Rosaceae.

Palms and other plants, natives of Honduras, were also received.

SOCRATEA EXORRHIZA, H. Wendl. Seeds received from Dr.
Morris.

Dr. A. R. Wallace, in his ‘‘ Palms of the Amazon,” describes this
palm as “‘ curious and beautiful.”

“It reaches fifty or sixty feet in height, with the stem moderately
thick and very smooth, there being scarcely any rings or scars left by
the fallen leaves.

The leaves are large and pinnate, with the leaflets triangular and
very deeply notched, standing out at different angles with the midrib.
The leaves curve over gracefully, and the character and aspect of the
foliage is very different from that of most other palms. The column

78

formed by the sheathing leaf-stalks is swollen at the base and of a
deep green colour.

The spadices are three or four in number, growing rather upwards
from the stem below the leaf-column. They are smal] and simply
branched, and bear small oval red fruits about the size of a damson;
the outer pulp of which is bitter and only eaten by some birds.

But what most strikes attention in this tree, and renders it so pecu-
liar, is, that the roots are almost entirely above ground. They spring
out from the stem, eacn one at a higher point than the last, and extend
diagonally downwards till they approach the ground, when they often
divide into many rootlets, each of which secures itself in the soil. As
fresh ones spring out from the stem, those below become rotten and
die off ; and it is not an uncommon thing to see a lofty tree supported
entirely by three or four roots, so that a person may walk erect beneath
them, or stand with a tree seventy feet high growing immediately over

his head.

In the torests where these trees grow, numbers of young plants of
every age may be seen, all minature copies of their parents, except that
they seldom possess more than. three legs, which gives them a strange
and almost ludicrous appearance.

The wood of these trees is very hard on the outside, but soft and
pithy within. It splits easily and very straight, and is much used for
forming the floors of canoes, the ceilings of houses, shelves, seats, and
various other purposes. Perfectly straight laths are more readily made
from it than from any other wood, and they are so hard and durable as
to serve for fish-weirs, corals for turtles and for harpoons. The air-
roots are covered with tubercular prickles, and are used by some Indians
to grate their mandiocca (cassava).

This species grows in swamps or marshy ground in the virgin
forest, not in the tide-flooded lands on the river banks.” It was tormerly
associated with the old genus Iriartea from which it may, however, at
once be distinguished according to the “ Treasury of Botany,” by being
very bitter in every part. This property disqualifies the leaves from
being eaten as ‘cabbage,’ and in Central America has obtained for
these palms the name of Palmas amargas, in contradistinction to the
different species of Iriartea, which are termed there Palmas dulces, and
are used as.food.

GREVILLEA RoBUSTA, Cunningham, according to Von Mueller, is a
stately lawn-tree, indigenous to the subtropical parts of Hast-Australia,
rising to 150 feet, of rather rapid growth, and resisting drought in a
remarkable degree; hence one of the most eligible trees, even for de-
sert-culture, though naturally a silvan plant. The wood is elastic and
durable, valued particularly for staves of casks, also for furniture, and
for interior work in houses. The richly developed golden-yellow trusses
of flowers attract honey-sucking birds and bees through several months
of the year. The seedsare copiously produced and germinate rapidly.
Rate of growth in Victoria, 20-30 feet in 20 years. In Ceylon it at-
tained a stem-circumference of 5 feet in eight years. In India -it

79

flourishes at alevations from 2,000 to 7,000 feet, and is chosen as a
favourite tree for lines of shady walks. In Jamaica it does equally
well at sea-level, and at 5,000 feet.

:0:

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEPARTMENT.

LIBRARY.

Annals of Botany, Mareh. [Purchased.]

Botanical Magazine, April. [{Purchased. |

British Trade Journal, April. {Editor.]

Bulletin Kew Gardens, App 11:, 1898. [Director. |

Chemist and Druggist, March, 11, 18, 25, April, 1,8, 15. [Editor.]

Garden, March, 4, 11, 18. 25, April, 1,8,15. [Purchased.]

Gardeners’ Chronicle, March 11, 18, 25, April, 1, 8,15. [Purchased.]

Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, Mareh. [Bentham Trustees through Kew.]

Journ. Board of Agr. England, Mareh. [Kditor.]

Board of Agr. Leaflets, 54, 55. ([Editor.]

Journal of Botany, April. [Purchased.!

Journ. R. Hort. Soc. England, April.

Journ. R Colonial Inst. April.

Nature, March 9, 16, 23, 30. April, 6,13. [Purchased.]

Pharmaceutical Journal, March, 11, 18, 25, April 1, 8.15. [Kditor. ]

Produce World, March, April. [Kditor.]

International Sugar Journal, April. {Editor.}

Sugar, March. [Editor. |

Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other pussessions of the United
Kingdom in each year from 1883 to 1897. ;

Suererie Indigéne et Coloniale, March, 14, 21, 28, April, 4, 11, 18. [Kditor.]

Notizblatt, K. Bot. Gart. and Mus., Berlin No, 17. [{Director.]

Tropenpflanzer. April. [Editor. |

Bolletino, R. Orto Bot., Palermo, |i, iand ii. 1898. [Director.]}

Gulletino, Laboratorio ed Orto Bot., Siena, II, i, Jan.-Mar. [Direetor.|

Bulletin L’Herbier Boissier, March. [Conservateur. |

Rep. Govt. Gards. Mysore. 1897-98.

Agricultural Ledger, Nos. 18, 19, 20, (Caleutta) [Lieut. Gov. Bengal.]

Tropical Agriculturist, March. [Purehased.]

Planting Opinion, Feb., 18, 25, Mar. 4, 11, 18, 25. [Fditor.]

Circulars R. Bot. Gard., Ceylon. No. 9,10. Dee. Jan. [Director.]}

The Kitul and its uses. By T. B. Polath—Kehelpannala. Ceylon, 1898.

[Director.}
Agr. Bull. Malay Peninsula. Dec. [Editor.]
Index Agr. Gazette N.S. Wales. Jan.-Dec. 1898. [Dept. of Agr.]
Agr. Gazette N.S. Wales. Feb. ([Dept. of Agr.]
Queensland Agr. Journal Feb. and Mar. [Sec. Agr.]
Sugar Journal (Queensland). Feb. and Mar. [Kditor.|
Agr, Journ. Cape of Good Hope. Feb. and Mar. [Kditor.]
Central African Times. Jan. and Feb. [KEditor.]
Report, Natal Bot. Gards & Col. Herbarium, 1898. [Curator.]
Plants in Bot Gard., Old Calabar, Niger Coast Protectorate, 1899.
Journ. Jamaica Agr, Soe. April. [Secretary.]
Report R. Bot. Gard. Trinidad. 1898 | (Superintendent.]
Proc. Agr. Soe. Trinidad., p.p. 195-216. [Secretary.]
Report Bot. Gard. Grenada. 1897. (Curator, ]
Schedule of Prizes offered by Mass. Horti. Society for 1899.
Rhodora, Journ. N. England Bot. Club. Jan. [Editor.]
Bulletin U. S. Dept. of Agr. Div. of Ent. No. 19, Insects injurious to Gar-
den and Orchard Crops. [Entomologist.] :
Bulletin of U. S. Dept. of Agr. Div of Botany. Inventory No. 1, Foreign
Seeds and Plants imported. [Agent.]

80

Experiment Station Record, U.S.A., Vol. X, 7,8. [Director.]
American Journ. of Pharmacy. April. [Editor.]

Botanical Gazette, Jan. Feb. Mar. [Editor. ]

Proc. Georgia State Hort. Soc, August 1898. [W.M. Scott. |
Publications of the following Agri. Exp. Stations U.S. A. [Directors.]

California 122, 123 New Jersey 136
Kansas 83 exas 50
Kingston, Rhode Island 52 Virginia VI. 12; VII. 5

Georgia Vol. XXIV
Massachusetts, 58
The Philadelphia Museums. ([Secretary.]
Montreal Pharm. Journal. April. [Editor.]
Plant World. April. ([Editor.]
Fern Bulletin. April. [Editor.]
Hawaiian Planters’ Monthly, March. [Kditor.]
Inst. Fis. Geogra. Nac. de Costa Rica. Anales 1897; Informe, 1806-97 and
1897-98. [Director.]
Boletim Inst. Agronomico. S. Paulo, Brazil. Dec. 10. [Director.]

SEEDS.

From Supt. Bet. Gard. Mysore.

Spathodea campanulata.
From Commissioner, Imperial Dept. Agri, West Indies.

Talauma Plumieri
From Vilmorin—Andrieux & Co., Paris.

Papaver somniferum,

Verbena hybrida

Petunia hybrida.

Salvia,

Antirrhinum majus var,

Coreopsis tinctoria.

Godetia nana.

Dianthus sinensis.

Coreopsis hybrida

Gaillardia picta.

Zinnia elegans.

Chrysanthemum coronarium.

Tropzolum majus.

Impatiens Balsamina.

Celosia cristata.

Phiox Drummondii.

Reseda odorata pyramidalis grandiflora,
From J. V. Calder, Esq,

Erythrina umbrosa (Bois Immortelle)
From A. Geo. Heron, Esg.—Cross Keys.

Papaw.
From Dr. Stubbs, Louisiana.

Velvet Bean (Mucuna pruriens, var utilis.)
From W. Jekyli Esg.—Robertsfeld.

Hibiscus elatus (Mahoe.)

ee ee ee

PLANTS.
From Bot. Station, British Honduras.
28 Native and other plants.

one —o os ee re
a a ee aecneggeree cece mener nna eseceneees a

[Issued 26th May, 1899.]

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THR

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. VI
New Series.) JUNE, 1899. “Part VI

METHODS OF PREPARING RUBBER.

By R. H. Birren. *

So much has been written within the last few years on the subject
of indiarubber, the sources of our supply, and the possibility of acclima-
tizing the best-yielding trees in our colonies, that at first sight it may
appear that there is little more to be said. A study of the methods in
use for preparing rubber from the latex, or milk, may however be of use
to many interested in the formation of plantations, especially if some
attention is paid at the same time to the inaccurate statements made in
some recent publications, which apparently have disregarded the valu-
able series of papers on the subject contained in our one journal de-
voted to economic botany, the ‘“ Kew Bulletin”.

The methods in use at present are either the out-come of the limited
experience of uncivilised peoples, or the application of experiments
made without paying due attention to what is known of the chemical
constitution and physical properties of latex. As a good example of the
latter we may take the experiments of Morisse** who found that
coagulation was brought about in the latex of Hevea by the addition of
alcohol, phenol, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, calcium
chloride, ferric chloride, corrosive sublimate, etc. As the outcome of
these experiments a mixture of phenol in alcoholic solution, and dilute
sulphuric acid was recommended as a coagulating agent.

The latex is, as a general rule, a thick, white fluid, composed of
small particles of rubber in suspension in a clear watery solution of va-
rious substances. Unfortunately, only the latex of a few trees has, as
yet, been chemically examined when fresh.

* Journal of Society of Arts.
** Seeligman, Lamy, et Falconnet ; ‘‘ La Caoutchouc et la Guttapereha,
Paris, 1896, p. 68. . .

oe

82

The analysis of the latex of Hevea brasiliensis shows that it con-
tains :—

Rubber 32 per cent.
Proteid matter : 22 (Syne
Calcium and sodium salts oT ee
Resin traces

Water 55 to 56 per cent.

It is slightly alkaline to litmus paper. f
The presence of albumin, globulin, and other proteids, has been de-
monstrated by Green * in some other rubber-yielding latices.

As a general rule all these substances are to be found in rubber as.
it is at present prepared, often with others added to bring about coagu-
lation of the latex, and accidentally or intentionally added impurities
such as back andclay. In all cases the percentage of impurities islarge,
how large we shall see later, and when it is remembered that some
cause a rapid deterioration of the rubber, it is obviously much to the
interest of those connected with the industry that a method of prepara-
tion should be adopted which would minimize them or ensure their
absence.

{ propose now to consider a few of the better known varieties of
rubber.

Para Rubber is the product of Hevea brasiliensis, a tree which
thrives in many parts of the Amazon valley, British Guiana, etc. As
pointed out by Churchill** in his consular report, there is no danger of this
source of supply becoming exhausted, though this is the frequent cry of
companies formed for rubber-planting, usually fated for an ephemeral
existence. The tapping is done withconsiderable care by the natives, and
even should a district become exhausted, in a few years a fresh supply
of trees springs up. From the pianters’ point of view Brazil is hardly
a suitable country, for the climate is bad, it is difficult to obtain labour,
and the exchange is liable to endless variations. The trees have, how-
ever, been introduced into Ceylon, where small plantations exist, and
into other coloniest.

The method of preparing the rubber has been so frequently des-
cribed that repetition is needless ; but a “ translation of a valuable
article on rubber of the Orinoco” {| has received so much atten~
tion of late that it requires some examination, One of its most
striking errors is the following :—“ As the juice contains a considerable
quantity of water, the preparation of rubber consists essentially in
separating the former from the latter, which is performed by evaporat-
ing the water by means ofa heating process or obtaining its coagula-
tion by certain chemical processes. Although the last system is more
rapid, they prefer the former, as they pretend that the rubber thus ob-
tained is of a superior quality—a supposition devoid of all reason.”

+ ‘* Le Caoutchoue,” ete., p. 94.

* Green, ‘‘ Proce. Roy. Soc.,” 1886, p. 28.

** “ Kew Bulletin,” 1898, p. 242. .

t ‘‘ Kew Bulletin, ” 1893, p. 159.

{ ‘“‘ Trinidad Bulletin, ” 1893, No. 18, and 1897, p. #6.

83.

As I have already had occasion to show,{ this statement is incor-
rect, for the heating continues for too short a time; (‘‘ the rubber ”’ zs
not “ dried ina few minutes”’ ) to evaporate off some 50 per cent. of
water, and further there is no loss of weight until the clot begins to con-
tract and squeeze out water. Neither is “ the supposition devoid of all
reason,” for it is a weil-known fact that the smoked rubber is far pre-
ferable to that obtained by chemical processes. A comparison of the
prices of “ Parafine” and “ sernamby” should be sufficient proof of
this. Why it is so, may be made clearer from the following experiment,
At the end of a dav’s work I had several litres of latex left, to which an
equal volume of water had been added, which would not keep over night
without coagulating. To this a small quantity of acetic acid was added,
and in a short time the whole o/ :t had formed a stiff card. On pressing
and drying, a portion of the water exuded from this mass of sernamby,
but it stil! remained full of cavities, and the proteid matter in it quickly
decomposed, so that ultimately a stinking, inflated mass was obtained.

If this latex had been coagulated by smoking it would have yielded
a wet rubber, but the subsequent decomposition of proteids would not
have set in, for the creosote contained in the smoke would have acted as
an antiseptic and prevented decomposition, as it does when meat is pre-
served by smoking. *

Then again we find, “the rubber thus prepared (by smoking)
acquires a darkish colour, due to the particles of coal which adhere to
the outer skin. Some people believe that this tends to improve it, but
such is not the case, for it is thus impregnated with impurity.Ӥ Now
when these “ bottles ” of rubber are cut across, the fresh, laminated sur-
faces are a silvery grey colour, and as each layer is exposed to the same
extent to the action of the smoke it is difficult to account for the outer
layers only being so coloured. ‘The freshly cut surfaces however soon
darken and become black iv turn, so that the explanation of oxidation
seems far more probable, especially when taken in conjunction with the
fact that smoke is white * and not black,t for the nuts are simply dry-
distilled and not actually burnt. If the smoke of these heated urucuri
nuts is condensed, it forms two layers of liquid in the receiver, one a
¢lear limpid solution consisting mainly of acetic acid, the other, darker
in colour, vf creosote.

The hot vapour of acetic acid brings about the coagulation of the
proteids of the latex, as may easily be proved by direct experiment.

A solution of alum is said to be in use for preparing rubber in some
parts of the Amazon valley. Morisse** states that alum solution has no
effect upon the latex of Hevea species however.

The loss in the factories on making up Para rubber is as follows|| :
(1) Para fine, 10 to 15 per cent. ; (2) Entre-fine, the carelessly smoked
pieces, 15 to 20 per cent. ; (3) Sernamby, rubber pulled from the cuts

t Biffen, ‘‘ Anns. Bot.” 1898, p. 165. t

§ “ Trinidad Bulletin.” 1897, p. 38.

* Compare the plate on page 757 of the ‘ Journ. Soc. Arts,’ 1898.
+ “ Trinidad Bulletin,” 1897, p. 37.

“* “ Le Caoutchoue,” &e., p. 67.

| “ Le Caoutehoue,” &¢., p. 75.

84

on the tree and cups, coagulated by being allowed to stand, etc., 20 to
40 per cent.. From these data we may safely conclude that the smok-
ing method of preparation is by far the best in use at present, a view
which will be further strengthened when we compare the losses on
making up other sorts of rubber.

Ceara Rubber is the product of Manihot Glaziow2, a tree growing
chiefly in the highlands of the State of Ceara, Brazil. Cross is respon-
sible for most of the descriptions of the locality in which it grows, but
as his experience of it appears to have been limited to Pacatuba, in
which place its habitat is far from typical, they are not very accurate.
He records it as growing at an elevation of 200 feet above sea level,
among granite boulders, in a country whose dryness was indicated by
the fact that ‘‘ ferns, weeds, grasses and mosses ” were absent. True,
it does grow among granite boulders, in the scantiest of soil in such
localities, but it is more at home in the mountains, up to a height of
3,500 feet, and even more, where there is an abundant rainfall. These
facts will serve to show the wide range of conditions the tree will put
up with, and were it not for the smallness of its yield (1 to3 lbs per
annum) it would be invaluable for introducing into many of our
colonies. Coagulation is brought about either by smoking, as on the
Amazons, or by simply allowing the Jatex to dry on the tree trunks or
soil.

The latter methods are objectionable, as the rubber invariably con-
tains pieces of bark or grit.

It may also be prepared by churning the latex, and pressing the
resulting clots. The method is not to be recommended though, for even
if the clots are cut into thin slices and exposed to the heavy pressure of
1 mandiocea press a considerable percentage of water remains in its
cavities, and decomposition sets in, but not to the same extent as in
“ Ceara scrap.”

Although so impure, it commands a price usually second only to
‘ Para fine.” The loss is from 20 to 25 per cent., which, in inferior
qualities, may even amount to 55 per cent.

Mangabeira rubber also comes from Ceara. [tis the product of
Hancornia speciosa, a dwarf tree with somewhat the habit of a birch.
The rubber is prepared by the addition of an excess of salt to the latex,
or by Strauss’ method of adding alum. Even after thirty days’ drying
in the sun it is spongy and full of cavities of liquid. As might be expect-
ed, the loss on purification is enormous, amounting to from 40 to 60 per
cent.

By this method of coagulating with chemical reagents it is impos-
sible to get rid of the coagulated proteid matter, to say nothing of the
greater part of the water. Morellet’sif remark that “le procédé Strauss
est ingénieux, mais les résultats de son application sont mauvais ’ may
well be applied to all these chemical methods, and the sooner the search _
for coagulating agents is abandoned the better.

85

The only other American rubber of importance, at present, is yield-
ed by Castilloa elastica. It appears on the market in a number of dif-
ferent forms under the names of Mexican, Nicaraguan, etc. As tar as
we know C. elastica is the only species of the genus yielding rubber, for
the C. Markhamia of Collins turns out to be a Perebea species.t

The latex is obtained in a rough and ready fashion by hacking a
spiral channel from the crown of the tree to the ground, or by making
great gashes with a machete.

Collins § has recommended a timber-scoring knife for tapping, and
since then most writers have followed his lead. On experimenting with
one, | found it was practically useless, as little latex exuded, possibly
owing to the closure of the vessels by the drag of its edge. Stabbing
with a broad-bladed knife, or with a chisel as practised in Ceylon,§
gives good result without much damage to the tree. In the previously
mentioned article in the ‘ Trinidad Bulletin’ (1898), there is some
slight confusion as to the localities suitable for the growth of Castilloa.
In one place (p. 122), “it will scarcely thrive in regions that are not
equally suited to Hevea spp,” which (p. 180) grow ‘‘ on land which is
periodically inundated, even to a depth of five feet.” Then (p. 121),
“the tree (Casrilloa) avoids marshy or boggy land, and manifests a
preference for warm deep loam, or sandy soil.” The latter statement is
the correct one.

The most general method of preparation in Mexico is to add an
extract of the leaves and stem of the moon-flower (Ipomoea bona-no.),
and allow the mixture to stand over-night. The floating clot which
forms is then pressed to remove some of the water.{[ As in all these
cases of preparation by “‘ wet” methods the rubber contains large quan-
tities of water, it lu-es from twelve to thirty per cent. on drying.
Another method is in use in Nicaragua.*° The latex is mixed with
about three parts of water, and allowed to stand over-night, when the
rubber comes to the surface in particles which do not unite to form a
solid mass. The water is then drained off from below, and the rubber
particles are mixed with a fresh supply of water, and the process is
again repeated. The particles are then brought into a solid mass by
pressure. The latest account of this method is apparently given by
Hart, in an article on the “ Coagulation of Rubber,”** who appears to
have rediscovered it. I quote it in full as I may be mistaken. “ After
the addition of water the mixture is well shaken ; the globules of rubber
(having a lighter specific gravity than the albumenoids and proteids
[sec] contained in the latex) will float qaickly to the surface. It is
found moreover that on the addition of further volumes of water and the
removal of albumenoid liquors from below the floating rubber, the
globules rise much more quickly to the surface.”

t “ Kew Bulletin,” 1887, xxviii p, 13, 6 “ Trinidad Bulletin,” 1898, p. 21.
§ Collins ‘‘ Report on Caoutchoue.”
ll ‘‘ Royal Botanical Gardens, Ceylon,” 1898; Ser. I., No.4, p.30
q@ Belt, “ Naturalist in Nicaragua,” p. 33. Morris, ‘ Uolony of British
Honduras,” p. 76. i
- *° “Te Caoutchouc,” &c., p. 62. ‘ Kew Bulletin,” 1887, xxviii., p. 16.
** “ Trinidad Bulletin.” 1898, p, 131.

86

The following criticism of this “creaming” process is given in ‘‘ Le
Caoutchouc et la Gutta Percha”:—* Oe mode de préparation est bien
rudimentaire et ne peut fournir qu’un produit de qualité inférieure, qui
perd souvent plus de 50 per cent, surtout lorsqu’il fraichement
prepare.” f

Recently there has been some talk of extracting rubber from leaves
and twigs by means of solvents, as has been done in the case of gutta-
percha. A description of this latter process may therefore be of inter-
est. It originated in the smallness of the yield of the Zsonandra gutta
trees, a tree from 25 to 380 years old, only giving 1°3 lbs of gutta
percha when felled. The explanation of this fact is to be found in the
work of De Bary, twho showed that the laticiferous system of the
tree, consisted of short, closed sacs. This the being the case, a great
many would remain unopened, and thus a considerable per-centage of
the gutta-percha would remain iu the bark. As the demand for gutta-
percha has been large, and the supply has been obtained by felling the
trees, they have become almost extinct. §

Serullas proposes to utilise the leaves and twigs of the shoots from
the old butts to extract the gum from. They are dried, treated with
caustic potash to destroy colouring matters, and treated with solvent for
gutta-percha. The solvent is then distilled off and may be used again
and again.

Rather more than llb. of gutta-percha is said to be yielded by 30
Ibs. of chopped up fresh leaves and twigs. |

For several reasons | do not think this process could profitably be
applied to the preparation of rubber. The most important of these are
(1) on gathering the leaves and twigs there would be an immense loss
of latex, and (2) stripping trees of their foliage (the part which builds up
their food supply) invariabiy kills them.

The direction in which research work should tend, I venturé to
think, is to prepare rubber free from the other constituents of latex, so
that among other things, freight and customs charges on these impuri-
ties may be avoided.

Now it has been shown conclusively that the chemical constitution
of latex varies with its source, so that it is improbable that any one re-
agent can be found capable of coagulating any given latex. Thus from
the fact that acetic acid coagulates the latex of certain Hevea species, it
cannot be argued that it will coagulate the latex of a Kicksia species.

Then expert opinions, as we have seen, show that the preparation of
rubber by these chemical means is not satisfactory, for the iproduct is
far from pure.

+ “Le Caoutchouc.” &c., p. 62.

t “ Comp. Anat. Phan. and Ferns,” p. 151.

§ Serullas,” ‘““ Kew Bulletin,” 1891, cexiii., 230,
| ““ Kew Bulletin,” 1891 cexiv., p. 231,

87

I have recently succeeded, however, in preparing pure rubber by a
physical process, and so demonstrated that chemical methods are not
necessary. This is effected by centrifugalising the latex in a special
form of separating machine, when the rubber particles, which have
a smaller specific gravity than the medium in which they are
suspendad, are thrown out of the bowl in an almost dry state. They
may then be converted into a solid mass by slight pressure, or by drain-
ing off the small quantity of water which remains with a porous tile.
So prepared, the rubber forms a translucent mass, free from its usual
smell and from all danger of decomposition.

The merits and demerits of this mode of preparation must rest en-
tirely with me, but 1 cannot be responsible for any statements nrade in
Trinidad, where a copy of my experimental machine was recently exhi=
bited without my consent or knowledge.

5G.5

GINSENG.

ARALIA GINSENG, Baill. and ARALIA QUINQUEFOLIA, Decne. and Planch.

As correspondents frequently send quotations of the market price
of Ginseng, and ask for information about it,—what it is, whether it will
grow in Jamaica, ete., the following notes are set down on the subject.

Mrs. Bishop’s description in her recent work on “ Korea” may
first be taken :—

“ Panax Ginseng or quinquefolium, is, as its name imports, a pana-
cea. No one can be in the Far Hast for many days without hearing of
this root and its virtues. No drug in the British Pharmacopoeia rivals
with us the estimation in which this is held by the Chinese. Itisa
tonic, a febrifuge, a stomachic, the very elixir of life, taken spasmodi-
cally or regularly in Chinese wine by most Chinese who can afford it.
It is one of the most valuable articles which Korea exports, and one
great source of its revenue. In the steamer in which | left Chemulpo,
there was a consignment of it worth $140,000. But valuable as the
cultivated root is, it is nothing to the value of the wild, which grows in
northern Korea, a single specimen of which has been sold for £40. It
is chiefly found in the Kang-ge Mountains ; but itis rare, and the
search so often ends in failure, that the common people credit it with
magical properties, and believe that only men of pure lives can find it.

“ The Ginseng season was at its height. People talked, thought
and dreamed Ginseng, for the risks of its 6 or 7 years’ growth were
over, and the root was actually in the factory. | went to several Gin-
seng tarms and also saw the different stages of the manufacturing pro-
cess and received the same impression as in Siberia, that if industry
were lucrative, and the Korean were sure of bis wages, he would be an
industrious and even a thrifty person.

_ “ All round Song-do are carefully fenced farms on which Ginseng
is grown witl great care and exquisite neatness on beds 18 inches wide,

88

2 feet high, and neatly bordered with slates. It is sownin April, trans-
planted in the following spring, and again in three years into specially
prepared ground, not recently cultivated, and which has not been used
for Ginseng culture for seven years. Up to the second year the plant
has only two leaves. In the fourth year itis 6 inches high with four
leaves standing out at right angles from the stalk. It reaches maturity
in the 6th or 7th year. “During its growth it is sheltered from both
wind and sun by well made reed roofs with blinds which are raised and
lowered as may be required. When the root is taken, itis known as
i white Ginseng,” and is bought by merchants who get it “ manufac-
tured,” about 34 catties of the fresh root making one cattie of red or
commercial Cintas The grower pays a tax of 20 cents. per cattie,
and the merchant 16 dollars a cattie for the root as received from the
. manufacturer.

‘‘ The annual time of manufacture depends on orders given by the
Government. The growers and merchants make the most profits
when the date is early. Only two manufacturers are licensed, and 150
growers. The quantity to be manufactured is also limited. In 1895 it
was 15,000 catties of red Ginseng and 3,000 of ‘* beards.” The terms
“beards ” and ‘tails’ are used to denote different parts of the root,
which eventually has a grotesque resemblance to a headless man! It
is possible that this likeness is the source of some of the almost mir-
aculous virtues which are attributed to it. Everything about the fac-
tories is scrupulously clean, and would do credit to Huropean manage-
ment. The row of houses used by what we should call the excisemen
are well-built and comfortable. There are two officials sent from Seoul
by the Agricultural Department for the “* season ” with four policemen
and two attendants, whose expenses are paid by the manutacturers, and
each step of the manufacture and theegress of the workmen are care-.
fully watched. Mr. Yi was sent by the Customs to make special er-
quiries in connection with the revenue derived.

‘“‘ Ginseng is steamed for 24 hours in large earthen jars over iron.
pots built into furnaces, and is then partially dried in a room kept at a
high temperature by charcoal. The final drying is effected by exposing
the roots in elevated flat baskets to the rays of the bright winter sun.
The human resemblance survives these processes, but afterwards the
‘‘ beards ” and “ tails” used chiefly in Korea, are cut off, ani the trunk
from 3 to 4 inches long, looks like a piece of clouded amber. These
trunks are carefully picked over, and being classified according to size
are neatly packed in small oblong baskets containing about 5 catties
each, 12 or 14 of these being packed i in a basket, which is waterproof
and matted, and stamped and sealed by the Agricultural Department as
ready for exportation. A basket, according ‘to quality is worth from
$14,000 to $20,000. In a good season the grower makes about 15
times hisoutlay. Ginseng was a Royal monopoly, but times have chang-
ed. This medicine which has such a high and apparently partially de-
served reputation throughout the Far Bast, does not suit Europeay
and is of little account with European doctors.’ ’

This is the only description ever published of the method of curing
er manufacture of Ginseng in Korea.

39

A Bulletin* on “ American Ginseng’: its commercial history, pro-
tection, and cultivation ” collected by J. AE Nash under the direction of
Professor Coville, was issued by the U. 8. Department of Agriculture in
1895. Itbrings out the facts that ‘hs wholesale price of American
Ginseng has steadily increased from 52 cents. per pound in 1858 to
somewhat more than $3 per pound in 1893, and that the value of the
export for the past decade has amounted to between $600,000 to
$1, 000,000 per year. The report also points out that the natural supply
is now rapidly decreasing and that its extermination, if present condi-
tions continue, is inevitable.

The Chinese Ginseng grows principally between the 39th and 47th
degrees of north latitude, and the American plant has much the same
range, but extends further south along the mountains. It is_ therefore,
doubtful whether it will succeed in Jamaica except perhaps in the forests
of the highest mountains ; but the Department has imported some roots
and seeds from Mr. George Stanton, the most successful grower in the
United States for the purpose of experiment.

There appear to be four grades of Ginseng in commerce. The
most highly prized is the “ Imperial Ginseng,” “found in Manchuria,
worth from $49 to $200 per pound. The Korean Ginseng is next in
quality, fetching from $15 to $35 per pound. The third grade includes
that grown in China on the borders of Korea, and the American pro-
duct. The last and poorest quality is the Japanese Ginseng. The
value of the two latter grades, varies from $1 to $10 per pound. Both
Chinese and Koreans are so jealous of interference in this valuable
trade that no one has ever succeeded in obtaining seeds or plants from
either of those countries.

The Chinese plant is Aralza Ginseng, the North American is a
different species—Aralia quinguefolia. They are sometimes classed
under the genus Panax as P. Ginseng and P. quinguefolium.

TALAUMA PLUMIERII, DC.
Seeds received from Dr. Morris. This tree is a native of Dominica,
St. Lucia, Martinique and Guadeloupe. It grows toa considerable
height—80 feet, and resembles Magnolia grandiflora, to which it is very
nearly allied. The flowers are large, white, and sweet scented. The
leaves and branches are aromatic, and together with the bark, buds and
seeds are said to be endowed with medicinal virtues.

* No. 16. Division of Botany.

90
CINCHONA BARK AND QUININE.

—

By C. M. & C. Woopuowss.

REPORT FOR 1898.

Few articles of commerce have ever been depreciated so much in
value in consequence of overproduction as have cinchona bark and qui-
nine.

The following statistics, taken from the Board of Trade Returns,
give some idea of the extent of the fall in values :—

Imported into
U. K. Valued at
lb. £
1878 oi 6,131,552 658,228
1881 ; 14,024,304 1,812,501
1886 : 16,281,104 801,353
1891 : 11,933,712 250,697
1896 i 3,952,592 61,578
1898 : 5,143,040 98,132

The above figures are manifestly only approximate, as whilst the
supplies in 1879 mainly consisted of Columbian barks with an analysis
of rather under 2 per cent of quinine, the Ceylon and Hast Indian barks
were considerably richer, and contained an average 2 to 3 per cent.,
whilst the average per centage in Java barks has of late been over 5
per cent.

Mr. Clements Markham, in his book on Peruvian bark, states that
the sources of supply of bark to the London market from all parts of the
world from June, 1879, to June 1880, were :—

lb.
From Columbia 5 4 6,002,000
do India and Ceylon 4 1,172,000
do South America (exc opts Columbia) 959,000
do *Java E 70,000
do Jamaica - about E 21,000
8,224,000

* To the Amsterdam market.

In addition about 1,000,000 1b. Souta American were shipped di-
rect to the United States.

The highest paice ever paid for Bark in the London market was in
1877, when some renewed Officinalis bark from the Nilgiri Plantations
was sold at 15s 8d per lb; supposing that this parcel to have contained
6 per cent of crystallised Sulphate of Quinine, the value of the unit
would have been at that time over 2s 6d per lb! as late, however, as
the year 1880 considerable quanties of Bark were sold about 2s per unit
per lb. From that time the market has been steadily declining until the
lowest point was reached in January, 1897, when the Public Sales in Hol-
land sold at an average unit of 2°12 cents per $-kilo (equivalent to under
3d per Ib). In 1877 “ Floward’s” Quinine (in bottles) was sold at

91

15s per oz.; on the 31st December, 1878, their quotation was 12s 6d
per oz., on 3lst December, 1886, 2s 6d per oz., falling by degrees, in
sympathy with Bark, till the lowest point was touched in 1897, when
business was done at 10d per oz.; at this time sales of German Quinine
(best marks) were made at 74d to Sd per oz.;—the lowest price on
record.

The cause of this great depreciation in value is not far to seek; in
1880 the discovery of Cuprea Bark from the United States of Colombia,
large quantities of which were imported in the years 1880 to 1885, gave
the first shock to the market, but it was the enormous supplies shipped
from Ceylon (these in the year 1886 reached their maximum of
15,000,000 1b,) which after first destroying the South American Trade,
brought prices down so low that it was no long profitable to ship, and
in most of the Ceylon Estates the Bark was uprooted and Tea was
planted instead. The exports from British India have never reached
more than 4,000,000lb., and here as in Ceylon,planters have generally (ex-
¢ept on a few estates in the Travancore district) given up its cultivation.
Java, however, owing to the superior quality of its Bark, has been able
to hold its own, and exports have steadily increased until now it has
practically the control of the market.

The present statistical position is we think a strong one, the Im-
ports and Exports of bark in United Kingdom and Holland for the
three years 1896-98 compare with the previous three years as follows :

1896-98. 1893-95.

IMPORTS Eng. lb. Eng. lb.
into U. K. my ao 11,853,000 18,723,000
‘“ Holland .. e 31,649,000 28,899,000
Total - 43,502,000 47,622,000

EXPORTS

from U. K. Zs 8,777,000 18,029,000
“Holland a 34,491,000 21,555,000
43,268,000 39,584,000

—_ ee

Left for English and Amsterdam
quinine Manufacturers and 234,000 8,038,000
for replenishing Stocks 6

thus showing that, even the increased supplies received in 1898, con-
sumption has of late practically overtaken production. (It is worthy
of note that the Exports from Holland during 1896-98 exceed the Im-
ports by nearly 3,000,000 lb.) This probability is further confirmed by
- the statistics of quinine ; thus we find the Exports of quinine and
quinine salts from Germany during the same periods were :—

1896-98. 1893-96.
OZ. OZ.
Total “a 22,900,000 15,306,000

As regards the prospects of supplies in the future, we have seen
that shipments from Java, if maintained as at present, are barely suffi-
ecient for consumption, even when supplemented as they were last year

92

by larger imports from British India and Bolivia. But advices from
India state there is very little bark left there, and shipments will show
a large falling-off in future.

(Juinine is more or less a war article, and is a necessity for troops
fighting in the tropics or in marshy districts. With the enterprise
shown of late years by most nations in securing colonies in Africa, etc.,
and with the sudden opening up of China by railways, etc., it seems
probable that the consumption of quinine is more likely to increase than
to diminish, and should any extraordinary demand arise, it is difficult to
see where supplies of bark are to come from unless Java planters con-
tinued to extend their plantations on a large scale at a time when the
market was most depressed, which we think is hardly probable. Of
course, any great rise in prices would induce planters all over the world
to grow Bark, but it would be some years before any large supplies
would he available, and in the meantime prices might be forced up con-
siderabiy. 7

The market has been for the last year or so in a sensitive state ;
in 1897 aslight falling off in shipments from Java causeda rise in the
valie of the unit from under 4d per lb. to 14d per lb., and though
prices have since declined to about 1d. per unit. the circumstances of a
sma!l Dutch sale being advertised for the 16th inst , coupled with advice
ef moderate shipments from Java for January, have brought specula-
tors into the market for Quinine, ad prices have advanced about 20
per cent., from 103d per ounce to Is. O0$d. per ounce.

To sum up, it appears that consumption kas at last overtaken pro-
duction, and increased shipments from Java will be required to supply
manufacturers and make up for expected deficiency from British India
and Ceylon, and in any case we fancy the days of Quinine selling below
ls. per oz. are numbered, and we think it is safe to prophesy that the
average value of the unit during the next three years will be above

the average of 1896-1898.

30, Mincing Lane, 9th Feb., 1899.
| Tropical Agriculturist. |

BUDDING TAPE.

The following recipe for making budding-wax has been found
useful :—

To every pound of bees-wax, addalump of rosin the size of an egg,
and 14 table-spoonfull of raw linseed oil. Boil and then dip the tape in.

93
THE IMPORTATION OF COLONIAL PRODUCE.

By E. M. Houtmgs, Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical
Society of Great Britain. *

I take the opportunity offered by the extensive colonial and foreign
circulation of Journal to direct the attention of pharmacists and others
who reside abroad or in the British Colonies to a few facts which bear
an important relation to the sale of colonial products in this country.

1. Drugs —It is absolutely necessary, in order to avoid loss, to be
well informed as to the state of the large European markets, especially
London, Liverpool, Hamburg, and New York, etc. As an instance I
may point to the genuine or Pernambuco jaborandi, Pilocarpus jaboran-
di, which is now, | am told, realising 7s or 8s perlb., against 1s 6d per lb.
for the Rio Janeiro jaborandi, P. pinnatifolium; Pernambuco jaborandi,
which is now the only official kind, having partially disappeared from
the market. The reason of this is that, when the genuine jabor-
andi was last sent to this country, the market was overstocked with the
Rio Janeiro kind, and there were no buyers for the genuine, except at a
price that entailed a decided loss on the exporters. Consequently, the
exporters having lost money, sent no more, and the drug gets scarcer
and scarcer and the price goes up. Drugs are not like provisions.
There is not room for an unlimited supply, and the export to European
Markets, if it is not to entail loss upon the producer and exporter, must
bear a direct relation to the state of the market. But it is to the in-
terest of the buyers to buy cheaply, and early information is not likely
to be obtainable except through colonial agents in Europe, paid to look
after theinterests of their respective colonies.

2. New Vegetable Remedies.—Frequently specimens of native rem-
edies are sent home on speculation, without any details as to their botan-
ical source and in very small quantities. Under these circumstances it
is useless to hope that they will receive attention. It requires at least
14 lb. or 28 lb. of the material to ascertain if any definite active prin-
ciple is present, and unless the drug possesses decided properties and
differs from other drugs already in use in its remedial effects, it is not
likely to be experimented with. Thus, pure bitters, simple purgatives,
or emetics are not needed ; but remedies that are known to be actually
of service in skin diseases, malarial fevers, or zymotic diseases (and
which do not owe their properties to the hot water in which they are
administered), might receive a trial if sent in sufficient quantity and if
a portion of the plant having leaves, flower, and fruit be sent with them
for identification. Medical men are chary of trying remedies of which
nothing but the native name and use is known. it may, therefore, be

taken as a rule that not less than 28 lb to 1 cwt. is worth sending fora
trial.

/
3. Drugs other than Medicines.—Gums, resins, oils, fats, dye woods
tanning materials, and other economic products, if sent over in the form
of samples of 14 lb. or more, should be sent with full information as to

* Letter to the Pharmaceutical Journal.

94.

possible regularity of supply, and uniformity, or otherwise of quality.
Thus, on offering a new fat or oil to a soap boiler, the first enquiry will
be : ‘Can I get this by the ton? and is there a regular supply to be
had ? It will not pay me to introduce anew article to the public and
when a demand is created to find there is no supply.” With respect. to
gums, it should be recognised that it pays the exporter to sort the gum
into qualities where labour is cheap ;a uniform white gum fetching™
a much better price in proportion than a mixed or dirty product.

4. Packing.—Doubtless in tropical climates there is some difficulty
in drying drugs properly, so as to avoid mouldiness. It must be re-
cognised however, that the value depends very largely on proper drying
There should be no difficulty in drying many drugs under the roof of a
dwelling where the air is hot and a current can be easily established
and where the drug is protected from the heavy dew. Many drugs,
such as «oca leaves, lose much of their alkaloid if packed before being
property dried. The question of packing fruits also is one of the great
importance to colonists. Thus, Jamaica oranges packed unassorted in
boxes, even if of very superior quatity, will fetch only a very inferior
price, for the reason that the wholesale fruiterer cannot see inside the
barrels, and thus has to buy so to speak, “a pig ina poke.” But
eranges that are packed of uniform size and quality, each in tissue
paper, a definite number in a box of definite size, with air spaces between
the box and boards and protected by transverse ribs from crushing, and
thus allowing circulation of air, will, he knows, pay him to buy, because
he can see something of their state and knows what each contains. In
other words, the exporter who wishes to ensure a_ profitable transaction
must first learn the requirements of the market to which he sends them,
and must keep himself as well informed as _ possible as to the state of
repletion or depletion of the stock in the market.

THE WOODPECK ER.

Ainote on the Woodpecker attacking Cocoa pods and Oranges was
published in the Bulletin for April, page 58 ; and correspondence was in-
vited to ascertair. the extent to which Cocoa and Orange planters suffer.

Information has been received that the Woodpecker attacks
Oranges in the Port Royal Mountains.

A correspondent near Priestman’s River writes as follows :—
“ With regard to Woodpeckers : every Cocoa planter in this district
suffers from their depredations.

‘‘They cut a hole in the pod, take out the beans, and bite them in
two. They do this damage at all seasons of the year, but not quite so
much now that they are nesting. They eat crickets, etc., sour-sop,
orange seeds, etc.

“ | think it would be wise to protect them only during a short
season. One man informs me that he once had to resort to poisoning

95

JONTRIBUTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

LIBRARY.
KUROPE.
British Isles.
Chemist and Druggist, April 22,29. [Editor.]
Garden, April, 22, 29. [Purchased.]
Gardeners’ Chronicle, April, 22, 29. [Purchased.]
Journal of Botany, May. [Purchased. }
Nature, April, 20.27. Purchased. ]
Pharmaceutical Journal, April, 22, 29. [Editor.]
Produce World, May, [Editor.]
Sugar, April. ([Editor.]
International Sugar Journal, May. [Editor.]
W. Indian and Com. Advertiser, May. [Editor-.]
France.

Suererie, indigéne et coloniale, April 25, May 2. [Editor.]

Germany.
Tropenpflanzer, May. [Editor,]
Swrizerland.

Bulletin de l|’Herbier Boissier, April. [Conservateur. |}

ASIA.
India,
Planting Opinion, April, 1,8. [Kditor.]

Madras, Agri. Hort. Soc., July, Sept., 1898. [Secretary.]

Ceylon.
Times of Ceylon, April 5, 13. [Editor.]
Tropical Agriculturist, April. {Purchased. |
Straits Settlements.
Report Bot. Gard. for the year 1898. [Direetor.]
Java.
Proefstation, W. Java, Med. No. 38. {Director.]
AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope, Agri. Journ. March. [Editor.]
Central African Times, March 11. [Editor.]
Report on Station Agronomique, Mauritius, 1897.
Edwards. ]
West INDIEs.
Jamaica.
Journal, Jamaica Agri Soc., May. [Secretary.]

[Hon W. T. A.

The Concise Agri. Guide : [Messrs. Reeves & Lopez.]

Trinidad.

Bot. Garden Bulletin, April. [Superintendent.]

Proe. of Agri. Soe., April 11. [Seeretary.]
Windward /slands,

Report Bot. Gard., St. Lucia, 1897. [Curator. j

Martinique.

Bulletin Agricole, March. [Committee.]

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.

Montrea/. .

Pharmaceutical Journal, May. [Editor ]
Toronto.

The Gametophyte of Botrychium virginianum.

[Librarian .]

Ontario.

By E. C. Jeffrey.

— Report Entomological Society, Ontario, 1898. [Dept. of Agri.]

Report Agri. and Exp. Union, Ontario 1898. [Dept.
Report Fruit-growers’ Association, Ontario. [Dept.

of Agri.]
of Agri]

-

Yo

UNITED STATES, AMERICA,
Publications of the following Agri. Exp. Stations, U.S. A., Directors.

Arizona 30 Massachusets 60
Arkansas 65 Minnesota 61
Illinois 54 and Report New Hampshire 59, 62.
Georgia 42 Nevada 31, 58, ou.
Geneva N. Y., 105, 151, 152; 153, .154 New Jersey, Report.
Kansas, 84, 85, 88 West Virginia 53, 54, 55.

Kentucky, 78, 80, 81.
Farmers’ Bulletin No. 91, Potato Diseases and their Treatment. [Dept.
of Agri.]
Div. of Boil. Survey, North Amer. Fauna. No. 14. [Dept. of Agri.]
Report No. 59 Curing and Fermentation of Cigar Leaf Tobacco. [Dept.

of Agri.]
Yearbook of Dept. of Agri, 1898. [Secy of Agri. ]
Do. (another copy) [C. 8. Farquiarson. |

Trans. Mass. Hort. Society 1898. pt.'1. [Secretary.]

Papers from Rhodora and Amer. Journ of Science, Vol. vi. 98. By M.
L. Fernald. (Gray Herbarium ]

American Journal of Pharmacy, May. | Editor.]

Botanical Garden, N. Lork, Bulletin, April. [Director.]

Botanical Gazette, Chicago, April. [Editor. ]

Torrey Club Bulletin, April, May. [Editor.]

Papers presented at the Boston Meeting by Linnaean Fern Chapter,
Aug., 24, 1898. [B. D. Gilbert.]

Proc. of the Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, April, May. [Gray
Herbarium. |

Plant World, May. [Publisher.]

Notes on the Genus Bartonia. B. L. Robinson. [Gray Herbarium.]

SOUTH AMERICA,
Boletim Inst. Agronomico, S. Paulo. Brazil, Jan. [Director.]

PoLYNFSIA.
Planters’ Monthly, Hawaii. May. [Editor.]

SEEDS.
From Imperial Dept. Agot. West Indies.
Socratea exorhiza.
Frou Agri. Exp. Station Calhoun, Loutsiana.
28 vars. of Pea.
From H. P. Deans Esq.
Lentil seeds.
From Jamaica Products Co., Limited
Liberian Coffee grown at Castleton, cured by Co.
From Miss Burke, Kingston.
Stephanotis.
From Supt. R. Bot, Gard.. 1+inidad.
Oreodoxa oleracea.

PLANTS.
From Messrs. F. Sander & Co.. tingland.
Cattleya amethystoglossa. Dendrobium devonianum.
C. sp. D. Dalhousieanum.
Cypripedium venustum. D. Wardianum.
Eria barbata. D. nobile.
Ki. sp. D. formosum.

Semmes tree ee cnn es nn re ee nnetereeesnnarsseneeesr nase es rn acsenetengmpes ne semeceenes.

[Issued 17th June 1899. }

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

New Series.) JULY, 1899. Part VI

RICE IN JAMAICA.

The following notes have been kindly furnished by Mr.
Walter Woolliscroft of George’s Plain, Westmoreland. There is an
article on the cultivation of Rice in [ndia in Bulletin No. 19 for Sep-
tember, 1890.

“ My idea in starting this industry was to persuade the people (prin-
cipally relying on coolies) to grow the rice and sell to me on the Cen-
tral Factory system at my mills, at a given price, that they might
participate in the profits. By interesting the people in this way I
thought a big business might in time be built up to the satisfaction of
all parties concerned, and as a help to the parish and country by a con-
siderable money circulation. [ make advances to the growers against
their cultivation, to enable those to plant that otherwise would not have
the means. For the season just passed the coolies, and some creoles,
had a very fair cultivation here under a special scheme of arrangement
with myself. I did not millas much of this year’s rice as I had anti-
cipated, as I found the percentage of cleaned rice too poor, which no
doubt was the outcome of the long repeated plintings of old worn out
seed. The quantity I milled was about 1,200 bags, or 3,800 bushels in
the paddy. For this coming season I imported seed for the plants, and
I am hoping for a good crop of white rice at the end of the year. I am
also expecting several other varieties of seeds from India to make ex-
periments with, as to the most suitable for the lands and the market. I
am glad to say the start in the growth from the imported seed now
growing is favourable. <A good deal of morass land here is suitable for
rice growing, but is not really first rate land for the purpose, as the
water cannot be put on and taken off the land, as it really should be, for
the cultivation, but all the same the planters are successful and can get
a return up to 75 bushels per acre. Ina couple of years time I hope to
have land here under proper control as to water. The soil is good, deep

98

and rich, such as one mostly finds in morass lands that are periodically
flooded during the wet season.

“ Rice planting was once tried in this parish a few years back on a
somewhat large scale, but under the system of its management, there is,
in my mind, no wonder at the industry having failed.” .

TROPICAL FRUITS IN ENGLISH MARKETS.

The following notes appeared in the “ Times” last December. They
show that the Banana is increasing in favour ; that the navel Orange
is preferred to the Jaffa : and that pines are valuable, when well grown.

The name of the persimmon is probably new to mest people in
Jamaica. The fruit is a favourite one in the United States, and has
been much improved lately by careful selection, and by hybridsation be-
tween the Japanese and native American species. Seedling trees have
been grown at the Hill Gardens, but have not yet produced fruit. Ap-
plication has been made to the United States Department of Agriculture
for plants of some of the best varieties for experiment at Hope and Cas-
tleton as well as in the Hill Gardens, and a courteous reply has been re-
ceived from the Department, promising some plants at the next dis-
tribution to their own Experiment Stations.

