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BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

AIMBIA UNIVERSITY
LiGRARY

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New Series. Vol. VIII.

HOPE GARDENS, JAMAICA:

1901],

New Series. Sa ANUARY, 1901. Vol. VIII.
. 7 Part I.

———__—

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:

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BOM ONDWEHE

Bastard Logwood

Notes on [rrigation

Diseased Lemon Trees

Date Palms fe

Sunflower Seeds

Oil of Eucalyptus

Selections from Annual Report
Additions and Contributions

—

P RIC E—Threepence.

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A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send N
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston FO,

KINGSTON, JAMAICA:
GOVERNMENT PRintine Orvicr, 79 Duke SrRezy,

1901, —

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JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. VIIZ

New Series. ] JANUARY, 1901. Mee "Tr a

BASTARD LOGWOOD.
Messrs. George & Branday to Director of Public Gardens.
Dear Sir,

Can you tell us the reason that green Logwood cut crosswise with
asaw turns pale? Weare told from the United States that this is
Bastard Wood, in face of the fact that we have seen the same wood
cut both with an axe and saw exhibit different aspects.

We need not tell you that with all wood so cut a claim is made and
an allowance obtained.

We ask you to give publicity to this letter and your reply in order
to warn the public against this imposition.

We find by wetting the ends so cut the dye comes out and no claim
is made on such cargoes, but this is not always practicable.

REPORT BY DR, DUERDEN,

In reply to a request for samples of the logwood exhibiting the
characteristics referred to in Messrs. George & Branday’s letter,
several specimens of what is understood as bastard logwood were
received at the Museum, and also specimens of ordinary logwood
for comparison. The differences between the two are most striking,
and there should be no danger of mistaking the one for the other,
The so called bastard logwood is rather yellowish in colour, somewhat
recalling cashaw wood, and however long it is exposed to atmospheric
influences, never becomes so darkly stained as the dye-containing log-
wood, A newly exposed surface of the bastard wood also emits a
strong odour, which is not so marked in the true wood. On immers-
ing chips of the bastard wood in water, scarcely any colouration is pro-
duced even within two or three days, while in almost as many minutes
the dye-bearing logwood colours the water strongly.

On sawing crosswise the true logwood the fresh surface produced
is certainly much lighter in colour than a surface which has.
been exposed for some length of time, and may then perhaps be con-
fused with the bastard wood by anyone anxious todoso. But the
general surface of the block would be enough to show the absurdity of
this, and in wetting the fresh surface, even to a very slight degree, the -
contained dye soon becomes apparent.

323662

2

A fresh surface produced by the cut from an axe is ofa different
character from that produced by a saw. In the former the constituent
wood fibres are cut more longitudinally than transversely, and do not
display rugged edges, and hence, in general, are darker coloured.

I see no reason whatever why, as Messrs. George & Branday assert,
true logwood should be denounced as bastard logwood solely from the
appearance of the freshly sawn ends. It is reasonable to suppose that
the character of the block as a whole would be taken into account; if
this be not so, then it seems advisable before offering for sale to have
the fresh surfaces exposed for some time to atmospheric influence in
order to darken them.

1 find that all the planters I have consulted upon the matter are ac-
quainted with the fact that basturd logwood trees occur in a greater or
less proportion on their properties, but that the cutters can detect them
after the first stroke or two, after which they go no further with the
tree. The presence ot many blocks of bastard logwood would seriously
lower the value of any shipment. It is noticed, however, that there
are certain degrees in the occurrence or absence of the dye.

From the date before me I have not been able to determine the
cultural conditions which give rise to the bastard wood Apparently
the trees while alive are indistinguishable from those bearing the dye.
The practical absence of the dye seems a matter well worthy of further
investigation in the field, for apparently every property possesses a
greater or less percentage of the so-called bastard trees,

Nore py Direcror oF PusLic GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.

I have found no differences in leaves and flowers between common
logwood and the “bastard” kind. They are not botanical varieties,
but the bastard wood may be a degenerate form. I do not think that
soil makes any difference. The subject of inferior wood was discussed in
Bulletin for August, 1896, page 179, a copy of which will be forwarded
on application.

0

NOTES ON IRRIGATION.

Recent PrRoGRESS 1N THE Stupy oF IRRIGATION.

According to Newell, “the area irrrigated within the arid and subhu-
mid regions in the western part of the United States during the census
year ending May 31,1890, aggregated 3,631,381 acres or 5,674.03 square
miles, approximately 0.4 per cent. of the total area west of the one
hundredth meridian.” The arid region where irrigation is an absolute
necessity for successful agriculture embraces in part or in whole the
following States and Territories: Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho,
Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyo-
ming. ‘The subhumid region where as a rule insufficient rain falls for
full crops includes parts of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska,
Kansas, and Texas. A large proportion of the irrigable area in these
vast regions still remains to be irrigated. | 3

The necessity for irrigation, moreover, is beginning to be felt in the
so-called humid regions east of the one hundredth meridian, and within
comparatively recent years widespread interest has been manifested in
the subject of irrigation in this region. In recent years widespread

3

drought, especially at critical periods in the life of certain crops, has
drawn the attention of Eastern farmers and horticulturists to this
subject. Truck farmers and fruit growers, especially in region
accessible to good markets, are beginning to appreciate the importance
of irrigation.

King has found that even in favourable seasons in Wisconsin, which
is in the so-called humid region, the rainfull does not supply sufficient
moisture to produce maximum crops. During the season of 1896, in
which the rainfall was normal in that State, a variety of crops was
irrigated with profit, notwithstanding the fact that the irrigation
plant employed was not used to its full capacity and thus the cost of
irrigating was higher than it need be. The profit from irrigation was
on corn, $2.16 per acre; potatoes, $11.70 ; clover hay (irrigating second
crop only), $1.72; cabbages, planted thin, $2.43, planted thick, $29.
“The great lesson,” says King, “to be learned from these results is that
we must have an abundance of water in order that our crops may avail
themselves of the plant food stored in our soils, not that water is every-
thing, but the fertility of the soil counts for naught without it.”

The above statements give us some idea of the great and increasing
importance of irrigation to the American farmer. Recent investiga-
tions on this important subject have given some results of considerable
practical value, and it is the purpose of this article to briely sum ma-
rize these results.

The greatest profit is derived from irrigation where intensive farm-
ing is practised. In fact, the practice of irrigation naturally leads to
intensive farming. In such farming the aim should be to econonise
all the elements of fertility, to utilize water, fertilizer, labour, etc., to the
best possible advantage. If fertilizers are used they will give the bast
returns if kept in the upper layers of the soil, where they can be fully
utilized by the plant. If irrigation is practised also, the amouat of
water applied should not be excessive, otherwise the fertilizing mate-
rials are either washed into the lower layers of the soil where they can
not be utilized by the plant or are entirely removed in the drainage.

Edmond Gain, a French authority, has shown that the water require-
ments of plants differ widely at different stazes of growth. His obser-
vations show that it would be very injurious to the plant, even if it
were possible, to maintain a uniform state of moisture in the soil. He
observed, for instance, that for the ordinary farm crops the optimum,
or most favorable amounts, of moisture in the soil at different stages of
growth, were about as follows : At the time of planting the soil should
have about 25 per cent. of the total amount of water which it is capable of
holding, then it should fall to 15 per cent. and remain at this point until
the first leaves are formed, when it should be raised quickly to nearly
40 per cent. It should be allowed to fall rapidly to about 25 per cent,
and remain at this point until shortly before flowering, when it may be
raised gradually to 40 per cent. and then allowed to fall rapidly to 12 or
15 per cent, where it remains during fruiting and maturity,
Briefly, then, the soil should be only moderately moist at time of plant-
ing and comparatively dry thereafter until the first leaves are formed,
when it should be thoroughly irrigated. It should then be allowed to
become comparatively dry and remain so until the flowering stage, .

4

when it should have its most liberal irrigation, After this it should

be allowed to become dry during fruiting and maturity. Of course this
represents ideal conditions which can not be completely secured in
practice, but it suggests how irrigation water may be greetly econo-
mized at the same time that the most favourable conditions of growth.
are secured for the crop.

This alternaticn of dry and wet pericds has another important point
in its favour on ordinary soils. Hilgard has shown that it furnishes the
ideal conditions under which the soluble constituents of the soil rise to
the surface. The evaporating water leaves the matter which it holds
in solution at the place where it evaporates, i.e., at the surface of the
soil. It thus keeps the valuable fertilizing constituents of the soil
within easy reach of the crop. On “alkali” soils, however, under the
above conditions the corresive poisonous alkaline salts would accum=-
late at the surface to the destiuctlon or great injury of the crop.

Methcds of applying irrigation water, especially surface irrigation.
and subirrigation, have been tested by a number of the experiment
stations in both arid and humid regions. The results have generally
been unfavourable to subirrigation. The laying of the underground
pipes necessary in this system is of course expensive, and, moreover, i¢
is difficult, if not impossible, in subirrigation to obtain a uniform dis-
tribution of the water throughout the soil on account of the fact that
while water moves up and down in the soil with comparative rap‘dity
it moves from side to side very slowly. The irrigation pipes being out
of sight it is impossible to note the movement of the water with accu-
racy. ‘The soilimmediately surrounding the pipes may become exces-
sively wet, while a large proportion of the soil between the pipes is
insufficiently irrigated. Moreover a considerable amount of the water
may pass down into the lower layers of the soil without being of the
slightest benefit tothe crop. King found thata given amount of water
was much more effective in increasing the yield of corn when applied
by surface irrigation than when applied by subirrigation.

Rane, of the New Hampshire Experiment Station, in experiments
with celery on clay loam soil “ with water applied both through ditches
for surface irrigation and through tiles below the reach of the plough
for subirrigation” found that “the latter system required much more
water than the former for the same results.”

_ [A method of tile irrigation which he has found to possess decided advantage”
over ordinary subirrigation] was to place common porous 23 inch drain tiles in
a continuous row, end to end, on the surface of the soil, vegetables being planted
on either or both sides of the line. The tiles were 1 foot long, and by pouring 1m
the water at one end of the line it was distributed at the joints throughout the
length desired when the opposite end was stoppedup. Take celery as an example
crop for irrigation on uplands, We plant the celery as above stated, and while it 1s
young we have simple surface irrigation; but as the crop grows we bank it up,
and finally have the tiles covered, and thus have subirrigation. The tiles aro
cheap and last indefinitely. When the celery is harvested, the tiles are dug out
also and piled up or used for subirrigation in the greenhouse beds. Potatoes and
various other crops can be grown in the same way. The celery watered this year
grew well and did not rust. Besides this, we were able to water twenty times a8
much space in the same time as in the ordinary way with ditches. Besides sav-

ing time, this plan delivers water where it is most needed, and we have reason to
believe is fully as economical with water as with time.

Experiments during two seasons have shown that with this method

eee eee nner T.-C eke _s=_ eee eee ees

5

4‘ the plants did fully as well as in |the other systems and with less
water.”

’ Where irrigating is to be done on a large scale, it seams to be the
concensus of opinion that surface irrigation by means of furrows is
undoubtedly the most practical method. In greenhouses and gardens
subirrigation by means of tiles may often be found advisabie. Furiher-
more, many soils need drainage and require tne laying of tile. On
such soil it may be possible to combine drainage and subirrigation
-economically, and the Wisconsin Experiment Station is at present
-studying this subject.

A question of the greatest importance in regions of deficient rainfall
or where irrigation is practisel is the storage capacity of the soil for
water. When the soil is thoroughly loosened up, the amount of water
which it will ho!d tis greatly increased, and the risa of water to the
-gurface and evaporation are checked. Experiments at the Wisconsin
-and Nebraska Experiment stations have shown the beneficial effects ‘n
these respects of subsoiling. On this point the Nebraska station makes
the following suggestions :

Subsoil ploughing, although a means of conserving moisture, does not produce

it, and is, therefore, not a substitute for irrigation where the rainfall is too s nall
to produce crops.

Where there is a hard, dry subsoil, subsoil ploughing is to be recommended.

Where the subsoil is loose, gravelly, or sandy, subsoiling is probably unneces-
gary, or may even be injurious.

Do not subsoil when the soii is very wet, either above or beneath, as there is
-great danger of puddling the soil, thus leaving it in worse condition than before.
This is one of the reasons why it is better tosubsgoil in tho fall than in the spring.

If the ground be subsoiled in the fall, the winter ani spring rains have ample
opportunity to soak in, that being the season of greatest rainfall and least evapo-
ration.

Subsoiling in the spring may be a positive detriment if the subsoil be extremely
dry, as in that case the rain water is partially removed from the young plant by
the absorption of the bottom soil. If thespring rains were heavy, this would not
-be a disadvantage.

It is probable that the increased yields on subsoiled lands are mainly,
Gf not entirely due to the increased amount of water which such land
is able to store up for the use of the crop. Subsoil ploughing may thus
be made the means of greatly extending the area over which crops may
‘be successfully grown without irrigation, and when practised in con-
mection with irrigation may result in a great saving of irrigation water.
As indicated above, however, before deciding upon the advisability of
subsoiling it is necessary to ascertain, among other things, the nature
and condition of the soil and subsoil. (U.S. Dept. of Agri., Farmers
Bulletin No. 56 )

IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

For many years it has been well known in India that irrigation

-should not be allowed in places where the soil is much impregaated
with salts or where the subsoil drainage is defective. So long ago ag
1862, General Strachey of the Royal Engineers, lucidly stated the case
as follows :—

The salts known as “ reh” are contained in the soil. If canal per-
-colation takes place, it may at length proceed to such an extent as to
-saturate the subsoil with water. ‘The surface being at the same time
exposed to sun and air, becomes heated, and continual evaporation goes

6

on. ‘The water lost by the surface evaporation is replaced by moisture
drawn up from below by capillary action. The water coming from be-

low contains a certain quantity of the soluble salts of the soil which it

has taken up on its way: as the water evaporates at the surface the
salts must be left behind, and a constant accumulation of the salt takes:
place on the evaporating surface. Where such efflorescence takes place
at a distsnce from a canal, and where no free percolation takes place
it may possibly be explained by the action cf an impervious stratum

of clay (or kunkur) at some depth below the surface, which arrests the
descent of water derived from the fall of rain (or irrigation), and accu-
mulated from a large area into some netural depression, and held as it
were, in a basin, though of course diffused in the subsoil from which

the great summer heats at length extract the whole of it with the same
result as before suggested.—From “ The Progress and Position of Ir-
rigation in New South Wales,” by H. G. McKinney.

HEALTH AND IRRIGATION.

The notion that irrigated rice fields are unhealthy’ has led to the
abandcnment of rice-growing in Frence and Portugal. But it is only
when the layer of water is exceptionally shallow or discontinuous as well-
as stagnent, that bad effects on the health of the district have followed.
It is at the close of the growing season, when during very hot weather
the water no longer covers ihe soil, and also in the case of badly-planned
ard badly-managed rice fields, that there is danger from the rapid de-
composition of organic matters in the earth.— (Encyclopedia Britannica.)

DISEASED LEMON TREES.
From Professor Dr. D. T. MacDougal to Director of Public Gardense-

New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park,
New York City.

Dear Mr. Fawcett,

Your letter with the diseased specimen of lemon tree came duly to
hand. I have submitted the specimen to Professor Underwood, and
several of his men, and none of them can tell me anything about it.
As a last resource I sent it over to Washington to be examined by Mr.
Webber who kncws mcre about the diseases of the citrcs trees than
any one else in the country. His letter is enclosed herewith, and.
ycu willsee tl at it has not apy eared in this country sufficiently toen able

him to find out anything about it.

Cur failure to give you anything definite abcut the various diseesed
specimens you have sent me from time to time, impresses me with the’
necessity cf having scme one actually on the gronnd to work on your
plents, acd I wish very much we could co-oj erate in getting a n ycolo--
gist to work over Jamaica for a season or two. I have no definite pro-
position to meke, however, as our exploration fund has elready been-

lanned for the present year.

Meanwhile I hore you will continue to send us anything you wish

examined, and we will do our best. Jamaica seems to have a series of
plant ailments quite different from those of Florida,

D. T. MacDovuGat.

7

From Prof. H. J. Webber to Prof. D. T. MacDougal.

U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology.

Dear Doctor MacDougal :

Mr. Galloway has handed me your letter of April 7, and the accom-
panying specimens of diseased lemon twigsfrom Jamaica. This “lemon
tumour,” as it is called in Florida, is not a very common disease. [
think I have seen it twice in different partsof Florida. It never caused
sufficient damage, however, to justify an investig ition, so that we are
not certain as to its cause. By cutting the tissue one finds that the
cells and intercellular spaces are filled with a colourless mycelium
which seems to become blackened at the surface similar to Cladospo-
rium or Macrosporium. I do not recall, however, to have ever found
any fertile specimens, and the specimens which you enclose seem to be
sterile. The disease cannot be said to cause any noticeable damage
and the result is that we have paid no attention to it.

H. J. WEBBER,
In charge of Plant-Breeding Laboratory.

DATE PALMS.*

The number of date palms in the Vilayet of Tripoli, North Africa,
is computed at 2,000 000, and is the most important of all trees, all its
component parts serving usefully in some way or another; the fruit
for food, the leaves for mats and hut coverings, the wood for
building and uel, the fibre for baskets and ropes, the juice for drink-
ing, and finally the stones made into a paste are given as food to ani-
mals. A certain quantity of date-stones is exported to Italy to adul-
terate coffee.

Date paste also forms an article of export to Egypt and Turkey.

The date enters largely into the food of the people, especially during
poor cereal harvests, when its price is governed by that of barley. The
tribes of the Fezzan consume large quantities of the Tripoli dates as
their principal food, and every autumn caravans arrive from the inte-
rior, especially at Misurata, for the purposes of purchase. Animals are
fed on them in the oases of the interior. A large consumption of lagbi
or palm wine, the juice of the tree, takes place in the country among
all classes, religious prejudices not applying to it as an intoxicant ;
the season is from May to October. An incision is made near the top
of the tree and the sap allowed to flow into an earthenware jar which is
attached and changed twice a day. The flow continues nearly three
months, but not always in the same quantity. A good tree produces
lagbi to the value of 2s. to 2s. 6d. a day, but its extraction causes it to
produce no fruit for the next twoor three years. The consumption,
however, is great, and little labour isrequired. The total annual value
is about £3,200, the tax being 20s. per tree excised.

* M+. Consul-General Jago, in Foreign Office Report on Tripoli, June 1900,

8

When taken fresh from the tree it resembles milk and has a sweet
“taste, but later on becomes sour. A small quantity of spirit called
- “bokha” is distilled from the date, and is consumed locally. It is an

intoxicant and somewhat resembles arrack. Efforts to export dates to
_ Europe for distilling purposes have failed, owing to heavy import du-

ties. The export of dates to Bengazi, Egypt and Turkey varies be-
tween £700, and £2,000, according to good or bad seasons, and chiefly
from Zleiten, Misurata and Tuarga. Plantations arerare, except in
those parts which are exempt from taxation.

SUNFLOWER SEEDS.

(From the Annual Report of the British Consul-General at Odessa,
Russia.)

There is a growing demand in Russia for oil-yielding seeds, particu =
larly for those of the sunflower. Until recently there have been but
few mills for expressing this oil,and the growers, finding no market at
home, sent their seed abroad. Now, however, there are mills in Rus-
sia which require large quantities of it, and whatis more. they offer
the growers higher prices than those obtainable abroad. With the in-
creasing home demand, a falling-off in the export of oil seeds may be
looked for in the near future. Samples of sunflower seeds were recently
asked for by the Government of Bengal, where it is intended to try
them. From personal experience I know that the plant will grow
very luxuriantly in East Africa. It may well be found a suitable crop
for other British colonies. In this country it is found that the best
results in sunflower cultivation are obtained from a well tilled soil, with
not too much clay in its composition; it should be well ploughed in
the autumn and harrowed in the spring. The seed should be sown in
April or May in every second or third furrow. One or sometimes two
or three seeds should be put into the ground at a distance of two to
four inches apart. Broadcast sowing may also be resorted to, care
being taken that only one seed falls in every two square feet. The
quantity of seed required per acre is 20 lbs.; the yield, if good, should
be about 1,600 lbs. The yield in oil of seed in husks is 17 per cent.,
without husks, 20 per cent. It may be of interest to add that the seed
is much liked as a light refreshment by the poorer Russians ; indeed it

is sold in the streets by hawkers to be eaten as nuts are eaten in Eng-
land.

OIL OF EUCALYPTUS.*

Oil 'of Eucalyptus is obtained by distillation from the fresh leaves
of Eucalyptus Globulus, Labill, and other species of Eucalyptus. The
. Globulus is the ordinary “ blue gum” tree, indigenous to Victoria
aud Tasmania, and cultivated in Italy, Spain, the south of France, etc. ;
it attains a height of 300 to 350 feet, has a smooth ash coloured bark,
Jeaves up to 12 inches in length, large pinkish-white axillary flowers

* Pharmaceutical Journal, Sept. 8th, 1900.

9

-which may be solitary or in clusters, and a four-sided capsular fruit,
which is closely enveloped in a hard woody calyx-tube. On young
plants the leaves are opposite, ovate, cordate at the base, sessile, and
‘their surfaces are parallel with the ground; but in the case of older
plants, and especially at the upper parts of the trees, the leaves are
longer, stalked, and scimitar-shaped, whilst a twist in the petiole causes
the surfaces to be at right angles tothe ground. Both forms are used
in distilling the oil, but the dried leaves are of the second form only;
they are thick, glabrous, leathery, with an entire, somewhat thickened
margin. The presence of numerous oil glands, situated in the meso-
phyll and easily seen on examining a leaf with a lens whilst held up to
a strong light, gives the leaves a distinctly punctate appearance; the
surfaces are also frequently marked with a number of minute, warty,
brown spots, which consist of groups of cork cells. The leaves contain
when fresh, from 3 to 5 per cent. of volatile oil, together with tannin
and a bitter principle. ‘The oil is obtained from the fresh leaves by
distillation and possesses powerful antiseptic, deodorising and anti-
pyretic properties, the official dose is from 0°5 to 3 minims, and the
oil is used in the preparation of Unguentum Eucalypti.

Characters and Tests—Oil of Eucalyptus (s.g. 0°910 to 0°939) should
be colourless or pale yellow, with an aromatic camphoraceous odour,
and a pungent taste which is followed by a sensation of coldness in the
mouth; the characteristic taste and odourare due to the cineol (eucalyptol)
present, and a high percentage of that body is insured by the limita-
tion of the specific gravity of the oil, asalso by the opticalactivity of the
oil being limited to 10 degrees in either direction. Tne presence of adue
proportion of cineol is further provided by the requirement that the oil
‘should become semi-solid on being stirred, when cold, with one-third
or one-half its volume of phosphoric acid (s.g. 1°750) ; the cineol com-
‘pines with the acid to form a crystalline compound from which it is
liberated in the pure state on adding hot water. The nitric reaction
serves to guard against the presence of more than small quantities of
phellandrene, which constitutes the chief constituent of certain Euca-
lyptus oils ; thus, if to 1 ¢.c. of an oil containing but little phellan-
drene, 2 c.c. of glacial acetic acid, and 2¢.c. of a saturated aqueous
solution of sodium nitrate be added, the mixture will remain liquid
when gently stirred, but the presence of muci phellandrene will cause
the formation of a crystalline mass. The oil is soluble in all propor-
tions of absolute alcohol, in one thirdits volume of 9) p»r cent. alcohol
-and in 38 parts of 60 per cent. alcohol.

Notes.—The distinctive characters of oil of Eucalyptus are its odour,
taste and specific gravity. It contains about 50 per cent. of cineol
(eucalyptol), a body which also occurs in the oils of cajaput, wormseed,
spike lavender etc., and can be produced by treating terpin hydrate
with dilute acids. Cineol is an optically imactive, nearly colourless
liquid (s.g. 0'930) with a strong, aromatic, camphoraceous odour, and
a pungent, spicy, and cooling taste; it hasa refractive index of 1°4559,
solidifies at low temperatures, melts at —1°, boils at 176° and forms a
crystalline phosphate when treated with phosphoric acid. Other consti-
tuents of oil of Eucalyptus are pinene and various aldehydes and alco-
hols, Phellandrene should not be present in any appreciable quantity,
the oil of #, amyydalina and other species being thus excluded.

10

SELECTIONS FROM ANNUAL REPORT OF DIREC--

TOR OF PUBLIC GARDENS, &c., FOR THE YEAR
ENDED 31st MARCH, 1900.

The Superintendent of Hope Gardens reports results of experiments:
in budding on various stocks in continuation of his report of last-
year :—

Sweet orange on lime stocks—These trees continue to grow well.
They fruit regularly, and are perfectly free from scale insects and all
forms of disease. ‘Th y receive no attention in the way of cultivation,
except that, being in the nursery, they never suffer from drought.

Sweet orange on rough lemon stocks still look well.

Sweet orange on sour stocks also look well.

Sweet orange on sweet stock —Of the 18 trees originally planted out
at Hope, three only have been allowed to live ; these are looking well.

The other 15 showed signs of various diseases and were destroyed.
weet orange is a bad stock at Hope. This is an important fact to no-
tice, as at one time many people were trying to persuade owners of
properties to cut down what they cvll their “ wild” trees and have them
budded. In many cases the so-called ‘‘ wild” trees produced delicious
fruit, and to cut down such trees for the sake of budding them with
varieties known by name only would be absurd.

Navel orarges have done equally well on sour stocks and rough

lemons.
Tangierines also look well on both stocks.
Grape fruit on rough lemons are looking very well.
Shaddocks also are doing well.
It m:y prove interesting to record here the growth made by differ-

ent citrus fruits on different stocks. The figures quoted below are for
trees buddcd at Hope in July and August, 1896, on stocks not more’
than one year old, and transplanted to the places they now occupy in

September. 1897 :— Height. Circumference.
Grape Fruit on rough lemon stock 12ft. 13ft.
Shaddock 10ft. 12ft.
Lemon Imperial 10ft. 13ft.
Sweet Orange on Sweet Orange Stocks 8ft. Gin. 9ft.

a “Rough Lemon * 7£t 6in- 13ft.

zi “Sour Orange* Sit. 6ft.
Tangierine Rough Lemon 4 10ft. Sit.
Navel “ se ‘ : 10ft. 10ft.

Budding.— Our experience of budding ir Jamaica has taught us that
a strong stock growing rapidly, a healthy fresh bud, and a sharp knife
are absolutely indispensable. With these 95 per cent. of buds put in
ought to grow. Without these 95 per cent. will fail. If the stock

receives a check after the bud is put in, the bud will suffer, and pro-

bably die. Fine dry weather and artificial watering are the best at
Hope for budding. One constant rule is, if the sap of a stock is not
flowing sufficiently to allow the bud to lift the bark without help from

t he knife or finger, that stock is not budded, but left until the bark

does run easily.

* These are a year younger than the others.

11

Diseases— Scale insects are easily destroyed by the mixture of soap:
and kerosine recomended in the Bulletin for December, 1898. Gum-
ming is prevented almost entirely by liming the soil. Beetles eat the
leaves, causing much damage; the remedy is to catch and kill them,
or if too numerous, to spray with Paris green mixed with water.

Cocoa.

A chemist who has studied Cocoa in the various W. India Islands
where it is grown, states that he has formed the opinion that not much
dependence can be placed on the form of the pod in making choice of
good seed. One seed in the pod should be cut, and the colour noted.
This, he thinks, is a more reliable test than the form of the pod. For
flavour he prefers the white colour in the interior of the seed. But if
this kind of cocoa is produced by a tree not so vigourous as that yield-
ing seeds with red or purple colour, at any rate the light pink colour is
preferable to the purple colours.

He is of the opinion that small settlers should go in for a quick fer-
mentation of about 4 days in shallow boxes.

In March 1899, 60 young plants were planted out at Hope, some of
these on good loamy soil with irrigation have reached a height of from
3 to 7 feet, those on thin dry gravelly soil deficient in humus have
grown but little. Cocoa needs good moist soil and some shade when
young. Old cocoa trees need similar root conditions, but not shade.
All cocoa trees require protection from wind. :

It is necessary to plant young trees each year in order that the, boys
may be instructed in the act of planting, pruning and caring the
young trees.

CoFFEE.

Mr. Robt. Thomson in a letter to the “Times” during last year
quotes paragraphs from his paper published in a Foreign Office Report
in 1895 (Mise. Ser. 370 Colombia.)

He states in his report that coffee cultivation in Colombia yields a
larger profit than in Jamaica.

He assigns several causes, viz; land at a nominal cost, cheap and
abundant labour, exchange in planters’ favour, and larger yield per
acre.

All these causes are more than sufficient to account for a large profit..
He might have added abundance of land with virgin soil and suitable
climate, which would fully account for the larger yield. He, however,
appears to think that “ one of the chief elements of success must be

assigned to the systematic interplanting of shade trees with the coffee,”

and apparently assumes that this is not the practice in Jamaica.
Elsewhere he alleged that another reason for the low price of
Jamaica coffee is the want of careful preparation.
I understand, although he does not make it clear, that he is only re

fering to the coffee of the peasantry. It is however hardly fair to

compare without discrimination the coffee industry in the two countries :.
- im Colombia it is carried on by capitalists on large estates, whereas in
Jamaica the bulk of the coffee is grow by peasants on small holdings.
Mr. Thompson refers to extension of cultivation. In my Annual.
Report for 1892-93 I dealt with the desirability of the extension of

12

cultivation chiefly by larg: landowners, and pointed out that the cir-
cumstances operating against any increase in cultivation were scarcity
of labour and want of roads which also enhance the cost of p-oluction
and putting on the market.

At the present time and with the price of coffee so low, it is rather
the improvement in cultivation and in the curing of coffee of low alti-
tudes than any extension that is desirable.

Mr. Thomson states that in Colombia at an elevation between 5,000
and 6,000 feet, no shade at all, or only light shade, is required ; and
‘between 3,000 and 5,000 feet he recommends certain leguminous trees,
Erythrina and Inga. He is in error in stating that “ sritish colonial
coffee planters have in the main ignored the application of shade to the
coffee.’ In Jamaica as well as in Colombia the coffee tree at highest
elevations does not need any shade, but on thecontrary it wants all the
sun it can get; and if for some reason, sush as the proximity of forest
land inducing cloud, there is a deficiency of direct sunlight, the coffee
berries do not ripen, and cultivation is a failure At somewhat lower
altitudes a slight shade is necessary, at any rate during the hottest part
of the year. Jamaiea coffee planters in the Blue Mountains use the
West Indian Cedar which is a light shade at a good height above the
coffee, the trees being bare of leaves during the winter months. In
Manchester at still lower elevations the light shade of the Trumpet tree
is made use of, and shade of some kind is quite universal at this and all
lower elevations. In fact so far from shade not being used, I have fre-
quently pointed out cases where the shade used is too dense, favouring
the growth of fungus pests.

There is no need to direct attention to the employment of shade in
general but there is need for careful inspection of the kind used and its
effects in different localities, and for directions about the adoption of
shade trees more suitable than many of those at present in use.

But the proper use of shade is only one item in an immense number
-of agricultural operations of which the peasant proprietors are comple-
tely ignorant, and have no opportunity of learning, uuless instructors
are sent amongst them, not to lecture, but to demonstrate by actual
work in their fields.

THE GRAFTING oF NuTMEGs.

Mr. T. J. Harris, Assistant Superintendent of Hope Gardens, has
been successful in grafting nutmegs. His method is as follows :—

Stocks ready for grafting ten months after sowing ; still in bamboos.

Select the tree which bears the largest nuts, construct rough but level
stages of different heights around the tree; draw some of the main
branches down to the stages with wire attached to pegs driven into the
ground: place moss orcloth under the wire to prevent its cutting the
bark of the branch. The strongest only of the shoots should be used as
scions.

Cut a thin slice of the bark from the side of the seedling stock,
taking care to cut through the cambium,this cut to be about two inches
long and about 4 inches from the base of the plant. Make a corres-
ponding cut in the side of the scion at the point at which it is of the
same diameter as the stock (it may be eight, nine or ten inches from
the tip of the shoot) aud opposite the cut on the latter.

13

Place the two cuts together at once and tie tightly with raffia or
grafting tape. Allow them to remain for two months, watering care-
fully meantime; at the end of which time a small notch is made with a
very sharp knife on the scion just below and on the opposite side to the
union. Eight or ten days later the notch is made deeper by cutting
out alittle more wood ; this time nearly severing the scion from the tree.

A week after take a sharp pair of shears and complete the cut.

Take the grafted plants at once to a cool moist corner out of the reach -
of hot dry wind.

Two weeks later the top of the stock may be cut off close down to
the union.

After six weeks’ stay in the cool, moist corner, they may be gradually
hardened off to the conditions of the plantation, and when ready can
be planted out.

Remove the raffia or grafting tape when the first young leaves begin
to develop on the scion.

Pinz APPLES.

A series of experiments were carried out with Ripley Pines, chiefly
in regard to the correlation of the colouring matter in the leaf, and the
quality of the fruit and the results are given in my Report for 1898-99.

The question of the proper distance to plant is an important one. We
first started to plant at 3 feet apart in the rows, with rows 5 feet apart,
thinking that at this distance it would be possible to keep the land clean
by cultivators drawn by mule or horse, and so reduce the cost. This
was quite feasible while they were in the “plant” stage, but as the
plant ratooned the fruits on the side shoots weighed them down break-
ing off many, and exposing the side of the fruits of all to the sun
causing ‘sun burn.” Other distances were tried, until it was finally
decided that 2 x 3 feet was the proper distance, the reason being that
although the hand cultivation necessary for the first year’s growth is.
expensive, by the second year the pines so shade the land that there is
little or no growth of weeds beyond a few climbers. The plants are close
enough together to prevent leaning and consequent sun burn.

An experiment with artificial manures under the direction of Mr.
Watts in 1899, gave no results, except perhaps to prove that with
proper manual cultivation and a sufficient supply of moisture, the
greater part of the Hope land contains all the plant food required by
Pine Apples.

The experiments are being continued on a poorer soil.

Mr. Cradwick makes the following observations on pine-apples in
the English market. The one pine-apple being sold in England is the
Smooth Cayenne, but not as many people would have us believe, on ac-
count of its superior quality. The chief reason it sells so well is that it
is a good looking pine, a fruit of good size, fine colour, and a handsome
top, the weight ranging from 3 to 8 lbs, but the average about 4 to 6
Ibs., larger not being required in England. The second reason for the
Cayenne selling better than the much finer flavoured Ripley is that it
gets to market in better condition. Many dealers lost money over the
Ripleys being bleck in the centre, although apparently good on the out-
side. Mr. Geo. Monro of Covent Garden stated that if Ripleys could
be got to market in good condition, they would run the Cayennes out

14

of the market. There isa good market in England for pine apples at
all seasons, a three-pound fruit will always fetch 4s. retail, if in good
condition ; fruits weighing 54 to6 lbs, if not too plentiful, sell retail at
8s. to 10s.

There is a good demand for pines before the St. Michael’s feuit ar-
rive, which is generally about the beginning of June, although they
are by no means plentiful before August.

RUBBER.

Some of the plants of Central American Rubber (Castilloa sp.) have
grown to a height of over seven feet. Para Rubber (Hevea sp.) also
continues to grow well, some of the trees having reached a height of 15
feet. Fifty more have been planted out. Ceara Rubber (Manihot
Glaziovii) fruits regularly and plants are raised from the seed and dis-
tributed.

Kickxia elastica grows slowly and is subject to attacks of scale insects.
None of the seeds received have ever grown.

SUGAR

In confirmation of a planter’s testimony in my last Report on cane D
95, another planter writes as follows :—

‘‘T have very great pleasure in reporting most satisfactory results
from No. 95 cane: under ordinary conditions the yield from plants and
Ist ratoons has been 14 tons Muscovado Sugar and 1} phn3. rum per
acre for crop 98/9 (a Planter’s year) this was increased to 2 tons and 2
phus., and this number very materially assisted in rendering the crop
a record one. I find that it stools out wonderfully well, giving from
10 to 13 plants; itis robust and erect with good tops; a soft rind,
giving a trash weighing but about 2501b., for the 1,000 ground. It
will bear a drought every bit as well as the variety common to Vere as
has been proved by recent experience.

‘The ordinary cane in an average year yields me ? ton and
phs., and in a very favourable crop such as 1897-98 1 ton and 1 phn.”

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
DEPARTMENT.

LIBRARY.

Europe.
British Isles.

Botanical Magazine, Nov. [ Purchased. ]

British Trade Journal, Nov. [Editor.]

Chemist and Druggist, Oct. 20,27. Noy. 3,10. [Hditor.]

Climate, Oct. Vol. 2 No. 5. [ Publishers. |

Colonial Reports, for 1897, 1898, and 1899. [Col. Sec.]

Garden, Oct. 20, 27, Nov. 3,10. [ Purchased. |

Gardener’s Chronicle, Oct. 20,27. Nov. 3,10, { Purchased. ]

International Sugar Journal, Nov. [Editor.]

Journal of Botany, Nov. [Purchased.]

Nature, Oct. 18,25, Nov. 1,8. [Purchased.]

Pharmaceutical Journal, Oct. 20,27, Nov 3,10. [Editor.]

Sugar, Sept. [Hditor.]

West Indian and Commercial Advertiser, Nov. [Editor.]
France.

Sucrerie indigene et coloniale. Oct. 23,30. Nov.6,13. [Editor.]

15

Germany.
Tropenpflanzer, Nov. |Editor.]
_ Symbolae Antillanae seu Fundamenta Florae Indiae Occide italis, Vol. IL.
Fasc. II. [Purchased. } :
Notizblatt, Berlin, Noy. 1900. [ Director. |

Be eine dell Laboratorio ed Orto Botanico, Siena. Vol. III. Fase. II.
[ Director. ]
Switzerland.
Mémoires de l’Herbier Boissier, No. 20,21. [Conservat:ur.]
ASIA.
India

Planting Opinion, Sept., 29, Oct. 6,13, 20. [Hditor.]
Proc. Agri. & Horti. Soc. of India. Annual Report for 1899. [Secretary.]

Ceylon.
Times of Ceylon, Oct. 4,11, 18,25. [Hditor. ]

AUSTRALIA.

Queensland.
Queensland Agri. Journal, Oct. [Sec. of Agri. ]
Western Australia.
Journal of the Dept. of Agri., Sept. Annual Report for the year ending Decf
3ist, 1899, and Supplementary Report for half year ending June 3)th,
1900. [Presented. ]
AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope.
Agri. Journ. and Mining Record of Natal, Sept. 28. Oct. 12. [Dept. of
Agri.
ee Ben Journal, Sept. 27, Oct. 11. [Dept. of Agri.]
Central African Times, Sept. 1, 8, 15, 22, 29. [Hditor. |

West InpDIEs.

Burbados.

Agricultural Gazette, Oct. [Editor.]
British Guiana.

Timehri, July 1898 to Dec. 1899, Part IT.
Trinidad.

‘Proc. of Agri, Soc., Sept. 11,1900. [Secretary.]

British NortH AMERIcA.

British Oolombia.

Catalogue of Fruit Trees under test at Experimental Farm, Agassiz, B. C.,

Bull. No. 23, 2nd Series, June 1900. [Dept. of Agri.]

Montreal.

Pharmaceutical Journal, Nov. [Kditor.]
Ottawa.

Annual Report of the Experimental Farms, 1899, [Dept. of Agri;]

Unirep States oF AMERICA,
Publications of the U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture.
Scientific Bureaus and Divisions. [ Directors. |
» Division of Entomology. 26 (Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting
_ of the Association of Economic Entomologists.)

Circulars—No. 41 (Regulations of Foreign Governments regarding Importa:
tion of American plants, Trees and Fruits.) No. 42 (How to control
the San Jose Scale)

eee Bulletin No, 120 (The Principal Insects affecting the Tobacce

lant.)

Report No. 64 (Field Operations of the Division of Soils 1899, with Maps.)

Report of the Chief of the Division of Soils for 1900.

16

Experiment Stations.

Illinois. 60 (The Economic Entomology of the Sugar Beet.)

Kansas. Newspaper Bulletin—Weather Reports for Oct. and Nov. 1900.

Press Bulletin No. 72 (Fattening Steers without Hogs.)
os “ No. 73 (Cultivated Blue-Grasses.)
99 (All Departments.—Press Bulletins Nos. 35:70.)

Rhode Island. (Thirteenth Annnal Report 1899-1900, Part IT.)

Wisconsin. 41 (The Anomalous Dispersion of Cyanin.)

Wyoming. 45 (A Preliminary Report on the Artesian Basins of Wyoming’)
American Journal of Pharmacy, Dec. _[Editor.]
Botanical Gazette, Chicago. Nov. [Editor.]
Foreign Trade of Puerto Rico from American occupation to April 30th, 1900.-

By Brig. Gen. G. W. Davis. [War Dept.]
Plant World, Oct. [Editor.]
The Forester, Jan.‘Oct., 1900. [Publishers. ]
Torrey Club Bulletin, Nov. [Editor.]

SourH AMERICA.
Roport on the Botanic Station, British Honduras. [Superintendent.]
Bolitim da Agricultura, Sao Paulo, Brazil. No. 3. [Director.]
| POLYNESIA.

Planters’ Monthly, Hawaii, Oct., Nov. [EHditor,]

SEEDS.
From Rev. W. Griffith, Kingston i Messrs ee 4 Wulle, Naples—

. arnation, Margherite—
Theobroma bicolor White Perfection
From R. K. Tomlinson, Esq., Lacovia Yellow, and yellow ground
Centaurea imperialis, mixed
Commelina Sellowiana
From Dammann & Co., Italy. Trachelium caeruleum

: Dianthus chinensis, fl. pl.

Dolichos unguicularis
Helianthus cucumerifolius, mixed
Heliotrope giganteum

Palicourea pulchra

Aster, dwarf mixed
“ German ‘*
“ Victoria *

Balsam, Double Camellia, mixed Lobelia erinus, Crystal Palace

“‘ Double Rose as Mignonette, Paris marke¢
Coreopsis grandiflora Morrenia odorata
Dianthus chinensis, double mixed Phlox Drumondi, grandiflora

«¢ Heddiwigi “ s - Portulacca grandiflora
Mignonette, Fiametto Salvia splendens, Ingenieur Clavenad.

‘© Machet From F. DuCane Godman Esq., Hors-
Phlox Drmmondi, mixed ham, England—

“ - nana compacta, mixed Argemone grandiflora
Zinnia elegans fl. pl. Miniatur Meconopsis

- a plenissima, mixed From J. Moir Esq., Edinburgh—

66 “ «pumila, mixed Musa sp.

PLANTS.
From F. DuCane Godman, Eszq., From Dr. Bell, Blackheath, England.
Horsham, England— Asparagus Sprengeri

Aquilegia Skinneri - tenuissimus
Choisya ternata Begonia “ Baroness Rothschild”’
Koelrenteria paniculata Clivia
Rose “ Crimson Rambler’ Cut-leaved Blackberry

“ =“ Carmine Pillar” Diplacus sp.
Rubus pheenicolasius Francosa ramosa (“ Bridal Wreath”)
Sparaxis pulcherrima Funkia undulata

HERBARIUM.

From Prof. Millspaugh, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago.
100 Specimens o: Yucatan Plants

[Issued 5th Jan., 1901. ]

EE — ee

New Series. — FEBRUARY, 1901. Vol. VIII.
; Part 2.

BULLETIN

OF ,THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA,

EDITED BY —

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantaticns.
————>>> 6+ 08a

CONTENTS:

| Paag.

Two opposing factors of increase | 17
Grafting the Mango Tree 26
Irrigation 28
Additions and Contributions = 30

P RIC E—Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OrFicz, 79 DuKR S7TRExr,

1901,

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.
New Series. ] FEBRUARY, 1901. ee

TWO OPPOSING FACTORS OF INCREASE.

By Pror. J. C. ArTHurR.*

The energies of the plant are used for two general purposes: the
development and maintenance of the vegetative parts, ani the forma-
tion of special reproductive bodies. In some respects the efforts of
the plant in these two directions are antagonistic. The vegetative
part consists of root, stem. foliage, etc., and at first, and sometimes for
a long period in the life of the individual, the energies of the plant
are wholly absorbed in increasing the size and promoting the func-
tional activities of these organs, all being connected with the welfare
of the individual plant. After a time special reproductive structures
are developed. consisting of seeds or spores, and the accompanying
parts that aid in their protection and dissemination. They find their
use in continuing the race, that is, im providing for another genera-
tion of indivuals.

The formation of the vegetative part and the formation of the fruit-
ing part may be treated as separate tendencies in plant life. They
rarely proceed pari passu, for usually if one is favoured, the other is
less Beauted. This is popularly expressed by saying that the plant
runs to leaves, or runs to vine, or on the other hand that it runs to
seed, or it overbears.

The portion of the plant having economic value for food belongs
sometimes to the vegetative, sometimes to the reproductive side. Most
fodders, and many culinary vegetables, such as cabbage, radish, let-
tuce, and asparagus, belong to the vegetative part, while the grains,
fruits, and such vegetables as peas, beans, tomatoes and egg plant,
belong to the reproductive side. The object of cultivation is to in-
crease the size and quality of the part used, and it is evident there-
fore, that one requirement of the husbandman must be to learn the
conditions which promote the development of the particular side of
the plant to which the crop in question belongs.

* Reprinted f-om a most interesting collection of Essays entitled “ Living
Plants and their Properties,” by Professors J.C. Arthur and D. T. MacDougal,
published by Messrs. Baker & Taylor, New York.

18

It has been pointed out that among the lower animals, a sudden
check to growth increases reproduction. I wish to expand that state-
ment into the much broader and more widely applicable generalization
that a decrease in nutrition during the period of growth of an organism
favours the development of the reproductive parts while abridging the ve-
getative parts. The converse, that an increase in nutrition favours the
vegetative parts while abridging the reproductive parts, is equally
true.

Unimpeachable statistics are not abundant, for experiments bearing
directly upon the problem have not been undertaken, and serviceable
data culled from the supplementary records of other experiments are
not very complete or numerous, Hnough are obtainable, however, to
lend very material aid toward establishing the generalisation.

The cultivator employs no method so frequently for enhancing the
value of his harvest as increasing the fertility of the soil. Itisa
method of giving the plants a greater supply of nutriment, whereby
they grow larger and yield more. If the principle just stated holds
true, however, the increase will be greater proportionally for the stems
leaves and roots than for the seeds and fruits. The data provided by
Latta from experiments conducted in Indiana bear this out. Wheat
grown upon fertilized and unfertilized areas averaging tue results of
three seasons, 1889-91, showed a decided gain in both straw and grain
due to the richer soil but upon examining into the relative increase of
straw and grain itis very evident that while the increase in yield of grain
was considerable, it was by no means so great as the increase of straw,
and that the proportion of straw to grain was, in spite of the increased
yield, in reality lessened. (See Table I., page 23.) Essentially the
same results are evident in data obtained by Caldwell in Peansylvania
with corn, averaging the results of ten years, 1881-90, (omitting 1887,
the crop being destroyed by insects.) (See Table II.)

A very different method of increasing yield is the treatment of seed
grain before sowing to a short bath in hot water. It is especially in-
teresting to find that this method develops the same reciprocal rela-
tions between the vegetative and reproductive parts of the harvest as
in the preceding cases. Inacrop of wheat (see Table III) thus
treated it was found that while the total weight of straw and grain
was both as a whole and separately increased by the hot water treat-
ment, the yield of grain was lessened as compared witn the yield of
straw.

If we turn from the statistical method of demonstration and appeal
to general observation, an overwhelming array of facts can be brought
to bear. It is a common observation that plants in too rich soil run
to leaves instead of fruit. Every farmer knows that he can expect
little or no grain from an excessively rich spot of ground, although
the plants grow far taller and larger. The orchardist root-prunes his
trees to bring them into bearing, when they prove to be unusually
backward ; thu florist permits his plants to become pot-bound to in-
duce them to flower more freely ; certain slow acting diseases, e.g,
peach yellow, and cotton rust, increase and hasten the fruiting A
wide range of such general facts could be cited, familiar to every one
having experience in such lines. {n this connection Professor Atkin-

19

-gon, of Cornell University, has called attention to the longer time that
elapses before spores are formed when certain bacteria are provided
with more abundant food material. A customary culture gave a crop
-of spores in 15-20 hours, a culture with fewer germs (second dilution)
in 36 hours, and one with still fewer germs (third d:lution) in 48-72
hours.

The prolificacy of weeds in sterile soil is a matter of common obser-
vation. The great ragweed in poor.soil produces a crop of seeds when
but a few inches high, and the same is true of o:her weeds, especially
noticeable in normally till ones. Wild plants rooted in thin soil on
rocks often bear single flower; as large as all the remainder of the
plant. Analogous development may be seen in sme alpine plants,

As a summuiry of the evidence already brought forward it is plain
‘that the environmental conditions of plant existence have a dispropor-
‘tionate effect upon the two sides of plant life, the vegetative and the
reproductive. An increase in available supply of food, as when the
farmer fertilizes his fields, an earlier and stronger start in spring as
in the case of wheat treated to a bath in hot water before sowing, the
larger amount of food as when fewer bacteria are pliced in
same amount of culture media, all siow a favouring action upon the
vegetative part greater than obtains with the reproductive part. On
the other hand, checking growth by root prunin ; or by keeping plants
in undersized pots, relucing the ganeval vitility by slow disease, and
depriving the plant of sufficient soil and moisture, show a favouring
action upon the reproductive part in hastening and multiplying the
formation of flower and seed far in excess of the development attained
by the vegetative part.

As a factor to insure perpetuity this law is evidently important in
guarding against extermination, for trie poorer the conditions for
growth, the more effort the organisms puts forth towrd szed-bearing,
One cannot fail to be impressed by the thought, however, that if this
be a general law of nature, 1t would seem to imply that the weakest
and least favourel individuals, being most fruitful, are most likely to
be perpetuated, which is in evident contradiction to the accepted
theory of natural selection and to com™m)n observation.

There is, however, another factor which com3s into play here, as a
corrective of this tendency to deterioration of the race, and it is to
this law that special attention will now be directel.

In all the methods of increase in rate of growth, so far brought for-
ward, the change has been due in the main to external agencies, and
the increased growth was found to be correkated with decreas? in anount
of reproduction. There are, however, m>thols of increase in rite of
growth, arising from causes inherent within the orzanism, that tend
in quite a different direction, in fact, are opposed to thos? already
cited The best illustration, and the only one to be given in this
article, is that shown by the size of seeds. It may be stated as a
general law that Jarge seeds produce stronger plants with a greater
capacity for reproduction than small seeds of the same kind.

That larger seeds produce stronger plants, that is, plants possessing
both heavier vegetative parts and larger yield of fruit, can ba shovo
by abundant experimental data.

20

To be sure there is quite a common belief that the size of the seed
has no material effect upon the product; that, provided a due regard:
be paid to vitality, any size of seed will answer the purpose of
propagation. This belief is one of long standing, and is also held by
some men of eminence. Sir Joseph Banks, one of the leaders in agri-
culture of a hundred years ago, advocated the use of small seed as:
answering the purpose of the farmer “as effectually as the largest.”
He had wheat especially in mind, and as the largest grains contain the
most flour, the use of the large instead of the small seed for sowing
seemed to him “ un-necessary waste of the human subsistence.” In re--
cent years the distinguished scientist, Haberlandt, has given expression
to essentially the same opinion. He believes it is chiefly the strain and
the favourable conditions for growth that influence the product, and
not the weight of the seed. He doubtless represents the opinions of
a large percentage of cultivators of the present time, inclusive of many
good thinkers. Probably a fair statement of the general opinion
would be that if a strain is to be kept up to its full vigour, or if im-
provement is desired, careful selection of the largest seed is indis-
pensable, but that the difference between the use of the large and small’
seed will not be noticeable in the first year’s crop. This view is not,.
however, borne out by experiment, as we will see.

The amount and strength of the early growth from the seed has.
been studied by Marek, who experimented with beans and peas. The-
seeds were laid between moist blotting paper for seventeen days, and
then measurements were taken of the length and diameter of the pri-
mary and lateral roots and of the stem. The figures all stood higher
for the large seeds than for the small seeds, except for the length of
the pea stem. Similar experiments were carried out by Von Taut-
phous, who used from two to four sizes each of wheat, barley, rye,
oats, corn, beans and peas. He measured the lengths of the plumule
and radicle from day to day for two weeks. His conclusion was that
the larger and heavier the seed, the stronger the development. He
found, however, an apparent exception in peas, as did Marek, in
which the main root and stem are shorter the larger the seed. But
in this case it was noted that the extra strength is expended in
lateral growth, forming a thicker stem and more side rootlets, thus.
bringing the apparent anomaly into line. A subsequent experiment by
Marek was carried somewhat further. Three sizes of English beans.
were planted April 24th, and their growth noted up to maturity, July
12th, with the result that the larger the seed the taller the stems and
the more numerous and larger the leaves. It also occurred to him to
test the force exerted by roots of seedlings in piercing the soil, and in
this respect also the offspring of large seed showed marked superiority
over those from small seed.

Taking into account now the harvest. we find some excellent expe-
riments with clear results. Trial of large and small seed roughly
separated by sifting was made by Goff with onion, cauliflower, turnip
and cabbage, with some gain in favour of the large seed in all but the
last, and also made by Latta with wheat, who also obtained gain for
the large seed.

Lehmann separated peas into three grades, large, medium, and
small, and planted 528 seeds of each. The germination showed that

21

the larger seeds were possessed of greater inherent strength than the
-smaller, the number of seeds growing from each lot being 480, 478,
and 423 respectively. The yield in peas, pods and vines, taken sepa-
rately or together, and estimated p2r plant or as total weight, gave the
Aargest figures for the product of the largest sezd, and intermediate
figures for the product of the medium seed. (See tables IV. & VIIL.)

An experiment in this line with corn was conducted by the writer
in 1889. Thirty kernels from a single ear of white dent corn were
separately weighed of which six grew that were over 400 milligrams
-each, and nine that were under 300 milligrams each. The product of
these fifteen plants gave a greater average weight of ears for the large
-than for the small seed, which was also true of the cobs and kernels
‘taken separately. (See table V.)

Thus far, we have given the results of experiments in all of which
‘the seed was provided the same ground space, without regard to size,
and the data show that the large seeds give larger returns than the
small seeds,

lt would be natural to suppose that if the small seeds were placed
correspondingly closer together, or in other words, if the seeds were
‘planted according to weight instead of number, th> results might be
reversed. For it is evident that the same weight or measure of seed
will contain a much larger number in case of small seeds than of large,
and in planting the small seeds will require less ground area for de-
velopment, and consequently a greater number of plants can mature
upon an eq ‘al space

This phase of the question has been tested by Lehmann. He
‘planted 188 grams each of large, medium and small peas upon equal
sized plots cf ground, and although there were twice as many small
seeds as large, and nearly once and a half as many medium seeds as
large, still the harvest was greatly in favour of the larger seeds, both
per area and per plant. (Data in table VI., page 25)

A practical lesson is very pointelly brought out here, that in sowing
farm seeds the amount of the harvest depends quite as much, and it
may be more, upon the quality (size) of the individual seeds as upon
the weight or measure sown per acre.

Is it not apparent that large seeds show great superiority over small
seeds in numerous requirements that enter into successful plant life ?
In the first place, a larger proportion germinate, and this evidence of
the possession of greater strength is followed up by more vigorous
‘growth and the display of increased capacity for overcoming obstacles.

The resulting plants attain to greater development, as the size of
leaf, leng h of stem and weight of any part or of the whole plant
abundantly proves. It is especially noticeable that in this display of
greater vigour both vegetative and reproductive parts are benefited ;
-and while the individual plants are making a more successful fight
in promoting their present welfare, they are enabled to provide more
abundantly for the next generation, by producing a better crop of seeds.

Although the proposition in relation to size of seed, witb which we
started, has been illustrated and established so far as present space
permits, yet in order to compare more fully the tendency of the pow-
ers of the plant derived from the two sources which for conve-
Mience we may call acquired and hereditary, the former coming from

22

food, light, warmth, and other external conditions, and the lat-
ter from the energy stored in the seed, it is necessary to bring for-
ward still other data. We may venture to formulate this proposed
extension of the Jaw relating to the size of the seed thus: large seeds.
give rise to plants with a greater aevolopment of the reproductive parts
and less of vegetative parts, than small seeds do.

It is intended here to directly compare the reciprocal relations of the »
two sides of the plant as influenced by the parent seeds. The datamay
be taken by weighing the fruiting portion and comparing it with the-
weight of all the remainder of the plant, both done when at their best
development ; or other methods may be used.

Excellent data are supplied from the researches of Lehmann (see
table VII1). He grew large, medium and small peas, over 400 of
each lot, and obtained plants that were heavier for the larger seed in
both their vegetative and their reproductive parts, i.e., the leaves and
stalks for the vegetative part, and the peas and pods for the reproduc-
tive part. And yet when the weight of the vegetative portion 1s com-
pared with that of the reproductive portion of each lot, it is clear that
the fruiting pait has attained a stronger development in comparison
to the remainder of the plant in the lots from larger seeds. To state
the facts in another way, the larger seeds not only grow larger plants,
but those which have fruiting parts more strongly developed then the
associated vegetative parts.

Interesting data are furnished by Birner and Troschke using oats.
and peas, and by Marek with peas. The last investigator found that
the weight of peas of first quality was nearly three-fourths of the
whole harvest raised from large seeds, and only about one third of that
from small seeds. (See table VII). Im this case, therefore, the large
sceds not only gave a much better total yield, but far more seed ma-
terial of high grade with which to continue the strain.

Marek, in Germany, experimenting with wheat (see table IX), and
Plumb in the United States, with oats (see table X), have demon-
strated the same fact. Both have provided data which show that the
amount of grain in comparison with the straw was greater in case of
large seeds than of small ones,

Statistical evidence oft his kind might be greatly extended although
observations have rarely, if ever, been instituted with this particular
end in view. Casual observations give no aid to this part of the en-
quiry, vs the differences are obscured by other factors which stand out
more prominently. What the eye cannot detect, however, is readily
and unmistakeably revealed by the rule and balance.

So far as data can be marshalled at present, there appears good rea-
son to believe that large seeds, besides giving rise to larger and more
fruitful plants, also possess an inherent tendency to accentuate the re-
productive side «f the resulting development. If peas are sown, the
largest seeds not only give rise to the largest plants, with the great-
est weight of pods and of seeds, but to an excess of fruitage when
compared with the remainder of the plant; and in a similar way with
other kinds of plants, the largest parent seeds give the greatest re-
turns of fruit and daughter seeds, both absolutely and also in compar-
ison with the growth of leaf, stem and root. It is to be understood,
of course, that we are not attempting to deal with single plants, but

23

with sufhciently large numbers to neutralise individuality and small
accidents, which sometimes produce most unaccountable variations.

If we consider the bearing of all the data now brought forward, it
seems reasonable to assume that in the ultimate analysis we are deal-
ing with acquired and inherited tendencies. In the one case the im-
pulse or stimulus to development comes from without ; it is environ-
mental, and acts more strongly upon the somatogenic portion of the
plant, while in the other case it is inherent in the organization of the
seed and derived from the parent plant. Whatever the explanation
of the origin may be, however, it seems certain that these two opposing
factors of increase play an important role in the economy of nature.
As the food supply is lessened, a greater effort is made on the part of
the parent plant to enhance the chances for perpetuity; but at the
same time the largest seeds, having the greatest potentiality, stand
the best chance in the future struggle; and althuugh the best nou-
rished plants produce the fewest seeds, their greater size gives them

decided advantages over seeds from starved plants. The two laws
acting together therefore, aid in maintaining the perpetuity of the
species and its full measure of vigour.

TABLES.

I. Yield of Wheat on Fertilised and Unfertilised Ground.
(Weights caloulated to the acre )

Weight of Weight of Proportion of
Treatment. straw in grain in straw to
pounds. pounds. grain,

Unfertilised a 2.8138 1,602 1:0.56
z, 4,279 1,938 1:0.45
Commercial Fertiliser ... | 3971 1 884 1.0.47
-Onfertilised ws 2,72 1,506 1:0.55
8,699 1,818 1:0.49

Stable Manure { 3361 1.728 1.0.51
Unfertilised i 2,894 1,512 1:0.52
Average unfertilised ... 2,811 1,840 1:0.55

Average fertilised a 8,880 1,842 1:0.48

—_

24

Tl. Yield of Corn and Wheat on Fi rtilised and Unfertilised Ground.
(Weights calculated to the acre.)

=

Weight of Weight of | Proportion of

Crop. Treatment. stalks in grain in stalks to
pounds. . pounds. grain.

|
Unfertilised ...) 1,367 958 1:0.70

Wheat |
Fertilised “| 2,119 1,246 1:0.59
Unfertilised ... 2,430 3,498 1:1.44

Corn |
foe zi | 3,144 3,956 1:1.26

III. Yield of Wheat with and without Hot Water Treatment,
(Weights calculated to the acre.)

Proportion of

Treatment. Weight of Weight of straw to
straw. grain. grain,
oc = sg OO nn en .:.:.:.°—«&°9 cee
Untreated --] Bol 1,716 1:0.46
|
Hot Water Bath eet 4.555 1,908 1:0.42
° IV. Product from Large and Small Peas.
= | ~ Z re Z Weight of harvest in grams.
aH | S Do
Size, | ee es = |
| at | Su M5 = z |
pi te” @ = | Peas. | Pods. | Vine. | Total.
. = for e+
2 a | = * , |
= a | = ceca
Large |. 298 -| 528 | 4a 1814) 487 |3,1,0 | Seam
| | |
Medium —...|. 221 | «528 | «478 [1,495 | 357 |2,680 | 4,482
| | | |
Small 2) sGBO-a1 oa26 423 | 998| 280 2,019 | 3,288

eee eee ee ee

28
YV. Yield of Indian Corn from Large and Small Seed.

Size. Av. Wt of kernels | Av. Wt of cobs

in milligrams. in grams.
Large Si 312 58
Small aes 268 47

VI. Product from Large and Small Peas.

No of pealea: of Peas harvested
Size. | in 188 plants sid cdoanas
grams. grown.

per area. | Per plant.

(SS ee es

Large = 384 360 2,307 6.40
Medium os 530 505 2,224 4.40
Small ae 780 680 1,590 2.34

VII. Product of Large and Small Peas.

Wt. of peas in Wt. of Wt. of | Proportion
grams.
Size of seed. pods in vine in | of vine to

1st 2nd grams. grams. fruit.
quality. | quality.

—— ——

Large eee| 1,375 504 1,519 4,185 1:0.83
Small wei r.*, OU 1,045 1,405 4,074 1:0. 76

Vill. Product of Large and Small Peas.

|
Avr. Wt | No. of | Wt. of |Wt. of peas} Proportion

Size of Seed. | of single vine per | and pods
seeds in | plants, | plant in | per plant | of vine

grams, grams. in grams.
to fruit.
Large sa 2.73 4=0 6.6» 4.69 1:0.71
Medium she 2.21 478 5.50 3.87 1:0.70

Small ia 1.60 - 4.75 | 3.02 1:0.64

26
IX. Yield of Wheat from Large and Small Seed.

= =

Weight of Weight of Proportion of

Size of seed.
stiaw in grams.| grain in grams.| straw to grain.

Large ay 2,411 ~ 8,089 1:1.26
Small ve ' 2,211 2,456 1:1.11

X. Yield of Oats from Large and Small Seed.

Wt. of seeds| Weight of | Weight of |Proportion of

Size of Seed. jsown pr. 1000) straw in grain in straw to
in grams. ounces. ounces. grain.
Large | 35.4 556 190 1:0.34
|
Small | 15.9 518 143 1:0.28
|

GRAFTING THE MANGO TREE.

By Horace Kyieut.

The object in grafting is to perpetuate any desirable fruit without
having recourse to seeds. Experiments have proved beyond a doubt
that sections of the mango tree will keep good for grafting purposes
from three to six months’ time, according to variety and to the con-
stitution of the tree from which they are obtuined. ‘This gives us the
opportunity to import sections of the most desirable claes of tree
from any part of the globe with a certainty of their growing when
properly prepared and tied on.

After twelve years’ close observation and a large number of ex-
periments (more or less useful) made on the mango tree, the conclusion
I have arrived at is, that no other tree is simpler to graft. The work
can be successfully done by any one and at any time, whether the sap
is active or dormant. The buds are certainly not so quick in coming
when the sap is down, but they make up for any delay when once
started.

Still, it cannot be said that grafting, when the sap is down, is the
best time for the operation. On the contrary, the first three months
in the year have proved to be preferable. All the remarks in this.
article apply to one process only—that is, the use of bark without any
wood adhering to it. Up to date, the best material for tying on the
grafts is ordinary candle cotton, procurable at the ironmongers, and
generally sold in 1 lb. balls. The grafts are simple pieces of bark,

27

without any growth whatever onthem. Ofcoursetheremust be dormant
buds, or eyes, on them. The pieces of bark may vary in length and width ac-
cording to size of trunk or limb on which they are inter ded to been grafted.
‘The most convenient size to use is a piece about twice the length of
the width, and if taken off where rings exist, so that the ring is across
the centre of the section, there will be two or three latent buds near
the ring. The rings on the trunk and limbs denote the exact number
of growths and rests the trees has made. At the point of every new
growth, while resting, there is a whorl of leaves, and at the base of
every leaf there isa bud which is capable of becoming a tree, and
whether it is used for grafting during its infancy or ten years after-
waids, it will develop with proper treatment. The older the bark,,
the easier it is to remove, and it is much handier to trim into shape.
First cut out the section for transplanting, and, should the edges be
bruised or torn. cut them away to sound bark. Now press the piece
firmly on to the spot where it is intended to grow, and make a clean
cut all round. Next take out the bark inside the mark, and put the
prepared section in its place. Do not make it fit so tightly that it
has to be squeezed in, but make it a nice fit. Now bind it on with
the candle cotton with just sufficient pressure to make it touch its
new parent. Avoid, if possible, binding immediately over the buds.
The old notion that all air must te excluded to effect a union is a
delusion so far as grafting a mango is concerned. There is no necessity
for clay, grafting wax, or any other nasty stuff to ensure a good union
but just the candle cotton. Now it may be that a section of bark has
been prepared for transplanting which is much thicker than tho piece
taken out. Well, never mind; tie it on, and it will grow, although
it is not acomfortable fit. Should the weather be hot and dry when the
grafting is being done, the top may be left on the tree for shade, but
it must be thoroughly ringbarked 6 or 8 i: ches above the graft. In
two or three weeks’ time cut the top off at the spot where it was ring-
berked, and if the buds on the graft have started into growth remove
the binding. All young shoots, except those on the grafts, must be
rubbed off as soon as they appear. When a vigorous mango tree is
suddenly deprived of all its leaves and the majority of its limbs, it
immediutely sets to work to repair the damages. Its ordinary means
of utilising the sap being removed, it makes determined efforts to re-
place them, Kvery dormant bud will rapidly spring into growth,
and while these are coming on, the trunk and remaining limbs will
swell out to a surprising degree, this being the only means of using
up the sap which the undisturbed roots are still pumping up At
this stage the tree is highly impregnated with sap, and will take
kindly to almost any shape or sized pieces of bark that may be put on
it. When a piece of bark is removed while the tree is in this condi-
tion, the sap will pour into the breach, and a union with the bark in-
troduced is soon effected.

_ When the young shoots which have sprung from the grafts have
ripened, the old wood projecting bevond the graft should be sawn off
close at the base of the new growth. As th» new wood continues to
grow, it will cover up the entire end where it was sawn off, making
very neat work of it. In the mango the term a “ripened” shoot ap-
plies when the leaves and bark of the latter have taken their full

28

green colour (chlorophyll), or when the shoot has rested and is ready
to continue its growth.

In a matured growth the green colouring matter has been succeeded
by a brown colour which varies considerably with age. (Queensland
Agricultural Journal.) sk

IRRIGATION.

LETTER FROM GOVERNOR RoosEVELT.
Atpany, N. Y¥. Nov. 16, 1900.

To tHe NationaL IRRIGATION CONGRESS,
Chicago, Illinois.

Gentlemen:

It is with very real regret that I find my engagements here prevent
my attending the meeting of your body. I believe to the last point
in the vital necessity of storing the floods and preserving the forests,
especially throughout the plains and Rocky Mountain regions. The
problem of the development of the greater West is in large part a prob-
lem of irrigation. I earnestly believe in the national government
giving generous aid tothe movement, for it is not possible, and if it
were possible, it would not be wise to have this storage work done
merely through private ownership; and owing to the peculiar neces-
sities of the case, much of the work must be done by the National and
not by any State government.

Moreover, it is not only necessary to establish a great system of
‘storage reservoirs to prevent the flood waste of the waters; it is also
necssary to preserve the forests on the mountains and among the
foothills. This means that, in the first place, there must be a wide
extension of the existin » system of forests reserves, and, in the second
place, that these forests reserves must be managed aright. They can-
not be so managed while there is the present division among federal
departments of the duties, and, therefore, of the responsibilities of their
management.

We are just getting to understand what is involved in the preser-
vation of our forests. Not only is an industry at stake which employs
more than half a million of men, the lumber industry, but the whole
prosperity and development of the West, and indeed ultimately of the
entire country, is bound up with the preservation of the forests.
Right use of the forests means the perpetuation of our supply both of
wood and of water. Therefore we cannot afford to be satisfied with
anything short of expert and responsible management of the national
forest reserves and other national forest interests. The forest reserves
must be cared for by the best trained foresters to be had, just as the
storage reservoirs must be built and maintained by the best engineers.
There is the same need of trained skill in handling the forests in your
best interests as there is in building the great dams which will some
day bring population and abounding prosperity to vast stretches of
so-called desert in the West.

Any man who has ever dwelt on the great plains knows what a se-
rious matter not only the water supply but the wood supply is to the

29

farmer, and of course every miner knows the same thing. Not only
does the farmer need the water which the preservation of the forests.
itself also preserves, but he needs the wood too. So does the miner,
so does the manufacturer, and so does the railroad man. The reser-
voirs cannot last if they fill full of silt, and the only way to prevent
this filling with silt is to preserve the forests themselves. The forest
is a great sponge for absorbing and distilling water. It is the great
preventor of erosion, and erosion is always the danger point in any
irrigation system.

Without pretending to outline definitely a working scheme, I ven-
ture to point out that without the attainment of the following objects
your plans must measurably fail :

First. Government study of the streams upon which your plans
depend

Second. Government construction and control of great irrigation plants.

Third. The preservation of forests by the extension of the forest
reserve system and hence of Government control of the forests.

Fourth. National protection and use of the forests under expert
supervision.

Fifth. I urge you to see to it that private owners of forests in the
West and East alike understand that timber can be cut without forest
destruction (the Department of Agriculture willtellthem how) andthat
the ownership of water rights in the arid country, and of forest lands
anywhere entails public as well as private duties and responsibilities.

The East is interested in the commercial development of the arid
lands of the West, just as the West is interested in the proper de-
velopment of our harbour system and of our commerce on the high
seas. No part of this country can be permanently benefited without a
reflex benefit to the other parts. As Americans we are all interested.
in the progress of any part of our common country, and while your
movement is of immediate benefit to the West, its ultimate benefit
will be shared by the East as well. I earnestly hope that all far-
sighted citizens, whether they dwell on the Atlantic or on the Pacific
seaboard, or in the great Mississippi valley will appreciate this, and
that Congress will give to your efforts the substantial backing that
they deserve.

Sincerely Yours,
(Signed) THEODORE RoosEVELt.

_ LETTER FROM SECRETARY WILSON,
NoveMBeErR 20, 1900.
To tHE Nationa [rricaTIon ConcREss, CHICAGO,
Gentlemen :

The pressure of official duties stands in the way of my presence at
your Congress, and I am exceedingly sorry it is so. It would have
given me very great pleasure to meet you, and to discuss with you the
two great agricultural problems of the West,—-wood and water. But
the necessity of setting rightly before the President and the people
the work of the scientists of the Department of Agriculture in my an-
nual report keeps me in Washington, where I hope I shall not be less
useful to your cause than I should be if I came to Chicago, As it is,
the Department will be represented by several of its scientists, and to

30

what they will have to say Tinvite your special attention. Through
its search for economic plants that will thrive with little water,
through its studies in the use of water for plants that neel more,
through its soil investigations, its forest work, andin mony other ways,
the Depirtment of Agriculture is working at the problems which
you are met to consider. These problems are national in their scope,
and it is most fitting that they should be studied by the agencies of
the National Government.

The water problem, like the forest problem, is essentially and pri-
marily one of conservation and use. The waste of water in floods and
the waste of forests by fire are parallel losses, each utterly hostile to
the best interests both of the farmer and of the nation at large, ani
each preventable by perfectly well-known means. Enlightened pub-
lic opinion and the use of expert skill ars the two forces which are in-
dispensable if we are to ‘“‘save the forests and store the flools,” in ac-
cordance with the admirable motto of your Congress. The creation of
public sentiment will be immensely forwarded by your meetings, and
you may safely look to the National Government for some
part at least of the trained skill to study the water problems which
confront the irrigator, and to make the forests of the Great West, and
of the East as well, yield their produsts year after year and decade
after decade in unbroken abundance. The vast developments which
you are planning can become permanent only by the junction of wise
conservatism with energy; ad the natural resources which have cost
you nothing must be protected and husbanded with the sams trained
care which you are making ready to bestow upon vast systems of ar-
tificial works for irrigation. The chief dangers which threaten your
plans—one the failure to secure the building of these great works, the
other the failure to protect the forests from which your waters come —
are best met, like most of the dangers which threa’en our country, by
the broad diffusion of wise principles. (The Forester.)

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
DEPARTMENT.

LIBRARY.
EUROPBS.

British Isles.
Botanical Magazine, Dec. [Purchased.]
British Trade Journal, Dec. [Editor.]
Bulletin, Kew Gardens App. I. 1901. [Director.]
Chemist and Druggist, Nov. 17, 24, Dec. 1, 8, 15, 22.
Garden, Nov. 17, 24, Dec. 1, 8,15, 22. [ Purchased. ]
Gardener’s Chronicle, Nov 17, 24. Dec. 1, 8, 15,22. {Purchased.]
International sugar Journal, Dec. [Editor.]
Journal of Botany, Dec. [Purchased.]
Journal Royal Colonial Institute, Dec.
Journal, Roval Hort. Society, Nov.
Nature, Nov. 15, 22, 29. Dec. 6,20. [ Purchased. ]
Pharmaceutical Journal, Noy. 17, 24, Dec. 1 8,15, 22. [Editor.]
Sugar, Nov., Dec. [Editor.]
West Indian and Commercial Advertiser, Nov. [Editor.]
France.
Sucrerie indigene et coloniale. Noy. 20,27. Dec. 4,11,18. [Elitor.]

ol

“Germany.
Tropenpflanzer, Dec. [Editor.]
Beihefte zum Tropenflanzer, Dec. [EHditor.]

Holland.
Bulletin, Koloniaal Museum, Haarlem, No. 23. Noy. 1900.
Extra Bull. “ a5 1900.
ASIA
India

Agricultural Ledger (Calcutta) Nos.14and15. [Lt. Gov. Bongal.]
Planting Opinion, Sept., 29, Oct 27. Nov. 3,10, 17,24 Dec. 1. [Editor.]
Report Govt. Gards, Mysore for year 1899 1900’ with Govt, Raview thereon

(Editor. ]
‘Ceylon.
- Times of Ceylon, Nev. 2, 8, 29, Dec. 6. [Editor. ]
Java.
De zaadplanten der keuising van Cheribouriet met de Engelsch-Indische
varieteit Chunnee.
AUSTRALIA.
NV. 8. Wales.
Agri. Gazette, Oct. Nov. [Dept. of Agri.]
Report on Agriculture, for 1899. [ Dept. of Agri.]
Report on Botanic Gardens and Domains for year 1899. [ Director. ]
‘Queensland.
Qu. Sugar Journal, Oct. 15, Nov. 15. [Editor. ]
Queensland Agri. Journal, Nov. [Seo. of Agri.]
Western Australia.
Journal of the Dept. of Agri., Oct. 1900. [Editor.]

AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope.
Agricultural Journal, Oct. 25. Nov. 8. [Daept. of Agri.]
Osentral Africa.
Central African Times, Oct. 6, 13, 20, 27. Nov. 3. [Editor.]
Natal.
Agri. Journal and Mining Record of Natal, Oct. 26, Nov. 23. [Dept. of
Agri. |
Natal Scope oy ao ae } [Curator Bot. Gard. Durban.
Ea igers:
Bull. 19 (Rapport sur les Etudes de Botanique Agricole, 1898,
« 21 (L’Olivier) [Director. |
Mauritius.
Rapport Annuel de la Station Agronomique, 1898-99,
West Inp1Es,
Barbados.
Seedling and other Canes at Barbados, 1900. Pamphlet Series No. 3. [Com,
Imp. Dept. of Agri. ]
Agricultural Gazette, Nov. [Editor.]
Jamaica.
Journal Jamaica Agri. Soc., Dec. [Secretary.]
Leeward Islands,
Sugar Cane experiments—Report on Exp. conducted at Antigua and St.
Kitis 1899-1900. [Com. Imp. Dept. of Agri.]
Trinidad.
Proc. of Agri. Soc., Oct. 9, Nov 13.1900. [Secretary.]

British NortH AMERICA.
Montreal.

Pharmaceutical Journal, Dec. [Editor.]

32

Nova Scotia.
Provincial Govt. Crop Report, Nov. 1990. [Sec. of Agri. ]
Ontario.
Report of the Supt. of Farmer’s Institutes of the Province of Ontario 1899-
1900. [Dept, of Agri.]
UniteD STATES OF AMERICA.

Publications of the U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture.

Scientific Bureaus and Divisions. |Directors.]|

Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology 20 (Peach leaf curl, its:
Nature and Treatment. 23 (Spot Disease of the Violet) 25 (Some Di-
seases of New England Conifers : a Preliminary Report )

Experiment Stations.
Experiment Station Record Vol. XII, Nos. 3 and 4.
California (Report of Work of the Agri. Exp. Station of the Unfversity of
California for the year 1897-98.)
Georgia, 49 (Practical Dairying) 50 (The Brown Rot of Peaches, Plums and
other Fruits.)
Kansas. Press Bulletins, No. 75 The races of corn) No. 76
(Sugar Beets in Kansas, 1900.)
(Thirteenth Annual Report for Fiscal year 1899 1900.)
New Jersey, 145 (Analysis of Fertilizer supplies and Home Mixtures.
Analyses and valuations of Commercial Fertilizers and Ground
Bone) 146 (Crude Petroleum versus the San Jose or Pernicious.
Scale.
Rhode Island 71 . (Experiment in Top-dressing Grass Land) 73 (Comme
cial Fertilizers) 72 (Special Instruction in Poultry Culture).
Pharmaceutical Archives, July 1900, Nol. 3. No. 7. Edit
Pharmaceutical Review, Nov. 1900, Vol. 18. No. 11. } pk
Plant World, Nov. [Editor.]
The Forester, Dec. [ Publishers. ]
Botanical Gazette, Chicago, Dec. [Editor.]

SourH AMERICA.
Bolitim da Agricultura. Sao Paulo, Brazil. la Series No. 4. [Director.]

SEEDS.
From R. K. Tomlinson, Esq., Lacovia Prunus virginiana
Hibiscus Abelmoschus (Musk Ochra) _ pdigaaiereys
s Sabdarifta (White variety.) Quercus sae ope
ps virginiana
From Dr. Grabham, Kingston. Sassafras officinale
Picrodendrun juglans, Gr. Thalia divaricata
(Rhus arborea, Macf). Zanthoxylon clava-Herculis
Port Royal Senna From Queensland Acclimatisation Societys
From Messrs. Reasoner Bros., Oneco, Flo- See eacamia Macrel
Seat reek Melaleuca linarifolia
Clematis Virginica Sterculia quadrifida.
Cornus florida
Hibiscus Syriacus fi. pl. From Pr, Bell, Blackheath, London.
Hydrangea arborescens Annual Sunflower
Melia Azedarach var. umbraculiformis Streptocarpus.

Myrsine floridana
HERBARIUM.
From Dr. Grabham, Kingston.
Port Royal Senna sp.

From Dr, Pittier, San Jose, (Herb. Instit. physico-geogr. nat, costaricensis)
81 Specimens.

[Issued 4th Feb.,1901.]

New Series. MARCH, 1901. Vol. VIII
Part 3.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

eS OSS

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.L.S.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:

Paaz

Tobacco : : 33
Irrigation and Alkali Lands ba 36
Eucalyptus and Malaria 40
Breadnut ‘ ; 42
Analysis of Coco-nut oe 42
Coffee Statistics . ae ae ae
Varieties of Banana : 43

Additions and Contributions A 43

P RIC E—Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O,

KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
GOVERNMENT Printine Orricg, 79 Duxe SrRexr,

1901,

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JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE
BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.
New Series.] MARCH, 1901. Aen
TOBACCO.

When Columbus landed in 1492 in the West Indies he found the
natives smoking a herb wrapt in a maize leaf, and the name of the
herb was Tobago. In 1560 Jean Nicot distributed p'ants raised from
seed to various parts of Hurope. These two events give us the clue to
the popular and scientific names of a drug the cultivation and prepara-
tion of which have now attained such enormous importance that
Governments are supported by the revenue derived from its taxation,
and colossal fortunes are made by its sale. Some idea of the scale on
which the industry is carried on may be gathered from the statistics
recently published in the ‘“‘ Year-book of the United States Department
of Agriculture for 1899,’ where we read that during that year
266,661,752 pounds of tobacco, 4,542,016,570 cigars and 4,590,388,430
cigarettes were prepared in the United States clone, yielding a revenue
_ to the Government of 52,043,859°05 dollars.

Small wonder then that the cu'tivators of so valuable a plant have
shown great interest in all the processes of raising, planting, manur-
ing and gathering the crop, and of drying, curing and preparing it for
market ; or that consternation has arisen in their midst at the origin
and spread of a disease which attack the golden leaf, and bids fair to
ruin the crop in some districts. It happens, moreover, that biological
problems of wide significance are arising in connection with the com-
plex art of fermenting the leaf so as to obtain the best flavour and
strength, as well as in regard to the “ Mosaic disease” above referred.
to, and the experience of Dutch growers, of which anexcellent account
is now to hand in Koning’s “ Der Tabak, Studien ueber seine Kultur
und Biologie” (Amsterdam and Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1900), shows
that the employment of scientifically trained botanists in the technical
laboratories of tobacco plantations is likely to be as usual an event
in the future as in breweries and bacteriological laboratories.

The tobacco plant is exceedingly small in the seedling stage—eighteen
thimblefuls of seed suffice for a hectare, 7.e., two and a half acres of

34

land—and is very carefully raised in pots and manured with pigeon’s
dug, planted out and weeded with extraordinary precautions against
numerous enemies, and the leaves eventually picked by hand, sorted,
tied into bundles, and hung todry. Itis a very exhausting crop,
and requires muck potash; and an astonishing amount of information
has accumulated concerning the effects of different soils, manures,
climate and other fac:ors of the environment on the properties of the
leaves. Moreover, there are numerous cultivated races in existence in
the various tobacco-growing countries, as always occurs with planted
crops.

During the process of slow drying the leaf may remain alive for two
to three weeks, and the contained starch is converted into sugar, and
further alterations result in an increase of acids. Proteids diminish
and amines increase, but the nitrates and alkaloids (nicotin) should
undergo no change. The slow alterations referred to are essential,
and due to enzyme and other actions in the still living leaf; in artific-
ally or rapidly dried leaves the arrest of such changes materially affect
the flavour and burning of the tobacco, and naturally much turns on
the age and quality of the leaf itself, the soil and season and other
conditions of growth, &c.

The dried or “cured” leaves are next submitted to fermentation, a
process of vital importance in the opinion of the tobacco expert, since
it is this which determines the finer flavours and odours of the manu-
factured product. Fermentation is started by damping heaps of 15,090
to 30,000 lbs. of the dried leaves, packed in a special manner, and
carefully watched by experienced workmen as the temperature
rises. The process occupies three to four months, and the leaves are
turned about once a month. The temperature rises to about 50-56° C.,
(122°-133° F.) and a loss of vapour, accompanied by asweet and sharp
odour, is noticed. The reaction may be neutral, though in some cases
ammonia is given off, due to the action of undesired bacteria.

As would be expected, the fermentation is always accompanied by
bacteria; but it has long been in dispute whether the essentials of the
process are due to bacteria or to the action of special enzymes in the
cells of the leaves.

Suchsland’s researches had convinced him, not only that the fer-
mentation is due to bacteria, but that a peculiar species of bacteria was
specially concerned in the production of the approved flavour, and that
the desirable properties of Cuban tobaccos could be imparted to inferior
growths by introducing this species into the fermentation. Loew, on
the other hand, maintained that the aroma and flavour depend simply
on the action of enzymes or other cell-contents in the leaf itself.

Koning has investigated the various bacteria found in the ferment-
ing heaps, and followed the changes induced in the tobacco.

But generally, the fermented tobacco undergoes little or no change
as regards the total nitrogen or the nicotin, but organic acids diminish,
and the sugars and nitrates are destroyed, and various aromatic sub-
stances are formed whioh affect the quality of the product.