‘This year the opening of the Christmas season in the fruit mar-
kets of the metropolis has been remarkable for its unusual activity. A
greater quantity and variety of fresh and dried fruits have been sent in for
sale than ever before,so that the supply is ample for all requirements.
The fruit markets during the Christmas week are well worth seeing, and
the vastly increased trade can only be properly gauged by those ac-
quainted with the sales in every ceatre. Tons of nuts are coming in
daily from Asiatic Turkey; grapes from Belgium, Spain, France, and the
Channel Islands; pineapples from the Azores; pears from Canada; toma-
toes from France, Italy, Spain, Belgium, and the Canaries; and chesnuts
from Italy, France, and Spain.

“The fruit auctioneers have been selling continuously almost from
morning till night. Inthe river the boats have come up in rapid succes-
sion, and with such cargoes that it has been no easy matter to get the
fruit warehoused in time for sale. Among the new seasonable fruits
which have “ come to stay” is the persimmon, that glossy deep orange-
hued fruit, with a large open eye, if I may term its crown, not unlike
the old-fashioned English medlar in shape, which now forms one of the
most striking features in the windows of the retail fruit shops. This
fruit, which some people consider a great dainty, has been improved al-
most as wonderfully as the tomato. The best supplies just now come to
us from Madeira. They are retailed as high as 4s. per dozen. Pre-
sently, when the trade has been properly aeveloped and the fruit itself
popularised among the wide circle of consumers, enormous quantities
will be sent into all the English markets, from California, particularly,
where the fruit is grown plentifully from the size of a plum up to that
of a Baldwin apple. There is nothing fanciful about this prediction, for
the fruit can be picked when just ready to commence colouring, and

99

will travel almost any distance and colour up to perfection in transit. The
tree isa native of the United States, and when ripe the fruit is very
sweet.

‘‘ Few fruits even including the apple have made a more rapid ad-
vance in the British markets than the banana. Millions of bunches of
this fruit are now sent into our ports every year and for the Christmas
sales the supply this season has been exceptionally large. The banana
as a retail fruit is almost useless unless it is ripe. Many years ago, be-
fore this point received the attention it does now, one or two firms in
Covent-garden Market owning underground cellars fitted up with heat-
ing apparatus to colour the fruit, had the business entirely in their own
hands. Then pertectly-coloured bananas made as much as 20s., 30s.,
and 40s. per bunch, and fortunes were realised. But the enormous sup-
plies sent from the Canaries and Madeira have revolutionised the trade.
During the past few days there has been a great scarcity of well-ripened
bananas in the fruit shops, and the dealers who have cellars heated for
the purpose of ripening the green bunches are cramming the heated
chambers to meet the great run which has set in for ripe fruit.

‘“At one time hot-house pineapple culture was a paying industry
in this country, but the large importations of St. Michael pines specially
grown under glass for the English market completely ruined the
business. Nevertheless, itis quite possible that pineapple production will
be revived, and in the near future become a very extensive trade in the
British Isles. The superior quality, the more delicate appearance, the
exquisite fragrance and flavour which distinguish the Hnglish from
the imported fruit justify this prophecy. It was not unusual ten
years ago to see magnificent Hnglish hot-house pines weigh-
ing from 8lb. to 10lb, each on show in the markets, and eagerly
sought after by West-end buyers: Harly in the present century these
fruits used to be grown pretty generally, but few English hot-house pine-
apples will make their appearance in the fruit shops for Christmas this
year. The St. Michael pineapples this season are very plentiful. They
are large and well coloured, being worth from 3s to 6s each in the mar-
kets. Of oranges the supplies are most plentiful and the quality well
up tothe average of previous years. The giant seedless Californian
navel oranges still take the lead; oranges from Jaffa, St. Michael, Malta,
and Spain, also meet with a ready sale and especially the Valencia,
which is a good cheap orange for the people. As many as ten million
oranges have been sold by auction in the United Kingdom in one day
during the present month. Altogether the fruitmen in the markets and
the retail fruiterers are having a record season, and never before has
the eae public been able to obtain a better supply of fruit for Christ-
mastide.”

100
TOBACCO FERMENTATION.

In an article in the Tobacco World on the cultivation of tobacco in
Sumatra, after dealing with the care and labour bestowed in its cultiva-
tlon, particulars of the mode of fermentation are described as follows :—

‘The tobacco comes direct from the drying sheds to the one fer-
mentiny shed, which holds all the tobacco of the estate. It does not
leave here until packed and ready for shipment to the Huropean
markets.

The fermentation has two purposes. The first is to insure the proper
texture, glossy appearance, and colour to the leat. It brings out the
characteristic properties of the wrapper leaf, which are hardly apparent
when the leaf is cut in th> field. Lt is furthermore necessary to press
the tobacco into bales so that it can be shipped in compact form.

Formerly, when dark colours for cigar wrappers were in much
favour by the dealers and manufacturers, the tobacco was worked up to
a very high heat in the fermenting pile ; but since lighter colours are
more sought for, the fermentation has to be done more slowly and not
to such a high degree of heat as formerly.

It is impossible in the space of this article to describe the process
of fermentation in all its details. | Experience and judgment enter into
the matter so largely that only one who has had this experience can
appreciate the changes which are going on in the pile, and can judge
of the necessary and further treatment.

The tobacco is put into piles of three kinds, the “‘ quality” or top’
leaves, bottom leaves, and ragged tobaceo. The piles are built up on
matting. One row is spread on the matting, the bundles being placed
close together with the heads in the same direction. At the corners the
leaves are spread out like a fan. In this way layer after layer is put on
until the pile is from 4 to 6 feet high. Whena large or rather high
pile is to be made, hollow bamboo rods are inserted in the middle of the
pile, in which a thermometer is placed at the end of astick. The outer
end of the bamboo has a plug of cotton, so that the temperature of the
outside cannot interfere with that of the inside.

With smaller piles, and especially with trash and inferior tobaccos,
simply a bamboo stick is inserted in the pile without a thermometer.

The manager, on touching the stick when it is withdrawn, judges
how warm itis inside. In still smaller piles the hand is simply put in
between the bundles. When the temperature rises to about 100° F.
the pile is taken down, the tobacco is given a chance to cool off slightly
and a new pile is put up in another place. Care is taken that bundles
from the interior are placed on the outside to give those which were
formerly on the outside an equal chance of fermenting. The
temperature gradually goes higher until it finally attains the tem-
perature of about 130° F., when the fermentation is stopped. The
maximum temperature must not be attained too quickly, as the quality
of the leaf would suffer. No statement can be made as to how often the
piles should be turned over, or when this should be done, as it depends
upon the condition of the tobacco, especially as to how moist it was
when put into the pile.” —Cape of G. Hope Agri. Journ.

101
STERILISATION OF WATER.

MM. Marmier and Abraham have studied the methods of render-
ing drinking water bacteriologically pure, with a view to supply such
pure water to towns on an industrial scale. The municipal authorities
of Lille authorised them to instal an apparatus for the production of
ozone, in order to find out by experiment what was the value of that
substance when applied to the purification of water by means of appara-
tus and methods specially devised for the purpose. Hxperiments made
from December 10, 1898, to February 12, 1899, have already led to
certain conclusions, which are set forth by A. Calmette, one of the ©
experts appointed on the Water (iommission by the town of Lille. The
efficacy of the ozonising apparatus is unquestionable, and the method
is superior to al] cthers that have been tried, and is suitable for dealing
with large quantities of water. The apparatus itself is sufficiently
strong, and its output is regular enough to justify its use in industrial
operations: All the pathogenic or saprophytic microbes met with in the
waters under experiment were destroyed by passing the waters through
the ozonising apparatus. A few of the Bacillus subtilis alone survived the
ordeal. One only of these germs was found capable of remaining in 15
c.c. of water that had been treated with ozone in the proportion of six
milligrammes per litre of air. A concentration of 9 milligrammes per
litre reduces the number to | in every '25 c.c. of water so treated. It
is important to note, however, that the B. subtilis is harmless to man
and to animals, hence the weaker concentration of ozone is sufficient for
the purpose. The water, moreover, is weaker in organic matter than
ordinary drinking water, and is less prone to ulterior pollution, and is
more agreeable to the palate by reason of the process of aération which
itundergoes. The Water Commission has recommended the adoption of
the process by the authorities of Lille—(Annales de l’Inst.Pasteur, 13
344.) Pharmaceutical Journal.

USE OF FUNGI] AGAINST INSECT PESTS.

A recent number of the “Cape Agricultural Journal” contains a
report of an address given by Dr. Edington on the artificial use of a
particular fungus, said to be parasitic to locusts, for the destruction of
the latter. The results so far obtained with the fungus in question
appear to be at considerable variance, some farmers stating that they
have derived great benefit from its application, whilst others assert as
positively that it has been of no use whatever. A great deal must of
necessity depend upon the circumstances in which this, together with
other such similar living-destroying agencies, are employed, and Dr.
Edington,:in the course of his lecture, pointed out what he considered the
best methods for promoting the successful use of thisfungus. If locusts
can be destroyed is so simple a manner as this is described to be, the
gain to the Cape farmers wiil be enormous, and at any rate means
should be adopted so that its use may become more widely known, and
more extensive trials given to it. The use of fungi for the destruction

102

of pests is being tried in America, where the white muscardine fungus,
Sporotrichum globuliferum, has been largely employed during the last
few years to cheek the injurious over-production of the chinch-bug.
Mr. Benjamin Duggar of the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station
has, however, been recently making a careful study of this organism in
relation to the insect in question, and has come to the conclusion that,
although it is undoubtled parasitic at times, it is not sufficiently efficient
to enable it to be artificially employed with economic success. It is
obvious that to obtain trustworthy data on this subject, many and very.
carefully conducted investigations must be carried out. It is to be
hoped that Dr. Edington will be able to give the locust-problem the
time and attention which it requires to enable scientific conclusions to
be drawn as to the economic value of the fungus he recommends in
destroying locusts.—( Nature.)

EXTRACTS FROM CONSULAR REPORTS.

COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES.

As inquiries are sometimes made about the prospects of a cotton
industry in Jamaica, the following extracts from a Foreign Office Report
may be of interest; the Report is by H. M. Consul for Charleston, Mr.
Cotlogon :—

The production of another large cotton crop in the United States—
the largest on record—probuced a naturally unfavourable effect on prices
for this staple and also on the value of the business of this port; the total
quantity of cotton received being greater than that of the previous year,
while the comparative value of the same was much less. An important
factor now affecting the American crop is the annual production of about
3,000,000 bales of cotton which the State of Texas alone is adding to the
cotton product of the country. The total yield bas also been further
augmented of recent years by different methods of cultivation adopted
by a smaller class of .planters, whose aggregate product has been large
enough to materially affect the crop and market prices.

During the last cotton season of 1897-98 which ends August 31,
1898, Charleston received 462,408 bales of upland cotton, which in com-
parison with the previous season, showed an increase of 69,218 bales; the
highest price paid in this market during the year being 6% c. per lb. for
medium, and the lowest 5 c. for the same grade of cotton.

Carolina Sea Island cotton opened about the middle of October,
1897, at 18 c. per lb. for medium fine quality and gradually declined to
15 c. Extra fine qualities, however, which were sold early in the season,
brought moderately fair prices, but later sales showed a heavy decline.

A considerable quantity of the crop was of inferior colour, and
sold as low as 10 c. per lb.

Georgia Sea Island cotton opened at 124 c. for extra choice, de-
clined to 12 c., and later advanced to 124 to 13 c. per lb.

Florida Sea Islands of the better and poorer grades were in fair

103

demand, but there was only a limited demand for extra cnoice and fancy
Wast Floridas, and about 1,500 bales remained unsold at the close of the
season.

(‘ONCESSION FOR RUBBER.

In the Consular Report for 1898 on Lourengo Marques, a Portu-
gese colony in South Africa, Mr. A. C. Ross, writes :—

In the end of 1897 a monopoly was granted for the exploitation of
rubber in the unoccupied lands belonging to the State within the dis-
trict of Inhambane with the hope of (1) putting an end to the destruc-
tive native method of collecting rubber, viz., cutting down the vines
and extracting the valuable sap by boiling, and (2) increasing the
production by fresh planting. The exports of rubber from Inhambane
have been going down of recent years; in 1896, 39 tons; 1897, 35
tons ; and for 1898, only 20 tons.

The terms of the grant are as follows :-—

1. The monopoly is granted tor 25 years.

2. The concessionnaires have to pay during the first seven years
50 reis per kilo of rubber exported and 75 reis during the remaining
18 years.

3. Within two years 20,000 rubber plants must have been planted
on land selected by the concessionaires and the Government.

4. A rent of 200,000 reis per annum shall be paid for this land.

5. At the end of 25 years the concessionnaires may elect to hand
over the plantation or retain it at the same rent as previously paid.

6. The concessionnaires are exempt from any other imposts.

A company with a capital of 30,000/. has been floated to work this
concession, and it is confidently expected that during the present year
considerable progress will be made towards the fulfilment of paragraph
3 above mentioned.

It is expressly laid down that the concession above mentioned does
not prevent any person growing rubber on his own land and exporting

it:
JOLONIAL PRODUCE IN SPAIN.

H. M. Consul, Mr. U. A. P. Talbot, in a Report on the Trade and
Commerce of Corunna for 1898, says :—

“The importation of cocoa in 1898 was 249 tons, of which 43 tons
came for the first time from France, and [ would observe that a market
is now open for all Colonial produce in consequence of the loss of the
Spanish colonies, and London merchants would do well to push business
for spices, sugar, coffee, cocoa, especially the latter which enters so
largely in the daily consumption of every Spanish household.

“ These remarks also apply to coffee hitherto imported from Puerto
Rico, whence 80 tons only came in 1898, while during the same period
Belgium sent 25, France 10, Germany 20 tons, but none from Great

104

Britain, which is regrettable as we could supply the Spanish market om
as equally favourable conditions as other countries’.

MANUFACTURE OF HARDWOODS.

The following shows what might be done with any or all of Jamaica
hardwoods, also from Mr. Coetlogon’s Report :—

The Charleston Hardwood Manufacturing Company was started on
asmall scale in April, 1897, for the manufacture of shuttle blocks, for
use in cotton mills. The factory is now a thoroughly well equipped
establishment, and is furnished with the lastest improvements ; it 1s
run by the largest electric motor in the city, and has been pronounced
by experts to be one of the best factories of its kind in the country.
The first shipment made from this mill was a sample order of 8,000
shuttle blocks shipped to Liverpool, which were reported by the con-
signee to be the best blocks he had received from America.

The dogwood * and persimmon trees which grow freely in the
Southern forests, supply a close and finely grained article for making
these shuttles, and it is stated that there are orders enough now in hand
to keep the factory going for five years. Although the capital of the
company is quite moderate, it gives employment to numbers of
hards engaged all over the lower country in cutting dogwood
and persimmon trees. The labour employed at the factory in the
city consists of expert hands, brought here for the purpose. As
the work requires great nicety and skill, it is long before the
ordinary hand can learn the business. None of the blocks made here
have been sold in America, the orders having come entirely from
abroad. Hight different sizes of blocks have been shipped, so far,
varying from 124 to 23 inches in length.

The wood is brought here in the rough state, in sizes of about
cord wood dimensions, 2, 4, and 8 feet in length, and not less at the
small end than 5 inches in diameter. It must be freed from knots and
other blemishes, as the inspection is very strict.

The refuse wood from the manufactured articles make excellent fuel
for use in stoves or grates. Many persons in Charleston discarded coal
last year, and used in its place this rejected wood, as it is very clean
making a hot fire with little ash. |

There is also a factory for making shuttles at Westminster, South
Carolina, which started with a capital of about 1,500 dol., and is re-
ported to have been quite successful.

These two factories are small, but being without competitors in the
State, their establishment and growth are being watched with interest
on account of the benefits likely to arise from their possible future
development.

* Dogwoods of Southern United States are species of Cornus. Persim-
mon (the wild kind) is Diospyros Virginiana. Ed. Bulletin.

105
THE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN JAMAICA.

The following Memorandum by Mr. F. Watts, late Goverament
Analytical and Agricultural Chemist of Jamaica, on the subject of the
Sugar Industry of the Colony, has been published in the Jamaica
Gazette :—

Mr. F. Warts to THE CoLonrIAL SECRETARY, JAMAICA.
Barbados, May 15th, 1899.

Sir,—-It has been suggested to me that it may prove of service if,
on leaving Jamaica, I place before you some ideas which have occurred
to me in connection with the sugar industry of the Colony.

(2) The advantages of the sugar industry to a colony are such that
it appears to be highly desirable that efforts should be made to preserve
this industry to Jamaica ; it is an industry with which a large section
of all grades of the community is familiar, both as regards the pro-
duction as well as the marketing of sugar ; it affords regular em-
ployment to a large number of people, and it is an industry for
which certain districts of Jamaica are eminently suited. Should the
industry once pass away from the colony its re-introduction would be a
matter of extreme difficulty.

(3) At the present time the greater part of the sugar produced in
Jamaica is manufactured by the old and wasteful Muscovado process in
small sugar works, most of which areimpertectly equipped. Although at
the moment of writing the price of sugar is higher than it has been for
some years the views of those well calculated to form reliable opinions are,
that the price of sugar in future years will not be substantially higher
than it has been during the past decade. At these prices, and with the
system and appliances in vogue in Jamaica, sugar-growing during this
period has not been an attractive or remunerative business. It is highly
desirable therefore that means should be found for placing the industry
on a better footing if possible, and there is good reason to believe that
this may be accomplished.

(4) The losses entailed by the Muscovado system of sugar making
may be briefly indicated thus :—

Loss from imperfect crushing of the canes.

Loss due to the imperfect recovery or extraction of sugar from
the juice.

Loss due to the production of low grade sagars fit only for the
refinery. |

These losses are those inseparable from the manufacture of sugar
in small works; they may be avoided by substituting for these small
works central factories sufficiently large to permit of the introduction of
machinery of the best and most economical type.

(5) Taking the losses just referred to, there are very few instances
in which the actual crushing power of the Jamaica mills is accurately
known. (Trials made on small lots of cane, one ton for instance, I
take to be of little value.) From what | can gather I believe the crushing
power varies greatly. I infer, however,that the mills in all probability do

106

not give more than 60 per cent. of the weight of the canes in the form of
juice, whereas by the mills of a central factory, where the canes would
be passed through three sets of mills in succession, the yield should be
75 per cent or over ; so that if my assumption is correct—and the plant-
ers should ascertain this for themselves—15 parts of juice remains in the
canes for every 60 parts expressed, or 25 per cent.

(6) The amount of sugar extracted from the juice for every LOO
parts of raw sugar therein has never been ascertained over a long period,
nor for several places, in Jamaica; in Antigua, | ascertained that up-
wards of 80 pounds of Muscovado sugar, were extracted for every 100
pounds of raw sugar in the juice, often this figure was exceeded; there
however, the conditions were dissimilar from those of Jamaica, for in
Antigua no rum was made and therefore efforts were directed towards
obtaining as much sugar and as little molasses as possible. In Jamaica
where :um is made, there have been no special efforts to reduce the
quantity of molasses, and from a very limited number of observations,
I came to the conclusion that the amount of sugar extracted was very
low, probably, considerably under 70 pounds from every 100 of raw
sugar in the juice. Now that rum is bringing very low prices it is for
the planters themselves to ascertain how far it proves remunerative to
allow sugar to pass away as molasses to be converted into alcohol.

(7) With modern machinery it is possible te recover from 83 to 88
pounds of marketable sugar for every 100 pounds of raw sugar in the
juice; the actuai quantity will vary with the quality of the sugar made
and with the quality of the juice.

(8) In Museovado works it is difficult to control the quality and
quantity of the sugar to be made, and low grade sugar alone can be
made; this is only fit for the refiner and consequently always brings
lower prices than sugar capable of entering directly into consumption. In
factories fitted with modern appliances it is possible to produce sugar of
any required character from dark refiners’ sugar to white and yellow
grocery sugar according to the market demands for the various grades.
The quantity of sugar too is controlled; all the available sugar is ex-
tracted from the molasses and a rigid control is kept showing any losses
which may occur. All these points lead to greater efficiency and econ-
omy in working.

(9) Ihave thus indicated in the briefest possible manner the chief
defects of the Muscovado system and how these are overcome by manu-
facturing sugar in large factories. Recognising these points, and many
others, planters have from time to time made efforts to secure factories
capable of reducing the losses now experienced, they have always been
met with the difficulty that such factories are large and costly affairs
which must involve the combination and co-operation of several estates
in order to procure their advantages. The difficulties of obtaining cap-
ital and combination have led to the abandonment of many schemes.
Efforts are now being renewed to effect the necessary combination and
to procure the necessary capital for more than one factory for Jamaica.

(10) To secure the advaniages afforded by the best machinery it
appears to be necessary to have factories capable of making not less than
3,000 or 4,000 tons of sugar and up to 10,000 tons or over, in each

107

season. There has been much argument as to the most economical size.
Doubtless, if the factory were the only point to be considered, the larger
the factory the greater the economy in working, but in most instances
the capabilities of the district in which the factory is to be placed, the
quantity of canes available, and the conflicting business interests of
estate owners, all have to be taken into account in preparing plans for
any central factory scheme. From want of correct appreciation of these
local points there is often a tendency to suggest factories which may be
found to be too large for the district in question. It is important to
ascertain what cane supply can be actually guaranteed, or relied upon;
then to design a factory capable of dealing with these canes and at the
same time capable of having its capacity so increased that any reason-
able development of supply may be dealt with without incurring great
additional expense. The additions to the factory’s capacity need not be
made unless there is good ground for thinking that they will prove
remunerative, whereas if a factory too large in size is erected the char-
ges for interest and maintenance may prove fatal to profitable working.

(11) How the capital is to be procured and the amount to be pro-
vided are themes for much discussion. If the cane growers who can
associate themselves together are able to provide the required capital
they will be able to procure a factory for the minimum cost and will be
able to work with a minimum amount of capital. Unfortunately this
condition is seldom met with in the West Indies. When capital has to
be procured from outside it will always be found in practice that rather
more will be wanted than in the case just mentioned, and the cost of
the factory itself will also be somewhat greater.

(12) If central factories are erected by outside capital, it is of the
first importance to any colony that the basis of trading should bea
co-operative one. If this is not the case a condition of affairs may
arise whereby practically all the profits of the industry are sent away
from the colony, and the final stage may be more disastrous than that
now existing. Matters should be so arranged that those owning the
land and growing canes participate in any advantages arising from the
factory. Most modern schemes contain some provision whereby this is
secured, this is usually made by providing that a portion of the cost of
the factory shall be paid off out of profits, and that ultimately the factory
shall become the joint property of the capitalists and the cane-growers.
It will be seen that there is much scope for sound judgment in adjust-
ing the initial cost of the factory, part of which has to be paid off out of
profits, and of determining what proportions of the factory and its busi-
ness shall ultimately belong to the capitalists and to the cane-growers
respectively.

(18) Considerable difficulty has been experienced in ascertaining
what price should be paid for canes. In Queensland ard ia Egypt the
price is about 13/ to 14/ per ton. Where the cane-growers are ulti-
mately to become the owners or part-owners of the factory this difficulty
is minimised, for if a low price is paid for canes the larger will be the
profit of the factory, and the sooner will a portion of the cost be paid
off, so that the cane-growers will then own a large portion of the factory
and directly share the profits. In most of the schemes recently put
forward in the West Indies it has been proposed to pay about 10/ to 11’
per ton for canes delivered at the mill.

108

(14) Several schemes have been recently put forward whereby the
investment of outside capital has been invited for the improvement of
the conditions of sugar manufactur; in discussing them it is well that
attention should be directed to those points which I have here only in-
dicated in a very brief manner.

(15) In Queensland considerable impetus has been given to the
sugar industry by Government aid, whereby the Government guarantees
the interest upon money invested in the erection of sugar works under
certain well-defined regulations. The Queensland Sugar-Works
Guarantee Act was passed in 1893, and has thus only been in operation
for a few years; it appears to be most carefully compiled and affords the
Government ample security. In considering the desirability of intro-
ducing such a method of working into Jamaica, perhaps the first point
which is worth noting is, that its successful operation should be more
easily secured in a colony like Jamaica, where sugar-producing now
exists as an industry of considerable magnitude, merely waiting for im-
provements in methods of manufacture, the canes being already in ex-
istence, than under the Queensland conditions, where the sugar indus-
try was a comparatively new one.

(16) There is little doubt that the cost of erecting and working fac”
tories would be less with some such form of government as that provi~
ded in Queensland, than will be the case if outside capital alone is found
for the undertaking.

(17) Where sugar can be grown on lands irrigated at small ex-
pense, the sugar industry ceases to be a precarious one, and should prove
uighly remunerative. This can be accomplished in some districts of
Jamaica and here there ought to exist a thriving industry affording
stability to the welfare of the colony. In addition to the districts capa-
ble of irrigation there are many other places well suited for sugar
growing where central sugar factories could be erected to the advantage
alike of the sugar grower and of the colony, if satisfactory means of
providing capital can be found and an equitable basis of trading, as be-
tween the capitalists and cane-growers, can be secured. In all this, I
see no difficulties greater than those which have to be overcome in
most commercial undertakings.

I have, &c.,

Franots Warts.

—— - (SOA

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

ILLUSTRATIONS DE LA FLORE DU CONGO.

Amongst the contributions to the Library of the Department lately
presented are two parts of the first volume of “ Illustrations de la Flore
du Congo.” It is an Atlas of Drawings (14 x 11 inches) of new spe-
cies of plants with descriptions in full, published under the editorship

LOY

of Messieurs Dr. de Wildeman and Th. Durand of the Brussels Botanic
Garden.

This publication is part of a comprehensive work, entitled ‘‘Annales
du Musée du Congo,” published by order ot the Secretary of State. It
is divided into “ Series ” as follows :—

Series 1—Botany.—Lllustrations of the Flora of the Congo.

Series [1.—Zoology.— Materials for the Fauna of the Congo.

Series I[1.—Ethnography aud Anthropology.

Special Series—Monographs and works on the natural, physical,
political and economic history of the basin of the Congo.

The descriptions of the plants have mostly appeared before in var-
ious publications, but the drawings waich are beautifully executed, are
new, and are by Mme. B. Herincg and Messieurs Ch. Cuisin and
A. D’ Apreval.

THE SUPPLY OF CINCHONA BARK.

The report that there will be a decrease in the output of the Ceylon
and Indian cinchona plantations during the present year has given rise
to considerable interest in cinchona statistics in commercial circles.

Already the price of quinine has risen by 100 per cent. during the
last two months, viz., to ls 94d per oz., and during the same period the
sales and resales of quinine have amounted to about 4,000,000 oz.
Messrs. C. M. and C. Woodhouse have directed attention to the present
position of cinchona and quinine in two circulars issued to those inter-
ested in this trade.

From the tables given in these circulars it appears that during the
last few years the supply of cinchona has only just kept pace with the
demand, and has now fallen short of it, so that a still further increase
in the price of the bark and the alkaloid may be lcoked for. This en-
hanced value of cinchona may possibly lead to an extension of cinchona-
planting in India, where planters have, of late years, shown a tendency
to abandon it in favour of more profitable products. (Imp. Inst. Journ.,
iv., p. 77.)

The following tables show the amounts of cinchona produced in the
East Indies during the last few years and the imports into the chief cin-
chona-consuming countries.

EXpoRTSs.
1896 1897, 1898.
Ib. Ib. Ib:
Ceylon - 1,328,498 591,368 975,784
British E, India —- 754,384 816,077 3,090,000
Java - - 11,079,234 9,349,687 12,303,424
IMPORTS.
1896. 1897. 1898,
Ib. Ib. Ib.
United Kingdom 3, 952,000 2,758, 000 5,143,000
Holland - 10,922,000 9,070,000 11,657,000
Germany - 7,649,000 9,279,000 7,805,000
France - 2,603,000 2,270,000 2,304,960
United States - 2,599,000 2,696,000 3,302,128

L1o

The cinchona bark, is, of course, chiefly used for the manufacture
of alkaloid quinine, but it is difficult to correctly estimate the amount of
quinine produced in any country, since some of the cinchona imported
is used in other ways, but the following tabular statement has been given
as probably representing the world’s production of quinine last year.

(Chemist and Drugyist, Feb. 25, 1899.)

Germany - > 7,594,000 oz
United States : 3,333,000 *“
France . - 1,424,000 ‘
United Kingdom - 1,500,000 *
Java and other countries 1,000,000 **

The imports of bark in the United Kingdom and Holland during
the first quarter of last year amvunted to 4,715,000 lb., while this year
the total is only 2,789,000 lb.

The present value of English sulphate of quinine is 2s per oz.,
against 1s 4d. per oz. last year. (Imp. Inst. Journ., v., p. 156, June,

1899.)

XINCHONA CULTIVATION IN SOUTH INDIA.

AcTION OF THE Mapras GOVERNMENT.

Madras, May 17th.—Mr. Standen, Government Quinologist,
Madras, has been deputed to visit Java to study the system of planting
cinchona and manufacturing Quinine there, and will be absent for some
months.

It is proposed by the Madras Government to considerably extend
its’ cinchona plantations on the Neilgherries, and a large area has.
recently been cleared close to the Pykara Falls.— Times of India.

PEPPER CULTIVATION IN ASSAM.
The Assam Government has recently issued a note on the cultiva-
tion of black pepper in that province, with the idea of inducing the
people to cultivate it extensively as a commercial product. At the pre-
sent time it is only produced in sufficient quantities to supply local re-
quirements. The pepper-vine in Assam, it appears, is generally reared
on betel-nut trees, and the average yield of a single vine is said to be
about three seers (40 seers==21 lb.) of cured pepper. An acre of betel-
nut plantation holds about 500 trees.—Chemrst and Druggist, March 11.

111

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT.

LIBRARY.

KUROPE.
British Isles.

Botanical Magazine, May, June. [Purchased. ]

British Trade Journal, May, June. [Kditor.]

Chemist and Druggist, May 6, 13, 20,27. June 3,10. [Editor]

Garden, May 6, 13, 20, 27. June 3,10. [Purchased.]

Gardeners’ Chronicle, May 6, 13, 20,27. June 3,10. [Purchased.]

Journal of Botany, June. [Purchased.]

Journal R, Colonial Institute, May, June.

Nature, May 4, 11, 18, 25. June 1,8. [Purchased.]

Pharmaceutical Journal, May 6, 13, 20,27. June 3, 10. [Editor.]

Produce World, June. [Editor.]

Sugar, May. [Editor,]

International Sugar Journal, June. [Editor.]

W. Indian and Com. Advertiser, June. [Editor.]

France.

Sucrerie, indigéne et coloniale, May 9, 16, 23, 30, June 13, 6. [Editor.]
Germany.

Notizblatt, Berlin, Konige Bot. Garts and Museums, May. [Director.]

Tropenpflanzer, June. [Kditor.]

Die Naiurlichen Pfianzenfamilien, Nachtrage zum und Gesamtregister

zum, 11—IV. Teil. [Purchased.]

Symbolae antillanae seu Fundamenta Florae Indiae Occidentalis, Vol. 1

Fase I. LI. [Purchased].
Holland.

Bulletin Koloniaal Museum ti Haarlem, April, May. ([Director. ]
Belgium.
Illustrations de la Flore du Congo. Vol. I. Pts. 1 and 2. [Direetor,

Musee du congo. |

ASIA.

India.
Agricultural Ledger (Calcutta) Nos, 1, 2, and3. 1899. ([Lieut. Gov.

Bengal. ]

Planting Opinion, April 15, 22, 29, May 6, 13, 20. [ Editor. ]
Ceylon.
Times of Ceylon, Aprii 19, 27, May 11, 17, 25. [Editor.]

Tropical Agriculturist, May. Purchased.]
The Coccidae of Ceylon. By E. E.Green. Part II. [Purchased.]

JAVA.
Vroefstation E. Java. De Bemestings proeftiunen Van 189-98, [Director]
N. S. WALES.
Agri. Gazette of N. S. Wales, April. [Dept. of Agr,]

QUEENSLAND.

Queensland Agri. Journal, April, May. [Editor.]
Queensland Sugar Journal, May. ([Kditor.]

AFRICA,

Cape of Good Hope Agricultural Journ, April, May. [Agr. Dept.|
Central African Times, March 18, 25, April 1, 8, 15, 22,29. [Editor,]

112

West INpIex.

Barbados.

Agricultural Gazette and Planter’s Journal, May. [Editor.]
British Guiana.

Report of Bot. Gard.. 1897-98. [Superintendent.]
Jamaica.

Journal Jamaica Agri. Soc., June. [Secretary.]
Trinidad.

Proce. of Agri. Soc., May 9. Report for 1898. [Secretary.]

Windward Islands.
Met, Observations, Sept. Dec. 1898. St. Lucia. [Curator.]

BRITISH NoRTH AMERICA.

Montreal.
Pharmaceutical Journal, June. [Editor-]

Ontario.
Bureau of Industries, Bull. LXIX. [Seeretary. |

UNITED STATES AMERIOA.

Publications of the following Agri. Exp, Stations, U. S. A. [Directors.]
Alabama 103, 104.
Geneva, N. Y. ‘21. pe mh 157, 158.

Kentucky, 1897. Rep
Michigan, 166—167, 188.169, 170—17i, 172—173. Special Buil. Li

and 12 New J ersey 136.
Utah 59, spraying.
West Virginia 54, 55, 53.
American Journal of Pharmacy, June. [Kditor.]
Botanical Gazette, Chicago, May. [Kditor.]
Plant World, June, Publisher,

SOUTH AMERICA,
Boletin Museu Paraense, Para, Dee. 1898.

SEEDS.
From Hort. Soc, Madras India.

Seeds.
Burnt on receipt, as there is a Government prohibition againt receiving

seeds or plants from S. India for fear of introducing the Coffee Leaf
Disease, Hemileia vastratrix.
From V. E. Silvera Esq. Oracabessa,
Sabal umbraculifera.

[Issued 17th July 1899.]

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

: Vol. VI
New Series AUGUST, 1899, Part VOI

COLLECTING RUBBER.

Mr. Jenman, Superintendent of the Botanic Gardens, British
Guiana, has contributed the following remarks on collecting rubber aad
balata to the “ Argosy” with references to scme paragraphs on the
subject in the Annual Report of Mr. Curtis, Superintendent of the
Penang Botanic Garden. Mr. Curtis’s experiment is interesting in
showing how to obtain an increased amount of rubber from the tree,
but it remains to be seen whether the total amount drained in this way
during the life of the tree is more than that obtained in the old-fash-
ioned way of single cuts renewed from year to year :—

Mr. Jenman directs the attention of balata collectors to the method
of tapping described below, in which it is shown that a tree can be
milked day after day by simply taking a slight shaving off the sides of
the gutters. As is well known to every one who has collected balata
or other rubbers,—in two or three hours after the gutters are made on
the trees the milk stops running. This appears to be chiefly due to the
coagulation of the milk by the drying influence of the air on the edges
of the incised bark,—a design of nature in its own interest, not to ex-
haust itself under damage from whatever cause, accidental or otherwise;
but by removing this film, the next and following days increased quan-
tities of milk from day to day will run, thus greatly increasing the yield
of gutta trom a single tree. This isa matter very important to know,
for it will not only tell in the yield, but in the economical workiag of
rubber forests, and in the cost of collecting. The practice hitherto,
has been to tap a tree once and leave it, tapping it again a year or so
afterwards by making new channels, and then leaving the tree for good.
But by the method described, a tree can be milked like a maipurie or
bush-cow every day, giving more and more milk each time fora
limited period, which must be determined by the collector, in his
knowledge of and consideration for the permanent health of the tree. The
system of collecting in the past has not only been incredibly wasteful,
but ruinous to the forest, which, indeed, would have died out but for the
fact that the trees, though so greatly damaged and exhausted by the
recklessly conducted work on them, and, perhaps, to some extent,
because of that—for however great the stress, nature never lets

114

herself go, easily, if she can help it—still have gone on bear-
ing fruit, which, dropping to the ground, has produced young
trees, that, where allowed to live, have taken the place, in time, as the
parents, damaged to death by irresponsible collectors, died out. Another
economical system of collecting has been described, of merely punctur-
ing the bark all over, with pin pricks as it were, thus allowing the milk
to ooze, to be collected as tears, a day or two afterwards, when dried by
the atmosphere on the bark of the tree. This system could be carried
out on al! parts of the tree that could be reached, and would inflict very
little damage, if any, of a permanent character on it, as the minute
punctures would heal quickly, when the process could be repeated again
indefinitely. This system is only new in the form of the method of
tapping, for the Aboriginal Indians of the Guianas, and probably the
West Indies and other regions, have practised it from time immemoria!
by pierc' 1g the bark, in a very rough way it must be said, and allowing
the milk to dry in tears on the tree, which, collected when dry, they
wind like string into balls for those playing games in which balls are
are used. The practice has been often observed on the t’pong tree
(Sapium biglandulosum) in this Colony, and described many years ago.
The latest proposal is to grow rubber plants, sown thickly, as wheat or
hay is sown and grown, aud reap it as an annual crop, using up the
whole plant, bark, wood and leaves, and extracting the milk by a chem-
ical process. This method of felling the balata trees and stripping them
of bark, twigs and leaves, and using all then in a chemical process for
the extraction of the rubber, or some other analagous, was tried here in
this Colony many years ago. But it was abandoned, owing to the im-
purity and poor character of the balata so extracted and produced. It
was revived again some years ago ; and it has been frequently reported
that the Government of Venezuela has given out vast concessions of the
enormous forests of that country in which this system of extraction is
the method that is being pursued. Some gentlemen came here to
Georgetown, two or three years ago, with the object of getting great
soncesssions of a like character of the balata forests of this Colony, they |
undertaking with slips and young plants just sprouting in the under
brush, besides paying royalty and duty, to plant vp the ground left bare
behind them as they progressed in the clearing of the forests. [t was
found however that our forest laws did not admit of problematical ex-
periments on the scale and under the scheme proposed. (This scheme
is now about to be tested, great quantities of the native Heveas having.
been lately raised). From the schemes described, it is evident that very
great economies can be practiced in rubber forests and in rabher culti-.
vation and collecting, the method of working in the past, as every one
knows who has given any attention to the matter at all, being simply
ruinous to future permanance :—

RUBBER IN PENANG *

As great interest is being taken in Para Rubber and consideraole
eapital invested in its cultivation, I have again tapped the best tree in
the garden from which 1b. of rubber was taken during the rainy season
in June, 1897. A sample of this was subsequently submitted to Messrs.

_ C. Curtis, in Report, Penang Botanic Gardens.

115

Hecht Lewis and Khan for valuation, who reported it as ‘“ beautiful!
rubber very well cured worth to-day 3s 3d per lb.” This had simply
been dried in the sun and kept in the office for about a year.

This time the tapping was commenced on the 16th November which
is generally about the end of the heavy rains, but there is here no season
that can be counted on as absolutely dry as in Burmah and India, and
in fact rain fell frequently while the operation was carried on which
was spread over a period of thirty-four days. Oblique cuts lead-
ing to perpendicular channels, were made in six places (subse-
quently increased to seven) at the bases of which were affixed
by means of a lump of clay and a nail, small tins to receive the
latex. An ordinary carpenter’s chisel was used for making and
renewing the cuts, but both this and the tins can be improved on
when the work has to be taken in hand by the practical planter.
Earthenware glazed cups with a hole near the bottom so that the latex
can be drawn off without removing them will effect a great saving in
labour, as much time is taken up in fixing the tins securely when re-
moved every day, and some rubber is also lost in doing this. A better
cutting tool than an ordinary chisel can also be devised for the
work. At the beginning the milk comes slowly and at no time
continues running for long. With two exceptions the cuts were re-
newed between 7 and 8 a.m. and the tins brought in at 11 a.m. ; but
the flow had always ceased before that time. The two exceptions were
when the operation was performed in the evening, but as there is always
a danger of rain during the night, and avery slight shower causes
water to flow into the tins as nearly all the water trickling down the
stem of the tree falls into the oblique cuts, and is thence led directly to
the tins, the work is best done in this climate in the morning. Gener-
ally the latax had coagulated by the following morning, that is after
standing about twenty hours, but on two occasions only partially so.
In these cases, and also when rain water had got into the tins, a pinch
ot powdered alum was added which caused perfect coagulation in a
short time. If the addition of alum does not affect the value of the
rubber, it facilitates working operations in wet weather, for a little
water getting mixed with the latex does not matter, provided the vessels
do not overflow. All the rubber can be recovered by the addition of
alum. .

On the morning the incisions were first made only 4 oz. of wet
rubber was obtained, but by taking a thin shaving off the lower surface
of the oblique cuts on fourteen subsequent occasions, the following
quantities were obtained at each operation in ounces :—3?, 1#, 34, 34, 34,
6, 9, 64, 84, 6, 64, 10, 84,8; total 5lb. 14 oz. of wet rubber which
weighed when dry exactly 3lb. As will be seen from this the last three
tappings gave a better result than any previous three and operations
were only suspended as it was not advisable to make the cuts any wider.
The time occupied in affixing the tins and renewing the cuts averaged
half-an-hour on each occasion, or seven-and-a-half hours in all. It may
therefore be taken that a man at say 30 cts. per day could attend to at
least fifteen trees per day, and that the cost of collecting will not exceed
10 cts. per lb. With larger trees and better appliances it will be pro-
bably much less. I have lately visited Bertam Estate in Province

116

Wellesley where Mr. D. Logan planted about 2,000 young trees nine
months ago and the growth is very satisfactory. From planters in
Selangor I hear that the prospect is most encouraging, the trees making
very rapid growth. It is evident however, that the land selected should
be sufficiently drained to prevent the young plants being submerged,
for in one spot where this has happened at Bertam, many have died and
those that are alive do not look nearly so well as others on slightly

higher land.

SCALE INSECTs: REMEDIAL MEASURES AND
INSECTICIDES.

By E. E. Green, F.E.S. *

lu the following pages I have endeavoured to bring together scat- -
tered initormation on the various methods that have been employed in
dealing with insects pests of the family Coccidae, Though such treat-
ment may in many cases be found suitable to insect pests of other fami-
lies, I do not propose to give here a general treatise on iusecticides, but
to confine myself to measures applicable to the subject of the present
work.

Little or no originality can be claimed for the following remarks.
They are very largely compiled from the published work of trained en-
tomologists (chiefly American) in different parts of the world. America
has long been in the forefront in the practical application of economic

entomology.

Remedial measures may be discussed under two main headings :
Prevention and ure. The former, being by far the more important,
will be dealt with first :-—

PREVENTIVE MEASURES.

Of first importance among preventive measures, 1 would place
Quarantine Regulations. It is a fact, repeatedly demonstrated, that
imported pests are the most serious. An insect may attract little or no
attention in its criginal home, where it is kept in check by its own
natural enemies, a system recognised as ‘the Balance of Nature.’ But
take it away from its home; place it in a congenial climate with an
ample supply of suitable food, and it will multiply without the checks
that have prevented its increase in its original habitat. The very fact
of extensive damage by any insect may of itself almost be accepted as
proof of its foreign origin. Looking through the list of the different
scale-insects occurring in Ceylon, I find that all the more trou-
blesome species have been previously described from some other
country, and are, therefore, presumably imported insects. The
home of the ‘Lantana buy’ (Orthezia insignis) is now supposed
to be some where in South America; and there is evidence in

From “ The Coccide of Ceylon,” Pt. II., Dulau & Co., London, 1899.

117

favour of the supposition that we owe our ‘ green coffee bug’ (Lecan-
ium viride) to Western Africa. Aspidiotus cydonize, Chionaspis biclavis
and Mytilaspis citricola, were originally described from America. As-
pidiotus camelliae. A. cyanophylli, Chionaspis aspidistre, and
Dactylopius citri, are all well known on the continent of Europe.
Aspidiotus aurantii and Pulvineria psidii have their home in Australiasia.
Our former coffee pest, the ‘ brown bug’ (Lecanium coffeae) might per-
haps be quoted as an exception to this rule, as it was first recorded from
Ceylon. But this insect is now considered to be merely a local variety
of Lecanium hemisphaericum, an insect found all over the world, and
whose origin is uncertain, On the other hand, nota single undoubtedly
native species has attracted any notice as an insect pest in Ceylon.

We have only to recognise these facts to appreciate the importance
of a properly conducted system of quarantine for all imported plants
and fruit. Our insular position in Ceylon, with but one main port of
entry, gives us a peculiar advantage in carrying out such a system. A
single quarantine station, with a single fumigatorium, will be sufficient
in our case to deal with the whole importations of theisland. It is true
that, in spite of quarantine regulations, particular pests have found their
way into protected countries. In suchcases failure must be attributed
to incompieteness of execution. And, though some few pests may have
evaded all precautions, how many others must have been refused entry?
The records of existing quarantine establishments give long lists of
dangerous insects detected on arrival and destroyed before they have
had the chance of obtaining a footing in the new country. 1 believe it
is the custom at most quarantine stations to examine imported plants
and fruit, and, if they appear to be free from blights, to pass them with-
out treatment. But I maintain that not even the most experienced
entomologist could guarantee a plant as absolutely free from insect life.
Minute larvae and eggs may lurk beneath bud-scales, in the axils of
leaves, or in unnoticed crevices of the bark. To be really effective,
quarantine must be complete. Every live plant and fresh fruit should
be subjected to treatment, whether it appear to be free from disease or
not.

The only sure way of reaching every hidden insect is by fumiga-
tion. If properly conducted, there is little danger of permanent injury,
to the plant. Even though some few delicate plants may be injured, or
actually killed by the process, this is a very small consideration in com-
parison with the damage that may be effected by a single imported pest.
What, for instance, must have been the pecuniary loss to the colony
from the ravages of the ‘ green bug’—a loss that in all probability
might have been prevented. And compare this loss with the value of
all the delicate plants that have ever been imported into Ceylon! But,
for such tender plants, it is possible to employ other treatment than is
recommended for hardy shrubs and trees.

For wholesale fumigation of plants and fruit there is nothing to
equal hydrocyanic acid gas, generated by mixing cyanide of potassium,
waier, and sulphuric acid in certain proportions. This treatment is
cheap and effectual. The gas is of the most deadly nature, and will
penetrate every crack and crevice, and do its work thoroughly. The
application is quite simple. All that is required isa close fitting

113

chamber, provided with a flue for the escape of the gas after the
operation. The more air-tight the chamber, the more complete will be
the work. It should be fitted with racks to receive removable trays,
upon which fruit may be spread. The objects to be fumigated are
placed into po-ition, the chemicals are mixed in a leaden or earthen-
ware pan and placed on the floor, the door shut, and the room kept
closed for from half to three-quarters of an hour. The flue is then
opened, and, after a sufficient time (about half an hour) has been al-
lowed for ventilation, the door is unlocked, and the plants, &c. removed.
It is not advisable to take the subjected plants directly into the open
air if the sun isshining. They should be kept for a few hours under
shade, which will greatly lessen any danger of damage.

Mr. ©. P. Lounsbury, Official Entomologist at Cape Town, has
kindly supplied me with full particulars of the work of the Fumigator-
ium at that place. From his letters and reports I have extracted the
following directions and suggestions:-—

For each 300 cubic feet of space enclosed (and in proportion for
greater and smaller spaces) 1 ounce of 98 per cent. potassium cyanide,
1 ounce of sulphuric acid, and 2 ounces of water will be required to
generate gas of sufficient strength to kill the insects. Double this
strength, or the same amount ot materials to 150 cubic feet enclosed,
may be used upon woody plants without danger of seriously injuring
them. The greater strength should be employed whenever practicable,
as if, will ensure the death of the eggs as well as of the active insects.

Imported plants are usually ina more or less dormant condition
which lessens danger of injury. Mr. Lounsbury writes, in his Report
of June 1897, ‘ Injury to the tips of new growth generally results. This
injury is in no wise serious, and is quickly outgrown. The operators
consider it a favourable indication, as when such injury results it is
quite certain that the gas has been present in sufficient strength to des-
troy all of the insects.’

With respect to fruit, | again quote from Mr. Lounsbury’s letter :
‘I had lemons and oranges analysed after treatment, and found that after
few hours not more than a trace of the gas remained in the rind. There
is much more natural cyanogen in a single seed (so the analyst told me)
than what remains in the fruit from fumigation. We have no com
plaints of any effect on the keeping qualities of the fruit.’

To generate the gas ‘the required quantities of cyanide and water
are first placed in the generating vessel, the cyanide being broken into
small pieces about the size of lump sugar. The operator then adds the
acid, pouring it slowly into the vessel to avoid splashing, and imme-
diately withdraws.’

The above treatment is suitable for fruit and hardy plants. Ten-
der garden plants are usually imported in Wardian cases, and may be
treated separately. We have—in the ‘ Wardian case ’—an air-tight
chamber ready to hand, in which the plants can be fumigated before
their removal. After a large series of experiments with various fumi-
gating media, I find that hydrocyanic acid gas remains by far the most
efficient insecticide and the least injurious to the plants. But with,
delicate succulent plants I find it has to be applied rather differently.

119

A more concentrated dose of the gas applied for a shorter period is most
satisfactory in its results. In a Wardian Case, containing about sixteen
cubic feet, | find a dose uf half ounce cyanide, half ounce acid, and one
ounce water with an exposure of half an hour will kill every inaividual
ofa colony of Orthezia (the most resistent of all Coccids’ without in
the least affecting the plants. The treatment should be carried out only
after sunset. According to Mr. Lounsbury’s tables, these proportions
of chemicals should be sufficient for a space of 140 cubic feet witha
longer exposure.

The other materials tested were (1) a preparation of concentrated
nicotine, sold by the XL-all company ; (2) McVougall’s fumigation
paper ; (3) Jeyes’ fluid ; (4) naphthaline ; and (5) common tobacco
leaves. Nos. 1, 3, and 4 were evaporated by means of a small spirit
lamp inside the case ; Nos. 2 and 5 were lighted and allowed to smoul-
der. All these materials applied in different strength and for different
lengths of time, resulted similarly in more cr less complete injury to
the plants, and very incomplete destruction of the insects.

If there be no Government quarantine establishment in the general
planting interests, importers should safeguard themselves individually
by properly disinfecting all foreign plants before distributing them or
putting them out in their gardens.

Further directions for the application of the ‘ gas treatment’ will
be found in the [next Bulletin}.