35

Among the bacteria isolated, Koning claims to have found the
species concerned ia this remarkable neutral fermentation, and which
imparts the aroma and flavour desired, and thus confirms Suchsland’s
results. He states that tobacco infected with the specific bacteria,
fermented and made up, and then handed to experts, was selected by
the latter as the superior from specimens containing other kinds. There
is more than a touch ofthe dramatic in this scene of the experts
sitting down to smoke a pair of cigars each, in packets of two, and
labelled a and b,c andd, &o., only; but the evidence appears con-
clusive.

During the last ten years increased attention has been drawn toa
disease of tobacco leaves, which causes irregularly alternating light
and dark patches, and is known as the “‘ Mosaic disease.” Koning has
established that this is infectious, and is carried through the fields by
the fingers of the workmen who “top” the growing plants by pinch-
ing off the buds. He has examined the various fungi known to cause
leaf-diseases in tobacco, and cannot refer it to these, and the presump-
tion that itis a bacterial disease was strengthened by finding that
certain manured soils were almost sure to have badly diseasel plants
on them; and that experiments showed that if a bit of diseased leaf,
or a little of the sap from such is rubbed into a wound, the young
leaves formed above the wound contract the disease. The same result
follows if such sap is placed at the roots of healthy plants. But in-
fection fails in all these cases if the sap is previously boiled.

Here may be mentioned that Adolf Mayer had proved the infectious
‘nature of the filtered sap in 1885, and Beijerinck, working at this
disease a short time ago (1898), had come to the conclusion that since
no organisms could be isolated from the sap—the infectious nature of
which he also proved—which will reproduce the disease, and since the
sap filtered through porcelain still infects the plants, unless it was
previously sterilised by heating, the causal agent must be a contagium
vivum fluidum—a something of the nature of a poisonous enzyme, which
not only diffuses through the plant-membranes—e.g., the cell-walls of
root-hairs—but increases as it passes from cell to cell.

Koning confirms Beijerinck’s priacipal results, but concludes that
since the infecting fluid may be heated to 100°C. for a few minutes
without losing its powers, whereas alcohol and glycerine destroy the
virulence, as also does repeated filtration through porcelain, the active
agent is an extremely minute organism, which can traverse the pores of
a filter. He compares the results with those obtained with the virus
of various animal diseases from which no organism has as yet been
isolated.

It should be borne in mind that the existence of organisms small
enough to pass through a porcelain filter has been accepted by several
authorities.

- It thus appears that—without regarding the work as quits conclusive,
which itis not,—we have here important contributions to s:veral most
weighty biological questions centered about the culture of an economic

plant.—(Nature, October, 11th, 1900.)

36
IRRIGATION AND ALKALI LANDS.*

In many portions of the world, and oftenest in arid and semi-arid
regions, the waters of some streams and wells, and particular.y those
of lakes, are too heavily charged with the salts of sodium—common-:
salt, sal soda and Glauber’s salt or sodium chloride, carbonate and
sulphate respectively—to make it advisable to use them for the pur-
poses of irrigation. These salts are a part of the waste products of
soil production which ordinary vegetation is unable to use with profit,
and which in countries of heavy rainfall are washed out of the soil.
nearly as rapidly as formed. Where these salts, however, do accumu-
late to any notable extent, it is designated an alkali soil, and will not
produce normal crops ofmany of the forms grown in plant husbandry. . -

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALKALI LANDS.

The use of the term ‘alkali lands’ as commonly employed, has
quite a loose or wide application. THilgard states that in California
the term is applied almost indiscriminately to all lands whose soils
contain unusual amounts of soluble salts, so that during the dry season
or after irrigation the surface becomes more or less white with the
deposits left by the evaporation of the capillary waters. . . Where
these salts are well marked in character, crops are killed out entirely,
or the growth is stunted much as is true of the black alkali spots of
arid regions. On the rice fields of South Carolina, there appear dur-
ing the dry stage of growth of the crop “alum spots,” as they are
called, upon which the rice may die out or be of inferior quality.
Then, too, on the margins of the sea, where there are low lying lands
periodically inundated by high tides, white deposits are again left when
the surface becomes dry, and are injurious to cultivated crops when
they have accumulated to sufficient strength, and these are sometimes
spoken of as “alkali Jands.”

In the wide application of the term, then, “alkali lands” are those
upon which soluble salts have accumulated in sufficient quantity,
through evaporation and capillarity, to attract attention by their
usually white appearance and their injurious effects upon vegeta-
tion. .

CAUSE OF INJURIES BY ALKALIES. ,

When the soil water about the roots of plants or germinating seeds
becomes sufficiently strong with salts in solution, the osmotic pressure
is so modified that a discharge of the cell contents into the soil takes
place to such an extent as to produce what is equivalent to wilting.
The cells are not maintained sufficiently turgid to permit normal
growth, or they may have the pressure so much lowered as to cause
death. The case is like placing the plump strawberry or currant in a
strong solution of sugar, where it is observed to greatly shrink in
wolame.. .s3.: ere |

This, then, is one of the modes by which the injurious effects{of
alkalies are produced, and it should be understood that it matters very
little what substance may be in solution in the soil water, so long as it
is there in sufficient quantity to produce the osmotic shrinkage re-
ferred to.

* From “ Irrigation and Drainage” by Prof. T, H. King, published by McMillan
London and New-Yerk,.

37

Every one is familiar with the fact that too concentrated fertilizers
may produce death to the plant, and it may be by this action. Apply-
‘ing the pririciple to the alkalies in the soil, it must be recalled that
these compounds are all relatively very soluble in water, so that if
only large quantities of water containing even small amounts of the
salts are evaporated in contact with the roots of growing crops, the
solution surrounding the soil grains may become too strong for good
plant feeding, and even death may result. . . . i

HOW ALKALIES ACCUMULATE IN THE SOIL.

Everywhere in the soil where there are sufficient changes in the air
-and the moisture, the soil grains are being broken down and dissolved
by both physical and chemical means, and unless the rains are suffi-
ciently heavy to carry the ever-forming dissolved salts away inthe
country drainage, they will be brought to the surface by capillarity
and there concentrated until precipitated. The more insoluble of the
plant-foods, and other salts which are not such, cannot charge the
water sufficiently high to do serious harm, hence in common language
and in the sense the term is here used, they do not become ‘‘ alkalies.”

But with the other salts the case is different. They are precipitated
when the solution becomes strong enough, and form deposits on the
surface or about the roots in the soil where water is being removed,
but before this actually occurs one or both of the actions referred to
above begins to take place.

In arid regions, where the alkalies proper are most abundant, rains
enough may fall to slowly carry forward their formation, but not
enough to carry them out of the land. From the higher levels and
steeper slopes they are readily moved by surface drainage and wind
action to the lower lands, where the amount may become so large as
to form thick beds. During the wet seasons of such countries, these
_galts may sink into the soil, but to rise again when dry weather re-
stores the action of capillarity.

In the humid regions, there is necessarily an even more rapid for-
mation of all the true alkalies of arid climates; for fundamentally
similar rock ingredients are subjected to identical weathering processes,
but of a more intense nature, because the rainfall is greater. If,
therefore, there occur conditions favourable to the accumulation of the
soluble salts formed at and near the surface of the soil, these should
be expected to show as alkalies.

INTENSIVE FARMING MAY TEND TO THE ACCUMULATION OF ALKALIES,

It has already been pointed out that during the growing season
-after vegetation has come into full action, nearly all of the rains which
fall in humid climates are retained near the surface until they are
evaporated, either through the growing crop or from the soil, and since
these waters tend to form salts when they are in contact with the soil
grains, they must tend to increase the salt content near the surface,
It is plain, too, that the heavier the crops produced and the greater
the number of them in the season, the less is likely to be the loss of
any water from the field by under-drainage; hence the greater the
tendency for soluble salts to accumulate. Then, if during the winter
-season of a country the rainfall is deficient, so that little leaching can
take place, conditions become still more favourable for the accumulation
of alkalies.

38

Further than this, if irrigation is practised during the growing”
season only, and this water also is evaporated from the soil in addition
to the natural rainfall, it is plain that the amount of soluble salts in
the soil must increase, both on account of that which may have been
in the water applied, and that which this additional water may have
been instrumental in producing from the soil on the spot through the
processes of weathering.

Indeed, the more we study and reflect upon this problem, the more
we are led to fear that in all arid climates, where irrigation is practised
it will not be found sufficient to apply simply enough water to the soil
to meet the needs of the crop growing upon the ground at the time,
but, on the contrary, there must be enough more water applied to take
up and carry away into drainage channels and out of the country to
the sea not only the soluble salts which the irrigation waters carry, but
also those which it causes to be produced from the soil and subsoil.
In other words, it appears that an excess of soluble salts in a thoroughly
irrigated field is not only a normal but an inevitable condition, unless
sufficient leaching takes place; and if this is true, the sparing use of
water can only increase the number of years required to bring the salts
up to the danger point of concentration. . . .

CONDITIONS WHICH MODIFY THE DISTRIBUTION OF ALKALIES
IN SOIL.

If the surface of the ground is kept naked and compact, so that the
rate of evaporation may be strong, the alkalies will necessarily be
brought to the surface and become concentrated there, hence in posi-
tion to do the greatest harm to growing crops.

If thorough tillage is practised early, so that but little water is
evaporated except that which passes through the roots of the crop,
then the salts cannot become concentrated in a narrow zone, but, on
the contrary, will be left all through the soil where the roots which
are taking water are distributed. In those cases, therefore, where the
general soil water is not too highly concentrated to permit normal
growth, crops may prosper so long as the surface is kept shaded and
thoroughly tilled.

It must be observed, however, and kept in mind, that the roots of
plants cannot withdraw moisture from a soil without at the same time
tending to concentrate the salts in solution in the zone where the roots
do their feeding; hence, that if alkali waters are being used for irri-
gation, and in the long run if the purest waters are being used under
conditions of no drainage, sooner or later the soil of the root zone
must become so highly charged with the alkali salts that reduced
yields are inevitable. . .

KINDS OF SOIL WHICH SOONEST DEVELOP ALKALI.

Where alkali waters are used for purposes of irrigation, and where
sweet waters are being used under conditions of little or no drainage,
the clayey soils are the ones which soonest begin to show the bad
effects of concentrated salts. This is so for many reasons.

In the first place, the soils of clayey texture, are not as effective
mulches as the sandy soils, hence, even where thorough tillage and
shade are resorted to, there must necessarily be a larger rise of salt-
bearing water to the surface to produce accumulation than is the case
with the coarse sandy soils.

39

In the second place, when water is applied to a sandy soil, not
nearly as much remains adhering to the surface of the soil grains and
entangled between them, so that it quickly spreads downward farther
below the surface than is the case with the clay. This being true, it
takes less water to produce effective drainage, and the roots of the

crop spreading farther in the sands, the salts cannot become concen--

trated as they may in the clays.

_ In the third place, since more water is held in contact with the soil
grains of the clays, and since the total surface for chemical action to
take place upon is very much larger in the clayey soils than in the
sands, it is plain that soluble salts, including alkalies, may form more
rapidly in one case than in the other, and hence, that the open, sandy
soils cannot become alkali lands except under conditions which are
extremely favourable to their formation.

DRAINAGE THE ULTIMATE REMEDY FOR ALKALI LANDS.

If it is true that alkali salts are formed from the decomposition of
the soil and subsoil through the action of water and air, it is only too
plain that where conditions are persistently maintained which allow
the formation of the salts without permitting them to be removed by
any cause whatsoever, there must come a time, sooner or later, when
the amounts produced and accumulated in the soil shall reach the
degree of concentration which is intolerable to cultivated crops.

Under the natural conditions of rainy countries, there is usually a
sufficient amount of leaching to permit the white and black alkalies to

be borne away in the country drainage with sufficient completeness to

prevent their effects attracting general attention, and if the same pro-

cesses obtained in irrigated countries it is plain that in these, too, the:

difficulties would not arise.

The conclusion is irresistible, therefore, that some method must be
devised by which, periodically at least, sufficient water is applied to
irrigated fields to pick up and carry out of the country the soluble
alkali salts which are fatal to cultivated crops.

In the old-time irrigation of the Nile valley, the greater part of the
land was under basin irrigation and thus thoroughly washed during
some fifty days every year. Lands not so treated were the lighter
sandy soils near the Nile, protected by only slight banks from inunda-
tion, and these dykes usually gave way as often as every seven or
eight years, so that they, too, were occasionally thoroughly flooded:
Under this system of washing and draivage the fields of the Nile were
kept free from alkalies for thousands of years. But at the present

time, when what are called more rational methods are being applied,

but with no attention being paid to freeing the soil from the accumu-
lation of alkalies, these salts have been concentrated to so serious am
extent that already many acres have been abandoned. The probabili-
ties are that long, long ago the same more rational methods (?) now
being practised had been tried and found inadequate or inapplicable,

on account of the accumulation of alkalies which they permitted, and

the old irrigators learned to be content with a system which, although
more wasteful in some ways, still kept the dreaded alkalies under con-
trol. It is not improbable that if the full history of many abandoned
ancient irrigation systems could be known, it would be found that not
being able to command water sufficient for drainage, or not apprecia-

40

ting its need, alkalies were allowed to accumulate until the lands were
no longer productive. It is a noteworthy fact that the excessive de-
velopment of alkalies in India, as well as in Egypt and California, are
the results of irrigation practices modern in their origin and modes.
and instituted by people lacking in the traditions of the ancient irriga-
tors, who had worked these same lands for thousands of years before.
The alkali lands of today, in their intense form, are of modern origin,
due to practices which are evidently inadmissible, and which, in all
probability, were known to be so by the people whom our modern
civilization has supplanted.

SS

EUCALYPTUS AND MALARTA.

Evidence exists that fever has disappeard in houses in Jamaica
which have been planted round with Eucalyptus trees. Whether this is
to be accounted for by the fact that these trees absorb immense quan-
tities of water from the soil, making it drier, or in some other way, is
not quite certain, but the extract from Bulletin No. 25 of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (Entomology), “ Notes on the Mosquitoes
of the U. States,” may be of interest in Jamaica. “In addition to
the use of eucalyptus oil on the skin to keep mosquitoes from
biting, the growth of Eucalyptus trees is said by certain persons to
drive mosquitoes away, and trees of the genus Eucalpytus have been
especially recommended for planting in malarial regions. Mr. Alvah
A Eaton, of Califoraia, wrote us in 1893 that in portions of California
where the blue gum occurs no other remedy need be sought for.
Further than that, he stated that no matter how plentiful the mos-
quitoes, a few twigs or leaves laid on the pillow at night would secure
perfect immunity. Thesame year Mr. W. A. Sanders, of California,
sent the following interesting account of the value of eucalyptus trees
in answer to our published request in Insect Life.

‘I have the largest and oldest grove of trees of Eucalyptus Globulus
in this part of California, and have had fifteen years of opportunity to
study these trees as insect repellants, and deem it my duty to respond
to your request on page 268 of Insect Life.

‘Thirty-three years ago I spent a portion of one summer with a
Dr. McConnell, who had just returned from some years of residence
among the Eucalyptus forests of Australia. We were in the Sequoia
(Sequoia sempervirens) forest of the coast region of our State. The
mosquitoes were so bad that it was nearly impossible to work during
days when there was no wind. ‘The doctor assured me that our com-
mon mosquito was never found in the Australian Eucalyptus forests,
and swamps, but added, There’s a “spotted mosquito” nearly as bad
there in some places. He, not being an entomologist, was unable to
tell me whether the ‘“‘spotted mosquito” was a species of the genus
Culex, or of some allied genus.

‘The doctor being a reliable, close observer, I determined to test the
antimosquito qualities of the Eucalyptus; so when I began to improve
my house here nineteen years ago, one of thefirst things I did was to get
a lot of Eucalyptus seed from Australia and plant out a grove of the
trees. The tallest of them are now over 140 feet tall, and can be seeu

41

for 20 miles around. My house stands in the midst of these trees.
My irrigating ditch, a dozen feet wide, of sluggish current, runs through
the grove beside the house. There has never a single mosquito larva
been seen in the ditch from where it enters the first shade of these
trees to where it emerges from them 200 yards away, while above and
below, mosquito larve are plentiful—not immediately below, but some
hundreds of yards away, where the water stands in pools and becomes
stagnant among a growth of black walnuts and cottonwoods. My live
stock pasture in this timber, going into the walnuts and back again
under the Eucalyptus shade at pleasure. Frequently when the cows
come up at night they bring a swarm of mosquitoes; occasionally some
of them get into the house, but cause us so little annoyance that we
scarcely notice them. SBefore this ditch reaches the Eucalypti it runs
through a jungle of “ fence bamboo” (Arundo macrophylla), where the
mosquitoes are so bad that we avoid working there except on the
windiest days And, though the ditch has more current there, the
larve of mosquitoes are plentiful in the water till it reaches the
Eucalyptus trees, below which point none are found till it has become
stagnant away below them.

‘People who have camped along the willows of King’s River, ouly a
few miles away, have come here with faces so blotched and swollen
from mosquito bites as to be hardly recognizable, and have camped in
the shade of ‘‘Sander’s gum trees,” as my grove is popularly called,
for weeks, and declare that they never even heard a mosquito sing
during that time.

‘To the non-botanical reader I may say that this species of Eucalyptus
is very tender to frost. The coldest weather ever known here, 19°
E., above zero, killed thousands of them. Dr. Nuttall points out that
the planting of Eucalyptus trees is not a sovereign remedy, from the
fact that malaria still prevails at Tre Fontane, outside of Rome, in
spite of Eucalyptus plantings. The mere planting of trees, however,
is undoubtedly of use in malarial districts, since it will modify the
condition of drainage to the soil,’

“Ty view of Mr. Sander’s strong evidence it really appears that
lanting of Eucalyptus trees will be worth while in certain locations,
not entirely (on account of the conflicting and not thoroughly satis-
factory evidence) for mosquito protection, but incidentally for this use
as well as other purposes.”

Dr. Benjafield, a medical man who has resided for the last twenty-
seven years in Tasmania, described the advantages of the Colony as a
health resort lately at the Imperial Institute.

He said (according to Nature) that he was struck on his arrival in
Tasmania, with the almost complete absence of consumption and bron-
chitis, and it was now three years since he has signed a certificate of death
from the former disease. Last year the rural mortality of southern Tas-
mania was only 8.8 per 1,000, In Hobart 2,261 hours of sunshine have
been recorded in one year, as against 1,158 at Oxfordin England The
climate of the Colony is one of the most even and excellent in the
world. The atmosphere is pure, clear and crisp, and the general pre-
valence in the air, as indicated by the. characteristic odour, of the
essential oil of the Eucalyptus tree, existing in abundance in the Oolony

42

especially near Hobart, appears to exercise a direct antiseptic influence:
against deleterious organisms of all kinds.

BREADNOT.

The breadnut (Brosimum Alicastrum, Sw.) is a high tree, native of
Jamaica and Central America. |

Fodder.—In the central parishes, where this tree grows in consi-
derable abundance, the fruits, or ‘‘ nuts,” are largely used as feeding
for stock, as are also the leaves of the tree, and they forma very
valuable fodder for horses and cattle.

Wood.—tThe breadnut is an excellent timber tree; it usually grows
erect, with a trunk about two feet in diameter which gives good
boards, and as these take a high polish they are much prized for
flooring and ornamental work of all kinds. Plants of this useful tree
are now available for distribution from Hope Gardens.

ANALYSIS OF COCO-NUT.

The New York Botanical Garden is doing a great deal of useful
research work in the well-equipped laboratories. Messrs. J. E. Kirk-
wood and W. J. Gies have been investigating the composition of the —
endosperm and milk of the coco-nut, and have lately presented the
results of their quantitative analyses:

The following figures represent the average general composition of
the endosperm: Water, 46 per cent. ; solids, 54 per cent. Of the lat-
ter 98.1 per cent. is organic and 1.9 per cent. inorganic; 43.4 per
cent. is fat and 21.9 percent. ‘crude fiber.’ The fresh endos-
perm contains 0.75 per cent. of nitrogen, which is equivalent to about
4.7 per cent. of ‘albuminoid.” It is probable, however, that much of
the nitrogen found exists in the form of ‘extractives. General analy-
sis of the milk gave the following average data: Water, 95.3 per
cent.; solids, 4.7 percent. Of the latter 88.5 per cent. is organic;
11.5 per cent. inorganic. Three domn determinations of gross rela~
tionsbips gave the following average weights and percentages :

Weight of whole nut, 610 grams.

Integument, 170 grams 27.9 per cent.

Endosperm, 333 grams 54.8 per cent.

Milk, 107 grams 17.6 per cent.
The volume of the milk averaged 105 c. c.

STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION OF COFFEEIN THE
NEW WORLD.

An interesting statistical report of coffee for 1900 compiled by
Arnold Schramm of New York gives the following: Total arrivals of
coffee at New York during 1900 were 342,274 bags of Maracaibo,.
41,404 La Guayra, 8,035 Coro, 64,745 Savanilla, 172,301 Mexican,
204,739 Central American and 20,903 Jamaica.

Following differences between average of 19 years and receipts for
1900: Maracaibo, 31,017 bags more; La Guayra, 75,627 less; Coro,
540 less; Savanilla, 33,386’ less; Mexican, 56,121 more; Central
America, 23,062 less, and Jamaica 3,191 less

43

Stocks on Dec. 31, of following years, follows: Maracaibo, 1900;
38,354 bags ; 1899, 7,323 ; 1898, 30,488 ; 1897, 37,800; 1896, 19,000 ;
* 1895, 47,200. La Guayra, 1900, 4,039; 1899, 187 ; 1898, 4,866; 1897 |
400; 1896, 1,600; 1895, 3,700; 1894, 1,001. Coro, 1901, 3,499;
1899, 450; 1898, nil; 1897, nil; 1896, 150; 1895. 3,000; 1894, 300 bags.
Savanilla, 1900, 12,884; 1899, 6,222; 1898, 21,885; 1897, 20,800;
1896, 12,000; 1895, 21,000, and 1894 3,619 bags. Mexican, 1900,
2,648; 1899, 8,252; 1898, 5,749; 1897, 17,000; 1896, nil; 1895,
4,000; 1894, nil. Central American, 1900, 3,802; 1899, 2,454;
1898, 2,871; 1897; 5,500 ; 1896, 4,500; 1895, 7,000; 1894, 836 bags
Jamaica, 1900, 2,870; 1899, 997; 1898, 2,486; 1897, 700; 1896,
1,700 ; 1895, 1,870, and 1894, 2,360 bags. (Gleaner).

CHOICE VARIETIES OF BANANA.

Norr py Mr. Watson oF Kew GARDENS IN GARDENERS’ CHRONICLE.

On the subject of Bananas worth cultivating, I might point out the
numerous delicious-fruited varieties which are yet unknown to the
ordinary consumer of Bananas, which are as superior to what he gets
from his greengrocer or fruiterer as Cox’s Orange Pippin is to a Crab.
A selection of the best of these first-rate varieties has been got together
at Kew, and two years ago sixteen were sent to the new Agricultural
Department in the West Indies to be distributed from Wominica.
They bear such names as “ Pisang Kelat,” ‘‘ Pisang Radji,” “ Pisang
Mas,” “Ram Kela,” “Champa,” ‘“ Lady’s Finger,” &c. Some of these
have fruited at Kew.

“Ram Kela” has cylindrical brown-red fruits 6 to 8 inches long,
and 2 inches in diameter. and the flesh is a rich yellow colour, with a
flavour of Pine-apple. Ifthe banana of the shops is worth a penny,
then “ Ram Kela” is worth a shilling:

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
DEPARTMENT.

LIBRARY.
(Journals, Pamph!ets, &.)
EUROPE.

British Isles.
Annals of Botany, Dec. 1900. [Purchased ]
Botanical Magazine, Jan. [ Purchased. ]
British Trade Journal, Jan. [Hditor.]
Chemist and Druggist, Dec. 29, Jan, 5,12,19. [Editor.]
Colonial Reports, Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. Col. §
Foreign Office Reports, Sept. Nov., Dec. \ [Col, Sec.]
Garden, Dec. 29, Jan. 6,12,19. [Purchased.]
Gardeners’ Chronicle, Dec. 29. Jan. 6, 12,19. [Purchased. |
International sugar Journal, Jan. [Editor.]
Journal Board of Agri., England, Dec. [Sec. Board of Agri.]
Journal of Botany, Jan. [Purchased.]
Journal, Dept. of Agri. and ‘l'echnical Instruction for Ireland, First Year.
No. 2 Noy. 1900. [Purchased.]
Journal Royal Colonial Institute, Jan.
Microscopy, Illustrated Annual of, London, 1898, 1900, [Purchasad.].
Nature, Dec. 27, Jan. 3,10,17. [Purchased.]

44 .

Pharmaceutical Journal, Dec. 29, Jan. 6,12,19. [Kditor.]

Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other Possessions of the United
Kingdom, 1885-1899. [Col. Sec.]

Strophanthus, a Contribution to the Pharmacognosy of Official Strophanthus *
Seed. [Director of the Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories.] :

Sugar-cane Disease of the West Indies, Note on, by Sir W. T. Thiselton- :
Dyer. [Author.]

W. Indian and Com. Advertiser, Jan. [Hditor.]

France. :
Sucrerie indigéne et coloniale, Dec. 26, Jan. 1, 8, 15, 22. [Editor.] :
Germany.
Tropenpflanzer, Jan. {| Editor.] |
Switzerland.

Mémoires de l’Herbier Boissier, No, 22. [Conservateur.]
Bulletin de Herbier Boissier, Vol. I. No. I. [Conservateur.]
ASIA.

India
Agricultural Ledger (Calcutta) No. 18. [Lt. Gov. Bengal.]
Planting Opinion, Dec. 8,15, 22. [Editor.]
Report on the Operations of the Dept. of Land Records and Agriculture,
Madras, 1899-1900. |

Ceylon
Times of Ceylon, Dec., 13, 20, Jan. 3. [Editor.]
Java.
Proefstations East and West Java, Nos. 22 and 50. [Director.]
AUSTRALIA.

Quzensland.
Annual Report of the Dept. of Agri., 1899-1900. [Sec. of Agri. ]
Queensland Agri. Journal, Dec. (Sec. of Agri.]
New South Wales.
Agricultural Gazette, Dec. [Dept. of Agri.]
Victoria. [Dept. of Agri.]
Tuberculin Test, Pub. by order of Hon, J. W. Taverner, May, 1897.
Manures and Manuring, including Rules for valuation of Manures.
Modern Dairying, by Messrs. D. Wilson and R. Crowe, Dairy Experts, &.
Report by Mr. D. Wilson, On Export of Froz3n Produce from Victoria,
1898-9. ; ;
Report by Mr. D. McAlpine, On Fairy Rings & the Fairy- Ring Puff-Ball.
-Guides to Growers,—No. 31 (Wheat Experiments,—Season 1896.)
32 (Fungous Diseases of the Raspberry.) 33 (the Peanut.)
34 (Canaigre.) 35 (Rust in Wheat Experiments 1894 to 1896-7.)
36 (The San Jose Scale.) 37 (Wheat Experments—Season 1897-8.
38 (Experiments with Fodder Plants.) 39 (Raisin Making.)
40 (Fruit Flies.) 41 (Cider Making.) 42 (Horse Breeding.)
43 (Fruit Pulping for Export.) 44 (Bunt, or Stinking Smut of Wheat
and its treatment.)
Western Australia.
Journal of the Dept. of Agri., Nov., Dec. [Presented.]

AFRICA.
Oape of Good Hope.

Agricultural Journal, Nov. 22. [Dept. of Agri.]

Natal.
Agri. Journal and Mining Record of Natal, Dec. [Dept. of Agri.]

Oentral Africa.
Central African Times Noy. 10,17, 24, Dec. 8. [Editor.]
West INDIEs.

Burbados,
Agricultural Gazette, Dec. [Editor.]

pe es
ar *

45

West Indian Bulletin, Extra No. Report of Proc. at the W. I. Conference,
1901. [Com. Imp. Dept. of Agri. ]
Jamaica.
Journal, Jamaica Agri. Soc., Vol. LV, 1900., Jan. 1901. [Secretary.]
Trinidad.

Proc. of Agri. Soc., Dec. 11, 1900. Society Paper No. 148 (Prussic Acid in

Sweet Cassava.) ([Secretary. |
British NortH AMERICA.
Toronto. .

_ University of Toronto Studies: No, 1. The Structure, Micro-Chemistry and
Development of Nerve cells, with special reference to their Nuclein
Compounds. No. 2. On the Cytology of Non-Nucleated Organisms.

Nova Scotia.
Proc. & Trans. Inst. of Science, Vol. X., Pt. 4. Session of 1898-99. [Secre-
tary.)
Ontario.
November Crop Report, Bull. 75.
Agri. Coll. Bulletins. 111,112, Dec. [Dept. of Agri. ]
Unrrep States or AMERICA.
Publications of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Scientific Bureaus and Divisions. [Directors. |

Division of Biologica! Survey. 14 (Laws regulating the Transportation and
Sale of Game.)

Division of Botany. (Contr. from the U. 8. National Herbarium, Vol. VII
No. 1 Monograph of the North American Umbelliferae.)

Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. 24 (Spot Disease of the
Violet.) 25 (Some Diseases of N. E. Conifers: A Preliminary Report.,)
(Peach leaf curl: its Nature and Treatment.)

Experiment Stations.

California. 118 (Distribution of Seeds and Plants.) 119 (Vino Pruning.)
120 (Olive Knot.) 121 (Conservation of Soil Moisture and economy in
the use of Irrigation Water.)

Kansas. (Press Bulletins,—78 Johnson Grass.) (79 A Digestion Experi-
ment with Buffalo-grass hay.)

Maryland. (68 Fertilizer Experiments with Different Sources of Phosphoric
Acid.) 69 (Influence of Feed and Care on ine Individuality of Cows.)

Michigan. 182,183, 184, May,—June, (A popular discussion of Pure Milk
Supply, Gassy Curd and Cheese, Tuberculosis and its Management.

New York. 177 (Report of Analyses of Commercial Fertilizers for the Spring
and Fall of 1900.) 178 (Inspection of Babcock Milk Test Bottles.)

New Jersey. 147. (The Angoumois Grain Moth.) (Correction Bulletin 145.)

Ohio. 120 (Bulletin and Ninteenth Annual Report for 1899-2900.) f

Oregon. 63 (On the Prevention of Smut on Oais.) 64 (Investigation of di-
seases in Poultry.)

Rhode Island, 74 (A Rotation of Crops. Potatoes, Rye, Clover.) 75(A
Four Year Rotation of Crops. Indian Corn, Potatoes, Rye, Clover.)

Tennessee. 3 (Fertilizer Experiments, 1 Potatoes. 2. Corn. 3. Cow Peas.
4, Peanuts, and Effects of Fertilizers on the Germination of Seeds.)

American Journal of Pharmacy, Jan., Feb, [Editor.
Annual Report of the Director to the Board of Trustees, 1898-99, Vol. I., No. 5.

[Field Columbian Museum. ;

Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1897,

Botanical Garden, New York, Jan. [Editor.]

Botanical Gazette, Chicago, Jan. [Editor.]

Bulletin from the Laboratories of Nat. Hist. of the State University of, lowa

Vol. IV. No. 2,

Fern Bulletin, Jan. [Editor.] :
Inventory No. 8 Seeds and Plants imported for Distribution in Co-operation with
the Agri, Exp, Stations. Numbers 3401-4350.

Journ. Cincinnati Soc, of Nat. Hist., Jan. 4, Vol. XIX, No. 5. (With) Index to
Vol. XVIII.)

46

Missouri Botanical Garden, Eleventh Report 1900. [Secretary. ]
Plant World, Dec. [Editor.]

The Forester, Jan. [ Publishers. |

“Torrey Club Bulletin, Dec. [Hditor. ]

PoLyNESIA.
Planters’ Monthly, Hawaii, Dec. [Editor]

Lisprary (Books).

Jackson (Benjamin Daydon). A Glossary of Botanic terms with their
Derivation & Accent. London, 1900. 8vo, [ Purchased. |

Percival (John) Agricultural Botany, Theoretical and Practical. London.
1900. 8vo. { Purchased. }

Books and Pamphlets

Presented by the Trustees of the British Museum through George Murray, Esq.,
Keeper of tke Botanical Department.

Banks (Sir Joseph, & Dr. Daniel Solander) Illustrations of the Botany of
Capt. Cook’s Voyage round the World in H. M.S. Endeavour in 1768-
71. With Determinations by James Britten F.L.S., Part I , Australian
Plants. London. 1900, Folio.

Barth (A.M.) De corticis Peruviani usu. Vitembergee 1758.

Bradley (Richard) The History of Succulent Plan s. With their Descrip-
tions & Manner of Culture. Decades 1. & II. London. 1716. 8vo.

Bridel (S.E.) Bryologia Universa. 2 Vols. Leipzig. 1826, 1827, 8vo.

Brown (Robert, George Murray & oth»rs) Directions for Collecting and
Preserving Plants. London. 100. 8vo.

Davis (Bradley Moore) Euglenopsis :' A New Alga like Organism. [Extract]
Aunals of Botany, Vol. VIII No. XXXII. Dec., 1894. Oxford.

Davis (Bradley Moore) Notes on the life history of blue-green motile cell.
[Extract] Botanical Gazette, Vol XIX. Chicago, 1894.

Dewey (Lyster H.) Legislation against Weeds. Washington, 1896. [Bull.
No. 17. U.S. Dept. of Agri., Division of Botany.

Hiern (William Philip) Catalogue of African Plants collected by Dr. F.
Welwitsch in 1853-61. Part [V. London, 1900. 8vo.

Hooker (W. J. & G. A. W. Arnott) Contributions towards a Flora of South
America and the Islands of the Pacific. [Extract] Hooker’s Bot. Miscell.
ITI. 1833. 8vo.

Hooker (William Jackson) Exotic Flora. 3 Vols. in one. (Text only).
Glasgow, 1825-1827. 8vo.

Humboldt (F. A. von & Bonpland) Plante A quinoctiales. Vols.1. & II.
Paris 1805-18. Folio.

Jacquin (Nicolas Joseph) Observationum Botanicarum, 4 Parts. Vienna.
1766-71. Small Folio. (Text only.)

Jussieu (Adrien de) Considerations sur la famille des Huphorbiacéess
(Mémorie lu 4 l’Academie des Sciences, le 14 juillet, 1823.) 4to.

Lagerheim (Af. G.) Bidrag till Amerikas Desmidié-flora’ [Hxtract,] Kongl.
Vetenskaps-Akadeniens Forhandlingar. 1885. No. 7. Stockholm.

Lewis (F. W.) Notes on New and Rarer Species of Diatomacez of the U.S.
Seaboard. Philadelphia, 1861.

Lewis (#. W.) on Extreme and Exceptional variation of Diatoms in some
White Mountains localities, &c. Philadelphia, 1865.

Lister (Arthur) Guide to the British Mycetozoa exhibited in the Dep. of
Botany, British Museum (Nat. His.) London, 1895 8vo.

Montague (J. F. Cam.) Sylloge Generum Specierumque Plantarum Cryp-
togamarum, Paris. 1856. 8vo.

Ray (John) Historia Plantarum. 3 Vols. London, 1686-1704. Large 4to.

Ruiz Lopez (Hipolito & Antonio Ruiz Gomez) Memoria sobre la planta
Llamada Purhampuny 6 China Peruviana. Madrid, 1821. 4to.

Smith (Erwin F.) Legal Enactments for the Restriction of Plant Diseases.
A Compilation of the Laws of the U.S. and Canada. Washington, 1896.

[Bull. No. 11, U.S. Dept. of Agri., Division of Vegetable Physiology
& Pathology. ]

7

47

Smith (Worthington G.) Guide to Sowerby’s Models of British Fungi in the
Dept. of Botany, British Museum (Nat. Hist.) London, 1898. 8vo.
Thompson (Charles Henry) A Revision of the American Lemnacez occurring
North of Mexico. (Printed in advance from the Ninth Annual Report

of the Missouri Botanical ‘iarden.) Issued Nov., 1, 1897.

Webber (Herbert J.) Work of the U.S. Dy pt. of Agri, on Plant Hybrid-
isation. [Reprint] Journ. R. Hort. Society, London, 1900.

The following are presented on behalf of the Committee for investigating the
Flora and Fauna of the West Indies by Geo. Murray, Esq., Keeper of the Botani-
cal Department, British Museum (Nat. Hist.)

ZooLoGYe

Ashmead (W. H.) On the parasitic Hymenoptera of Grenada, comprising the
Families Cynipide, Ichneumonide, Braconide, & Proctotrypide. [Extract.]
Proc. Zool, Soc. Lond., 1895.

Champion (G. C.) On the Heteromerous Coleoptera of St. Vincent, Grenada, and
the Grenadines. [Extract] Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1896.

Champion (G. C.) On the Serricorn Coleoptera of St. Vincent, Grenada, and the
Grenadines. [Extract] Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1897.

Dollfus (M. A) On West Indian Terrestrial Isopod Crustaceans. [Extract]
Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1896.

Forel (A.) On Formicides de )’ Antilles St. Vincent. [Extract] Trans. Hat. Soc

~ Lond., 1893.

Forel (A.) Quelques Formicides de ]’Antilles de Grenada, W.I. [Extract] Trans.
Ent. Soc. Lond., 1897.

Gahan (Chas.J.) On the Longicorn Coleoptera of the West India Islands,
[Extract] Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1895.

Grouvelle (A.) Clavicornes de Grenada et de St. Vincent (Antilles) [Extract]
Notes from the Leyden Museum Vol. XX.

Hampson (Sir George F.) Moths of the Lesser Antilles. [Hxtract] Trans. Ent.
Soc. Lond., 1898.

Jacoby (M_) On phytophagous Coleoptera from St. Vincent, Grenada, and the
Grenadines, Crioceridze—Galerucide. [Extract] Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond,, 1897.

Kirby (W. F.) On Odonata (Dragonflies) received from the West Indies, [Extract]
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. Vol. XIV, 1894.

Peckham (G. W. & E.G.) On the Spiders of the family Attide of the Island of
St. Vincent. [Extract] Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1893.

Riley (C. V. W. H. Ashmead, & L. O. Howard) On parasitic Hymenoptera of St.
Vincent. [Extract] Linn. Soc. Journ.—Zoology, Vol. XXV.

Simon (E.) On the Spiders of St. Vincent. Part I. [Extract] Proce. Zool. Soc.
Lond., 1891.

Simon (E.) On the Spiders from St. Vincent. Part II. [Extract] Proc. Zool.
Soc. Lond., 1894.

Simon (E.) On Spiders from St. Vincent. Part III. [Extract] Proc. Zool. Soc,
Lond., 1897.

Smith (A. H.) On land and fresh-water shells of St. Vincent, Grenada, and other
neighbouring Islands. [Extract] Proc. Malacological Soc. 1895.

Uhler (P. R) On Hemiptera-Heteroptera from St. Vincent, W.I. [Extract] Proc,
Zool. Soc. Lond., 1893.

Uhler (P. R.) On Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the Families Anthocoridae, and
Ceratocombidae from St. Vincent. [Extract] Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1894.

Uhler (P. R.) On the Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the Island of Grenada, W.I,
[Extract] Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1894.

Uhler (P. R.) On Hemiptera-Homoptera of St Vincent, W.I. [Extract] Pro.
Zool. Soc. Lond., 1895.

Waterhouse (C. C.) On some Buprestidae from the West Indies and other locali-
ties. [Extract] Ann. & Mag. of Nat. Hist. XVIII, July, 1896.

Waitenwyl (C. B. v. & J. Redtenbacher) On the Orthoptera of the Island of St.
Vincent, W.I. [Extract] Proc. Zool. Soc, Lond., 1892.

——E——

48

Wattenwyl (C. Brunner v.) On the Orthoptera of Grenada, W.I. [Extract]:
Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1893.

Williston (S. W.) On the Diptera of St. Vincent, W.I. (Dolichopodide and
Phoridx, By Prof. J. E. Aldrich) . [Extract] Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1896.

Botany,
Gepp (A.) Additional Notes on filliott’s Hepaticze. [Extract] Journ. of Botany, -
189

Massee (George) Some West Indian Fungi. [Extract] Journ. of Botany, Vol.
XXX, 1892.

Spruce (Richard) Hepaticae Elliottiane, insnlis Antillanis Sti. Vincent et Dominica. -
[Extract] Linn. Soc. Journ.—Botany, Vol. XXX.

Wainio (EH. A.) Lichenes Antillarum [Extract repaged] Journ, Botany, 1896.

SEEDS.

From Reasoner Bros., Oneco, Florida.
Columbian Pecan.
Stuart Pecan.

From Botanical Gardens, Hong Kong—
Pinus sinensis.

From Botanic Gardens, British Guiana—
Castilloa elastica,

HERBARIUM.

From Dr. Grabham, Kingston—
28 Sps. of Malvaceae.

[Issued 5th March, 1901. ]

New Series. “APRIL, 1901. Vol. VIII.
Part 4.

BULLETIN

OF, THE

~ BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

>> 8<.——————

CONTENTS:

PaGeE.
The conservation of Soil Moisture — yea 49
The Juniper Cedar of Jamaica ; D9
Banana Conference : : | 56
Additions and Contributions : GF

P RIC E—Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P,Q.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING Orricg, 79 Duke Srrexz,

=

1901.

7

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. VIII.

New Series. ] APRIL, 1901. Part 4

THE CONSERVATION OF SOIL MOISTURE AND
ECONOMY IN THE USE OF IRRIGATION
WATER.*

By E. W. Hintcarp anp R. H. LovucuHrincs.

Amount of water required by crops.—It is not very generally under-
stood how large an amount of water is required for the production even
of fair crops; for the maximum of possible product is rarely obtained
on the large scale, because it is not often that a// conditions are at
their best at any one time and locality. But from numerous observa-
tions, made both in Europe and in the Eastern United States, it has
been found that from 300 to over 500 tons of water are on the average
required to produce one ton of dry vegetable matter. . .

These data should enable us to estimate the adequacy of the mois-
ture contained in the soil at the beginning of the dry season to mature
the crop, provided we make due allowance for any growth already made
at the time, and provided also that the estimates as to the water
requirements derived from the experience of the countries of summer
rains (the humid regions) hold good for the arid region also. The
surprisingly successful growth and bearing especially of deciduous
trees, without irrigation, despite a drought of five or six months in the
* Franciscan climate,”t+ has led to an impression that a less amount of
water may suffice under arid conditions For in the East, as many
weeks of drought and intense heat would frequently suffice to destroy
the crop.

Probable causes of this endurance of drought,—Doubtless the main
cause of this remarkable endurance is to be found in the much deeper

* Bulletin 121, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of California.

+ This name has been felicitously applied by Powell to the climate of middle
and Southern California, which is characterized by the concentration of rains
within a winter which is mild enough to constitute a growing season, while the
summer is practically rainless.

50

rooting of all plants in arid climates ; whereby not only a much larger
bulk of moist soil is at their command, but the roots are withdrawn
from the injurious effects of the hot, dry surface and air.

This deeper range of the roots is not the result of foresight on the
part of the plant. It could not occur on Eastern soils, because of the
intervention, in the great majority of cases, of difficultly penetrable sub-
soils ; from which, moreover, plants could draw but little nourishment
on account of their “rawness.” In the arid region, as a rule, sub-
soils in the Eastern sense do not exist; the soil mass is practically the
same for several feet, and in the prevalent soils is very readily pene-
trable to great depths. This, summarily speaking, is due to the slight
formation of clay, and the rarity of heavy rains, in the arid region.
And this easy penetrability of the soil implies, moreover, that being
well aerated, the depths of the soil are not “raw,” as in the East; and
therefore that the “sub-soil,” such as it is, may fearlessly be turned
up as deeply as the farmer is willing to go with the plough, without
danger of injuring the next season’s crop, in all lands that are well
drained; as, by reason of their depth and perviousness, is the case with
most California soils,

We know the deep penetration of a peach root developing in a nor-
mally deep, well aerated “bench” soil, in a manner quite impossible to
the same root when growing in land underlaid, as are most Eastern
States ones, by a subsoil which either is too dense or too wet to be
penetrated and utilized by the tree.

A root system of a typical Eastern tree root will stand in absolute
need of frequent rains or irrigation to sustain its vitality, but a Cali-
fornia tree may brave prolonged drought with impunity, being inde-
pendent of surface conditions, and able to perform all its functions out
of reach of stress from lack of moisture.* It is equally clear that it
is to the farmers interest to favour, to the utmost, this deep pene-
tration of the roots, both in the preparation and tillage of the ground,
and in the use of irrigation water. For if the latter is used too fre-
quently or too abundantly, the salutary habit of fdeep rooting will be
abandoned by the plant, and it will, as in the East, be dependent upon
frequent rain or irrigation ; and also, owing to the small bulk of soil
upon which it can draw for its nourishment, upon frequent and abun-
dant fertilization.

Eastern immigrants as well as a large proportion of California
farmers do not realize the privilege they possess of having a triple and
quadruple acreage of arable soil under their feet, over and above the
area for which their deeds call; and they tenaciously continue to
adhere to precautions and practices which, however salutary and
necessary in the region of summer rains, do not apply to this climate.
The shallow ploughing so persistently practised results in the formation
of a “ ploughsole” that plays the part of the Eastern subsoil in prevent-
ing root penetration ; limiting their range for moisture and plant food,
and thus naturally causing crops to succumb to a slight stress of season
which ought to have passed without injury, had the natural conditions
been taken into proper consideration.

* The moisture determination under this tree gave,"to the depth of eight feet,
an aggregate amount of water of 1,058 tons per acre.

51

Roots follow moisture.—Very striking examples of deep rooting ag
-+the result of vertical moisture penetration can b2 observed in some of
.our native trees, which, while naturally at home on moist ground, are
nevertheless sometimes found forming luxuriant clumps on the slopes
-and even summits of our coast ranges and foothills. If we examine
the ground where this occurs in the case of California laurel, we will

generally find that the soilin which they grow is underlaid by slate or
shale standing on edge, into the crevices of which the roots penetrate,
wedging them open; while themselves flattening out, and thus pene-
trating to moisture at considerable depths. The samé may be observed
in the case ef the erect “ bedrock” or foothill slates of the Sierra, on
which native as well as fruit trees flourish in very shallow soils, soma-
-times reaching permanent moisture at the depth of ten or more feet
below the surface. It can readily be observed during rains that there
is comparatively little run-off from the surface of these lands underlaid
by vertical shales. |

On the same principle, the grape vines which bear some of the
choicest raisins of Malaga on the arid coastward slopes, are made to
-supply themselves with moisture, without irrigation, by opening around
them large, funnel-shaped pits, which remain open in winter so as to

catch the rain, causing it to penetrate downward along the tap-root of
the vine, in clay shale quite similar to that of the California Coast
Ranges, and like this latter, almost vertically on edge. Yet on these
game slopes scarcely any natural vegetation now finds a foothold.

Similarly the “‘ryots” of parts of India water their crops by applying
to each plant immediately around the stem such scanty measure of the
precious fluid as they have taken from wells, often of considerable
depth, which form their only source of water-supply. Perhaps in

imitation of these, an industrious farmer has practiced a similar system
_on the high benches of Kero River, and has successfully grown
-excellent fruit for years, on land that originally would grow nothing
‘but cactus. Sub-irrigation from pipes has been applied in a similar
manner.

The principle flowing from the above is simply that the most
-economical mode of using irrigation water is to put it “ where it will do
the most good,” close to the stem of the plant or trunk of the tree, and
let it soak downward so as to form a moist path for the roots to follow
to the greatest possible depth. It is this deep penetration to natural
moisture, as a matter of fact, which enables the small quantities sup-
‘plied to produce such marked effects.

Basin irrigation.—It will be noticed that this principle is practically
‘the same as that of the basin irrigation of orchards, which was
-originally largely practised in California, but has now been mostly

abandoned for furrow irrigation. The latter has been almost univer-
sally adopted, partly because it requires a great deal less hand-labour,
-partly under the impression that the whole of the soil of the orchard
is thus most thoroughly utiliz:d; partly also because of the injurious
-effect upon trees produced at times by basin irrigation.

The explanation of such injurious effects is, essentially, that cold
irrigation water depresses too much the temperature of the earth
immediately around the roots, and thus hinders active vegetation to
‘an injurious extent, sometimes so as to bring about the dropping of

52

the fruit. This, of course, is a very serious objection, to obviate
which it might be necessary to reservoir the water so as to allow it to
warm before being applied to the trees. In furrow irrigation the
amount of soil soaked with the water is so great that the latter is soon
effectually warmed up, besides not coming in contact too intimately
with the main roots of the tree; along which the water soaks very
readily when applied to the trunk, thus affecting their temperature much
more directly. It is for the fruit-grower to determine which considera-
tion should prevail in a given case. Ifthe water-supply be scant and
warm, the most effectual use that can be made of it is to apply it im-
mediately around the trunk of the tree, in a circular trench dug for the

urpose. When, on the contrary, irrigation water is abundant and
its temperature low, it will be preferable to practice furrow irrigation,
or possibly even flooding. As to the more complete use of the soil
under the latter two methods, it must be remembered that while this
is the case in a horizontal direction, yet unless irrigation is practiced
rather sparingly under the furrow system, it may easily happen that
the gain made horizontally is more than off-set by a corresponding
loss in the vertical penetration of the root-system. This is amply
apparent in some of the irrigated orange groves of Southern California,
where the fine roots of the trees fill the surface soil as do the roots of
maize in a corn field of the Mississippi States; so that the plough can
hardly be run without turning them up and under. In these same
orchards it will be observed, in digging down, that at a depth of a few
feet the soil is too water-soaked to permit of the proper exercise of the
root functions, and that the roots existing there are either inactive or
diseased, That in such cases abundantirrigation and abundant fertili-
zation alone can maintain an orchard in bearing condition, is a matter
of course ; and there can be no question that a great deal of the con-
stant cry for the fertilization of orchards in the irrigated sections is
due quite as much to the shallowness of rooting induced by over-irriga-
tion, as to any really necessary exhaustion of the land. When the
roots are induced to come to and remain at the surface, within a sur-
face layer of eighteen to twenty inches, it naturally becomes neces-
sary to feed these roots abundantly, both with moisture and with plant
food. This has as naturally led to an over-estimate of the require-
ments of the trees in both respects. Had deep rooting been encouraged
at first, instead of over-stimulating the growth by surface fertiliza-
tion and frequent irrigation, some delay in bearing would have been
amply compensated for by less of current outlay for fertilizers, and
less liability to injury from frequently unavoidable delay, or from
inadequacy, of irrigation.

CoNnsERVATION OF Sort MotsturrE,—Alongside of economy in the
use of irrigation water, the conservation of the moisture imparted to
the soil either by rains or irrigation is most important; critically so
where irrigation is unavailable.

Utilization of winter rains and winter irrigation—However strong
is the populer demand for storage of the winter rainfall and flood
waters, too many do not appreciate the importance of the storage they
can command without the use of reservoirs, within their own soil
mass. While there is a well-grounded objection to subjecting plough
land to the leaching action of the abundant rains in the humid region,

53

no such objection holds in the case of lands lying within the limits of
20 to 25 inches of annual rainfall. Here the absorption of the winter
rains should be favoured to the utmost, for the run-off is mostly a dead
loss. Fall ploughing wherever the land is not naturally adequately
absorbent, and is not thereby rendered liable to washing away, is a
very effectual mode of utilizing the winter’s moisture to the utmost,
so as to bring about the junction of the season’s moisture with that of

+he previous season, which is generally considered as being a condition

precedent for crop production in dry years. The same of course holds
true of winter irrigation ; the frequent omission of which in presence

_of a plentiful water supply at that season is a prolific cause of avoidable

erop failures. Moistening the ground to a considerable depth by
winter irrigation is a very effective mode of promoting deep rooting,

and will thus stand in leu of later irrigations, which, being more

scant, tend to keep the roots near the surface.

Knowledge of the subsoil.—lt cannot be too strongly insisted upon
that in our arid climate farmers should make themselves most
thoroughly acquainted with their subsoil down the depth of at least ~
four, but preferably six or eight feet. This knowledge, important enough
in the East, is doubly so here, since all root functions are and must be
carried on at much greater depths. It is hardly excusable that a
business man calling himself a farmer should omit the most elementary
precaution of examining his subsoil before planting orchard or vine-
yard, and should at the end of five years find his trees a dead loss in
consequence of an unsuitable subsoil. Similarly, no irrigator should
be ignorant of the time or amount of water it takes to wet his soil to
a certain depth. We have lately seen a whole community suffering
from the visible decline of the thrift of its fruit trees, which occurred
despite what was considered abundant irrigation; 7.e. allowing the
water to run for a given length of time, deemed to be sufficient. Yet
on being called in to investigate the causes of the trouble, the station

staff found that the irrigation water had failed to penetrate during the

allotted time to any beneficial extent, so that the trees were, in the
main, suffering from lack of moisture—a fact that could have been
verified by any one of the owners concerned, by simply boring or ~
digging a hole or two. But no one had thought of doing so, and all
kinds of mysterious causes were conjectured to be at work in the
suffering orchards. A definite knowledge of the rapidity with which
irrigation water penetrates dowaward and sideways in his soil should
form a part of the mental equipment of every irrigator, particularly in
arranging his head ditches. For in sandy lands it may easily happen
that when these are too far apart, the water near the head ditch is
already wasting into the country drainage at the depth of ten or twelve
feet, before any has reached the end of the furrows, or has wetted the
lower half adequately Many such cases come under our observation,
and such ignorance of the conditions governing one of the most impor-
tant factors of success is hardly excusable in any one. Nor is the
quality of the water used indifferent in this connection; for waters
containing alkali will fail to penctrate the soil as quickly as would
ordinary stream waters.

Preventing evaporation.—But supposing the moisture to have reach-

ed the depths of the soil, whether from rains or from irrigation, it is

54

essential that proper means be employed for retaining it in the land,
and especially to prevent eveporation. That this is best accomplished
by a mulch on the surface, and that the best mulch for the purpose,
which need not be hauled on or off and is always ready, is a surface
layer of loose, well-tilled soil, is now pretty well understood by all.
But the extent to which the presence or absence of such a non-evaporat=
ing layer influences plant growth and fruit production in a critical
time, is not so fully appreciated. We have seen trees and fruit grown
this season on adjacent fields, with only a lene between, the soil and
all natural conditions being absolutely identical; the only difference
being the presence and absence of cultivation. In the present case the
cultivation was omitted on principle by one owner, who considered
cultivation superfluous on the loose, generous soil of Alameda creek;
while his neighbour, across the way, held the opposite belief, and had
this season cultivated to an extra depth to conserve moisture. The
determination of the moisture held by the soil in July to the depth of
six feet gave the following results :—

Cultivated. Uncultivated.
Depth in Soil.
Tons per Tons per

Per Cent, Acre. Per Cent. Acre.

First Foot 6.4 128 4.3 86
Second Foot uf 2 5.8 116 4.4 88
Third Foot we 6 4 128 3.9 78
Fourth Foot 6.5 130 5.1 102
Fifth Foot 6.7 134 awe 68
Sixth Foot 6.0 120 4.5 90°
Total for six feet ... 6.3 756 4.2 512

The difference of 244 tons per acre of ground shown by the analyses is-
quite sufficient, according to the data given at the beginning of this
bulletin, to account for tke observed difference in the cultural result.
The cause of this difference was that in the uncultivated field there was
a compacted surface layer several inches in thickness, which forcibly
abstracted the moisture from the substrata and evaporated it from its
surface; while the loose surface soil on the cultivated ground was
unable to take any moisture from the denser subsoil. This is well
illustrated by the familiar fact that while a dry brick will suck a wet
sponge dry, a dry sponge (corresponding to the loose surface soil) is.
unable to take any water from a wet brick. Besides, the tilled surface
soil forms a non-conducting layer protecting the subsoil from the sun’s-
heat and the dryness of the air.

In the East, where this principle is well understood, it is considered
that a surface layer three inches in thickness is sufficient to afford
effective protection. But what is adequate in the region of summer

55

rains is quite insufficient in California and in the arid region generally.
It takes fully twice the thickness mentioned, and preferably more, to
afford protection against the drought and heat lasting five or six
months at a stretch. Here again we find an important point in which
our practice must differ from that of the East and of the Old World.

The beneficial effects of summer fallow in California are assuredly
due quite as much to the conservation of moisture brought about by
the tilled surface layer, as by the weathering of the soil to which the
efficacy of the fallow is commonly ascribed. Witness the fact that
weeds come up freely on summer-fallow as late as August, when
unplouged land is as bare as a barn floor.

Similarly on our mostly new and unexhausted lands, the bad effects
of weed growth are doubtless due fully as much to the waste of moisture
going on through their leaves as to the competition with the crop in
plant food. Hence all good orchardists are very careful about keeping
their ground clean in summer; but it must not be forgotten that by
doing so they quickly deplete their lands of vegetable matter, which
requires systematic replacement if production is to continue normally.
Yet of the two evils, the loss of moisture is more to be dreaded, and
very generally in practice the more difficult to remedy.

THE JUNIPER CEDAR OF JAMAICA.*

Until comparatively recently some doubts have existed concerning
the species of Juniperus found in the island of Jamaica and in the
Bermudas respectively ; and there has been a corresponding difference
of opinion as to the nomenclature to be adoptec. The difficulties of
the case were primarily due to the absence from our herbaria, until
quite lately, of any modern specimens of the tree native to Jamaica.
Another source of confusion has arisen from the polymorphism so
constantly presented by certain species of juniper, etc., thus there
are the linear primordial leaves, which are free at the base, and
spreading and there are the adult leaves, closely appressed, ovate,
acute, convex, and often glandular at the back. Between these two
forms are others, intermediate in form, according to the age of the
shoot and its rate of growth. A particular tree or more frequently
a particular branch, may, as is well known, produce only primordial,
spreading leaves, or only imbricate scale-like leaves ; or, again, both
forms may co-exist on the same branch with or without intermediate
forms.

The receipt of excellent specimens of the Bermuda juniper through
the kindness of Mr. Haycock, as well as of equally satisfactory speci-
mens of the Jamaica species with which I have been favoured by Mr.
Fawcett, induces me to offer a few remarks on the history and position
of the two trees. ,

In the first place, it is obvious from the comparison of the specimens
from the two islands that. the Bermuda tree, generally called Junipe-
rus bermudiana, is quite distinct, alike from the species growing on

* Extract from Article on The Bermuda Juniper and its Allies by Dr. Mz
T. Masters, in Journal of Botany, Jan., 1899.

56

the mountains of Jamaica and from that (now universally known as
J. virginiana) which occurs from New Brunswick to Florida on the
eastern side of the United States, whilst the same or representative
forms occur in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, in British Colombia,
and southward in Texas and New Mexico.

Extending over so vast an area, exposed to widely different environ-
ment, it is no matter for surprise that the species presents much varia-
tion. Many of these variations are in cultivation in this country, and
are among the most elegant of hardy conifers.

The history of the Bermuda tree has been sketched by Mr. Hemsley
in the Gardener’s Chronicle for May 26, 1883, p. 656, and in the
Report of the Botany of the Challenger Expedition.

The name bermudiana has been adopted by Mr. Hemsley, but whether
the tree is really the original J. bermudiana of Linnzus is open to
question, as will be shown hereafter.

Of the Jamaica plant, at the time Mr. Hemsley originally wrote,
there were no specimens at Kew, though specimens existed in the
Sloane Collection in the British Museum.

This West Indian species was referred by Grisebach (Flora of the
British West India Islands (1864, p. 503) to J. barbadensis of Linneeus.
Leaving for the moment the question of nomenclature, it may be
repeated that an examination of Mr. Fawcett’s specimens leaves no
doubt that the Jamaica tree is specifically distinct from that of Ber-
muda. Moreover, as suggested by Mr. Hemsley and others, it is, in
spite of some variation in habit, specifically identical with the vir-
giniana of the main land.

There seem, therefore, to be only, two species. One is Bermudan,
and known asa cultivated plant in the Azores, Antigua (De Ponthieu !)
and Saint Helena. Possibly the same species may occur in Jamaica
and other West Indian Islands, but there is at present no adequate
evidence on this point.

The other species, J. virginiana L., is as has been said, distributed
ever a vast area in the United Sfates, and has long been known as an
inhabitant of the Blue Mountains of Jamaica. It occurs also, as seems
most likely, in Cuba (Wright, 3187 !), in the Bahamas (Hggers, 4358 ),
and in Antigua.

Prof. Sargent in litt. inclines to the view that the Florida form of
virginiana is identical with the Jamaica species, and sufficiently dis-
tinct to constitute a separate species.

BANANA CONFERENCE.

A banana conference was held at the Jamaica Institute on the 19th
December, last, His Excellency the Governor in the chair. Amongst
those present were His Grace the Archbishop, Hons. H. E. Cox, lL.
J. Bertram, W. Fawcett, & Messrs. T. H. Sharp, H. H. Cousins, A.
Clodd, A. Roxburgh, A. F. Clark, Watson, R. J. Hay, U. J. Hay, F.
Verley, H. G. Ronaldson, R. Hotchkin, D. Campbell, H. G. Burnett,
J. Barclay, R. A. Walcott, O. Plummer, F. G. Bather, J. Allen, J.

57

Powell, H. A. Cunha, J. Fisher, O. Feurtado, T. Kemp, Dr. Duerden &
‘Capt. Baker.

Unfortunately the rains had blocked the railway and prevented the
planters from the north-side attending.

His Excellency stated that one of the primary objects of the meet-
ing was to introduce Mr. Cousins, the Chemist, to the agriculturists of
the Colony. He thought that they were very fortunate in obtaining
the services of Mr. Cousins, whose exceptional ability had been testified
to on all hands inthe most flattering manner. Dr Morris had written
to him expressing his warm admiration of Mr. Cousin’s attainments
and his conviction that he would take a high place among technical
officers of the West Indies and be of great service to Jamaica.

His Excellency then asked the Director of Public Gardens to open
the discussion.

Mr. Fawcett said that the. main point with Banana planters was to
find out how to increase the bunch by a “ hand.”

Flowers.—He showed drawings of flowering shoots of the common Ba-
mana, one, of the shoot taken out when it was halfway from the ground
‘to the top, the other when it was just at the top. In both it was clear
‘that the number of hands was already determined. In the lowest hand
the fruit portion of the flower is about two-thirds of the whole length
of the flower. ‘[his relative proportion is the same in all of the 7 or
8 of the lowest whorls of flowers, and so the bunch will be of 7 or 8
hands ‘Then one or more occur with the fruit portion about one-half
the length of the whole flower, followed by all the others in which the
fruit portion is only one-third of the whole length.

This shows that no cultivation and no manure at this stage will
affect the number of hands in the bunch,—the problem must be at-
tacked at an earlier period.

In connection with the flowers comes the question of the possibility
of improving the fruit by cross-fertilising and raising seedlings.

The difficulty is that the cultivated banana very rarely forms any
seed. If we can discover the conditions that favour the formation of
seed, it would then be possible to work by cross-fertilisation.

All the flowers which eventually form hands are female only, the
anthers, or male elements being abortive; the flower or flowers which
directly succeed these are both male and female, and all that follow are
functionally only male.

Therefore fertilisation with pollen from another plant is alone possi-
ble, and that just at the time the flower shoot appears.

Leaves. —The most striking features about the Banana plant is it ¥
rapid growth, its early maturity, and the enormous amount of fool pro™
duced in a small area.

This is accounted for when we find that almost the whole plant is
composed of leaf-structure. The apparent stem is really made up of
parts of the leaves.

The leaves receive substance from the air, and what is taken up from
the soil by the roots must also pass into the leaves to be formed into
-material for the growth of the plant. When sufficient of this complex
‘material is stored up in the root-stock, the flowering shoot is gradually
formed, and at length bursts forth with the young bananas.

58

The leaf is not adapted to a windy situation like the finely-divided
leaf of the cocoanut palm. The plant has been developed in sheltered
valleys and ravines where no wind occurs to tear the leaf into shreds
and prevent in doing its work of assimilating food.

Strong wind prevents the formation of large bunches and large fruit,
and may wreck the plantation when the bunches are nearly ready for
cutting.

Stem.—The apparent stem consists in reality of the bases of the
leaves. The true stem or root-stock is underground. It isa storehouse
of food-material which goes to form new leaves, suckers, and the fruit.
When the flowering shoots are about ready to appear, the leaves be-
come much reduced in size, showing that the flowering shoots are ab-

sorbing a larger proportion than before of food-material, but probably
at this late stage the removal would only affect the size of the indi-

vidual fruits.

Roots.—The rocts are thick and fleshy, keeping pace in length with:
the height of the plant, sending out small roots with root hairs all.

along its length. They have not much power of accommodation when

meeting rocks, stones, &c., apparently dying back for some little way

at the interruption and then branching again.
Evidently the natural soil is a loam with plenty of humus to retain
moisture. If the soil in which bananas are planted is sandy, plenty

of pen manure or green dressing ‘should be ploughed in; if the soil is
clayey, plenty of lime should be applied, as well as green dressing, and-

of course drains are essential.

The roots may be pruned with the plough at their tips as they keep

pace with the height, su developing the branching system. This de-
velopment of the branching of the roots is of great importance in
giving the plant extended means cf obtaining food.

Ploughing deep will encourage roots to go down, and so help in
anchoring the plant.

Varieties.—Although the common Jamaica banana is the best that

we know at present for general export, there are many varieties culti-
vated in the East Indies, which are described as being of superior
merit, and would command high prices in England and the States as
a special luxury. Some of these sent from Kew and Dominica are
now growing at Hope Gardens.

It may be found possible to cross-fertilise some species, and so pro-
duce other varieties than are known at present.

Hon, T. H. Sharp made the followiag remarks :— } |

There are no hard and fast rules laid down for the cultivation of the
Banana, but every planter should go about the matter by bringing his
intelligence to bear on it, and to observe the conditions that exist on
his property. I will give you an instance: You must prune often in
St. Catherine, but in Clarendon if you prune close you get bad results ;
this is within a distance of 20 miles, as the birds fly. At the same
time there are certain things which you cannot get over, and we should
study them and try to improve: I speak of such things as ploughing.
Although theadvantages of ploughingare great, still the indiscriminate
way of ploughing, constantly disturbing the system of the plant
(perhaps just as it is bearing) is wrong. If you were to plough every

59

other row, and then let six weeks pass before you ploughed the other
rows, it would allow the trees to recover from the first shock and to
put out the new roots. 7

_ We should meet often, and compare notes; conferences of this kind
are of great value.

- Pruning.—I advocate not allowing any suckers to grow against the
mother-plant, before the mother-plant has decided the number of hands
it will give to its bunch; and this is known when the bulb base
begins to enlarge, just at the part where the leaves start. The plant
is then full grown, and it has been allowed to store all its energy for
the making of the bunch, and as soon as it starts the sucker may delay
the bearing, but it cannot lessen the number of hands. If you allow
the sucker to grow before the bunch is formed, it will starve the bunch,
by taking away the nutriment that is to make the bunch and feed
itself. Open aspects are best, so as to allow free scope for the wind.
Shelter belts do not save bananas. They make the wind whirl, and
- this gets into the fields, tangles up the broad leaves, and knocks the
whole thing down.

Irrigation.—The taking the water around is the trouble; unless
you have a large flow it will not move quickly enough to cover the
land before it sinks, so you have to keep on a much larger quantity
than you otherwise would.

I advocated applying water at the top of the trees by spraying.
After the bunch gets to the top of the tree, if the weather is very
dry, it will remain for weeks before it comes out, but by applying a
little water at the top, it acts like a lubricant, and the bunch is pro-
duced very quickly. The rapid expansion of the head of the tree with-
in a few days after about two quarts of water have been applied is appar=
ent. We should spray the trees with water, which isa simple process,
When we do this we will be able to regulate to some extent the pro-
duction of fruit in time to meet the good markets,

Mr. Clodd, spoke on subjects Tillage and Implements ; Economical
use of land, (1) best distances, (2) inter cropping; shelter belts. Mr.
Clodd after dealing with the implements used, said that to determine
the most economical use that can be made of the land an opinion must
be arrived at as to what it can do, either from cultivation on land ads
joining or from one’s own personal experience on similar soil, or better
still, secure an analysis of the soil and compare it, if available, with
analysis of soils in the same locality on which bananas were thriving
and giving a good return. A good deal depended on the market one
was working for. A spring crop was the one most profitable; and it
was to this end that most of them were working. The close planting
so far as one could judge from the present lands cultivated under that
system showed great promise of being able to bring the bulk of the
fruit in those months.

There were three most important ways where economy could be ob-
tained in this method of planting. The distances at which bananas
were planted and which appeared tobe most generally adopted if the
acreage planted was any criterion as to the best use of the land, were
14 feet and 15 feet square respectively. At either of those distances
the results obtained would appear to show that it was the best if @

60

steady crop of fruit was desired all the year, without undue exhaustion
of the soil. Lately a great many experiments were being carried on
-as to the best distance to plant, but. these were of such recent occur-
rence that only time could tell what might ultimately be most gene-
rally adopted The growing of inter-crops had not been, as far as he
knew, tried to any extent with perhaps the exception of Indian corn,
and then if planted too thickly the effect was bad, and it would be
doubtful if the money value of the corn when sold would compensate
one for the injury done the banana trees. One reason why inter-crop-
ping was not more practicable was that there was no reliable market
for the produce when grown. If there was such a market there was
no reason to doubt that by planting the catch crop strictly in the
eentre of the row that no ill-effects would result. As to permanent
inter-crops, such as oranges, cocoa and many other economic trees,
banana seemed to be an ideal cultivation by which permanent planta-
tions could be established at a small cost. This depended on the soil
and climatic conditions and the natural bent of of the planter himself.
With respect to shelter belts such things had been tried in St.
Catherine but were not of much use.

M.r H. H. Cousins, said he was glad to have this early oppor-
tunity of meeting so representative a gathering of those interested
in the banana culture—He frankly confessed that he had everything
still to learn about the culture of the banana, but he felt confident
that the same principles and methods which had been applied to the
cultivation of other plants and crops should enable Jamaica to greatly
extend and improve its banana industry. It had been suggested to
him that the agriculturists of Jamaica were anticipating that with the
arrival of the new Agricultural Chemist, they would be able to obtain
analyses of their crops and of their soil and thus to learn what manurial
applications were necessary to maintain the productive capacity of the
land. He would most stronly urge all practical men to banish this
fallacy from their thoughts. Such methods and such advice were alone
justified on the basis of an analyst’s professional fees, and had been
markedly injurious to Agriculture in the past. He had only to mention
the case of the turnip crop in England asan illustration of the fallacy
of predicting manurial requirements by crop analysis. The turnip
abstracts from the soil much nitrogen and potash but very little
phosphate, from which the logical deduction would be that a turnip
manure should contain much nitrogen and potash while phospate
would be unnecessary. Asa matter of ascertained practice the very
opposite represents the real requirements of the crop. Phosphates are
essential while nitrogen and potash are in the majority of cases quite
unnecessary. Sound knowledge of this kind was not obtainable by a
priori predictions from analysis but by actual field trials under agri-
cultura) conditions. He hoped that it would shortly be possible to
start such field experiments on all typical soils in the Island where
the banana was largely cultivated. As regards manuring, they must not
lose sight of the fact that all such experiments must be made subser-
vient to one dominating factor, viz., that of monetary profit. Unless
a system of manuring paid, it could not be of benefit to the industry.
He was led to believe that the very small extent to which Jamaica
planters availed themselves of commercial fertilisers was due to@

61

distrust of their quality and genuineness. At present no legal control
of fertilisers and feeding stuffs was in force and he hope to persuade
the Government to pass an act similar to those in force in the United
Kingdom and various colonies. He had seen the excellent results of
fair and honest trade in manures in Barbados and hoped soon to see a
similar state of things ensured in Jamaica.

nel

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
DEPARTMENT.

Lisrary (Serials. )
Europe.

British Isles.
Botanical Magazine, Feb. [ Purchased. ]
British Trade Journal, Feb. [Editor.]
Chemist and Druggist, Jan. 26, Feb. 2,9, 16, 23, Mar. 2. [Editor.]
Colonial Reports, Dec. 1900, Jan. 1901. Col. §
Diplomatic & Consular Reports, Dec. 1900, Jan. 1901. \ [Col, See. ]
Garden, Jan. 26, Feb. 2, 9, 16, 23, Mar. 2, with Supplement. [Purchased. ]
Gardeners’ Chronicle, Jan. 26, Feb. 2, 9, 16, 23, Mar. 2. [Purchased.]
International Sugar Journal, Feb. [Editor. ]
Journal of Botany, Feb. [Purchased.]
Journal Royal Colonial Institute, Feb.
Journal Royal Hort. Society—Report of the Council for the Year 1900,
Nature, Jan. 24, 31, Feb. 7, 14, 21, 28. [Purchased. |
Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, Nov. 1900. ) oe
The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, with Key Plan, Jan. 1901 | [Direotor: }

Pharmaceutical Journal, Jan., 26, Feb., 2, 9,16, 23, Mar. 2. [Editor.]
W. Indian and Com. Advertiser. Feb. [Editor. |

France.
Sucrerie indigene et coloniale, Jan. 29, Feb. 5,12, 26. [Editor.]

Germany.
Beihefte zum Tropenpflanzer, Feb. [Editor. ]
Tropenpflanzer, Feb. [| Editor.]

Switzerland.
Memoires de l’Herbier Boissier, No, 2. [Conservateur.]

ASIA.

India

Planting Opinion, Jan. 5, 12, 19, 26, Feb. 2. [Kditor.]

North Western Provinces and Oudh, Bull. 7. (Note on Sugar Cane Disease).
8. (Procedure to be adopted in the systematic examination of varieties
of Crops.) 9. (Experiments on the growth of Wheat and Maize at the
Cawnpore Experimental Farm.) 10. (Experiments at the Cawnpore
Farm on the growth of Wheat (a) with Green Manuring, & (b) in rota-
tion with Leguminous Crops.) 11. (A Note on Trials of an Aermoter
in Well Irrigation.)

Ceylon
Times of Ceylon, Jan. 7, 10, 17, 24, 31. [Editor. |
Circulars, July Sept., Dec., Royal Botanic Gardens. [ Director. ]

62

Java.
Proefstation W. Java, Nos. 48 and 49. [Director.]

AUSTRALIA,

Queensland.
Annual Report of the Dept. of Agri., 1899-1900. [Sec. of Agri.]
Queensland Agri. Journal, Jan. [Sec. of Agri.]
Queensland Sugar Journal, Jan. [Editor.]

Western Australia.
Journal of the Dept. of Agri., Jan. [Dept.tof Agri.]

AFRIOA.

Oape of Good Hope.
Agricultural Journal, Jan. 3,17, Dec. 6,20. [Dopt. of Agri.]

Natal.
Agri. Journal and Mining Record, Jan, 4,18, Feb. 1. [Dept. of Agri.]

Central Africa.
C. African Times Dec. 15, 22, 29, Jan. 5, [Editor.]

West InpIEs.

Barbados. :
Agricultural Gazette, Jan. raion
Occasional Bulletin No. 10 (West Indian Hurricanes, with some Observations
on the Hurricane of the 10th September, 1898, at Barbados.)
West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 2. No. 1. Extra Number—The Marine Re-
sources of the British West Indies. By J. E. Duerden. [Author.]

Jamaica.
Journal, Jamaica Agri. Soc., Feb. [Secretary. ]

Trinidad.
Bot. Dept. Bulletin, Jan. [Superintendent. ]

British NortH AMERICA.

Ontario.
Thirty-first Annual Report of the Entomological Society 1990. [Dept. of
Agri |
Ottawa.
Bulletin No. 36 Results obtained in 1900 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder
Corn, Field Roots and Potatoes. [Dept. of Agri.]

Toronto.
Annual Report of the Board of Trade for the Year 1900. [Secretary.]
Report of The Botanical Club of Canada, 1900 )
Phenological Observations, Canada, 1899 x
A Fresh Water Sponge from Sable Island + [Secretary Sesser.
Local “ Nature” Observations

UnitED States oF AMERICA.
Publications of the U. 8. Dept of Agriculture. [ Directors. |

Scientific Bureaus and Divisions.
Division of Biological Survey. North American Fatina No. 16, Rosults of a
Biological Survey of Mount Shasta, Cal.)
Division of Vegetable Physiology & Pathology, 21 (Two Diseases of Red
Cedar, caused by Polyporus Juniperinus n. sp. and Polyporus carneus
Nees. 26 (Wakker’s Hyacinth Germ, Pseudomonas hyacintht (Wakker).
27 (The Wilt Diseases of Cotton and its Control).

63

Experiment Stattons.

Alabama. 110 (Grapes.)

Arizona. (Eleventh Annual Report for Year ending June 30, 1900.)

Arkansas. 62. (Wheat -Experiments.) .

<yaeun Press Bulletin 80 (Notes on Plums.) 81 (Soy Beansin Kansas in
1901.

Michigan. (Thirty-ninth Annual Report of Board of Agri. & Thirteenth
Annual Report of Experiment Station 1899-1900.)

New York 179 (An Anthracnose anda Stem Rot of the cultivated Snap-
dragon.) 180 (Miscellaneous Notes on Injurious [nseots.) 181 A
Fumigator for Small Orchard Trees.)

Tennessee. 1 (Experiments with Corn, Forage Crops & Spring Cereals.) ¢
(Feeding Native Steers.)

Wyoming. 45 (A Preliminary Report on the Artesian Basins of Wyoming.)

American Journal of Pharmacy, Mar. [Editor.]
Botanical Gazette, Chicago, Feb. [Kditor.]

‘New or little known North American Trees. II. By C.S. Sargent. (Reprinted

from Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXXI. Jan. 1901.) [Author.]

Notes on Crataegus in the Champlain Valley, By O. 8S. Sargent. (From Rhodora,
Vol. 3, No. 26, Feb. 1901.) [Author.]

Plant World, Jan. [Editor.]

Progress of Forest Management in the Adirondacks. Ann. Report of the Director,

N.Y. State Coll. of Forestry [J. Gifford. ]
Report of The Forrester for 1900, By Gifford Pinchot. [Dept. of Agri.]
The Forester, Feb. [Publishers. ]

~ Torrey Club Bulletin, Jan. [Editor.]

CENTRAL AMERICA.

'Primitiae Florae Costaricensis, By H. Pittier. [Author.]

SoutH AMERICA.
Bolitim da Agricultura, Sao Paulo, Brazil, No. 5. [Director.]

Revista do Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo, Vol. ITV. [Director.]

PoLyNESIA.

Planters’ Monthly, Hawaii, Jan. [Editor]

Lisrary (Books).

Engler(A.) Das Pflanzenreich, IV. 45. Musaceae von K, Schumann
Leipzig, 1900. 8vo.
Do. do. IV.8. Typhaceae und I1V.10. Spargani-
aceae von P. Graebner. Leipzig. 1900. 8vo.
Do. do. IV. 9. Pandanaceae von O. Warburg.
Leipzig. 1900. 8vo. [Purchased.]
-Green (J. Reynolds) Vegetable Paysiology. London,1900. 8vo, [ Purchased.]

SEEDS.

From C. H. M. Trayner, H. M. Consul, Guatemala—-
Guatemala Cocoa.

From Botanic Gardens, Hong Kong—
Quercus cornea.

From Mr. Elmer Stearns, California,—
Chinese Grape Fruit Pomelo (Pear shaped, length 6 or 7 iaches)
German Winter Musk Melon (keeps two or three months.)
Pine Apple Winter (Musk Melon—keeps 3 to 5 months.)
Ginkgo biloba.

64

From Mr. Jenman, British Guiana—
Archontophoenix Cunninghamii
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens
Dypsis madagascariensis
Licuala Rumphii
Livistona rotundifolia
Pritchardia pacifica
Washingtonia filifera

From Southern California Acclimatizing Association, Santa Barbara
Cupressus arizonica

C. funebris

C. glauca

C. guadalupensis
C macrocarpa

Eucalyptus Lehmanni

Melaleuca leucadendron

Pinus Torreyana

Romneya Coulteri

Tacsonia exoniensis
Jamesoni

TT: mollissima

From Botanic Gardens, British Honduwras—
Hirtella dodecandra
PLANTS.

From Botanic Ga dens, British Guiana—
Seedling Canes—D 109, 124, 125, 1382, 135, 145, 170, 358, 366, 711, 721,
734, 755, 757, 790, 848, 916, 1082, 1108, 1143, 1168, 1234, 1438. 1439,
1483, 1488, 1850, 1880, 1896, 1897, 1959, 2028, 2093, 2190, and-
36 varieties tied separately in small bundles

From Botanic Station, Barbados—
Seedling Canes—B. 109, 156, 208, 254, 306, 347. 379, 390

From Mr. Elmer Stearns, Los Angeles, Cal—
4 cuttings of Grape Vino Cipro nero

4 es Tinta Valdepenas
6 . Sabalkansky
HERBARIUM.

From C. F. Sullivan, Esq., Mandeville—
Solandra grandiflora

[Issued 2nd April, 1901. ]

New Series. } MAY, 1901. Vol. VIII.
Part 5.

BULLETIN

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:

Page.
Washed soils : how to prevent and reclaim them , 65
Oil of Akee : 74

Additions and Contributions : | 78

PRIC E—Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O,

KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OrFice, 79 Duke Srrxzr,

——

1901,

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JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.
New Series. ] MAY, 1901. Vol. VIII.

Part 5.

WASHED SOILS: HOW TO PREVENT AND RE-
CLAIM THEM.*

THE EROSION, OR WASHING, OF AGRICULTURAL SOILS.

The denudation, or washing, of lands of the higher levels of the
earth’s surface is a process which no human precaution can wholly pre-
vent. It has been one of the most important forces and factors in the
geological changes which have so modified the surface of the earth.
The present surface of the largest portion of the United States is
made up of this “sedimentary” or “ drift” material which has been
moved from the place where it was formed through the disintegration
and decay of the old crystalline rocks, by water, wind, or moving ice,
and which has accumulated to a depth of hundreds or thousands of
feet over nearly the entire surface of the country. It is estimated that
the general surface of the land in the area of the crystalline rocks of the
Piedmont Plateau has been lowered at least 2,000 feet by this contin-
ual washing. This vast amount of material has been slowly removed
and deposited elsewhere by the very same agents which we are con-
tending with to-day in our gullied fields; for this denudation, or ero-
sion, is still going on, as it has been for ages past.

_As a rule this denudation is exceedingly slow and the general level
of large tracts of country is not lowered more than an inch or two ina
hundred years. Where the change is as slow as this it is undoubtedly
of benefit to the human race, as in the course of time it must carry off
the soil which has been used over and over again for vegetation and
expose fresh material to the roots of plants. With this slow change
the natural forces are amply sufficient for the decay of the subsoil and
for the conversion of this freshly exposed materiel into a good soil.
Whon the rate of denudation is excessive, however, and more rapid
than the natural decay of the subsoil material which is exposed, it
may work serious injury to agricultural lands.

Along the banks of the Ohio River and in very many portions of the
South hundreds of fields that were once covered with sturdy forests of

oak, maple, walnut, and pine, and which bore under cultivation, after

* U.S. Dept. of Agriculture: Farmers’ Bulletin No. 20.

66

being clared of the natural growth, large crops of wheat, maize,
tobacco, and cotton, may now be seen furrowed with gullies as with
the wrinkles of age, and abandoned to brush and briers.

A surface layer of good agricultural soil 6 inches deep resulting from
the slow and gradual disintegration and decay of rocks and accumula-
tion of humus may have required hundreds of years for its natural
formation, and yet it is liable to be washed away in a single storm.

This excessive erosion, or washing, of lands may be prevented, and
tne already gullied fields may be recovered, and steep slopes of loose
material may be held and prevented from washing~— -

(1.) By chemical means, in the application of manures and fertilizers
and in the accumulation of organic matter, which change the texture of -
the soil and make it more porous and more absorbent of water, so that
there is less to run off over the surface.

(2.) By means of cultivation and underdrainage, which prevent ero-
sion by distributing the surface flow over the ground and increase
the amount carried off by underdrainage.

(3.) By reforestation, or the planting of trees, which act mechanically
to prevent washing.

(4.) By grass und similar vegetation, which bind the soil grains and
prevent their washing away.

The erosion of a soil is caused by the wearing of the rain and snow
waters which can not penetrate into the soil fast enough to be carried
away by underdrainage, and which, by reason of the slope or contour
of the land, run off over the surface carrying al ng particles of sand
and clay. When this water accumulates in a depression in the fields
the force of the torrent may be sufficient to cut out a great gully in a
short space of time.

The extent of washing to which the soil 1s exposed depends upon the
quantity of rainfall in a given time, the slope or contour of the surface,
the textnre of the soil, the vegetative covering of the surface, and the
kind and condition of cultivation. A soil composed chiefly of moder-
ately coarse grains of sand, and having good underdrainage, will
absorb the heaviest rainfall without much danger of surface erosion.
A clay soil, on the other hand, into which the water can not percolate
with anything like the rapidity of the precipitation, will be,;washed and
gullied by the torrent of water which must flow over the surface.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE SOIL TO SURFACE WASHING.