Perhaps of equal importance as a preventive measure is the main-
tenance of plants in a vigorous free-growing condition. This is a fact
that has been recognised by gardeners for many generations. Any-
thing that interferes with the free flow of sap immediately lays a plant
open to attack from its insect enemies. A weakly, hide-bound plant
falls an easy prey to every pest. Scale insects in particular, with a few
exceptions (and such exceptions chiefly imported scales), seem to avoid
a free-growing plant, possibly finding the healthy rush of sap too strong
for them. Unremitting attention to cultivation will go far towards the
prevention of insect pests. Amongst causes predisposing to disease
may be mentioned : (1) Careless selection of plants and the retention
of weakly seedlings ; (2) Insufficient or injudicious drainage ; (3) Un-
suitable condition of soil, want of tillage, and—perhaps—of fertilisers.

Under the category of remedial measures may be mentioned the
use of resistant stock. In the history of nearly every extensive plant
disease it has been observed that individual plants—or established
varieties of the plant—may show a marked freedom from the disease
prevalent upon the less favoured type. By breeding from such indivi-
duals, or accidental varieties, a more or less completely resistant stock
mry be established. This fortunate fact has been frequently used with
great success in dealing with fungal diseases. Thus a special variety
of the potato plant—proof against the well known potato disease—has
been extensively cultivated. Some varieties of wheat are found to
suffer but little from ‘ wheat rust’ (Puccinia). We have also examples
of certain established strains of cultivated plants that repel particular
nsect pests. In Hurope the vine growers have found an American stock
that toa larger extent resists the attack of the dreaded Phylloxera ; and

120

by grafting on to this hardy stock they have been able to immunise their
more delicate and valuable varieties. In Ceylon we have the strongest
evidence that certain varieties of the tea plant (especially the Assam
indigenous stock) are most markedly free from injury by the so-called
‘mosquito blight’ (Helopeltis). In any serious epidemic that may
threaten the profitable cultivation of an economic plant we should at
once be on the look out for any accidental! varieties or strains that may
prove resistant to that particular disease. In cases where the hardier
stock is not otherwise so profitable as the more delicate variety, by
grafting upon it a more valuable scion the latter may sometimes be
rendered equally immune.

CURATIVE MBASURES.

Where preventive measures have failed, as even with the greatest
care—must often happen, recourse must be had to curative measures.

In no single connexion can the old proverb, ‘ A stitch in time saves
nine, be more aptly applied than in dealing with insect pests. In this
case the ‘stitch in time’ is more likely to save ninety, or nine hundred,
or nine thousand !

If a pest is to be eradicated, immediate treatment is the most im-
portant part of the process.

And the first step towards treatment should, when possible, be the
isolation of the infected area. All ordinary work amongst the affected
trees should be deferred until atter treatment. The young larvae of
scale-insects are very minute and active, and one of the most fertile
sources of their distribution is by means of clothing.

Another important point is that the treatment should be applied on
the spot. If the infected branches are cut down and carried off to some
other part to be burned, they may be shedding the germs of the disease
ail along the way.

It is difficult to lay down hard-and-fast rules for action, so much
depends upon circumstances, e.g. the nature of the particular pest, its
extent, the nature and value of the plant attacked, &c., &c. But, for the
sake of example, we will suppose a case in which three or four tea
bushes are found to be infested by some scale-insect that is considered
to be a dangerous pest. First dig a fair-sized hole in the midst of the
affected clump, and placein it some dry grass and sticks as foundations
for a fire. Fill two or three buckets with one of the inse:ticide washes
described below. Prune back the branches one by one; immerse each
branch completely in the insecticide and throw it into the hole, until
nothing but the bare framework of the tree is left. Sweep all fallen
leaves and rubbish from beneath the trees into the hole. Next, paint
over the bare stems with the same insecticide, using a large paint brush
and taking great care to saturate the entire surface down to the ground.
Then set fire to the heap of prunings, and cover up the remains with
earth. To kill off possible strugglers, the unpruned trees immediately
surrounding the affected patch should be thoroughly sprayed with the
mixture. If carried out in time, these measures will probably stamp
out the pest; but a careful watch should be kept for any fresh outbreak.

121

The above treatment is suitable only for such plants as may be cut
down without permanent injury. We may now consider the case of
some larger tree to which this method would be inapplicable—say an
orange or cocoa tree. In this case the gas treatment is the most suitable.
The application should be repeated after an interval of about a fort-
night, to ensure the death of larve subsequently hatched from eggs
that may have survived the first operation. Full directions for gas
treatment are given in the next Bulletin.

In other cases a combination of these two methods might be adopt-
ed. If two or three coftee trees should require treatment, all superfluous
branches might be pruned, dipped, and burned, and the standing trees
fumigated with gas. Modifications of the treatment will be required to
suit particular cases.

When a serious pest has once firmly and widely established itself,
little hope can be entertained of exterminating it, though much may
still be done to keep it in check.

Where trees are large and more or less detached, as in orange
groves, and the crop a valuable one, the gas treatment is again the
most satisfactory one. But where the cultivation is denser, and the
crop notso concentrated, spraying is found to be more practicable.

‘The choice of the insecticide must be regulated by the nature of
the crop. Arsenious compounds cannot be safely applied to food crops
—such as fruit and vegetables—during the cropping season. And they
can on no acccunt be recommended for sucha product as tea, unless
employed exclusively after pruning. For, however minute may be the
actual amount of active poison deposited on a single leaf, when we
consider that it takes some 400 lbs of leaf to make sufficient tea to fill a
chest, and that about 3,000 of the green leaves go to the pound, or
12,000 leaves to a pound of the finished product, it is evident that the
amount of poison in a single chest of tea might be considerable. And
further, during the processes of packing and transport, itis by no means
improbable that this.mineral poison which would dry off in fine powder
might gravitate and become condensed towards the bottom of the chest,
with dangerous results to the consumer. The danger may be consider-
ed far-fetched ; but I think it should be recognised.

For the above reasons no patent preparations should be employed
to any large extent, unless the ingredients are well known. Such
mixtures, being designed for general use, may contain several different
poisons acting in different. ways, either externally by contact, or inter-
nally through the alimentary system. The proprietors of patent insec-
ticides not unnaturally object to disclose their formule, and put off any
questions by asserting that the amount of active poison in the mixtue is
so very small as to be practically harmless. This may very well be true
in most circumstances ; but, as shown above, in other cases the poison
might become concentrated into a small portion of the product.

For other reasons compounds that depend upon arse nic or other
mineral poisons for their killing properties are of little use against
Coccidae. Insects that subsist upon the sap of the plants should be
treated with insecticides that kill by contact, such as soap, petroleum,
pyrethrum, &. Arsenic, whick adheres to the surface of the plants, is

(122

useful only against. pests such as caterpillars, grubs, and slugs; that take
in solid food. Mr. Maskell puts the matter concisely. He says :
‘Whatever damage is done by (scale insects) is effected by the sucking
of the juices of the plant through the rostrum (beak) of the insect.
[t follows from this that applications of any fluid to the tree externally,
with the object of poisoning the insects in their feeding, would be use-
less, as their food is drawn from beneath the surface.’*

There are many substances fatal to insect life, but perfectly harm~
less to the higher animals, that may be safely used. A list of th®
principal insecticides, with directions for their preparation and applica-
tion, is appended. (See next Bulletin.)

The most suitable season for spraying is when the young larvae are
hatchin:; They are then in the most unprotected condition. In tem-
perate climates this season varies with different species, and should be
made the subject of careful observation. In tropical countries many
species, and those naturally the most pernicious, appear to preduce a
constant succession of broods throughoat the year.

To produce any permanent result, spraying must be very thorough.
The success of the treatment depends upon the actual contact of the
liquid with the individual insects. Hven when the work is done bya
trained man, it is practically impossible to secure the destruction of
every individual. The difficulty is greatly increased when the work has
to be intrusted to natives. In conducting the operation, the position of
the insects upon the branches and foliage must be carefully noted, and
the nozzle of the machine manipulated accordingly, so as to throw the
spray upwards against the backs of the leaves, or downwards on the
upper surface, or horizontally against the stems and branches.

A few words may be said as tothe apparatus for spraying. This
is not the place to advertise any particular make of machine ; but some
general principles may be given to help the would-be purchaser in his
choice.

Points to be considered in the selection of a machine should be:—
1. Adaptability to Transport.—For ordinary use, where small trees only
have to be treated, there is no form so convenient as the knapsack pump.
This consists of a metal vessel that rests upon the back, and is supported
by straps passing over the shoulders of the operator. The handle of the
pump (in the best patterns) comes forward under the left arm, and is
worked by the left hand, leaving the right hand free to direct the nozzle
which is attached by a flexiblerubber tube. The vessel usually contains
the pump cylinder, and space for about four gallons of liquid. Where
a large apparatus is required, a barrel pump may de used. In this form
the pumping apparatus is fixed in a barrel to which handles are attached,
so that the whole apparatus can be carried from place to place by two
men. Where the land is flat the barrel, or a metai tank, may be mount-
ed on wheels for transport; but it should be designed so that the vessel
may be dismounted and carried by hand to such places as are inaccessi-
ble to the wheeled vehicle. Where the lay of land is suitable, and large
trees have to be treated, a more powerful apparatus may be mounted on

ee re

* New Zealand Scale Insects p. 26.

123

a cart, and drawn by horse or bullock power. In such cases two or
more lines of hose and nozzles can be worked from the same tank.

II. Strength—The materials employed in the construction of the
machine should be such as are not readily corroded by the mixtures used.
Mr. Lounsbury, in his report for the year 1896 *, gives the following
very practical hints on this subject :—

‘Tron is so quickly corroded by many of the commoninsecticides and
fungicides that pumps in which the working parts are of this metal are
not desirable. These parts of the pumps should always be made of hard
brass. For the sake of economy, the bodies of most pumps are made of
iron, but even here the use of brass lends greater durability, and is an
advantage which in the end will probably pay for the additional initial
cost. Rod-like parts and thin handles of cast iron are objectionable
because so easily fractured. Any parts of rubber are damaged by con-
tact with paraffin. Ignorance of this fact has led to the ruin of a large
number of Vermorel knapsack pumps, in which a circular rubber dise is
used for the propulsion of the liquid. The paraftin causes the rubber to
swell, and thus become useless for its purpose.

‘Copper is the best metal for tanks in knapsack pumps, and atten-
tion should be paid to the thickness of this metal. ‘Thin copper will
rapidly wear through. Tanks of sheet iron or tin are soon ruined by
contact with liquids containing copper compounds,such as Bordeaux mix-
ture and Paris green, and these preparations are also injuriously affect-
ed. But even copper tanks are not suitable for use with al] spraying
mixtures, since this metal is acted upon by the sulphur in such com-

ounds as “ eau grison”’ and lime-sulphur-salt mixture. In these cases,
the sulphur-leaves the lime, with which it had united during the process
of cooking, and unites with the copper to form copper sulphide. This
compound forms in a thin black layer over the copper, which, if it
would remain intact, would preserve the metal from further action; but,
unfortunately, some of it usually breaks away, exposing fresh surface to
the injurious action, and also proving an annoyance by passing through
the hose and clogging the nozzle. For these reasons it is best not to
use these sulphur mixtures in knapsack pumps.’

III.—Simplicity——All the parts of the pump should be readily
accessible and removable, so that, should anything go wrong, they may
be taken to pieces and cleaned, or damaged parts renewed. The want
of these facilities isa serious faultin many machines, the slightest
injury necessitating the sending of the whole apparatus to the repairers.

IV.—The production of a Uniform and Effective Spray.—The
continuity and force of the'flow is dependent upon anair chamber in the
pump, this feature constituting a ‘force-pump.’ On this account all
hand syringes are almost useless. The nature of the spray is regulated
by the form of nozzle employed. The chief object is to break up the
liquid into such a fine spray that it will penetrate the thickest foliage in
the form of a dense mist and come in contact with every part. For
this purpose one of the ‘cyclone nozzles’ is most admirably adapted.
But where it is necessary to throw the liquid to a considerable distance,

*Report of the Government Entomologist for the year 1896,Cape of Good
Hope, pp, 139-140.

124

as, in spraying large trees, a nozzle throwing a coarser spray must be
used. It isadvisable to have several interchangeable nozzles to suit
the different kinds of work. There should always be a detachable cap
to the nozzle, so that any obstruction may be quickly and easily remov-
ed. Many nozzles are provided with a fine point,held back by a spring,
but which, when pushed forward, clears the aperture.

A few further remarks may be quoted from Mr. Lounsbury’s
report in which he gives some recommendations for .the care of spray
pumps. ‘ Beforea spray pump of any kind is put away atter use, it
should be thoroughly washed and clear water pumped through it ; hot
water answers much better than cold if sticky or soapy washes have been
used. The working parts should be occasionally oiled, and if the paint
on the iron parts becomes worn away it should be renewed. Attention
to these details will preserve the pump for a long period, while, if they
are neglected, the pump :may never save its initial cost.’

Before quitting the subject of general remedial measures and en-
tering upyn detailed descriptions of particular processes, something
should be said upon the important question of the introduction of
‘natural enemies’ of the Coccidae. The same circumstances that make
an imported pest so exceptionally dangerous, act in our favour in the
importation of beneficial insects. Just as the absence of its established
natural enemies enables an insect pest to multiply without hindrance,
so the introduction of a beneficial insect without its own natural checks
will also permit of its rapid increase as long as an ample supply of
congenial food is obtainable. When the food supply begins to fail,
which means when the pest has been mastered by its imported enemies,
then they will both decline together. There need be little fear that,
wher the food supply has been exhausted, the imported insect will itself
become a pest. A predatory insect, by which is understood one that
preys upon other insects or anima!s, will seldom, if ever, alter its diet
and become a vegetarian.

It is noticeable that an insect seldom assumes any importance in
its original home unless through some accidental or artificial interfer.
ance with the balance of nature in that part. (For instance, it has been
asserted that the wide-spread destruction of moles in Hngland has re-
sulted in a marked increase of damage to pasture land from the grubs
of the ‘ cockchafer ’ beetles and ‘crane-flies,’ upon which the moles
fed.) Consequently, if we are to obtain any benefit from the use of
natural agents, we must endeavour to reproduce the conditions prevail-
ing in the country where the insect in question is known to occur,
though without attracting notice as a pest. Or, if the original home of
the injurious insect is unknown, we may reasonably hope for good re-
sults from the introduction of an insect that is found to prey upon some
allied pest in another country.

The most i: portant natural enemies of the scale insects, or, at
least, those that have attracted most attention, belong tc a family of small
beetles popularly known as ‘ lady-birds.’ The complete success attend-—
ing the introduction of an Australian lady bird (Vedalia cardinalis) into
California, where it cleared the orange orchards of the destructive
‘ Fluted-scale ’ (Lcerya purchasi) has led to numerous other experiments
of a similar kind. These experiments have not always been successful.
There must, of necessity be many failures. We are still only in the

125

experimental stage of the work. Even when the beneficial insect has
been successfully established in a country, itis by no means certain
that it will thrive. There may be climatic or other conditions against
it. In that case, all we can do is to try another insect. Occasional or
even repeated, failures should not discourage the repetition of the
attempt. The value of a single success will far outweigh the cost of
many failures. In the course of such experiments the causes of failure
will in time be ascertained, and improved methods be employed. The
freezing method recommended by Mr. Koebele seems to be rather an
uncertain one, and has led to many disappointments. I am inclined to
hope for more satisfactory results from the employment of ‘ Wardian
cases, as suggested to me by Mr. Lounsbury. In these the
insects will remain active and be supplied with food. There
are certain obvious dangers connected with this method, such
as is possible introduction of the insect pest upon which the ‘ lady-
birds’ have been supported during the voyage. For this reason the
business should be conducted under the supervision of trained entomolo-
gists only. In choosing the food supply, an insect that already occurs
in the country to which the lady-birds are consigned should, if possible,
be selected* But, under any circumstances the imported beetles should
not be liberated immediately, but should be transferred to fresh breed-
ing cages and supplied with local food, and the cage in which they ar-
rive should at once be thoroughly disinfected. In sending stocks by
Wardian case, the larvae of the beetles may with advantage be included.
These will complete their transformations during transit, and are more
likely to survive the voyage than the adult insects.

There are other natural enemies of the Coccidae that may some day
be advantageously employed in the same way. Amongst the two-
winged flies (Diptera) we find the Lestophonus iceryae, which attacks
the ‘ Fluted-scale.’ Nearly every species of sc.le insect is subject to
minute internal parasites belonging to the wasp family (Hymenoptera).
The family Neuroptera supplies the ‘ Lace-wing flies, the larvae of
which are known as ‘ Aphis-lions,’ from the voracious way in which they
feed upon Aphides and scale-insects. Even the butterflies and moths
(Lepidoptera) provide a few coccid-eating species, such as the caterpil-
lars of the butterfly Spalgis epius and of several moths ot the genus
Eublemma. The ‘Lady-birds’ are included in the family Coleoptera.

Besides natural enemies belonging to the animal kingdom, scale
insects are subject to diseases belonging to the vegetable world. There
are several parasitic fungi that render great assistance in reducing the
numbers of our Coccid pests. In Ceylon during the wetter months of
the year, the ‘ green bug’ (Lecanium viride) dies off toa large extent,
attacked by a greyish mould which, after killing the insect, spreads
outwards as a delicate fringe of interlacing whitish threads. A bright
orange-coloured fungus (Septoria? sp.) is useful in checking the increase
of Fiorinia fioriniae and Chionaspis biclavis on the tea plant, and Aspi-
diotus aurantii on orange trees. A very similar fungus (Sphaerostilbe

* In arecent consignment of ‘ lady-birds’ received from the Cape of Good
Hope, the cochineal insect (Coccus cacti) was very judiciously chosen for the
purpose. This insect is practically confined to the ‘Prickly Pear’ cactus, and
is therefore not liable to become a pest.

126

coccophila) that attacks Aspidiotus perniciosus in Florida (U.S. A.)
has been the subject of some very interesting experiments to test the
possibility of communicating the disease to previously healthy colonies
of the insect. Dr. L. O. Howard gives the following particulars of the
experiment*™ :—

An interesting and important development of the past two seasons’
work has been the identification and study of the parasitic fungus,
Sphaerostilbe coccophila. Professor Rolfs, of the Florida Station, has
devoted a bulletin largely to the consideration of this fungus, which, as
previously stated, seems to be prevalent throughout the Southern States.
He has shown experimentally that the fungus may be transferred to
trees affested with San Jose scale, and the disease produced among the
scales. His process was to inoculate acid bread with pure cultures of
the fungus, and three weeks later the application was made in the follow-
ing way :—A piece of the bread about an inch square was placed
in cold water and shaken until the bread was broken up and
the spores distributed in the water. This water was then applied
to the scaly tree by means ot a sponge, or cloth, or sprayed
on. The applications were made in Midsummer of 1896, and
observations were made as to the results late in February,
1897. Four of his experiments resulted successfully, and three unsuc-
cessfully, while in the eight experiment the result was doubtful on ac-
count of the tree having died between the times of treatment and in-
spection. Twigs from Florida containing San Jose scales, infested by
the fungus, were sent to Mr. Horace Roberts, at Fellowship, N.J.,
about the middle of June. On September ’5th Dr. Smith found the
fungus upon almost, if not quite, all of the trees on which twigs had
been tied. A number of instances have come to our observation of the
death of the scale in a wholesale manner from the spontaneous work ef
this disease, or from some other cause. For example, we received scale-
infested cuttings in January, 1897, from an orchard which was said to
have been freed from scales by this fungus disease. Careful examina-
tion showed that upon one cutting, out of 183 scales, but four were liv-
ing; on a second cutting, out of 723, but two were living; on a third
cutting, out of 579, but twenty-eight were living, giving thirty-four
living scales out of 1485—a mortality rate of 97.7.

I have, myself, repeatedly succeeded in disseminating the disease
affecting Lecanium viride by tying branches with diseased insects on
to trees on which the bug had hitherto remained quite healthy.

There are several methods by which spores of these parasitic fungi
may be disseminated. As in the last-mentioned experiment, they may
sometimes be communicated by merely transferring affected branches to.
the nighbourhood of the healthy insects. In such cases the spores are
carried by the wind to their destination. But in some of these fungi
the spores are gelatinous and agglutinated, in which case the wind
would fail to disperse them. [Fungi of this kind may be crushed up in
water and used asa spray; or artificial cultures may be made and mixed
with water, to be used in the same way. In the ordinary course of
nature these gelatinous spores are probably carried from tree to tree on
the feet of birds. ;

on

_* Bulletin, No. 12. (New Series) U., S. Dept. of Agriculture, (Div, of
Entomology.)

127
ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT.

LIBRARY.

HUROPE.
British Isles.
Annais of Botany, June. [Purchased.]
British Trade Journal, July. [Kditor.]
Chemist and Druggist, June 17, 24, July 1, 8. [Editor.]
Garden, June 17, 24, July 1, 8. [Purchased.]
Gardeners Chronicle, June 17, 24, July 1, 8. {Purchased.]
cecal, Ieones Plantarum, VII. 1. June. [Bentham Trustees through
ew.
J fee Board of Agri., England, VI. 1, June. [Secretary.]
Journal of Botany, July. [Purchased. ]
Journal R. Colonial Institute, July.
Nature, June 15, 22. 29, July 6. [Purchased.]
Pharmaceutical Journal, June 17, .4, July 1, &.
Produce World, July [Editor. ]
Sugar, June. [Editor.]
International Sugar Journal, July. [Editor.]

France.

Sucrerie, indigéne et coloniale, June 20, 17, July, 4, 11—[EHditor.]
Germany,

Tropenpflanzer, July. [Editor.]
Switzerland.

Bulletin de l’Herbic: Boissier, June. [Conservateur]
ASIA.
India.
Agricutural Ledger (Calcutta), 1899, No. 4. [Lt. Gov. Bengal.]
Planting Opinion, May 27, June 3, 10,17. [Editor.]
Ceylon.
Times of Ceylon May 31, June 8, 14, 22. [Editor.]
Tropical Agriculturalist, June. [Purchased. ]
Java.
Proefstation E. Java, III. Series, No. 10.

AUsTRALIA.
N, S. Wales.
Agri. Gazette of N. S. Wales, June, July. [Dept. of Agri.]
Queensland.

Queensland Agri. Journal, June. ([Editor.]
Queensland Sugar Journal, June. {[Editor. ]
Botany : Extracts from Queensland Agri. Journ., Jan.—April. [Colonial
Botanist.] }
EKeonomic Botany : Extracts from Queensland Agri. Journ., Jan.,—Mar.
[Col. Botanist.]
Queensland Orchids, by J. F. Bailey. [Author.]
AFRIOA.
Cape of Good Hope, Agri. Journ., June 8. [Dept. of Agri. |
Central African Times, May 6, 13, 20. [Editor.]
West INDIES.
Barbados.
W. I. Bulletin, I, 1. (ommiscioaey
Agri. Gazette and Planter’s Journal, June. [Editor.]
Jamaica
Journal Agri. Soc., July. [Secretary.]

128

Leeward [slands.

Reports, Dominica Bot., St. [Commissioner,]
Trinidad,

Proe, of Agri. Soc., June 13,-19, [Seeretary, |

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
Montreal.
Pharmaceutical Journal, July. (Editor. ]
Onta?to. \
Report of the Fruit Exp. Stations for 1898. [Dept. of Agri.]
Ottawa.
Experimental Farm Reports for 1898.
UNITED STATES AMERICA.
Experiment Station Record, U. 8. A., X, 9, 10, 11.
Publications of the following Agri. Exp. Stations U. 8. A. (Directors. |
Georgia, 1.
Idaho, 17-19.
Maryland, 62.
N. Hampshire, 63-65.
New York, Ithaca, 147-170.
Oregon, 56-58.
Texas, dl.
Utah, 60... _
Botanical Gazette, Chicago, June. [iditor.]
Fern Bulletin, May-July. [Editor.]
Massachusetts Hort. Soc. Trans. for 1898, Part II. [Secretary.]
Plant World, July. [Publisher.]
Torrey Club Bulletin, July. [Editor.]

SOUTH AMERIQOA.
Bol, Inst. Agron, S. Paulo. Brazil, Feb.-April. [Director.]

PLANTS,
From Supt. Bot. Garden, Brit. Guiana.
Hevea sp. (Para Rubber from Mazaruni R.)
From W Jekyll, Robertsfield, Jamaica,
Combretum sp.
Ivy-leafed Geranium
St. Joseph’s Strawberry.
From Prof. G. Landes, Martinique.
eee Mangoes :—Julie, Martin, Reine Amélie, Poignée d’or, Mangue
’or-

SEEDS

From Director, R. Gardens, Kew.
Piptadenia n. sp.
Kickxia africana

From T, J, Breakspere, Mandeville, Jamatca,
“« Vegetable Peach”.

From W. Jekyll, Roberisheld, Jamaica.
Gomphoearpus fruticosus.

From Supt, Botanical Garden, Brit. Guiana.
Castilloa elastica

From L. Tate, Sluefields, Jamaica.
Lime.

From Prof. Dr. Comes, Portici, near Naples,
Tobacco.

{Issued 18th August, 1899. ]

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

——— —

; Vol. VI
New Series SEPTEMBER, 1899, ~ Part IX

CINCHONA: A RETROSPECT AND A PROSPECT.

Cinchona bark and quinine are now at one of the most interesting
periods of their history since the introduction of the former to Hurope
in 1640 and the discovery of the latter about 1820. For the benefit
of those, who have missed the opportunity of following recent
developments in these drugs a few succinct notes on these will be worth
giving, and we may at the same time add something new in the shape
of information as to the course of events in the future.

Quinine has seen a period of active speculation, during which its
price in the ‘‘ second-hand”? market (that is in the buying and selling
of German quinine in London that mainly takes place in Mincing
Lane and between parties none of which are makers) has gone up to
ls. 94d. per ounce, and since receded to ls. 4d. The natural cause
of such an advance was, the short supplies of bark that continental
makers of quinine possessed, in spite of the huge shipments from the
producing countries in 1898.

The course of events that has led up to this state of affairs is re-
markable. South America, the home of the cinchonas, has for some years
been almost a negligible source of supply for cinchona bark. Since the
cultivation of the cinchona trees was taken up in Java, India, and Ceylon
prices have declined so much as to discourage the exporters and collec-
tors in South America from pursuing their labours. India and Ceylon,
once started on the cultivation, rapidly grew, the latter especially ex-
tending its output so quickly as to cause most venturescme prophecies
of its future. But prices became too low even for it, and Java, which
was longer in getting on its feet, when it did stand took a firmer foot-
ing, and so has been able to endure the cutting down of prices. The
Dutch in his island laid hold of the best kind of tree, and then made
tremendous strides in securing the bark market,which was thus transfer-
red from London to Amsterdam. Ceylon planters at last found prices so
unremunerative that they began uprooting trees, and turning their
attention to other things. India reached her height in 1889, and has
since then been going down fast, her planters also being disgusted with

130

the reward of their outlay. And all this time Java has not only manag-
ed to hold on but to grow.

While all this has been going on the consumption of quinine has
been enlarging. The reduction of the price of bark was to a large
extent the result of a combination of the quinine manufacturers. At
length the worm turned ; the bark importers in Amsterdam made a
stand, and supported by the strength of the market that had now been
- attained (through the fact that Java exports had not grown enough to
make up for the loss from India and Ceylon and the increased consump-
tion) they secured a slight advance in the price of bark. This
encouraged India and Ceylon to ferret out all their stores and
ship as much as they could. Hence it came about that in 1898 there
was more quinine in bark form shipped from the growing countries than
ever there has been before. Yet, to-day, stocks of bark in the public
warehouses of Amsterdam and London are lower than they have been
for years. So that the observant ask, What is to become of the price of
quinine? Where is the bark to come from ?

If it be true that India and Ceylon last year put forth as big an
effort as they are capable of, then we cannot look to them for increased
supplies unless they begin again to extend plantations, and the crop
from these would not be ready for five years at least. Java appears
(though the statement here is more doubtful) to be in the same vondi-
tion. It looks then as if we must turn our attention to the original
source of bark once more. And here we are dealing with a mysterious
factor. No one can speak except hazily about the supplies America
holds. Judging by the history of p ast years, it would seem that we
must depend on Columbia for most of the natural South American bark.
And it will not pay Columbia to start collecting again until bark is much
dearer than it is at present. A planter who has a very lengthy ac-
quaintance with the chief producing districts, considers that a unit of 4d
would have to be reached before it would pay to collect ever the richer
barks. This means that, whereas now the unit is 24d ze. that 1-100th
Ib. of quinine costs whilst in the bark 24d., the same amount would
have to be worth 4d. If this were so, quinine (in bark) would be worth
to manufacturers, 2s 1d per ounce, and worth to the wholesale dealers,
about 2s 6d per ounce. If Java, India, Ceylon and Africa cannot pro-
duce enough to meet the demand until five or six years have elapsed and
the expert’s view given above is correct, then there is nothing for it but.
to pay the price we have named.— British and Colonial Druggist.

DISTRIBUTION OF HAVANA TOBACCO SEED.

Through the agency of the British Consul-Generalin Havana,
Tobacco seed has been obtained from the Vuelta Abajo district, and is.
now available for free distribution. Applications should be made to
Director, Public Gardens, Kingston, and should state the area which it:
is proposed to plant out.

A Bulletin containing a short treatise on the cultivation and curing
of tobacco by a Cuban expert will be supplied free on application.

131

SCALE INSECTS : REMEDIAL MEASURES AND
INSECTICIDES.—LII.

By HK. E. Green, F.E.S. *

GENERAL LIST OF SUBSTANCES AND PROCESSES EMPLOYED IN THE TREAT-
MENT OF SCALE INSECTS :

ee

THE Gas TREATMENT.

Hydrocyanic acid gas is the material employed in this process. It is
generated by the admixture of cyanide of potassium, sulphuric acid and
water. Jor the details of treatment I cannot do better than quote in
extenso from the admirable paper on ‘ Gas Treatment for Scale Insects,’
complied by Mr. C. P. Lounsbury from his personal experience as
Government Entomologist at the Cape of Good Hope. The process
described was principally employed against Aspidiotus aurantii, an insect
that appears to be distinctly on the increase in Ceylon. I may add
that I have followed Mr. Lounsbury’s directions in my own experi-
ments with most satisfactory results.

‘Generation of the Gas.—Hydrocyanic acid gas is generated by the
action of sulphuric acid on potassium cyanide in the presence of water.
The required quantities of the cyanide and water are first placed in the
generating vessel, the cyanide being broken into small pieces not above
the size of lump sugar. The tree is then covered with the tent or sheet
and the vessel slipped under almost to the base of the tree ; reaching in,
the operator then adds the acid, pouring it slowly into the vessel so as
to avoid its splashing and thus burning his hand or the cloth. He imme-
diately withdraws and the men shovel a little soil on the edges of the
cloth all around, to more thoroughly prevent’ the escape of the gas.

‘The rapidity of the evolution of the gas depends largely upon
the size of the pieces of cyanide. If these are like powder, the
reaction is violent and immediate ; but if in lumps the reaction takes
place more slowly and continues for a minute or longer. The slow reac-
tion is desired partly because less injury results to the foliage immedi-
atety above the vessel. But the lumps must not be too large, for then
the reaction is liable to be imperfect owing to a black coating (carbon ?)
forming over the lumps and preventing further decomposition by the
acid. The water should not be added too soon or part of the cyanide
becomes dissolved and gives a violent reaction. The residue which re-
mains in the dishes is buried; and the dishes are washed inclean water
pefore being again used.

‘Time necessary for treatment.—The cover is left over the tree for
thirty minutes in the case of small trees, and forty-five in the case of
those over twelve feet in height. Atthe expiration of this period the
generating vessel is removed, and the residue buried in the soi!.

‘A number of trees are fumigated together, the endeavour being
to treat as many at time as can be covered and uncovered during

* From “ The Coccidae of Ceylon,” Pt. II., Dulau & Co., 1899.

132

the period of exposure. In this way the men are kept continuously
busy, the time for the removal of the first tent arriving by the time that
the last tree is covered.

‘Absence of Sunlight necessary.—The originators of the fumiga-
tion process observed that the gas was most efficacious, and that less
injury resulted to the foliage when the operations were performed at
night than when they were carried on in sunlight. It is said that chem-
ical changes are produced in the gas by the action of sunlight, and
that the resulting gases are more injurious to the plant life and less to
animal than hydrocyanic acid gas. Whether or not these theories are
correct is of small practical importance, tor the foliage of a tree will
suffer serious injury if the tree is left covered with an air-tight oiled
tent for nalf an hour in sunlight, without the gas being present.
Having ascertained this fact by experience, the foreman in charge
of the Board’s outfit refrained trom covering trees until the sun
had sunk from sight on any butcool dull days. The great majority of
the trees treated have been fumigated after sunset. The ideal night for
fumigating is quiet, cool, and moonlight without dew.’

It is evident, from the above, that the period available for this
process is somewhat limited. ‘However, when only a few trees have to
be treated, the hour immediately preceding nightfall will be ample for
the purpose. I have personally found no ill effects following the opera-
tion when performed on dull, cloudy days, when the sun is entirely
obscured.

Although hydrocyanic acid gas will certainly kill every insect—
and even their eggs if used in sufficient strength and fora sufficient
length of time, both the necessary strength and time will be found to
vary with different species of insects, and must be made the subject of
careful experiment. I find that Orthezia insignis is a very difficult
insect to kill, and requires a double strength of gas, continued for fully
three-quarters of an hour.

Mr. D. W. Coquillet, one of the first to employ this process, gives
the following directions for making an air-tight tent: * ‘The material
commonly used in the construction of the tent is what is known as blue
or brown drilling. A few persons have used ducking instead of drill-
ing, but this is much inferior to the latter ; in the ducking the threads
extend only lengthwise and crosswise, whereas in the drilling they also
extend diagonally—this belonging to the class of goods to which our
merchants apply the term “ twilled’—and for this reason the drilling
is both stronger and closer in texture than the ducking.

‘After the tent is sewed up it is given a coat of black paint, as it
has been ascertained that tents treated in this manner last longer than
those which have been simply oiled with linseed oil. Some persons mix
a small quantity of soap-suds with the paint in order to render the latter
more pliable when dry, and therefore less liable to crack. Instead of
thus painting the tent some persons simply give it a coating of size.
Sometimes a small quantity of whiting or chalk is added to this sizeing
with or without the addition of lampblack. A few made use of the

* Bulletin, No. 23, U. S. Department of Agriculture (Division of Ento-
mology.

133

mucilaginous juice of the common cactus (Opuntia Englemanni) for
this purpose. To obtain this, the cactus leaves or stems are cut or
broken up into pieces, thrown into a barrel, and covered with water,
after which they are allowed to soak for three or fovr days. The liquid
portion is then drawn off, and is ready for use without further prepar-
ation. Tents which I saw that had been prepared with this substance
were to all appearances as air-tight and pliable as when prepared in any
other manner.’

For the oiling, Mr. Lounsbury recommends a mixture of four parts
boiled linseed oil to one part turpentine. The cloth should be first well
wetted with water, and the mixture spread lightly over the surface with
a brush. A thin coating is found to be sufficient. Mr. Lounsbury has
since informed me that he now uses, with completely satisfactory results,
tents made of cloth merely shrunk in water, without any subsequent
oiling. Such tents are, of course much lighter and more easy to mani-
pulate.

Mr. Coguillet gives the annexed table, showing the quantities of
chemicals required for different sized trees.

|
Height of Diameter of | Sulphuric Potassium
i 2. tree top- Water | Acid. | Cyanide,
Feet. Feet. Fluid ozs. Fluid ozs. Ozs.
6 4 , Ys | Y,
8 6 2 1 1
10 8 4% 2% 2%
12 | 10 | 8 - 4
12 14 | 16 8 8
14 : 10 10 5 5
14 14 19 9% 9%
16 2 16 8 8
16 | 16 29 14% 14%
18 14 26 13 13

Mr. Lounsbury, after practical experience at the Cape, publishes
the following figures, from which it appears that he found smaller
quantities sufficient. This is, doubtless, due to difference in purity of
the chemicals. Mr. Lounsbury was working with cyanide of 98 to 100
per cent. purity, while Mr. Coquillet was using cyanide of only 33 to
58 per cent. It is therefore important to know the exact amount of
pure potassium cyanide in the particular brand employed.

134

’ ; . . Space
Height. Diameter. Water. Acid. Cyanide. Puelncase
Feet. Feet Fluid ozs. | Fluid ozs. Ozs. Cubic Feet

4 3 % ¥% % 25

6 a % % % 65

8 5 4 y% 140

8 6 1% K 3K 200
10 6 2 1 1 255
10 8 3 1% ly 435
12 8 3% 4 1% 535
12 10 5% 234 23% 815
14 8 4 Yu Yu 635
14 10 6% 3% 3Y 970
14 12 9 4% 4% 1355
16 10 7% 3% 3% 1130
16 12 10% 5Y 5% 1585
16 14 14 7 7 2105
18 12 12 6 6 1810
18 14 16 8 8 2415
18 16 20 10 10 3085
20 14 18 9 9 2720
20 16 23 11% lly 3485
20 18 29 14% 14y 4325
22 18 ae 16 i6 4835
22 20 39 19% 19% 5865
24 20 43 21% 21% 6500

i

The gas treatment has been largely used in combating scale insects
(particularly Aspidiotus aurantii) on orange trees. It will be found the
most effectual method for exterminating Orthezia insignis or any other
insect, upon individual trees.

SoaP AND Soapy EMULSIONS.

Soap by itself has considerable insecticidal properties. In fact, in
many popular mixtures, it is extremely probable that the soap is the
most efficacious ingredient. It acts by asphixiation, forming an imper-
vious film over the breathing pores of the insects.

Whale-oil soaps are found to be the best for the purpose. In
Insect Life, Vol. VIL., p. 369, the following conclusions are drawn from
numerous experiments upon trees infested with the San José scale
(Aspidiotus perniciosus) in America:—‘ Soap washes, particularly of
Whale-oil soap, have yielded the most satisfactory results; and at
the rate of two pounds to the gallon, under the conditions of thorough
drenching of the entire plant, with five or six days of subsequent fair
weather, will destroy all the scales, whether applied in fall or in spring.
The results with soap in less strength indicate that under the most
favourable conditions the same result may be reached with mixtures
containing only a pound anda half or more of soap. The action of the
soap at the rate of one pound or more to the gallon, applied in the fall,
is generally to prevent blooming and fruiting the following spring, but
the vigour and healthfulness of the tree are greatly increased. Applied
in spring at the time of blooming, it does not injure the plant nor

135

affect the setting of the fruit to any material extent in the case of the
peach, and not at all in the case of the apple.

‘The experiments, as a whole, indicate the vastly superior merit of
the soap wash and its fall application. The greater vigour of the plant
resulting from the fall treatment more than offsets the possible failing
of bloom. Owing to the impossibility of controlling weather conditions
and the practical difficulty of wetting every part of the plant, one spray-
ing cannot often be relied on to accomplish the death of all the scales,
but two conscientious drenchings may be expected to accomplish this
result. These may be (1) at the time of, or shortly after, the falling of
the foliage in autumn, and (2) just before blooming in spring.’

Other soaps (hard laundry soap) are efficacious, but not to the same
degree.

In another of the American reports * is an instructive paper on in-
secticide soaps, by Mr. C. L. Marlatt, from which I[ take the liberty of
quoting largely :—‘ The decided insecticide value of the so-called whale
oil (more properly fish oil) soaps, against scale insects particularly, has
been fully demonstrated in the last few years in the work against the
San José scale, and has fully substantiated Professor Comstock’s early
recommendation of this means of controlling scale-insect pests. The
merit of these soaps is not only in their effectiveness as insect destroyers
but from their being entirely without injurious effect onthe treated
plant. In this respect they are perfectly safe in the hands of any
person, in contradistinction to all oily washes, which are very liable
to be injurious in greater or less degree, although the _ in-
jury may be insignificant, or perhaps not apparent immediately,
or during the first season” . . . ‘ The use of soaps is
attended with certain difficulties.’ .... ‘To be satisfactory for insec-
ticide use it must, when dissolved at the desired rate, say two pounds
to the gallon of water, remain a liquid capable of being sprayed
with an ordinary nozzle at an ordinary temperature. This may
be determined by a very simple test and one which should be invariably
given any soap before it is accepted for spraying operations. It con-
sists in simply dissolving a.small quantity of the soap at the desired rate,
and allowing it to cool.’

Many soaps solidify or become gelatinous and tenacious on cooling
These are useless for spraying purposes. The common country soap of
Ceylon has this defect. I have experimented in a small way with soap
mixtures; but it is difficult to obtain here a brand that combines suitabile-
ity with cheapness. Such a brand isa great desideratum. I find that
one of the most useful properties of the soap mixtures is to prevent the
escape of the young larvae by blocking up the natural exits, and on this
account the treatment is to be very strongly recommended.

Kerosene Emulsion —Soap is often combined with other ingredi-
ents. Of these kerosene emulsion is the best known and most widely
used. As its efficacy and its effect upon plant lite very greatly de-

—

* U.S. Department of Agriculture (Division of Entomology). Bulletin
No. 6 (New Series.)

136

pend upon the preparation of the mixture, great care should be taken
to accurately follow the directions. The formula in general use is:—

Soap os sa ae $lb
Kerosene ose a is 2 gals.
Soft water a pee 1 gal.

‘ Dissolve the soap in the water heated to boiling, then add the
kerosene (to the hot mixture), and churn it until a creamy fluid re-
sults, which thickens on cooling, and adheres to glass without separating
into oily particles.’

Whale-oil soaps are preferable, but any kind may be used. I have
personally made a very successful emulsion, employing the common
country soap, which seems to be particularly well adapted to retaining
the oil in an intimate mixture, and which, in this combination loses its
own objectionable properties. The most important part of the process
is the churning. This must be most thoroughly carried out. It can be
satisfactorily managed by repeatedly drawing up and expelling the
mixture through an ordinary garden syringe or a force pump. A more
lengthy method is to stir the mixture vigorously with a whisk of twigs.
The liquid should be boiling hot during emulsification, and then, if kept
in a cool place, it is said to last for a year or more without separating.
If insufficiently churned, the mixture will afterwards become separated
and the oil collect at the top. A properly compounded emulsion will
mix with water in any proportions.

For use against scale insects a strength of one part emulsion to
ten of water is found to be effective. As in all preparations of which
petroleum is an ingredient, it can be more safely used on cloudy days.
When used in hot sunshine, it is liable to burn the foliage and injure
the tender shoots of the plant, but the danger of injuring is much less
with a properly prepared emulsion than with mechanical mixtures of
kerosene and water. Mr. Marlatt, in some ‘ Notes on Insecticides, *
gives the following particulars of experiments which show that kerosene
emulsion can be used of considerable strength without causing apprecia-
ble injury to the plants. But it cannot be recommended for general use
at a greater strength than mentioned above. Mr. Marlatt writes : ‘ About
the 1st May, when the foliage was in the vigour of its early growth, a
number of plants-peach, Japan quince, elm, pine, and strawberry-were
treated with the following strengths of kerosene and whale-oil soap
emulsions, made after the standard formula: Diluted (1) with
8 parts of water, (2) 4 parts of water, (3) 9 parts of water, and
(4) 14,parts of water, or the emulsion at 4, }, ;4,, and 7k, strength. The
application was very thorough, and the limbs and tiwgs were thorough--
ly wetted by immersion in the insecticide. The treatment was made on
a very bright, warm day, inthe early afternoon. No rain occurred for
four days, after which there were heavy rains. No injury whatever
developed in the case of the pine, strawberry, and elm with any of the
strengths used. With peach the injury was trifling, a very small per-
centage, perhaps one or two per cent, of the leaves turned yellow and
fell to the ground, but I am inclined to believe that this was merely the

——— oo

* Insect Life, Vol. VII., p. 116.

137

normal spring shedding of the leaves, which is seen in nearly all plants.
In the case of the Japan quince, however, with the two stronger mixtures,
namely, those with one-third and one-fifth kerosene emulsion, a few
yellow spots appeared on the leaves, and later, upon handling the limbs
treated with the strongest mixture, about one-fourth of the leaves were
found to fall off readily. These leaves, while looking comparatively
healthly and green, had evidently been injured more than their surface
appearance indicated. With No. 2 this peculiarity was almost unno-
ticeable, and with Nos. 3 and 4 no injury whatever was shown, nor did
any further injury manifest itself throughout the season in the case of
any of the plants treated. These experiments would indicate that the
kerosene emulsion can be applied in much stronger dilution to tender
foliage of growing plants than has hitherto been supposed.’

On the other hand, there are well-authenticated reports of plants
seriously injured, or even killed, by the use of too strong a mixture,
and the application during sunny weather is attended with danger. In
my own experience | have found the tender shoots on a recently pruned
tea bush to be completely killed back by a comparatively weak mixture
applied during sunny weather.

When the foliage of a plant is attacked, the applications should be
made by means of a spraying machine. In the case of pruned trees,
when the pest affects the bark only, the liquid can be applied with a
brush or a piece of rag to the stems and branches. Care must be taken
that the liquid is not used in sufficient quantities to run down and
saturate the roots of the plant, or grave injury may result. When
employed with proper precautions, there is no doubt that we have in
kerosene emulsion a very valuable remedy against scale and other insect
pests.

Milk may be substituted for the soap in the manufacture of kero-
sene emulsion. The formula given by Hubbard is :—‘ One part milk
(sour milk is said to be as suitable as fresh for the purpose), to two
parts kerosene. Heat the milk nearly to boiling point and mix with
the kerosene. Churn the mixture violently until a thick creamy fluid
is obtained. For use against scale insects dilute with nine or ten times
the quantity of water.’ I have been unable to find any definite state-
ments as to the comparative effectiveness of the milk and soap emul-
sions. It is possibly a question of cost. In some countries a gallon of
milk may be cheaper than half a pound of soap ; but in most places it is
probable that the balance of advantage will be onthe other side. The
active insecticidal properties of soap itself must surely be an adaitional
advantage.

Kerosene.—Much diversity of opinion exists as to the use of pure
kerosene or a mechanical mixture of kerosene and water. It is un-
doubtedly effective as an insecticide.

But in too many cases it is equally fatal to plant life. Reports are
very conflicting. In some cases spraying with the andiluted oil has
been unattended by any injury to the tree, while particularly successful
in killing the scale. In other cases even large trees have succumbed
under the treatment. One cause of injury is said to be the collection
ofioil at the base of the tree, the roots being apparently much more

138

sensitive to injury than the exposed parts. As a precaution, earth
should be banked up round the base of the tree, and only sufficient oil
should be used to moisten the surface of the foliage and bark without
any surplus to run down the stem.

Mixtures of kerosene and water have been largely employed in
America, and elaborate machines devised for ensuring the proper mix-
ture of the two ingredients. But under any circumstances their effec-
tiveness does not compare favourably with a properly compounded
emulsion.

Referring again to one of Mr. Marlatt’s reports, * I find it stated
that ‘ kerosene mixed with water is not nearly so powerful an insecti-
cide as the kerosene soap emulsion. It does not remain nearly so
long ov the plant, and is not nearly so effective an insecticide
at the same strength of oil. The heavier soap or milk emulsions kill
more effectively, which is, perhaps, explained by the heavier liquid ac-
tually bringing more oil in cuntact with the insect, and also by its
greater permanency. ‘Taking everything into consideration, neither
kerosene, nor mixtures of the oil and water, can be recommended for
general use at any rate in the tropics.

Resin Washes.—These are used extensively in California to remove
scale insects from fruit trees. The formula (taken from Bulletin, No.
9 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture) is as follows :—‘ The summer
wash usually contains twenty pounds of resin, five pounds of crude
caustic soda (seventy-eight per cent.) or three and a half pounds
of the ninety-eight per cent., and two and a half pints of fish oil. The
winter wash contains thirty pounds of resin, nine pounds of crude soda,
and four and a half pints of oil. The ingredients are boiled in about
twenty gallons of water for two or three hours, hot water being occa-
sionally added until fifty gallons of solution are made. This, for
both formulae, is diluted to one hundred gallons before application to
trees. Greater efficiency is believed to come from long boiling of the
mixture, and it is preferably applied hot. It is used on deciduous trees
for the black and San José scales, and on citrus trees for the red and
black scales; but the dense foliage of the latter renders thorough spraying
dificult except for young trees, and fumigation is much preferred.
An improperly made resin wash is also apt to spot the fruit of the
orange....

Carbolic Acid.—Urude carbolic, phenol, Jeyes’ fluid, and similar
compounds, all have insecticidal properties. Carbolic acid itself has
been found inefficient except when applied in such strength as to seri-
ously damage the plants. I find that phenol and Jeyes’ fluid (which ©
appears to be much the same thing) are effective against Orthezia,
‘mealy bugs, and most species of Lecanium. A mixture containing 1
part of Jeyes’ fluid to 20 of water,applied to a Thunbergia bush attacked
by Orthezia, was fatal to more than 90 per cent of the insects, but
resulted in the death of the terminal buds of the plant. It had no bad
effect upon the more mature leaves and shoots. The application did not,
however, prevent the subsequent hatching of the eggs in the ovisacs of

* Bulletin No. 9 (New Series), U. S. Department of Agriculture (Division
of Entomology.)

139

the dead insects. Weaker solutions were proportionately less effective. . .

Tobacco Water.—‘ Steep 5 lbs of refuse tobacco (stems, &.) in 3
gallons of water for three hours. Strain the decoction and add
sufficient water to make 7 gallons.’ This mixture will kill soft bodied
species that are unprotected by a covering scale, such as Lecanium
viride, Pulvinaria psidii, and Dactylopius citri. It has little or no effect
against the Diaspidinae.

Lime Water.—lIn the early days of the ‘green coffee bug’ I used a
very thin wash of quick lime and water. The mixture is inconvenient
or difficult to apply asa spray, as it quickly clogs the nozzles and
valves of the machine. I applied it with large brushes to the affected
coffee foliage, and it was certainly fatal to every insect with which it
came in contact. The bugs turned from green to a bright orange colour
within five minutes of the application. But many individuals neces-
sarily escaped, and the benefit was only temporary. No damage to
the trees was observed, but the lime had sucha caustic effect upon the
hands and arms of the coolies employed in the work that it had to be
discontinued.

Soot is an article that has been greatly over-rated as an insecticide
and wood ashes may fall under the same category. The substances are,
doubtless, useful in dealing with slugs and snails, their astringent and
absorptive properties acting upon the mucous surface of such animals ;
but, when applied to dry insects, such as caterpillars and scale bugs,
they fail to adhere, or, when adhering, to act in any way prejudicial to
the insect.

Lime, when applied dry, has little or no effect, unless there happen
to be moisture upon the insects. Even then its action will be very par-
tial and unsatisfactory.

Yowdered sulphur is also quite useless against scale insects.

Many other substances have been made the subjects of experiment;
but, as they are either far too costly or otherwise impracticable, it is
useless to enumerate them.

SEEDLESS GRAPES.

Herr Mauller-Thurgau attributes the absence of seeds in many
varieties of grapes sold in the markets to two causes—functional ineffi-

ciency of the pollen and of the ovule. In some varieties the pollen-

grains are well developed, but either the pollen-tubes do not reach the
ovules or the ovules are themselves incapable of impregnation. To this
class belong the sultana-raisins and the currants of commerce. In other
varieties, on the other hand, the ovules are perfect and capable of im-
pregnation, but the pollen grains are functionally defective ; either the
pollen-tubes do not germinate on the stigma, or they are incapable of
impregnating the ovules. Grapes which do not contain seeds are
smaller than those which do.—(Landwirthsch Jahrb. d. Schweiz, 1898.)
Pharmaceutical Journal.

140 |
PUBLIC GARDENS REGULATION LAW, 1899.

JAMAICA—Law 4 or 1899.

A' Law to enable Regulations to be made for the Government and Controj
of Public Gardens.

Be it enacted by the Governor and Legislative Council of Jamaica
as follows :—

1—This Law may be cited as the “ Public Gardens Regulation
Law, 1899.”

2—In this Law the term ‘‘ Garden ” shall mean and include all the
land belonging to any garden now or hereafter to be established and
maintained at the public expense. The term “ Special Constable ” shall
mean any person who may be appointed a special constable of the said
Gardens.

3—The Governor in Privy Council may make regulations for the
goverment and control ot a Garden, and of all persons employed therein
or resorting thereto, or in any way using the same, or any part thereof,
and may from time to time alter, add to, or rescind any such regulations.

4—The Director of Public Gardens and Plantations may, subject
to the approval of the Governor, from time to time appoint any one
employed in a Garden to be a Special Constable.

5-—If any person shall do any act in contravention of any regula-
tion made by the Governor in Privy Council under this Law, he shall,
on conviction by a Court of summary jurisdiction, be liable tu a penalty
not exceeding five pounds, and in default of payment, to be imprisoned
for a term not exceeding one month, with or without hard labour.

6—Any Special Constable wearing a uniform, cap or badge, and
any person whom he may call to his assistance, may take into custody,
without a warrant, any offender who in the Garden and within the view
of such Special Constable, acts in contravention of any of the said
regulations ; provided, that the name and residence of such offender are
unknown to and cannot be ascertained by such Special Constable. If
any such offender, when required by any Special Constable to give his
name and address, gives a false name ora false address, he shall, on
conviction by a Court of summary jurisdiction, be liable to a penalty not
exceeding five pounds, and in default of payment, to be imprisoned for
a term not exceeding two months, with or without hard labour.

7—When any person is convicted of an assault onany Special
Constable while in the execution of his duty, such person shall, on con-
viction by a Court of summary jurisdiction, in the discretion of the
Court, be liable, to pay a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds, and in
default of payment to be imprisoned fora term not exceeding six
months, with or without hard labour. |

8—Every Special Constable in addition to any powers and immu-
nities specially conferred on him by this Law, shall within the limits of
a Garden, have all the powers, privileges, and immunities of a Constable
belonging to the Constabulary Force.

141

9—Every Constable belonging to the Constabulary Force shall
‘have the powers, privileges, and immunities of a Special Constable
within a Garden.

10—A Special Constable, and all persons whom he may call to his
assistance, may killand destroy any goats, pigs, or poultry found within
‘the limits of a Garden, and may forthwith remove and dispose of the
carcases. |

11—Printed copies of the regulations to be observed in pursuance
-of this Law by persons using a Garden, shall be put up by the Director
of Public Gardens and Plantations in such Garden, in conspicuous
places.

12—All regulations made by the Governor in Privy Council under
this Law, and all additions to and alterations and rescissions of the
same, shall be published in the Jamaica Gazette, at least two weeks
‘before the same respectively shall be in force.

PACKING PINE APPLES.

In the Bulletin for December, 1895, attention was drawn to the ad-
vantages of exporting oranges ir boxes, and to the method of packing
them.

The following letter from the Pierpont Manufacturing Company
deals with the subject of packing pines: —

Crescent City, Fla., 31st July, 1899.

Dear Sir:—We are in receipt of your esteemed favor of the 18th.
We have never published a leaflet on the packing of pine-apples but
will be pleased to give you alli of the information we can in regard to
the matter. For the common varieties of Pines a crate of the following
dimensions is used, heads 104 ins by 12 ins. (38). Slats 5-16ins by 5 ins
by 36 ins (8). One of the heads is placed in the middle and divides
the crate into two compartments. The pines in each crate should be
carefully inspected and sized by the packer, and the pines in each crate
should be of uniform size, and each one should be wrapped in a good
strong Manilla paper. They should be closely packed in the crate in
uniform lay_rs and should fill the crate about one inch above the top.
The two slats which form the top of the crate should then be placed in
position and by even pressuae forced down to the heads and nailed.

We also make for the large and fancy varieties of Pine-apples
crates of the following dimensions. Heads 12% ins by 20 ins (2)
Sides, 4 pieces 5-16 by 10 ins by 24 ins. Tops and bottoms, 4 pieces
-D-16 ins by 10 ins by 24 ins. Tops and bottoms, 4 pieces 5-16 ins by
6 ins by 24 ins.

These Pines are of course wrapped in paper, and, in addition, the
best packers use “ excelsior’ in the spaces around and between the
fruit. It is of great importance that the fruit shouid be so packed that
it cannot shake about in transportation but at the same time it should
not receive the slightest bruise. Pines are frequently ruined by the
careless handing of the pickers.

We should be very glad to have your people try the crates and we
are confident they will find it very profitable to use them.

142
BANANA TRADE IN NICARAGUA.

The fruit trust, operating in the West Indies and Central America,
the principal associates of which are the Boston Fruit Company, of Bos-
ton, Minor ©. Keith, of Costa Rica, and others, have entered the banana
fields of the Department of Zelaya (Bluefields and Rama districts),
Nicaragua. Their representative, Mr. J. Lamotte Morgan, arrived at
Bluefields, and, going into the heart of the banana district, secured con-
tracts from nearly all of the larger planters. Mr. Morgan tells me that
it is the purpose of his people to put on a line of steamers immediately,
with the view of controlling all of the banana trade in Nicaragua. The
advent of this new corpor.tion will probably have the effect, at least for
the present, of advancing the price of bananas and cheapening freights
on incoming and outgoing cargoes. Mr. Morgan states that the freight
and passsenger service of the new line will be in every respect superior
to that of the old company, and it is probable that a small but fast
steamer will be run as an auxiliary between Port Limon, Costa Rica,
and San Juan del Norte, Bluefields, and Cape Gracias, Nicaragua.—
Report of United States Consul at San Juan del Norte.

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT,

LIBRARY.
EUROPE,
British Isles.

Botanical Magazine, July, Aug. [Purchased.]
British Trade Journal, August. [Editor. ]
Bulletin Kew Gardens, Dec. 1898, Jan and Feb. 1899. [Director.]
Chemist and Druggist, July 15, 22, 29, Aug. 2. [Editor.]
Foreign Office Reports.
Garden, July 15, 22, Aug. 5. [Purchased.]
Gardeners’ Chronicle, July 15, 22, 29, Aug. 5. [Purchased.]
Journal R. Horticultural Society, XXIII, 1. July.
Nature, July 13, 20, 27, Aug. 3, [Purchased. }
Pharmaceutical Journal, July 15, 22, 29, Aug, 5.
Produce World, Aug. [Editor.]
Sugar, July. [Editor.]
International Sugar Journal, August. [Editor.]

France.
Suererie, iudigéne et coloniale. July 18, 25, Aug. 1,8. [Editor.]

Germany.
Notizblatt, Berlin Bot. Garden, II., 19, [Director.]

Tropenpflanzer, Aug. [Kditor-.]
Holland.
Koloniaal Museum, Haarlem. Catalogues der Nederl. W. Indische Ten-
toonstelling, 1899. [Director.] :
Italy. a.
Bulletino, Laboratorio ed Orto Bot. Siena, II, 2. April,—June. [Editor.]

Switzerland. ;
Bulletin de l’Herbier Boissier, July. [Conservateur.]

143

ASIA.

India.

Planting Opinion, June 24, July 1, 8,15. ([Editor.]

Madras, Agri. Hort. Soc. Proc, Jan.—March. [Supt. of Garden.]
Ceylon,

Report, Bot. Gardens for 1898. [Director. |

‘Times of Ceylon, June 28, July 6, 12,20. [Editor.]
Hong Kong.

Report Bot. Gardens for 1898. [ Director.]

AUSTRALIA.
N.S, Wales.
Sydney, Bot. Gards. Pamphlets by Director. [Author.]
Queensland,

Agr. Journal, July. [Editor. ]
Sugar Journal, July. [Kditor. |
Report Acclimatisation Soc. 1898-99. [Secretary.]

AFRICA,

Cape of Good Hope.

Agri. Journ. June 22, July 6, [Dept. of Agri. ]
Cents al Africa.

Times, May 27, June 3, 10, [Editor.]

WEST INDIES.

Barbados.
Agricultural Gazette, July. [Editor.]
Jamatca.
Journal, Jamaica Agri, Soc., Aug. [Secretary.|
Martinique.
Bulletin Agricole, May—July. [Editor. ]
Trinidad.
Bot. Garden Bulletin, July. [Supt.]
Windward Islands. |
St. Lucia, Meteorol Returns, Jan.—July. List of Plants. [Curator.]

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA,

Moniveal.
Pharmaceutical Journal, August. [Editor. |
Nova Scotia.
Crop Report, July. [Secretary. ]
Ottawa.
Experimental Farm Report. Results from Test growing of Crops, Drs
Wm. Saunders ; Report of Entomologist and Botanist, 1898. [Director.]

—_———-.

UNITED STATES, AMERICA,

Publications of the U, S, Dept. of Agriculture—Sctentific Bureaus ana
Divisions,

Div. of Soils :—Tobacco Soils of U, S., by M. Whitney. [Author.]
Tobacco Soils: Farmer’s Bulletin, 83, by M. Whitney. [Author]
Curing Tobacco, Farmer’s Bulletin, 60, by M. Whitney. [Author.]
Culture of Tobacco, Farmers’ Bulletin,82, by O. C. Butterweck[ Prof Whitney]
Cultivation of Tobacco in Sumatra, by E. Mulder. [Prof. Whitney.]
Temperature changes in fermenting piles of cigar-leaf tobacco by M. Whitney

and T. H. Means. [Prof. Whitney,]

Div. of V. Physiology and Pathology : Curing and fermentation of Cigar-

leaf tobacco, by O. Loew. [Prof. Whitney.]

144

Experiment Stations.

Arkansas, 57 (Tuberculosis)

Tilinois, 55 (Improvement of Corn), 56 (S. José Scale)

Kansas, 86 (Press Bulletins) 87 (Grasses) 89 (Soil Moisture) 82 (Com-
mer cial Fertilisers).

Michigan, 174 (Fertiliser Analyses)

Virginia, vii, 6, (Equine Distemper), 7 (Black Leg Vaccine)

West Virginia 56 (Investigations on unhealthy conditions of Spruce
and Pine) 57 (Commercial Fertilisers), 58 (Effect of pressure in.
preservation of milk) ;

American Journal of Pharmacy, August. [Editor].
Botanical Gazette, Chicago. July, [Editor.]
Harvard University, Contrib. from Gray Herbarium, vii. [Authors].
Plant World, August. [Publisher. ]
Torrey Bot. Club Bulletin, August. [Editor]
SouTH AMERICA.
Bot. Garden, Rio Janeiro, Palmae Novae Paraguayenses, By Director J.
B. Rodrigues. [Director ]
POLYNESIA.
Planters’ Monthly, Hawaii, June, July. [Editor.]
SEEDS.
From Botanic Gardens, British Guiana,
Caryocar nucifera (Souari Nuts.)
Astrocaryum plicatum.
Castilloa elastica.
Licuala grandis.
From Mr Geo. Levy, Kingston, Jamaica.
Colorado Bottom Grass (from Texas.)
From Mr. M. A, M. Farquharson, M. Quarters, Jamatca.
Collection of Garden Seeds from Yokohama, Japan
From Botanic Garden, British Honduras.
Castilloa elastica.
From Mr. W. Jekyll, Robertsfield, Jamaica.
Zinnia (selected colours.)

PLANTS.
From Mr. W. Jekyll, Jamaica.
Cineraria maritima.

[Issued 21st Sept. 1899.]

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol, Vi

New Series OCTOBER, 1899, Part xX

TOBACCO CULTIVATION AND CURING. *

By J. C. Espin: For many years Planter and Manufacturer in Cuba and
Jamaica, and late Government Expert for Trinidad.

PREFACE.

The clear and ordinary language adopted in writing this Guide will,
it is believed, be more within the reach of those who most need it than
a more elaborate and scientific phraseology. Unacquainted with science,
the writer merely explains the methods of growing and curing the To-
bacco plant, without entering into its Natural History, Chemistry, etc.,
which he deems unnecessary in a purely practical Guide like this. The
writer. confidently recommends the methods here explained as they are
based, not on hear say and “theory,” but on his own experience as a
planter and manufacturer for many years. He assures those who may
adopt this article as their guide that if strictly followed out, the
Tobacco obtained will be of excellent quality, depending, of course, on
the physical conditions of the locality where grown.

Much has been written on Tobacco, a plant which forms one of the
most important factors of national wealth in the countries where it is
largely and efficiently cultivated; but the works on the subject, which
we have had the opportunity of reading, are either so scientific in the
language and style as to be beyond the knowledge of the majority, or so
diffuse and full of different and even opposite methodsas to be-
wilder the cultivator. There are some works which give directions con-
trary to our experience, and others again devote more space to the
botany, physica] and chemical properties of the plant, than to the proper
manner of growing and curing it, which latter ought to be the principal
aim.

With a view to supply, as far as our knowledge allows, a thoroughly
practical and reliable guide, devoid of the defects above mentioned, it
was decided to prepare the present Pamphlet, not that it will be, by
any means, absolutely free from errors, but it will be one which we

*Reprinted from Bulletin, No. 13, May, 1889 (now out of print.)

146

earnestly believe will be of real and practical assistance to the begin-
ner, as it was written “in the field’ whilst actually growing, curing
and manufacturing ‘‘ the weed” for the market, and therefore after
every method had been thoroughly tested. Several manuscript copies
of it were given to friends who desired to try the cultivation, and the
results of their experiments were most successful.

As the writer is a native of Cuba and the original was written iu
Spanish, this is necessarily a translation, but it differs in no way from
the Spanish in the arrangemeut, etc., the writer having carefully pre-
pared the English as well as the Spanish, but a foreigner by birth, the
writer begs the indulgence of the English-speaking readers towards the
correctness or elegance of the English construction, as it is not possible
for him always to frame his sentences in a style untainted by his mother
tongue, and he begs tv be excused for his somewhat lengthy Preface,
and leave to those who might follow this Guzde to dezide how far he
has succeeded in fulfilling his object.

CHAPTER I.

The Tobacco plant was not known in Europe till the discovery of
America in the fifteenth century. Itis said that Columbus, during
his first voyage while off the coast of Cuba, sent some explorers to land
and obtain information concerning the natural resources of the country,
and that on their way back they, for the first time, witnessed the use
of a weed, which the ingenious caprice of man has since converted into
a universal luxury. They beheld several of the natives going about
with firebrands in their hands and certain dried herbs which they
rolled up in a leaf and lighting one end put the other in their mouths
and continued inhaling and puffing out the smoke. A roll of this kind ~
they called a ‘“ tobacco,” a name since transferred to the plant of
which the rolls were made.

There are mary species of Tobacco, but the Cuban Tobacco plant
is one known to Botanists as Necotzana Tabacum L. (Cuban variety),
and it is to the cultivation of this kind that we will direct our attention,
it being the best Tobacco known and the only one | have cultivated.

The culture of Tobacco may be divided into five periods, viz., Nur-
sery, Planting, After cultivation, Curing and Packing, each of which
will be treated of in its respective order in the following pages; but
first a few words on Climate and Soil.

CLIMATE.

Climate is an important point in the cultivation of Tobacco, but as
this cannot be modified by artificial means we should seek a district
where the temperature and moisture of the locality is similar to that of
Cuba, warm and humid. Inacountry where the seasons differ from
those of that Island the periods of cultivating must be accordingly
varied.

Som.
The soil as well as the weather affects the plant toa considerable

extent, for plants grown under the very same climate, but on slightly
different soils, produce Tobaccos altogether distinct in quality. For

147

instance, in Cuba two neighbouring fields, which are of course under
the same climatic influences, produce Tobacco which differ in many
particulars. Therefore, not only must the seasons be carefully selected,
but the soil also requires to be chosen with great care, a light sandy
loam, mixed with a fair proportion of vegetable debris, being preferred
to any other. City lands are very unsuitable. Sandy, loose-grained
soil, absolutely free from clay, will produce Tobacco of far better
quality in every respect than any other kind of soil.

CHAPTER II.

CULTURAL INSTRUCTIONS.

—

NURSERY.

In the selection of the land for making the Nursery attention must
be paid to the existing conditions of the soil, and action taken in accor-
dance therewith. We will therefore describe in a concise manner the
most convenient and the best methods of preparing it.

The best soil for making the Nursery is to be found on virgin or
untilled land, and it is more easily prepared. On the other hand, in
cleared and cultivated land the seedlings grow better and safer, but give
more trouble than in virgin soil. Old, abandoned dung-hills, the sides
along old wooden fences, hog-sties and similar places, are very good soils
for making Nurseries on. The Nursery may be formed into BEDS or
left LEVEL land, as appears most suitable.

1. Virgin land is prepared by cutting down every tree on the por-
tion intended for the Nursery, leaving only a certain number of small
trees whose branches will afford safficient shade to the tender plants
(these will have to be removed lateron). The land should be prepared
long and narrow and with a North-easterly exposure. The land should
now be swept with a broom made of the thin branches of trees or boughs
so as to remove away all rubbish, etc., from it. The soil should be
slightly hoed, and the rubbish arising from this hoeing swept and
thrown away also. The soil is now ready for sowing the seed.

2. On cultivated soil itis preferable to select the plot as level as
possible, but if it should be too much on the incline it must be drained
by means of trenches dug at the sides of the Nursery to prevent rain
water from running into it and carrying away the seed. This should
also be done to Nurseries on newly-cleared land. The seedlings will
thrive much better if it should be that the land has been used the year
previous as a horse or sheep-pen, pig-sty, or dung-hill. The soil is
prepared for sowing the seed just the same as on virgin soil.

3. Whether on virgin or on cultivated soil the seed may be sown
in BEDS. The method of procedure is as follows:—In the month of
May the soil is ploughed and immediately after, itis hoed, and then
covered with a layer of vegetable rubbish, such as dry grass, etc. A
few days after, when weeds have sprung up, the rubbish is burnt for
the purpose of destroying all insects and grubs which infest decaying
vegetable matter, and left in this state till weeds again spring up.
Another layer of vegetable rubbish is put on and burnt as before, and a
couple of days after this last burning the soil is hoed and the BEDs

148

made. They should not be above four feet in breadth and ot any
desired length, though for the convenience in walking through the
Nursery they may be made about ten feet in length, the pathways
along and across the beds being about half a yard in width. The
height of the beds should not be more than ONE INCH above
the level, having long wattles placed at the edges or borders of
the beds sustained by pegs driven down at their extremities so as to
support the earth. Corn is then planted in the middle of the beds, two
grains per hole, and each hole two feet apart. Near the time of sow-
ing the seed the soil is chopped with a cutlass without injuring the
corn. Corn protects the young plant from the rays of the sun. If
when the seedlings spring up thecorn has sars, they should be
picked off, for they damage the seedlings.

4. A Nursery can be made so as to be at the same time a Tobacco
field. It is done as foilcws:—The land is cleared of trees, the boughs
and rubbish burnt and corn immediately planted on the land. Previous
to sowing the seed, the earth is chopped and prepared as explained for
beds. The seed is sown as usual, but when the plants are fit for
trausplanting they should be thinned out where too many grow
together, and those taken out planted where there are few or none ata
regular distance from each other as on a field. The Tobacco grown
by this method yields more leaves than by being transplanted
to a field, possessing besides the advantage of their being finer
in texture and of a better colour. The after-cultivation and
curing is identical to that planted otherwise. The Cuban
planter calls the Tobacco so grown ‘“ Criollo” (Creole.) This
is generally done in the Nurseries after planting in the field is finished,
but is never adopted as a regular system of culture, because their is no
uniformity in the quality of the leaf and the quantity produced per
acre.

THE SEED.

Among the most important points in Tubacco culture is the
selection of the seed. lt should be taken off the most healthy and
perfect plants, and when properly ripe, that is, when the seed-pods
blacken. The plants selected for seed should be left uncut and should
not of course be “topped,” and all suckers plucked off. The seedpods
on their stalks should be thoroughly dried and then hung up in bundles
for some length of time. It is preferable to rub out the seeds of the
pods, winnow and put into well-covered demijohns, jars, or glass bottles.
The seeds sown the first year ought to be imported directly from
Havana as the only means of securing the Cuban kind of Tobacco.
Frequent supplies of seeds should be regularly supplied as it is apt to
deteriorate if grown too long in one district.

METHOD OF SOWING THE SEEDS.

Care must be observed in sowing the seeds that they are evenly
scattered on the soil for if they be thickly sown the young plants will
spring up too closely and will be so delicate and tender that they will not
stand transplanting. To secure the seeds being evenly scattered, they

149

should be mixed with dry fine earth or sand. If when the seed is sown
it does not rain the soil must be moistened with a fine-rosed watering-
pot, raising the hand as high as possible so that the water may bury the
seeds, being careful at the same time that the water does not wash away
or throw the. seeds together. The seed should be sown a month and a
half before the seedlings are required for planting, for at the end of this
time they should be fit for tiansplanting. The proper sowing season is
from the middle of August up to the beginning of October, on such a
day as it is likely torain. , Should it not rain the soil must be watered
as before explained.

CARE OF THE NURSERY.

When the leaves of the seedlings are about the size of a sixpenny
piece or a shilling piece, the corn and branches of the trees left must
gradually be cut away so that the young plant may become gradually
accustomed to the heat of the sun, preventing by this means the risk of
their perishing when transplanted.

The Nursery must be frequently weeded to prevent exhaustion of
the soil and weakening the seedlings. The weeds must be rooted up
with the hands, being careful not to injure the seedlings. Whenever
the Nursery is weeded or seedlings have been removed for transplantation
fresh seeds should be sown in order to always have a supply of seed-
lings. According as the shade is taken away the supply of water to
the seedling should be slightly watared with lime water, SUFFICIENTLY
DILUTED SO AS NOT TO BURN THE SEEDLINGS, and the larger grubs des-
troyed every morning by hand. The seedlings, to be fit for transplant-
ing, must have six leaves and these leaves of the size of a half
doilar piece. Before rooting up the seedlings for transplanting,
if no rain occurs, the ground should be properly wetted to
facilitate their extraction with all their roots. They should be
slightly shaken to remove some of the earth attached to their
roots. In taking out seedlings for transplanting the fingers should
be carefully put down to the root in order to avoid breaking the stalk.

CHAPTER III.

PLANTING AND PREPARATION OF THE LAND FOR
PLANTING.

The proper mouth: for planting is September, but if inundation of
the land be expected, planting should commence in November.

We have noticed in various works on Tobacco Culture that artifi-
cial manures are highly recommended. We believe that by this means
the Tobacco can be made to yield larger leaves, according to the quality
of the artificial manure, but it can never be obtained possessing the
aroma and other qualities essential to Smoking Tobacco. The only
application admissible is that of lime, which SHOULD ONLY BE USED
when the soil is very much exhausted. In the Island of Cuba, the
Smoking Tobacco produced is doubtless without a rival in the world
and there manuring with artificial manures is never practised, as the

150

experience of the Vuelta-abajo planters a few years since proves clearly
the disadvantages attending such usage. It should be remarked that
the manure used was Peruvian Guano. The crop obtained during that
short period suffered greatly in its quantity and quality, so much so that
the planters of Vuelta-abajo have given up altogether manuring with
such foreign matters. The best method of preparing the soil for planting
is the following, which is that employed in Cuba, the manure used being
purely vegetable, withthe exception indicated, viz., lime.

No other animals but hogs should be allowed to feed on the land in-
tended for planting from the month of May. Weeds and shrubs are
allowed to grow freely till July, when it is ploughed lengthwise and
crosswise with all the bush. Fifteen or twenty days after, about which
time the weeds, etc., ought to be thorougly rotten, the land should be
frequently ploughed, with a few days interval between each ploughing, if
the soil be not too wet, so that, by the month of September it shall have
been ploughed about eight or ten times, and the whole of the
vegetable rubbish be perfectly rotten. All the sticks, roots of small
trees which have not rotted should be picked up and thrown away and
the land raked if not wet. It is convenient to have hogs feeding on the
land during this time, as they help to mix up the soil. It is unneces-
sary to say that when about to begin planting they should be kept out
of the field, for they would destroy the Tobacco plants. | When there is
no fear of floods, and planting time hasarrived, if there be any weeds
growing on the land, it should be ploughed, attaching this time to the
plough a log, about four feet in length, in such a manner as to break up
the lumps of earth and at the same time collect the rubbish.

To Plant.—The land is ploughed in a direction from North to
South, leaving at least a yard between each furrow, but if the soil be
very fertile four feet should. be left. The seedlings, after being up-
rooted as before mentioned, are distributed along the furrows at a dis-
tance of eighteen inches from each other. Planting should be com-
menced not earlier than three o'clock in the afternoon on sunny days,
but on a cloudy light showery day, planting may be carried on the
whole day. Planting may also be begun before daybreak, so that the
planting be finished by eight o’clock in the morning. The seedling is
held with the left hand and the earth taken out of the hole with-the
right, and placing the seedling into the hole, throw some earth on the
roots and slightly press it down, being very careful not to injure the
tender stem of the seedling, and then fill up the hole with the ioose soil.
The depth at which the seedlings should be placed in the holes depends
on its size, for which reason no exact rule can be given, but generally
speaking, in ordinary size seedling the root and a small portion of the
stem only should be buried. Tall seedlings can be placed a few inches
deeper, according to the size, but in no case should any seed-
lings be buried so deeply that the lower leaves touch the
earth. One should also be careful not to ALLOW ANY EARTH TO FALL
ON THE TOP OF THE YOUNG PLANT. Wet weather is most suitable for
planting, and if the soil be very wet, the seedlings should be planted
lightly, that is avoiding all pressure on their roots. __ If the planting be
done in furrows, the seedlings should be placed on that side of the fur-
row called by the vegueros “ oreja,”’ which is the side on the west.

Seedlings from a distance.—When on any account planting has to

151

be done with seedlings brought from a far distance, the greatest care
should be observed in transporting and preserving them, for otherwise
many will die when transplanted. The best manner is to take out the
seedlings early in the morning and place them on the river bank (if
there be any near) and under the shade of a tree soas to keep them
altogether out of reach of the rays of the sun. After six in the evening
of the same day or before dawn of the next they should be put up in
small bund \es, and before starting for their destination they should be
sprinkled with cold water. , As soon as they arrive at their destination
they should be placed in the cool, under the shade of atree. Every
bundle should be undone and the seedlings separated widely apart and
water again sprinkled on all so that whea planting time arrives they
are quite cool. If planted whilst warm very few seedlings will live.

If there is no rain when planting begins and the soil is very dry,
sufficient water must be poured into each hole, and planting ought not
to be performed till the following day, when the soil is moist. The
newly-planted seedlings should be watered twice daily, before sun-rise
and after sunset, for two or more days successively until it is seen that
they have taken root. After the young plants are transplanted in the
field those which have died must be replaced, and the operation repeated
it necessary to insure a good crop.

Planting on Virgin Land.—For planting no trees or shade of any
kind should be used, and therefore every one should be taken away on
the land intended for a Tobacco field. Newly cleared land cannot be
ploughed on account of the stumps and roots of the trees cut down.
The roots, could of course, be dug out, but the expense attending this
operation would be great. They may, however, be gradually dug out
until in a few years none be left on the !and.

When the soil suited for planting has been newly cleared and can-
not for the reasons given be ploughed, HOLING must be adopted, which is
done by means of a pointed pole or an iron implement made in the
shape of a lance. After driving the instrument used with some force
into the soil, turn it in several directions so as to break up the earth
thoroughly, keeping a distance of EIGHTEEN INCH#s from each hole and
three feet trom each row of holes. To give a regular and symmetrical
appearance to the field we use a long, strong, single cord with pieces of
coloured rags, or any other material fastened in at the distance apart
which has been mentioned, namely, eighteen inches. The cord is
kept stretched out by means of a stake driven in the ground at each
end of the cord. In forming the rows of holes with this line the
stakes tied at the end of it are placed at a distance of three feet from
the preceding row.

CHAPTER IV.
AFTER CULTIVATION.

About eight or ten days after planting, if the soil is not too wet,
the furrows are closed up by hoeing up the earth carefully around the
plants and again performing the same operation at intervals of about
fifteen days. This operation should be done if it does not rain. Asa
general rule it may be said that this operation of hoeing, or as it is com-
monly called, ‘“ mMounpine@” should be performed as often as necessary
to keep the soil loose and free from weeds. Moulding exerts a benefi«

152

cial effect on Tobacco, aiding its growth and proper development nearly
the same as rain does.

When the plants are still young two little narrow leaves (called
‘* barbus” in Cuba) appear at the junction of the stem with the two low-
est leaves, and they must be picked off as soon as they become visible,
for if left they develop into long, narrow leaves, which greatly injure the
plant. A process called “ pruning” consists in taking off the two lower
leaves of each plant as soon as they ripen. Care must be taken not to
strip a piece of the bark of the stalk when removing them. When cured
they produce a fairly good Smoking Tobacco. Particular care must
at all times be taken to keep the plants free from grubs or caterpil-
lars, and for this purpose hand-picking should be done at least twice
daily, otherwise many of the best leaves will be perforated and rendered
useless for wrapping purposes.

Toprine (desbotonar).—The Tobacco plant grows more or less
high, according to the fertility of the soil and the state of the weather
during its growth. ‘ ToppinG” is an operation which consists in pluck-
ing off the shoot button or bud (which encloses the flower) at the Top
of the plant. It should be taken off with the finger and thumb as being
the safest way. The time when it should be plucked off is when the
two little leaves which enclose the bud open cut. Not more than twelve
leaves should be allowed to remain on each plant, and the surplus leaves
should be taken off along with the bud trom the top of the plant. One
must be very careful not to allow too much time to elapse and the flower
to make its appearance, for then the leaves of the plants will be small
in size and of inferior quality. Wight days, or thereabout, after the
‘‘ button” or bud has been removed, the suckers begin to appear, every
one of which should be removed as soon as seen, and the operation
must be performed as frequently as necessary in order that the plants
may grow strong and vigorous. This operation is called (“deshijaar”’ )
SUCKERING, the suckers being all those leaves which spring up at the
junction of the stem and the leaves of the plant, as well as thos. that
grow from the root and lower part of the stem. After the third sucker-
ing the plants will be fit for cutting, but this should never be done until
the leaves are matured so as to obtain the Tobacco of prime colour,
being careful at the same time to avoid their being too ripe, if this
should happen they get discoloured, or dappled, thus losing in quality
and producing much “ FuNK” (that is, almost valueless Tobacco.) The
leaf is MATURED when on its surface are formed ELEVATION BLISTERS,
called by Cuban planters “ vejigar”’ BLISTERING, and when the tops of
the leaves, held in the hand, sound asif they cracked. It is then that
the leaf is fully developed. When the plant has been cut, suckers
spring up. The leaves developed from these are called “cAPADURAS’”’ or
“capongs and to obtain a good Tobacco from them wot more than
TwO SUCKERS must be allowed to grow from each parent-root, according
to its strength, and leaving only those which sprung up from below the
surface of the earth and furthest from the cut stalk. The suckers or
“ratoons’ should be carefully weeded, avoiding throwing the earth on
the cut stem or on the suckers, and moulding should be performed as
frequently as the weather and the vigour of the parent-root requires it.

The after-cultivation and curing of these suckers is identical with
that of the first crop of Tobacco. “Ratoons” or suckers are developed as

153

many as five times in success, provided the weather be rainy and the
number of suckers left be proportionate to the vigour of the parent-root.
The Tobacco obtained each time will be of good size and quality, and
sometimes, in every respect, superior to the first cut.

CHAPTER V.

HARVESTING.

When the plant is properly ripe and fit for harvesting, cutting
must not he commenced until the dew has disappeared and the leaves
are thoroughly dry, that is, after ten o’clock in the morning, and con-
tinued till about three o'clock in the afternoon. The best knife
for use is the hook-nosed pruning knife.

The leaves are best cut in pairs “ mancuernas,” commencing from
above and proceeding downwards to a level with the earth, in preference
to the method of cutting down the whole plant. The “ mancuernas”
should be placed on poles (of convenient length and thickness, first
stripped of their bark) as quickly as possible to prevent the sun from
burning the leaves while on the ground, for if this should happen the
Tobacco would be greatly damaged. Each “‘ Cortapor” on CUTTER
should have as many COLLECTORS as may be found necessary
in order that the Tobacco cut may be on the ground the
least possible time. The currers should throw the “capa” or wrappers
(the best Tobacco) on the space or walk between the rows of plants which
they may be following and the “ rripa”’ or fillers in the next, thus keep-
ing the two classes separate, for alike reason each pole should be
filled with the same class, and when full of the Tobacco should be kept
separate in the House. When on the poles the Tobacco should be kept
fora while in the sun to wither and then taken to the House ; for
while it is beneficial to dry in the sun when on the poles, it is destruc-
tive to the quality of the leaves if it is dried by the sun while lying on
the ground.

If it be decided to cut the plant whole, as is sometimes practised ,
cutting always commencing at the proper time of the day, each CARRIER
should be provided with bands eighteen inches in width and of any de-
sired length. With these bands the cut plants are carefully tied into
BUNDLES or “ MATULES,” so as not to break the leaves, and should be of
a size which the men employed as carriers can readily carry. Instead
of bands, bags may be used to carry the cut Tobacco to the Tobacco-
house. Every endeavour ought to be used not to allow the Tobacco
to remain on the ground longer than is absolutely necessary to pick it
up, to avoid the inevitable burning which will occur if left long on the
ground. The bundles or bag-fulls may he carried to the House either
on head, small carts, or any other manner.

The manner of curing the Tobacco cut in these two ways will be
described in another Chapter.

Before detailing the curinG, which has to be done in the Hovusn,
it is convenient to give a brief sketch of a ToBacoo-Hovsr, and at the
same time of the “ Pinon” or “ Prensa,” the “ BULKING-BOx” or
“¢ PRESS.”

154
CHAPTER VI.

CURING.

oo’

TOBACCO-HOUSE AND PRESS.

It is understood that the House must be finished by the time
cutting is tocommence. The “ PILon” or Press is to be made when
the Tobacco is dry on the poles and nearly ready for bulking or fer-
menting in the Press.

THe Topacco-Housks.

The house should run from North to South (one end looking North
and the other South.) Of whatever length it is built, take half the
length, less one part for the breadth, and with these dimensions a well-
shaped house will be constructed. Two-thirds the breadth is taken for
the length of the rafters, and if the House be thatched, one foot more
should be added to the length, so as to have a greater inclination of the
roof to throw off the rain water rapidly. For example, a house of 20
yards in length (the posts supporting the roof being 4 yards high), the
breadth will be ¥ yards and the length of the rafters 6 yards: half of
20 = 10, less 1 vara = 9 yards, and two-thirds of 9 yards = 6 yards.
A house of these dimensions is to be divided into sections, ‘‘ APOSEN-
Tos ’ allowing a space of 27 inches between each section so that a man
may easily get in to put up or bring down the poles. The same space
left between each section (27 inches) should be left at both ends of the
house to afford the same facility. A passage one yard it width should
be left, dividing the house lengthwiseinto halves, and each half will
have by this passage four sections on each side, thus making in all
eight sections, and each of these sections will have four square yards.
The apartments are framed by posts.

The poles for a house of the foregoing dimensions must be at least
thirteen feet in length.

The poles filled with the Tobacco are placed on what are called in
Cuba “BARREDERAS,” which are stout, strong rails, of the length of the
sections, nailed horizontally on posts, which form the sections one above
the other and at a convenient distance, namely, one yard, so that the
tip of the leaves of the upper poles do not touch the butt ends of the
lower. The space above the tie-beam is divided in the same manner as
was done below it. To be able to do the division above as below, itis
necessary to put two tze-beams and two cross beams or cross pieces to form
each space, and by these the spaces separating each apartment below
will be continued above. We would advise the beginner to see a house
built by an Expert as the best means of becoming acquainted with its
construction.

When the house is shingled or thatched, a kind of window or ven-
tilator should be left at the top of each gable so that the air may refresh
the Tobacco which is at the upper part of the house. In a toggy
locality the sides of the house should alsobe covered with thatch.
Several doors should be made so that after the fog has disappeared they
may be opened and air allowed to circulate freely through the house.
The sides of the house should be WATTLED.

155

THe Press on “PILON.”’

The Press is made in one of the sections of the Tobacco-house, and
of the required size. The section in which the Press is constructed
must be well closed to exclude the outer air. Long logs are placed
parallel to, a little apart from, each other, and on these a kind of floor
is made of either board or wattles, at a height of about one foot. The
floor so formed is covered with thatch or dry plantain leaves, aud the
Tobacco can now be placed in it.

CoNDITIONING OR FERMENTATION.
1. MancuErnas, or pairs of leaves.

As soon as the poles are carried to the House filled with the
Tobacco, cut and arranged as before described, they are placed on the
horizontal rails or “ BARREDERAS”’ closely packed together. They are
left in this state for three days, if it be in the months of October, Nov-
ember or December, but in any of the following months they must be
kept so packed for not more than one or two days.

When the leaves become yellow they are said to be ripe and then
the poles must be separated a foot from each other.

There are two methods of treating the Tobacco when in this con-
dition :—

Method A.—Allow the poles to remain the foot apart till the stalks
and the midribs or middle veins of the leaves get dry, then carry up the
poles to the upper “‘barrederas’ and again pack closely, 7 there be want
of room; but if room be not needed, then they may be put a foot
apart.

3 Method B.—Separate the leaves which may be sticking together
and place the poles filled with the Tobacco out in the sun for three days,
being very careful ot to allow the rain to wet the Tobacco, and replace
them in the house every day at about 3 or 4 o’clock in the afternoon to
avoid the dew. Horizontal bars of a kind similar to those used ina
gymnasium are made on which to place the poles filled with the Tobacco.
At the end of three days the poles are placed on the upper “ barrederas”
and there allowed to dry properly. The poles may be closely packed if
room be needed, but thes should never be done unless the “middle vein”
or midrib be thoroughly dry.

I prefer this method to the former, because there is no fear of
sen ipe (putrid fermentation), and the Tobacco acquires a_ better
colour.

Considering the advantages of this method it is :almost superfluous
to advise the adoption of it in preference to the former.

2. When the method is adopted of cutting the whole Plant.—The
bundles or “‘matules,” when brought in from the field, are unloaded at
the House, and should be opened out at once and the Tobacco scattered
about as widely as possible to allow it to cool to prevent its sweating.
When cool and there is no risk of sweating, the stalks of two plants are
tied together at the root end with any kind of string, fastening four
stems to one string, which should be just long enough to allow the
Tobacco to be hung up on the pole, like the “mancuernas.” In case
the Tobacco plants be rather large, instead of two, only one should be
tied at each end. The string should be tied below the upper leaf, on

156

the butt of the stalk, so as to prevent their falling down. One must be
very careful to see that the labourers tying do not put more than four
small plants or two large ones in each string.

After being placed on the poles the Tobacco cut in this manner is
treated just the same as that cut in pairs of leaves, or “mancuernas.”
Although we have attempted here to describe one of the most import-
ant operations, yet it is a fact that scarcely any one can become efficient
in the practical part unless he assists in carrying out the work for some
time under the instruction of an Expert.

MertuHop oF BULKING IN PREss.

(HMPILONAR.)

Method 1.—At the beginning of Spring, when the Tobacco becomes
soft and pliant on account of the humidity of the weather, the poles are
taken down--the time for which must also be regulated by the condi-
tion of the leaf—the leaves are stripped off, or removed from the stalks
and made into bundles or “‘matules,” 18 inches in length by 18 inches
in depth, the breadth being the length of the leaves. The leaves are
placed with all their butt ends together and properly tied to form the
‘matul.”’ The “matules’” are more easily formed by means of two
pairs of short stakes driven in the ground in the House, at the proper
distance, viz., 18 inches, strings to be used for tying up the bundles are
passed between each pair of stakes. The stakes in each pair
being driven apart at a distance according to the length of the leaves.
After the bundles are made they are put in the pizlon or press, tightly
packed together, covering them up with thatch or dried plantain leaves,
putting on top of all a few blocks of wood, or any other weight to press
the Tobacco slightly. It should now be allowed to remain in the press
for at least eight days before commencing the sorTING of the leaves,
but itis preferable to allow the Tobacco to remain in the press for
about thirty days or more, as the Tobacco is benefited by the press, and
there is no risk in its remaining here for any length of time, provided the
leaves as well as their mid ribs be thoroughly dry when put into the press.
The wezghts should be removed after thirty days.

When about to sort the leaves as many bundles as can be worked
up in a day are taken out of the press, opened out, and the tips and the
butt ends of the leaves are moistened with a wet sponge. The bundles
are again made up and placed into the press, covering them as before.
1wenty-four hours after, when the leaves will have just enough moisture
to be handled without breaking, the bundles are taken out as fast as the
leaves are SORTED.

SorTinG, classification or choosing of the leaves, is done to separate
the different kinds of leaves according to their qualities, etc. Hach
planter may classify or sort his tobacco as he thinks best, but the sim-
plest classification is: into first class CAPA (wrapper); second class CAPA,.
first class tripa (filler); second class tripa and third class tripa the re-
mainder being ‘‘ FUNK” or inferior Tobacco. The leaves which have
been sORTED should be immediately, or rather simultaneously, made into:
hands or “ manillas.” A “ hand’, “ gavilla” or “ manilla” is made b
placing the butt ends of the leaves evenly together until the hand is full
of leaves, selecting a leaf which is not very sound, twist it like a rope,
and wrap it around the butt ends of the leaves so as to tie them proper-

= 157

ly together, then divide the whole bunch of leaves with the hand and
draw the tying-leaf through and close the bunch, thus securing the
leaves, afterwards place the HANDs in the press again.

I am greatly in favour of the foregoing method of bulking on ac-
count of the many advantages it possesses over the following, which is
by some adopted as the usual method of curing at this stage:—

Method 2.—If for want of roomin the House or on account of very
wet weather the Tobacco becomes mouldy and there be fear of losing
it, it should be put into the press at once. In such a case it should re-
main in the press not longer than is absolutely necessary for stripping
off the stalks and sorting the leaves, never beyond ezght days, as the
dampness of the stalks spoils the leaves. The after-treatment is the
same as the first method.

CHAPTER VIL.
PACKING AND BALING.

As soon as it is desired to pack the Tobacco the wash is prepared
with which to sprinkle it The “ manilla” is held in the left hand, and
with the right the wash (betun) is sprinkled on evenly, and the hand
of Tobacco well shaken to remove drops of wash on the leaves: they are
then put aside in a heap and allowed to remain so for a couple of hours,
or until the leaves be sufficiently pliant and soft to permit handling
without breaking, and they are again put back into the press. After
remaining in the press for about four or six days the hands or manillas
are taken out and shaken and made into bunches of three or four hands
each, called “ manojos,” and then put into bales. When baled, the
Tobacco undergoes its last fermentation, being ready at the same time
for the market, and the curing of the crop is at an end. The yayuas
which are strips of palm bark used in baling, must be properly dry and
pliant and evenly flattened by pressure. Hach bale should hold eighty-
one manojos. The bales are made in a wooden frame, which is con-
structed on different patterns. It is useless to describe the process, as
no description whatever can teach the manner of making a bale. It
must be learnt by practice as many of the other processes also must be.
‘After the bales are made, they should be put out in the sun till the yaguas
and ropes with which the bales are tied be thoroughly dry. After dry-
ing they should be stored away in a suitable dry place having a wooden
floor.

When more than three bales are put together, one on the other,
the pressure of such a weight takes away the softness and elasticity of
the leaf, but on the other hand renders it a better Smoking Tobacco.
Every one, therefore is at liberty in this particular to use his discretion
to suit his interest.

Besides yaguas cases are used for packing Tobacco, those made of
eedar-boards being preferable, but packing in yaguas or baling is by far
the best. Such is the prevailing opinion amongst planters in Cuba that
it is acommon saying there, that ‘“‘ God made the Yagua for the To-
bacco” (Dios hizo la yagua par el tabaco.)

158

APPENDIX.

(a) A Nursery 110 yards long and 22 yards wide will grow a suffi-
cient number of healthy seedlings to plant a field of 12 acres.

(6) For a Nursery of the foregoing size about two pounds of good,
nealthy seed should be sown, and if these do not grow, fresh
seed must be sown again.

(c) On an acre of land 10,000 plants can be cultivated, but the ex-
act number is 9,680 plants. One man should not attend to
more than the number of plants which can be grown on an
acre of land.

(d) The number of plants that will give a quintal (100 lbs) of
Tobacco cannot be exactly estimated, for it depends on the
state of the weather and the fertilitv of the soil. But in
general terms it may be said that if the soil is good and
the weather is favourable 1,000 or 1,500 plants will give a
quintal.

(e) Should it rain whilst cutting is going on, the operation must
be discontinued until the weather is again fine—as the leaf
must on no account be cut while wet.

Tobacco should not be cut during rainy weather, as at
that time the suckers are growing freely and it would take
away the quality of the leaf, which is in measure regained
by succeeding dry weather.

Bretun oR WasH.

Take 5lbs of old, strong Tobacco stalks and put into 2 or 23 gal-
lons of water, and boil sufficiently to reduce the quantity of water to
about one third so as to obtain a strong well boiled infusion. The ves-
selin which this infusion is made should be new and perfectly free
from grease, Take a clean barrel,fill with clear water, and put into it a
sufficient quantity of Tobacco-stalks, three quarters of which should be
of the former crop and one fourth ot the last. Allow it to ferment for
four days, and on the fifth day, when it should be used, add as much of
the infusion to this as will darken it, and it may now be used.

SS SSE SSE Onn ets

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT.

LIBRARY,

EUROPE.

British Isles. |
British Museum, Annual Returus, 1898-99. [Director.]
Botanical Magazine, September. [Purchased.]
British Trade Journal, September. [Editor.]
Bulletin, Kew Gardens, March—August. [Director. ]
Chemist and Druggist, Aug. 12, 19, 26, Sept. 2. [Editor.]
Garden, Aug. 12, 19, Sept.2. [Purchased.]
Gardener’s Chronicle, Aug. 12, 19, 26, Sept. 2. [Purchased. |
Journal of Botany, Aug., Sept, [Purchased.]
Nature, Aug. 10, 17, 24, 31. [Purchased.]
Pharmaceutical Journal, Aug. 12, 19, 26, Sept. 2.
Produce World, Sept. [Editor.]

159 r

Sugar, Aug. ([EKditor.]
Sugar Journal, International, Sept. [Editor. ]
W. Indian and Com. Advertiser, Aug. [Editor.]
France:
Sucrerie, indigéne at coloniale, Aug., 15, 22. Sept. 5.—[Editor.]
Germany '
Tropenpflanzer, Sept. —[Editor.]
Italy.
Palermo, Bol. Ort. Bot., II., 3, 4.—[Editor.]
Switzerland,
Bulletin de Herbier Boissier, Aug.— [Conservateur ]

a

ASIA,

Ceylon.
Agricultural Ledgeri(Caleutta), Nos. 5, 6, 1899.
Plauting Opinion, July 22, 29, Aug., 5, 12.—[Editor.]
India.
Times of Ceylon, July 27, Aug. 2, 9, 17.—[Editor.]

AUSTRALIA.

N.S. Wales.
Agri. Gazette of N. 8. Wales, Aug, [Dept. of Agri. }
AFRIOA.
Cape a7 Good Hope.
Agr. Journal. July 20. [Sec. for Agri.]
Contra: Africa.
Times, June 17, 24, July 1, 8. [Editor.]

WEsT INDIES.

Barbados.
Agricultural Gazette, Aug. [Editor.]
Jamaica.
Journal, Jamaica Agri, Soc., Sept. [Secretary.]
Trinidad.
Report of Govt. Analyst on Seedling Cane Crop of 1899, [Supt. Bot.
Gard.}
BRITISH NORTH AMERIOA.
Montreal.
Pharmaceutical Journal, Sept. [Editor.]
Ontario.

Bureau of Industries. Aug. Crop Report. [Secretary.]

Publications of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture—Scientific Bureaus and Divisions
[Dzrectors.]

Experiment Stations.
Experiment Station Record, XI. I.
Ohio, 96 (Army Worm and other Insects), 97 (Diseases of Wheat), 98
(Small Fruits), 99 (Sugar Beet.), 100 (Home-mixing of Fertilisers), 101
(Oats), 102 (Spraying), 103 (S. José Scale), 104 (Spraying Pump), 105
(Cucumber, Melon and Tomato Diseases), 106 (Chinch Bug), 107
Hessian Fly).
Texas, 52 (Cabbage and Cauliflower)
Utah, 61 (Alfalfa)

American Journal of Pharmacy, Sept.—[ Editor. ]

Botanical Gazette, Chicago, Aug.—[Kditor.]

POLYNESIA.
Planters’s Monthly, Hawaii, Aug.—[Editor.]