It has been repeatedly shown by experiments and by the experience
of farmers that a soil, as a rule, absorbs water more readily as the con-
tent of organic matter and humus increases. Surface erosion can,
therefore, be largely prevented by such a system of cultivation and
cropping as will introduce as large a quantity of organic matter into
the soilas possible. A very old method of recovering washed and gul-
lied lands is to place straw in the furrows while ploughing, the straw not
only acting mechanically to hold the soil in placeand prevent surface
erosion, but also in a very efficient way to increase the quantity of
humus, thus making the soil hold large quantities of water which
otherwise would have passed off over the surface. In this simple way
fields which have been badly washed and gullied and entirely aban-
doned may be recovered and made highly productive.

67

The most important thing in the recovery of waste fields is the
incorporation of organic matter of some kind in the soil; pea vines,
stubble, briers, or leaves from the forest may be used as a source of the

organic matter. The straw from one acre of land which has been recov-

ered, as mentioned above, will be sufficient to start the recovery of
another acre, even if this be deeply furrowed with gullies. Where
enough organic matter can be used as a surface dressing, this layer
helps greatly to retain water and to make the underlying soil more
absorbent.

As soon as a sufficient supply of humus has been accumulated
and the lands are brought up to an adequate condition of fertility,
clover or grass should be seeded, if the land is at all suited to these
crops, or rye, oats, or field peas should be sown to help hold the sur-
face. Little by little, but more rapidly than would be expected from
the forbidding aspect of the field, the land can be reclaimed again and
made productive through the accumulation of humus and organic mat-
ter. A soil containing a fair quantity of humus will wash less readily
than one nearly destitute of this matter.

A soil containing a fair supply of lime is much less liable to wash
than one similarly situated and exposed which is deficient in lime,
The reason of this is that clays which are deficient in lime, when once
brought into suspension by moving waters, will remain in suspension
and keep the water turbid far a long time. Clays which are heavily
impregnated with lime salts, on the other hand, are in a flocculated
state, the fine grains of clay being held together and in contact with
the larger grains of sand. This flocculated mass quickly settles and is
originally not so easily disturbed and carried off by moving water. A
field treated with an abundance of lime is thus less easily washed by
heavy rains. The results of investigations by Schulze, Schloesing, and
Hilgard have shown in a most emphatic way the beneficial changes
which take place, especially in stiff clay soils, by the application of
lime.

The change in the ‘physical condition of the soil which is produced
by the lime, and which is likewise produced by a number of other
chemicals ordinarily used in commercial fertilizers, is another impor-
tant factor worthy of consideration. A stiff clay soil is practically
impervious to the penetration of surface water when it is delivered in
such torrents as we are liable to have in our summer storms. A well-
limed soil, on the contrary, although it may contain as much clay but
in which the particles are flocculated or drawn together, is much more
pervious to water, and the amount of water which the soil will carry
down through underdrainage is increased, and the excess which has
to flow off over the surface is diminished. The surface washing of cul-
tivated fields, especially those which are naturally deficient in lime,
can be greatly diminished, therefore, by the free application of this
substance to them.

A number of the ordinary fertilizing materials have an important
effect upon the texture of soils and upon the permeability of soils to
water, but few systematic investigations have been carried on in this
line and not much, except of local importance, has been definitely set-
tled by experiments or by the experiences of farmers.

68

WASHING OF LANDS MAY BE PREVENTED BY METHODS OF CULTIVATION
AND UNDERDRAINAGE.

The depth and character of the tillage are very important factors in
the washing of lands. A field in a condition of fine tilth and ploughed
to a depth of 10 inches will hold 2 inches of rainfall and absorb it very
readily, and a soil in such a condition will suffer no surface washing
from any ordinary rainfall. Where itis possible, therefore, land which
is apt to wash should have the soil gradually deepened and be kept in
a fine state of tilth so as to increase the storage capacity for excessive
precipitations. This will not only save the surface from being washed.
and gullied, tut it will also increase the store of moisture held by the
soil, which is of very great value in the time of drought.

It is important also for this, as for other reasons, that the soil be
covered with vegetation as much as possible throughout the year, as the
roots and organic matter serve to bind the grains of the soil together. In
some parts of Holland the drifting sands of the coast, which shift their
position with every storm, often cover up valuable farming lands.
Vast areas of these sands have been reclaimed and made productive by
being covered with vegetation, while the roots and remains of organic
matter hold the soil grains in place and prevent them from drifting and
covering up more valuable lands. Any crop which requires very clean
culture, as for example, cotton, is exhausting tothe land for the reason
that constant exposure of the surface to the sun and storms uses up the
organic matter, makes the soil less porous, and the soil particles them-
selves are more easily washed away; so that, this clean cultivation is
in its effects very favourable to excessive erosion.

Another very effective method, when properly carried out, to prevent
the washing of lands is to underdrain the soil with tile or other
drains. These drains carry off quite rapidly an excess of moisture, so
that much more of the rainfall is absorbed by the soil and carried off
through the drains and less washes over the surface of the land. Not
only this, but a well-underdrained field is usually dryer and more
porous, and has a greater capacity for absorbing the excessive rainfall
and thus preventing surface washing. A field thoroughly underdrained.
with tile drains will carry off the water of any ordinary rainfall with-
out any surface erosion. This method is very effective, but is like-
wise very expensive, and can not be used economically in extensive
farming solely for this purpose of protecting the land from washing.

-While the land may thus be made more porous and more absorbent

of water— through the increase of the amount of organic matter or of |
humus, through the use of lime and other fertilizing material, through
the deepening of the soil by gradually increasing the depth of culti-
vation, by so cropping it that it shall be covered with vegetation as
much of the year as possible, and by underdraining the land—still,
these methods may not be sufficient to so change the chemical and
physical texture of the soil as to enable it to absorb the rain as it falls
and to prevent an excess of water washing and eroding the surface
where the contour of the land is such as to promote erosion from the
surface flow of the excess of water.

It will be necessary in this case to provide for a more uniform dis-
tribution of the flow over the surface, and to prevent any accumula-
tion of water which would have the effect of a torrential stream.

69

‘This is secured in a great measure by laying off the rows according
to the contour of the surface, so that each row will have a very slight
incline of not more than from 1 to 7 inches in 100 feet, and in which
the flow of water would be so slow that there would be little or no
erosion. Theoretically, this is a fine idea, to let each row carry off
its own proportion of the excess of rainfall so gently that there shall
be no erosion, thus acting asa miniature drain. Practically, how-
ever, it is often impossible to keep these rows from breaking through,
and when the bed is once broken and the water overflows into the
next row the accumulation of water is sufficient to break down bed
after bed until the rows from all the field are discharging into this
narrow channel.

To overcome this difficulty sidehill ditches may be used in which
larger and more substantial ditches are provided, following very
‘nearly the contour of the field, so that there shall be a fall of from 1
to 6 inches in 100 feet. The distance apart of the ditches will depend
upon the slope of the field; with a very steep slope they should be
close together, often not over 6 to 10 feet apart; with a gentle slope
they should be at intervals of 15 or 20 feet, or even further apart, de-
pending upon the texture of the soil and the contour of the surface.

These sidehill ditches are very easily constructed, being made
almost entirely with the plough. A bank is formed by running a num-
‘ber of furrows, throwing the dirt toward the middle. The last fur-
row on the upper side is cleaned out with a spade to form the bottom
of the ditch. If the plough is well handled it takes very little work
with the spade to make a very substantial ditch. It is well to get the
bank forming the lower side of the ditch sodded with grass to help
hold it and to lessen the danger ofits giving way during a heavy
rainfall. When the slope is thus protected with a number of ditches
at the proper distance apart, the rows can be given a rather steeper
fall so that they shall ran out into the drains at frequent intervals
and not have to carry the water so far. These ditches have to be con-
structed with care and have to be strengthened where they cross any
depression or sudden ourve by building up an embankment with
sticks and brush thrown across to support the embankment. Unless
these ditches are thoroughly constructed they are worse than useless,
for if they break they concentrate a volume of water upon one point
in the field which would otherwise have been distributed over the sur-
free, and this often forms a torrent which does great damage.

It is essential that these ditches and rows be run according to the
contour of the surface of the land, and that there shall be no low
places where the water would accumulate and gather force. They
should always be run with a level, of which there are several forms on
the market suitable for this work.

A more efficient, but at the same time much more expensive, method
of preventing the washing of lands where there is a considerable slope
is to terrace the fields so that there shall be level steps upon which
the water can rest fora while and be absorbed. In terracing, the
lines are run with a spirit level following the contour of the surface so
as to give a perfectly level line. A furrow is run along this line, and
a similar furrow is run along a lower contour, the distance apart dee
pending upon the nature of the land and the slope of the surface, as in

70

case of sidehill ditches. Theoretically, it isintended to have the surface:
between these two furrows level so that there will be no chance for the
water to run off over the surface. On a small seale this levelling can

be done with a horse shovel, and the land thus put at once into a con-

dition to prevent washing. In this case the banks of the terrace are
sodded or seeded with grass to prevent them from washing. In field

practice, however, the soil is moved gradually with a plough, the fur--

row being thrown always downhill and the soil gradually worked.

down to a level plain. ‘There are several forms of reversible ploughs.

which are admirably adapted to this purpose, being turned reedily:

from aright to alett handed plough, so that in going back and forth

the furrow is always thrown downhill. It requires, of course, a num-

ber of years of such cultivation to get the surface into even approxi-

mately a level condition, but with patience and thorough cultivation:

the soil very quickly assumes a comparatively level aspect, and erosion
is reduced toa minimum. This isa more expensive method, but if
intelligently done it is much more efficient and much more durable
than depending upon sidehill ditches to prevent erosion. As was
said in the case ot the sidehill ditches, unless this work is well done
it had much better be left undone, as it may seriously injure the
field.

Where erosion has proceeded so far as to render the land at present
unfit for cultivation, «r where the land is not needed for cultivation
and it is desired to prevent erosion, the Jand should be given up to
trees, herbs, or grasses of some kind according to one or other of the
following methods.

RECOVERING GULI1ED HILLSIDES BY REFORESTATION.

Forest giound is cot subject to this erosive action of the rainfall
because in a forest a large part of the rainfall never reaches the soil
as 20 or 8U per cent. is intercepted by the foliage and evaporated be-
fore it reaches the ground ‘The rainfall which reaches the surface is
rapidly absorbed. as the soil is kept granular and loose and much
more of the water is carried off by underdrainage rather than by sur-
face drainage.

The jorest covering protects the soil in the following ways :

(1) By preventing rain from falling directly upon the soil, the fo-
liage ot the tree crowns intercepting and breaking its force, the water
reaching the soil more gently from the leaves and along the branches
and trunks of the trees.

(2) By interposing a loose cover or mulch of litter formed by the
fallen leaves and branches, which breaks the direct force of the rain-

drops and keeps the soil from being compacted or puddled by their

blows,

(3) The deeply penetrating roots, and holes left from decayed stumps
and roots oi trees, assist in this underground drainage.

(4) The litter with the stumps and projecting roots and trunks of
trees prevent the water from rapidly running overthe ground and
from gaining the momentum and force which is necessary in order to
erode and gully the soil.

If the forest floor is not disturbed by fire, nor the litter trampled
and cc mpacted by cattle, it always reduces rapid surface drainage and
largely, if not entirely, prevents erosive action.

iZ

71

RECOVERY OF WASHED SOILS.

Just as deforestation of hillsides and hilltops is the first cause for
inducing erosive action, so is reforestation the most effective means
in curing the evil. This has been demonstrated in France, where the
Government and the farmers together have spent, during the last
thirty years, over £40,000,000 and expect to expend three or four
times that amount to reforest 1,000,000 acres of denuded mountain
sides, the soil and debris from which has been carried by the torrents
of water into the plain, covering over 8,000,000 acres of fertile ground
and making it useless for agriculture. Sodding for pasture has been
found mostly less effective and on the steeper slopes entirely ineffective.

Wherever the ground in the hill country is not fit for agricultural
use it should be set and kept in forest, not only to make it produce a
timber crop, but also to prevent tha erosion which finally becomes
dangerous to the lower valley lands. Wherever agriculture is possi-
ble and profitable there should be such a distribution of forest, pas-
ture, and field as will secure the greatest immunity from erosive and
torrential action of the waters. ‘Ihe forest should occupy all hilltops
which, as a rule, have too thin a soil to allow profitable agricultural
use ; it should be kept growing on the steeper slopes where the water
acquires the greatest momentum and the loosening of the soil by the
plough furnishes a most favourable condition for erosive action ; it
should be placed on all rocky, uneven, agriculturally useless spots, be-
cause it will produce useful material even on such unfavourable situa-
tions, and, finally, forest belts should be maintained on long slopes al-
ternately with fields and pastures, running along the brow of the slope
of widths and at distances proportionate to the character of the land
and the angle of the slope--on the steeper slopes closer together, on
the gentler slopes further apart. These belts, acting as a barrier to
break the force of the water, will prevent an undue accumulation of
surface waters and will protect to a considerable degree the lower
fields from washing. Farmers, therefore, living in the eroded hill
country should start upon the work of reforestation with a well con-
ceived plan. They should determine beforehand which parts ought to
be in forest, and which they may reasonably expect to adapt again to
agricultural uses. They should understand that they must begin this
work at the origin of the evil, at the very tops of the hills where the
water begins to gather and acquire its force, and gradually proceed
with their work down to the lower levels.

PREPARATION FOR PLANTING FORESTS,

Although cultivation of the soil for tree planting in the manner
practised for field crops is advantageous to the young plants for the
first few years of their life, it is by no means necessary, and rough,
broken and stony ground, which could not be ploughed and prepared
for ordinary field crops can be readily planted in trees. If the ground
18 1n Such a condition that it can be ploughed, this is decidedly the best
method of preparing the land. ‘The ploughing should inall cases fol-

low the contour of the hill and be as deep as possible, in order to

allow as much water as possible to soak into the soil and so diminish
surface erosion and prevent the young trees being washed out. The
pce gullies must be filled with brush and soil, or stones, rubble
and dirt,

72

In the deeply gullied hilllands, where ploughing has become impracti-
cable, other ways must be provided against the further erosive action of
the water, which would otherwise be apt to wash out anduproot the

lants. For this purpose it is necessary to break the force of the water
hy constructing brush dams across the gullies, and roughly fillin the
latter with stone, gravel, earth, etc., in front and rear if they are shallow
and at least in the rear if they are deeper. Where the ravines are espe-
cially deep and wide it may become necessary to supplement and
strengthen the rough dam with a loose rubble embankment or a dry
wall of stone. A simple and efficient method has been practised in
France, which consists in filling up the ravine with brush placed
lengthwise and keeping this down by poles laid across and fastened in
the sides of the ravine. The waters are thus allowed to drain off, while
the soil carried by them is retained in and over the brush, and ina
short time the gulley will fill up of its own accord. Then alders and
willows are planted along the edge and soon finish the work of securing
the ravine against washing. The means for thus breaking the foree of
the water in the gullies and changing it from a rushing torrent into a
series of gentle falls, and in part from surface drainage into subterranean
drainage, and of filling up. the gullies themselves will have to be de-
vised in every special case as circumstances permit and the ingenuity
of the operator suggests. The brush dam is preferably made of
readily sprouting material, which becomes alive and by striking root
adds to the firmness of the dam.

It is especially needful, as in all kinds of dams, to fasten the ends
scarcely. According to the steepness, depth, and width of the ravine
more or less frequent dams are necessary. After the brush dams,
walls and other breastworks have been established, the waters may be
allowed to do the work of filling up the gullies themselves, which they
will do sooner or later, or else, where it can be readily accomplished,
the filling may be done by hand.

It may be understood that unless this preliminary work is well done
and systematically, beginning at the very tops of the hills where the
waters start, it is not worth doing at all, since the water if allowed to
get headway would soon wash away and destroy any imperfect work.

PLANTING.

To cover the soil as quickly as possible with a dense and permanent
arborescent cover is the object to be attained Where thesoil has not
been so far eroded that p'oughing could be done, it might be best for the
first season to sow field peas, or other crops that will readily grow
and make a cover. This may be cut for green fodder, leaving a high
stubble, and tree seed can be sown broadcast with the fodder crop
in the early summer, or over the stubble after the crop is cut in the
late summer and fall. The cheapest and most readily germinating tree
seed should be looked for and the quantity used per acre should be
lavish to secure a dense stand from the first.‘ **' °° ;

Where the ground is too much cut up and too uneven to permit of
ploughing, recourse must be had to sowing of seed in plats, or planting
of seedlings or cuttings by hand. This is naturally much more ex-
pensive, and therefore should be done with greater care and foresight.
Plats may be made by loosening the soil with a hoe or spade, and sow-
ing the seed into these seed beds covering the seed only slightly. The

Peat '
4s

73

‘plats should be 3 to 4feet apart to make sufficiently rapid cover. The
success of this method is, however, very questionable, as not only the
germinating of the seed under the prevailing conditions is precarious,
but rains are apt to wash out the seed or young seedlings. The
surer method, however, will be found in planting seedlings or
cuttings. Seedlings are not only expensive but also more precarious
to handle, hence for the bulk of the plantation such kinds as can be
readily obtained and propagated by cuttings are used, and if desired a
sufficient number of seedlings of better kinds can be added to increase
the timber value of the plantation.

The first and principal object being to break the force of the sur-
face waters, the arrangement in setting out the plants should be as
nearly as possible in horizontal and parallel rows along the brow of
the hill, following the contours. To get a full cover as soon as possi-
ble the plants should beset not farther apart than 3 to 4 feet and even
less, making from 5,000 to 7,000 per acre. If this is found too ex-
pensive, or for some reason impracticable to be done at once, the work
may be reduced and divided into several seasons; the rows then may
be made farther apart, say from 6 to 16 feet, according to the slope,
and the plants in the row 2 feet, when the number will be one-half,
or less: *-*-

Whatever is done in such a work of recovering lost ground, let this
fact never be forgotten, that it is better to do a small part well than a
large part indifferently which usually means lost labour.

GRASSES AND SIMILAR VEGETATION PREVENT EROSION AND WASHING OF
AGRICULTURAL LANDS.

On gentle slopes a good turf of perennial pasture grasses, especially
those with creeping rootstocks, prevents erosion, or washing, of lands,
and short steep embankments may also be protected with this same
covering. On longer and steeper slopes, however, this method is not
so effective as that of reforestation.

In enumerating the effects to be obtained by the growth of grasses
and other herbaceous vegetation on washing lands, or lands liable to
be eroded, it should be stated that such growths are calculated to
break the force of the rainfall and prevent its packing the soil; to
render the ground more porous through the root penetration into the
subsoil; to make the soil more absorbent and more retentive of mois-
ture through the addition of humus to the soil from the decay of the
plants ; to retard the rate with which the surface waters flow off, and
lastly, to bind the particles of soil together, which is especially effec-
tive in the case of light sandy lands and of newly formed embank-
ments, whether of sand or clay.

The turf which would answer the present purposes should be com-
posed of perennial grasses of varieties which have creeping rootstocks,
and it is frequently essential that they be able to grow upon an im-
poverished and often hard soil. To secure a strong turf on lands of
this character it is very important that the soil be put into the best
possible condition. Where practicable the soil should be thoroughly
ploughed or loosened, and some variety of field pea or clover be seeded
down, such as the cowpea, well adapted to this purpose. There crops
may either be cut off, leaving a high stubble to be turned under, or

74

the whole may be ploughed under, thus furnishing a quantity of organic
matter to the soil as a preparation for the grasseswhich are to be
seeded.

With this preparation of the soil Bahama grass is one of the best
grasses for the purpose of preventing erosion, or of reclaiming eroded
land. This should be planted by cutting up a turf rather than by
seeding, as the seeds do not germinate very readily, even where
they have been gathered in a mature condition.

Where the soil will support other good turf grasses of higher value

for hay or pasturage, or where the soil can be brought into a condition
to support them, these more valuable grasses should be introduced.

OIL OF AKEE.

Sometime ago Mr. E. Foster (Montego Bay), sent to the Director a
small portion of oil extracted from Akee, and the residual cake. These
samples were sent to Mr. HE. M. Holmes, the Curator of the Pharma-
ceutical Society of London, and although they were small for the pur-
pose, they were carefully examined in the Research Laboratory. Mr.
W. Garsed has lately read a paper on the subject at a meeting of the
Society which is given below, reprinted from the Pharmaceutical
Journal,

In the discussion which followed the reading of the paper, Mr.
Garsed said the oil might probably be used for most of the purposes
for which palm oil is used at present, but they had not particulars
either of the price or anything else to beable to give any definite idea
of what its commercial value would be.

Mr. Peter MacEwan said that vegetable oil of this character is not
altogether wanted to take the place of palm oil in soap-manufacture,
but there is not in pharmacy a vegetable oil of the same consistence
as akee with its bland properties. He thought it would be of interest

to have a further supply of the oil with a view to having it tried for

medicinal and pharmaceutical purposes.

Mr. W. Martindale said that, although akee did not seem to be so
easily-oxidised an oil as linseed, it might replace some culinary oils,
like coco-nut, which have a disagreeable smell and bad keeping pro-
perties, ‘The question whether they would be able to grow the plants
to an extent to compete with the palm oil or coco-nut oil was one
which, however, he considered extremely doubtful.

Norte sy Mr. EH. Foster.

At present it would be almost impossible to put Akee oil on the
market, for, as a rule, the trees are never allowed to grow in abund-
ance, Only a few are kept for supplying the table. But, taking into
consideration the fact that akees can be grown on waste land with
almost no care whatever (though care would improve them) and the
large amount of fat the fruit contains, I believe that if the culture
were taken up money could be made out of it.

The oil is expressed from the whole of the dessicated fruit,—
only omitting the seed. Dessication can be artificially effected, but the

.
:
|

76

temperature must not run high. I have made common soap from the
dessicated akee pulp without going to the trouble of expressing the oil.
It saponifies very readily. Akee is well worth considering. The oil
cake is palatable and nutritious.

For common soap, dessicate the pulp. In expression of oil, dessi-
cate the whole fruit, there is no occasion to remove the red. It is
difficult to express oil from the dessicated pulp, as on the application
of pressure, oil and pulp pass through fine linen. Notso with the
dried whole or half fruit, the oil flows readily, leaving a solid cake
behind, of a savory smell and nut-like flavour, edible by human beings
and animals.

The juice from the skin makes a vegetable soap butit grows
mouldy quickly. I have not tried the seeds yet for oil.

Could the refined oil not be used as olive olive?

THR CHARACTERS OF OIL OF AKEE,
BY W. GARSED.

The oil of akee, handed to me by Mr. Holmes, is a yellow, non-
drying, butter-like fat at ordinary temperatures, consisting of a liquid
portion. and a solid granular portion.

It has a peculiar odour, and an oily, somewhat unpleasant taste.

In the diagram a comparison has been drawn between akee oil,
palm oil, and olive oil.

Akee oil begins to melt at about 25°C., is quite fluid at 30°C,, but
does not become perfectly clear until the temperature reaches 35°C.
The melted oil on cooling begins to solidify at about 20°C.

The specific gravity was taken at a temperature of 99°-100°C., and
compared with water at 15°5°C. The number found, 0.857, approxi-
mates closely to that of palm oil, which has a specific gravity of
0°8586 at a temperature of 95°-100°C.

The Hehner value is the percentage of insoluble fatty acid sobtainable
by saponifying the oil, and decomposing the soap with a mineralacid.

The Reichert value is a measure of the proportion of volatile or
soluble fatty acids. It represents the number of cubic centimetres of
decinormal potassium hydrate required for the neutralisation of the
volatile fatty acids obtained from 5 Gm. of the oil by the Reichert
Meissl distillation process, The low figure obtained, 0.9, indicates
that the amount of volatile acids present is practically nil. This is the
case with most vegetable fats.

The saponification value represents the number of milligrams of
potassium hydrate required to neutralise the tota/ fatty acids in one
gram of the oil.

The acid value represents the number of milligrams of potassium
hydrate required to neutralise the free fatty acids in one gram of the
oil. The value found was 20:1. The acid values of palm oil and olive
oil, and most other fixed oils, vary considerably according to age.

_ The iodine value is a measure of the proportion of unsaturated or
liquid fatty acids. It is the percentage of iodine absorbed: by the oil
when treated with Hubl’s iodine solution. |

The mixed fatty acids are obtained by saponifying the oil with
caustic alkali, decomposing the soap with a dilute mineral acid, filter-
ing out the liberated acide, washing with boiling water and drying.

76

Under a pressure of 13 millimetres the mixed fatty acids distil un-
changed, at a temperature of 220°-225°C. The specific gravities of
the acids from akee oil and palm oil closely correspond, in fact it will
be noticed throughout the whole table that as arule the figures for
akee vil and palm oil closely approximate.

A comparison of the iodine values shows that the percentage of
liquid, or unsaturated glycerides —olein—is considerably less in akee
oil than in olive oil, and slightly less than in palm oil.

A comparison of the melting and solidifying points leads to the
conclusion that the solid glycerides—palmatin—in palm oil have a
higher melting point than those in akee oil, and this more than coun-
rete the slightly higher pecentage of liquid glycerides in the

ormer.

SEPARATION OF THE SOLID AND Liquip ACIDs.

This is partially effected by treating the lead salts of the fatty acids
with ether, in which the lead salts of the liquid acids are soluble, and
those of the solid acids insoluble. The separation, however, has been
shown to be incomplete, as the acids from the insoluble lead salts still
give appreciable iodine values.

The acid regenerated from the ether-soluble lead salts was a pale
yellow, liquid oil. Its iodine value was found to be 82:4; the lead salt
was found on analysis to contain 27°9 per cent. of lead. For pure
oleic acid theory requires an iodine value of 90, and a lead salt con-
taining 26°9 per cent. of lead. This liquid acid is apparently impure
oleic acid.

The acid regenerated from the insoluble lead salts had a melting
point of 52°-54°C. It was washed with four successive small quanti-
ties of cold alcohol, to remove the last traces of the liquid acids.
After this treatment it appeared as a white, finely crystalline powder,
melting at 55°-56°C. Recrystallised from alcohol it melted at 56°-57°C.,
and repeated crystallisation caused no rise in the melting point.

This acid has not yet been identified. It may possibly be a mix-
ture of palmitic and stearic acids, or it may be a near homologue of
these acids. The constant melting points to the latter alternative, and
the fact that the melting and solidifying points of palm oil and its
acids are higher all round than those of akee oil lends weight to this
idea, since the solid part of palm oil consists almost entirely of pal-
mitic acid and palmitin. |

Akee oil contains approximately about 50 per cent. of liquid gly-
cerides, calculated as olein, from the iodine value; about 40 per
cent of solid glycerides, and about 10 per cent. of the free acids con-
tained in these glycerides.

The oil-cake consisting of the pressed seeds still contains 25 per
cent. of oils, which can be extracted by solvents.

Twenty grams, cut small, dried in a water oven, and extracted in 4
Soxhlet apparatus with petroleum ether, yielded 5 grams of oil on dis-
tilling of the solvent.

The residue from the petroleum ether treatment was extracted
with hot 90 per cent aleohol. The alcohol was distilled off, and

77

the dark-coloured extract warmed with acidulated water. Brown
resinous matter separated, and a brown, acid solution was obtained,
which gave slight, brown precipitates with Mayer’s reagent, and with
a solution of iodine in potasium iodide.

The acid solution was made slightly alkaline with ammonia
solution, extracted first with ether, then with chloroform. The
etherial and chloroformic solutions on evaporation yielded slight
brown residues, of a faintly bitter taste. The residue from the
alcohol treatment, extracted with warm water, yielded a considerable
quantity of mucilage, which in its impure condition gives a precipi-
tate both with lead acetate and lead subacetate.

To make a thorough examination of all the constituents of both oil

and cake would be a lengthy operation, and would require a much
larger quantity of material than was at our disposal.

I am indebted to Dr. Collie for much kindly advice in connection
with the foregoing experiments.

Test. Akee Oil. Palm Oil. Olive Oil.
0-914
°C rs 3, °C to
Specific Gravity .»-| 99-100 | 0-857 | 98-99 | 0°8586) 15°5 | 0-917
(Water at (Water at (Water at
15°5°=1) 16°5°=1) 16°5°=1)
°C °C "C
Melting Point ai 25 to 35 27 to 42°5 2:5
°C ° °C
Solidifying ae 20 21 to 27 +2 to—4
Hehner Value ia 93 94-2 to 97 95°4
Saponification Value ... 194-6 196-3t0202°5 185 to 196
Reichert Value ates 0-9 0:5 0:3
Iodine Value Ae 49-1 51 to 52:4 81°6 to 84:5
Acid Value ain 20-1
Mixep Farty Aorps.
oC ° i @}
: 99-100 | 0:8865| 98-99 | 0-8369) 99 0-843
Specific Gravity. (Water at (Water at (Water at
15°5°=1) 16°5°=1) 15°5°= 1)
LC = 1 @)
Melting Point on 42 to 46 47°7 to 52 22 to 26
°C °C °C
Solidifying Point ae 40 to 88 44 to 45 21 to 24
Saponification Value ... 207°7 206°5 to 207°3

Todine Value i 58°4 = 86:1 to 90°2

78

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
DEPARTMENT.

Liprary (Serials.)

EvUROPE.

British Isles.
Annals of Botany, March. [Purchased.]
Botanical Magazine. Mar. [Purchased,]
British Trade Journal. Mar. [Editor.]
Chemist and Druggist. Mar., 9, 16, 23, 30. [Editor.]
Colonial Reports. Jan.
Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Jan., Feb. [Col. See.]
Garden. Mar., 9,16, 23,30. [Purchased.]
Gardeners’ Chronicle, Mar, 9, 16, 23, 39, [ Purchased, ]
Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, Feb. [Bentham Trustees through Kew.]
International Sugar Journal. Mar. [Editor.]
Journal Board of Agriculture, England. Mar, [Sec. Board of Agri,]
Nature. Mar,7,14, 21,28. [Purchased.]
Pharmaceutical Journal. Mar., 9, 16, 23, 30.
Trans. and Proc, Bot. Soc., Edinburgh. Vol. XXI, Part IV. [R.Bot. Garden]
W. Indian and Com. Advertiser, Mar. [Editor.]

France.
Suorerie indigéne et coloniale.- Mar.,5, 12,19, 26 [Editor.]

Germany.
Tropenpflanzer. Mar. [Editor.]
Notizblatt, Berlin. Feb. [Director.]
Denmark. |
La Vegetation des Antilles Danoises. By F. Boergesen and Ove Paulsen.
Om Lovbladformer (1, Lianer. 2, Skovbundsplanter.) By Eug, Warming.

Switzerland.
Bulletin de Herbier Boissier, Vol. I, No. 3. [Conservateur.]
ASIA.
India

Agricultural Ledger (Calcutta.) No. 19. [Lt. Gov. Bengal.]

Annual Report of Garden, Calcutta, for 99-1900, [Director, R,Gardens, Kew,]
Planting Opinion, Feb., 9,16, 23. Mar.2, [Editor.]

Proc. Agri, and Horti. Soc. of India, Oct., Dec. [Secretary.]

Report on Tea Culture in Assam for 1899. [Director, Gard, Kew.]

Oeylon
Times of Ceylon, Feb. 14, 20, 28, Mar. 6. [Editor,]
Java.
Voedselopname van Verschillende Rietvarieteiteng No,23. [Director.]

AUSTRALIA,
NV. S. Wales.

Agri. Gazette, Jan. [Dept. of Agri.]
Queensland.

Queensland Agri. Journal. Feb. ([Sec. of Agri.]

Queensland Sugar Journal, Feb. [Editor.]
Western Australia.

Journal of the Dept. of Agri., Feb. [Dept. of Agri.]

AFRICA.
Oape of Good Hope.
Agri. Journal, Jan., 31, Feb. 14. [Dept. of Agri.]
Natal.
Agri. Journal and Mining Record, Feb., Mar. [Dept. of Agri.]
Central Africa.
- €, African Times, Jan., 12,19, 26. [Editor.]

19

West InpDIEs.

Jamaica.

Journal, Jamaica Agri. Society, Mar., April. [Secretary. ]
Trinidad.

Proc. of Agri. Society. Jan., 8, Feb. 12. [Secretary.]

Barbados.
Agricultural Gazette. Feb. [Editor.]
British NortH AMERIOCA.

Montreal.
Pharmaceutical Journal. Feb. [Editor.]

Ottawa.
Experimental Farms Reports for 1900.

UNITED STATES oF AMERICA.
Publications of the U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture. [Directors. |

Scientific Bureaus and Divisions.
Vegetable Physiology and Pathology,
Report No. 68—Catalase, a new Enzym of general occurrence,jwith special
reference to the Tobacco Plant, By Oscar Loew.

Experiment Stattons.
Experiment Station Record, Vol, XII, No, 5.
Arkansas, 63 (The Relative susceptibility of the Domestic {Animals to the
Contagia of Human and Bovine Tuberculosis.
64 (Notes on Celery.) 65 (Pig Feeding Experiments.)
31 (A Preliminary list of the Hemiptera of Colorado.)
Illinois, 61 (Farmer’s Vegetable Garden) 62 (Market Classes of Horses.)
Kansas, Press Bulletins—83 (Clovers) 84 (Tests of Soy Beans by Kansas
Farmers in 1900, 85 (Roots for Kansas Farmers.)
Kingston, Rhode Island, 76 (A Five Year Rotation of Crops.)
Maryland, 70 (The chemical composition of Maryland soils.)
71 (Notes on Spraying Peaches and Plums in 1900,)
Minnesota. 69 (Bugs injurious to our cultivated plants.)
New Hemisphere, 76 (Utilizing the Greenhouse in summer) 77 (Experiments
in road surfacing,)
New Jersey, 148 (Alfalfa, Methods of Culture and Yields per Acre, Alfalfa
Protein versus purchase. Protein in rations for dairy cows,)
149 (Two Strawberry Pests.)
New York. 182 (Sulphur-lime for Onion Smut.)
183 (Some dairy troubles,) 184 (Influence of temperature of
curing upon commercial quality of Cheese,) 185 (New York
Apple Tree Oanker) 186 (Sterile fungus Rhizoctonia as a
cause of plant diseases in America) 187 (Commercial Fer-
tilizers for Potatoes, ITI,)
Ohio, 121 (A Condensed Handbook of the Diseases of Cultivated Plants in Ohio.)
Oklahoma, 49.(A Rhlzomorphic Root-Rot of Fruit Trees,)
Oregon. 65 (Creameries and Cheese Factories of Western Oregon.)
Tennesee, (Thirteeath Annual Report of the Agri, Exp, Station for}1900,)
Texas, 58 (Pruning and training Peach Orchards,)
Utah, (Eleventh Annual Report of the Agri. Exp. Station for the Fiscal
Year ending June 30, 1900.) 70 (Experiments in Pork Production,)
71 (Carrying capacities of Irrigation Canals,)
Virginia, 107 (Feeding Stuffs.) 110 (Animal Parasites, Part ITI,)
American Journal of Pharmacy. April, [{Editor,]
AnnualiReport on the State Geologist for 1899, New Jersey. Report on Forests.
Botanical Gazette, Chicago, Mar, [Editor.]
Fern Bulletin, April, [Editor.]
New Jersey Horticultural Society Report, [Dr, John Gifford.]
Plant World. Feb, [Hditor.]
Special Bulletin of the Ohio Agri. Exp, Station, No.4, [A. D. Selby.]
The Forester, Mar. [ Publishers. ]
Torrey Club Bulletin, Feb., Mar. [Editor,]

80

Contributions from the Dept, of Botany of Columbia University :—
American Ferns—iI. The Genus Phanerophlebia.
Anthurus borealis Burt,
A Review of the Species of Lycopodium of North America,
A Revision >f the North American Species of Scleropodium,
Contributions to a better knowledge of the Pyrenomycetes I :—
Notes on the Flora of Middle Georgia.
ao do South Georgia,

Revision of the Genus 'Triplaris,
Some northwestern Erysiphaceae,
Studies in the Leguminosae, I, II, IIT.
Studies in the Botany of the South-eastern United States.
Studies in Sisyrinchium [: Sixteen New Species from the Southern States,.

II : Four New Species from Michigan,

III : S. angustifolium an1 some Related Species New and Old,

IV : S. angustifolium and Related Species of the West and North-west

V : Two New Eastern Species.
VI : Additional New Species from the Southern States,
VII: The Species of British America.
VIII: Sisyrinchium californicum and Species of Hydastlyus.
The Effect of Chemical Irritation on the Economic Coeflicient of Sugar,
The Common Parasite of che Powdery Mildews.
The Insular Flora of Mississipi and Louisiana.
The Nomenclature of the New England Agrimonies,
Turgidity in Mycelia. ’
Two hitherto confused species of Lycopodium.
SoutH AMERICA.

Boletim da Agricultura, Sao Paulo, Brazil, No. 6. [Sec. of Agri. |
Estatistica Especial da Lavoura de Cafe, &c., (Supplement to Bol. da Agri.

No. 6.) [Sec. of Agri. ]

CENTRAL AMERICA.
Boletim del Instituto Fisico-Geografico de Costa Rica. [Director. ]
PoLYNESIA.
Planter’s Monthly, Hawaii, Feb., Mar. [Editor.]
SEEDS.

From Dr. D. Morris, C.M.G., Barbados—
Thrinax Morrisii
From R. K. Tomlinson, Esq., Lacovia—
Mahogany
From G4. S. Jenman, Esq., British Guiana—
Euryale ferox, Andira surinamensis, Macrolobium acacizefolium.
From Dr. Franceschi, Santa Barbara, Cal—

Acacia armata Lavatera assurcentifolia
Albizzia lophantha Lippia cuneifolia
Godetia amcena Ricinus cambodgensis

3 grandiflora ~ sanguineus

=; purpurea 4 zanzibarensis

6 quadrivulnera Sollya heterophylla

«6 rubicunda Tacsonia mixta

“ viminea Tetragonia expansa

HERBARIUM.

From Prof. H. Harold Hume, B. Sc., Florida—
74 Specimens of Fungi of Florida
From R, K, Tomlinson, Esq., Lacovia—
Lace Bark Flowers and Leaves,

[Issued 4th May, 1901.]

New Series. | JUNE, 1901. Vol. VIII,
: Part 6.

BULLETIN

oy THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

=< BY
WILLIAM FAWOETT, B.Sc., F.LS.
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.
—__—»>0-4+-0<2-—__

CONTENTS:

Paae.

Pupil-Apprentices at Hope Gardens . ; 81
Nuts . 82

- A Dwarf West Indian Palm i. Site 6 82
Diseases in Pine-Apple Plants 83
Bergamot Orange - 84

_ A Medicinal Weed | 4 88
Vanilla in Seychelles | : 86
Peanut Oil Industry P 87
Camoénsia maxima 2 4 | 88
Potato Diseases & their Treatment - 89

Additions & Contributions Aisne 93 .

PRIC K—Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
_ Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O,

KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
GOVERNMENT Printine Orrice, 79 Doke SrRezxr,

1901.

JAMAICA,

—

BULLETIN

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.
New Series. ] JUNE, 1901. euler on

PUPIL-APPRENTICES AT HOPE GARDENS.

Young men in limited numbers are allowed the privilege at Hope
Gardens of receiving training in the elementary principles and the
practice of agriculture.

They are not bound as apprentices, as it is found more convenient
for purposes of discipline to engage them as labourers at the rate of
3/ per week for the first year, 4/ per week for the sec nd year and 6/

er week for the third year. After three years employment can
generally be found for them with planters, if they have proved in-
dustrious and capable.

Each apprentice has to make his own arrangements about board and
lodging. A few rooms are provided in the gardens, where some of the
apprentices are housed. » This is a privilege, however, which cannot be
claimed by any, but it is offered when vacancies occur, in the first
instance, to apprentices whose friends live at a distance, and only so
long as they give entire satisfaction.

Apprentices are required to work exactly in the same way as garden
labourers, and to do anything and everything they are told in connec-
tion with the work carried on. No guarantee is given that they will
be specially trained in any particular branch of the work, but they will
be given opportunities to acquire a general knowledge of the follow-
ing :—

1. Cocoa. Raising seedlings, potting, planting, pruning and train-
ing, curing.

2. Citrus. Raising stocks, budding, planting out, insecticides and
their application, and general care of tree.

3. Grape Vines. Pruning and general care of vines.

4. Pines. Planting and general care.

5. Nutmegs. Raising stocks, grafting, planting out.

6. Tobacco. Raising seedlings, planting out, cultivation, cutting,
and curing.

7. Propagation of plants generally, potting, watering and the
details of nursery work.

Apprentices are also allowed to attend the demonstrations given fo

82

half an hour each day, on the application of the principles underlying
practical agriculture.

They are expected to purchase books which are recommended to them,
and to study in their spare time.’

They must be steady, punctual, diligent and painstaking, and any
breach of discipline may be punished by a fine, or by instant dismis-
sal,

At present there are no vacancies, but names may be sent to the
Director with full particulars of age, place of education, attainments, &c}

‘NUTS.—I.

CHEROONJIE
(Buchanania latifolia, Roxb.)

As nuts are considered now to be of dietetic value, it may be useful

to indicate from time to time such as are growing in the Botanic Gar-
dens, or are already found wild in the island.
& Cheroonjie is the name given in parts of India to the fruit and the
kernel of a tree known to botanists as Buchanania latifolia. The fruit
is said to be sweet and laxative, and is used to relieve thirst, burning
of the body, and fever. The flavour of the kernel is described as
between that of the pistachio and the almond. The kernels are eaten
roas‘ed with milk, or made up into native sweetmeats. They yield
50 per cent of oil, but this is scarcely ever prepared.

This tree is allied to the Cashew, but in the latter the top of the |
stalk becomes enlarged into a fleshy fruit. Both belong to the family
Anacardiacee.

SovaR! oR Burrer Nev.

(Caryocar nuciferum, Linn.)

The Butter Nut Tree is a native of British Guiana where it grows
in the forests along the banks of rivers, attaining a height of 100 feet.
Its nuts are kidney-shaped with a very hard woody shell, of a brown
colour and covered with wart-like protuberances. The kernel is
large and white with a very pleasant taste, and yielding by pressure a
bland oil.

The wood is hard and durable, and is used for ship-building, mill
work, &c. The plant belongs to the same family as Tea, viz.:
Ternstronemiaceae.

A DWARF WEST INDIAN PALM.

In December, 1890, Dr. Morris discovered in Anguilla an interest-
ing little palm “ growing on broken limestone rocks. It was present
in fairly large quantities, and the fan-shaped leaves were used for
thatching native huts. The chief interest attached to this palm is con-
nected with its dwarf habit. The largest and apparently most
matured specimen did not measure more than about 30 to 35 inches
in height, and the stem was about 2} inches in diameter.” This palm
hitherto unknown to science was named Zhrinax Morrisit.

83}

Dr. Morris has lately sent seeds of this palm to the Botanic Gardens
in Jamaica, accompanied by the following letter :—

~The Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies to the Director
of Public Gardens and Plantations, Janaica.
Barbados,

: 21st March, 1901.
Drar Sir,

By last mail I forwarded for your acceptance about 600 seeds of
Thrinax Morrisit. I hope these have safely reached you.

2. These seeds were obtained after a good deal of trouble and
-expense. The original plants have been nearly all destroyed at Angu-
illa, and it is doubtful whether further seed will be obtained except
from one of the Danish islands where the spscimen 1s said to exist very
sparingly. There is a handsome specimen of this palm growing at the
Botanic Station at Grenada. This is about four to five feet high and
in vigorous health. The segments of the palmate leaves are divided
almost to the base and this character as well as the rather upright
petioles easily distinguishes the sp2cies from Thrinar radiata and other
small palms of this group.

I should be glad to learn of the occurrencsa of this palm under cul-
tivation elsewhere in the West Indies.

i am, Dear Sir,
Faithfully yours,
D. Morris.

DISEASES IN PINE-APPLE PLANTS.

Some diseased pine-apple plants were sibmitted through Dr. Mac-
‘Dougal of the New York Botanical Garden to Prof. Webber, and the
following report was very kindly written on them :—

“The diseased pine-apple, is affected with a malady which we know
-as blight. While this trouble has not been carefully investigated
there seems to be but little doubt that it is caused by a parasitic fun-
gus attacking the roots in a manner similar to that of the Fusarium
disease which Docter Smith has describel as affecting the cotton,
melon, squash, ect. The fungus has been traced into the root hairs
and thence into the small lateral roots and up into the stem where it
frequently causes a blackening and rotting of the tissue. It yet
remains to produce the disease by inoculation, however, so we cannot
say that the fungus found in such diseased plants is the primiry
cause of ths trouble. The plants affected with the mulaly first
show the symptoms by withering and decay of the tips of ths leaves,
particularly on the outer row. This gradually continues until all the
leaves are affected ani the plant is reduced toa mare stump. Fre-
quently the disease goes on for a considerable p2riod, as in the case
-of the cabbage wilt without causing the death of the plant. Such
-plants, however, have proved worthless and as they migit as well be

84

dug up and their places supplied with healthy plants. A number of
experiments have been tried by various growers working in co-opera-
tion with us in digging up the plants when they first begin to show
signs of the disease, cutting off the bases above the diseased portions,
and then resetting them. This process, however, has not proved
satisfactory, some of the plants seeming to recover while others go
back again. We have made a few experiments in treating the disease
by spraying the bases of the plants and soil with Bordeaux mixture,
but results thus far have been entirely negative. At the present time
therefore we can only suggest eradication, the taking out of diseased
plants as soon as they appear and replacing them with fresh, healthy
suckers.

“We are also inclined to think, from the results of a few experi-
ments, that one of the primary ways of controlling this disease is the
rigorous selection of healthy plants. By this means we believe the
trouble can be entirely overcome.”

BERGAMOT ORANGE.

The Bergamot Orange is a well marked variety of the common
Orange. ‘The flowers are much smaller with a delicious and peculiar
odour ; the fruit are somewhat pear-shaped, the rind is of a lemon yel-
low colour, abounding in essential oil of a peculiar fragrance, and the
pulp is greenish.

The cultivation is strongly recommended by Mr. J. Ch. Sawer,
Author of “‘Gdoragraphia” for the production of the Oil or Essence of
Bergamot. The fruits are used for this purpose when they are full
grown but still unripe and greenish, One hundred fruits are said to
yield from 24 to 3 ounces of essential oil.

The principal locality where the Bergamot orange is cultivated is
near Reggio in southern Calabria, but it is also grown in Sicily and
the South of France.

Low ground near the sea seems to suit it best and the ground is
well tilled and irrigated.

Fliickigerand Hanbury state that the essential oil ‘‘was formerly made
like that of lemon by the sponge process, but during the last 20 years
this method has been generally superseded by the introduction of a
special machine for the extraction of the essential oil. In this ma-
chine the fruits are placed in a strong, saucer-like metalic dish, about
10 inches in diameter, having in the centre a raised opening which
with the outer edge forms a broad groove or channel ; the dish is fitted
with a cover of similar form. ‘The inner surface both of the dish and
cover is rendered rough by a series of narrow, radiating metal ridges
of blades which are about } of an inch high and resemble the backs of
knives. The dish is also furnished with some small openings to allow,
of the outflow of essential oil; and both dish and cover are arranged
in a metallic cylinder, placed over a vessel to receive the oil. Bya
simple arrangement of cog wheels moved ty a handle, the cover, which
is very heavy, is made to revolve rapidly over the dish, and the fruit
lying in the groove between the two is carried round, and at the same
time is subjected to the action of the sharp ridges, which, rupturing

85

the oil vessels, cause the essence to escape, and set it free to flow out
by the small openings ‘in the bottom of the dish. The fruits are
placed in the machine, 6, 8, or more at a time, according to their size,
and subjected to the rotatory action above described for about half a
minute, when the machine fis stopped, they are removed, and fresh
ones substituted. About 7,000 fruits can thus be worked in one of
these machines in a day.

“ During some weeks after extraction it gradually deposits a quan-
tity of white greasy matter (bergaptene,) which, after having been ex-
hausted as much as possible by pressure, is finally subjected to distila-
tion with water in order to separate the essential oil it still contains.

“The fruits from which the essence has been extracted are sub-
mitted to pressure, and the juice which is much inferior in acidity
to lemon juice, is concentrated and sold for the manufacture of citric
acid. Finally, the residue from which both essence and juice have
een removed, is consumed as food by oxen.”

The Director of Public Gardens and Piantations was most anxious
to introduce this plant into cultivation in Jamaica. Several attempts
were made to raise plants from seeds imported from Italy, but none
germinated. A few fruits have been obtained through the kindness
of Mr. Damman, Seed Merchants of Naples. Each fruit contains only
from 1 to 3 or 4 seeds, so that the number of plants available for dis-
tribution has been very limited. Twenty plants have lately been sent
to the Commissioner, Imperial Department for Agriculture in the WwW.
Indies ; others have been distributed to planters in Jamaica; so that
it is to be hoped that this very desirable Citrus tree will soon be firmly
established throughout the W. Indies, and that fruits will be avail-
able on the spot wherever it is found that it succeeds.

A MEDICINAL WEED.

Creat (Andrographis paniculata).

This is a common weed in the Liguanea plain. It is a native of
India and Ceylon, and was no doubt originally introduced by means of
the Botanic Gardens.

Dr. Watt’s in his Dictionary of Economic Products of India states
that this bitter shrub is well known and forms the principal ingre-
dient of a household medicine extensively used in Bengal. The ex-
pressed juice of the leaves, together with certain spices such as car-
damoms, cloves, cinnamon, &c., dried in the sun, is made into little
globules, which are prescribed for infants to relieve griping, irreg-
ular stools, and loss of appetite. The medicinal properties of this
plant are many. The roots and leaves are febrifuge, stomachic, tonic,
alterative, and anthelmintic. It is used in general debility, in con-
valescence after fevers, and in advanced stages oi dysentery. It is
also used as a tonic, stimulant, and gentle aperient in the treatment
of several forms of dyspepsia, and in the torpidity of the alimentary
canal. The expressed juice of the leaves is a common domestic re-
medy in the bowel complaints of children. Dose: 1 to 2 ounces of the
infusion, and 1 to 4 drachms of the tincture.

Creat belongs to the same family, Acanthacee, as the common blue
Alowered “Spirit Leaf.”

S6

VANILLA IN SEYCHELLES.

Articles on , Vanilla have appeared in Bulletin for October, 1898,
with a drawing showing method of pollination and in Bulletins for’
February, 1896 and March, 1900. The drawing is also reproduced in
the Bulletin for June, 1800.

The Administrator of the Seychelles in his Annual Report for 1899,
advises that a vanilla plantation should not be started with a smaller
capital than £1,000, as a crop cannot be expected under three years.
Suitable vanilla land, in Seychelles easily accessible, cannot be pur-
chased under Rs. 800 an acre, and, even at this price, is not readily
obtainable. The Crown has there in the hills a few hundred acres of
land, suitable for vanilla for lease on terms of nine years, with the
option of renewal for a further term of five years.

Under the old system, namely, planting on bars, wires, &., from
1,200 to 1,800 vines were planted per acre. Vanilla is now planted
on live trees, and the number of vines planted depends on the number
of trees growing on the land. Cuttings of quick-growing shrubs are
now often planted in vacant spots, and after three months vines are
then planted on them. Vines are planted six feet long, and will begin
to bear three years after planting, but will only reach their prime im
three years more. Vines aye worth from Rs. 4 to Rs. 8 per 100, ac-
cording to the district. The wages of men employed on Vanilla plan-
tations vary from Rs.12 to Rs. 14 a month, and of women from Rs. 6
to Rs. 8, in both cases without rations. Labourers on hill estates are.
not easy to get, and, as a rule, the African labourers prefer working
on moitié or share system. A man can plant 300 cuttings of vines a
day, and can keep in good order throughout the year 2,500 plants.
Women are employed for pollinating the flowers, +.e., removing the
pollen from the anther of the flower end applying it to the stigma,
without which operation the flower is lost. No flowers can be polli-
nated after midday. A woman can pollinate from 6C0 to 800 flowers

per day. |

Each vine can produce from 25 to80 pods of different sizes, from four:
inches to eight inches long. On an average, 130 green pods go to one
lb., of prepared vanilla, the pods shrinking considerably in prepara-
tion, and losing a quarter of their weight. The preparation of vanilla
has much improved of late years. Sun-drying is no longer in vogue.
Nearly ell vanilla is now cured in properly constructed drying rooms,
heated with hot air. The French method of steaming the freshly-
picked vanilla pods has been tried, but the boiling-water process is:

generlly adopted.

‘“The local price for vanilla varies, In 1899 fine prepared pods
fetched Rs. 16 to Rs. 18 per lb.

“This year the price is from Rs. 14 to Rs. 16. Green pods are now
being sold at Rs. 10 per 100 pods.

The regular flowering season is from August to December. The
cost of preparation represents from Rs. 1 to Rs. 1.50 per lb. The
pods are gathered about nine months after the flowers have been pol-
linated, and are cured in from three to four months. In Seychelles,
as in other vanilla producing countries, there are bad seasons, when
owing to excessive rain, the yield of the vine is poor. A present,

87

the prosperity of Seychelles practically depends on the one product,
vanilla. In 1895, for example, the crop almost entirely failed, and
the exports were consequently less by Rs. 162,335 than they were
in 1894. In 1896 the crop was an exceptionally good one, and the
exports for that year exceeded the exports for 1895 by no less than
Rs. 936,150.

THE PEANUT OIL INDUSTRY.

A general articlr on the peanut or pindar-nut wilf be found in Bul-
letin for April, 1897, (page 75) in which the expression of oil is no-
ticed, and the use of the resulting cake for cattle food.

The U. States Consul at Marseilles, according to the London Times,
reporting lately on the peanut oil industry, observes that more oil
is extracted in Marseilles from oleaginous seeds than in any other

lace in Europe, and the industry is beginning to flourish again
after the depression produced by the introduction of American cot-
ton-seed oil and the failure of the seed crops elsewhere. As no
special machinery or process is employed in the manufacture of
peanut oil as distinct from other oil seeds, the manufacturers
crush arachides, or peanuts when the market is favourable, but
not to the exclusion of other seeds. Last year over 71,000 tons of
peanuts reached Marseilles; at Bordeaux a large quantity of West
African nuts of good quality is crushed, and there are some mills in
the north of France, but Marseilles stands pre-eminent in the industry.
The nuts are scarcely ever ground whole, as this produces inferior oil
and cake of little value. In fact, a large quantity of the nuts arrives
shelled, after which the inner or red skin is removed as much as
possible by process resembling those for cleaning wheat in flour mills.
These are described in detail in the report. After the kernels have been
separated and cleaned they are ground and enveloped in strong fibrous
mats, are subjected to hydraulic pressure, and the clarifying of the oil
done by means of filters and fuller’s earth. The husks are sometimes
ground with the cake, and form an inferior food for cattle, and when
coal is dear they are used as fuel in the oil mills. ‘he crude oil runs
out thick and troubled, and must be filtered to make it a bright yellow,
while if it is to be water white in colour it must be treated further
with animal black and fuller’s earth. It is stated that no alkaline lye
is used, but the art is somewhat secret. The sources of supply are
Bombay, Mozambique, and Senegal. In some years the African
supply is wholly swamped by the supplies from India, and at one time
it seemed that Africa would be unable to compete permanently with
India. But though the latter still sends large quantities of nuts to
Marseilles it appears to be using more and more of its crop at home,
so that, while the imports between 1890 and 1895 were mostly from
India, in 1896 to 1899 they were mainly from Africa. In the earlier
year of the decade American cotton oil menaced the crushing trade of
Marseilles with extinction because of its low price, but apparently
new demands for oils have arisen, for the production in Marseilles has
returned to its former average, and prices also, after serious derange-
ments, have resumed their old level. There has been a world-wide

88

decrease in the amount of animal grease, while America is consuming
her own cotton-seed oils in vastly increased quantities, and the conse-
quence is an increased demand in vegetable oils. Although the pro-
duction of the nuts in Africa is enormous, no improvement in the mode
of cultivation or the price is anticipated for years to come The soil
is readily exhausted by the crop, and nothing is done to restore its
virtue ; labour though cheap, is thriftless, and hard to obtain when
wanted, and transportation is defective. The uses of the oil are
numerous; it is described as “the most polymorphous of all oils,
adapting itself to all purposes, including nutrition, lighting, lubrica-
tion, and blending.” It is the most difficult of all oils to detect when
adulterating olive oil, for its chemical reaction is white. The best
qualities are, in fact, used for the table, either pure or mixed with
olive or sesame oil; as an illuminant it gives a soft white light; when
neutralised it is much es’eemed for lubricating, and is always pre-
ferred to cotton-seed oil It is also largely used in the manufacture

of soap, and is the characteristic component of the famous Marszilles
white soap.

CAMOENSIA MAXIMA.

Camoénsia maxima flowered in April, for the first time, in Hope
Gardens. It is said to be the largest flower of any plant in the
leguminous order; the colour is white, edged with gold.

The first specimens of these flowers found by the botanist Welwitsch,
in Africa, were one foot long, but in cultivation they have not attained
the same length. The plant flowered for the first time in England in
1894. Camoénsia isa climbing plant, a native of Angola. It belongs
to the pea family, Leguminosae. Welwitsch’s specimens were collected
in Golungo Alto, a little north of the river Cuanza. Subsequently
specimens were sent to Kew from Quiballa, a place situated about
sixty miles inland from Ambriz, and from the Congo below Stanley
Pool. Welwitsch gave it the name of Giganthemum scandens in 1859,
and afterwards in 1865 altered it to Camoénsia ‘The former name has
been adopted in the “ Catalogue of Welwitsch’s African Plants,” by
Mr. W. P. Hiern. Welwitsch described it as ‘‘a robust shrub, climb-
ing to a great height, and then hanging down its graceful branches,
constituting the highest ornament amongst the climbing shrubs of
this region ; flowers very large, emitting a peculiar odour.”

At Hope Gardens it is growing over a calabash tree on the lawn.
The flowers measure 104 inches, from base of sepals to tip of standard.
The standard is 7 inches long by 44 inches broad. The petals are
pure white in colour, the edges beautifully crisped, and edged with a
line of gold. The standard, in addition, has a deep shading of yellow
down the centre, breaking up into small, irregular patches of pure
gold near the apex.

The Hope plant produced a raceme of thirteen flowers at first, and
afterwards a second raceme of 8 flowers. The flowers expanded first
in pairs, then in sets of three, and finally by single blooms. Hach
flower lasted in full beauty nearly two days. The pods dropped off
while quite young.

89
POTATO DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT.

An article on Potato Scab, and remedies for it appeared in Bulletin
for June, 1900, (page 87). The following paragraphs deal with vari-
_ous diseases affecting the potato; they were written by Mr. B. T. Gal-
loway, Chief of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology
of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, as a Farmers’ Bulletin” (No.
91). As attention is now being paid to the cultivation of potatoes
with a view to the export of “new potatoes” to England, it will be
advisable to note carefully any signs of disease and to apply the treat-
ment recommended at an early stage.

Porato Lear Buricut, or Harry Brien.

(Aiternaria solani (KE. & M.) Sorauer.)

This disease is widespread and destructive. It is confined to the
leaves and green stems, and appears about the time the tubers begin
to form, but may be noticed earlier if the growth of the plants has
been checked in any way. The first indication of its presence is the
appearance on the leaves of grayish brown spots, which soon become
hard and brittle. The disease progresses rather slowly, the spots
gradually becoming larger, especially along the edges of the leaflets.
At the end of ten days to two weeks half of the leaf surface may be
brown withered, and brittle while the rest is of a yellowish green
colour. ‘Three weeks or a month may elapse before all the leaves suc-
cumb. The stems in the meantime remain green, but they too finally
perish through lack of nourishment The tubers stop growing almost
as soon as the leaves are attacked, and asa result the crop is practi-
cally worthless.

TREATMENT.

Early blight may be held in check by the application of the fungi-
cide Bordeaux mixture. ‘his is prepared and applied as follows:
Pour into a 50-gallon barrel 25 gallons of clean water; then weigh
out 6 pounds of crushed bluestone, or copper sulphate, and after tying
it in a piece of coarse sacking suspend the package just beneath the
surface of the water by means of a string tied to a stick laid across the
top of the barrel. In another suitable vessel, such as a tub or half
barrel, slack 4 pounds of fresh lime. Slack the lime carefully by pour-
ing on small quantities of water at a time, the object being to obtain
as mooth, creamy liquid, free from grit. When the lime is slacked,
add sufficient water to make 25 gallons. As soon as the bluestone is
dissolved, which will require an hour or more, pour the lime milk and
bluestone solutions together, using a separate barrel for the purpose
and stirring constantly to effect a thorough mixing. It sometimes
happens that sufficient lime is not added, and asa result the foliage
may be injured. To be certain that the mixture is safe, hold a steel
knife blade in it for two or three minutes and if the polished surface
of the blade shows a copper coloured tinge add more lime, but if it
stays bright the mixture is safe to use. Application of the mixture
should begin when the plants are 4 to 6 inches high. and should be
repeated at intervals of twelve to fourteen days until five or six treat-
ments have been made. By adding 8 ounces of Paris green to each
barrel of the Bordeaux mixture a combined fungicide and insecticide
is obtained, and this will prevent the attacks of the Colorado potato

90

beetle, the flea beetle, and other insects. Before adding the Paris
green it should be mixed with a small quantity of water, and when a
thin paste is obtained this should be thoroughly stirred into the barrel
of Bordeaux solution.

The success attending the application of the Bordeaux mixture de-
pends in large measure upon the thoroughness with which it is applied.
To reach all parts of the plants above ground witha fine spray re-
quiries a good force pump and asuitable nozzle. The knapsack sprayer
will be found one of the most useful machines for spraying fields of 3
acres or less. For larger plantations more powerful machines should be
used. A cheap and serviceable apparatus, well suited for this work, may
be made by mounting a good, strong force pump on a barrel, and then
placing the barrel and mounted pump ina light wagon. The entire
outfit, including barrel, pump, hose, nozzles, operator, and boy to drive;
may be drawn by one horse. As the wagon is drawn slowly between
the rows the man in the wagon may operate the pump and at the same
time keep the mixture stirred, while two others on the ground hold
the nozzles and direct the spray over the plants. The nozzle found to
be the best suited to the work.is the Vermorel. This is now offered
for sale by pump manufacturers and dealers in seeds and agricultural
implements, Where there are only a few plants to treat, simple devi-
ces for the application of the fungicide, such as watering cans, the
syringes used by florists, etc., may be used. ;

‘ Porato Brieut, Largz Buieut, or Ror.
(Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary.)

This disease attacks the leaves, stems and tubers. Generally the
first noticable effect upon the leaves is the sudden appearance of
brownish or blackish areas, which soon become soft and foul smelling.
So sudden is the appearance of the disease in some cases, tbat fields
which one day look green and healthy may within the next day or two
become blackened as though swept by fire. The rapid spread of the
disease, which is caused by a parasitic fungus, is dependent in large
measure upon certain conditions of moisture and heat A daily mean
or normal temperature of from 72° to 74° F’. for any considerable time,
accompanied by moist weather, furnishes the best conditions for the
spread of the parasite. On the other hand, if the daily mean or nor-
mal temperature exceeds 77° for a few days, the development of the
disease is checked. ‘This fact explains why the fungus seldom occurs.
to any serious extent in sections where the mean or normal daily tempera -
ture exceeds 77° for any length of time, and probably why it appears
later than the disease discussed under the former heading. The
tubers affected with the disease show depressed, dark-coloured areas
on the surface, while within are blotches and streaks of a brownish or
blackish colour. Other diseases may produce similar effects, so that
in this case the changes are nut so characteristic as those shown by
the leaves. For many years it was believed that most of the injury
to the potato was due to this disease, but recent investigations have
shown that view to be erroneous.

TREATMENT.
The same treatment as recommended for early blight should be fol-
jowed here, and will be found to prevent the blighting of the tops and

|

ee ee ae eee

OO ———

: 91

rotting of the tubers. In regions where late blight is known to occur,
care should be taken to begin the applicution of the Bordeaux mixture-
before the attacks of the fungus. In all this work it must be con-
stantly kept in mind that the main object is prevention rather than
cure. Benefit will undoubtedly result if only clean, healthy potatoes
are used as seed. Decayed and discoloured tubers should be fed to the
hogs, as it is poor policy to plant them.
| Brown Ror.
(Bacillus solanacearum Smith).

This disease occurs in many parts of the South, and, in addition to at-
tacking the potato, is found to seriously injure eggplants and tomatoes.
In the case of the potato, the leaves, stems, and tubers are affected.
The diseases usually manifests itself by a sudden wilting of the foliage
and soon the whole plant may become affected, the leaves and stems
shrivelling and then turning brown or black. The disease reaches the
tubers through the stems, producing a brown or black discolouration of
the tissues and ultimately a complete breaking down or rotting of all
the parts. Brown rot is caused by a bacillus, a minute organism,
which multiplies in the tissues and through its action produces the
effects mentioned. Various insects, such as Colorado beetles, flea
beetles, and blister beetles, serve as carriers of the disease. ‘These in-
sects may feed on a diseased plant, and in their visits to adjoining
healthy ones infect the tissues through bites and possibly in other
ways.

TREATMENT,

Throughout the South, namely, in South Carolina, Mississippi, Ala-
bama, and adjacent States where this disease is known to occur, a
thorough system of spraying, such as recommended for early blight,
should be followed. In addition, all diseased vines should be removed
and destroyed as soon as possible, and the tubers should be dug and
either used at once or stored in a cool, dry place. In planting it would
be well to avoid land which has just been used for tomatoes or egg-
plants, and finally seed tubers from localities where the disease is
absent should be used if practicable.

Porato ScaB,
(Qospora scabies Thaxter.)

Scab is one of the most widespread diseases affecting the potato. In-
juries of various kinds may produce a roughened surface, but it is safe
to say that most of what is known as scab is due to the attacks of a
minute parasitic fungus, first studied and described by Dr. Roland
Thaxter, of Harvard University.

TREATMENT.

Potato scab may be successfully controlled by treating the seed pre-
vious to planting. Two fungicides are used for the purpose, namely,
corrosive sublimate solution and formalin solution. To prepare the
first, dissolve 24 ounces of corrosive sublimate, or bichloride of mer-
cury, in about 2 gallons of hot water and after ten or twelve hours
dilute with clear water so that the whole quantity makes 15 gallons.
Corrosive sublimate is a poison and must therefore not be placed where

92

it can fall into the hands of children or irresponsible persons. To pre-
pare the formalin solution, mix 8 fluid ounces of commercial formalin
(otherwise known as 40 per cent formic aldehyde) with 15 gallons of
water.

To treat the potatoes with the corrosive sublimate solution, immerse
them for an hour and a half in the liquid and then spread out to dry.
Finally cut and plant in the usual manner. A large barrel is a con-
venient receptacle for the solution. The potatoes may be placed in a
coarse sack and suspended in the liquid, care being taken to wash the
tubers before dipping, provided they arevery dirty. All treated tubers
should be planted in order to avoid danger from the poison upon them.

It has been shown that the formalin is fully as effective against scab
as the corrosive sublimate solution. and as it is far less dangerous it
will probably come into more general use. In treating seed with this
preparation the whole potato should be soaked for two hours in the so-
lution already described. After soaking, the potatoes may be dried,
cut, and planted in the usual way, care being taken not to allow them
to become contaminated by coming in contact with bags, boxes, or
bins where scabby potatoes have been kept. In practice it is found
that 15 gallons of either of the foregoing solutions will be sufficient to
treat 20 to 25 bushels of potatoes, taking ordinary precautions of course
not to waste too much of the fluid as each lot of tubers is dipped.

Tie Burn, Lear Burn, or Scarp.

This disease of the leaves occurs in many parts of the country and
is often confused with early blight. The tips and edges of the leaves
turn brown and these discolored areas soon become hard and brittle.

The burning or sculding may occur at any time and as a rule is the
result of unfavourable conditions surrounding the plant. Long-con-
tinued cloudy and damp weather fvllowed by several hot and bright
days is very apt to result in the burning of the foliage. This is es-
pecially the case on soils carrying a comparatively small percentage of
moisture. When the weather is cloudy and damp the tissues of the
potato become gorged with water and this has a tendency to weaken
them. If the sun appears bright and hot when the leaves are in this
condition, there is a rapid evaporation ofthemoisture stored up in their
cells. The evaporation may be faster than the supply furnished by the
roots, and if this continues for any length of time the weaker and more
tender parts first collapse, then die, and finally turn brown and dry up.
‘Tip burn may also occur as the result of protracted dry weather.

TREATMENT.

Little of a specific nature can be said on the treatment of this
trouble. Numerous factors are involved in the matter, so that only
-general statements are possible. Every effort should be made to keep
the plants in good growing condition, for if they become checked
through lack of proper food or cultivation or both they are more apt
to burn. It is a fact that where the Bordeaux mixture is used for
other diseases burn is less apt to occur, and this furnishes another
instance of the remarkable properties of the fungicide. Briefly, there-
fore, the plants should be kept as vigorous as possible by good culti-
‘vation, plenty of available food, and the application of Bordeaux
mixture, as recommended for early blight.

.
:
'
:
4
.

93

ARSENICAL PorsoninG OF Porato LEAVES.

In many sections where Paris green in water is applied to potatoes
injuries are produced which can not be distinguished from early blight
by any ordinary examination. It frequently happens, therefore, that
farmers are led to believe that their potatoes are affected with early
blight and other diseases when the trouble has been brought on by
themselves through the improper use of Paris green. Injuries result-
ing from the use of this substance are very apt to occur where flea
beetles have eaten the foliage. The arsenic attacks the tissues at such

oints, and as a result more or less circular brown spots are produced,
eee for their centres the holes eatea out by the flea beetles. By
combining the Paris green with Bordeaux mixture, asalready described,
these injuries may be wholly avoided.

CoNcLUDING REMARKS.

The cost of the work of spraying as described here will depend to
a conderable extent upon the kind of machinery used and the price
paid for labour. With suitable apparatus and labour at $1 50 per day,
‘potatoes may be sprayed six times for about $6 per acre. This esti-
mate is based upon experiments extending over several years and
includes the cost of chemicals as well as labour. The cost of treating
scab is mainly in the labour involved in dipping and drying the seed
and seldom exceeds 15 cents per acre. Much attention has been given
to the effects of Bordeaux mixture on the growth and yield of potatoes
aside from its value in keeping parasitic foes in check. It has been
shown conclusively that it pays to apply this preparation if for no
other purpose than to induce a more vigorous growth. Three or four
applications of the mixture have in many cases increased the yield of
potatoes 50 per cent, so that no matt r where the crop is grown or
whether diseases are present or not the writer feels warranted in re-
commending the application of the mixture on the ground that its use
will yield a handsome return.

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
DEPARTMENT.

Liprary (Serials.)

EUROPE,
British Isles.

Board of Agri, Leaflet, No. 67 ([Secretary,]

Botanical Magazine. April. [Purchased,]

Bulletin, Kew Gardens, App. 1I, 1901. [Director.]

Chemist and Druggist. April, 6, 13, 20,27. [Editor.]

Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Feb., Mar. [Col. Sec.]

Garden. April, 6,13, 20,27. [Purchased.]

Gardeners’ Chronicle, April, 6, 13, 20, 27, [Purchased., ]

International Sugar Journal. April. [Editor.]

Journal of Botany. April. [Purchased,]

Joarnal Royal Colonial Institute, April.

More concerning Truxillo Cocoa jLeaves, (From The Duggist Circular and
Chemical Gazeite, Mar.) [Dir. R. Gardens, Kew. ]

94

Nature. April, 4,11, 18,25. |Purchased.]
Pharmaceutical Journal. April, 6, 13, 20, 27.
ee or the Emigrant’s Information Office, Year ended Dec. 31,1900. [Col-
ec
Trent Lignans Soc., London, 2nd Ser. Botany Vol. VI, Part I. [Dir. R.
Gardens, Kew. ]
France.
Sucrerie indigéne et coloniale. April, 2, 9,16, 23, 30. [Editor.]
Germany.
Beihefte zum tropenpflanzer, May. [Editor.]
Tropenpflanzer. April, May. [Editor.]
Holland.
Bulletin, Koloniaal Museum, No. 24. [Editor.]
Staly.
Bulletino del Laboratorio ed Orto Botanico, Siena, Fascs, III-IV. [Direc-
tor. |
Switzerland. .
Bulletin de Herbier Boissier, Vol. I, Nos. 4,5. [Conservateur.]
ASIA.

India
Agricultural Ledger (Calcutta.) Nos. 21 22, 23, [Lt. Gov. Bengal.]
Planting Opinion, Mar., 9, 16, 23,30. April.6. [Hditor.]
Proc. Agri, Horti. Soc. Madras, April, June, July, Sept. {Secretary. ]

Ceylon

Times of Ceylon, Mar. 14, 21, 28, April 4,11. [Editor.]
J ava.

Fnoctsiaiaon West Java, No. 51. :

” Bast Java No, 24, \ [ Director. ]
AUSTRALIA.

NN. S. Wales.

Agri. Gazette, Feb. [Dept. of Agri.]
Queensland.

Queensland Agri. Journal. Mar. [Sec. of Agri.]
Queensland Sugar Journal. Mar. [Editor.]

Victoria.
Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia, and their treatment. [Pur
chased. |
Trenching and subsoiling for American Vines, [Presented by Govt. Printer
Melbourne. ]

Western Australia.

Journal of the Dept. of Agri., Mar. [Dept. of Agri.]

AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope.

Agri. Journal, Feb. 28. Mar. 14. [Dept. of Agri.]
Natal.

Agri. Journal and Mining Record, Mar. 15, 29. [Dept. of Agri.]
Central Africa.

C. African Times, Feb., 2,9,16,23. Mar. 29. [Editor.]

West INpDIES.
Barbados.
General Treatment of Insect Pests
Circular Note 3. Weevils in food \ [Cammereap. Dept. ot Agri}
Report by the Entomologist on Official Visit to Grenada, 5,15 Mar.,
1901. [Com. Imp. Dept. of Agri,]
Jamaica.
Journal, Jamaica Agri. Society, May. ([Secretary.]
Lrinidad.
Annual Report on Royal Botanic Gardens, 1990. [Supt.]

:
:

95

British North AMERICA.

Ontario.
Experimental Farms Report for 1900.
Report of Agri. and Experimental Union, 1900.

Nova Sco'ta.
Annual Report of Secretary for Agriculture for 1900. [Secretary]

UnitEp States oF AMERICA.
Publications of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. | Directors. |
Scientific Bureaus and Divisions.
Division of Botany (The Stock-poisoning Plants of Montana :A Preliminary
Report).
Experiment Stations.
Experiment Station Record, U.S. A., Vol, XII, Nos, 7, 8,
Alabama, 111 (Corn Culture) 112 (Orchard Notes) 113 (Co-operative Ex-
periments with Cotton in 1899-1900),

Hatch, Mass. 72 (Summer Forage Crops 73 (Orchards Experiments Ferti-

tizers for Fruits. Thinning Fruits, Spraying Fruits,

Illinois, 63 (Seed Corn and some standard varieties for Illinois),

65 (Construction and care of Earth Roads.)
Indiana. LaFayette, Bulletins, Nos. 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 27,
34, 41, 44, 50, 56, 57, 65, 66, 67, 69 to 86 inclusive.
Iowa. 53. (The Asparagus Rust in Towa).
Kansas, Press Bulletin, No, 86 (Kaffier Corn vs Good Butter).
100 (Soy Beans in Kansas in 1900).

Maryland, 72 (Peach Growing in Maryland). 73 (Suggestions about

combating the San Jose Scale).

Michigan. 186 (Firat Report of the Upper Peninsula Experiment Station),

New York. 188 (Spraying for Asparagus Rust). 189 (A_ little-known
Asparagus Pest). 190 (Report of Analysis of Paris Green and
other Insecticides in 1900). 191 (A Fruit-Disease Survey of
Western New York in 1900).

Vermont. 83 (Apples of the Fameuse Type), 84 (Analyses of Commercial
Feeding Stuffs). 85 (Potato Scab and its prevention), 86 Ana-
lyses of Commercial Fertilizers),

Wisconsin. Special Bulletin (The Prevention of Oak Smut), 84 (Bovine
Tuberculosis in Wisconsin) 86 (Analyses of Licensed Commercial

| Fertilizers 1901). 87 (Native Plums).

A List of the Ferns and Fern Allies of N, America, North of Mexico, with

principal Synonyms and Distribution, [Smithsonian Institute, ]

American Journal of Pharmacy, May. [Editor,]

Botanical Gazette, Chicago, April. [Editor,]

Contr. from the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, Nos, 20 and 21,

Some recent Publications and the Nomenclature they represeat, (Harvard

University. |

Journal, New York Botanical Garden, April,

The Forester, April. [Publisher.]

The Plant World, Mar,, April, [Editor,]

Torrey Club Bulletin, April. [Hditor,]

South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition. Dec. 1, 1991

June 1, 1902,

Cotton Culture, Hxperiments with Fertilisers.)

Farmers’ Guide. Plant Food. Potash in| [From Office of the Ger-
Agriculture ; Results obtained in the U,S8, > man Kali Works, New
Tobacco Culture. Tropical Planting. Truck | York, |

Farming. ,

} [Dept. of Agri. ]

SoutH AMERICA.
Boletim da Agricultura, Sao Paulo, Brazil, No. 7. 2nd Serie Nos. 1 and 2
[ Director, |
CENTRAL AMERICA.

Boletin del Instituto Fisico-Geografico de Costa Rica. Nos. 2 and 3.
[Director. ]

96

PoLYNESIA.

Planter’s Monthly, Hawaii, April. [Editor. ]
Liprary.—(Books).

Ewart (Alfred J.) Translation of Dr, Pfeffer’s Physiology of Plants, Vol. I~
Oxford, 1900, 8vo. [Purchased.]
Balfour (Isaae Bailey). Translation of Dr. Goebel’s Organography of Plants
Part I, General Organography, Oxford. 1900, 8vo, [Purchased.]
Koning (C. J.) Der Tabak. Amsterdam. Leipzig. 1900. 4to. [Pur -
chased. |
SEEDS.

From G. 8S. Jenman, Esq., Botanic Station, Demerara.
Nymphea stellata var. cyanea,
From Dr Pittier, San Jose, Costa Rica,
Castilloa Tuna.
Cedrela sp, (Bitter Cedar—From 60) to 3,000 ft. elevation above the sea-
level, on Pacific Slope, Costa Rica).
Cedrela montana (Sweet Cedar—on both slepes, from 200 to 4,000 ft, above’
sea-level in Costa Rica),
Tabebuia rosea, (Red Savanna Oak—Pacific Slope, from 300 to 3,000 ft.
above sea-level).

From Director Botanic Gardens, Buenos Aires—

Amaryllis nivea; Cocos Yatay; Crinum ornatum; Cunninghamia; sin-
ensis; Cupressus funebris; Hippeastrum regine ; Littonia modesta 35.
Macherium Tipu; Pinus canariensis; Thuia gigantea; [ritoma Uvaria.

From Curator, Botanic Gardens, Ootucamund —

Acacia armacta; A. dealbata; A. decurrens ; A, melanoxylon; Acrocarpus.
fraxinifolia; Berberis nepalensis var. Leschenaultii ; Elettaria Carda-
momum ; Chamzerops Fortuaei ; Cupressus torulosa ; Clematis Zouriana ; 2
Erigeron alpinus, var. Wightii; Eacalyptus citriodora ; E, corymbosa ;
E. Globulus ; E. piperita; Exacum bicolor ; Flemingia Grahamiana ;
Grevillea robusta ; Knoxia corymbosa ; Lasiosiphon eriocephalus ; Li-
lium neilgherrense; Litsea zeylanica; Ligustrum neilgherrense ; Man-
devilla suaveolens ; Manihot Glaziovii; Meliosma Arnottiana ; Michelia
nilagirica ; Peduncularis zeylanica ; Phoenix rupicola; Pinus longifolia ;
Rosa gigantea.

From The Cremorne Nursery, Co., Richmond, Victoria, Australia—

Eucalyptus citriodora ; E. robusta; E, saligna,

PLANTS,

From G. S. Jenman, Esq., Botanic Station, Demerara —
Nymphea Lotus ; Nympheza Lotus, var. rubra.

From Messrs. Herb & Wulle, Naples—
Cooperia pedunculata; Gelasine azurea; Zephyranthes Andersoniana; Z.
casinata.

HERBARIUM.

From Rev. J. P. Hall, Retreat Pen, Brown’s Town—
Ceesalpinia Sappan,

From Mrs. Cradwick, Half-way Tree—
Sp. of Fungus.

From f, K, Tomlinson, Esq., Lacovia—
Hirzea Simsiana.

[Issued 19th June 1901. |

New Series. ' JULY, 1901. Vol. VIII,
Part 7.

BULLETIN

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA.

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS.
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

>>> 8 > 8 ae

CONTENTS:

; Paas.
Curing aud packing Produce , : 76
Davericcs Coco-nut | ; 104
Foot Rot : ; : 107
Varieties of Cocoa | | P 108
Additions and Contented ; 109

P RIC E—Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O,

KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
GOVERNMENT Printine Orrice, 79 Duke Srruxr,,

1901,

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. VIII.
Peg rs ho

CURING AND PACKING PRODUCE.

By C. E. peEMzrcapo.

Mr. Charles DeMercado gave a lecture last year to the teachers un-
dergoing a course of agricultural training at Hope His subject was
the curing and packing of Island produce. He kindly promised to
revise the lecture as published by the “‘Gleaner,” but time and oppor-
tunity have been wanting, and it is felt that it would be a pity to de-
lay any longer its appearance in the bulletin.

Mr. DeMercado said it gave him a great deal of pleasure to address
his audience, not only about the proper methods of curing and pre-
paring Jamaican products for foreign markets, but also for home con-
sumption. We still had a great deal to learn about properly supply-
ing our own local markets; there were a lot of little points in that
connection which might be very profitably studied by agriculturists.
His hearers had been brought together to receive instruction in proper
agricultural methods, but it was as important to know what to do
with the crops after they were grown as to know how to grow them.
No crops were produced in Jamaica which did not have to undergo
some process of preparation for the market after they were grown, and
it was at that very point that most people failed. It was not enough
to grow the stuff; it must be put upon the market whether home or
foreign, in the form most acceptable to the market, so that the best
price might be obtained. In Jamaica there could be no doubt that
we depended entirely for our wealth upon agriculture, and his hearers
would therefore be doing the greatest good to the country if they
would impress upon those over whom they had influence the para-
mount necessity of placing agriculture upon a proper basis. There was
no other field of employment in Jamaica which offered such prospeets
of wealth to a man as agriculture, none which conduced so much te the
prosperity of the country. That was why he had taken so much in-
terest in the subject, and had always contended that it was the most
important which the Government could take up. The merchants
knew very well that they were not of so much importance to the
country—though they were a necessary go-between—as those who
added to its wealth by agriculture.

New Series. | JULY, 1901.

98

His business was to speak of the curing and packing of produce.
The first great essential in handling any crop was absolute cleanliness.
Many products depended very largely for their selling price upon
their aroma, which would be lost if any dirt or rubbish were mixed
with them. Therefore, all storehouses, barbecues, packages, etc.,
should be kept scrupulously clean. He sometimes heard it said that
people did not trouble to cure their produce well because they found
that the same prices were paid for good and bad produce coming from
the same district. It might happen that a merchant bought a large
quantity of badly-cured coffee from a district, together with a few
pounds well cured. The small parcel of good stuff was of no us: to
him ; he could not sell it separately, and it therefore had to go in with
the inferior stuff. It would thus be seen that a man who cured his
produce badly harmed his neighbours as well as himself, and helped
to get his district a bad name. Co-operation among the people could
do a great deal to remove this danger and get a good reputation for a
district. ‘The commercial world was constantly disturbed by over-
production, but very seldom indeed did it witness over-production of
the best qualities of goods. Ifa man had a specialty that was really
good, he could readily find a good market for it. They saw that in the
case of coffee; when the price of the product dropped it affected the in-
ferior qualities very seriously indeed, but the price of Blue Mountain
coffee had practically not been affected at all. It was as high to-day as
ever. He desired to make his remarks specially applicable to small
settlers, and it might at first sight seem impossible for that class to
reach the same degree of agricultural perfection with their products as
large cultivators with plenty of capital at their command. But while
absolutely the same degree of perfection might perhaps not be reached,
it was yet within the power of the small cultivator to attain very nearly
to it by means of co-operation. In the case of coffee, the peasant pro-
prietor was in the same position as the largest proprietor—nay, he
was even in a better position, for on account of the smaller extent of.
his operations he could give much closer personal supervision to the
details. One of the essential features of good coffee was to secure a
large bean. That was to be arrived at by attention to proper pruning
and manuring. It might be urged that the rich man could buy
manures and the poor man could not, but his hearers were being
taught by their instructors that proper manures lay ready to the
hand of the small settler, and were to be had for a little time and
trouble. The system of curing coffee followed for the most part in the
lowlands of Jamaica—which produced what was known as “ double-
husk” coffee—was quite wrong, and ought to be improved without de-.
lay if Jamaica was to successfully compete with her rivals. A very
important point was only to pick each day such berries as were quite
fit. The plantation should be gone through contantly, for this pur-
pose; people should not through pure laziness, want to pick a lot
of berries at once, whether fit or not. After a start had been made to
dry the coffee, it should never be allowed to get wet again under any
circumstances. The “double-husk” method was to dry the coffee
in the berry. That was a bad system, because it produced coffee
which was poor in quality, discoloured, and deficient in aroma, It
was much better to pulp the berries, but of course many settlers had no

99

pulper and could not afford to buy one, and therefore had to dry the
-coffee in the husk Coffee was a product which very quickly took up any
external odour, dirt or impurity. If it was to be cured in the double
husk, it should never be allowed to lie on the ground, as was very often
thecase Frequently care was not even taken to sweep the place clean,
and the coffee consequently soaked up all the manifold impurities
of the soil, and was ruined. They must remember that the buyer
abroad not only inspected the coffee he bought and judged of its
aroma but actually ground, roasted, and tasted it. If the small
settler did not own a barbecue let him place his coffee upon a
clean board, but not on the bare ground, and let him take
care that nothing foul got mixed up with it. Besides the
“double husked” and “ washed” coffee prepared with the pulper,
there was a third system by which some of the coffee was washed and
some wasnot. That was to say, the pulping was improperly done,
and the coffee was taken to the merchant with half of it washed and
half unwashed. Of course, the result was that the inferior article
lowered the value of the good article, and the unwashed destroyed
the value of the washed.