° 160

PLANTS.
From Lady Blake—Hong Kong,
Renanthera coccinea.
From Mons. Chas. Patin.
Epidendrum Rodigesianum. Musa sp. (Congo Banana)
Cattleya giganteum. Haemanthus Lindeni.
-Sapium biglandulosum. Vanilla cuttings.
Grias zamorana. Colombian Pine-apple.
From Royal Gardens, Kew.
Acalypha hispida. Strobilanthes gossypinus.
Anodendron paniculatum, Strophanthus dichotomus.
Aristolochia saccata. Strychnos potatorum.
Bignoniad (Saharanpur) Toxicodendron capense
Bixa Orellana, var. alba Uvaria membranacea.
Carica Chongona. Aloeasia Curtisii.
Croton Laingil. . 7 longiloba.
Ehretia acuminata. ke Thibautiana.
Evodia elegans %y Watsoni
Fagraea auriculata. ts zebrina.
Ficus Canoni. Amomum Daniellii.

‘s damaraensis Za echinatum.
Flemingia semialata. Andropogon Nardus.
Garcinia ternophylla. Schcenanthus.
Hibiscus collinus. Areca Alicie.

Irvingia Barteri. Asplenium nidus, var. multilobatum
Lucuma sericea. Bentinckia nicobariea.
N epenthes coccinea. Caryota mitis.
cylind: ica. Chamerops humilis, var dactylo-

“ lawrenciana. carpa.

es Morgane. Corypha sp. (Bombay.)

4 rufescens. Curcuma sp. (Gamble.)

Williamsii. Erythea armata.
Owenia cepiodora. Musa Livingstoneana.
Peltophorum africanum. Pandanus sp. (Sander.)
Randia chartacea. Ptychoraphis augusta.
Rhus rhodanthina. Raphia Hookeri.
Martinezia erosa Sagus levis.
Crinum sp. Veitchia Johannis.
Solanum Wendlandii.

SEEDS.

From Lady Blake— Hong Kone.
Quercus sp. (China)

From Acclimatisation Soc. Gards. Queensland.
Aralia Veitchii
Brassarla actinophylla
Castanospernum australe
Sterculia acerifolia

a lurida

From Mons. Chas. Patin
Colombian Palm.

From Mr. W. Cradwick.
Physalis Francheti

From Botanic Gardens, Penang.
Durio zibethinus.

From Botanic Gardens, Bangalore.
Shorea Talura.

From R. Botanic Garden, Trinidad,
Syagrus amara.

[Issued 26th October, 1899.

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

: Vol, V
Hew Series NOVEMBER, 1899 Part XI

DISEASES OF THE VINE.

Diseases of the Vine may be conveniently classed into :—

(1) Those directly traceable to the action of parasitic fungi.

(2) Those directly traceable to the action of injurious insects.

(3) Those for which neither fungi nor insects offer a sufficient
explanation.

The first and second class of diseases we propose on this occasion
to pass over.

The unexplained diseases of the Vine are important enough to merit
special notice, as they have been the subject of many investigations.
Asa general conclusion of the perusal of some of the more important
results obtained, we are led to regard most of the unexplained diseases as
“physiological,” that is, they are due to defects in cultivation, to ad-
verse climatic or other conditions, and to the use of unsuitable varieties
of the Vine. Fungi or insects may appear along with diseases of this
kind, but they come later and only because the plants are already
weakly. One might even go further, and say that most of the fungus-
diseases of the Vine are really started by defects in cultivation ; the
Vines are weakened, the fungi come and complete the mischief.

The methods employed to produce a large supply of fruit of high
quate may easily result in conditions favourable to the development of

isease.

cS

SHANKING.

“Shanking” is a trouble which accompanies Grape-growing all
over the world. The Grapes as they approach maturity fall off the
bunch, breaking away where the stalk joins the fruit ; or they may
simply shrivel up and remain attached. The Grapes to go first are
those towards the lower end of a buuch, or those on the shoulders. The
number may vary from one to many, and the trouble may be apparent
all over the Vine or only on parts of it. The foliage is at the same

* See Bulletin, 1897, page 37.

162

time more or less affected ; generally the leaves turn brown and curl in
places, or allover. Insects or fungi have never been proved to be the:
real cause of the trouble, the chief reason is to be sought in the condi-
tion of the Vine itself. No doubt, the disease is not always due to the
same cause. Over-cropping frequently leads to “shanking,” so, also,
does too early ripening of the wood. Both of these conditions result in
a drain on the food-supplies which the plant has to provide, and will
lead to starvation of maturing fruit. Excessive moisture and heat pro-
duce conditions favourable to “‘shanking” if they cause undue forcing
of the Vines ; on the other hand, any check due to sudden dryness or
cooling will be first seen in the fruit bunches.

From what we can learn, the soil itself has no direct effect, but a
weak root-system due to defects in the air, heat, texture, or moisture of
the soil, will not be in a condition to supply the necessary water and
food to a fruiting Vine. Excess of nitrogenous substances in the Vine
due to over-manuring or to over-cultivation of a rich outside border,
easily aggravate “shanking.”’ It is said by good authorities that
‘“‘shanking”’ occurs when the Vine is deficient in potash, and they re-
commend this to be supplied in some formas a manure to the soil.
Dropping of the Grapes is also a common result of any disease of the
foliage, stems, or roots of the Vine. |

A disease on out-door Vines, recently described by French investi-
gators under the name “maladie pectique,” seems to us very like a form
of “shanking.” The leaves in the lower parts of the Vines show dis-
coloured patches, which become wine-red in dark-fruited varieties, or
yellowish in white-fruited.. This is followed by withering, curling, and
drying up of the leaves ; as this goes on, the blade breaks away at the
top of the leaf-stalk. Flowers and young fruit behave in the same way,
shrivel, and drop from their stalk. Ihe disease was never seen to cause
total loss of a Vine, as it never seemed to spread beyond the lower
branches. No parasites of any kind could be found. The conditions
which lead to the disease are sudden changes of climate affecting the
soil. The soils most liable to it are light, and of a pebbly or slatey
nature. The vine-yards, where it showed most, were subjected to severe
drought in 1893, followed early in 1894 by continual rain and a mark-
ed fall in temperature of both air and soil. These facts support the
view that ‘“‘shanking” on our indoor Vines is not caused by either
fungus or insect, but by conditions arising from soil or climate.

BLANCHING.

‘‘ Chlorose ” or “ blanching,’ is a disease which has caused much:
trouble in the south of France. The Vine-leaves lose their deep green
shade, then become yellow or completely blanched. The loss of colour
generally begins near the margin of the leaf, and spreads inwards
between the veins ; the affected parts may or may not become withered.
Young green twigs sicken like the leaves, and may dry up. The
woody branches are retarded in growth, and new leaves given off remain
small and blanched. As the malady almost aiways develops before the
flowering period, both flowers and young fruit are stunted and dis-
coloured, and probably dry up or fall off. French experience shows
that chlorose is worst on very limey calcareous soils. On such soils the
Vines sicken in the first year, and gradually lose their vigour ; deatu

163

may ensue, but frequently the Vines recover gradually each year, and
the chlorose may disappear. Wherethe soilis less calcareous, the di-
sease is less intense. On clay or siliceous soils, chlorose only appears in
some cold wet spring, when yellow patches may appear on the leaves,
but growth is hardly interrupted, and, if the weather improves, all
comes well again. The primary cause of chlorose is the presence of too
much carbonate of lime (limestone or chalk) in the soil, and its action
is assisted by any condition of the soil which increases the amount of
soluble lime. This is further assisted by want of water, light, heat, or
air, which defects tend to weaken the general health of the Vines. The
disease is diminished by any mode of cultivation which promotes good
drainage in the soil, or which strengthens the growth of the Vine.
Above all, applications of sulphate of iron (green vitriol) to the soil
round the roots of the Vine do most to cure chlorose ; this is the case,
even though the soil, naturally contains iron. As many of the great
Vine-growing districts of France have a calcareous soil, chlorose is a
serious disease, and, during the Phylloxera epidemic, it assisted in
almost exterminating the Vine, and in ruining many a grower. During
recent years, however, great progress has been made in checking both
Phylloxera and chlorose. This is done by selecting Vines produced by
Seah the European Vine (Vitis vinifera) on stocks of American

ines. We cannot discuss the subject fully in this paper. Briefly,
however, certain varieties of Vitis vinifera grow fairly well on calcar-
eous soils (e.g., l'ulle-Blanche, Pinot, Colombeau, etc.) ; these are
grafted on stocks of the American Vitis Berlandieri, which is found
wild only on calcareous soils. The Vinifera-Berlandieri hybrids have
been used to re-stock hundreds of acres in France, and the Grapes pro-
duced are not inferior in quality, while the Vines are much more re-
sistant to disease. Thisis an important chapter in the history of Vine
cultivation, and illustrates the great value of resistant varieties or hy-
brids as a means of combating diseases of plants. We have urged this
before, and believe that more substantial progress will be made against
diseases of plants by means of hardy varieties than by any methods of
spraying or sulphuring sickiy plants) (Wm. G.Smith in Gardener’s
Chronicle.) .

———————

EUCALYPTI IN THE TRANSVAAL.

According to an Indian contemporary, extensive areas of land are
being planted, in the neighbourhood of Johannesburg and Pretoria, with
eucalyptus trees. The gold-mining companies, it is said, have been for
some time getting hard up for timber for their mines, and as the Aus-
tralian gums grow so rapidly they have been planted in preference to
other trees. One plantation of 1,000 acres planted twelve years ago,had
produced trees ranging up to 40 feet in height, supplying good pit-wood.
The predominant species planted was blue gum (£. Globulus). E. vimi-
nolis ranking next in value. F. robusta, E. resinifera and E. diversicolor
have also been tried. The plantations referred to are all situated on
elevations varying from 4,500 feet to 6,000 feet above sea-level. The
soil is generally a poor red loam, much impregnated with iron.—
Chemist and Druggist.

| 164
EFFECT OF TILLAGE ON SOIL-MOISTURE.

In two previous Bulletins * it has been shown of what very great
importance is the proper tilling of the soil. Cultivation not only makes
it easier for the roots to spread all round and get more food, but really
increases the amount of food in the soil.

But tillage is also most useful in another way, especially in districts
subject to drought : it prevents waste of water from the soil, and so helps
to store up moisture for the use of plants during dry weather.

This is not merely opinion, but has been carefully tested and prov-
ed by scientific methods at many Experiment Stations. An instance
may be given from work carried on in Michigan. +

Corn was grown on two series of four plots each. The soil of the
first series was a sandy loam somewhat gravelly below a depth of one
foot, while the soil of the second series was not quite so sandy at the
surface, and contained more clay below the first foot. In each series
plot one was not cultivated ; plots 2 and 3 were given three cultivations
with a weeder, seven with a Gale cultivator, and seven with a Planet
Jr. cultivator ; and plot 4 was cultivated five times with a Gale cultiva-.
tor. The average percentage of moisture at different depths, and the
yields of the different plots are given in the following table:—

YIELD oF CoRN.| MOISTURE CONTENT OF SolIL.

OuLtiIvatiIon, (occu i
Green Dry First | Second| Third | Average
Corn. | Matter.| Foot. | Foot. | Foot. |for3 feet
First Series ‘Pounds.| Pounds, |Per cent |Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent
Plot 1 | None 2,180 723 6.16 4.70 6.66 5.84
Plot 2 Frequent, 3 in. deep | 13,207 5,532 7.15 5.72 8.23 7.03
Plot 3 | Frequent, 5in deep | 12,687 | 4,799 | 7.45 5.98 7.83 7.09
Plot 4 Ordinary, 5 in. deep} 12,167 4,380 6.28 5.64 8.44 6,79
Second Series.
Plot 1 None 1,848 620 7.16 6.36 11.73 8.42
Plot 2 Frequent. 3 in. deep} 12,258 4,790 8.41 6.81 12.74 9.35
Plot 3 Frequent, 5 in. deep} 12,700 4,728 8.75 7.36 12.10 9.40
Plot 4 Ordinary, 5in. deep} 10,514 3,849 7.74 8.26 11.41 9.14

J

This table shows very clearly that there is much more water in the
soil in the plots that have been tilled than in those tliat have had no
cultivation.

The weight of corn harvested fromtthe cultivated plots was 6 or 7
times as much as in the untilled plots.

The Agricultural College in Kansas { has also been experimenting
on the subject of soil moisture. An experiment reported in Bulletin
No. 68 showed that a dry soi] mulch is quite as effective in conserving
soil moisture as a hay or straw mulch, and that by its application imme-
diately after a rain, a very considerable amount of moisture can be held

* Bulletins, 1895 Aug., page 162 ; 1896 Nov. page 241.
+ Michigan Sta. Bull. 164, pp. 79-96.
t Kansas State Agri. Coll., Bull. 89, pp. 12-22

165

in the soil for the use of growing plants during a drought, or to ger-
minate seed that might be planted. During the summer of 1897 this
#xperiment was repeated in a modified form. Four small plots were
laid off in a field where conditions were as nearly uniform as possible.
A mulch of green grass about four inches deep was placed upon No. 1;
No. 2 was left untreated; No. 3 was cultivated about 4 inches deep, with
a hoe; and No. 4 was raked about 1 inch deep with a garden rake. The
treatment given plots 3 and 4 was repeated after every rain as soon as
the crust became dry enough to work without puddling. The percent-
ages of moisture present at certain dates were as in the following table:

r
}

on |

NUMBER = —. i i A en

AND TREATMENT. te oh op a|/eat¢

| San) <= | o | wo | 6
No. 1—Mulched --| 27,7 | 24.7 | 29.1 | 23.4 | 20.9 | 12.9
No. 2— Untreated .-| 27.199 19.3 | 23.3 | 18.0 | 170 | 12.6
No. 3—Deep tilled "| 3799 | 202 | 23.9 | 20.8 | 20.9 | 175
No. 4—Shallow tilled 27.4 | 19.6 | 23.7 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 18.0

{t will be seen that at the beginning of the experiment, July 10,
the plots were of practically the same moisture content, but by August
13 there was a decided advantage in favour of the mulched plot. A
rainfall of 0.65 in. occurred on that date after the sampling, but from
that date until October 17 was a period ot almost unbroken drought.
The change in the moisture-content of the plots during this period is of
special interest and value.

On August 14 the mulched plot contained about 54 per cent more
moisture than the others, and it continued to maintain about this ad-
vantage over the untreated plot up toSeptember 1. The cultivated plots
lost water at a much slower rate than the mulched plot, so that by Sep-
tember 3, the three had practically the same amount. From that date
on, the tilled plots showed an increasing advantage over the other plots.
On October 15 the mulched plot was as dry as the untreated one, while
the tilled plots contained 5 per cent more than the others. The dry
soil-covering was thus very effective throughout the entire period in
conserving the moisture. The untreated plot was dry to the depth of
the sample, one foot, while the tilled plots were in excellent condition for
seeding below the soil mulch. The soil mulch was very dry,and as it was
a part of the sample in cutting a core to the depth of a foot, the part of
the sample below the dry covering was more moist than the figures
would suggest if compared with determinations of water in soil in the
ordinary state. The soil from the lower 8 inches was moist enough to
stick together when compressed with the hand,

Experiments were also carried out on a large scale in the field, and
the effectiveness of simple ploughing asa means of conserving soil
moisture was clearly demonstrated. It is not necessary to go to large
additional expense in both tools and labour in order to preserve the
moisture, but it is necessary to do the ploughing promptly, while the
moisture is still in the soil. Another experiment was the following :

166

One otf the * Station fields which contained in round numbers 26 per
cent of water in the first foot of soil, on July 7, 1898, had one portion
ploughed, another disk-harrowed and a portion left untreated. The en-
suing dry weather in the course of four weeks, notwithstanding several
light rains, reduced the moisture of the untreated part to 15 per cent
and that of the disked land to 18 per cent, the ploughed ground retaining
21 per cent. The last two were in excellent condition for seeding,
while the first would plough up lumpy and unsatisfactory.

The weight of an acre of the dry soil to the depth of one foot may
be taken as 1,600 tons. Hach per cent of water in soil to that depth
represents about sixteen tons of water per acre, or one-seventh of an
inch. The water apparently lost by the untreated soil was 176 tons per
acre, equivalent to over one and one-half inches of rain. This is about
one-half what the soil would hold after a soaking rain. The real loss
was much more than this, since as water escaped from the upper foot,
other would be drawn up from below by capillary attraction. The
figures given are minimum quantities, therefore.

Stubble ground should unquestionably be ploughed while the
moisture is still in the soil. Experiments of the Station show that sim-
ple ploughing is quite as effective for moisture conservation as any
tillage yet tested. If time does not permit ploughing, the speedy work
of the disk harrow compares favorably in efficiency. In either casa, if
rain follows sufficient to start the weeds, kill them with a harrow. This
will at the same time break up any crust and preserve the soil mulch.

These principles apply to the provision ground as much as to the
large estate, and every man can test them for himself, and make his own
ground an experiment station. To test the matter in a small way does
not require a plough, a harrow, or a cultivator. All that is necessary
for the small proprietor or tenant, is to hoe over part of his ground, say
one-half,—during dry weather, very frequently, say at least once a
week. The hoeing should be done at any rate if a shower of rain should
fall, and as soon after the rainas surface has become dry; thisis especially
necessary when the soil is clayey. The top layer of 1 or 2 inches of
stirred dry soil prevent will the evaporation of water from the soil below.

ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS, KEW.5*

Kew as a scientific establishment dates from 1759, when a Botanic,
or, as it was then called, a Physic, Garden was established by the
Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, Dowager Princess of Wales.

It was energetically maintained by her son, George I{I., with the
scientific assistance of Sir Joseph Banks, who was virtually for the
greater part of his life Director. Under his advice collectors were
sent to all parts of the world. The first new Holland plants were in-
troduced during Cook’s yoyages, 1768-1780. At Sir Joseph Banks’
instance the system of inter-colonial exchange was commenced, which

* Pr, Bull. No. 4. .
* From Colonial Office List, 1899.

167

has been maintained ever since. The most memorable undertaking
of this kind was the voyage of the ‘ Bounty ’ (1787) for the purpose of
introducing the bread-fruit tree from the South Seas into the West
Indies. Nelson, the Kew collector, was amongst those sent adrift by
the mutineers, and eventually died of the exposure. Another Kew
gardener, James Hooper, who had been attached to Lord Amherst’s
Embassy to China, remained in Java, and was from 1817-30 Hortu-
lanus of the celebrated Dutch Colonial Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg,
which he helped to create.

Both George I1I. and Sir Joseph Banks died in 1820, and the
colonial and other work of Kew languished, though it was not abso-
lutely abandoned, during the reign of George IV. and WilliamIV. In
1838 the abolition of the whole establishment was contemplated by the
Government. Public opposition led to the appointment of a Treasury
Committee, the report of which was presented to Parliament in 1840.
The following paragraphs briefly defined the functions of the reorgan-
ised establishment :—‘ A national garden ought to be the centre round
which all minor establishments of the same nature should be arranged
: From a garden of this kind Government would be abie to ob-
tain authentic and official information on points connected with the
founding of new colonies ; it would afford the. plants there required
without its being necessary, as now, to apply to the officers of private
establishments for advice and assistance.’

These recommendations having been adopted by the Government,
Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S., was appointed Director in 1841 to carry
them out. A close connection between Kew and the Colonial Office
immediately sprang up. A scheme for a complete series of Colonial
floras was sanctioned in 1856, and has been steadily prosecuted. Kew
serves to a large extent as an advanced horticultural school. Special
attention is given to the preparation of gardeners for Colonial service.
Some 60 men trained at Kew are now in official employment in differ-
ent parts of the Empire.

Relations with the botanical institutions of the self-governing
Colonies are maintained by semi-official correspondence. With those
of Colonies more directly, under the control of the Colonial Office, the
connection is closer.

Colonial botanical institutions fall roughly into three classes. Those
of the first class are usually, like Kew, administered by a scientific
Director ; those of the second class by a skilled Superintendent ; the
third class consists of Botanic Stations. These last are small and
inexpensive gardens, devised in 1885,in order to afford practical in-
struction iu the cultivation of tropical crops, and were intended to de-
velope the agricultural resources, at first, of the smaller West Indian
Islands, and subsequently (1887) of British Possessions in Tropical
Africa. Hach is in charge of a Curator, who is a gardener trained at

Kew.

The principal members of the Kew staff are :—

Director : Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, K.C.M.G., C.LE., LL.D.,
ERS.

168

Keeper of the Herbarium and Library : W. B. Hemsley, F.R.S.

Honorary Keeper of the Jodrell Laboratory : D. H. Scott, Ph.D.,
M.A., F.R.S.

Keeper of Museums: J. R. Jackson, A.L.S.

The most important Colonial botanical institutions in intimate re-

lation with Kew are :—

Ceylon.—Director of Royal Botanic Gardens : J. C. Willis, M.A.

Straits Settlements.—Director of Gardens and Forest Department:
H. N. Ridley, M.A.

Jamaica.— Director of Public Gardens and Plantations: William
Fawcett, B.Se.

In 1898, in accordance with the recommendations of the West
India Commission, a Special Department of Agriculture was created for
Barbados, the Leeward and the Windward Islands, and was placed
under the charge of a Commissioner, with headquarters at Barbados.

“Commissioner of Agriculture at Barbados: D. Morris, C.M.G.,
D.Sc., M.A.”

IMPROVEMENT OF SUGAR-CANE BY CHEMICAL
SELECTION. *

In the Kew Bulletin for 1894 (pp. 86-96), * * 1897 (p. 318), and
1898 (pp. 331-334), account was given of the method pursued at Calumet
Plantation, Louisiana, and subsequently in Queensland and Barbados,
of improving the sugar-cane by chemical selection. This is based on
the known variability of cultivated plants and the consequent possibili-
ty of enhancing any desired character by the continued selection of the
plants in which that character is most marked.

As long ago as 1886 it had been pointed out in a letter to the Colo-
nial Office from Kew that the saccharine contents of the sugar-cane
could be improved by progressive selection quite independently of re-
production by seed.

Mr. Bovell’s results at Barbados have attracted the attention of Dr.
Kobus, the Director of the Sugar-cane Experiment Station in Hast Java.
He has lately favoured us with the following interesting letter, which is
printed for the information of those working on the subject :—

Director, SuGaAR-CANE Experiment Station, East Java, TO Royab
GARDENS, KEw.

Pasoeroean, March 26, 1899.
Dear Sir,

In the ‘ Report of the results obtained on the experimental
fields at Dodd’s Reformatory, 1897,” I see that you suggested to Mr.
Bovell to try the selection of sugar-cane by chemical analysis of the
juice.

* From Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, R. Gardens, Kew. March
and April, 1899.
** See Bulletin of Botanical Department, Jamaica, 1895, Sept., page 183.

169

Nearly three years ago I proposed the same.to the principals of the
experimental station at Pasoeroean. As I myself was appointed Director
in the same year, [ commenced after my return from Europe in May,
1897, with the analysis of nearly 6,000 canes and cane-clumps, and
found that the available sugar in canes of the same age varied by as
much as 2 per cent. At the same time I showed that canes grown from
the same cutting and of nearly tae same age might show a difference in
available sugar of from 7 to 84 percent. I concluded therefrom that
it was not advisable to select individual canes, but that it was necessary
to select cane-clumps. When the juice of a whole cane-clump, except
the tops, has a great amount of available sugar,every cane of the clump
must have it also, and the chance that its descendants are rich in sugar
is greater than when some canes are very rich and others of the same
clump are very poor, and the cuttings of these rich canes used for se-
lection. After [ had arrived at this conclusion, [ analysed 5,000 cane-
clumps belonging to five varieties, and selected 10 per cent of the high-
est and 10 per cent. of the lowest polarizing plants. I had the pleasure
to send you the pamphlet:.No. 41 with the results of the analyses in
October, 1897.

Since then | have reaped the canes grown from the cuttings, and
found that the descendants of the rich canes contained 14 per cent. more
available sugar than the descendants of the poor canes (average of 3,200
analyses), I was astonished to find that the rich canes’ descendants
were heavier than the descendants of the poor canes.

I continued the selection with canes from other varieties or other
fields (5,700 analyses), and found as a general rule that the rich canes
were the heaviest, and also that the heaviest canes were the richest in
available sugar. I concluded from this that both a high content of
available sugar and a heavy weight are inherited by the descendants.

The results of these investigations 1 had the pleasure to send you
in August, 1898 (Pamphlet No. 3, Third Series). The sugar estates
who pay the expenses of our experiment station have granted me £500
to continue the selection on a larger scale, and placed at my disposal a
cane-field of about 30 acres. Herefrom I selected 30,000 kgs rich canes
and 10,000 kgs. poor canes for cuttings, and these showed again the
same properties.

I mention these investigations which,perhaps, escaped your atten-
tion, as the pamphlets are written in Dutch. But you would find them
worth making known to sugar growers in the West Indies.

lam, &c..

Signed J. D. Konus.
The Director, (Signed) OBUS
Royal Gardens, Kew.

170
ELEMENTARY NOTES ON JAMAICA PLANTS.—III.

me

4.—N®ELUMBIUM LUTEUM, Willd.

ee

Tae Lorus anp oTHER Water Livixs.

In the Bulletin for January, 1897, some general remarks were pub-
lished on the native Lotus (Nelumbium luteum) ;—in the present num-
ber the notes are botanical.

Nelumbium, Nymphaea, the Victoria regia, and some other
“Water Lilies” are grouped together in one family or order—the Nym-
phaeaceze. | ;

The general characters of the order are as follows:—

NYMPHAKACEAE

Aquatic herbs, with perennial submerged rootstock.

Leaves with a long stalk, usually floating.

Sepals 4 or 5.

Petals numerous, all, or the inner only,inserted at differeut heights on a
receptacle enclosing the carpels, sometimes all free and hypogyn-
ous.

Stamens numerous, inserted as the petals,

Carpels several, free or coherent ;

Fruit a berry bursting irregularly, or an indehiscent nut.

The character of the native genera and species may be indicated as
follows:

NELUMBIUM.

Leaves young floating, adult standing out of water (fig. 1.)

Flower standing above the water (fig. 1.)

Sepals 4 or 5 inferior (fig. 2.)

Petals and stamens numerous, hypogynous, in several series at the bot-
tom of the receptable. (fig. 2.) ; anthers opening inwards, connec-
tive produced as an appendage (see figs. 2, 3) beyond the anther-
cells.

<)varies several, sunk separately in the pits of a fleshy, obconical, flat-
topped receptacle (figs. 2 and 4.) ; style short; stigma terminal,
somewhat dilated ; ovules 1 or 2in each ovary, pendulous.

Nuts roundish, indehiscent (fig. 5) ; seeds without endosperm, cotyle-
dons thick, fleshy, plumule with young leaves well developed
(fig. 6.)

NYMPHARA.

Leaves peltate, floating.

Flowers white (in native species), floating.

Sepals 4, inserted almost at base of receptacle.

Petals numerous, passing gradually from sepals into stamens, inserted
with the numerous stamens at different heights on the receptacle
surrounding the carpels, the innermost being almost superior.

Filaments somewhat petal-like, those at the outside broad with small
anthers, those on the inside narrow with longer anthers, turned

CH")

p
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Was

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171

inwards ; connective sometimes produced beyond the anther as an
appendage, sometimes scarcely produced.

Carpels numerous, sunk in the fleshy receptacle, forming with it a
several-celled half-inferior ovary, concave at the top with a gland
projecting from the centre; stigma sessile and radiating, the num-
ber of rays corresponding to the number of carpels ; ovules
numerous, situated on the surface of the partition walls.

Fruit a spongy berry, ripening uuder water and then bursting irregu-
larly ; seeds numerous, immersed in pulp, furnished with a saccate
aril and provided with a large perisperm in addition to the endos-

perm.
NeELUMBIUM.
NV. luteum, Willd. Flowers yellow. Leaves glaucous-green.
NYMPHAEA.

NV. ampla, DC. Flowers opening during the day. Petals 1 to 3 inches
long. Exterior anthers with an appendage } to 4 inch long.
Appendages of the stigmas conical pointed.

NV. Rudgeana, Mey. Flowers opening during the night. Petals 1 inch
long. Exterior anthers with appendage scarcely produced beyond
the cells. Appendages of the stigma club-shaped, and at length
coiled inwards.*

There is a small white flowered aquatic, which some have mis-

taken for a true ‘‘water lily.” This is noticed under the heading Lim—

nanthemum Humboldtianum in Bulletin for 1897, page 232.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE OF NELUMBIUM LUTEUM.

Fig. 1—Leaf and flower.
2—Section of flower.
3—Stamen
4—Carpel, entire and in section.
5—F ruit.
6—Seed in section.
(Nos. 1 and 2 much reduced ; 3. 4 and 6 natural size; 5 half natural size.)

CASHEW.

(Se

ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE, Linn.

The cashew nut is kidney-shaped, about an inch long, situated at
the top and outside a large pear-shaped fruit.

The kernel is a most delicious nut, and the export on a large scale
ought to be profitable. I[t contains alight-yellow bland oil, very nutri-

oo

* Specimens of this Water Lily are wanted at Hope Gardens. Root-
stocks could be packed in a tin in mud, and sent by Railway to Kingston, and
et and Lape n meet to Superintendent, Parade Garden, Kingston.

1owers and leaves can be sent between sheets of papers and cardboard t
Director of Public Gardens, Kingston. si i

172

tious, and said to be equal to almond oil, and superior to olive oil. The
yield is 40 per cent.

The shell of the nut contains a thick, oily, caustic juice, called
“ eardole” in the Hast Indies. Cardole contains an oily matter which
on exposure to air assumes a fine black colour, permanent against acids,
alkalies, chlorine and hydrocyanic acid. It has been recommended as
a marking ink, and is used for giving a black colour to candles. The
yield is nearly 30 per cent. It is valuable as a preventive against
white ants in wood-work, books, &c. In India it is used for tarring boats
and dyeing fishing lines to preserve them.

The oil, ‘‘obtained from the shell by maceration in spirit,” is an
excellent remedy for the cracking of the cuticle of the feet (Joynt). It
has been used beneficially in the anesthetic variety of leprosy, and in
psoriasis as a local stimulant when faintly brushed.

The fruit is 2 or 3 inches long, varying very much in size and
quality, and in colour—either yellow or red. It is the enlarged top of
the flower-stalk. Stewed it makes an excellent and wholesome dish. A
spirit can also be distilled from it of good quality.

A gum is obtained from the trunk. ‘ It is sub-astringent, and
highly unpalatable to insects. It consists principally of arabine and
dextrine, both soluble in water, with a minor insoluble portion, proba-
bly bassorine. It forms a strong, yellowish mucilage with water.
In South America it is largely used by book-binders ; it is occasionally
imported from that continent into England, and possesses the same
commercial value as the common and inferior sorts of Arabic and
Senegal gums.” (Spon’s Encyc.) |

The juice issuing from incisions in the bark is used as a marking
ink, and in India native workmen make use of it as a flux for soldering
metals.

The timber is strong and lasting, of a reddish colour, moderately
hard, close-grained. Weight 38 lbs per cubic foot used in Burma for
boat-building and charcoal, (Watt, Dict. Econ. Prod.)

The tree is of quick growth, often bearing fruit in two years time.*

INSECT PESTS IN PEAS, &c.

In a former Bulletin f remedies haye been suggested for insect
pests in peas, grain, etc. A correspondent states that he has found that
a small amount of sugar mixed with red peas prevents the attacks of
weevils. About two large tablespoonfuls of brown sugar are mixed
with a bushel of peas, and he finds that although kept open, the peas are
not touched for at any rate six months.

* Plants are now ready for distribution grown from carefully selected
seeds. Apply to Director of Public Gardens, Kingston, P.O.
+ Bulletin, May 1898, page 106.

173
HOPE GARDENS.

REGULATIONS.

1.—No carts, drays or waggons shall be allowed to enter except
such as are engaged in any business connected with the Garden.

2.—No bicycle, carriage, or other vehicle shall move at a greater
speed than 6 miles an hour.

3.—Horses or mules when ridden shall not go beyond a walking
ace.

d 4.—Horses or mules when ridden or driven, shall not be left
standing without some one to take care of them.

5.—All games, such as running, jumping or flying kites, are pro-
hibited.

6.—Picnics and luncheon parties are not allowed.

7.—Public Meetings shall not be held nor addresses delivered.

8.—No person shall sell, or expose for sale, any article except at
the licensed bar. Plants may however be sold by certain employees.
_ 9.—Any emplovee selling flowers, plants, etc., without at the same
time giving a receipted bill for the money will be instantly dismissed.
Visitors are requested to insist on having receipts.

10.—On Sundays no orders can be received, and no flowers, plants,
etc., will be sold.

11.—Employees giving away flowers, leaves, etc., or allowing any
visitor to take them, are liable to instant dismissal.

12.—Visitors shall not touch, cut or pick any flower, leaf, or twig,
nor in any way injure any plant.

13.—Visitors shall not climb any tree nor walk on any bed or
border.

14.—Visitors shal! observe strictly any notices that may be exhib-
ited for their guidance.

15.—Any person who conducts himself in a disorderly manner, or
who is not decently clothed, or who contravenes any of the Regulations
may be removed trom the Garden.

16.—Auy person who does any act in contravention of any of these
Regulations will be prosecuted under Saction 5 of Law 4 of 1899,
whereby he is liable to a penalty not exceeding £5, and in default of
payment to be imprisoned for a term not exceeding one month with or
without hard labour.

17.—The whole, or part of the Garden may be closed at any time
for any period, by order of the Governor, on notice being given in the
Gazette, and at the gates of the Garden, at least 7 days beforehand.

18.—The Gardens shall be open every day from 6.30 a.m., and
shall be closed at the following hours in the evening:—

During October, November, December and January, at 5.30.

During February, March, April and September at 6.0.

During May, June, July and August at 6.30.

19.—A bell shall be rang a quarter of an hour before closing time,
as a notice to Visitors.

174
ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT.

————

LIBRARY.

EUROPE.
British Isles.
Annals of Botany, Sept., [Purchased. ]
Botanical Magazine, October, _[ Purchased. ]
British Trade Journal, Oct. [Editor.]
Chemist and Druggist, Sept.. 9-16, 23, 30, Oct. 7, 14. [Editor.]
Garden, Sept., 9, 16, 23, 30 Oct.7, 14. [Purchased. ]
Gardener’s Chronicle, Sept., 9, 16, 23.30, Oct , 7, 14. [Purchased.]
Journal, Board of Agriculture, England, Sept. |Secretary. ]
Journal of Botany, Oct. [Purchased ]
Nature, Sept., 7, 14, 21, 28, Oct. 5. 12. [ Purchased. ]
Pharmaceutical Journal, Sept., 9, 16, 25, 30, Vet. 7, 14. [Editor. }
Produce World, Oct. [Editor. |
Rothamsted Report for 1899. By Sir J. H. Gilbert. [Committee.]
Sugar, Sept. {|Editor]
Sugar Journal, International, Oct. {Editor.]
West Indian and Com. Advertiser, Sept. Oct. [Editor. ]
Trans. and Proc. Bot. Soe , Edinburgh, xxi, 1, 2,3. [R. Bot. Gard ]
France.
Suererie, indigéne et coloniale, Sept 12, 19, 26, Oct. 3, 10,17. [Editor.]
Revue des cultures coloniales, 20 Auyg., 20 Sept. [Director.]
Germany.
Tropenpflanzer, Oct. [Editor. |
Switzerland.
Bulletin de |’Herbier Boissier, Sept [Conservateur. |
ASIA.
India.
Agricultural Ledger (Caleutta) 1899, No. 7. [wut, Govr., Bengal. }
Planting Opinion, Aug. 19, 26, Sept. 2, 9, 16, 23. [Editor.]
Report on Govt. Bot, Gard. Saharanpur, 1898-99. [Curator]
Report on Govt. Hort. Gard., Lucknow, 1898-99. [Curator]
Ceylon.
Cireulars R. Bot. Gardens, Nos. 11-16 [Director.]
Times of Ceylon, Sept. 6, 14. [Editor.]
Java.
Proefstation, E Java, 3rd Series, No 12, 13.
AUSTRALIA.
N.S. Wales.
Agr. Gazette, Sept. [Dept. of rey
Sugar Journal, Aug. Sept. [Editor.

AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope.
Agri. Journ., Aug. 3, 31 Sept. 14. [Dept. of Agri.]
Central Africa.
Times, July 15, 22, 22, Aug. 5, 12, 19, 26, [Edinor.]

Natal,
Natal Plants. By J. M. Wood and S. Evans, I. 2. [Authors.]

West INDIES.

Barbados.

Agricultural Gazette, Sept. [Editor]
Jamaica.

Journal, Jamaica Agri. Soc., Oct. [Secretary. |
Trinidad.

Bot. Garden Bulletin, Oct. [Superintendent.]
Proc. of Agri. Soc., pp. 277—284, 285-291. [Secretary. ]

175

Windward Islands.
Bot. Station, Grenada, 1898. ([(Curator.]
NorTH BRITISH AMERIOA.
Montreal.
Pharmaceutical Journal, Oct. [Editor.]
Ottawa.
Experinmental Farm Reports, Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs in the
Arboretum and Bot. Garden. [Dept. of Agri.]
UNITED STaTES OF AMERICA.
Publications of the U. 8, Dept. of Agriculture — Scientific Bureaus and Divisions
[ Directors, ]
Division of Forestry, Primer of Forestry, Pt. I., The Forest. By G.
Pinchot.
Forest :‘onditions of Porto Rico, by R. T. Hill.
Division - oe Cult, of Cigar-Leaf Tobaceo in Florida by Mareus 1.
loyd.
Experiment Stations.
Alabama: auburn, 105 (Hairy Vetch.)
Arizona : Report for 1898-99 (Date Palm &c.)
Connecticut : New Haven, Report for 1898 (Fertilisers, Plant Diseases,
Insect Pests, Curing and fermenting tobacco, ete.)
Florida : 50 ( Pine Apple Fertilisers.)
Kentucky : 83 (Whieat.)
Minnesota: 62 ( Wheat.)
Ohio: 108 (Bovine Tuberculosis. )
Rhode Island : Report 1898, Pt 2; Bulletins 53 (Field Experiments), 54
56, (Fertilizers) 55 (Rhubarb) 57 (Nitrogen for grass) 28 (Lime
for grass )
Virginia : Blacksburg, 8 (Strawberries), 9 ( Fertilisers for Potato.)
Wicsonsin : 78 (‘Tuberculosis in cows.)
American Journal] of Pharmacy, Oct. [Editor.]
Botanical Gazette, Chicagu, Sept. [Editor.]
Fern Bulletin, Oct. [Editor]
Massachusetts Hort. Soc. Trans. 1896, Pt. [II., 1899, Pt. I. [Society.]
Torrey Club Bulletin, sept , Oct. [Editor.]
Flower and Embryo of Spaganium. By D. H, Campbell. [Author]
POLYNESIA.
Planters’ Monthly, Hawaii, October. [Editor.]

SEEDS.
From Bot. Garden Adelaide. ae.
Acacia decurrens Eucalytus;miniata.
A. pycnantha sk obliqua. —
A. Sentis ° Planchoniana.
A. tetragonophylla cs resinifera.
Abutilon Mitchelli , rostrata.
Andropogon exaltatus 7% viminalis.
Anthistiria membranacea Enchyleua tomentosa,
Arthropodium fimbriatum Frenela australis.
Aster ramosus Geitonoplesium cymosum.
Astrebla triticoides. Gnephosis arachnoidea.
Atriplex angulata Gossypium Sturtii.
fissivalvis Hakea rostrata.
ve halimoides H. saligna. ;
3 holocarpa Helipterum strictum.
2 nummularia Heterodendrum oleaefoliume
ie velutinella Hymenosporum flavam.

Boerhaavia diffusa Kennedya rubicunda.

176

Brachycome pachyptera
Brassaia paradoxa
Bursaria spinosa
Cassia desolata, var.

7 eremophila
Clianthus Dampieri
i puniceus

Coprosma lucida
Cryptocarya triplinervis,.
Doryanthes Palmeri.
Echinospermum concavum.
Elaeodendron australe. .
Eleusine cruciata.
Eremophila maculata
Eucalyptus ealophylla,

6

Leptospermum lanigerum
“ myrsinoides,
Lophostemon australe.
Loranthus pendulus,
Melaleuca glomerata.
4 styphelioides.
Menkea australis.
Notelaea longifolia.
Panicum adspersum.
Pimelea glauca.
Pittosporum phillyraeoides
¥: undulatum.

~ Persoonia juniperina.

Psoralea patens.
Pterigeron microglossus.

capitellata Ptilotus nobilis.
ef citriodora. Scirpus littoralis.
oe cornuta. Scolopia Brownii.
A corymvosa. Spondias Solandri.
oe corynocalyx. Stenocarpus sinuatus.
eS cosmophylla, Sterculia acerifolia.
de Gunnil. sh heterophylla.
ce amygdalina. Tetratheca ericifolia.
i maculata. Thryptomene Mitchelliana.

From Mr. G. French, Melbourne. Victoria,

Acacia iteaphylla Eucalyptus longifolia

m longifolia macrandra
sg melanoxylon ‘ resinifera
ee saligna Sterculia acerifolia

Eucalyptus Lehmanni
From Mr. Henry A. Dreer, Philadelphia, U.S. A.
Dianthus laciniatus‘Salmon Queen’ Marguerite Carnation _
Lobelia heterophylla major Nelumbium album grandiflorum
From Lady Blake, Hong Kong,
Sterculia lanceolata
% platanifolia
from Supt. Rh. Botanic Gardens, Trinidad,
Cocos amara
From Mr. W, Jekyll, Rober tsfield, Jamaica.
Berberis aquifolium

PLANTs.
From Mr. Henry Dreer, Philadelphia, U.S, A.
Acalypha Sanderi
Aponogeton distachyon
Arundo Donax, macrophylla, glauca.
Clivia:miniata (Imantophyllum)
Nymphaea dentata
e gracilis
us seutifolia
Passiflora princeps
Sagittaria Japonica
Vriesia splendens
From Mr. W. Jekyll, Roberisfield, Jamaica.
Freesia refracta, alba
From Supt. Govt. Gardens, Nagpur India.
Rhizomes collected in Central Provinces.
: HERBARIUM.
From Director R. Gardens, Kew.
123 dried specimens of Ferns.

[Issued Nov. 23rd 1899.]

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol, V

New Series DECEMBER, 1899 Part XD

CAMPHOR. *

(Cinnamomum Camphora, Nees)

Enquiries continue to be made as to the cultivation of the tree
producing this substance. A brief note was given in the Kew Bulle-
ten for 1895 (p. 305).

Hitherto the use of camphor in medicine and the arts has been
comparatively small. A new application is, however, likely to increase
its consumption, perhaps indefinitely. This is described in the follow-
ing words by Nir Frederick Abel, in a letter printed in the Bulletzn :—

‘‘ This substance has been used extensively for many years past, and
no doubt in continually increasingly quantities, for the conversion of
collodion cotton into the material known as Celluloid, which is applied
to the manufacture of imitation ivory, tortoise-shell, horn, and a great
variety of purposes.”

An excellent accovnt of the natural history and economic applica-
tions of the camphor tree was issued in 1897 by the Division of Botany
of the United States Department of Agriculture, Circular No. 12. It
is reproduced with some slight condensation :—

‘© [)ESCRIPTION.

“ The camphor tree isan evergreen, related to the bay and to the
sassafras of the United States. In its native habitat it attains a height
of 60 to 100 feet, with wide-spreading branches anda trunk 20 to 40
inches in diameter. The leaves are broadly lanceolate in form, acum-
inate at both base and apex, of a light green colour, smooth and shining
above and whitish or glaucous on the under surface. The lower pair of
lateral veins are more prominent than the others, but the leaves are not
as distinctly 3-nerved as those of the cinnamon and many other species

* From Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, R. Gardens, Kew, May
and June, 1899.

178

of the genus. The small white or greenish-white flowers are borne in
axillary racemes from February to April on shoots of the previous

season, and are followed in October by berry-like, one-seeded fruits.

about three-eights of an inchin diameter. The fruiting nedicels ter-
minate in asaucer-shaped disk, persisting after the mature fruit has
fallen.

“ NATIVE RANGE.

“The camphor tree is native in the coast countries of Hastern Asia
from Cochin China nearly to the mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang, and on
the adjacent islands from the southern part of the Japanese Empire, in-

cluding Formosa and the Loocho Islands, to Hainan, off the coast of

Cochin China. Its range also extends into the interior of China as far
as the province of Hupeh, about 500 miles from the coast on the Yang-
tse-kiang in latitude 30° north. This area, extending from 10° to
34° north latitude and from 105° to 130° east longitude, is all em-
braced in the eastern monsoon region, which is remarkable for abundant
rains in summer.

‘The camphor trees growing wild in the native range are usually

most abundant on hillsides and in mountain valleys where there is good
atmospheric as well as soil drainage. The temperature in the greater
part of this region, which is partly within the tropics and partly sub-
tropical, rarely falls below freezing. The tree is an evergreen, chang-
ing its leaves generally in April, and therefore the winter temperature
is a factor of more importance than would be the case with a decidu-
ous tree.

' © RANGE UNDER CULTIVATION.

“* Notwithstanding the comparatively narrow limits of its natural
environment, the camphor tree grows well in cultivation under widely
different conditions. It has become abundantly naturalized in Mada-

gascar. It flourishes at Buenos Ayres. It thrives in Egypt, in the

Canary Islands, in south-eastern France and in the San Joaquin Valley
in California where the summers are hot and dry. Large trees, at least
two hundred years old, are growing in the temple courts at Tokyo,
where they are subject to a winter of seventy to eighty nights of frost,
with an occasional minimum temperature as low as 12° to 16° F.
The most northern localities in the United States, where the camphor
tree has been grown successfully out of doors, are Charleston and
Summerville in South Carolina, Augusta, Ga., and Oakland, Cal.

“‘ At Charleston, Sommerville, and Augusta the trees have with™

stood a minimum temperature of 15° F., but they have been protected
by surrounding trees and buildings. At Mobile, Ala., the trees have
grown and fruited in protected situations, while in exposed places they
have been repeatedly destroyed by frosts. While the camphor tree will
grow on almost any soil that is not too wet, it does best on a well-
drained sandy or loamy soil, anc it responds remarkably well to the
application of fertilisers. Its growthis comparatively slow on sterile
soils, but under favourable conditions it sometimes grows very rapidly.
An instance is recorded of a camphor tree in Italy a foot in diameter
and 90 feet high, eight years from the seed. Under ordinary conditions,.

a i een i i i ee

179

however, such a girth is not often attained in less than twenty-five years,
and such a height is rearly attained in a century. Under favorable
conditions an average of 30 feet in height, with trunks 6 to 8 inches in
diameter at the base, may be expected in trees ten years from the seed.

“ Usks oF THE TREE AND ITS PRODUCTS.

‘The principal commercial uses of the camphor tree are for the
production of camphor and camphor oil. Camphor is employed ex-
tensively in medicine. It enters into the composition of many kinds of
liniments for external application. For liniment it is used especially in
combination with olive oil. It is taken internally for hysteria, nerv-
ousness, nervous headaches, diarrhoea, and diseases affecting the ali-
mentary canal. It is a specific in cases of typhoid fever and cholera.
Camphor fumes have been used with success in cases of asthma. It has
been used very extensively to keep insects out of furs, woolens, etc. In
Japan, camphor and camphor oil are used in lacquer work. The oil is
somewhat similar to tarpentine, and could doubtless be used to advan-
tage in varnishes and shellacs. It is now used in the manufacture of
toilet soaps. In Japan and China it has been used for illuminating pur-
poses, but it produces a smoky flame.

“ Among the secondary uses of the camphor tree the most impor-
tant is tor ornamental planting. Its bright evergreen leaves, rapid
growth, and long life make it valuable for this purpose. In Japan and
China it has been the principal tree planted in the temple courts for many
centuries, and in those countries it takes the place of the historic oaks
of England. It has been extensively introduced into Southern Europe
and South America for ornamental purposes.

“The wood, with its close grain, yellow colour, and susceptibility
to polish, taking a kind of satin-like finish,is exceedingly valuable in cab-
inetwork, especially for making drawers, chests, and cupboards proof
against insects. The leaves and young branches, although they have
but a slight odour of camphor, are packed with clothing or scattered
about unused rooms to guard against insects.

“The tree produces an abundance of berry-like fruits, which are
used in Japan and China to make a kind of tallow. The fruits are
greedily eaten by chickens and birds.

“ CONDITIONS OF SUCCESSFUL CULTIVATION.

“ For most of the secondary purposes, the camphor tree may well
be cultivated wherever it can be made to live; but for commercial dis-
tillation, and for the production of wood for cabinet purposes, it must be
grown under the most favourable conditions. The minimum winter
temperature should not be below 20° F., and this minimum should be
of rare occurrence. The soil, preferably sandy and well drained, should
be irrigated unless there are abundant rains. Fifty inches of water
during the warm growing season is desirable, and much more may
well be used where the air is very dry.

“ An‘abundance of plant food, rich in nitrogen, is required for rapid
growth, but the kind of fertiliser that can be most profitably applied
will vary according to the character of the soil in each locality. In the

130

absence of definite information in this regard the kind of fertiliser pro-
ducing most rapid growth of wood in the orange or in other fruit trees
may be taken as an index.

“* PROPAGATION.

‘‘Camphor trees may be grown either from seed or from cuttings.
They are usually grown from seed, as the trees fruit abundantly, and
seedlings can be grown more easily than cuttings. The seeds are col-
lected at maturity in October and November, and after drying are
packed in sharp white sand or some similar material to keep them fresh
until the time of planting in spring. About the last of March they are
sown in drills in the seed bed.

‘‘ The soil of the seed bed should be a good sandy loam mixed with
about one-third leaf mould. The seed bed should be kept moist, but
not too wet, and should be shaded from the direct rays of the sun if the
weather is warm. The best soil temperature for germinating camphor
seeds is from 70° to 75° F. The temperature of the atmosphere may
he ten degrees higher. The seedlings will grow well at higher temper-
atures, but are likely to lack vigour and hardiness.

“The seedlings may be grown in pots, which will facilitate trans-
planting at any time, or they may be transplanted in nursery rows
early in April when one year old. Plants two years old are generally
regarded as best for final planting. At this age they vary from 20 to
40 inches in height.

‘¢ PLANTING AND CULTIVATION.

‘‘ In Japan, where the law requires that a new tree shall be set out
for every one cut, they are not generally set in straight orchard rows,
but cultivation there is performed almost exclusively by hand labour.
There are no records showing results of regular orchard planting, hence
the distances at which trees should be planted must be determined by
the size and form of the trees and the methods of cultivation and of pro-
curing the gum. They may be set closely in rows about 10 feet apart,
aod alternate rows cut and reset every five years, thus producing bush-
like plants of ten years’ growth. They may be planted in checks 10
feet square, and alternate trees cut every ted to twelve years, or they
may be planted in larger checks, and all of the trees be cut at the age
of fifteen or twenty years.