To illustrate his remarks, Mr. DeMercado handed round three samples
of coffee, all from similar cultivationsin the same district the only dif-
ferences being in curing. The first specimen was bad “ double husk”
coffee, the second a better quality “double husk,” and the third
“washed” coffee. The prices in the London market were 40s. per cwt.
for the first, 45s. for the second, and 60s. for the third. Proceeding
with his lecture, Mr. DeMercado pointed out that it was only by
properly pulping the coffee that the best price could be obtained. The
pulper was not very expensive to buy, and if there were only a little
co-operation there might be one among every group of small settlers,
All that was necessary was for a few men to make up their minds to.
help themselves and help each other at the same time. Each man
could send his coffee to the common pulper, and realize a much better
price on his crop. In many districts of the Island to-day such small
central factories were run by merchants who bought the coffee in the
cherry and cured it themselves. He warned Jamaicans that unless
they produced better coffee they were likely to see still lower prices.
Brazil, their powerful rivel in the coffee market, used to turn out the
product by the primitive ‘‘double husk,” method but in recent years the
cultivators in that country had seen the error of their ways, and had
taken to pulping and washing, with the result that our unwashed coffee
was being to 2 certain extent neglected in the market,

Mr. DeMercado showed a sample of Blue Mountain coffee to illus-
trate its superiority to the lowland product. He urged those of his
hearers who came from coffee districts to tell the small settlers to use
alittle patience and not pick the unripe berries. The coffee having
been cured, he proceeded, they came to the point of packing it in the
bag to send to the shipper. Here there was room for great improve-
ment—and his remarks on this head applied to the shopkeeper as much
as to the grower. He had in his office a museum of foreign substances
found in bags of coffee sent to his firm. Among them were such things
as pumpkins, a pair of baby’s shoes, a chisel, a hammer-head, empty

100

tins, several boots, and in fact pretty nearly every known article in
the world. This was the result of gross carelessness. The people-
who packed the bags at the country shops were not dishonest ; they

simply let them lie about open, and when the emptied, say, a tin of

condensed milk, it was the most natural thing in the world to throw

it into the coffee bag, and perhaps the opener as well. Experience
had taught him that he dare not send away coffee without repacking

it, or the people with whom he did business abroad would think he

was not a honest man, and would write to tell him that when they

wanted to buy hammers and chisels they would prefer to go to the

hardware store.

Turning to the subject of cocoa, Mr. DeMercado said it was a pro-
duct of comparatively recent date in Jamaica, or rather a revival.
When the Island was first occupied by the Spaniards they found cocoa
growing, and they kept up the cultivation for many years, until even-
tually it died out from want of care. He came across a curious legend
about it in an old book the other day. As his hearers perhaps knew,
there was a worm which attacked the tap root of the cocoa plant and
proved very destructive if not guarded against. The old Spaniards
told the first English settlers that when the Indians planted cocoa they
held a religious ceremony and poured a libation to their gods over each
plant, which had the effect of rendering it immune from this worm.
Of course, people were too sensible to believe that sort of thing now a
days, and they could keep the worm away without libations. He
could thoroughly recommend the planting of cocoa in Jamaica pro-
vided the district was suitable. It could be easily cured with a little
attention and care and the small proprietor could reach a level of excel-
lence almost equal to that of the large grower. Cocoa was one of the
products Jamaica had improved herself in of recent years. She used to
be much behind Trinidad, but now she was almost up to her. The
house and the implements used by the large grower could be easily im-
itated by the small man. After the cocoa had been gathered when in
a fit state, the pods should be kept in a dry place for some days. The
pod should then be broken and the cocoa-beams taken out with the
mucilage adhering to them, and put in a box with holes in the bottom
and sides to allow of the mucilage running off during sweating. Plan-
tain or banana leaves should be packed on top to help the sweating.
The longer the process of sweating the better. Three or four days
would probably be long enough in most cases. The cocoa beans should
be changed from box to box several times during the process so that
all parts of the heap would have a chance of equal fermentation by
being shifted from the middle to the top or bottom. Then the cocoa
should be put in the sun and spread out very thin. In Trinidad
coolies walked over the cocoa in this state with bare feet to take up
the mucilage, but this must pot be done after it was partially dry or
it would break the beans The period of drying depended upon the
heat of the sun, but it must be carried to such a point that the bean
would break easily and the skin would leave the bean without being
brittle. By this simple method, if properly carried out, the small
settler could get cocoa that would prove readily marketable and fetch
a very good price indeed. Mr. DeMercado exhibited a sample of small
settlers’ cocoa from St, Andrew and Linstead improperly fermented

101

and sweated, and therefore only worth 70s. per cwt. in the London
Market. A properly cured small settlers’ sample from St. Mary,
worth 72s. or 73s. was also shown; and a sample of the best quality,
worth 78s. The evaporation process, he explained, was hardly practi-
cable for small settlers unless by co-operation. The man who cured
his cocoa properly not only got a better price than the man who did
it badly, but actually got more weight from the same number of beans
because some of the mucilage dried on to the bean.

There was such a thing, the lecturer proceeded. as a product being
absolutely valueless if it was a little “off” in quality and yet fetching
a fair price if it was well prepared. This was the case with anatta.
This product grew wild in Jamaica and yet had a very small market.
It was used for colouring butter and cheese, but chemical substances
had been discovered which did this, and so anatta had gone to the
wall to a large extent and poor anatta was quite unsaleable—nobody
would have it as a gift. Yet good anatta could still be sold. If
good anatta could be sold at a high price, there would be some room
for the poorer quality at a low price, but the good being down, the
bad was nowhere. Hight or nine shillings a hundred weight could be
got for the good article to-day. The cause of the difference in
the quality was simply improper curing Anatta should not be
cured in the sun, but in a shady place with plenty of draught.
It would thus dry properly without losing any of the colouring matter
through evaporation by the sun’s rays. Good anatta was moist after
curing and could be squeezed up ina ballin the fingers. The bad
quality lost its fine red colouring and went dark. A mark of all pro-
perly cured produce was that it never got hot or fermented in the bag.
He had taken up the question of anatta simply to impress upon his
hearers the great commercial truth that even with the very worst con-
dition of the market there was some demand for the good article, but
there was no hope for the bad.

Turning to pimento, the lecturer remarked that it was a gift of God
to the Island. Practically speaking, we had it to ourselves; we did
not have to grow it, and the least. we could do was to send it to mar-
ket in a fit condition. After it was picked it should go through a
process of sweating. It should be heaped and covered with plantain
leaves or banana thrash, which would help to protect it from the rain,
Great care should be taken that it did not get wet. After the sweat-
ing process, it should be placed on thoroughly clean barbecues to dry.
At this stage its colour should bea sort of reddish brown, if it had
been properly sweated. Care should be taken that it was thorougaly
dry before it was put up, and it should be fanned. Every man, per-
haps, could not buy a fan, but here again co-operation could come in
usefully. The difference in price for one crop would pay for the faa,
which he believed only cost £5 or £6. Imperfectly cured pimento
would ferment and get hot in the bag, and lose enormously in weight.
A man might buy 100 lbs. and in a few days find the weight drop to
85. How could they expect a merchant to give a good price when he
was buying a pig in a poke of this kind? Well-cured pimento, on
the other hand, only lost slightly in weight in shipment. In regard
to sweating, a great deal depended on conditions and apparatus. Care
_ aust be taken. as with cocoa, to sweat all parts of the heap equally.

‘102

Pimento should be picked in the green state, which was really the unripe
state.

Turning to fruits, Mr. DeMercado said his remarks would apply
equally whether the articles were intended for export or for the
local markets. If produce such as pimento and coffee, which would.
stand all sorts of hard usage, had nevertheless to be treated most
carefully, how much more so must perishable fruits, for only then
could it possibly be profitable to export. The care taken must
commence, in the case of oranges and other citrus fruits, with the
picking from the tree. That should be done witha sharp knife or
pair of scissors, and part of the stalk should be preserved adhering to
the orange. One imperfect orange in a barrel would contaminate the
whole barrel—nay more, given time it would contaminate every fruit
in a large room full of oranges. In picking, each orange should be
tenderly handled, placed gently ina basket or other receptacle, and.
carried to the house or shed where it was to be packed. Oranges
should never be packed immediately after picking. ‘They shvuld be
spread out as openly as possible in an airy rocm end allowed to dry,
say for twenty-four hours or longer. During this time they should
be gone over and every orange examined, and any showing the least

_sign of deterioration thrown away—not into a barrel in the same
reom, or close by, but as far away as possible. ‘The reason for curing
oraD ges, so to speak, was that very often defects could not be seen
when they were taken ircm tbe tree, but developed plainly in a few
hours. ‘Lhen came the question of packing. This was the crucial
point. A man should not think that because he managed to sell a
lot of bad oranges once he had done a good thing. His mark would
be known, and dealers would fight shy of his exports in future. Fur-
thermore, he would help to give the Island produce a bad name, and
damage his neighbours. Such a man was an enemy to the commu-
nity. It was not with oranges as with pimento that we had the mar-
ket to ourselves. If Jamaica oranges got a bad name, there were
plenty of competiters to profit by our loss of reputation, and the man
who pecked poor fruit was helping to ruin not only himself, but every
other orange grower in the Island. The good suffered for the bad. It
often happened that a man did not pack his own fruit. In that case
he should take the utmost care in conveying it to the local market at
which he sold. ‘here was no reason why oranges intended for local
consumption should not be picked with the leaves and stalk on. It
would make them look much more attractive, they would keep better,
and they would sell better. ;

With regard to bananas, he could not say much. The export of that
product was only carried on by large concerns, but he urged his hear-
ers to impress upon small settlers the need of carrying their bunches
of bananas to the whart as carefully as if they were babies. Here
again, Jamaica had plenty of competitors, but if we got a good repu-
tation for our bananas other places would find it all the harder to take
away the markets which had been ours so long. If on the other hand
we delivered bananas in a worse condition then those from Port Limon
and other places we should naturally suffer.

The teach«rs could do much to impress these truths upon the people
and thereby increase the wealth of the country and improve social con~-

103

ditions. Their influence commenced with the child, andif they instilled
into him proper ideas on these subjects they would do the country in-
finite service. it was neither necessary nor practicable that all his
hearers should become scientific agriculturists, or that they should all
turn practical agriculturists out of their schools but they would be able
by reason of the training they were now receiving, to direct the minds
of the children into channels that would prove for their good. LEvery-
body was contributing to the cost of education, and it therefore behoved
them to see that the schools turned out men and women who would be
useful to themselves and to the community. There was not room in
Jamaica for another five thousand teachers, or another five thousand
lawyers, or another five thousand doctors; neither was there room
for another twenty thousand shopkeepers—it would mean ruin to
those who embarked in those lines; but if the people would recog-
nize that the soil was the source of wealth there was plenty of room
for five million agriculturists, and in saying that he would ask them
what degree of prosperity a man could arrive at by school teaching.
They must know pretty well. If the country hada big surplus of
lawyers and doctors, lawyers’ letters would go begging at a farthing a
piece, and doctors’ visits would be had for nothing. But in agricul-
ture Jamaica had the whole world for her field. Here peasan's had been
living in the pastfrom handto mouth; they had been satisfied to plant
what was known as “catch crops,” with the natural consequence that
often they had nothing to depend on. The teachers should instil into
them the necessity for planting permanent crops, such ss oranges,
coffee, and cocoa. Every man who planted a tree which produced
something did a service to his kind which could not be too highly
extolled. He was not an agriculturist himself, but he claimed that
he did know something about the needs of the country and about what
people wanted abroad. And one thing he knew was that, to use an
Americanism, Jamaica was not “the only pebble on the beach.” If
she did not send her products to the markets in a proper condition she
would lose those markets.
A vote of thanks was very heartily accorded to Mr. DeMercado.

_ Responding, he said that what he was proudest of in his brief poli-
tical career was the fact that through his instigation and suggestions
to the Government the present steps in the matter of agricultural edu-
cation had been made. Allthe time he was in the Legislative Council
he endeavoured to direct the attention of his fellow-members and of
the country to that matter, and he was very happy to know that
through the resolution which he was able to carry the present Board-
of Agriculture had come into being. It had been a real pleasure to
him to give alittle instruction on a subject with which he could claim
familiarity. Jamaica was his home, and if from the force of circum-
stances he was in a position to assist his fellow Jamaicans it was a
question ot duty with him. No greater assistance could be given the
people than by helping them to find means of livelihood and avenues
of prosperity for the growing population. He had given thought and
attention for several years to these matters. It was sometimes said,
_ When a man who did not till the soil told the people to do so, that he
Was trying to “keep them down.” Personally, he always felt that he
would much rather be an agriculturist than a merchant, but one could

104

not always be what one wanted. A man who wished to gather wealth
in Jamaica had got to look to the soil for it. So far from degrading
a people, agriculture was an ennobling pursuit. Nothing gave him
greater pleasure than to see a plant or tree which he had grown him-
self coming up properly. There were some people who wanted to see
practical and definite results already from the work of the new Board
of Agriculture. Well, nothing could be done with such unreasonable
people. He should be satisfied if he saw some results when his steps
were tottering and his hair was white. He urged the teachers to tell
the people to write to the Board whenever they wanted any agricul-
tural advice. Applicants would receive speedy replies, and if enough
people were interested in the matter, Mr. Cradwick would be sent down
to do what he could for them Of course, if Mr. John Jones thought
he would like to grow coffee, the Board could hardly oblige him by
sending down a lecturer for his individual benefit, but the Board
existed to do all it could in reason to help agriculturists. All they
wanted was for the people to avail themselves of the facilities it offered.
There was one other matter he ought to touch on, and that was the
question of prices. It was no good to stop growing a product because
prices fell. Sir Henry Blake told the people to grow ginger, which
was fetching a very high price in his day. ‘hey did so, and ginger
was not fetching such a good price now. That could not be helped,
and the only thing to do was to adapt one’s self to conditions. When
the great falls took place in the prices of sugar and wheat it was said
that it would be sheer ruin to grow. But sugar and wheat were
still grown at even lower prices and somehow managed to pay. He
remembered the time when people said it would be ruinous to grow
sugar at £15aton. It was being produced to-day for £9 a ton, and
with better cultivation and improv:'d methods i: could be turned out
for £6 a ton. When prices fell, the grower must accommodate himself
to conditions by improving his -agriculture, by making an acre yield
perhaps double what it did before, and by putting his produce in the
market in the best possible form. If Jamaica gave up sugar because
prices fell, and then coffee, and oranges, and perhaps later on bananas,
goodness only knew where it would all end. Presently we should be
exporting nothing and all living on roots.

IMPERFECT COCO-NUTS. -

Coco-nuts have been sent to the Director from a correspondent in .
_§t. Elizabeth of an abnormal character, the husk only being developed
without any nut : they were sent on to be examined by Dr. MacDougal,
Director of the Laboratories in the New York Botanical Garden, and
the following letter and report has been received :—

Dr. MacDougal to Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

New York Botanical Garden,
Bronx Park, New York City,
April 11th, 1901.
Dear Sir,
Replying to yours of March 26th, referring to some imperfect coco-
nuts sent to us for examination on same date, I beg to submit the en-

105

-closed report on same made by Miss E. M. Kupfer. As you will see
from this report, the fruits are not diseased in any manner, but the
non-development of the nut must be due to the fact that pollination
is not effected. This may result from the destruction of the pollen in
the flowers by animal or vegetable parasites, or perhaps something in-
terferes with the usual agent active in transferring the pollen from the
stamens to the pistils An examination of the living plant will be
necessary to determine this. These imperfect fruits are interesting
examples of the development of the accessory parts of a fruit with no
formation of seed, as may also be seen in two or three species of the
banana.

Yours very truly
D. T. MacDoveat,

Director of the Laboratories.

Report on ImpeRFEcT Coconuts RECEIVED FROM DIREcTOR oF PUBLIC
GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS OF JAMAICA.

One of these coco-nut fruits of average size, was found to weigh 575
grams. For comparison a coco-nut of about the same dimensions was
taken which had been lying for a yearin a dark room and which, but
for a certain loss in weight by the drying up of the milk and the
“ meat,” might be considered normal. This fruit weighed 80 grams,
making a difference of 305 grams in favour of the normal specimen. If
the latter had been fresh, the difference, would, of course, have been
still more striking.

The husks of both were then sawn open longitudinally and the con-
‘tents of the fruit compared. Nowhere, in the abnormal fruit could
any indication of seed be found. The locule was almost entirely over-
grown with the woody fibres of which the husk is composed, so that,
at first sight, the section showed nothing but a solid mass of this fibrous
tissue. Upon closer examination however, a shallow irregular, narrow
cavity, excentrically placed was discovered in one half of the fruit. It
was 15 em. long, 2.5em. wideand 3 cm. deep. In this there were three
centers about which small quantity of shell substance had begun to
form. One of these regions was situated at the chalazal portion of the
seed, one on the floor, and the other directly above it on the roof of
the cavity. In each case the region so hardened was more or less
tubular, and did not exceed an inch in length, 4 inch in width, and 4
inch in thickness. A microchemical comparison of this shell substance
and that from the perfect fruit revealed no differences. Both were
found to be largely composed of highly lignified cells, containing, in
some instances, oil drops.

A certain differentation of the husk substance, noticeable in the
normal fruit, was absent in the abnormal one. The husk is made up,
as was marked before, of woody fibres. Hach fibre is surmounted by a
quantity of loose pith so that the appearance of the material is decided-
ly spongy. In the healthy fruit, there is at the basal portion, at the
micropylar end, a felt of much looser fibres very different from the
general mass. They are finer and more pliant, and are not surrounded
by pith. The mass of finer fibres may serve to absorb and retain mois-
ture for the benefit of the embryo and seedling. ‘There is also a layer

106

of exceedingly tough, coarse strands, which will stand a considerable
amount of strain, attaching the nut to the husk. Neither of these
specialized fibres was to be found in the sterile nut. A microscopical
examination disclosed no important differences in the bast cells which
make up any of the strands of either the perfect or the abnormal husk.
The difference in the relative thickness and stifiness seems entirely due
to the number of cells in a strand.

In order to determine just what proportion nut and husk had in

the normal fruit, the nut was removed and the husk weighed. It was

found to weigh exactly half of the original amount, or 400 grams.
The other fruit, which was approximately the same size, weighed, as
noted above, 575 grams, the average of fresh specimens being about

610 grams. So that it would seem as if some of the substance which.

would usually go to the formation of seed was here devoted to increas-
ing the bulk of husk.

Since no trace of fungus, insect, or bacterial activity could be found,
no direct evidence as to the cause of the condition of the defective fruits
could be produced. The probability is, however, that the responsibi-
lity for this state of the fruiting organs is to be laid to none of these
agents, but is the result of the failure on the part of the flower to
effect pollination. Such failure seems to be more or less common and
well known, as is evident from the following statement from the
Cyclopedia of American Horticulture (L. H. Bailey Vol. 1. p. 342 :)
*-Coco-nuts, like many other fruits, often grow to a considerable size
without pollination, and then perish.”

An examination of the pistils and stamens of the trees, producing
these fruits with regard to the method of pollination would probably
afford an explanation of the absence of seed in the specimens under
consideration.

A diagram showing the relative extent of the tissues in the two

fruits is appended.
E. M. Kuprer.
Explanation of Figures : A. Normal, B. Sterile Fruit :

a. husk fibres ; b. shell; c. endosperm; d. finer fibres around micropyle ;
e. embryo.

{
j

/ C % Vay
i :
dy 4
ANY ky Y
Ww,

\ Y \ i
NY ‘
3 &yF

SS

———— Oe, —

107
FOOT ROT.

This Diseases is also known as “Collar Rot” and “Mal di Gomma.”

The English names refer tothe place in the tree attacked, —the
lower portion of the stem next the ground, and the upper portion of
the root just below the surface. The Italian name refers to the for-
mation of gum which is the usual accompaniment of the disease.

The bark decays at the collar, gumming takes place with a disa-
greable odour, the leaves look unhealthy, and of a sickly, yellow colour,
the small shoots die off, and the fruit sets abnormally thick. The
decay of the bark extends to the main roots and round the stem; this
process is assisted by the attacks of ants. When it has completely
girdled the tree, death follows.

There are several conditions which may be considered as rendering
the tree liable to ‘foot rot,” but the disease itself is supposed to be a
minute fungus.

Observation hes shown that the disease is most common where any
of the following conditions exist: Improper drainage; planting the
trees so close together that the ground is continually shaded and kept
moist; continuous use of organic fertilisers; excessive cultivation ;
continuous excessive irrigation which keeps the soil water-soaked ; and
deep planting.

‘‘he manner in which the disease spreads, appearing at different
dates first in one country and then in another, and extending gradually
from grove to grove, strongly indicates that it is contagious, being
caused or at least greatly aggravated by some parasitic organism. It
is thought by many to result from the attacks of some parasitic orga-
nism, and Professor Briosi describes and names a fungus Fusisporium
limoni which he finds always accompanying the disease. He is in-
clined to consider the fungus the cause of the trouble, but is in doubt
as to whether it is the primary cause. He says, however: ‘‘I do not
' believe there can be any doubt that its presence accelerates the disor-
ganization of the tissues and aids in extending the disease.”

The following letter shows that the disease can be combated with
success.

Hon. Oscar Marescauz to Director, Public Gardens and Plantations.

Cherry Garden, Jamaica,
20th May, 1901.
Dear Mr. Faweett,

Some time ago in reply to my enquiry you were good enough to
give me the following receipt for keeping off the black ants from eating
the peel of my orange trees just where they come out of the ground :—

2 lbs. common clay dissolved in water to the consistency of or-
dinary paint,

2 lbs. flour of brimstone properly mixed in same,

A small piece (say a good table-spoonful) of Soft Soap,

A couple of spoonfuls of ordinary kerosine oil—
to be applied with a brush at the foot of the tree. ;

Besides using this mixture for the above purpose, I have caused.
some of my trees which were covered with the white scale to be painted

108

with it—and the effect in both cases is so good that I hope you will
recommend the use of this very simple remedy to those who suffer
from these pests.

I should mention that most of my trees are about 4 years old,—
that the ants during the dry weather, and probably to get some mois-
ture, used to attack the stem where it emerges from the ground—
leaving a nasty scar which the new peel has to cover up—but now they °
have left off their depredations.

The white scale is mostly on the branches, and my men do not find
it difficult—with the aid of a brush they make themselves out of a
banana or a “korato”’—to coat them thoroughly with the mixture—
which seems to destroy them instantly. With thanks,

I am faithfully,
Oscar MARESCAUX.

For fuller information consul; Bulletin for May—July, 1898 which
contains a re-print of a Bulletin of the U.S. Vepartment of Agricui-
ture,—“ The principal diseases of Citrus fruits in Florida” by W. T.
Swingle and H. J. Webber; also a publication by the Department of
Agriculture, Victoria,—‘‘ Fungus diseases of Citrus Trees in Austra-
lia” by D. MacAlpine, Government Vegetable Pathologist.

VARIETIES OF COCOA.

Cocoa buyers state that a low price is frequently given because the
beans are not all from the same variety of tree, that the good and in-
ferior kinds are mixed, when naturally the inferior rules the price.

On many estates the pods are of all kinds, and it is impossible to
say to what variety any particular tree belongs.

There are three chief varieties of Cocoa grown in the West Indies,
viz., the Calabash, Criollo, and Forastero.

The calabash pod of typical form is small and round with a smooth
skin; the beans are flat, bitter, and of a dark purple colour inside.

The Criollo pod is thin-skinned, and has a ‘“ bottle-neck” near the
stalk ; the beans are rounded, sweet, and white inside.

The Forastero has a thick skin, deeply furrowed; the beans are
somewhat rounded, slightly bitter and pinkish within.

The Criollo cured Cocoa gets the highest price, but the tree is the
most delicate of all, and liable to disease. It can only be grown on
the very best soils.

The Calabash Cocoa takes twice the time and attention to ferment
it as the Criollo, and fetches a very low price. The tree is, however,
very hardy, and will thrive on poor soil where other kinds would not

row.

The Forastero is intermediate in character between the other two.
The quality of the cured cocoa is good but not as fine asCriollo. The
tree,, however, is not subject to disease, and bears large crops. This
is the variety recommended for planting in Jamaica, and is the one
distributed from Hope Gardens.

It is of great importance to planters to have as nearly as possible

109

only one kind on his estate. or instance, if an estate has some trees
of the Calabash variety and some Forastero, the beans must be
separately cured, or the fermentation will be too long for some and
too short for others, resulting in a badly cured sample.

In planting out an estate for the first time, the choice should be
made of one variety and nothing else should be grown. Many estates
get a low price for the cocoa, simply because the trees are not even in
character. The colour of pod does not matter. Es

As regards situation for growing Cocoa, it should not be planted on
dry ridges, but in moist sheltered valleys, and this is essential in
districts where the rainfall is small and uncertain.

ee

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
DEPARTMENT.

Liprary (Serials. )

EUROPE,

British Isles.

Botanical Magazine, May. [Purchased.]

British Trade Journal, May. [Editor.]

Chemist and Druggist. May,4,11,18. [Editor.]
Colonial Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Mar., April, May. [Col. Sec.]}
Garden. May, 4,11, 18,25. [Purchased.]

Gardeners’ Chronicle, May, 4, 11, 18, 25, [Purchased,]
Journal of Botany. May. [Purchased,]

Nature. May 2, 9,16, 23. | Purchased. |
Pharmaceutical Journal, May 4, 11, 18, 25.
International Sugar Journal. May. [Editor.]

W. Indian and Com. Advertiser. May, [Editor.]

France.
Sucrerie indigéne et coloniale. May 7,14,21. [Editor.]

Germany.

Notizblatt, Berlin, May. [Director.]
Verhandlungen der k. k. zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, Feb.

[ Publishers. ]
ASIA.
India.
List of plants in the Trivandrum Public Gardens and neighbourhood.
[ Director. |

Report on\the Trivandrum Museum & Public Gardens, 1899-1900. [Director.]
Planting Opinion, April 13,20, 27. May 4. [Editor.]
Ceylon

Times of Ceylon, April 25. May 2,9. [Kditor.]
Administration Report, 1900, R. Bot. Gard. Part IV. Miscellaneous.
[ Director. ]

Straits Settlements.
Annual Report on Botanic Gardens, 1900. [Director.]

110

Java.
Proefstation, East Java, 3rd Series No. 25. [Director.]

Hong Kong.
Report, Botanic and Afforestation Dept., 1900. [Actg. Supt. ]

AUSTRALIA.
N.S. Wales.
Agri. Gazette, March. [Dept. of Agri.]
Queensland.

Queensland Agri. Journal. April. [Sec. of Agri.]
Queensland Sugar Journal. April. [Hditor.]

Western Australia.
Journal of the Dept. of Agri., April. [Dept. of Agri.]

AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope.

Agri. Journal, March, April. [Dept. of Agri.]
Natal.

Agri. Journal and Mining Record, April 26. [Dept. of Agri.]
Zanzibar.

Annual Report of the Agricultural Dept., 1899. [Dept. of Agri.]
Central Africa.

C, African Times. Mar. 16, 30. April 6. [Editor.]

West Inp1zs.

Jamaica.

Journal, Jamaica Agri. Society, June. ([Secretary.]

Weather Report for April 1901. [Govt. Printer. ]
Barbados.

Agri. Gazette, April. [Editor.]

West Indian Bulletin, Vol. II. No, 2. [Com. Imp. Dept. of Agri.]
Gis enada.

Annual Report, Botanic Station, 1899. [Curator.]

British NortaH AMERICA.
Ontario.
Bulletin 76, Crops & Live Stock in Ontario.
Montreal.
Pharmaceutical Journal, April, May. [Editor. ]

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Publications of the U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture. [| Directors. |
Scientific Bureaus and Divisions.

Division of Botany (Shade in Coffee Culture. )
Eaperiment Stations.

Indiana. LaFayette, Bulletins, Nos. 30, 31, 33, 40, 45, 46, 48, 49,51, 52,

68.

Kansas, Press Bulletin, 87 (When to cut Alfalfa); 88 Continental Stock
Foods for Dairy Cows); 89 (Shelled Corn compared with Corn chop for

young Calves.
Michigan. 187 (Report of South Haven 8 1b-Station, 1990]
(188 Hxperiments with Sugar Beets)

Ohio. 122 (Onion Smut. Preliminary Experiments.) 123 (I, Grape Rots in
Ohio. II. Experiments in the prevention of Grape Rot.) 124 (The main-
tenance of Fertility. Field Experiments with Fertilizers on Corn, Oats
and Wheat in 1899 and 1900.) 125 (The Maintenance of Fertility.

Field Experiments with Fertilizers on Potatoes 1894 to 1900.)

111

Wisconsin. (Seventeenth Annual Report.) Special Bulletins—(Directions
for growing and feeding Rape), (Canker Sore Mouth in Young Pigs).
46 (School of Economics and Political Science).
American Journal of Pharmacy, June, [{Editor,]
Botanical Gazette, Chicago, May. [Editor,]
Bulletin, New York Botanical Garden, Vol. II, No. 6, 1901 Dizect
Index ditto ditto Vol. I, 1890-1900 HI irector. |
Corn Smut. By J. C. Arthur and Wm. Stuart.
Culture of Uredineae in 1899
Formalin and Hot Water as preventives of Loose Smut | By J. C. Arthur.
of Wheat
Sub-watering and Dry Air in Greenhouses | [Author.]
The Asparagus Rust
Journal, New York Botanical Garden, May, [ Director. ]
New or little known North American Trees. III. By C.S Sargent. (Re-
printed from Botanical Gazette, Vol. XX XI, April 1901). [Author.]
Notes on a Collection of Crataegus made in the Province of Quebec near
Montreal. By C.S. Sargent. (Reprinted from Rhodora, Vol. 3, No, 28
April 1901.) [Author. |
Mycological Notes, Nov. 1898, Feb., April, Nov. 1899, Dec. 1900, May 1901.
[Lloyd Bot. Library, Cin., Ohiho.]
Pine Apple Fertilizers. By P. H. Rolfs. [Author.]
The Forester, May. [Publisher.]
The Plant World, May, [Editor,|
Torrey Club Bulletin, May, [Editor,]
Trans. Academy of Science, St. Louis. Vol. XI. No. 2—Florida Lichens.
[P. H. Rolfs. ]

CENTRAL AMERICA.
Boletin del Instituto Fisico-Geografico Costa Rica. [Director.]

POLYNESIA.
Planter’s Monthly, Hawaii, June. [Editor.]

Lrprary.—(Books).

Colonial Office List for 1901. [Col. Sec.]

Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr. Friedrich Welwitsch in
1853-61. Vol. II., Part II. Cryptogamia. London, 1901, 4to. [Pre-
sented by the Trustees of the British Museum. }

Bailey (William Whitman.) Botanizing. A Guide to Field-Collecting and
Herbarium Work. Providence, R. I. 1899. 4to. [Purchased. ]

Banks (sir Joseph & Dr. Daniel Solander). Illustrations of the Botany of
Captain Cook’s Voyage round the World in H.M.S. Endeavour in 1768-71.
With Determinations by James Britten, F.L.S. Part II. Australian
Plants. London, 1900, Folio. [Presented by the Trustees of the British
Museum. |

Nicholson (George). The Century Supplement to the Dictionary of Gar-
dening. Edited by G. Nicholson, assisted by others. G. to Z London.
1901. 4to. [Purchased. |

SEEDS.

From 0. J. Winter, Esq., H. M. Legation, Guatemala.

Cocoa, |

From Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Banksia collina; B. latifolia, var. minor; B. marginata; B. paludosa ; Con-
ospermum ericifolium ; C. taxifolium; Grevillea acanthifolia; G. aspleni-
folia; G. Banksii; G. buxifulia; G. Caleyi; G. laurifolia; G. linearis ;
G. oleoides; G. punicea; G. robusta; G. sericea; Hakea dactyloides;
H. gibbosa; H. propinqua; Is»pogon anemonefolius ; I. anethifolius ;

112

Lomatia silaifolia; Persoonia Chamaepeuce ; P. lanceolata; P, lineris ;
P. pinifolia; Petrophila pedunculata ; P, pulchella; P. jsessilis; Steno-
carpus salignus ; S. sinuatus; Xanthorrhoea arborea; X. hastilis.
From Victoria-Kamerun, West Africa.
Raphia vinifera.
From R. Botanic Garden, Sibpur near Calcutta.
Cicer arietjinum (Gram & Horse Gram Seed); Phaseolus aconitifolius ;
P. aureus; P. Max; P. Mango; P. pilosus; P. Roxburghii.
Hrom Botanic Gardens, Hong Kong.
Quercus Blakei; Q. Edithe.

PLANTS.

From Miss Roper, St. Ann.
Lycopodium taxifolium.

HERBARIUM.

From Dr. M. Grabham, Kingstan.
Specimens of Tournefortia astrotricha.
From Miss Steer, Claremont.
Flower of Vanda teres.

{Issued 11th, July 1901. ]

New Series. AUGUST, 1901. Vol. VIII,
Part 8.

BULLETIN

oy THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.LS,

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

>s> <<

CONTENTS:

Paag.
Fungoid Diseases of Cocoa ° 113
_ Notes on some recent Contributions . 124
Australian Biisiloto - 125
Jamaica Braziletto 125
An inch of Rain © : ° 125
Additions and Contributions pri e219

P RIC E—Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
GovggnmeENt Printing Orvics, 79 Duxs StRExr,,

1901,

bet ae 3
Tas 2

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. VIII.
Part 8.

New Series. | > 1901.

FUNGOID DISEASES OF COCOA.

_ Cocoa in Jamaica has not been troubled much so far with disease,
but there is no doubt that injurious fungi exist to some small extent.
It will be advisable that planters be on the watch, and adopt the
remedies suggested by Mr. Howard in the following report. [f not
the pest will continue to extend on heaps of the decayi ing shells until
it is strong enough, and the opportunity of favourable we eather occurs,
when it may spread with great rapidity, and do much damage.

Commissioner of Agriculture for W. Indies to Director of Public
Gardens and Plantations, Jamaica.

Imperi«l Department of Agriculture
for the West Indies, Barbados.
Sth June, 1901.
Sir,

I beg to forward, herewith, a copy of a report on the fungoid
diseases of Cacao in Grenada prepared by Mr. Albert Howard, My co-
logist to the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies,

2. You will no doubt be glad of the opportunity of reading this
report which has an important bearing on the success of the Cacao
industry in these Colonies.

8. The “brown-rot” fungus of the Cacao pod has been determined
at Kew, from specimens forwarded by this department, as Diplodia
Cacaoicola (P. Henn.) This parasite has so far been found attacking
Cacao pods in Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent as well as in Grenada.
The fungi concerned in the “canker” disease of the stem, which is
known in Dominica as the “flowering” disease, have been det2rmined at
Kew as Nectria Theobromae, Massee (n. sp.) and Calonectria flavida,
Massee (n. sp.). It is very probable that the ‘‘ Root” fungus is a
species of Polyporus, somewhat similar to that attacking the roots of
forest trees in Europe.

T have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your most obedient Servant,
D. Morris,
Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies.

114

ReEporRT ON THE Funcoip Diseases or Cacao 1N GRENADA BY THE
M ycoLoeist.

In accordance with instructions received from the Imperial Commis-
sioner of Agriculture for the West Indies, I left Barbados for Grenada
on Thursday, February 13th. I arrived in that island on Friday,
February, 14th, and left on Friday, March 15th. I was therefore en-
gaged on this service for 381 daysin all. During this time, I visited
some nineteen estates in various parts of the island, as well as several
small holdings in the Grand Roy valley and in the neighbourhood of
Greenville . .

I was able to examine the trees in all the chief Cacao districts
in the island and to gain a fairly accurate idea of the economic
importance of the fungoid diseases of that crop The remainder of
my time was spent at the Botanic Station where I improvised a small
laboratory for the microscopic work and carried out infection experi-
ments on healthy cacao trees and pods.

Three distinct fungi were found to be attacking Cacao, and, in the
following, it is proposed to give a very brief and simple account of
these diseases and to suggest the remedial measures which the nature
of the case demands. I propose to speak of these Fungi as (a) the
“brown rot” fungus of the pod; (0) the ‘‘ canker” fungus of the stem ;
and (c) the “root fungus” respectively.”

In order to make what follows more clearly understood, it will not
be out of place to point out that the Fungi are a large group of the
lower plants which are characterised by the entire absence of green
colouring matter and which includes (1) forms which live only on
living plants and animals (parasites); (2) those which live only on
dead vegetable or animal matter (saprophytes) ; and (3) forms which
are intermediate between these two classes and which live either on
dead matter or on living plants and animals according to circum-
stances. ‘To this latter class belong the fungi attacking the Cacao in
in Grenada which are dealt with in this report. The vast majority of
the fungi are so minute that recourse has to be had to the microscope
for their study and this no doubt accounts for some of the misconcep-
tions met with as to the nature of this group. In place of the roots,
stem and leaves of a flowering plant, we find in a fungus a network of
very minute branched tubes which penetrate the tissues of the material
(whether dead or living matter) on which it lives. We can regard
these branched tubes as the “roots” of the fungus,* which in the case
of fungi which attack plants are found to extend through the tissues
of the part attacked, to live on the materials found therein and to
cause so great a disturbance in the normal processes going on in the
attacked plant (the host) that the victim is either killed outright or a
distorted unproductive plant results, which is quite useless from the
point of view of the agriculturist. Asa general rule reproduction in
fungi takes place by means of minute bodies called spores which cor-
respond roughly to the seeds of the higher plants and which are so small
that they easily float in the air. In the absence of direct sunlight and

* This portion constitutes what is known as the mycelium or that part of the
fungus which is engaged in absorbing nourishment from the dead or living matter
on which it lives. The minute branched tubes making up this mycelium are
known as hyphae.

115

“in the presence of moisture, fungus spores, asa rule, germinate rapidly
and send out a minute tube or “ root” which under suitable conditions
penetrates the tissues of the host plant and sets up disease.

‘‘ Brown-Ror” Diszask or THE Cacao Pop.

General Characters.—In every district in Grenada Cacao pods may
be found which show distinct brown patches which gradually extend
over the pod. This must not be confused with the rusty or “ mahog-
any” pods which result from ‘“ Thrips” where the whole of the pod
takes on a rusty colour, but where the rind is not diseased. The
brown patches in question generally commence either at the insertion
of the stalk or at the free end of the pod, but they may occur at other
points, especially when the rind has been injured or where the pod
comes in contact with a branch. These diseased pods are particularly
numerous near the “ breaking grounds” where the beans are extracted
by the pickers. If one of these attacked pods is carefully examined,
it will be found that the brown area is rotten and that the discoloura-
tion extends to and spreads round the shell of the pod to a much
greater distance than would be supposed from a surface examination,
Decay soon spreads to the beans which are speedily covered with a
greyish mould-like substance which quickly destroys them. The
beans of nearly ripe pods instead of being covered with the usual moist
and sweet mucilage are dry and the contents of the pod have a sour smell.

Microscopic Characters——Microscopic examination of the tissues of
the brown patches shews that they are filled with the “roots” of a
fungus which exhibits all the characters of rapid growth. These roots
extend round the shell, penetrate it and reach the mucilage surround-
ing the seeds where they grow with enormous rapidity and luxuriance,
and, after penetrating the skin of the seeds, attack the beans them-
selves which become discoloured and ultimately rotten. When the
brown patches have extended to two or three square inches on the
surface of the pod, small circular mounds can be seen near the centre
of the discoloured area from which a greyish-white powdery dust is
expelled which turns black in a short time. This dust is composed of
fungus spores which are at first colourless but which rapidly darken
on exposure to light. They are formed in spherical bags just under

the skin of the pod from which they are squeezed out through a small

opening when ripe. It was therefore highly probable that the disease
in question is caused by this fungus and to place the matter beyond
any doubt whatsoever the following infection experiments were per-
formed :—

Infection Experiments ——The fungus in question was identical with
that found on the specimens of diseased cacao branches and pods sent
from Grenada last year. It is referred to in the supplement to Mr.
Lefroy’s report (G.38745 of December 24th, 1900) which was published
in the Grenada Official Gazette as probably doing some damage to the
cacao in certain localities in that island. Fortunately I had been able
to follow out the development of this fungus from a single spore and
to prepare many pure* cultivations with which the most trustworthy

* A pure cultivation of a fungus is a growth of the mycelium of that fungus, une
accompanied by that {of other forms, in a suitably prepared food substance. It
therefore denotes an artificial crowth of a single fungus unmixed with other
forms, —

116

infections experiments could be performed. I took the precaution to
take a number of these pure cultivations to Grenada. The infection
experiments were carried out on healthy cacao pods at the Botanic
Station and were as follows :—

1. On February 24th I placed some of the “roots” of the artificially
grown fungus into a small cavity made in the rind of a nearly ripe
cacao pod, taking the usual precautions to sterilise* the needles used
and to destroy any chance spores that might be on the outside of the
pod where the incision was made. Afterwards the wound was bound
up with a water-tight bandage. Another similar pod near was treated
in a similar manner, except that no fungus was placed in the cavity.
This served as a control or check experiment. ‘The result was most
marked. On March Ist, i.e. 5 days afterwards, about a quai ter of the
surface of the pod into which the fungus had been introduced had
turned brown, and, on March 4th, the whole pod and its contents were
rotten and there was a copious development of the characteristic spore
sacs and spores near the point of infection. These spores agreed ex-
actly with that from which the artificial cultures had been made.
The control pod showed no infection.

2. On March llth the above experiment was repeated, and in this
case, two nearly ripe pods were infected with fungus from a pure cul-
tivation, while a third was used as a check experiment. On the 14th
March—three days afterwards—the two pods into which the fungus
had been introduced shewed very distinct infection while the check
experiment gave negative results.