“ There are not sufficient data obtainable upon which to base de-
finite statements as to the best methods of planting, or the age at
which the trees may be cut with greatest profit. A recent Hnglish
consular report from Japan states that ‘ although hitherto the youngest
wood from which camphor was extracted was about seventy to eighty
years old, it is expected that under the present scientific management
the trees will give equally good result after twenty-five or thirty years.’
Camphor of good quality has been produced in Florida from the leaves
and twigs of trees less than twenty years old, 1 pound of crude camphor
being obtained from 77 pounds of leaves and twigs.

‘¢ The trees will endure severe pruning with little apparent injury.
One-third of the leaves and young shoots may be removed at one time

181

without materially checking the growth of the tree. The largest pro-
portion of camphor is contained in the older, larger roots ; the trunk,
limbs, twigs, and leaves containing successively a decreasing proportion.
When the camphor tree is killed nearly to the ground by frost it sends up
vigorous shoots from the base. It may be expected to do the same when
cut, especially if cut late in the fall. Experiments are needed to deter-
mine whether this growth may be depended upon, or whether it will be
more profitable to dig out the larger roots and set out new seedlings.

‘¢ DIsTILLATION.

‘“‘In the native forests in Formosa, Fukien, and Japan, camphor is
distilled almost exclusively from the wood of the trunks, roots, and
larger branches. The work is performed by hand labour, and the
methods employed seem rather crude. Different methods of distillation
are employed in different districts, but those in use in the province of
Tosa, in Japan, appear to be the most skilful. | The camphor trees are
felled, and the trunk, larger limbs, and sometimes the roots, are cut into
chips by hand labour with a sharp concave adze.

‘The fresh chips are placed in a wooden tub about 40 inches high
and 20 inches in diameter at the base, tapering toward the top like an
old-fashioned churn. The perforated bottom of the tub fits tightly over
an iron pan of water on a furnace of masonry. The tub has a tight-
fitting cover, which may be removed to put inthe chips. It is sur-
rounded by a layer of earth about six inches thick to aid in retaining a
uniform temperature. A bamboo tube extends from near the top of the
tub into the condenser. This consists of two wooden tubs of differ-
ent sizes, the larger one right side up, kept about two-thirds full of
water from a continuous stream which runs out of a whole on one side.
The smaller one is inverted with its edges below the water, forming an
air-tight chamber. This air chamber is kept cool by the water falling
on the top and running down over the sides. The upper part of the air
chamber is sometimes filled with clean rice straw, on which the camphor
crystallizes, while the oil drips down and collects on the surface of the
water. In some. cases the camphor and oil are allowed to collect together
on the surface of the water and are afterward separated by filtration
through rice straw or by pressure.

“‘ About twelve hours are required for distilling a tubful by this
method. Then the chips are removed and dried for use in the furnace,
and a new chargeis put in. At the same time the camphor and oil are
removed from the condenser. By this method 20 to 40 pounds of chips
are required for 1 pound of crude camphor.

“The principles generally held to be essential in distilling camphor
of good quality are :—(1) The heat must be uniform and not too great,
producing a steady supply of steam ; (2) the steam after liberating the
camphor must not come in contact with metal, that is, the tub and con-
densing apparatus must be of wood.

“ SuGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS.

‘* Many improvements upon the methods described can doubtless be
made, tending both to a reduction in cost and an increase in the pro-
portion of crude material obtained. Instead of an adze wielded by

182

hand labour a machine similar to the ‘ hog’ used for grinding up waste
slabs in sawmills may be used to reduce camphor limbs to the requisite
fineness for distillation. Better distilling apparatus can probably be
devised. ‘Thermometers may be introduced to determine the heat in
the distilling tub, and the furnace may beso arranged as to permit
better control and greater economy in fuel. Camphor and camphor oil
are both slightly soluble in water, and the condensing chamber should
be improved so as to recover the product that is being constantly car-
ried off in the running stream which cools the chamber.

‘“‘ OuTLOOK FOR FuturE MARKET.

‘The consumptivn of camphor in the United States, as measured
by the importations, has been decreasing during the past ten years,
while the price has been increasing.

“The tariff act approved July 27, 1897, imposes a duty of 6 cents
per pound on refined camphor and leaves crude camphor on the free
list, as heretofore.

“There has heen an increase in importations of refined camphor
due to improved methods of refining and packing in Japan and to
changes in the tariff, but this increase has been much more than coun,
ter-balanced by the decrease in importations of crude camphor. The
decrease may be attributed to the following causes : (1) the exhaustion
of the supply of the available camphor trees near the shipping ports ;
(z) the governmental restrictions on the trade in camphor in Formosa ;
(3) government taxes on the exportation of camphor from Formosa ;
(4) hostilities and wanton destruction of camphor stills by the natives
in Formosa ; (5) disturbances in the camphor producing district of
China ; (6) the China-Japan war ; (7) attempts by speculators to corner
the market.

‘“‘ These causes have increased the price of camphor, and this in turn
has led to the introduction of substitutes. Menthol and other pepper-
mint derivatives or compounds, carbolic acid and its derivatives, naph-
thalin, formalin, and insect-powder are now used for various purposes
where camphor was formerly employed. Camphor las been manufac-
tured artificially, at a cost leaving a margin of profit at present prices.
lt is therefore apparent that if the production of camphor from the trees
is to be carried on with profit in this country, and the industry increas-
ed to any considerable extent, the price of camphor must be reduced to
compete with the prices of substitutes now taking its place.

‘‘Camphor has been obtained from several other piants not at all
related to the ordinary camphor tree, but only two kinds, Borneo
camphor and Blumea camphor, are of any importance commercially.

“Borneo camphor is obtained from the camphor tree of Borneo
and Sumatra, Dryobalanops aromatica. It is deposited in clefts
and hollows in the wood, and has simply to be taken out. This
eamphor is comparatively rare, and the supply is consumed a!most ex-
elusively in China, where it is valued at from thirty to ninety times as
much as ordinary camphor.

“‘ Blumea camphor: is obtained by distillation from Blumea balsam-
ijera,a shrub growing in Burma and the Malay Peninsula. This is

0

183

usually refined in Canton, whence about 10,000 pounds are exported
annually. The source of this supply is abundant, and as the industry
develops it is likely to enter more into competition with ordinary cam-
phor. Neither of these plants can be grown in the United States, ex-
cept possibly in southern Florida, without protection against cold.

‘* Lyster H. Dewey,
“ Assistant in Division of Botany.

“ Washington, D.C.,
‘* August 12, 1897.”

There isa brief note on Borneo camphor wood in the Kew Bulletin
for 1887 (September, p. 15}, and a full account of Blumea camphor in
the volume for 1895 (pp. 275-277, with plate, and also 1896, p.73).

PropuctTIon IN Formosa.

The following is extracted from the Foreign Office Report on Trade
in Japan for 1897. (Misc. Series, 440, pp. 71-72.)

The trade incamphor will probably undergo -some modification.
Camphor trees are not found in that part of the island (of Formosa)
occupied by Chinese settlers. They occur only in the country of the
aborigines, or upon the immediate border, and up to the present time
the destruction of trees has been carried on in the most wasteful manner.
The mode of obtaining supplies of camphor was for foreign merchants
through Chinese agents to advance money to the savage chiefs for per-
mission to cut down trees. The stills were erected at the expense of
the foreigners, who paid a tax of 8 dol. a still to the Chinese authorities,
and a local tax of 10 dol. on each picul (133 lbs.) of camphor produced.
When the island was ceded to the Japanese the privileges which for-
eigners had enjoyed under Chinese rule, of having these camphor
establishments in the interior, seemed likely to be withdrawn by the
Japanese Government. The Chinese treaty, much more than the
Japanese, gives freedom of travel and trade to the foreigner ; and if
the limitations imposed by our treaty with Japan had been strictly en-
forced in Formosa, foreigners would have had to retire to the treaty
ports. They would have been debarred from distilling or purchasing
camphor in the interior, and they would have suffered heavy losses in
abandoning the capital already sunk there. Considering that the
present treaty had only two more years to run, the Japanese Govern-
ment has consented to iet matters remain zn statu quo ; and when under
the new treaty, foreigners obtain a right to settle anywhere in the in-
terior, they wlll be able to distil as muchas they like. But there is
also a probability that the preparation of camphor will be made a Goy-
ernment monopoly. With the Formosan supply under its control the
Japanese Government could almost secure a monopoly of the camphor
trade, for Japan and Formosa are almost the only sources of supply ;
and advantage may be taken of this to put Formosa’s finances ona
satisfactory basis. The land where the camphor trees grow are not
privately owned as is the best portion of Formosa’s fertile plains, so the
Government could appropriate the camphor producing districts without
interfering with vested interests.

184

The following further information is given in the Report on the
Trade of Tainan for 1897 (Foreign Office Annual, 2149, pp. 5-6) :—

The camphor trade has, so far as concerns foreign merchants in
South Formosa, almost entirely stopped, owing, among other causes, to
the disturbed state of the country and the difficulty and danger of send-
ing money into the camphor districts. The roads continued throughout
the year to be infested with armed robbers, who, on the approach of the
military or police, fled to the hills (where it was, apparently, impossi-
ble to pursue them), only to reappear at the first favourable opportunity.
Robberies became of such freqnent occurrence that no foreign or native
merzhant would venture to send money into the interior. The Japanese
authorities, on their }art, did not see their way to allow the tax to be
paid in the treaty port on arrival of the camphor, and business was con-
sequently brought to a standstill.

In the raids and skirmishes, too, which have taken place in the
camphor-producing districts, numbers of stills have been destroyed.
Their destruction was, perhaps, inevitable, but as they were almost en-
tirely erected with money advanced or loaned by foreign merchants in
Souti Formosa, the losses incurred by the latter have been very con-
siderable. Itis estimated that not one-third of the stills in existence,
two years ago, in which foreigners in South Formosa are interested, are
now available for camphor production.

The hope expressed by Her Majesty’s Consul in last year’s reports
that the camphor trade might revive and assume large proportions, has
not been realised ; in fact, far from this being the case, the camphor
export business, as far as South Formosa is concerned, has now (April,
1898) almost stopped.

These remarks, of course, apply exclusively to the export of cam-
phor by foreign merchants in this district (South Formosa) who have
in the past invested considerable sums of money in the business. The
production of camphor in the districts of Rinkipo and Shu Shu (Hunlin
and Chip Chip), the principal districts whence the drug came to South
Formosa, still, 1 am informed, continues, though to nothing like the
same extent as formerly ; but ail the camphor so produced finds its way
via the port of Rokko (Lokkang) to Tamsui, whence it is shipped to
Hong Kong and Japan. Tue roads north of Rokko are said to be per-
fectly safe, so that dealers can reach the neighbourhood of Chip Chip
and buy up any camphor that, under other circumstances, should and
would go to the foreign firms in Tainan, with whose money the business
was first started. Things may remedy themselves in course of time,
but the outlook at present is certainly not very bright.

aa ae eee

185

The following table shows tho export of camphor from this port
since, practically, the commencement of the trade :—

SANNA SSC OR MER EDEN NOR nnn anne ent ens OO EARS EE een eREROeees>OEO SST SET ES Se OEers CRS COEUESES OSs ESSER SE ses a0 50s cers seereeseepeces erESeeeessee®. —

Years. Number of Boxes
Exported,
1892 - 4,315
1893 : - 6,691
1894 . - 12,157
1895 e - 10,145
1856 - - 8,001
1897 - 3,057

Note —One box contains about one picul (13333 lbs.) of camphor.

Propuction IN CEYLON.

The cultivation of the camphor tree has attracted some attention in
Ceylon. But, as will be seen from the following correspondecce which
has appeared in the Ceylon Observer, both it and the production of the
drug are in the experimental stage.

SUPBRINTENDENT, HakGata Botanic GARDENS, TO EDITOR
“© CEYLON OBSERVER.”

Botanic Gardens, Hakgala,

April 6th 1898.
DEar Sir,

REFERRING to your question as to what is being done with cam-
phor cultivation in Ceylon, I may add the following to what I wrote you
on the 11th of February last. Wishing to satisfy myself that solid
camphor exists in the leaves and twigs of even very young plants, I
sent a small bundle of prunings from plants planted out at the end of
1895, to Mr. S. A. Owen, of Messrs. W. Jordan & Co., of Lindula, who
had very kindly undertaken to make the experiment for me. I am
pleased to state that he has been very successful in extracting
solid camphor from them; and as this is of general interest to planters, I
shall be much obliged if you will be good enough to publish Mr. Owen’s
jetter in an early issue of your paper.

The prunings from an average plant 28 months, old, as grown here
weigh from 10 to 12 1b.

I have a good many plants that want pruning, and if applied to
before the end of this month, April, | shall be very glad to supply 10
or 20, or 35 lb, prunings to any person wishing to make the esperiment
for himself.

Iam, &c.,

W. Nocx.*

* Mr. Nock was at one time Superintendent of Government Cinchona
Plantation, Jamaica, [Ed. Jamaica Bulletin.}

186
Mr. S. A. Owen to SUPERINTENDENT, HaxGaLa Botanic GARDENS.

Talawakele, March 30, 1898.
Dear Mr. Nock,

THanks for the parcel of camphor prunings duly recsived. I
have made several experiments. The following is the account of
method employed and results :—

* * * * *

A gallon iron kettle was packed with 14 lb. of leaves and small
twigs, together with about two pints of water. The cover of the kettle
was luted on and the spout fitted with a cork, while a long glass tube
proceeded from the cork to a condenser. Applied heat gradually, and
kept it up for five hours. At the end of this time the sides of the con-
denser were coated with camphor, and small lumps were floating in the
water which distilled over. All the camphor was collected carefully
and dried between bibulous paper (to absorb most of the adhering oil).
It then weigheed 55 grains, which is equivalent to 12 ounces to the
ewt or 15\b to the ton.

I think the results very encouraging, as the leaves and young parts
of the camphor tree contain but a very small proportion of camphor
compared with the trunk-wood. Indeed, I believe that in Formosa and
other camphor-producing countries, it is customary to altogether dis-
card the branches and leaves and use the mainwood only.

I should think that planters who have young camphor trees com-
ing on here in Ceylon would find it wel! worth their while to utilise
their prunings—especially if firewood is available and cheap, as this lat-
ter item would be practically the only expense, beyond the small amouat
of labour required and the initial expense of a still,which latter could be
easily extemporised out of almost any kind of large iron vessel to which
heat could be applied. As the camphor tree is a long while coming
to maturity, considerations of this kind ought to be borne in mind.

I have pleasure in enclosing a small sample of the camphor ob7
tained. As you will see, it has a rather dirty appearance, due to un-
avoidable impurity and the sample smells of camphor oil, but these are
easily got rid of in the process of refinement. I also enclose a small
sample of the same camphor partly purified by sublimation.

You are, of course, very welcome to make what use you like of this
account of these small experiments, whether by publication or otherwise.
No doubt it would be encouraging to those who have gone to the ex-
pense of planting up camphor tress to know that there is camphor in
our locally grown trees. I have heard of one or two misgivings as to
whether the soil and climate here would favour the formation of cam-
phor in the tree.

Yours faithfully,
S. A. Owen.

[Seeds of the camphor tree (Cinnamomum Camphora) were im-
ported afew years ago into Jamaica by the Director of Public Gar-
dens and Plantations, and plants were raised in the Hill Gardens and
distributed. | Sony" .

187
MEXICAN SUNFLOWER.

TITHONIA DIVERSIFOLIA, A. Gray.

Four or five years ago His Excellency Sir Henry Blake received
seeds of a “Sunflower” and sowed them in King’s House Garden.
They grew into shrubs 8 or 10 feet high, covered with bright golden
yellow flowers, 4 or 5 inches across, more beautiful and graceful than
the common Sunflower. The sight of a single bush is charming, but
when the bushes are massed in quantities, the general eftect is “a beauty
and a joy” for the short time that they are in flower.

But, alas, eternal beauty is denied them, as it was to Tithonos,
after whom they are named. He was beloved by the Goddess Dawn,
and desiring immortality, obtained it, but neglecting to ask also for
eternal youth, his beauty passed away, and at his own prayer he became
turned into a grasshopper. So Tithonia’s flowers fade all too soon, but
more happy than he, they renew their youth with each succeeding
Autumn.

Tithonia diversifolia is a native of Mexico : it is also found in Cey-
lon where it was first introduced in 1851 from California. There it
has spread on waste ground, and along roadsides over the moist
country up to 5,000 feet with all the appearance of a native weed.
It is nota pest, as the seeds are not carried by the wind, but simply
drop on the ground.

ey

MEXICAN TOBACCO.

A Foreign Office Report bas been issued dealing with the Mexican
tobacco trade. Mr. Chapman, British Consul at Vera Cruz, states that
until the year 1897-8 the exports of Mexican tobacco showed but little
advancement in the trade. Whereas in 1896-7 the total export of raw
tobacco from the whole Republic was 1,349,903 kilos, representing
1,718,232 Mexican dollars, in the following year they were 3,107,619,
valued at 3,563,620 dollars. Manufactured tobacco, on the other hand,
showed a decrease of from £20,282 kilos, representing 1,001,859 dollars
in 1846-7, to 889,697 kilos, valued at 926,148 dollars in 1897-8. The
increase of raw exports in 1897-8 was due to abnormal causes. In that
year the Mexican export trade in tobacco received an impetus during
the Cuban Revolution, when the Spaniards impeded the cultivation and
export of Cuban tobacco, and large stocks in hand were detained in the
island. At the same time certain Mexican tobaccos were imported into
the United States as fillings and used as wrappers, and in view of the
contemplated change in the Dingley tariff, large demands were made
for Mexican tobacco for the supply of Tampa, Key West, and Florida
factories before the contemplated change in the Dingley tariff took
effect. This caused a boom in tobacco. Prices rose, exports increased,
and the resources of capital and labour were strained to increase produc-
tion.

With the change in the Dingley tariff, the freeing of the Cuban
supply in hand, and the prospects of an early resumption of cultivation

188

in the island, prices fell, and it was found ‘that Mexican tobacco could
not retain the temporary footing it had acquired on the American
market. With the fall in prices many people were ruined who had in-
discreetly invested in iacreased cultivation. Growers were unable to
reimburse advances, and purchasers were left with large supplies on
hand. Since then the Mexican tobacco trade has declined towards its
normal condition. Labour, at all times scarce and of an inferior quality
has been a serious factor in tais business ; but hopes were raised by an
influx of Cuban labour, in consequence of the Spanish-American war.
This labour greatly improved the cultivation, sorting, and preparation
of the product for market, and enabled it to compete for better prices ;
but since the termination of the war the pick of this labour has returned
to Cuba, and although this immigration has been of permanent benefit
to Mexico and the tobacco trade, yet the increased, and still increasing
demand for labour, without any apparent adequate means of supplying
the deficiency, makes labour the burning question of the day with
‘regard to developing the resources of the country. The tobacco

industry requires a supply of skilled and unskilled labour that can be

depended upon, and such a supply can only be obtained from free
labour that can command a fair wage and a standard of living superior
to that at present obtained by the ordinary Mexican field hand.

When the necessary supply of reliable labour shall have been
found, and the means for improvements in the cultivation and prepara-
tion of the product introduced, there will be an opportunity for the in-
vestment of large capital in this business, for good tobacco is grown in
the country, and there is no reason why, with proper handling, it should
not obtain an advantageous footing on the markets. Tobacco is one of
the Mexican articles of export that will greatly benefit by the establish-
ment of direct communication with the United Kingdom, and there are
reasonable grounds to expect that before long a direct and regular
steamship service will be offered to the public.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HYBRIDIZATION.

At the International Conference lately held in London under the
auspices of the Royal Horticultural Society, Mr. Herbert J. Webber, of
the United States Department of Agriculture, gave an interesting lec-
ture, on the work of his department in plant hybridization. He said
that the work of hybridizing was started not more than three years
ago, and the results attained were far from complete. All the plants on
which they had worked were, in the main, horticultural products of
America, and one of the principal was the orange plant. A few years
ago almost the entire orange industry for a season in Florida was des-
troyed by frost ina single night, and about a hundred million dollars
was lost by the damage done. In consequence of this they arrived at
the conclusion that either they must abandon the orange industry
in Florida, or secure a variety of orange which was very much hardier,
and which would resist the frost. Accordingly they set to work to
hybridize the Japanese orange, Citrus trifoliata,with the sweet orange
The trifoliata was found as far north as New York, and was used as

— ee a

189

a hedge plant. The fruit was bitter and resinous, and was used as
preserve fruit; but the plant was hardy in character, and by hybridizing
it with the common sweet orange it was hoped that the frosts would be
resisted and that they might obtain hybrids of the two species and a de-
ciduous as well as an evergreen orange, The true hybrid plants, already
obtained, had been found very much more vigorous than the common
sweet orange. His department had also made experiments with the
view of combining the character of the tangerine with the common
orange in order to secure, if possible,the loose skin of the tangerine with
the common variety. The sweet orange was of much better quality
and more desirable than the tangerine, but if by hybridizing they
could produce a fruit to combine the characters of the two,
he thought that such: fruit would take the market ; and they were
working on those lines. They were further endeavouring to improve
the quality of the orange by crossing the bitter-sweet pomelo with the
sweet orange. The United States Agricultural Department bad, also
been working more or less with pineapples; and he pointed out that it
had been ascertained that by the crossing of fruits which were com-
monly seedless they could frequently produce seeds, and that the plants
so dealt with were more vigorous and better able to resist disease.
Another branch of their work was with cotton plants, the main point
being to hybridize between the Upland cotton and the so-called Sea
Island cotton. By this hybridization they hoped to extend the cotton
industry considerably. The last experiment dealt with by the lecturer
was the hybridization of corn (maize) by introducing the wild species
into the cultivated strain. They were endeavouring to cross the common
maize with the wild Mexican grass Teosinte, which was supposed to be
the progenitor of maize; but, of course, there must be numerous gener-
ations before they could bring out the character of the corn to any
great effect.

DRYING HOUSE.

In a former Bulletin * an account was given of a Drying House
for Cocoa used in Ceylon. The following extract on the subject of a
Drying House for general use is taken from “Planting Opinion,” an
excellent journal published in Madras.

“How to Maks a Hot-arnr Drying Hous.

“There are so manygways of doing this that I think 1 had better
simply describe the way mine has been built, and leave others to im-
prove uponthe idea according to the cheapest material and cost of
transit in their district. It is first necessary that the principle upon
which tlio heat is to be obtained and regulated should be understood.
It is well known that hot air rises, and only falls again to a lower level

* See Bulletins 41 and 48.

190

upon cooling ; consequently, the hot-air must be allowed to enter by a
flue, as near the roof or ceiling of the shed or house as convenient, and
so that only the coolest air may be exhausted. The point furthest
away from this, and consequently the lowest, should be the place from
which to exhaust the vir by means of fans. The building of course may
be of any size, but suould be greater in length than in breadth, and
should be, as near as possible, hermetically sealed.

‘In the first place, a framework of sawn hardwood timber is
erected to the height of, say, 10 to 12 feet, with flooring joists set on
blocks 3 inches or 4 inches above the level of the ground, but not
boarded (open battens being the floor, which is afterwards covered with
coir or other matting.) Upon the roof is also placed flooring joists for
the ceiling, and set on the wall plates as if fora two storey building.
If bricks are a cheaper material than galvanised iron, the whole building
may be made of brick, but I have found iron both cheaper and more
portable. 1 prefer the flat galvanised iron to the “corrugated,” as it
does not require skilled lahour to turn, rivet and solder the edges. The
inside only of this building is next covered with iron sides, ends, and
ceiling. At the angle of the ceiling it is best to turn the edges, rivet,
and solder, before nailing up. _—All other joints can be stuffed, or calk-
ed with hemp or votton, even pasted over with brown paper is good.

“The roof can either be left flat, or an ordinary shed-roof of corru-
gated iron. It may even be raised into a second storey, or loft, to be
used as a finishing room above the hot-air chamber.

“A brick furnace is now built at one end of the shed with smoke
stack either of brick or iron. The furnace should be built about two
feet away from the end of the shed to allow of the hot-air flue (2 feet
inside measurement) to connect the furnace with the shed which will
emanate about six inches from the ceiling of the chamber and in the
centre. In building the furnace a double row of four inch gas pipes
are laid, one set of ends set in fire clay but entering the flue, and the
other set of ends, open to the air on the other side of the furnace. Great
care must be taken that neither fire nor smoke is allowed to enter the
flue direct from the furnace, and the pipes, or tubes should never be
allowed to get red-hot, or they are liable to burn, or crack. Now,at the
other end of the shed, a trench should be dug in the gronnd, below the
flooring of the same size as the draught capacity of the flue, and emanat-
ing below the wall for a few feet. Over this draught trench, either one
or two exhaust fans are built, and these are in my case worked by water
power, so that I could regulate their pace to one degree of temperature
night or day.

“Tt will be understood that, as the air is exhausted from the chamber
it must necessarily pass throagh the heated pipes to replace the air
withdrawn, and that, that heated air is drawn through the matting on
the battened floor, and, consequently, through the crop that is spread
upon it, thus only the coolest and dampest air is withdrawn.”

191
ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TU THE DEPARTMENT.

LIBRARY.

EUROPE,

British Isles.
Botanical Magazine, Nov. [Purchased.]
british Trade Journal, Nov. ([Editor.]
Bulletin Kew Gardens, Sept. and October. [Director.]
Chemist and Druggist, Oct. 21, 28, Nov. 4,11. [Editor,]
Garden, Oct., 21, 28, Nov. 4, 11. [Purchased ]
Gardeners’ Chronicle, Oct. 21, 28, Nov. 4, 11. [Purchased.]
Journal of Botany, Nov. [{Purchased.]
Nature, Oct. 19, 26, Nov. 2, 9. [ Purchased. |
Pharmaceutical Journal, Oct.21, 28, Nov. 4,11. [Editor.]
Produce World, Mov, [Kditor.]
Sugar, Oct. [Editor. ]
[International Sugar Journal, Nov. [{Kditor.]
W. Indian and Com. Advertiser. Nov. [Editor.}
Climate No. 1 Oct. [Editor. |

———

France.

Suererie, indigéne et coloniale, Oct. :'4, 31, Nov 7. [Editor.]
Germany.

Konigl. Botanische Garten, Berlin, 1898-9.
Switzerland.

Bulletin de l’Herbier Boissier, Oct. [Convervateur. ]

ASIA.

India.
Agriculrural Leger (Calcutta) 1899, No. 8.
Planting Opinion, Sept. 30, Oct. 7, 14, 21. [Editor.]
Report Govt. Cinchona Plantation and Factory in Bengal 1897-98, {Kew}
Ceylon.
Times of Ceylon, Sept., 20, 27, Oct. 4, 12. [Editor.]
Java.
Proefstation E. Java, 3de Serie No. 14, [Director.]

AUSTRALIA.
N.S. Wales.
Agri. Gazette, Oct. [Dept. of Agr.]
Queensland.

Agr. Journal, Oct. [Sec. Agr. ]
Sugar Journal, Oct, [Editor.]
AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hobe.

Agri. Journ. Sept. Oct. [Editor.]
Central Africa.

Times, Sept., 2,16, 23. [Editor. ]

West INDIEs.

Barbados.

Agricultural Gazette, October. ([Editor.]
Jamaica.

Journal, Jamaica Agricultural Soc. Nov. [Secretary.]
Trinidad.

Report of Supt. Bot. Gards. on Experiments. 30th Oct. [Supt.]

192

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA:

Montreal.

Pharmaceutical Journal, Nov, [Editor.]
Ontario.

Annual Reports, Live Stock Associations. 1898-9.
Otlaw..

Experimental Farm Bulletin. No. 33. June.
UnrITeD STATES, AMERICA.
Publications of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture—Scientific Bereaus and Divisions
Division of Botany. Vol. V, No. 4. (Useful Plants of Mexico, etc.)
Division of Soils in co-operation with Division of Vegetable Philosophy
and Pathology : 60 (Temperature changes in fermenting piles of cigar
leaf tobacco.)

Division of Soils, 9 (soil moisture), 15 (Electrical Instruments for deter-
mining the moisture, temperature, and soluble salt content of soils.)

Experiment Stations.

Experiment Station Record : XI, 2. :
Arkansas : 53 (razing a Corn and Cowpea field. Experiments with Pea-
nuts, Legume Manuring, etc.)
Georgia: 44 (Wheat, Oats, Rye, Barley), 45 (Insects on Cucurbits.)
New Jersey : 137 (Dairy Experiments), 138 (Crude Petroleum as Insectici-
des). 139 (Analyses of Fertilisers.)
Texas: Annual Report, 1898-99.
American Journal of Pharmacy, Nov. [Editor.]
Botanical Gazette, Chicago, Oct. [Editor.]
Torrey Club Bulletin, Nov. ([Editor.]
Philadelphia Comm. Museum: State of Nicaragua; The World’s Com-
merce and the U. States share of it.

POLYNESIA.
Planters’ Monthly, Hawaii, Nov. ([Editor.]
SEEDS.
From Royal Botanic Gardens, Trinidad.
Hevea brasiliensis
From Royal Gardens, Kew,
Ptaeroxylon utile
Tabernaemontana sp.
Musa Livingstoneana
From Messrs, Vilmorin—Andrieux & Co.
Araucaria Brasiliensis
sid excelsa
imbricata

PLANTS.

From Botanic Gardens, St. Lucia.

Eugenia Micheli

Cocos Romanzoffiana

Pritechardia pacifica

Flacourtia sepiaria

Gulielma speciosa

Sabal minor
Brom Mrs, Plaxton, Belle Vue, Kingston, Jamaica.

Bulbs of Crinum sp. ;

a

[Issned 22nd December 1899.)

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

New Series Appendix, 1899.

Report of the Director on the Department of Public Gardens and

Plantations for the year ended 31st March 1899.

CONTENTS:

Economic Plants -
Bananas
Citrus é
Cocoa _
Coffee -
Grapes -
Kola -

_ Mangoes -
Nutmegs -
Pine Apples a4
Ramie -
Rubber -

Sugar Cane -

Tea
Tobacco
Bulletins -
Library -
Herbarium : -
Practical Instruction - -
Apprentices from Gold Coast - -
Apprentices from Jamaica : -
Boys from Jamaica High School - -
Report by Superintendent on progress -
Planter’s opinion of the value of the training
Hope Industrial School = -
Travelling Instructor =
Agricultural Gonference at Bar badds -
Experiment Station Scheme - -
Cinchona Plantations - -
Reports of Superintendents - -
Hope Gardens - -
Castleton Garden - -
Hill Gardens - :
Kingston Public Gadén - -
King’s House Garden and Grounds -
Bath Garden : =
Appendix : Meteorological Tables” - :

ey (ome) Coen eee (oer Woe: ee a

PAGE.
194
194
194
195
196
198
198
198
199
199
201
201
201
203
203
206
207
208
210
210
211
211
211
212

194
ECONOMIC PLANTS.

BANANAS.

Extension of cultivation. -The planting of Bananas has gone steadily
forward, and there need be no fear of overdoing the market. If
the whole of the West Indies, including Cuba, and adjacent territories
on the mainland, grew bananas wherever good hunches were produced,
the demand would still increase with the supply. There could be no
better nor cheaper food for the hungry millions of the British Isles,
Canada and the United States than the banana.

Meal.—No further advance has been made in the utilisation of
bananas to make meal. LHxcellent meal has already been made in the
Island, and no doubt a company with a large capital could put it on the
market at a much lower cost than has hitherto been found possible,
especially if they started work in a banana district where they could
buy up small bunches. But it must be produced at a cost that will en-
able it to compete with flour.

Dried bananas.—At the Hon. Evelyn Ellis’ estate Mr. Zurcher has
solved the problem of so drying and putting up bananas that they keep
in good order like figs for a very long time. It is a secret process, but,
as the demand grows, factories will probably follow in other districts.
As it is probably possible to put the fruit in this condition on the mar-
ket at as low a cost as the fresh banana, there are immense possibilities
in this direction.

Cirrus TREES.

The Superintendent of Hope Gardens reports results of experiments
in budding on various stocks: sweet orange on lime has done well,
although the tree has not grownlarge. Sweet orange on lemon are
looking fairly well. A sweet orange on sour stock gummed and was
destroyed. Navel oranges on sour have done well, especially the
Washington navel. The Imperial lemon on sweet orange did so badly
that they were destroyed: on rough lemon, half are looking well, and
half were destroyed; others will be tried oa sour stock. Grape fruit
on rough lemon are looking well, but some on sweet orange were un-
healthy and were destroyed. The tangerines are looking well.

At the Hill Gardens some of the trees have suffered a little from
scale-insects, but otherwise they are very healthy. There are ia the
orange: grove 556 citrus plants put out in their permanent places, and
156 other fruit trees, making a total of 712 fruit trees, covering an area
of more than 10 acres actually under permanent trees. The nurseries
and roads:are perhaps of equal or even greater extent.

Throughout the island there has been great activity in the planting
and cultivation of new orange groves. In many places the trees have
been affected in various ways, and assistance has been given by the
Department in ascertaining tie causes of the troubles, and giving
advice as to‘remedies. Frequently unhealthiness was caused by plant-
ing the young trees too deep, instead of so placing the topmost roots —
that they should be only just covered by the soil; or by giving too

195

much shade ; or by heaping up weeds, &., round the stem of the tree.
In some cases grubs were found eatiag the roots, for which hand picking
and application of kainit and lime were effective; or scale-insects attacked
plants wantiag in vigour for which the kerosine and soap mixture is
recommended.* Diseases of the bark, such as gumming, should be
treated with the preparation, the recipe of which is given in the Bulle-
tin for September, 1837. Against ants, bitter wood has been found
effectual, 1 1b. chips are steeped for 12 hours in water, then more water
added to make up a gallon, the whole is allowed to boil slowly for 12
to 24 hours ; then it is allowed to cool, and is made up to 10 gallons;
10 ounces of sott soap may be added.

In the Bulletin for December, 1895, the article on budding recom-
mended that the wood should be taken away from the bud. This is the
practice in budding in England, but it has been found by experience
here that the Florida method of leaving the wood with the bud of citrus
plants is preferable. It has also been seen that it is better to make the
T-shaped cut upside down. In Florida a leaf is fastened with the tying-
material over the bud as a protection against the sun.

The number of citrus trees distributed by the Department has been
very large :—

Sweet Orange wi 21,201
Grape Fruit a 16,551
Rough Lemon e 7,200
Sour Orange asa 5,287
Navel Orange ”~ 244
Total 50,483

Cocoa.

Distribution.—The price of cocoa on the markets is now high, and
with the increasing consumption there is every prospect that the price
will remain high for at any rate a few years. It is therefore very im-
portant that every encouragement should be given to the industry.
The price of plants has been reduced to 4d. each, delivered at any rail-
way station or seaport, so that the poorest man can start the cultivation.
The plants are in bamboo pots, the roots are therefore not disturbed in
sending out, and the plants can be taken straight to the field, the bamboo
split, and the soil enclosing the roots placed at once into the hole pre-
pared for it. Very much depends for success on the weather when
planting takes place, the percentage of losses being less than 1 per cent.
in favourable showery weather, and perhaps as much as 50 per cent.
when the weather is dry. One advantage of having the plants in bam-
boo pots is that if the weather is not showery, they can be kept together
under shade, and watered until a favourable opportunity occurs.
About 6,000 plants have been distributed in the year, besides 400 pods
which ought to give 12,000 more plants.

* Bulletin, December, 1898, page 271.
+ Bulletin 3, page 4.

196

The cocoa trees at Hope and Castleton are of the best kinds, and
the seeds for sowing are carefully selected, so that planters may be cer-
tain of having good trees.

Instructions.—In supplying cocoa plants to small settlers, leaflets
are given with full directions for cultivating and curing, and this teach-
ing is supplemented by practical demonstrations by the Travelling In-
structor. While the export of cocoa has increased this year by 30 per
cent. the valve has increased nearly 50 per cent.

Investigations.— Messrs. Rowntree, cocoa manufacturers of York,
England. have leased an estate in the island, and have sent out a cuem-
ist to study the process of curing on the spot. It is to be hoped that
these scientific investigations may be published for the benefit of cocoa
planters, and supplement the good work already done by Prof. Harrison
and Mr. Jenman in Demerara.*

CoFFEE.

Arabian Coffee. (Coffea arabica).—There is considerable demand
for seedlings of Arabian or common coffee, and there appears to be no
good reason why these should not be supplied by the Department as
well as any other plant. The proper place to raise these piants is in
the Hill Gardens ; they grow very much more slowly than at Hope,
but they are of much stronger constitution, and the lossin planting out
should not be nearly so great as in dealing with those grown at lower
levels.

Experiments in manures for coffee ought to be carried out at the
Hill Gardens, but there is not sufficient money voted for either growing
seedlings or testing manures.

At Hope Gardens a small plantation has been made, rather for the
purpose of training the Industrial School boys than for experiment.
But it will be useful in comparing the different mode of growth from
coffee grown at an elevation of 4,000 feet and also the different treat-
ment necessary in topping, pruning, etc.

Tiberian Coffee. (C. liberica).—The Liberian Coffee at Castleton
has, as usu:!, borne well, and a large number of young plants were
raised. {he trees at Hope have produced an abundant crop, and the
young trees have improved since the shade has been lessened, and more
water supplied.

Berries in the cherry were supplied to Messrs. Lascelles, de Mer-
eado & Co., for the purposes of trying their ordinary machinery with
Liberian, and testing the value of the coffee on the New York market.
From the sample received it was evident that the machinery had not
been set quite right, or was not perfectly adapted for it. The beans,
moreover, had not been picked over nor sized. These imperfections
would affect the price. The following letter with reference to the price
obtainable on the market will be of interest.

* Bulletin, March, 1898, page 49.

197
Messrs. A. S. Lascelles & Co. to Messrs, Lascelles de Mercado & Co..,

Kingston.
New York, U.S. A.,
April 21st, 1899.

Drar Sirs, |
JAMAICA LIBERIAN COFFEES.

In response to the request of Products Co. to report on two bags
of this variety of coffee which reached us this week we have to inform
you that the universal consensus of opinion among the experts, jobbers
and dealers is that these coffees would sell here at from 74 to 7dc.f the
lutter being probably the outside valuation for to-day, We have also
submitted the samples to the expert in these coffees to-day and he
reports as follows :—

‘“ We hand you with this green and roasted samples of 275 bags
“ genuine Liberian JavaJ which we are jobbing out in a small
“way at 8ic. Weare confident wecan buy this coffee at 73c.
‘“‘ In fact we are offered much handsomer coffees at the former
“ figure. The sample of Jamaica Liberian which you showed
‘us to-day is of inferior style, the colour being much against it.
“ We doubt if such coffee would sell to New York jobbers at
‘‘from 7 to 74c. and we are confident that no jobber would make
“a profit on it 74c. We have tested both of these coffees in the
“cup and while our coffee is much superior coffee in the roasted
‘‘ bean, we must say frankly that your coffee possesses superior
“ drinking merit, having a fine flavour and clear acid which we
“ do not think our coffee possesses. We do not know, however,
“ that this favourable feature would overcome its poor appear-
‘‘ ance in the green as the consumer apparently cares very little
“ for the drinking quality of this sort of coffee.”

And in order that you may understand his letter we send you by
this opportunity two sample bags of his sample in the green and two
eans of his sample roasted, also two sample of your own Liberian coftee
roasted so that you can, if necessary, make the comparisons which he
does in his letter. You will see that, whilst your coffees are inferior in
style and colour in the green, they nevertheless make a superior flavour
roasted to those which are now on sale in this City.

We are, Yours faithfully,
A. 8. Lasceuuss, & Co.

Highland Coffee of Sierra Leone. (Coffea stenophylla.)—This coffee
grows on the hills about Sierra Leone at from 500 to 2,000 feet. The
coffee is sold by French merchants as “ best Mocha,’ but the interest
connected with it, is not so much the relative value as compared with
Arabian coffee, as the possibility of its being able to resist the Hemileta
vastatrexz. The Director of Kew Gardens has distributed seed to Botanic
Gardens in the tropics. 1t has succeeded fairly well at Hope and Cas-

+ [That would be 26/ to 27/ per ewt., in Jamaica.]

198

tleton, and given a small crop at both Gardens ; but it is still too early
to decide whether it is worth growing at all in Jamaica, or whether it is
likely to do better than Arabian Coffee below 2,000 feet.

GRAPES.

Variettes——Mr. Cradwick, the Superintendent of Hope Gardens,
reports as follows:—“ The grape vines bore alarge summer crop, which
commenced to ripen about the middle of May and lasted until the end
of July. The variety first to ripen was Raisin de Calabre and after that
Foster’s seedling; at this period exceptionally heavy rains fell, as much
as twelve inches in twenty-four hours, a great many of the berries split
and in some bunches the whole of them split and were spoiled. On the
morning of the 28th May, onecwt. and 4lbs., were spoiled in this way
and were cut off the vines.

‘The Muscat Hamburgh turned out fairly well, as did also Royal
Ascot and Black Prince, but of the black varieties Alicante appears to
be best suited to the Hope climate, as it is the only variety not attacked
by mildew. The Muscat of Alexandria has again proved to be the best
of the white varietes. Foster’s seedling is a heavy cropper.

‘In consequence of the unusual quantity of rain during the last
nine months of the year, 1898, the grape vines did not ripen any wood
at all for autumn pruning. In order however to demonstrate that un-
less the wood is properly ripened, it is useless to expect fruit, 16 vines
were pruned, and, as expected, not a single good bunch was produced.”

Instruction —Mr. Cradwick has travelled in several parts of Jamaica;
giving instruction in handling and caring the vines and grapes. Some
planters have taken great interest in vine culture, and now possess a
large number of vines. Their experience is unfortunately the same as
in every land where grapes are grown on a large scale, fungoid pests
are exceedingly troublesome. The only plan to save the vines is to
adopt the methods found successful in other countries. Notes on the
subject are to be found in the Bulletin.*

Market.—Whether it will be found possible eventually to produce
grapes from Jannary to March for the London and New York markets,
is still a matter of experiment, but there is a local demand at remunera-
tive prices even for summer grapes.

Distribution Young vines to the number of 1,383 have been dis-
tributed, mostly to small settlers in the neighbourhood of Alligator
Pond, which appears to be a district admirably suited to the cultivation.

Kota.

The interest in planting kola is still maintained, as many as
12,489 plants having been distributed.
MANGOES.

The mangoes at Hope, mis-called ‘‘ East Indian,” as all come from
the BE. Indies, are derived from one of the trees imported by Governor

* Bulletin, February, 1897, page 37.

199

‘Sir J. P. Grant from Bombay, and planted in Castleton Garden.* It
would be better therefore to call them Bombay mangoes. They have
no stringy fibre, nor flavour of turpentine ; and, unlike the favourite
“* No, 11,” they can be eaten with a spoon. The fruit has been sent to
England in good order, and should therefore be profitable for export.
Numbers of seedlings have been distributed, but as they could not be
guaranteed to come true, and as some complaints on that score were
received, not much has been done lately in growing these seedlings.
Some grafts have been taken, and the grafted trees distributed, but the
original trees will not bear too much cutting in this way. There are
other mango trees at Castleton, making in all the “ four noted Bombay
grafted mangoes” of Sir J.P. Grant which on rare occasions bear a
fruit. The mangoes known locally as the ‘Governor’ mangoes are
doubtless from grafted plants of these trees.

There are some excellent mangoes in Martinique. There are two
or three trees at Hope but probably not of the best kind. My late
attempts to get the grafted plants of the best kinds failed ; but Prof. G.
Landes, who recently visited Jamaica onan agricultural mission, has
very kindly interested himself in the matter and no doubt some healthy
plants will be received.

A tree raised from seed of a mango from Mexico, has produced
large fruit of an excellent character, and ripening rather later in the
‘season.

Col. Griffith of Hodges imported at considerable expense some
grafted mangoes from Bombay, and a graft from one of these is now
growing at Hope.

The common man zo, when ripe, can be made into an excellent pre-
serve, and, unripe into a pickle remarkable for its stomachic qualities.
As thousand of tons go to waste every year, it might be found profitable
to do something with them in this way.

NutTMEGS.

The cultivation of nutmegs is on the increase, more than 3,000
plants were distributed during the year.

Pinz-APPLES.

Varieties.—The varieties of Pine-Apples cultivated at Hope Gar-
dens are :—Red Ripley, Green Ripiey, Charlotte Rothschild, Smooth
A Abbaka, Black Pine, Cow-boy, Sugar-loaf, Queen, Cheese

ine.

Selection of Suckers.—The Superintendent of Hope Gardens in con-
tinuation of his remarks on correlation of the colouring of the leaves
and good fruit, states :—‘ Of the 55 plants of the Green Ripley pine
with red markings in the centre of the leaf only, ten have fruited, every
fruit being a good one free from blemish ; the remainder of the plants
are now fruiting, but it cannot be determined whether these will be
perfect until they ripen. No more of these plants have developed red
markings on the edge of the leaf.**

“Of the 11 plants from parent with red markings on the outside

* See Blue Book for 1871, quoted in Bulletin, January, 1898, page 5,
** [All produced good fruit]

200

of the leaf as well as in the centre, 2 have produced inferior fruits
eracked near the base and exuding gummy matter which at-
tracted large quantities of the black stinging ants, these fruits are quite
useless; 3 have produced little knobs; the remainder of the plants are
just. commencing to fruit, but are not sufficiently advanced to enable us
to form an opinion as to the quality.*

‘* Of the 27 plants with the marking on the outside of the jeatf, only
7 have produced little knobs, 11 have simply grown with the leaves
twisted round in the centre of the plants and developed side suckers as.
though they had fruited ; 4 have produced fruits which were of fair
quality, although very small ; and 4 plants produced small bad fruits,—
cracked and exuding gum.

“ The greatest care should be taken to propagate plants from those
having the red colouring matter well developed and in the centre of the

leaves only ; plants with faintly coloured or colourless leaves, or plants

having leaves with the red colour on the edge of the leaves, should be
avoided.

“ Red Ripley : Since observing the variation in the colouring of
the Green Ripley Pine Apples, I have also noticed that something ot
the same kind occurs in the Red Ripley. When the colouring of the
leaves is particularly bright, and the leaves have not the fine bloom
observable in the best type of plant, it often produces an abortion
similar to those produced by the green variety when badly marked.”

Manures.—Mr. F. Watts, suggested various manures for trial with
Pine Apples. The plan was as follows :—

Manures applied to Pine- Apples.
Series A : Size of plots, 184 square yards each.

{

|

Manures: Number of pounds | Manures : amount in ounces
Plot per acre. | applied to plots.
: Sn Sulphate
; per- | Sulphate
pausrainaat Potash. Nitrogen. phosphat oof Potaeh jee berits:
: .
-_ ooo seiieeraah) (St VERDE EROET FERN ET EDS —_—_—
| “a
Al 80 40 80 13% | 4% 23 %
A2 | 80 40 0 13% 4% 0
A3 80 40 | 40 13% 4% 11%
Be ec iL A 400s Nt Sa ee 4% 11%
|
Ad No Manure
ey) 1) 80 | 0 40 13% | 6 | 11x
AR stihl. 1604))\ 1611 40 40 27 43451) 2 0bgae
A8 0 0 40 | 0 0 11%
Ag | 0 | oo | 0 | Be] 8 wae
Series B.—-Size of plots, 23% square yards each.
Bl 80. | 40. | 40 16% 44 15
B2 0 | 40 | 40 0 4x 15
B3 80 0 40 1634 0 15

* [Two of the remaining six produced little knobs, the other four rather
small fruits cracked at the base.]

,
q
'

201

RAMIE.

An attempt was made more than a year ago by some few who are
interested in the McDonald Boyle Ramie Machine, to induce farmers to
form a company to grow the plant and prepare filasse, but the time was
not opportune for the investment of capital. A considerable amount
of interest is, however, still taken in the subject, and planting is still
going on : 39,200 roots were distributed during the year under review.

RUBBER.

The Central American Rubber tree (Castzlloa spp.) appears to be
the best suited for growth in Jamaica. A small plantation of this tree
has been made at Hope, a few trees have been planted at Bath, and
others have been put out in the woods in order that they may propa-
gate themselves by natural means.

Seeds from Rubber trees in the Gardens have been sown, as well
as some received from the Botanic Gardens of British Guiana and
British Honduras ; and numerous plants have been raised and distri-
buted throughout the island.

Mr. S. T. Scharschmidt writes that Ceara Rubber trees (Manihot
Glaziovii), received from the Department in May 1887, and planted at
Hanbary (elevation 1,550 feet, and rainfail 99 inches), began to yield
rubber when 114 years old.*

Hon. Dr. Johnston, in his travels through Africa, met with a rub-
ber plant, the swollen underground stem of which yielded rubber of
good quality. This plant is doubtless one that been lately determined
by botanists to be a species of Carpodinus. It is probable that this
plant may be grown in large numbers to the acre, and yield rubber in
far less time than trees, thus opening up the industry to planters and
small cultivators.

Mr. R. H. Biffen, a Cambridge botanist, who travelled lately in
America, investigating the subject of rubber, has invented a machine,
in principle somewhat like a centrifugal cream separator, by which the
rubber is separated at once from the milky juice free from all impurities
and its value raised 25 per cent. This machine is likely to revolu-
tionise the rubber industry.

SUGAR CANE.

Distribution.—The number of cane tops distributed during the year
was 17,500. There has been great demand for the seedling canes, and
especially for that named ‘“ D. No. 95.” The demand on the ‘part of
some planters was much more than could be supplied with the resources
even of a large experiment station,devoted to cane alone as in Barbados,
but we have endeavoured to satisfy to some extent all who have applied.
It would greatly facilitate the work of distribution, if planters would
state a year beforehand the number and kind that they wish for. So
far as land and money allow at Hope, as many as possible are grown
and distributed, and planters then experiment with different varieties
and make choice of the most stitable.

* Bulletin, February, 1898, page 37.

- 202

Increase in yield of Sugar.—The great aim in all experiments with
cane is to increase the yield of sugar; it is satisfactory to find that
several of the seedling canes are very promising in this respect.

It is understood from one proprietor that from 5 acres planted with
“ D. No. 95” he reaped 28 tons whereas with the Mt. Blanc variety
which was the cane hitherto planted on the estate, he only got at the
rate of 2 tons per acre, that is to say, that with the same area and the
same expenditure, he hopes that when the whole of the estate is planted
with D. No. 95 more than double the amount of sugar will be pro-
duced.

At the Conference held at Barbados in January, Dr. Morris called
the attention of those present toa remarkable seedling cane that had
originated in Barbados, known as “ B. 147.” Mr. Bovell, Superinten-
dent of the Botanic Station, who raised this seedling, states :—“This-
cane has been under cultivation here for the past five years, and it has
during that time given an average yield of nearly half a ton of available
sugar per acre over the Cal donian Queen, which comes next, and more
than three quarters of a ton more than the Bourbon.” Mr. Bovell
recommends this cane for the “ black soil” districts of Barbados. The
following are Mr. Bovell’s figures:—

Name of Libs. per gallon. Libs. per gallon. ‘Libs. of Sugar.

Cane. Sucrose. Glucose. per acre.
B. 147 1-794 114 7,190
Caledonian Queen 1°'980 041 6,137
Bourbon 1775 086 5,210

According to Mr. Bowrey’s analysis, the seedling D. No. 95 yields
at Hope nearly half as much more as the Caledonian Queen ; but the
direct comparison between the two seedling canes is a matter for future
analysis.

Through Dr. Morris’s kind offices, I was enabled to purchase 200
tops of cane B. 147 from the proprietor of an estate where it was.
grown somewhat extensively, and brought them back for experimental
growing in Hope Gardens. It was found unfortunately that a very
large proportion were riddled with the borer, these were burnt, but the
remainder were planted and promise well.

Analysis of Cane at Hope. Mr. Bowrey, Government Chemist:
had analysed shortly before his death a good number of the canes under
cultivation at Hope Gardens *. His successor, Mr. Francis Watts,
recommended as a preliminary to?undertaking work on the Hope canes,
that a row, one chain in length, of each variety should be planted out,
with the intention of analysing them when ripe.

Analysis of Canes on Estates. Itis evident from the Reports pub-
lished in the Bulletin from time to time of different varieties of canes
grown for experiment by Messrs. Kemp, Webb, Shirley, and Craig,
that it is important for every Sugar Planter to experiment for himself
with various canes until he finds out certainly the variety which yields.

* Bulletin, Oct. and Nov., 1897.

203

most sugar on that particular estate. Ifthe yield can be increased by
even a quarter of a ton per acre, it is worth all the trouble entailed.

In 1895 the Department supplied a collection of canes to Mr.
Thomas Kemp who devoted a large area to their cultivation, and tested
them himself.* The same idea was carried out by Mr. Webb and
Captain Shirley. ** But in order that the analysis be done systema-
tically, so that the results may be on the same basis, and capable of
comparison, it should be carried out on different estates by the same
person and he should be an Agricultural Chemist.

Mr. Craig also undertook experimental work, and fortunately wken
his canes were ready for testing, Mr. Watts was at hand to go to Danks
and analyse them. f

Government Chemist.— When the Government Chemist is appoint-
ed, it would be well that one definite portion of the work assigned to
him, should be the analysis on the spot of canes grown experimentally
on one or two estates in each sugar growing district. With the assis-
tance of the sugar planters themselves, the estates might be carefully
selected as typical of certain districts, arrangements could readily be
made for the distribution from these experimental plots of the most
successful canes throughout the surrounding districts, and for the ex-
change of tops from one district to another, so necessary for maintain-
ing a vigorous constitution in the cane.

Another portion of the Chemist’s duties should be to continue Mr.
Bowrey’s work in analysing, and undertake experimental work on
manures for canes at Hope Gardens.

Treatise on Sugar Cane——During the year an important treatise
was published on the “ Agriculture of the Sugar Uane” by Dr. Stubbs,
Director of the Sugar Experiment Station in Louisiana, U.S. A., sum-
marising all the latest information on the subject, and giving results of
his experience in Louisiana. Copious extracts from this work were
printed in the Bulletin, and Mr. Watts added notes, giving his
view on certain points derived from his long practical acquaintance
with sugar growing in the West Indies.{ But the treatise itselt should
be in the hands of every sugar-planter, copies can be obtained direct
from the author.

TRA.

There is a demand for tea plants, which are supplied from the Hill

Gardens. The number distributed was 3,760 besides some seed.
ToBacco.

Distribution 0: Seed —Seed was imported by the Department from
Havana through the agency of the British Consul-General of the best
tobacco of Vuelta Abajo, and was distributed free to everyone who
applied for it.

At Montpelier, the Hon. Evelyn Ellis’s estate, 60 acres were

* Bulletin, Sept., 1°96.
* * Bulletin, Mar, 1897. = + Bulletin, April, 1899.
{ Bulletins May to October, 1898.

204

planted out exclusively with seedlings raised jfrom this seed, * and
the tobacco which was cured on the spot,was sold to a New York buyer,
realizing high prices. A grade of wrapper superior to Sumatra was
obtained. As a measure of the success obtained, Mr. Ellis proposes to:
put 130 acres under tobacco next season.

lt is well known that the Cubans are careless in the collection of
seed, taking it from inferior plants,and from suckers from the old roots.
Plants were therefore grown at Hope for the purpose of obtaining first
class seed for distribution. This was sent out under the name of ‘‘Hope
Havana,” and reports have been received of the excellence of the plants
raised from it.

Manures.—Mr. Watts drew up the following plan for testing var-
ious manures on tobacco :—

MANURE FOR TOBACCO.

Stable Manure, or, Artificial Manure, and rate per acre in lbs.
Grass (instead of

Plots. No. | green dressing)at (= ==—~—“—“—~‘CSSOS™~*~” aay :
rate of 20 tons —S_ Potash. Phosphate. Nitrogen.
per acre.

|
'
|

a

1 Stable Manure

2 Grass |

3 ce | 40

4 a 40 | 80 |

P : 10 | Bp 40

a4 4 |

: ce hi | | 40
8 No Manure.

9 80

10 40

11 40 80

12 Hee 80

13 La 160

14 40 80 40
15 a as 40
16 iS 80
17 80 +

18 40 80 + 40
19 ie 40 +
20 80 t

The potash and phosphate were applied as soon as the plots were
ready for the plants, and throughly worked into the soil. The nitrogen,
z. €., Sulphate of Ammonia and Dried Blood were applied later. On
the plots each of 17 square yards, to supply at rate of 80 lbs. phosphate,

* Bulletin, January, 1599, page 1.
+ Thomas Phosphate. t¢ Dried Blood.

205

124 oz superphosphate was applied; for 40lbs. potash, 44 oz. sulphate of
potash; for 40 lbs. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia 11 oz. of sulphate of
ammonia; for 40 lbs. nitrogen as dried blood, 164 oz. dried blood. It
was found convenient to weigh out a number of packets containing 12}
oz. superphosphate and another series containing 4} 0z. phosphate of
potash. ‘hese were carried to the ground and the packets belonging to
each plot laid out against the beds and checked before opening. They
were then opened, the contents mixed on a sheet of brown paper, or in
a dry, clean tray, with a few pounds of dry earth to increase the bulk,
and then the mixture was carefully distributed over the bed. Mr.
Watts’ directions,as given above, will probably be useful to those who
propose to experimunt in the same way. He stated also that it would
be well to put samples of all the manures into dry clean bottles that they
might be analysed. As Thomas Phosphate was not obtainable at the
time, Mr. Watts suggested that plot 17 should get 34 lbs. of wood-ashes
with 124 oz. superphosphate and 11 oz. sulphate of ammonia ; and that
plot 18 should have 1? lbs. of wood-ashes, and the same amount of phos-
phate and ammonia as No. 17, This would give 1,000 lbs. and 500 lbs.
respectively of ashes per acre.

The tobacco from the different plots were labelled, and dried at
Hope. Through the kind consent of Mr. Zurcher, it was then sent to
Montpelier to be cured, and afterwards to be submitted for the opinion
of the expert on the estate. Although it is scarcely to be expected that
the first year’s trials will be worth much, they will be a guide to future
experiments at Hope.

At High Elevations.—Tobacco grows spontaneously at 4,000 feet
in the Hill Gardens so magnificently, that it is proposed to cultivate a
small patch there next season, and ascertain its value.

Expert.—The engagement of an Expert in curing tobacco at Mont-
pelier at a high salary is justified as a mere matter of business. It
would be a great boon to the whole island, if an Expert of like charac-
ter could be attached to the Hope Gardens to demonstrate in his work
there to all comers the manifold minutiz ot the process of curing.
When there was no work that required his presence at Hope, he could
travel through the island, giving public demonstrations, examining
tobacco undergoing curing at different estates, and affording advice
and assistance in every way to any wo should seek it.

Instruction.—At present our means of instruction are very limited,
but every one who receives seeds may also have the Bulletin(May, 1889
No. 18), written by a Cuban Expert, dealing with the cultivation and
curing of tobacco.

Tobacco Beetle—A complaint having been received of the destruc
tion dune to cigars by a minute boring beetle, samples ot the infested
cigars were sent to England. Mr. A. G. Butler of the British Museum
kindly made a report on them.” The only effectual remedy in factories
seems to be to store the cigars in tightly-fitting cases, and to prevent
old tobacco from lying about and harbouring the insect.

* Bulletin, May to July, 1898, page 105.

206

Investigations in U. States——Prof. Milton Whitney of the U. States
Department of Agriculture has examined and classified the soils of the
principal tobacco districts of the U. States.* Similar analysis of soils
in Jamaica can be compared with Prof. Whitney’s results, and very
ie deductions made of the kind of tobacco that might be grown on
that soil,

Suchsland and others have stated that the fermentation! of tobacco
is caused by bacteria, and that the aroma is due to specific forms. Dr.
Loew under the direction of Prof. B. T. Galloway, chief of the Division
of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, has investigatec the curing
and fermentation of Cigar-leaf tobacco, and states as the result of his
work that the principal changes that take place are due to the action of
soluble ferments or enzymes, not bacteria ; and that the development
of colour and aroma is due principally to the action of oxidizing enzy-
mes.t This discovery is not only one of the scientific interest,but will be
also of great economic value, when the investigations under the charge
of Prof. Whitney have been carried further, and the conditions and
principles of this process are better understood.

BULLETINS.

An Index is in course of preparation to all the Bulletins from April
1887, to December 1898. t¢

The number of Bulletins distributed every month is 1,370, of which
227 are sent abroad. Besides this regular number, many are constantly
being sent which contain articles on special subjects on which informa-
tion is sought.

During the year under review the following articles have appeared
in the Bulletin: —

Botanical Notes—
Wild Olives of Jamaica.

Ferns of Jamaica.

Chemistry—
Analysis of Cuba Tobacco Soil
Analysis of Jamaica Chalk

Diseases of Plants—
Diseases of Citrus

Heonomie plants-—
Melaleuca leucadendron
Citrate of Lime and concentrated Lemon and Lime Juice
Cotton Seed Oil.
Ginger in Jamaica.
Notes on extract of Ginger.
Plants in the Gardens.
Tobacco in the United States.

_ mas enn nee. menaseehesennwsnansneesncessmmnee mas
Seen neeasnyene cannes qe ewagecenecengeeeedeasaeeenseeswnsaeentensuassenesneaseeasanree-seensseeeneseeeserasssaneeereeresresseereePOneeseennGns snd aaSGaameaaeasssenknnnsesanwaannr, Janne on nacencsonsonsennsse

* Div. of Soils, Bulletin No. 11, 1898 ; and Farmers’ Bulletin, 83, 1898.
+ Mise. Publications, No. 52, 1899.
t Published in July, 1899.

207

Fruits—

Banana Meal.

Propagating Citrus plants.

Tamarinds.

Vines and Vine culture.
Insect Pests—

Beetles in Cigars.

Entomological Notes.

Experiments with Insecticides.

San José Scale.

Seale Insects

. Weevils in Grain and Peas.

Manures—

Denitrification and Farmyard Manure.

Gas Lime in Agriculture.

Recent Experiments on Denitrification.

Soil Inoculation.
Rubber--

Notice of Dr. Morris’s lectures on Rubber.
Sugar Cane—

Agriculture of the Sugar Cane.

Reports on Sugar Cane.
Timbers and Cabinet woods.—

Jamaica Satin Wood.

Jamaica Woods for the Royal Yacht.
Vegetables—

Bermuda Onions.

LIBRARY.

Besides the additions made to the Library by contribution and pur-
chase, already announced month by month in the Bulletin, the follow-
ing have been added :—

Books added to the Library during the year 1898-99.

Yollins (S. J. and others). Phycotheca Boreali-Americana. Fasc. LX,
X, XI. Malden, Mass. 1898. Fol.

Engler (A. and K. Prantl). Natiirliche Pflanzen-familien. ILL Teil.
Ab. 6 and 6a. III Teil. Ab. 7 and 8. Leipzig 1898. 8vo.

Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, London, 3rd
Ser Vol viii Pts. land 2, and Vol. LX. Pt. I. 1898. 8vo.

Morris (Dr. D.) Cantor Lectures—On Plants yielding Rubber. Lon-
don, 1898. 4to.

Sargent (C.S). The Silva of North America. Vols. Xl and XII.
Boston and New York, 1897 and 1898. Fol.

{rimen (Dr. H. & Sir J. D. Hooker). Handbook to the; Flora of Ceylon.
Pt. 1V. By Sir J. D. Hooker. London 1898. Svo.

Wolff. Agricultural Banks, Their object and their work. London.
1898. 8vo.

Wolff. Peoples’ Banks. A Record of Social and Economic Successe
London. 1898. 8vo.

Catalogue of Welwitsch’s African Plants. Vol. I. Pt. III {Trustees

British Museum. |

208

HERBARIUM.

In connection with Herbarium work, several planters, after reading
articles in the Bulletin, such as “ Leguminous plants for green man-
uring,*”’ and ‘Soil inoculation,f” have sent to the Herbarium specimens
of native leguminous plants, with enquiries as to their names and
their power of adding nitrogen to the soil. There is no doubt that
many of our native plants are useful in this way, but probably
the expense of collecting seed for sowing would be as great as that of
importing cow-peas or velvet beans. It would be well to bear in mind
tha: leguminous weeds are not pests in the same sense as others, to be
rooted up for robbing cultivated plants of their food, for they actually
contribute valuable nitrogen.

Many persons, still under the impression that the olive bears fruit
in the island have sent up specimensas proofs. These turned out to be
various plants, but not the true olive. A short article was inserted in
the Bulletin, pointing out the differences.

Mr. G. S. Jenman, Superintendent of the Botanic Garden of British
Guiana has completed his account of the ferns of Jamaica. The series
of articles began in Bulletin 18, August 1890. They are most valuable
te students of Jamaica ferns, both in the island and abroad ; their publi-
cation in the Bulletin has induced collectors to visit Jamaica both from
Great Britain and America. Several new species have been discovered
since Mr. Jenman began his work, and _ he has kindly promised to con-
tribute descriptions of these, and to add some further notes.

Mr. William Harris has been engaged during a considerable por-
tion of his time in continuing to collect specimens of native plants. He
has just had the honour conferred upon him of being elected a Fellow
of the Linnean Society of London.

Several new species and new varieties have been described from
Jamaica plants ; and several that are known elsewhere, have been col-
lected here for the first time during the year. The follcwing is a list:-—

New Species and Varieties described from Plants found in Jamaica,
Guttiferae—

Rheedia pendula, Urb. (Symbolae Antillanae, Vol. I.)
Malpighiaceae—
Malpighia glabra, L. var. lancifolia, Ndz. (Ind. lect. in Lye. reg.
Hos. Brunsb., 1899.)
. glabra, L., var. antillana, Urb. and Ndz. (1. c.)
(This was previously referred to M. glabra, L. var. acuminata
Juss. See list in Bulletin for 1895, page 217.)
. fucata, Ker., var macrophylla (Desf.) Ndz. (1. ¢.)
. martinicensis, Jacq., var. jamaicensis, Urb. & Ndz. (I. ¢.)
. oxycocca, Griseb., var., megaphylla, Ndz. (1. c.)
. osycocca, Griseb., var. Grisebachiana, Ndz. (l.c.)
. oxycocea, Griseb. var., biflora (L.) Ndz. (1. ¢.)

es

SSE

* Bulletin, July-Sep., 1897, page 153.
+ Bulletin, Aug., 1898, page 174.

209

Rhamneae—
Sarcomphalus laurinus, Griseb., var. Fawcettii, Kr. et Urb.
(Notizbl. bot. Gart. Berl. Ln. 10).
Sapindaceae—
Serjania levigata, Radlk. (Symb. Ant. [.)
Asclepiadeae—
Asclepias nivea, L., var. intermedia, Schltr. (Symb. Ant. I.)
Metastelma Harrisii, Schltr. (I ely
M. Hartii, Schltr. (1.c.)
M. Faweettii, Schltr. (1.c.)
M. atrorubens, Schltr. (1.c.)

Amarantacae—

Telanthera flavogrisea, Urb. (l.c.)
Polygonaceae—

Coccoloba Harrisii, Lindau. (l.c.)
Urtecaceae—

Urera tuberculata, Urb. (1.c.)
ar Parietaria, BL. , var. alpestris, Urb. (l.c.)
P. nigresceus, Urb. (1. c.)
P. Harrisii, Urb. (l.c.)
Orchideae—
Epidendrum Harrisii, Fawe. (l.c)
Uredineae—
Puccinia Urbaniana, P. Henn. (Hedwigia,) XXXVII,
1898.)
P. Emilie, P. Henn. (l.c.)
P. Synedrellz, P. Henn. (l.c.)
Ravenelia Humphreyana, P. Henn. (l.c.)
Uredo Euphorbie nudifiore, Henn. (l.c.)
U. bidenticola, P. Henn. (1.c.)
Aecidium Choristigatis, P. Henn. (l.e.)
Polyporaceae—
Polyporus Humphreyi, P. Henn, (l.c.)
Polystictus jamaicensis, P. Henn. (l.c.)
Deedalea jamaicensis, P. Henn. (l.c.)
Spheropsidaceae—
Phyllosticta oxalidicola, P. Henn. (l.c.)
Hyphomycetes—
Cercospora Piscidie, P. Henn. (l.c.)

Species and Varieties new for Jamaica.

Asclepiadeae—

Gonolobus stapelioides, Ham.

(F. rostratus, R. Br.

G. virescens, Ham.
Polygonaceae—

Rumex crispus, L.

Polygonnm acuminatum, H. B. K., var. glabrescens, Meissn.

Coccoloba laurifolia, Jacq.

©. coronata, Jacq. ;

C. nivea, Jacq.

210

Orchideae— |
Maxillaria rufescens, Lindl.
Fungi :
Peronosporaceae—
Albugo Convolvulacearum, (Speg.) P. Henn, (1. c.)
Ustilaginacae—
Graphiola Phoenicis, (Mong.) Poit.
Uredineae—
Puccinia Spermacoces, Berk. et Curt.
Ureco Cann, Wint,
Aecidium Cestri, Mont.
A. Cissi, Wint.
Auriculariaceae—
Auricularia Auricula-Judz (Linn.) Schrot.
Fhelephoraceae-—
Stereum lobatum, Fries.
Polyporaceae—
Polystictus sanguineus (Linn.) Mey.
P. fimbriatus, Fries (P. Warmingii, Berk.)
P. membranaceus, (Sw.) Fries.
P. hydnoides (Sw.) Fries,
Lenzites repanda, ( Mont.) Fries.
Agaricaceae
Lentinus tener, Klotzsch.
L. crinitus, (Linn.) Fries.
Sclerodermataceae —
Scleroderma verrucosum, (Bull.) Pers.
Coryneliaceae—
Corynelia clavata, (Linn.) Sacc.
Sphaeropsidaceae—
Darluca Filum, (Biv.) Cast.

The following have been added to the collections in addition to
native plants :—-

Phycotheca Boreali-Americana. Collins. Fascicles [X. X. XI.

PracricaL INSTRUCTION.

Apprentices from Gold Coast.

Two lads, Martinson and Brew, have been sent by the Government
ot the Gold Coast for a two years course of training in the Public Gar-
dens of Jamaica. These boys were selected by examination, and had to
work for a year in the Botanic Garden of their own colony to fit them
for more easily and quickly assimilating the teaching here, and also to
test their probable capacity for filling the positions for which they are
intended as Curators of Botanic Stations on the Gold Coast, and instruc-
tors of their own people in agricultural methods. Their Government
bear the expense of their board and lodging, and they are bound over
under substantial security to repay the expenditure, if, througa miscon-
duct, they should be dismissed, or if they should leave the Colonial
service, and engage in private pursuits.

211

Apprentices from Jamaica.

I am somewhat averse from taking apprentices under the existing
Apprenticeship Law, but I have made an exception in the case of one,
Thomas, who has had a good education and has already been working
on a tobacco plantation under Cubans for two years. A lad who has
been well educated, who has had previous training of this kind, and un-
derstands the responsibility of his situation as an Apprentice, is likely te
succeed and fit himself to be manager on an estate.

Other boys who show signs of an intelligent interest in the work,
and are capable of responding to teaching, are encouraged to read books
and otherwise fit themselves for good positions.

Boys from Jamaica High School.

Three boys from the Jamaica High School come into the garden
four mornings a week for actual garden work. Half an hour of this
time is given up to attending a demonstration by the Superintendent
or the Assistant Superintendent.

Report by Superintendent on Progress.

“Practical lessons and demonstrations on agricultural operations
have been given in the Gardens at Hope, and regularly attended by the
Industrial School boys, several of whom evince a great interest in agri-
cultural work.

““Great pains have been taken to give reasons for each operation
and explanations of those reasons; so that the boy, in being made to
understand his work, has his interest awakened, with the result that a
love for the work is developed.

“The chief subjects for lessons and demonstrations have been the
eultivation of cocoa, coffee, oranges, grapes, pine-apples and tobacco.;
propagation by budding, grafting and cuttings ; the raisirg of seedlings,
and general routine work of nursery and plantation, Care has been
taken to work into the lessons as many as possible of the principles of
agriculture.

“The three boys from the High School, Simms, Johnson and
Thomas, have worked in the garden for two hours in the mornings of
four days a week since 31st January. I have noted their progress from
time to time, and have concluded that the experiment has so far beena
little disappointing ; for, although particularly quick at learning the
theoretical, they are far behind the Industrial School boys in the prac-
tical manipulation of plants, the use of tools, ete. They appear to be
greatly interested in the lessons and demonstrations which are given
daily to a class consisting of the Industrial School boys, the apprentices
and themselves, but in comparing the practical work done by the whole
elass there appears to be in that of the High School boys a lack of
regard for a plant as a living thing, somewhat suggestive of the idea
that budding and grafting is much the same as carpentering ; no doubt
this will in time disappear, but it nevertheless tends to show the neces-
sity of an earlier association with plants,earlier teaching in their functions
the effects of different phenomena upon them, etc.” :

212
Planter’s Opinion of the Value of the Training.

The following is a letter received from Mr. Robert L. Young, of
Tebol Browns Town, on the work done for him by a lad from the
ardens: ~

“ Now that I have finished with the services of Rupert Lyon, pro
tem. 1 write tothank you for your kindness in letting me have the
use of him.

“ The saving to mein the monetary line has been great, and it has
demonstra'ed my evidsnee given before the Education Commission on
the 8th March, namely the want of skilled labour at such a price as to
be within the reach of all classes, and it is only through the Hope School
and Gardens, that that want can be supplied.

« |" the Government want to be of real practical use to the smaller
penkeepers and settlers, with the bright outlook for good marketable
fruits, now is their time to send about their properly trained apprentices,
eapable of budding, grafting, pruning, packing fruit, planting
them properly, etc. Ninetv-nine out of a hundred of our small
settlers and others, think they can plant, &c., till they see it done
by an expert. Especially in the case of oranges, it would be an object
lesson to both labourers and owners themselves, this practical insigat,
as to how the work ought to be done, better than all the books ever
printed.

“ Take my own case in point, I wanted to put in five acres ia best
fruit obtainable, Washington Navel, Grape Fruit, etc. On application
to the diff-rent nurseries | found I would have to pay for good budded
trees, £5 10<. per 100 to say nothing of expense of transit. For five
acres at 2) ft. apirt [ would require 550 trees costing me for trees
alone £30 5s The land was laid out with sour stock trees, 300 buds
procured from the Gardens say at 3s. 6d. per 100, the rest from some
treas of my own. Lyon took 15 days at 1s. 6d. per day, and did over
609 buds at Ld. for each bud that took,—going overa second time those
that failel. Total cost. :—

300 Buds at 3s. 6d. an -. £010 4
15 Days at 1s. 6d. ame OR ee
600 Buds at 1d. ne 210 0
£4 3 0

“This speaks for itself, and I am gratefui to you for the saving to

my pocket.
Yours faithfully,
Rost. L. Youna.”

Hope Industrial School.

The Commissioners who were appointed to enquire into the svstem
of education in Jamaica, received satisfactory evidence of the
value of the training in the school. One planter stated in evidence
that his opinion was that one boy. turned out of that institution is worth a
dozen other boys in money value. .

213

Another says :—‘‘I went last month to the agricultural school at
Hope, and I was astonished to see the cleverness of the boys who were
there under training. Their labour was ofa class that we cannot get
here at any price. The headmen on our estates cannot do the work in
pruning, budding and the like, that these boys were doing. The boys
were town boys who were sent there through the Courts, but we want
that education for our country boys, for they will come back and put
that education into use.”

The Commissioners recommend that the School should be enlarged
and that “provision should be made for resident or non-resident boys.
This suggestion they consider very important, as in this way “the bes
scientific instruction in agriculture can be given to boys of all classes
in the island.”

At the Conference at Barbados I read a paper dealing with the
history of the School, and the methods of instruction adopted.”

Travelling Instructor.

Mr. Cradwick’s vaiuable work as Travelling Instructor is being
continued, and is much appreciated. At the Barbados Conference.
gave an account of the work done in Jamaica.t

AGRICULTURAL CONFERENCE aT BARBADOS.

In accordance with certain of the recommendations of the West
Indian Royal Cormmission, an Imperial Department of Agriculture has
been established in the West Indies in charge of Dr. Morris as Com-
missioner of Agriculture with head quarters at Barbados.

The Secretary of State for the Colonies directed that Dr. Morris's
suggestion for a conference of the chief chemical and botanical officers
in the West Indies should be carried out, and desired that representa-
tives from Jamaica should take part in it.

The Conference was held at Barbados ¢ under the presidency of Dr.
Morris on 7thand 9th January last. Mr. Francis Watts attended:
as the chemical representative from Jamaica, myself as the botanical
representative, and Rev. Canon Simms as the exponent of views on
higher agricultural education. |

On the first day Dr. Morris delivered a presidental address, and the
following papers were read :—

Sugar cane manurial experiments.—By P-zof. d’Albuquerque.
Field treatment of the diseases of the sugar cane in the West
Indies.—By J. R. Bovell.

Central Factories.—By F. Waits.
Cost of growing sugar canes in Barbados.—By J. R. Bovell.

* Agricultural Instructions in Agricultural Schools in Jamaicae WM.
India Bulletin, 1.1, page 103. | ‘i

+ Practical Field Instruction in Jamaica. W./. Bulletin, I, 1, page 108.,

t West Indian Bulletin, I. 1. .

214

On the second day the following papers were read :—

Agricultural Education.— By Rev. Canon Simwms.

Agricultural Education in Agricultural Schools in Jamaica.—
By W. Fawcett.

Practical Field instruction in Jamaica.—By W. Fawcett.

Suggestions for Agricultaral Development in the Leeward Is-
lands.— By Ur. H. A. A. Nicholls. |

Improvement in Agricultural Methods in the West Indies.—By
a. Fi. Tart.

The Prevention of the Introduction and Spread of Fungoid and
Insect Pest in the West Indies—By W. Fawcett.

Brief Suggestions on Colonial Industries.—By Prof. Carmody.

EXPERIMENT STATION SCHEME.

At a meeting of the Jamaica Agricultural Society held on the 14th
December last the following Resolution was passed :—

‘‘ That the delegates to the conference at Barbados be requested to
urge on Dr. Morris the necessity of establishing an experiment station
in Jamaica in connection with the existing Botanical and Agricultural
Departments, as well as in the advancement of agricultural education,
and the Governor be asked to represent to the Secretary of State for the
Colonies the importance of such an experiment station and to request
that this Colony be included in the scheme of grants in aid provided
for the other West Indian Islands.”

About the same time the Rev. Canon Simms received a letter from
Dr. Morris, asking whether he could make use of the services of a lec-
turer on agriculture at the High School.

His Grace the Archbishop of the West Indies, Rev. Canon Simms,
Mr. F. Watts and myself had the honour of an interview with the
Governor on the subject of an Experiment Station, and His Excellency
expressed his approval of it, and desired that Dr. Morris should be con-
sulted about it at the forthcoming Conference.

Shortly after our return from the Conference a meeting took place
ef the following :—-The Archbishop, Bishop Gordon, Hon. Dr. Pringle,
Hon. J. T. Palache, Hon. T. Capper, Rev. Canon Simms, Mr. F.
Watts, Mr. G. A. Douet, and myself, as Chairman.

Mr. Watts outlined a scheme whereby Dr. Morris’s offer could be
best utilised. It showed how the Department of Public Gardens and
the Chemist’s Departments while remaining independent, could unite in
work more completely than at present.

Dr. Pringle and Mr. Palache, in acknewledging how well these
two Departments and the Agricultural Society were working together,
were of the opinion that the Society should not be left out in any scheme
ef development, but brought into still closer touch with the other two
Departments. |

It was therefore agreed to lay the subject unofficially before the
Members of the Board.

215

A largely attended meeting of the Board and others was held at. the
end of January, and the general outlines of a scheme were agreed to.

The scheme was finally submitted to the Governor in February,
and published later for the information of the Legislative Council. The
following is a copy :—

Kingston, 18th February, 1899.
Sir
Acting upon the instructions conveyed in your letter No. 9995-13280 of
29th December, we have the honour to submit, for the consideration of His
Excellency the Governor, a scheme for the establishment of an Experiment
Station and for the employment and instruction thereat of boys from the In-

dustrial Schools and also of boys whose maintenance would be paid for by
their parents.

2. The demand for agricultural instruction and training has recently found
expression in a number of ways, and on the part of almost all classes of the com-
munity, and we therefore bring forward proposals, not only for the establish-
ment of an experiment station for the study of agricultural problems and the
training of boys from the Industrial Schools, but also for giving, in connec-
tion with the station, systematic and organised instruction in Agriculture, in
a practical as well as a theoretical manner, in a form suited to the require-
ments of various other classes of the community.

3. Following the verbal instructions of H. E. the Governor at an inter-
view accorded to a deputation from the Schools Commission, on December

28th, at which we were present, we have associated with us in the prepara-
tion of this scheme, the Rev. W. Simms, M.A.

4. It is well to record here the fact that we three were representatives of
Jamaica at the Agricultural Conference held in Barbados under the auspices
of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies, on January
7th and 9th and that at this conference considerable attention was devoted to
the consideration of the question of agricultural instruction in various forms.
When in Barbados we had also an opportunity of consulting with Dr.
Morris, the Commissioner of Agriculture and President of the Conference.

5. We are of opinion that the requirements of the Colony may be best
met by the establishment of a station where first agricultural problems, with
which the practical planter and penkeeper are constantly confronted, may be
systematically studied; and where secondly, the services of those engaged in
the management, as well as the material and the appliances of the station,
may be utilised to great advantage in giving instruction to pupils drawn from
the various classes of the community interested in agricutural pursuits.

6. It is unnecessary to dwell at great length on the advantages which
should follow from the formation of an Agricultural Experiment Station,
but we may point out that institutions of this character have proved to be the
most useful means yet devised for aiding the practical agriculturists in the
United States and Canada in which countries these stations have done much
to promote and foster agricultural advancement.

7. Such a station for Jamaica should have for its object the study of the
staple crops of the colony, the consideration of the conditions under which
these are grown, and demonstrations of the results of different methods of
cultivating, fertilising or manuring, or any operation connected with the crop

8. In addition to the study of crops grown largely for export, attention

res ity given to the products grown for local use, particularly, those used
or food.

9. Improvements in the kind of plants grown and the study of improved

varieties which may be introduced from without should also occupy the atten-
tion of the station workers.

216

10. Special efforts should be made to maintain demonsiration plots,
whereon should be shown as continuous object lessons, correct methods of
cultivating crops of local importance.

11. It is desirable that attention should be given to the economic value
of the different methods of working, of cultivating, manuring and general
handling of crops, as well as the value of new varieties of plants ; and in the
publication of the results, as far as possible, reference should always be made
to the difference in the monetary value of these methods or varieties, for the
information and guidance of practical planters : indeed this should be the key-
note of a large proportion of the work of this kind,—the determination
whether certain operations, or the introduction of certain varieties of plants
will or will not pay.

12. The station will also afford facilites for the study of the enemies,
pests and diseases attacking crops, a subject of growing importance and one
for which there is very little provision in the colony to-day.

13. Such commercial considerations as the methods of preparing and
packing products for export also come well within the province of the station
work,

_ 14. The care and management of farm animals and dairying demand
attention : provision should be made for carrying on work on these lines in
connection with the Station and a distinct and properly equipped Veterinary
Department should be ultimately formed at the Station. At the outset, how-
ever, we are constrained by questions of economy and finance to suggest that
this veterinary side shall be started in a small way only, trusting that as soon
a8 the Station is found to be firmly established, veterinary questions will
receive the attention they deserve, and that proper provision will be made
for this work at an early date.

15. Publications setting forth the results obtained at the Station should
afford useful information to those now employed in dealing with agricultural
products.

16. Instruction in agricultural science and the arts of husbandry should
also be afforded to the youths of the colony ; this instruction on the one
hand should be framed to meet the requirements of the youths who are
about to become planters, while on the other, it should include training for
those to be actually engaged in tilling the soil and conducting manual agri-
cultural operations. Instruction of a particular kind should be provided for
those under training to be teachers in elementary schools, so that by their
agency sound ideas on the subject of agriculture may be diffused throughout
the country by means of the scholars whom they will have to teach.

17. This brief outline will serve to indicate in a general way various
functions which we believe should be discharged by an Experiment Station
in Jamaica.

18. We have given careful consideration to the many points involved in
the questions relating to the best means of establishing such a Station, and
we are of opinion that this may be secured in the following manner :—
Provided that the necessary assistance is given, it appears to us that most
of the work involved in our proposals may be superintended and carried out
by means of the Department of Public Gardens and Plantations and the
Chemical Department, and this without detriment to the working of these
Departments.

19. In connection with the Hope Gardens and the Hope, Industrial
School there are upwards of one hundred acres of land available for such a
Station as we contemplate. A plot of about 27 acres lying between the lands
of the Jamaica High School and the Hope Gardens, and along one side of
which runs the high road with the electric car line, appears to be a suitable
site for occupation at the outset. This land is similar in character to much
of that now occupied by the Hope Gardens, and is sufficiently fertile for the

217

purpose required, provided a supply of water can be obtained. An examina-
tion of the neighbourhood leads us to believe that this water may be obtained.
This question we deal with subsequently. On this piece of land the neces-
sary buildings should be erected and the land cleared and laid out in such a
way as to be suitable for the cultivation of crops in the manner and for the
objects already indicated.

20. To give effect to the scheme it is desirable that the Government
Laboratory should be removed from Kingston to Hope. By this means one
properly equipped laboratory would be provided and capable of performing
the duties required on the part of the general Government as well as those
more particularly arising from Station work, while the Chemical officers will
be able to take part in the supervision of such portions of the Station work
as falls within their cognizance and also to take part in the work of teaching
and instructing.

21. As the Hope Gardens adjoin this site, the officers of the Botanical
Department can assist in the work of the Station without any such extensive
changes being necessary as are involved in the removal of the Government
Laboratory.

22. In addition to the requirements of the laboratory it will be necessary
to provide accommodation for students, for this a large lecture-room, to serve
also as a general meeting-room, a laboratory or working room, one or two
small class rooms together with two or three small rooms as offices for the
Agricultural Instructor, the Entomologist and the Secretary appear to be all
that will be wanted at first. To erect a building containing this accommo-
dation would probably cost £1,200 to £1,500. It has, however, been sug-
gested to us that it may be possible to obtain from the Trustees of University
College the use of a portion of the building provided for college purposes,
An inspection of the buildings leads us to believe that accommodation may
be found in University College for nearly all the work of the Experiment
Station so far as it deals with the work of students, that a lecture-room and
students’ laboratory may be accommodated there as well as the offices for the
Agriculturist, the Entomologist and the Secretary. This being the case, it
will only be necessary to erect buildings to accommodate the Government
Laboratory with perhaps two additional rooms. By adopting this plan it will
probably be possible to reduce the outlay on buildings to about £900.

23. Having indicated the general objects of the Station, together with
the requirements in the matter of land and buildings, it remains to arrange
for the management and carrying out of the work. oes

24. Instead of creating a separate staff of officers for the Station, it
appears to us to be desirable that existing officers and institutions should be
made use of as much as possible ; such a course we believe, will prove most
beneficial, uot only to the Station, but also to the Departments co-operating
in the work. The removal of the Government Laboratory to Hope. as we
suggest, will bring together the scientific officers of the colony whose work
bears upon agriculture. It will also enable the Department to undertake
work arising from the Station. In order that this may be done it will be
necessary to provide additional assistants. ‘o far as we can see at present,
an assistant will be required in the Chemical Department and one in the
Department of Public Gardens and Plantations. When thus equipped these
two Departments should be able to undertake the duties of conducting inves-
tigations on crops, both in the field and laboratory, as well as the teaching
required by the’ various classes and grade of pupils. Those subjects, for
which the department are unable to provide, such as Entomology and Veter-
inary work, may be dealt with in the first instance by officers from other
Departments or by outside lecturers : in this connection it is probable that
the Curator of the Museum of the Jamaica Institute may render valuable
assistance. 1 Rae | Fadl icy

25. The newly formed Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West

218

Indies has its attention largely directed towards agricultural developments of
the nature of those we are advocating, but the operations of this Department
have not been extended to Jamaica beyond the offer of an annual grant for
providing an Agricultural Instructor and for small Agricultural Scholarships.
We feel most strongly that providing an Agricultural Instructor without some
such basis of practical work and teaching as we propose will prove an ineffi-
cient means of dealing with the agricultural problems now confronting us.
This view we were enabled to lay before Dr. Morris during our visit to Bar-
bados, and to point out to him the desirability of utilising any grant of officers
or of money in connection with some such organized method of working as
we now put forward, a view in which he concurred.

26. Seeing that the Imperial Department of Agriculture has already prof-
fered assistance in agricultural teaching, we suggest that it should be ap-
pealed to for help on a broader basis, namely to provide the services of the
additional men required for carrying these plans into effect. To put this ina
definite form we think that a request might be made for £300 a year for an
assistant chemist, £200 towards providing for an Assistant to Director Pub-
lie Gardens and Plantations, and £150 to provide for the services of other
lecturers and instructors, thus making an appeal for an annual grant of £650
instead of the £350 which is offered for agricultural instruction in another
way.

27. The Imperial Department in addition to providing an instructor, pro-
posed to offer scholarships to assist pupils in attaining instruction: these
scholarships we believe, would be extended to the amplified form of agricul-
tural instruction provided for by these plans. We have not included them
in the sum of £650 here referred to for services of assistants and instructors.

28. The boys of the Industrial Schools may be employed to advantage
in carrying on the cultural operations of the Station: this work will form the
best means of training them to perform agricultural work of a practical kind,
and as all the various crops raised will require to be grown with the greatest
care and with specific objects in view, their training would be eminently
practical and thorough. Beyond the mere tilling of the soil the boys would
have the duty, under proper supervision, of reaping and handling all the
crops grown on the station including such crops as Yams, Potatoes, Corn,
Sugar-cane, Tobacco, Coffee,Oranges and Cocoa.

29. To give effect to this some changes will be necessary in the present
Industrial School and Reformatory. As now existing there is the Reforma-
tory at Stony Hill and the Industrial School at Stony Hill —these two
Institutions being amalgamated and worked together, and also the
Industrial School at Hope. There appears to be very little difference
or distincion at present between the Industrial School and the Refor-
matory, except that only boys classed as belonging to the Industrial
School were sent to Hope. The establishment of the two arose we under-
stand, from a desire to separate those boys who are placed in a Reformatory
in consequence of having committed some offence which renders them liable
to be committed to prison, from those boys who are under no proper control,
waifs and strays or destitute, but who have no stigma of crime attached to
them, and are in consequence sent to the Industrial School. As matters now
stand, it does not appear that at Stony Hill any difference in treatment or any
distinction is made save in name only. The two classes of boys are not
separated in the Stony Hill institution nor is there any difference in their
training or treatment. :

30. Under these circumstances it seems to us desirable to abolish this
distinction and to have one institution to be called an Industrial School, to
which should be committed juvenile offenders and vagabonds. But in order
to prevent the ill-effects which would arise from the presence in the school of
boys of decided criminal tendency, likely to interfere with the well-being of
the school while they derive little benefit from its influence themselves, pro-
vision should be made whereby boys of this kind may be committed, either at
first or later, to a prison for juvenile offenders,

219

31. It may be urged that this plan deprives certain boys who are neither
juvenile offenders nor vagabonds of the advantages to be gained from an
Industrial School. Toour minds it is a mistake to endeavour to draw the
present distinction where no real separation of the classes exists,and we sug-
gest below a means whereby the requirements of respectable boys of the
peasant class may be provided for.

32. Should this proposed alteration be made, it will be well to preserve
the present arrangements at Stony Hill, under the designation of the Indus-
trial School, and the boys should continue to be trained much as at present.
The instruction in various trades now carried on appears to be valuable and
calculated to turn out boys useful as tradesmen in after life. The boys are
now taught to work as carpenters, blacksmiths, masons and tailors: some
training in field work in agriculture is given toa number of the boys at
Stony Hill, while all the boys at Hope Industrial School are trained in field
work and agriculture.

33. Those boys for whom an agricultural training is thought desirable,
should be placed at the Hope Industrial School, which would then become a
branch of the Stony Hill establishment set apart for the training of a particu-
lar class of boys in agriculture just as certain classes are trained in other
occupations—carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, at Stony Hill. The discipline
should be the same at both establishments, and to ensure this there should be
at Hope an Officer in charge who is able to maintain efficient control over
the whole affairs of this branch of the Industrial School; he should be an
Assistant Superintendent. The rest of the staff should be arranged upon
similar lines to those at Stony Hill. We think this should comprise a school-
master and four warders ; or one warder for every 12 boys.

34. Provision may be made for the accommodation of 50 Boys at Hope
with but little alteration of the existing buildings. The boys now take their
meals and attend school in the same room in which they sleep: it would be
an advantage in many respects if aseparate room were provided to serve as
a school-room and dining-room. Portions of the dormitories are now par-
titioned off for officers’ quarters: these partitions might be removed and
other quarters found for the officers: by means of minor alterations such as
these, 50 boys may be accommodated. If a larger number of boys are to
receive agricultural training at Hope new buildings must be erected.

35. If the course which we now recommend is adopted, it would be well
to reorganize the whole of the arrangements at Hope by regarding the
present staff and inmates as a portion of the Stony Hill establishment, even
if they are not temporarily drafted there. The officers in charge at Hope
should be definitely appointed to their duties, and boys suitable for agricul-
tural training should be selected for the school ; boys who are too young or
otherwise unfitted for useful employment in agricultural work should be
retained at Stony Hill.

36. In going to work at the Experiment Station, or elsewhere, the boys
should go in detachments, each under the control of a competent warder,
who will remain in charge of his detachment to maintain order and will ac-
company the boys back to the school. An efficient drilling will greatly facili-
tate the maintenance of discipline in the field and the orderly transfer of the
boys to and from the school and the Experiment Station.

37. Up to this point we have outlined the functions of an Experiment
Station and have pointed out an available site and the manner in which the
work of the Station may be managed, together with a provision for the cul-
tivation of crops by the inmates of the Industrial School.

38. Apart from the agricultural instruction to be given to boys of the
Industrial School class, it is essential that higher instruction in agriculture
should be given to those who are ultimately to have charge of estates and
pens in the colony: these are to be found in the Secondary and
High Schools. Much benefit would accrue to the colony if those

220

boys who are destined for an agricultural career were to receive
during their final year at school, or perhaps longer, instruction in such sub-
jects as may be brought to bear more or less directly upon agriculture, such
as chemistry, geology, plant and animal physiology, instead of, as at present,
devoting their time largely to classical studies. If at the same time those
boys receive some practical instruction in agricultural arts and be made
familiar with the methods of raising and handling crops, the ultimate gain
to the community would be great. Youths thus trained cannot fail to be
more observant, more receptive of new ideas, more apt in utilizing them,
and more fertile in invention than those who are thrust into planting life
with no specific preparation or training.

. 39. To accomplish this, the Experiment Station should provide a course
of instruction in agricultural subjects which may be taken by boys of the
higher schools as part of their school work, and while still under school dis-
cipline. We have outlined such a course of instruction occupying three
hours a day ; these three hours would be spent at the Station, the remaining
time would be occupied in School work in the ordinary schools in the usual
manner. The course would extend over one year, but we consider it very
desirable, or almost necessary, that the pupils should devote two years to
this work :—

40. The course of instruction which we suggest is as follows :—

Agricultural Chemistry—including theory of agriculture. Two lectures
a week each of 1 hour’s duration.

Practical Chemisiry—Two lessons or demonstrations a week each of 2
hours’ duration.

Practical instruction in agricultural methods and practice,(a) in the
field,—three lessons or demonstrations a week each of 2 hours’ duration ;
(b) in the laboratory or class room in extension of the field and lecture
work,—one lesson a week of 1¥% to 2 hours’ duration.

Plant Physiology and Botany, as applied to agriculture.
One lesson a week of one hour’s duration.

Veterinary instruction—Two terms.
One lecture a week of one hour’s duration.

Agricultural Entomology: insect life, injurious and beneficial insects:
One term. One lecture a week of one hours’ duration.

Book-keeping should be taught in the schools, instruction being given
in the methods suitable for use on plantations.

Mensuration, land measuring, &c., should be taught partly in the schools
and partly by practice at the Station.

41. The lectures and classes of this course would be open to any member
of the community on payment of a moderate fee ; students would be permit
ted to attend courses of instruction in any one or more subjects according to
their requirements. In this way the usefulness of the instruction given
would be extended to persons other than pupils of the High Schools. It is
probable that some persons would gladly avail themselves of this means of
acquiring information in the different branches of agriculture to be taught.
Appropriate fees for this course of instruction should be fixed, but there is no
ground for anticipating that any very considerable sum would be derived from
this source. ;

42. For the instruction in agriculture of the students of the training col”
leges, through whose agency the teaching of agricultural subjects in Elemen
tary Schools must be accomplished, a special course of instruction should be
provided. This should comprise a course of instruction in the general princi-
ples of agriculture, including the rudiments of agricultural chemistry, p ant
physiology, properties of soils and the nature and uses of crops of local m-
portance. In addition to instruction by lectures, special attention shoul be

221

given to instruction and practice in agricultural operations in the field. The
student should be practically taught the nature and requirements of crops
commonly cultivated in the colony and the best means of dealing with them.
They should be practically instructed in, and learn to carry out the methods
of preparing the soil, the selecting and planting of the seed and the reaping
and curing of the mature crop. They should also be practically instructed in
budding, grafting, pruning, and kindred operations. Some practical instruc-
tion in horticulture should also be given.

43. In the instruction given to the stucents of the training colleges par-
ticular attention should be directed to offering them information calculated to
be useful to them in their capabilities as teachers in Elementary Schools, and
further, great care should be given so to instruct them in the methods of
teaching agricultural subjects that they may be able to turn their acquired
knowledge to the best possible advantage when instructing pupils in the Ele-
mentary Schools.

44. This instruction may be given best in the final year of the stu-
dents’ training and for this purpose these students should spend one day a
week at the Experiment Station, spending the whole working day there. This
may be readily arranged after consulting with those in charge of the Training
Colleges, and it does not appear necessary at this point to enter more particu-
larly into details, the outline we have given serving to indicate the general
scope of the teaching and the time which should be devoted to it. Some con-
tribution towards the expenses of this work should be made on the part of the
Training Colleges.

45. In addition to the courses of instruction already suggested, short
courses on special subjects of local interest and importance may be arranged
with advantage. In this manner from time to time lectures and demonstra-
tions might be given on the methods of growing, curing and manufacturing
such products of Coffee, Cocoa, Sugar, Bananas, Orange, Fibres and Indian
Rubber. These courses should be, more or less, of a technical character cal-
culated to afford information to men already engaged in, or about to engage
in, industries connected with these subjects.

46. We are instructed to suggest methods whereby instruction in agri-
culture may be given to boys of the peasant class who may be able to afford
to pay small sums for the instruction which they receive.

47. It appears to us that the first requirement for the proper performance
of this duty will be some provision whereby boys under training may reside
near the Station. If buildings are provided for this purpose, we would pur-
pose that what may perhaps be called an Elementary School for Agricultural
Training may be formed upon the following lines:—

48, A fixed number of boys whose ages may be from 14 to 16 years should
be received into the School, and some care and control should be exercised in
the manner of their admission. Proper forms of application for admission
should be drawn up, and these applications should be signed by some person .
of standing, such as the Custos for the Parish of the applicant It would be
well that the Resident Magistrates should not sign these applications lest there
should arise some confusion in the minds of the peasantry between this school
and the Industrial School to which the Magistrates have power to commit chil-
dren. These applications should be considered by the Station Board, and
candidates carefully chosen to fill any vacancies existing in the School.

49. A Superintendent will be required for the School, together with a
sufficient number of assistants to preserve discipline and order, not less than
one assistant to every 12 or 15 boys will be necessary.

50. The instruction to be given to these boys must largely consist in
training them in the art of husbandry in different branches ; they should be
taught as fully as possible how all the various cultural operations of a farm
or estate are conducted ; they should learn to till the soil and to prepare it
for various crops ; to plant, tend and reap these crops, to bud, graft and

222

prune fruit trees and to prepare products for use or for market, such as
starches, cocoa, tobacco and other crops grown locally.

51. The greater portion of this instruction should be given on the field,
and should consist largely in so exercising the boys that they may efficiently
perform these operations of tilling the soil and of manufacturing crops, much
time would thus be devoted to bodily and manual training. Four or five
hours a day might be give: to work of this kind. Some agricultural instruc-
tion of a kind suited to the requirements of this class of pupils might be given
in the form of teaching in-doors, and a certain time probably about two hours
a day—should be devoted to ordinary school studies, such as arithmetic, read-
ing and writing, arranged to meet the requirements of the scholars.

52. The practical agricultural teaching would be under the direction
of the :xperiment Station Staff, who would be assisted in the supervision
and carrying on of the field work by the staff attached to the school itself.

53. The length of time these boys should be under training might be
one or two years.

54. The boys would be lodged and fed at the expense of the Station ;
they should clothe themselves, and probably it may be found desirable that
they should be required to do this in a uniform manner, from material pro-
vided by the school at a moderate cost. They would be required to pay a
small sum for their training.

55. School discipline would have to be maintained and any serious in-
fraction of order or discipline should render the pupil liable to removal from
the School by the Station Board.

56. While maintaining the necessary order every care should be taken
to avoid any confusion in the public mind between this School and the Indus-
trial School. Perhaps no better method of securing this can be found than
rendering the admission of a pupil a matter of some formality, and also ren-
dering him liable to be removed,if his conduct is not satisfactory. The
school buildings should be quite distinct and separated as widely as possible
from the Industrial School.

57. The Elementary Agricultural School might, to some extent, provide
for a limited number of respectable boys of the poorer class, the Government
bearing the whole cost of their maintenance. This course appears preferable
to sending such boys to the Reformatory or Industrial School, as is now the
case.

58, The arrangement and working of such a school will require the exer-
cise of considerable thought and judgment, as well as considerable monetary
outlay. Taking these facts into consideration, we believe it will be wisest to
establish the Experiment Station on a firm basis before attempting to start the
Elementary Agricultural School: after the Station has been working satis-
factorily for perhaps two years, then steps may be taken for the formation of
this school. For these reasons we do not now suggest any financial provision
for this part of the scheme.

59. The affairs of the Station willinvolve a considerable amount of secre-
tarial work, in conducting the necessary correspondence locally and abroad,
in the preparation and publication of reports on investigations, the compiling
of statistics and generally in maintaining that intimate contact with the agri-
cultural public which is so desirable.

60. In this work the Jamaica agricultural Society may render useful aid
if arrangements are made whereby the secretarial work of the Station can be
undertaken by the Secretary of the Society and his assistants. Such a course
would seem to bring the Society into similar relationship with the Station as is
proposed in the case of the Botanical and Chemical Departments, a plan
which we think likely to prove beneficial to all concerned. To carry out this
another Assistant would probably be required. From what we can gather,

223

we believe this will meet with the hearty approval of the Board of Manage-
ment of the Society.

61. The results of the investigations conducted at the Station would be
published in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department and the Journal of
the Jamaica Agricultural Society, in this way there would be no need for the
issue of a new Journal.

62. The management of the affairs of the Station should be entrusted
to a board which should be charged with the administration of the funds
provided for the Station work. The Board should also direct the nature of
the work to be undertaken at the Station, the courses of instruction to be
given, and should generally control the agricultural instruction provided for
ae athe classes and grades of pupils and students to whom we have
referred.

63. It appears to us that the Board might well be constituted as
follows :—

Ex Officio Members—
(1) The Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.
(2) The Government Analytical and Agricultural Chemist.
(3) The Head Master of the Jamaica High School.
(4) The Secretary of the Agricultural Society.
(5) The Commissioner of Agriculture of the Imperial Department

of Agriculture for the West Indies.

Members nominated by the Governor.—
(6) An Elected Member of the Legislative Council. ;
(7) A person who is not an Elected Member of the Legislative

Council

64. Water supply. This question is of fundamental importance and an
adequate supply of water must be assured before other operations are under-
taken on the Hope site. The rainfall at the Hope Gardens averages 52
inches a year, during the dry season of 1896-97 the rainfall was only 31%
inches. It will not be necessary to obtain a water supply capable of con-
tinuously irrigating the whole of the Station land, but a sufficient supply
should be secured to enable growing crops to be kept in a healthy condition
during dry seasons. Some cultivation is still maintained in the district with-
out the aid of irrigation. But it would be unsatisfactory if Experiment
aan work were undertaken withovt some water supply to supplement
rainfall.

65. The Hope Gardens derive their supply from the Hope Water Works,
for this asum of £131 11s. a year is paid. A further sum of £54 is paid
for the water supplied to the Hope Industrial School.

66. It is not dersirable that the Experiment Station should seek to ob~
tain its water supply from the same source, and several other methods of se~
curing a supply have suggested themselves :—

(1) The construction of ponds or reservoirs within the Hope Gardens
for the conservation of the waste water now running at intervals
from Hope Water Works and for collecting and storing storm
water.

(2) Asupply of water may possibly be obtained by means of wells
sunk into the alluvial strata underlying the proposed station.

(3) A small and fairly constant stream of water exists on the hillside
above Hope Gardens on land belonging to the heirs of the
Duke of Buckingham and Chandos: we believe that the use of
this water might be secured for the Station at a reasonable price.
In order to utilise this supply means must be taken to convey the
water from the hillside tothe Station by appropriate channels,
‘we have had an inspection of the ground made from which we

224

are led to expect that this water can be conveyed to the Station
without much difficulty and at a cost of about £300. We sug-
gest that attention should be given to this source of supply and
that steps should be taken to secure the right to use the water
and to convey it to the Station site.

(4) If this scheme does not prove practicable we believe that the
needs of the Station may be met by storing water in ponds or
reservoirs ether in the Hope Gardens or on the adjoining lands
where there are several gullies down which water flows during
rains, in which gullies, ponds may be formed at moderate
expense. Though doubtless a system of ponds or reservoirs must
limit the area to be irrigated, it must be remembered that con-
stant irrigation will not be required, irrigation would be required
to aid crops during drought or to illustrate the general principles
of irrigation. There would in this case also be expenditure.

67. To carry these plans into effect we estimate that the following
expenditure will be necessary, in addition to the votes provided for the seve-
ral Departments concerned. As we have pointed out we think that Imperial
asisistance may be asked for in order to provide for the staff, the other re-
quirements to be met out of local funds.

Assistant Chemist . £300
Department of Public Gardens and Plantations 200
Other lectures 150 £650
Labour, Teaching, Supplies, etc. 375 375
*Buildings ‘ 900
Fitting Student’s Laboratory : 50
Removal of Government Laboratory 50
Water Supply ) 300 1,300

2,325

68. Of this sum we believe that £650 may be obtained from Imperial
funds, while of the remainder, £1,300 is not a recurrent annual expenditure,
but merely incurred for building. If this expenditure can be spread overa
period of, say ten years, it may be met by an annual expenditure of £150 to
£170 per annum. This, together with the £375 estimated to be spent in
tools and supplies, makes £525 to £545 a year to be provided for locally. <

In framing this estimate any expenditure on account of the Industrial
School has been left to form a charge on the existing Reformatory and Indus
trial School Vote.

We have, &c.,
FRANCIS WATTs.
W. FAWCETT.
Wm. SIMMs.

GOVERNMENT OCINCHONA PLANTATIONS.

The extraordinary rise in the price of quinine and cinchona bark
in the beginning of the year 1899 had led to a review being taken of the
present condition of the Government Cinchona Plantations, and a con-
sideration of the practicability of manufacturing quinine as in India.

* In the event of some accommodation being provided in University College.

225

The work of counting the trees has heen most arduous. No culti-
vation has been carried on where the trees are growing for 13 years,
and the jungle that has sprung up is impenetrable except by the use of
the cutlass.

A report in detail will be found below of the number of Cinchona
trees that can now be barked,and the amonnt of bark that can be takea.
It appears that 22,470 trees can be barked at once, and on two portions
of the Plantation young self-sown seedlings of Crown Bark trees (Cin-
chona officinalis) are springing up in immense numbers, and only want
the care of the forester to develop and mature.

In order to clear up some misapprehension it may be well to offer
some explanatory remarks. The land belonging to the Government on
parts of which Cinchona trees were planted, is on the southern slopes
of the Blue Mountains, extending from the ridge at an elevation of
about 6,000 feet downwards to about 3,000 feet. The Superintendent’s
House is situated at about the centre at an elevation of about 4,800 ft

The Cinchona trees were planted in different places on the higher
slopes. Various other cultures have been under experiment viz :—
Fruit trees, includiag Orange and other varieties of Citrus ; timber
trees for supplying local timber supply, for shelter belts, and for gen-
eral forestry purposes ; Rubber trees, Tea, Olives, Jalap, Vegetables,
China grass, grasses and other fodder plants ; plants for green dressing,
and other economic plants. These have been planted out at various
elevations throughout the range from the lowest to the highest.

The name “ Cinchona” was applied to the whole Government pro-
erty which includes several old estates, but lately the name “ Hill
Garjens” has been substituted in order to indicate the change in the
work. The name “ Hill Gardens” includes both the Cinchona Planta-
tion and the Experimental Plots.

The Cinchona Plantation had accomplished the aim of its founder,
Governor Sir J. P. Grant ; had paid for itself ; and practically closed
its accounts in 1887, shortly after my arrival in the Island. Hence-
forth experimental work was carried on in other directions. In all m
Annual Reports for 12 years, and especially in those for the years 1891-
93, 1893-94, and 1895-96, I have endeavoured to show the necessity
for anexperimental garden at a high elevation, and the good work that
is being carried on there,

There is no necessary connection between the Plantation
and the Experimental Garden, and if the Cinchona Plantation
were again taken in hand and worked, these should be a distinct un-
derstanding that the fortunes of the two establishments should not be
linked so closely that any failure on the part of the plantation to pay its
way, would involve the abandonment of the Garden.

With reference to the question whether the Cinchona plantation
is capable of paying its expenses, it will be necessary to consider the
two ways in which a Government Plantation may be worked. The
bark may either be harvested and put on the market as bark, or the
quinine and other alkaloids may be extracted from the bark, and then
sold. The former has been the plan adopted by the Government in Java

226

on the Government plantations. The other plan is the one in use by
the Government of India, whose humane policy all along has been to
put it in the power of the poorest natives to buy quinine in their need.

The bark that could be at once harvested amounts to 40,000 Ibs.
But in order to keep up a constant supply only half of this amount
should be taken every year, viz. 20,000 lbs.

The cost in 1887 of barking, drying and carriage to Kingston from
the plantation was a trifle over 3d per lb. The freight was about lyhd.
per lb. So that the bark should realise at least 5d. per lb. to avoid
loss.

In the present state of the market it would bea risk to harvest
bark and send it to London.

In estimating whether the Government would recoup their expen-
diture,if a factory for the manufacture of quinine were started, there
are several points to consider, viz.: annual expenses of a factory, what
amount of quinine must be manufactured to avoid loss, could the Gov-
ernment dispose of this amount of quinine, could the plantation supply
the amount of dark required.

As to the factory, 1 consulted Mr. Francis Watts, whilst he was
still Government Chemist here, and he calculated roughly that it would
take £1,200 per annum to run a factory, this sum including salary of
managing Chemist, interest and sinking fund for buildings, chemicals,
labourers in factory, etc.

To estimate the amount of quinine that must be sold to cover this
expenditure it is advisable to take the lowest figure to which quinine
would ever be likely to fall in the future, and probably it would not be
safe to put that higher than at 1s. perounce. To balance the expenditure
of £1,200 therefore it would be necessary to sell annually ”4,000 ounces
at ls. per ounce.

The Medical Department in Jamaica only used 3,761 oz., in 1898
or about one-sixth of the total that must be sold.

The plantation could at the present time supply 20,000lbs. of bark,
which ought to yield 10,000 ounces of sulphate of quinine. It is very
doubtful whether the planters could supply the deficiency now to the
full extent, but if there were a demand for bark, no doubt both Govern-
ment and planters would extend their plantations as they are doing in
India.

These calculations all depend on the price at which the quinine
could be sold, and as quinine has risen and is likely to remain ata
much higher figure than last year, the basis of calculation is perhaps
taken too low.

If a factory turns out only 10,000 ounces per annum, and costs
£1,200 per annum to run it, the price per ounce should be 2/5 in order
to avoid loss.

It must be remembered however that the success of a factory de-
pends quite as much on the amount of the manufactured article turned
out, as on the price received for it. At the Ootacamund factory 234lbs.
of quinine were made in 1889-90, 1,356 lbs., in 1890-91, 3,344 lbs.,

227

1891-92, and so on to 6,336 lbs., in 1897-98. It would not cost much
more to produce 30,000 ounces than 10,000 ounces.

Report by the Superintendent, Hill Gardens on the Government Cinchona
Plantations, showing number of trees, and estimated quantity of
bark which may be obtained.

‘“* Lower Buzza Plantation. This plantation is in heavy bush,
many of the old trees are dying, and no young ones are springing up.
It is planted entirely with Cinchona succirubra.

Number of trees 830.

Estimated quantity of bark shavings 8,000 lbs.

é¢ 6 whole bark 16,090 lbs.

“ Upper Buzza Plantation.—This Plantation is in the same condi-
tion as Lower Buzza. The old trees are dying here also, and no young
plants are growing.

The Plantation consists of Cinchona succirubra, C. Calisaya, C.
officinalis and C. hybrid.

Number of trees 680.

Estimated quantity of bark shavings 4,800 lbs.

- ‘3 whole bark 9,600 Ibs.

** Sullivan’s Piece Plantation. This Plantation isin very heavy
bush and fern. It is planted with Cinchona officinalis, ©. calisaya, C.
hybrid and a miscellaneous collection. Large numbers of CO. officinalis
are growing in this Plantation from self sown seeds.

Number of trees 1,238.

Estimated quantity of bark shavings, 5,000 lbs.

rs 5 whole bark 10,000 Ibs.

* Harvey's Field Plantation.—Planted with Cinchona officinalis, C.
ealisaya, ©. succirubra and C. hybrid.

This Plantation is in very heavy bush and fern. The Coniferae
planted here have killed a great many of the Cinchona trees. No
seedlings are growing in this plantation.

Number of trees 822.

Estimated quantity of bark shavings 3,700 lbs.

g] a of whole bark 7,400 lbs.

“Latimer Plantation. Planted with Cinchona succirubra, C.
hybrid, and a few C. Officinalis.

Plantation in very heavy bush; no young plants are growing, but,
on the contrary, a very large number of the old trees are fast dying.

Number of trees 1,750.

Estimated quantity of bark shavings 25,000 lbs.

i 4 of whole bark 50,000 lbs.

““ White Piece Plantation. Planted with Cinchona calisaya, C.
succirubra and C. hybrid. The Plantation is in very heavy bush; many
of the old trees are dying, and no young ones are growing.

Number of trees 650.

Estimated quantity of bark shavings 4,000 lbs.

“4 me of whole bark 8,000 lbs. ay

“ Monkey Hill Plantation. Planted with Cinchona officinalis. It
is in very heavy bush and fern. Large numbers of self sown seedlings
are springing up in this plantation.

228

Number of trees 16,500.
Estimated quantity of bark shavings 72,500 lbs.
a _ of whole bark 145,000 lbs.

“ Summary.

The number of trees are as follows :—

Cinchona officinalis om 17,260
C. succirubra im 2,280
C. calisaya as 1,050
C. hybrid eae 1,452
Miscellaneous bs 428

Total number of trees 22,470

Bark Shavings.

Green bark. Dry bark.
‘inchona officinalis bs 78,750 lbs. 26,275 lbs.

C. succirubra Ane 32,000 * 10,700 “
C. calisaya ay 4,250 “ 1,420 “
C. hybrid Be 8,250 “ 2,750 “
Miscellaneous oa 1,750 “ 600 ‘*

ee ee —

125,000|bs. 41,745lbs.

The above estimate is for bark shavings, but if it is decided to cut
down the trees and bark the trunks, the amount of bark which would
probably be obtained would be about double the quantities named above
as follows :—

Whole Bark.

Green Bark. Dry Bark.
Cinchona officinalis... 158,500 lbs. 52,520 lbs.

©. succirubra ze 64,000 “ 21,400 *“
C. calisaya ies 8,000 * 2,450 “
C. hybrid ax 16,000 “ 5,500 “
Miscellaneous ms! 3,900 * 1,200 “

251,000 lbs. 83,400 lbs.

“ General condition of the Plantations. No cultivation has been
carried on for about 15 years, and consequently fern, bush and clim-
bers of sorts have sprung up everywhere, so that it is necessary to cut
tracks in every direction through this dense jungle growth to be able
to get near the trees.

The original field roads are almost obliterated, and it is impossible
to use them in their present condition, but the principal ones might be
restored at a cost of 6d. to 9d. per chain, or between £2 and £3 per mile,
and as there are about 74 miles of these roads, the cost of restoring
them would be under £20.”

229

Hors GARDENS.

Several paragraphs from the report of Mr. Wm. Cradwick, Super-
intendent of Hope Gardens, have been incorporated in the General
Report. The following are special to the Garden :—

The work of raising, propagating and distributing economic and
ornamental plants has been carried on as well as funds would allow.

The plants have been arranged in the Nursery alphabetically to
facilitate selection. Several other alterations and improvements haye
been carried out. An ugly plant-stage has been removed. Two grass
plots in front of the nursery have been done away with, thus widening
the road and enabling carriages to turn easily. The Rockery in the
Fern-house has been rebuilt and altered in form, giving more room
for walking about. A new glass propagating-house has _ been
erected and has proved a great success. A packing-shed 60ft. by 1 5ft
has also been built at the expense of the Garden.

The Orchids continue to be a source of great pleasure to the public,

a continual supply of bloom being maintained throughout the year ;
the following is a list of those which have flowered, those marked with
an asterisk for the first time :

Aerides odoratum

Brassavola glauca

Brassia caudata

Broughtonia lilacina

z sanguinea

Calanthe Veitchii

Catasetum macrocarpum (tridentatum)

Cattleya Bowringiana

- labiata
- - var Dowiana
aa “ “ Gaskelliana
- = ‘* Mendellii
és “ “ Mossiae
- e ‘* Trianae
#ec (<4 6 Warneri
uke a “ Warscewiczii
2 Leopoldii
#6 Loddigesii, var. Harrisoniae
vig Skinneri
“ Walkeriana, var. Schroederiana

Coelogyne Dayana
Coryanthes maculata
*Cypripedium Harrisonianum

? Lawrenceanum
Dendrobium aggregatum
” albo-sanguineum
bigibbum, var. superbum
. chrysanthum
” crassinode
x Draconis

« Farmerii

230

Dendrobium fimbriatum, var. oculatum
¥y formosum var. giganteum
nobile
glomeratum
pendulum (Wardianum)
Phalaenopsis
¢ Pierardi
primulinum
: pulchellum (Dalhousianum)
. undulatum
7 veratrifolium
Diacrium bicornutum
Epidendrum alatum

atrosanguineum roseum

ny atropurpureum (macrochilum,
" ciliare

rs cucullatum

7 fragrans

iE nutans

Stamfordianum

. venosum

Gongora gratulabunda
Lacaena bicolor
Laelia anceps

‘“¢ harpophylla

‘ purpurata

‘*¢ rubescens

“« tenebrosa
Oncidium altissimum

& ampliatum

<3 6< var. majus

ss Cebolleta
ee hastatum, var. flavescens
rx incurvum

Oncidium Kramerianum

ae Lanceanum

ee luridum

43 Papilio

Maxillaria rufescens
Peristeria elata
Phalenopsis amabilis

j esmeralda

$s _ Sanderiana

ff Schilleriana
Rhyncostylis retusa

‘3 var. preemorsa
Schomburgkia Lyonsii

‘i Tibicinis

Selenipedium Sedenii, var. candidulum
Stanhopea eburnea
*Stauropsis lissochiloides (Vanda Batemannii)
*Vanda Bensonii

231

*Vanda coerulea
*Vanda tricolor

Priants DistRIBuren.
Sold.

Economic Plants :—
Sweet Oranges
Navel Oranges
Tangerine
Grape Fruit
Sour Oranges

Rough Lemons A i

Ramie

Cane Tops

Kola

Cocoa

Nutmegs

Coffee

Pine Apple Suckers
Rubber

Grape Vines
Miscellaneovs

‘Total
‘Ornamental Plants

‘Cocoa Pods 395
Free Grants.

Economic Plants :—

Miscellaneous including Timber and Shade Trees

Ramie Roots
Eucalyptus
Melaleuca leucadendron

Ornamental Plants

‘Total. number of Economic Plants
se Ornamental Plants

“cc 6

Plants distributed *

GARDEN CORRESPONDENCE.

3,382
5,921

Letters received
«© despatched

3,033
O15
841
712

7,101
2,753

145,498
21,131

166,629

232
| Visitors TO GARDENS.
Ist April to 3lst December, 1898 . ae 10,144
Ist January to 81st March, 1899 oes 17,994
Total tea 28,138

——

The elevation of the garden above sea-level is 700 feet.

The average mean annuai temperature is 77.3 F and the average
annual rainfall 52.48 inches for eighteen years. The amount of rain
that fell during the year was 57.55 inches.

The wettest months were May, July, August, October; and the
driest, April, December, January, February, March.

The mean temperature for the year was 76.6 F. The Meteorologi-
cal tables for the different months are given on page 240.

CASTLETON GARDEN.

The following paragraphs are mainly from the Report of Mr. W.
J. Thompson, Superintendent :—

The reduction of the Vote from £400 to £300 has prevented
much progress being made.

A new walk, nine feet wide, has been made from the rose Garden
to the Palmetum. About 20 chains of the main walk have been raised
several inches, and gravelled. The walk east of the Palmetum has been
reformed, widened to 9 feet, and raised several inches. The wooden
planks put down 3 years ago to bridge over the gutter running through
the garden had become rotton, and were replaced by slabs of concrete.

The gates have been repainted; two new iron gates have been
bought and fixed in place of old wooden gates. The fences have been

repaired in places, but they are still in bad condition on each side of

the main road.

A new Garden seat has been made, and the rest repaired. Several
Orchid baskets, and numerous labels have been made, and old ones re-
paired. oe
__ The lawns, verges and pastures have been kept in fair condition.
The beds and borders have been forked several times, but very little
manure could be added, as the reduced vote would not allow of expen-
diture on cutting grass for stock.

Trees and shrubs have been pruned. The young plants and new
plants put out during the previous year have been looked after carefully,
and are making good growth.

‘The important work of labelling all the plants in the Garden has
been continued. A
. The Lily tank has been cleaned out, and new plants of Victoria
regia put in. The Nymphaeas, etc., have been repotted.

The Para Rubber tree (Hevea sp) planted about 14 years ago,
fruited for the first time this year, and plants have been raised from
the seed. Number of plants have also been raised from the seed of the

OTE SOT EGS HEUTE TS SS STREET SSH TREE GARE Hees mE ere neenssauErnarrenatcseancuncas adn -

Besides 4,196 from Castleton.

V7 Sa Pe .

233

Central American Rubber( Castilloa elastica) and Ceara Rubber ( Manshot
Glaztovit)

The celebrated palm, Mauritia flexuosa, fruited for the first time.
An account of this palm is given in the Bulletin for October-December,
1894.

The young Durian plants and Coco-de-Mer palms are growing
freely.

The Brazil Nut trees (Bertholletia excelsa) which grew so little for
several years, are now shooting out, due to clearing away trees round
them.

The usual attention has been given to collecting seeds for sowing
and for distribution and exchange.

As plants are more conveniently distributed from Hope as a
centre, not so many have been sent direct to their destination from

Jastleton as last year, viz.: 4,196, the sum realised being £36 17s. 2d.
More have been sent to Hope for distribution, viz.: 10,830, valued
by Mr. Thompson at £147 9s. 9d.

Mr. Thompson was on leave for part of the year, and Mr. Wm.
Harris kindly undertook the very onerous task of acting for him,
riding across country and back from Cinchona once a week, a distance
each way of about 30 miles.

The elevation of the garden above sea-level is 496 feet.

The average mean annual temperature is 76° F., and the
average annual rainfa!! 113°11 inches for twenty-seven years. The
amount of rain that fell during the year was 108°51 inches.

The wettest months were May, July, August, November and Janu-
ary and the driest were December, February, March.

The mean temperature for the year was 74.8 F. The Meteoro-
logical tables for the different months are given on page 241.

Hitt GARDENS.

The following Report is by Mr. Wm. Harris, F.L.S., Superin-
tendent.

C1ncoona.*—The vote for this Garden having been reduced to a
very small sum, it was not possible, to do anything during the past
year beyond keeping the Garden and immediate surroundings clean
and tidy.

The pastures, fences and Plantation roads, which had hitherto been
kept up out of the Garden Vote, received little or no attention during
the year, and the consequence is that they are all in bad order.

The usual Garden work, such as pruning shrubs, forking beds and
borders, mowing lawns, cutting edges, propagating and watering plants,
was carried on during the year as far as the very limited means at our
disposal would allow.

A plant of Wistaria chinensis, presented by Dr. Plaxton, flowered in
March 1899, for the first time.

Annuals.—At various times during the year we had fine displays
of, Dianthus, Phlox, Lobelia, Mignonette, and such like, in addition to
the usual exhibits of Pelargoniums, Fuchstas, Gloxinias, Amaryllis, &c.

*| For Report on Cinchona Plantations see Page 224.

234

Ginseng.—One hundred and twenty-five roots, and two ounces of
seed of Ginseng (Aralia quinguefolia) were received from Mr. George
Stanton, Apulia Station, U.S.A., in January lass. The seed was sown
at Cinchona in a specially prepared bed, and the roots were planted in
four different places as follows :—40 at Morse’s Gap: 25 above New-
haven Gap: 25 below Newhaven Gap: 20 at Young Oak plantation
above St. Helen’s Gap ; and 10 at Blue Mountain Peak.

Five roots were dead when received. Ginseng is cultivated to
some extent in the United States and the roots are exported to China
where they find a ready market, and fetch from $2.00 to $4.00
per lb., according to size and quality. This root is highly esteemed by
Chinese physicians, who fancy that it resembles the human form, and
consider that it wards off all diseases, restores exhausted animal powers,
and makes old people young. It consequently has enormous value with
them, and is said to be sometimes worth its weight in gold at Pekin. It
is slightly bitter and aromatic, but of no repute amongst Haropean
medica] men.

ReEsouRCE ORANGE GRove.—The Vote for this Garden was re-
duced by one half and work was altogether suspended for several weeks
during the year. There are about 20 acres under cultivation, and ex-
tensive Nurseries ; the money allowed was not sufficient to keep the
Grove and Nurseries in good order, and altogether we were crippled
through want of means.

There are about 24 miles of wire fencing and 14 miles of roads to
maintain; and the Grove requires constant care and attention even to
keep the weeds down.

Manuring.—During the year al] the young trees were manured,
and the soil round each was forked several times and kept open. Cow
peas and Congo peas were grown as green manuring, and were forked
into the soil with beneficial results.

Budding.—The work of budding was carried on during the greater
part of the year to enable us to determine which are the best months to
perform this operation. So far as our experience goes, buds put in
during July and August were the most successfui though we find that
budding may be done with a fair amount of success during about nine
months of the year, omitting the months of May, October and Novem-
ber when heavy rains usually fall. On the other hand, drought of long
duration has a very injurious effect on young buds, and unless they are
particularly plump, and the stock plants are in a vigorous condition,
they are unable to hold out against two or three weeks of dry
weather. If it can possibly be arranged, it is best to bud, in the hills
at any rate, during fine weather when occasional light showers fall.

Insect Pests.—Scale-insects have given some trouble, and the most
effectual remedy tried so far is the Kerosine and Soft Soap mixture re-
commended in the Bulletin for December 1898, page 271. Black ants
are also very troublesome at times, and although various methods have
been employed to drive them away, nothing has been so successful as

the Bitterwood solution recommended in the Bulletin for Jany. 1896,

page 12. Several sprayings or dressings with this solution may be

235

eyoacsel 6 as ants are very persistent pests and do not readily give up
a stronghold, but repeated applications become distasteful to them, and
they eventually yield.

Himalayan Grass.—This grass is entirely successful at Resource,
and it is proposed to divide the roots and plant them through the Plan-
tation during the next rainy season, simply leaving a space round each
young tree. The grass will keep down the weeds, prevent wash by
heavy rains and it will be excellent fodder for cutting, lt grows in
tufts and we do not anticipate any difficulty in keeping it within
bounds.

Bermuda Lily.—The bulbs of the Bermuda Lily were lifted in
July and August last, gradually dried, and sent to Hope to be packed
and despatched to their owner. They were not a success from a com-
mercial point of view, that is, the bulbs did not increase in size and
quantity as it was hoped they would do, but horticulturally they were
everything that could possibly be desired. With just ordinary field
cultivation they were in flower, more or less, all the year round, and
from March to June the field was simply a sheet of magnificent blooms.

Glasshouse. —One of the two glass roofed propagating shells, 50 feet
in length, was taken down during the year and transferred to Hope,
where it has been re-erected for the purpose of affording protection to
tender plants.

Coffee.—A large number of Blue Mountain Coffee plants has deen
raised at Resource, and these are meeting with ready sale amongst
Coffee planters who are very glad to get selected, and transplanted
nursery plants.

Timber Trees—As in previous years, large numbers of Juniper
Cedar, and West Indian Cedar plants have been raised from seed and
distributed free to applicants in the hills.

Sugar Canes.—In the year 1895-96, many of the best varieties of
Sugar-cane grown at Hope Gardens were planted at Resource, to
ascertain which were suitable for cultivation in the hills. During the
last two years tops of these varieties were distributed free to small
settlers in the district who grow canes to make “new sugar.”

PLAN?s DIsTRIBUTED.—SOLD.

Economie Planis.—

Oranges i 4,511
Grape Fruit Fe 2,650
Shaddock and Limes a 130
Rough Lemons me 3,512
Camphor By 222
Miscellaneous sf 292
Ornamental plants xe 1,838

FRRE GRANTS,

Tea Plants ras 6,148
W. 1. Cedar oF 721

236

Juniper Cedar 5s 3 3,760
Kucalyptus Sep 522
Strawverry Plants uM 248
Sugar Cane Tops ay: 1,000
Cassava stems che 410
Miscellaneous — i 190
Total Economic plants distributed a 24,156
Total Ornamental plants distributed ae 1,995
Total number of plants distributed se 26,154

The following seeds were also distributed :—

800 Tea

25,000 Rough Lemon

50,000 Grape Fruit-——best kind
27 lbs. Cinchona

9,500 Blue Mountain Coffee
45 pkts. Miscellaneous seeds

and of Tree Tomatoes, 233 dozens, weighing 435 lbs.

The elevation of the Hill Garden, where the instruments are placed
is 4,907 feet above sea level. The average mean temperature there is
62.6 F'. and the average annual rainfall 102.85 inches for 28 years. The
amount of rain that fell during the year was 120.81 inches. May,
October and January were the wettest months, and July, December and
February the driest. The mean temperature was 62.4 F. The Meteoro-
logical tables for the different months are given on page 239. The rain-
fall at the Orange Garden, Resource was 78.58 inches for the year.

KinGston PusBLic GARDEN.

The following Report is by Mr. J. Campbell, Superintendent :—

The usual gardening operations were carried on during the year.
All the beds, and borders, throughout the Garden were manured, fork-
ed, and pruned on several occasions, the verges and edges were regularly
cut and trimmed. The daily raking of the lawns and clearing same,
sweeping of pathways, and carting away of rubbish, has been assiduously
attended to, thit the Garden may representa tidy appearance. The
trimming of trees, and divesting them of dried branches has been
attended to.

The large and only Ficus Benjamina tree in the Garden, has shown
signs of failure, but having heavily manured it, and covered it over with
earth, first forking the ground, it has since improved, and is now flour-
ishing. The lawns have been planted with Bahama grass, and since the
fence has been erected, show great improvement.

The inner fences and gates enclosing the lawns have been painted,
also the Band Stand railings, with enclosed benches. The bridges have
been repaired.

As the Kingston General Commissioners have introduced drains’
and underground aqueducts in the streets to receive the storm water
abolishing the old system which received the water from several streets
and allowed it to pass through the Garden in the aqueduct, it would

237

now be advisable to remove the bridges, and have the aqueduct filled
up. It would evidently be an improvement and would be a saving
in the future for upkeep of bridges, etc.

I may state that all the pathways require gravelling, but the cen-
tre pathway leading from the north to the south gates requires mac-
adamizing so as to raise the surface, as it is getting below the level of
the Garden, at present it is washed by water from upper King Street
during a heavy down-pour of rain. The Garden forms an attraction for
crowds of people on Sundays as a recreation ground, also on the evening
when the Kingston V. M. Band plays, but the hour generally is unsuit-
able for many, I would suggest that the Band play alternately one
evening at 5 o'clock and the other evening at the usual bour.

Infringements of the Garden Regulations have been few during
the past year.

The elevation of the garden above sea-level is 60 feet.

The average mean annual temperature is 79.1 F., and the average
annual rainfall 35.1 inches for twenty-nine years. The amount of rain
that fell during the year was 33.99 inches.

The wettest months were May, June, October, and the driest April
December, January, February.

The mean temperature for the year was 83.8 F. The Meteorolo-
gical tables for the different months are given on page 243.

Kine’s Housz GARDEN AND GROUNDS.

The following Report is by the Superintendent, Mr. Wm. Walker:

During the past year garden operations have been carried on with
satisfactory results. The borders on each side of the avenue have been
repeatedly dug and kept constantly watered, and now they are well
mulched with stable manure, which has a very beneficial effect on the
plants, keeping them moist and in a good healthy condition. I have
struck a quantity of Crotons and other plants, which I am now trans-
planting to the borders in opeu places where they are most required.
The large Palms at the back of borders have been attended to with
water, and are doing well.

The Coralilla and a large quantity of overgrown creepers, etc.,
have been removed from the steps leading from the lawn to the house,
and replaced by Roses, Stephanotis, Ipomea, Clerodendron, Cissus ~
discolor, etc., which have made rapid growth, and are now making a
fine appearance.

Three Rockeries have been made near the house, and planted with
ferns obtained from the Spanish Town Road, with Balsams, Coxcombs,
Phlox Drummondii, Geraniums, Calliopsis, etc., etc., they are doing
exceedingly well, and have a very gay and bright appearance.

The Pine ground has been manured and well forked up and is
showing well for fruit.

The Vines have been pruned and are now breaking well for a good
crop.
The Rosaries have been well attended to with manureand water,
but they areold and worn out, and, if possible, I should strongly recom-
mend that new ones be established.

The Kitchen Garden made last year, lapsed for a time, owing to
want of labour, it is now in crop again and promises a good return. A
batch of bananas was planted which are taking well.

238

The paths have been kept clean, the lawns and tennis courts have
been constantly watered and cut and are in good order.

In the Nursery most of the orchids have been rebasketed and there
has been a fairly good show of bloom. Pots are required very much
for repotting the palms and different plants.

The elevation of the Garden above sea-level is 400 feet.

The average mean temperature is 78.2 F., and the average annual
rainfall 47.81 inches for nineteen years. The amount of rain that fell
during the year was 40.99 inches.

The wettest months were May, June, October, and the driest Noy-
ember, December, January, February, March.

‘The mean temperature for the year was 75.4 F. The Meteorolo-
gical Tables for the different months are given on page 242.

BatH GARDEN.

The Overseer, Mr. A. H. Groves, reports some improvements in
the Garden, as follows:—

The path to the Gate was wet and muddy, but the Parochial Board
have made a trench to carry off the water anda gravelled walk. The
Board have also deepened the trench along the lane on the west of the
Garden, and if the south trench were also attended to, there would
be no cause for complaint about the drainage of the Garden.

The usual work of weeding, cleaning, removing rubbish, etc., has
been attended to regularly.

In a previous report | pointed out how expensive it was to remove
the sweepings, etc. [ accordingly established a manure depdt in the
Garden, from which I got a good supply of manure. [had, however,
to cease depositing the rubbish there, the Inspector of Nuisances having
declared it objectionable. I have therefore removed the rubbish be--
yond the limits of the town, or, when the weather will permit, burn it on
the spot.

The Garden has been well forked, and Crotons and flowering plants.
have been planted in almost all the available spots. The wires of the
fence around the Garden have been restrained, benches repaired and
painted, and walks regravelled.

The following tools were bought, viz., two agricultural forks.

A few of the rubber plants sent by the Director have been planted
in the Garden and a few distributed to persons here. The grafted
Kast Indian Mango is not thriving well, despite all attention to it.

I have had felled a large Spathodea, and trimmed nearly all the
trees, thereby letting in more light and air.

I may add that goats and sometimes pigs, trespass on, or stray into.
the Garden. They come in under the fence where the trenches are
kept open to drain the Garden. I communicated with the Parochial
Board on the subject.

The elevation of the Garden is 170 feet; the mean temperature
16) we

WiLuiaAM Fawcett,
Director.

239

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INDEX.

Agricultural Conference at Barbados
Anacardium occidentale

Analysis of Canes

Analysis of Dogwood Bark
Analysis of Jamaica Chalk

Ants, Remedy against

Aralia Ginseng

Apprentices

Aralia quinquefolia

Awater, Prof., on Bacteria in Milk
Bacillus No. 41

Bacteria in Cream

Bacteria in the Dairy

Banana
‘¢ Dried, at Montpelier
‘“¢ Meal

“Trade in Nicaragua
Barbados, Agricultural Conference at
Bath, Garden
Bergamot, Orange
Berberich, Dr., Analysis of Dogwood
Biffen, KR. H., on Methods of Preparing Rubber
Bird Peppers
Bishop, Mrs., on Ginseng
Blanching of the Vine
Blumea balsamifera

¢ Camphor
Borneo Camphor
Budding Tape
Caw phor
Conditions of successful cultivation

‘“« Description

“Distillation

“from other plants

“Native range

“Outlook for Future Market

‘* Planting and Cultivation

* Production in Ceylon

“ Production in Formosa

“Propagation

* Range under cultivation

‘“« Uses of the Tree and its Products
Candle Tree
Canes : tests of new varieties
Capsicum annuum

minimum

Carbolic Acid and Scale Insects
Cashew
Castilloa elastica
Castilloa Rubber, Methods of peparing
Castleton Garden
Cave, Consul, on Zanzibar Chillies
Ceara Rubber, Methods of Preparing
Chalk, Jamaica, Analyses of
Chemical Selection of Sugar-Cane
Chillies, Japanese

‘¢ or Peppers

‘ Zanzibar
Cinchona Bark, The supply of

° Cultivation in South India

- Plantation

4 Retrospect and Prospect

M3 Woodhouse’s Report
Cinnamomum Camphora
Citrus

“at Hill Gardens

“ aurantium, var, Bergamia

“budding

‘“* on various stocks
Cochlospermum hibiscoides
Cocoa

“Drying House for

Coettog on, Consul, on Cotton in United States

- Manuf ture of Hardwoods

bA {AA Job eet alee eae

iT.

Coffee, Liberian, price
Colonial Produce, for England
- in Spain
Concession for Rubber in Lourenco Marques
Conference, Agricultural, at Barbados

Conference, (nternational Horticultural, on Hybridization

Congo, Illustrations de la Flore du

Conn, Prof. H. W., on Cream and Bacillus No. 41
Oonsular Reports, Extracts from

Contributions, Notes on Interesting

Cotton in the United States

Oream, Bacteria in

» Experiments in Ripening with Bacillus No. 41

Curtis. C, on Rubber in Penang
Dairy, Bacteria in
Denitrification and Farmyard Manure
. Process of
Recent Experiments on

Dewey, Lyster H., on Market for Camphor
Diseases of the Vine
Dis’ribution of Plants
Dogwood, Jamaica
Dried Banana Factory at Montpelier
Drugs
Drying House for Cocoa
Dryobalanops aromatica
Dung, Action of, on other Nitrogenous Substances
Elementary Notes on Jamaica Plants
Elengi Tree
English Markets, Tropical Fruits in
Erythea edulis
Espin, J. 0. on Tobacco Cultivation and Ouring
Eucalypti in the Transvaal
Experiment! Station Scheme
Farmyard Manure, Denitrification and

= : Nitrogenous Compounds in
Fermentation of Tobacco
Forsteronia floribunda
Fruits, Tropical, in English Markets
Fungi, Use of, against Insect Pests
Ginseng
Grapes
Grapes, Seedless
Grapes, Shanking of
Green, E, E. on Scale Insects
Grevillea robusta
Guinea Peppers
Gutta-percha
Hancornia speciosa
Hardwoods, Manufacture of
Harris, W., A visit to Montpelier
Havana Tobacco seed, Distribution of
Hill Gardens
Hirtella dodecandra,
Holmes, E. M. on Chillies
Holmes, on The Importation of Colonial Produce
Hope Gardens
Hope Gardens, Regulations for
Hot-air Drying House
Howard, Dr. L. O., on Sphaerostilbe coccoph la
Hybridization, International Conference on
Hydrocyanic Acid Gas and Scale Insects
Industrial School at Hope,
Instruction in Agriculture
Insect Pests, in Peas

" » Use of Fungi against

Isonandra gutta
Jaborandi, Pernambuco
Jamaica Chalk, Analysis of

» Dogwood

» Plants, Elementary Notes on
Japanese Ohillies :
Jenman, C §., on Collecting Rubber
Juniper, (J uniperus communis)
Kerosene, Emulsion and Scale Insects
Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens
Kikuyu Olover

‘
'

HI.

‘Kingston Public Garden
Kings House Garden
Kirk, Sir Joha, on Zanzibar Ohillies }
Kobus, Dr., on Sugar Cane and Ohemical Selection
Law, Public Gardens Regulation
Lily, Soudan Water
Lime and Insects
Mangabeira Rubber
Mangoes
Manihot Glaziovii
Meteorological Tables
Mexican Sunflower
“Tobacco
Milk, Bacteria in
Milk-withe of Jamaica
Mimusops Elengi
Montpelier, . visit to
Nelumbium luteum
' Nicaragua, Banana trade in
Nock, W., on Camphor in Ceylon
Nymphaea ampla
Nymphaea Rudgeana
Nymphaeaceae
Orange, Bergamot
‘Grove
Gwen, S. A.,on Ceylon Camphor
Packing Drugs
iy Pine Apples
Palo de Velas
Panax Ginsenz
» quingerfolinm
Para Rubber, Method of Preparing
Parmentiera cereifera
Peas, Insect Pests in
Penang, Rubber in
Pentapetes phoenicea
Peppers or Chillies
“cultivation in Assam
** Sonth American
Pernambuco Jaborandi j k
Pierpont Manufacturing Co., on Packing Pine Apples
Pilocarpus jaborandi
‘¢ pinnatifolium
Pine-apples, Colour of Leaves
¥ Manures
Packing
Piscidia Erythrina
Planter’s Opinion on training at Hope
‘Quinine (See Cinchona
Regulations for Hope Gardens
Resin Washes for Scale Insects
Rice in Jamaica
Rind Fungus
Robinson, Dr. Anthony, on Vegetable Soap

“

Ross, A. C. on Rubber Ooncession in Lourengo Marques

ee of the action of Farmyard Manure
Rubber, Collecting
«~” Concession for '
““ Cultivation, some recent developments in
‘« in Penang
** Methods of Preparing
“Scale Insects
“ Carbolie Acid
‘* Curative Measures
“ Gas Treatment
“Kerosene Emulsion
“ ime
Scale Insects Lime Water
> » Natural enemies of
» y, Parasitic Fungus and,
»» 59, Preventive Measures i:
»» 53. Remedial Measures and Insecticides
»~—s39,-«s eesin Washes :
» 33 Soaps and Soapy Emulsions
» y Spraying
» Sulphur
nf ‘ Tobacoo water

a7

Shanking of Grapes
Silage at Montpelier
Smith, Wm. G., on Diseases of the Vi
Soap, Vegetable
Soapy Emulsions and Scale Insects
Socratea exorrhiza,
Soil-moisture, Effect of Tillage on
Somerville, on Experiments on Denitrification
Spain, Colonial Produce in
Sphaerostilbe coccophila
Spraying to destroy Scale Insects
Soudan Water Lily
South American Peppers
Sphenophorus sacchari
Sporotrichum globuiliferum
Sterilisation of Water
Sugar Cane Analyses
Improvement of the Ohemical Selection
Seedlings, “ B, 147”
3. po: ae
,, Lests of some new varieties
» Industry in Jamaica
Sulphur and Scale Insects
Sanflower, Mexican
Talauma Plumierii
falbot, Consul, on Colonial Produce in Spain
Tape for Budding
Tests of some New Varieties of Sugar Cane
Tillage and soil-moi:ture
Tithonia diversifolia
Tobacco : Betun or Wash
Bulk in Press
Climate
Cultivation
Crring
Curing-Honuses
Fermentation
Harvesting
Manures
Nursery
Packing and Baling
Preparation of land and Planting
Press or “ Pilon”
Seed
Short Treatise on
Soil
at Montpelier
in Mexico
Seed, Distribution of Havana
» Water and Scale Insects
Transvaal, Eucalypti in the
Trichosphaeria sacchari
Trifolium Johnsoni,
Tropical Fruits in English Markets
Vegetable Remedies,
Vegetable Soap
Vine, Blanching of the
» Diseases of
Wallace, Dr, A. R., on Socratea exorrhiza
Warrington, R., on Denitrification and Farmyard Manure
Water Lily, Soudan
Water, Sterilisation of _
Watts, F.. Sugar Industry in Jamaica
a » Lests of some New Varieties of Sugar Canes
Wax for Budding
Weevil Borer
Woodhouse, C. M., and C., on Cinchona Bark and Quinine
Woodpecker, damaging Cocoa, etc.
Woolliscroft, Walter, on Rice in Jamaica
Zanzibar, Chillies

2

”

et

PTS epost y ei ot olla

154
206,155,100
153

204
147-149

157

149

155

148

145

146

I

187

130

139

163

4 - = . se 7 J % . . * Z > - :
(? 4 y 3 : ” f : A V4 i ff
¥ J sti f A
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al ’ “ 7

= x

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

. EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS :
PAGE.
A Visit to Montpelier im Oy ore ee
| Recent Experiments on Denitrification +s ot”,
Denitrification and Farmyard Manure cu Shae
j Notes on Interesting Contributions av . 44
% Jamaica Chalk so as alt = Se

Contributions and Additions a Prcoae

3 zy

P RIC E—Ninepence.

-

A Copy will be supplie? free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and Address
. to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston, P, 0.

ASTON W. GARDNER & CO...
| : Printers, Publishers, Bookbinders, &ec., &e.,

4 .
—_———S ee
al

1899.

ow

* pha “") AY 4

~ on

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v f

“BULLETIN

ia OF THE
i. : | |
| BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.L.S.

4 Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS :
i Paar.
q Bacteria in the Dairy a0 49
The Woodpecker ifs 58
Tests of some new Varieties of Sugar Canes ae 59
Contributions and Additions a 62

P RIC E—Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and Addrese
, to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston. P. 0.

ASTON W. GARDNER & CO.,
Printers, Publishers, Bookbinders, &c., ««.,

1899.-

- . ~~
Te gain

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OF THE

; BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.L.S,

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS :

Paar
Jamaica Dogwood pis Ry Raegtued T
Peppers or Chillies ese ens 67
Vegetable Soap nee tis 7k
The Elengi Tree : ous ue 73
Rubber eee jn 73
~~ Notes on Interesting Contributions an 17
Additions and Contributions to the Department... 79

con
~~

PRI C E—Threepence.

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to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston, P. O,

ASTON W. GARDNER & CO.,
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1899.

~

Ces pT PS he i
: OR Ao yh

-. rity OF ,
ete * eel ws

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Poe lee

Fanner

| JUNE, 1899. “Part VI
E OF THE
4 ite
:
_ BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.
EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, F.LS.
; ; Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.
4a | CONTENTS :
& | PAGB.
4 Methods of Preparing Rubber ee 81
| Ginseng ses Be 87
~Talauma ... . vhs . aes 89
Cinchona Bark and Quinine Ses 90
Budding Tape : | as 92
A The Importation of Colonial Produce a 93
3 The Woodpecker sa a 94
: Contributions and Additions ag 95
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re 2. Kgs. Vol, VI
New Series JULY, 1899, pee
BULLETIN
OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S

Director of Publie Gardens and Plantations.

Ne

Pagk
Rice in Jamaica es , 97
Tropical Fruits in English Markets wh 95
Tobacco Fermentation bye 100
Sterilisation of Water of 101
Use of Fungi against Insect Pests ae 101
Extracts from Consular Reports ca 102
The Sugar Industry in Jamaica ie 105
Notes on Books a aM 108
The Supply of Cinchona Bark : Foi 109
Cinchona Cultivation in South India ae TAG
Pepper Cultivation in Assam 110
Additions and Contributions to the Department 111

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Fs, 1899.

Vol, VI

AUGUST, 1899, Part VIII

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED ie
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS :

Paar.
Collecting Rubber ove ays 113
Scale Insects : Remedial Measures and Insecticides 116
Additions and Contributions to the Department 127

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1899.

tars

“ tis

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in. ¥

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SY es *<*

hey
be ae ey

Bee : Vol, VI
New Series SEPTEMBER, 1899, Part Ix

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.L.S.

Mrector of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS :

| Page.
Cinchona : A Retrospect and a Prospect ae 129
Distribution of Havana Tobacco Seed 130
Scale Insects : Remedial Measures and Lmachcidos. —II 1381
Seedless Grapes ea 139
Public Gardens Regulation Law, 1899. we 140
Packing Pine Apples m ae 141
Banana Trade in Nicaragua vis 142
Additions and Contributions to the Department 142

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1899.

9-H Btn 5

~*~ 2s

ap OCTOBER, 1899 Part ®
OF THE
;OTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.
EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.L,S.
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.
CONTENTS :
Page.
Tobacco Cultivation and Curing 145-158
_ Additions and Contributions to the Department 158-160

P RIC E—Threepence.

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1899.

re a ‘war ho ae fe. OO Ab ee i ee eee ee Pat Ain Oo tS ee
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. FEST LES es Vol, V
New segs < 3 ares 1899 “Part X/

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED BY

WILLAIM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.L,S.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS :
PaGE
_ Diseases of the Vine saan ee 161
Kucalypti in the Transvaal dei cee. 163
Effect of Tillage on Soil-Moisture re 164
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 166
Improvement of Sugar-Cane by Chemical Selection 168
_ Elementary Notes on Jamaica Plants—III. 170
a) Cashew A Je 171
Insect Pests in Peas, &c. ae 172
Hope Gardens 173
Additions and Contributions to the beeiact, 174

P RIC E—Threepence.

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1899.

Ord way ie re
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BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

' s

EDITED BY

.* WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations,

CONTENTS :

of ia, Ks PaGE.
: Can bhir . bad eae 177
- Mexican Sunflower—Mexican Tobacco ae 187
‘ International Conference on Hybridization os 188
¥: _ Drying House * oe sis 189
| Alon and Contributions to the Department 191

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1899.

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