3. On March 4th infection experiments were made on Cacao pods
which were green and only about half grown in order to determine
whether the spread of the fungus is as rapid here as in nearly ripe
pods. Proceeding as above, it was found that infection with spores
was apparent in a week and that infection with artificially grown fun-
gus or with the diseased tissue from another affected pod was much
more rapid in the same time. The control pod showed no infection.
On the whole there did not appear very much difference in the rate at
which the disease spreads in ripe and unripe pods. In both it is ex-
tremely rapid.

4, Next an experiment was made in order to find out if the spores:
of the fungus were able to infect a cacuo pod where the rind had not
been wounded. On March 4th, a drop of water containing many of
these spores was placed on a ripe cacao pod and the drop was covered
with a small glass cell which was sealed into the pod by means of
budding wax. The cell was then covered with a bandage to shield
the spores from direct sunlight. On March 11thit was found that the
spores had germinated, but no penetration of the rind by the fungus
“roots” was detected. Unfortunately, it was not possible to begin a
further series of experiments to settle this point definitely. Although
this single experiment was unsuccessful, nevertheless it will be seen in
the following that there is every reason to believe that in the majority

* In performing infection experiments it is necessary to be quite sure that no~
chance fungus spores are introduced by means of the instruments used. It is
usual to ensure this by passing the needles and knives through a flame and so
destroy any accidental spores that may be on them. This operation is known a®

sterilisation.

117

of cases natural infection actually does take place by germinating

spores without any previous wounding of the rind. I have no doubt

that, had time permitted, further experiments would have conclusively
proved that this is the case.

Natural Infection—We should expect that since moisture is essen-

ial for the germination of spores that infection of cacao pods would

take place naturally at those points where water is likely to remain
for the longest time. These points are the groove round the insertion
of the pod stalk, the points where a pod comes in contact with a branch,
and ‘the free end of the pod itself where after rain a drop of water re-
mains for some time after the rest of the surface is quite dry. Obser-
vation shows that the disease generally starts from these points.
Since infection takes place by means of spores, we should also expect

the disease to be most prevalent where these spores are present in

greatest numbers. Undoubtedly this is near the “breaking-grounds”
since here it was noted that the fungus un ler discussion lives on the
old husks of the cacao pods on which it forms myriads of spores.
These can be seen with the naked eye as a black dust covering the
blackened pods. It is actually found that the disease occurs toa
greater extent here than elsewhere. The same fungus is also to be
found on the dead prunings which are sometimes left under the cacao
trees and also on diseased sugar cane in places where this cultivation
is carried on among the young cacao.

General Conclusions.—There is no doubt that the “brown rot” of
the cacao pods is due to a fungus, and not as is supposed in some parts
of Grenada to ‘‘ Thrips,” sunburn or to over-ripeness Infection takes
place by means of spores which may set up the disease at a wounded
surface or very probably at those points where water is apt to remain
longest without any bruising of the rind. The fungus is widely dis-
tributed in the island occurring on the old husks of the cacao pod, on
old prunings, and even on diseas’d sugar cane.

DAMAGE DONE TO Cacao TREES BY THE “Brown Rov’ Funeus.

During the progress of the investigation it appeared highly probable
that some damage was being dune by this fungus to the cacao trees
themselves and especially to the young cultivation. It was found that
young cacao trees from two to six years old and even more, were dying
off from some reason that was not at once apparent. “Thrips” were
usually alleged to be the cause, but I saw no reason to accept this view
as the number of these insects present was not sufficient to cause any
damage whatsoever. On examination of the trees in question I found
they were being attacked by a fungus which was apparently identical
with that causing the brown-rot of the pods. Unfortunately there is
no striking external evidence of the presence of this fungus in the
diseased trees. The branches die off and decay spreads to the stem
after which death rapidly takes place. The dead wood turns brown
and dries up while there is a gradual transition between the dead and
still living portions of the branch or tree. In taese regions the brown-

ish discolouration is seen to be due to a fungus which can be traced in

the wood to some distance in front of the discoloured areas. Under

the cracks of the recently killed bark the spore sacs of the fungus are

formed and the dark masses of ejected spores can sometimes be made

118

out by careful examination with a lens or magnifying glass. It now
became necessary to prove whether or not the ‘‘ brown-rot” fungus is

really the cause of the damage done to the cacao trees in question, and

in order to do this, infection experiments were made on healthy cacao
trees at the Botanic Station.

Infection Experiments.—Experiments were carried out on young
cacao plants growing in bamboo pots, on trees eighteen months old and
on adult trees.

1. On February 24th, two branches about two inches in diameter of
a healthy tree were selected for the experiment. The outer dry bark
was carefully peeled off about one square inch of the surface which was
then sterilised to kill any fungus spores upon it. A small chamber
was then made with a sterile knife at these points by raising the bark
and cutting out the tissues underneath down to the wood. Into one
of these a portion of a pure cultivation of the brown-rot fungus of the
pod was introduced and the whole covered with a water tight bandage.
The second branch was treated in exactly the same way except that no
fungus was introduced. This served as a check experiment. The re-
sult was surprising. On March 4th—eight days afterwards—it was
found (in the case of the branch where fungus had been introduced)
that the bark had been killed to a distance of eight inches above and be-
low the point of infection and the branch was nearly “ringed.” The at-
tacked bark was found to be filled with the “ roots” of a fungus which had
also made their way into the young wood to the depth of a quarter of
an inch under the point of infeetion and to about a foot above and
below the chamber where the fungus was introduced. Spore sacs con-
taining spores were formed under the bark and these agreed in all their
characters with those found on the brown pods. The control or check
experiment showed no infection.

2. Eight healthy cacao plants, about eight months old, growing in
bamboo pots were next experimented upon. On March 4th, Nos. 1
and 2 were inoculated with the spores of the fungus taken from a pod
attacked by ‘“brown-rot” by introducing them into a slit made in the
bark of the stem. Nos. 3 and 4 were similarly inoculated with small
portions of the diseased rind of a cacao pod attacked by ‘“‘ brown-rot”
which contained the active “roots” of the fungus. Nos. 5 and 6 were
inoculated with ‘“ brown rot” fungus growing artificially in a pure cul-
tivation, and Nos. 7 and 8 were control plants. After inoculation, the
plants were placed in the shade and watered daily. On March 12th
the disease had established itself to a greater or less extent in all the
plants from one to six while Nos. 1 and 6 themselves had been killed
by the disease. The control plants showed no infection.

3. Four extremely vigorous young cacao trees about eighteen months
old which had been planted out at the usual time were selected for this
experiment. On March 4th, three were infected under the bark with
fungus spores, diseased rind from a cacao pod attacked by ‘“ brown rot”
and artificially grown fungus respectively. The fourth tree was treated
exactly like the rest except that no fungus or spores were introduced. .
and served as a check experiment. On March 12th the disease had
setablished itself in the first three trees and especially in No. 2 which
had been inoculated with a small portion of the tissue of a diseased
pod. Here the disease could be traced in the young tree to about eight.

119

inches above and below the point of infection and the charac'‘eristie
spore sacs and spores had developed under the bark near the point of
infection.

4, An experiment was now performed in order to determine whether
infection could be obtained by spores without first of all piercing the
bark. A drop of water containing the spores of the fungus under dis-
gussion was placed on a branch of an adult cacao tree and covered
with a small glass cell which was sea'ed to the bark with budding wax
and shielded from the sun. After seven days it was found that al-
though the spores had germinated no penetration of the bark could be
detected. Time did not permit of further experiments on this point
and the evidence as far as it goes points to the probability that infec-
tion of the cacao tree takes place at wounded surfaces in the bark,
Obviously only a very small wound is necessary such for example as a
minute crack or the hole made by a “ boring” insect.

These infection experiments leave no doubt that the ‘“ brown-rot”
fungus of the pod also attacks the cacao tree and that the young cul-
tivation referred to above had been badly attacked by this pest. For- .
tunately, however, these experiments indicate that a wound is gene-
rally necessary for infection to take place, a point of which great ad-
vantage can be taken in combating the disease.

Remedial Measures —In suggesting remedies for fungoid diseases
like the one under discussion it is obvious that when once the fungus
is well established in a tree or pod nothing can be done to save the
portions attacked, and that attention must be directed to prevent fur-
ther infection by assisting the trees to ward off attack and by des-
troying as far as possible everything in the cacao plantation which
harbours the spores of the fungus. Im this way, the pest can be
kept well in hand and fu'ure troubleavoided. The following measures
are suggested in dealing with this pes! :—

_1. All husks or shells of the cacao pod should be buried as soon as
possible after the beans have been extracted. This practice is carried
out on many of the best estates in Grenada at the present time with
very good results and it is hoped that it will soon become a part of the
regular estate routine all over the island When the pods are al-
lowed to remain on the ground they are really nurseries for the
*‘ brown-rot” fungus and speedily becomes covered with spores, thus
serving as centres of infection of the disease. If they are buried fresh
this fungus does not develop, decay sets in, and the resulting humus
improves the texture of the soil. Lime should be mixed with the
fairly fresh pods so as to hasten decay and prevent local souring of the
soil which may easily damage the neighbouring trees, esp cially if the
buried heaps are large. It would be well if the ‘“ breaking-grounds”
were moved from time to time so as to give as many trees as possible
the benefits of this manuring. Old black pods which have been lying
on the ground for some time and which are covered with spores should
be collected and burnt.

2. All pods in which brown-rot is detected should be picked at
once so as to prevent the disease spreading to the tree through the pod
stalk. If this is done early ,the beans can be saved. The husks of
these pods should be buried away from the cacao trees or burnt. On
noaccount should the beans from these pods be used for growing seedlings.

120°

3. All dead cacao trees, old prunings and dead branches, should not
‘be allowed to remain under the cacao trees, but should be periodically
collected and burnt as is done on the best Grenada estates. Dead trees
should be cut down level with the ground and old stumps should never
be left as these are often covered with fungus spores. The ashes should
be spread under the cacao trees as they are rich in potash and serve
as a useful manure.

4, All wounds made in pruning should be tarred over when mad @
so as to prevent the infection of the tree by means of fungus spores.
As far as practicable, the cuts should slope in such a way that rain
water runs off easily and the surface dries quickly. Tarring will only
be satisfactory if the pruning is done at a time when the sap is not
rising as in the dry season and if the least possible quantity of tar is
used. If toomuch tar is applied, the excess runs down the stem pro-
ducing an unsightly smear which in addition is harmful to the tree.
There are several other obvious adventages to the cacao tree in tarring

.the cuts besides the prevention of fungoid diseases. Local wood-rot is
prevented and the tree covers the wound with the least expenditure of
material by growing new bark all round and also boring insects, like
the cacao beetle, are prevented from laying their eggs on the freshly
cut surfaces. Neglect of this precaution in the past 1s obvious in many
of the small holdings in Grenada where so great has been the damage
by insects and fungi that the trees have never been able to cover their
wounds by fresh growth and their efforts in this direction have so told
upon their vitality that their bearing powers: have been very considera-
bly reduced. On the other hand on several of the larger estates when
“tarring” has been adopted for some time and where very extensive
pruning has been done, the trees are bearing well and appear remark-

ably healthy.

5. In cases where trees are being killed by this fungus they may be
often rejuvenated by replacing them by a sucker. I noticed vigorous
suckers growing from the base of several trees about five or six years
old attacked by this disease and it seems reasonable to suggest that a
root sucker should always be allowed to grow from the base of all
sickly looking trees and from those which have been badly attacked —
by beetle grubs. When the suckers are a few feet high, the parent
tree could be removed and the sucker allowed to take its place. In
this way, a diseased tree could be replaced much more quickly and
satisfactorily than if a fresh tree were planted.

6. In removing the grubs of the cacao beetle, care should be taken
to injure the bark as little as possible. If the wounds made are con-
siderable they should be tarred.

I feel sure that if these simple measures are made a part of the
routine of the Grenada cacao estates, not only will this fungus be kept
weli in hand, but the production of cacao will be materially increased.
Although it would be best if the plante:s were to adopt these measures
universally, nevertheless, from the configuration of the island and the
nature of the cacao crop and of this disease, each planter is to a large
extent independent of his neighbour. It not infrequently happens
that when a course of action produces obviously good results there is
no lack of imitators.

121

THE “ Canker” Funcus or THE Cacao Srem.
General Characters.—Soon after my arrival in Grenada I discovered

-a bark disease of the cacao tree which was subsequently noted in all

the districts of the island I visited. In all probability it is responsible
for most of the trees which die off somewhat suddenly and from no
apparent cause. The first well-defined symptom of this stem disease
is a reddish gummy liquid which oozes out of the bark of the stem and
which when dry gives a rusty appearance to the bark. This may be
termed the “bleeding” stage and even now the disease is well estab-
lished. On cutting into the tree at these points it is found that the
bark is deep claret red in colour and moist and soapy to the feel. The
discolouration extends to the young wood and on removing all the
diseased bark it can be seen that the darkening of the wood extends
for some distance under the still healthy bark and that the diseased
patch increases in size from beneath outwards rather than from the
surface. The disease may start from any point on the stem and in
many cases there are two or three points of attack on the same tree.
The spread of the diseased area varies a good deal. Sometimes when
the patch is only three or four inches in diameter it rapidly extends
on either side and “rings” the tree completely. When this is com-
plete the tree dies off suddenly often bearing a full complement of
leaves and pods in all stages of growth. In other csses the diseased
area extends slowly in all directions and “ringing” does not take

lace for some time. In such cases the death of the tree is much more
gradual than before, the branches immediately above the diseased
patch dying off first of all followed by the rest as the diseased patch
extends. in some cases, and these are apparently rare, the tree re-
covers from an attack by cutting off the diseased area by the growth
of fresh bark from below. In these cases the disease had not reached
the wood. in general diseased trees rarely occurred singly, but
several were noted close together indicating that the disease had
spread from one tree to several of its neighbours.

Nature of the disease.— Microscopic examination of the discoloured
bark shewed that the tissues were penetrated in all directions by the
“roots” of a fungus and there were other evidences of fungoid attack
in the still healthy tissues surrounding the diseased bark.

In the cracks of the discoloured ba: k several different kinds of spore
were noticed which are probably connected with one or at the most
two fungi, but the time at my disposal did not permit even of an at-
tempt to work out the life history of these forms. Some of these
spores are found in small red or yellowish lemon-shaped flask-like
bodies about the size of a pin’s head which appear in colonies on the
diseased bark in the later phases of the disease when the tree is either
dead or nearly so. The other spores occur on whitish cushions in the
cracks of the bark of the bleeding patches at an earlier stage.

Infection experiments were performed at the Botanic Station on
healthy cacao trees by introducing portions of the diseased bark from
bleeding patches into healthy trees and binding up the wounds with
water-tight bandages to prevent drying up. In all cases the “ roots”
of the fungus in the diseased bark made their way into the surround-
ing healthy bark for about half an inch all round, thus indicating that

the fungus was parasitic. Unfortunately. however, the length of my

122

stay did not permit of further infection experiments being made witlr
the various spores referred to while the evidenca from these experi-
ments as far as they go poin's strongly to the parasitic nature of the
fungus found in the diseased bark, nevertheless, the point has not
been proved so conclusively and so satisfactorily as in the case of the
‘brown rot” fungus of the cacao pod.

There is every probability that this disease is identical with the
‘‘canker” disease of the cacao tree in Ceylon and Trinidad which is
caused by a fungus of the genus Nectria. There is little doubt that
it is the cause of death of a good many cacao trees in Grenada which
are popularly supposed to die on account of their tap roots having
struck “tiff” or a flat stone. I wes unable to find anyone who had
verified these alleged causes by actual excavation and, in the case
where a tree—attacked by the “canker” disease was dug up for my
benefit, nothing of the kind was found and the root system was quite
healthy.

Several trees suffering from this disease were found to be attacked
by white ants. On eareful examination, however, it was found that
in each case the ants were followers of the fungus disease and did not
attack the healthy wood. A similar state of things has been reported
from Ceylon.

Remedial Measures——The group of fungi to which this form in all
probability belongs are wound-parasites and gain accsss to their hosts
by means of spores which germinate on wounded surfaces. Fortu-
nately, the suitable remedial measures are extremely simple and easy
to carry out.

1. All wounds made in pruning and in removing beetle grubs
should be tarred as mentioned above.

2. All dead trees killed by the “canker” disease should be cut down
at the ground and burnt along with all the dead wood found in the
cacao plantations.

3. ‘the diseased bark of the “bleeding” patches should be cut out
as soon as noticed Since the roots of the fungus are often found in
the apparenily healthy bark surrounding the diseased tissue it is
necessary to cut out the claret coloured bark and about an inch of the
surrounding apparently healthy bark as well When the disease has
reached the young wood care should be taken to cut out any discol-
oured wood that may be noted. {he wounds should be tarred over,
and the diseased bark carefully collected in a sack or tin and burnt.
The cutlasses or knives used in this work should not be used for prun-
ing other cacao trees uutil they have been thoroughly washed and
cleaned. In order to enlist the assistance of the estate workmen in
this treatment, a small reward might be given for every tree dis-
covered to be suffering from this disease.

4. In cases when the disease is established to such an extent that
cutting out the diseased bark would not be likely to save the tree, it
should be cut down at some distance below the diseased bark and re-
placed if possible by a new sucker. When, however, the disease is
nearly on a level with the ground this is impossible and the best way
to remove the tree at once and replace it by a fresh one. All trees cut
down in this way should be burnt immediately.

The above remedies, if adopted, will I consider keep this disease

123

well in hand. As was only to be expected the disease is doing most
damage among the older trees in neglected fields aud in the small
holdings, where little if any care seems to be tuken of the trees The
disease has probably existed in Grenada for many years and there is
no evidence to show whether it has increased or not during recent
years. At the present time, it is of sufficient importance for the adop-
tion of the remedial measures indicated, which will not only keep this
disease in check locally, but, by preventing infection, will largely ren-
der any one planter independent of the attitude adopted by his neigh-
bour.
“Roor” DisEAsE.

General Cheracter.—{n three instances cacao trees were met with
which had dried off in small patches from no apparent cause. They
had been growing in good well drained soil and were surrounded by
healthy vigorous trees in good bearing. No indications of disease were
found in the stems or branches of these trees. but on examining the
root system, it was found that the roots were decayed and filled with
fungus, especially between the wood and the bark where the matted
“roots” of the fungus can be seen with the naked eye as a white felt-
like substance surrounding the wood. The characters of these “ roots”
showeu them to belong to the highest group of the fungi which in-
cludes several forms which cause “ root diseases” very much /ike the
one in question. A similar if not identical fungus in all probability
causes a root disease of the nutmeg in Grenada and also attacks many
of the cultivated trees in the West Indies. ‘hus Mr. C. A. Barber in
his report on the failure of the Dominica cacao crop in 1892-93 (Sup-
plement to the Leeward Islands Gazette April 27th 1893) describes a
root disease of the cacao in that Island which also attacked mangoes,
oranges, coffee and breadfruit and which seems to be identical with
the one under discussion. He also noted a similar disease in Jamaica,
locally called ‘‘salt-petre,” in the cacao and coffee cultivation. Last
year cacao trees affected with this disease were forwarded from Domi-
nica to the Imperial Department of Agriculture for examination It is
highly probable that the root disease of the Grenada cacao is caused by
the fungus found in the diseased roots and that it spreads from tree to
tree underground by means of a diseased root of an attacked tree com-
ing 1m contact with a living root of a neighbouring tree.

femedial Measures.—The only practical remedy in diseases of this
nature is to isolate the diseased tree from the rest of the plantation by
means of a trench three or four feet deep dug midway between the
affected tree and its neighbours und thus prevent the spread of the
disease to the rest of the plantation The healthy trees surrounding
the trench should be kept under observation for some time in order (0
determine whether the isolatiou has been done in time. he roots of
the diseased trees should be dug up and burnt and tae soil limed vefore
nlanting a fresh tree. This treatment has already been successiully
adopted by one of the leading planters in Grenada in the case of the
nutmeg root disease and there is no reason to suppose that it would
not be equally successful in the case of cacao.

SUMMARY oF CONCLUSIONS.

In reviewing the general situation in Grenada, the conclusion I have

arrived at is that most of the damage alleged to be due to “thrips” is

124

really due to the fungoid diseases dealt with in this report, and while
these diseases need not cause any great alarm at the present time, it
should be clearly pointed out that the simple measures here advocated
should be adopted throughout the island so as to keep these pests well
in hand and prevent the possibility of a future epidemic which may
easily cause wide-spread damage to a now flourishing industry. These
measures may be shortly summed up as follows :—

1, The husks of the cacao pods should -e suitably buried with lime
under the trees as soon as possible after the beans have been extracted.
Diseased husks should either be buried away from the cacao or else
burnt.

2. All old prunings and dead wood in the plantations should be col-
lected and burnt as often as possible and the ashes spread under the
trees.

3. Diseased trees shonld be replaced by suckers whenever practica-
ble. If this is impossible the tree should be cut off level with the
ground and burnt.

4. In cases of the “canker” disease, the diseased bark should boa pro-
perly cut and the wound tarred and the diseased bark burnt.

5. In cases of ‘‘ root” disease, the affected trees should be isolated
from the rest of the plantation by a suitable trench. The diseased
roots should be dug up and burnt and the land limed before a fresh
tree is planted.

6. In removing the grubs of the cacao beetle, the wounds should be
tarred. .

7. Seeds from diseased pods should never be used for raising seed-
lings.

A. HOWARD, Mycologist.

NOTES ON SOME RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS.

Mons. Chas. Patin, Consul General for Belgium at Medellin, Colombia,
has on several occasions very kindly contributed seeds or plants both
useful and ornamental, to thecollectionsin the Public Gardens. His
latest donation includes seeds of two species of Theobroma. ' Both are
hardy, growing in any kind of soil, and it is thought that they may
prove useful for hybridising purposes, or as stocks for grafting choice
and delicate varieties of 7. Cacao upon.

The pod and seeds of each species, and a single leaf of No. 1, are all
the material that have been seen by us, so that the following provi-
sional and imperfect descriptions have been prepared mainly from
information supplied by M. Patin.

Theobroma sp. No 1.—A tree, leaves simple, oblong, slightly obovate:
oblique and semi-cordate at the base, terminating abruptly in a short,
blunt point, 64” long, 24” wide at the broedest part, dull green above,
hoary tomentose beneath, veins conspicuous, reticulate, prominent on
the lower side: petiole #” long, rimose, and, with the mid-rib and the
six pairs of principal veins, coated with ferruginous scales; flowers
orange-yellow in colour; pod woody and thick, 7” — 8” long, 12” in
circumference, 5-ribbed, with warty excrescences, covered with brown
felt-like tomentum. Each pod contains about 25 large seeds enve-

125

_ loped in mucilaginous pulp. The seeds of this species are not bitter
to the taste.

Theobroma sp. No. 2.—A small, slender tree, with branches clustered
at the top of the stem, and leaves at the end of the branches. The
leaves are large, digitate, each leaflet being about the size of the leaf
of TZ. Cacao. The pods which are produced in abundance along the
main stem, are 4” long, about 5” in circumference at the middle
gradually narrowing to a point at the apex, very prominently 10-ribbed
with lateral transverse ribs in the deep furrows, orange-yellow in colour,
about 12-seeded, the seeds embedded in mucilaginous pulp. The seeds
of this species are very bitter.

AUSTRALIAN BRAZILETTO.

PELTOPHORUM FERRUGINEUM, BENTH.

This handsome tree has lately been a mass of bloom in the Nursery
at Hope Gardens. It isa native of the islands in the Malay Archipelago
from {imor to the Philippines, and of North Australia.

It has beautiful dark-green, fern-like foliage, resembling somewhat
our Wild Tamarind (Pithecolobium filicifolium), and large, branched,
terminal panicles of fragrant flowers, the petals being crisped, and of
a very showy yellow colour. |

The tree has flowered regularly for a few years, and although
pods are produced, good seeds have not yet been secured ; we hope to
be more fortunate this year, as such a fine, handsome tree should be
propagated and widely distributed. In addition to being a beautiful
flowering tree, it is also a very desirable shade tree. It is always in
leaf, and its graceful foliage affords a grateful shade, not too dense,
but just sufficient to be cool and refreshing.

The colour of the flowers does not agree very well with the plate in
Trimen’s Flora of Ceylon, inasmuch as the petals are a pure yellow
with a touch of purplish-brown quite at the base.

JAMAICA BRAZILETTO.

P. Linnz1, BENTH.

This is also a handsome tree growing in dry rocky soil. The
flowers are small compared with its Australian sister. The timber is
sometimes large, the tree growing 50 or 60 ft. high, and 3 ft. in
diameter, but at other places giving planks not wider than 8 or 10
inches. It is an excellent cabinet wood, elastic, tough and durable, of
a beautiful orange colour, and takes a fine polish. It is used also for
spokes of wheels, and for carriage building generally.

AN INCH OF RAIN.

What does an inch of rain mean? Few persons have a definite
idea. An acre, if calculated out, will prove to be 6,272,640 square
inches. An inch deep of water on this acre will be as many cubic inches.
of water, which at 231 tothe gallon, is equal to 27,154 gallons. This
immense quantity of water will weigh 228,190lbs., or 101 tons. One
hundredth of an inch (.01) alone is equal to over 1 ton of water to
the acre. One inch of rain is equal to 44 gallons a square yard, or
101 tons per acre. |

126

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THL
DEPARTMENT.

Liprarny (Serials).

EUROPE.

British Isles.
Bulletin, Royal Gardens, Kew. App. I1I, 1901 [Director. ]
Chemist and Druggist. June, 1, 8,165, 22,29. July 6. [Kditor.]
Garden, June, 1, 8, July 6. [Purchased.]
Gardeners’ Chronicle, June, 1,8, 29. July 6. [ Purchased, ]
International Sugar Journal. June, July 1. [Editor.]
Journal of Botany. July. [Purchased,]
Journal Board of Agriculture, England, June. [Sec.]
Journal Royal Colonial Institute, June, July.
Nature, May, 30 June 6, 13, 20,27. July 4. [Purchased.]
Pharmaceutical Journal. June, 1, 8,15,22,29. July 6. [ Editor. ]
W. Indian Com. Advertiser. June, [Editor.]

France. :
Sucrerie indigéne et coloniale. May 28. June 11,18, 25. July 2. [Editor.1

Germany.
Voreschichte les neuen Kénigl. Botanischen Gartens zu Dahlem-Steglitz bei

Berlin, [Prof. Dr. Ign. Urban. ] :

Belgium.
Bulletin de la Société Etudes Coloniales No. 2, Feb. 1900. [Editor.]

Switzerland.
Bulletin de l’Herbier Boissier Nos. 6,7, [Conservateur, ]
Denmark.
Beretning om den botaniske Haves Virksomhed, I. 1900. Prof. E. Warming.
[ Author. }
ASIA.
India.
Planting Opinion, May 11,18. Junel,8. [Editor.]
Ceylon
Times of Ceylon. May 16, 23,30. June 6,13. [Editor.]
Java.

Proefstation, E. Java, No. 27. [Director.]
Proefstation, voor Suikerriet in W. Java. Kagok te Pekalongan, 1900.

AUSTRALIA.

NV. S. Wales. ;
Agri. Gazette, April, May. [Dept. of Agri.]

Queensland.
Queensland Agri. Journal. May. [Sec. of Agri.]
Queensland Sugar Journal. May1d. [Hditor.]

Western Australia.
Journal of the Dept. of Agri., May. [Dept. of Agri.]

AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope.
Agri. Journal, May 9, 23. June6. [Dept. of Agri.]

127

Natal.
Agri. Journal and Mining Record, May 10,24. June7. ([Dept. of Agri.]

Natal Plants, Vol 3, part 1I. By J. Medley Wood. [Author.]

Central Africa.
C. Africa Times, April 13, 20,27. May 4,11. [Editor.]
Journal of Agri. for Zanzibar. [Editor. ]

West INDIES.

Barbados.
Agri. Gazette, May. [Editor.]
aJamaica.
Journal, Jamaica Agri. Society, July. [Secretary.]
Trinidad. |

Govt. Farm, Annual Report of Manager, 1900.

British NortH AMERICA.

Montreal.
Pharmaceutical Journal, June. [Editor. |
Ottawa.
Bulletin 37, (Apple Culture and district lists of apples suitable for Ontario
and Quebec with description of varieties. [Dept. of Agri.]
The Dominion Experimental Farms, 1901.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Publications of the U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture. [| Directors. ]
Scientific Bureaus and Divisions.

Sixteenth Annual Report, 1899.

Year Book of the U.S. Dept. of Agri., 190).

Bureau of Animal Industry, 19 (Inspection of Meats for Animal Parasites)
21 (Sheep Scab, its nature and treatment) 27 (Information concerning the
Angora Goat)

Division of Chemistry 61 (Pure-food laws of European Cvuntries affecting
American Exports)

Farmers’ Bulletin, 92 (Experiment Station Work), 93 (Sugar as Food), 94
Vegetable Garden), 95(Good Roads for Farmers), 97 Experiment Station
Work), 99 (Insect Enemies of Shade Trees), 100 (Hog-raising in the
South), 101( Millets), 102 (Southern Forage Plants), 103 (Experiment Station
Work), 104 (Notes on Frost), 105 (Experiment Station Work), 106 (Breeds
of Dairy Cattle), 107 (Experiment Station Work), 108 (Salt Bushes), 109
(Farmers’ Reading Courses), 110 (Rice Culture in the United States),
112 (Bread and Bread-making), 113 (The Apple and how to grow it),
114 (Experiment Station Work),115(Hop Cultare in California), 116 (Irri-
gation in Fruit-growing), 117 (Sheep, Hogs, and Horses in the Pacific
North-west), 118 (Grape Growing in the South), 119 (Experiment Station
Work), 120(The Principal Insects affecting the Tebacc» Plant), 121 (Beans,
Peas, and other Legumes as Food), 122 (Experiment Station Work),
123 (Red Clover Seed), 124 (Experiment Statlon Work), 125 (Protection of
Food Products from injurious Temperatures), 126 Practical Suggestions for
Farm Buildings), 127 (Important Insecticides), 128 (“ggs and their uses as
Food), 129 (Sweet Potatoes), 130 (The Mexican Cotton-Boll Weevil), 13L
(Household tests for the detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter),
132 (The principal Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat).

Experiment Stations.

Kansas. Press Bulletin, 90 (Dried Blood as a Tonic for young calves),491
(The Clover-hay Worm), 101 (Notes from the Plum Orchard.)

128

Experiment Stations.
Maryland 67 (The culture and handling of Tobacco), 74 (Notes on Celery™
Blight), 75 (The effect of Hydrocyanic-acid Gas upon Grains and other’
Seeds.)

Missouri. 41 (The San Jose Scale.)

Montana, 17 (The Grain Aphis. An army cut-worm.)

New Hampshire, Durham. 78 (Bovine Tuberculosis), 78 (Twelfth Annual
Report), 80 (The Inspection of Fertilizers in 1900), 81 (Insect Record for
1900.)

New Jersey. 131 (Feeds rich in Protein. The advance of a guaranteed
composition.)

New York. 192 (The substitution of Soda for Potash in plant growth)
193 (San Jose Scale investigation I, The development of the female) 194
(San Jose Scale investigation IL. i. Spraying experiments with kerosene
oil, Il. Method of combating the San Jose Scale), 195 (Directors Report
for 1900.) 196 (Spraying in Bloom.)

Oklahoma. 26, June 1897, (Some injurious Orchard insects) 34, May 1898
(The San Jose Serle.) 45, March 19.0, (An Annotated catalogue of the
ferns and flowering plants.)

Press Bulletin. 61 (Kafir Corn and Alfalfa as beef producers. Insects and
remedies. The Peach leaf curl, A good Native gras:), 67 (Plant trees for
posts. Hog Cholera. Chinch Bugs and Pruning Grape Vines). 73 (The
Wheat Crop. Some important fruit diseases.)

Rhode Islang, Kingston. 46 (Lime and Liming.)

South Dakota. 68 (Vegetables), 69 (Native and Introduced Forage | lants.)-

West Virginia. 73 (Poultry Experiments), 74 (Coll storage.)

American Jourval of Pharmacy, July. [#ditor. ]

Botanical Gazette, Chicago, June. [Editor. |

Bulletin Laboratories of Nat. Hist. University of Lowa, Vol. 5. No. 2,
Chico Forestry Sub-station Sacramento Valley.

Southern Coast Range Culture Sub-station.

The Foot Hill Culture, Sub-station.

Circular 1. Books for the Farm Libra:y, Oklahoma.

Fern Bulletin, July. [Ecitor.]

Plant World, June. [Editor. |

The Forester, June. [ Publishers, ]

Torrey Club Bulletin, June. [Editcr.]

Transaction of the Horticultural Soc. 1900, Massachusetts. [Sec.]

CENTRAL AMERICA.
Boletin del Instituto Fisico-Geografico de Costa Rica. [ Director. ]

POLYNESIA.
Planters’ Monthly, Hawaii, June. [ Editor. ]

Liprary (Books).
The Botanists of Philadelphia and their work. [J. W. Harshberger. ]

SEEDS.
M. Chas. Patin, Medellin, Colombia.
Theobroma sp. No. 1.
Y: sp. No. 2.
Pachira Sp.
Reasoner Bros., Florida.

Rubus cuneifolius,
Waldo peach.
PLANTS.
Mr. Ed. D. Kinkead, Richmond Park.
Cuttings of Lagerstrcemia indica (rose-coloured variety.)

[Issued 14th, August, 1901.]

New Series. SEPTEMBER, 1901. Vol. VIII,
Part 9.

BULLETIN

oF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA,

EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS.
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

>o—<>- $<

CONTENTS:
_ Paas.
Historioal Notes on Economic Plants in Jamaica . 129
‘Yield of Rubber - | OS 139
The Alraond Bag Worm ; ° | 14]
Protection of Trees against Ants R 142
Additions and Contributions : | 142

P RI C E—-Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in J amaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O,

Soa a

KIN GSTON » JAMAICA:
_ Govznnment Printing Orrice, 79 Duxe SrRexr,

+ ee

1901,

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE
BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.
New Series. ] SEPTEMBER, 1901. ~ a

HISTORICAL NOTES ON ECONOMIC PLANTS IN
JAMAICA.

By tHe Epiror & W. Harris, F.L.S.

Intropvuctrory [.

The following extracts from early authors may serve as a general
introduction :—

In “a brief description of the island of Jamaica * *,” which forms
one chapter in “ A Book of the Continuation of Forreign Passages * * *
moreover an attempt on the island of Jamaica”, published in London
in 1657 (the earliest account of the island published after the English
took possession of the island), the following account is given of the
fruits, &¢.: “(and Dr. Heylin in his Description of the American
Islands [Heylin, John, D.D. ‘ Microcosmus”—Oxon, 1622] saith of
Jamaica * * * well stocked with cattell, and no less plentifully stored
with most sorts of fruits, which either industry or nature have sup-
plied it with; great store of cotton-wool, and such abundance of
Jaccu-(a-Root whereof the savages once made their bread) that it was
deemed the granary of the neighbouring islands. * * *

Severall sorts of Wood in this Country.

1. Grandiillio, of a reddish black colour, and heavy as ebony used
much is these parts for bedsteads.

2. Cedar, the best in all the Indies, usefull for all purposes, as Oake
in England.

3. Cawobena, a tree of six fathoms about, a fine red, excellent good
for beds, tables or buildings.

4, Cittano, of a yellow colour, a fathome about, excellent for dying,
called in English, yellow Fustick.

5. Brasil and Brasiletto, excellent for dying, sold in these parts
at one pound seventeen shillings and sixpence per hundred. _

6. Guaicum, good for bedsteads, bowls and chairs, and Physicians
uses, three foot over, sold at Carthagena for two shillings por pound.

The Country affords severall Fruits,

1. Pepper smelling like Cloves, the North side of the Island is full
of it, wild, good for Chocolatto, sold here at sixpence per pound. The

130

‘Leaf distilled, makes excellent good water, much esteemed by the
‘Spaniards at Carthagena.

2. Pyne, the best that ever was eat, in season almost all the year
long, sold at sixpence per piece.

3, Nispero, esteemed the best fruit in the Indies by the Spaniards,
in season in July and August.

4. Mamesappote, tastes like marmalet, in season part of June, July,
and August.

5. Avocatas, a wholesome pleasant fruit ; in season in August, sold
for e'ghtpence per piece.

6. Cocao, in great plenty, of which they make Chocolatto, sold ordi-
narily for three shillings per bushell.

7. Catrao, a very sweet luscious fruit, green of colour, and much like
a mulberry in shape and bignesse.

&. Limes, Limons, Oranges, Guavers, Bonana’s, Plantan’s. Papaas,
Melons of all sorts, and very good Cucumbers, Gourds, &c., and the
largest Potatoes ever eye beheld.

9. Tobacco, which at Carthagena b-ars the best rate there.

10. Indico.”

Venables, in a letter to ‘a person of Honour”, quoted in the same
work, says ‘That which we most want for the present, is bread and
Bandry, there being not much Casava in the country, aud of that the
enemies steal a share * *.”

Richard Blome in his “ Description of the Island of Jamaica”
(London, 1672), says :—

The Fruits.

There are great plenty of choice and excellent Fruits in this Island,
as Oranges, Pome-granates, Cocar-Nuts, Limes, Guavars, Mammes,
Alumee-Supotas [sic], Suppotillias, Avocatas, Cashues, Prickle-Aples,
Plickle- Pears, Grapes, Sower-Sops, Custard-Aples, Dildowes, and
many others whose names are not known, or too tedious to name, be-
sides Plantains, Pines, &c.

Their Herbes and Roots.

Here likewise grows very well, all manner of Summer-Garden-
Herbs and Roots common to us in England, as Radish, Lettis, Purse-
ley, Cucumbers, Melons, Parsley, Pot-herbs, also Beanes, Pease, Cab-
bages, Colly-Flowers, &c.

Joseph Acosta, in his ‘‘ Naturall and Morall Historie of the East
and West Indies.” (London, 1604), says :—

“In some parts of the Indies they use a kind of bread they call
Cacavi, which is made of a certain root they call Yuca.”

Again :—

“They have not found at the West Indies any kinde of spices, pro-
per or peculiar to them, as pepper, cloves, cinamon, nutmegges, or
ginger, although one of our company, who had travelled much, and in
‘diverse partes, told us, that in the desarts of the Iland of Jamaique he
had found trees where pepper grewe. But they are not yet assured
thereof, neither is there anie trade of these spices at the Indies. The
ginger was carried from the Indies to Hispaniola, and it hath multi-
plied so, as at this day they now not what to do with the great abun-

131

dancy they have. In the fleete the yeare 1587, they brought 22053
‘quintalls of ginger to Seville: but the naturall spice that God hath
given to the Weast Indies is that we in Castill, Indian pepper, and at
the Indies, Axi, as a generall word taken from the first land of the
jlands, which they conquered. In the language * * of Mexico,
Chili.”

Again :—

“Of grapes, vignes. olives, mulberies, and kanes of Sugar.”

In “ Interesting Tracts relating to the island of Jamaica” (St. Jago
dela Vega, 1800). The planters of Withywood [| Vere] complain that
they cannot sell their indigo at Port Royal, as they were undersold by
the pirates encouraged by the Governor (Earl of Carlisle), 1680.

Again :—

In “ Instructions to Sir Philip Howard, Governor | who never came]”
““We do hereby authorize you to forbear, if you shall think fit, the
taking advantage of any penalty or forfeiture against any of the
present planters or inhabitants of the said island, for not manuring
or planting of their lands according to their time heretofore limited
and appointed them for the same, &c.” 1685.

Again -—

Dec., 4 [1664]. ‘About this day app2ared first the comet which
was the forerunner of the blasting of the cocoa trees, ani after which
time they generally failed in Jamaica, Ouba and Hispaniola.”

IJ.—Tuer Pine Appuey.

The Pine-apple is a native of tropical America, but it is scarcaly
‘possible to decide whether it is truly indigenous in Jamaica; other
plants belonging to the same Natural Order (Bromeliaceae) are every-
where abundant. If not a true native, it was probably brought from
the mainland by the Arawaks, and later by theSpaniards It appears
on the Coat of Arms as if it were a natural product. large patches
of the “ Cow-boy” Pine grow wild in the district of Vere in Claren-
don. e plants attain a height of five feet, and grow in dense
thickets, so that it is difficult to get at the fruit which are somewhat
freely produced. The soil in the district seems to be admirably adapted
for the growth of this plant.

Joseph Acosta in his “ Naturall and Morall Historie of the Hast
and West Indies” (London 1604) says (p. 762): ‘‘ The first Spaniards
named many things at the Indies with such Spanish names as they
did most resemble as Pines, Concombres, and Prunes, although they
be very different fruits to those which are so-called in Spaine. The
Pines or Pine-apples, are of the same fashion and forme outwardly to
those of Castille, but within they wholly differ, for that they have
neither apples nor scales, but are all one flesh, which may be eaten
when the skinne is off, it is a fruit that hath an excellent smell, and
is very pleasant and delightful in taste, it is full of juyce and of a
sweet and sharpe taste, they eate it being cut in morsells, and steeped
a while in water and salt. Some say that this breedes choler, and
that the use thereof is not very healthful. But I have not seene any
experience thereof that might breed beliefe. Tuey grow one by one
like a cane or stalke which riseth amongst many leaves, like to the
lillie, but somewhat bigger. The apple is on the toppe of every

132

cane, it grows inhot and moist groundes, and the best are those of
the islands of Bartovente [Greater Antilles].

In 1622 Dr. Heylin states that they ‘‘ were sold at sixpence per

lece.””

/ Hans Sloane, who visited Jamaica in 1689, says in his ‘‘ Natural
History of Jamaica”: “ This fruit is planted and used by way of dessert
(having a very fine flavour and taste) all over the hot West Indies,
and either raw, or when not yet ripe, candied, and is accounted the most
delicious fruit these places, or the world affords, having the flavour of
raspberries, strawberries, &c., but they seem to me not to be so ex-
tremely pleasant, but too sour, setting the teeth on edge very speed-
ily.” The fruit seems to have been poor, but new and better varieties
were soon produced, for Patrick Browne in his “ Civil and Natural
History of Jamaica,” published in 1756, gives the names of three
varieties and says of the first that some ‘“ think it too rich ahd cloy-
ing.” His statement is as follows :—

“ The Sugar Loaf Pine-Apple—This plant is now common in Ja-
maica, and cultivated by most people in their gardens : it is propagated
both by the crown and the sprouts or side branches. but these come to
perfection earlier, though the other seems the most natural gem, as it
always casts its roots in the fruit itself, while yet in a growing state:
they thrive best in a rich mould and a warm situation, but seldom
rise above three feet from the ground; the stalk shoots from the
centre of the leaves (which are generally disposed very thick about
the root) and bears a large single fruit, or rather a heap of small suc-
culent capsule, concreted into a common mass towards the top; but
the fibres of the main stem continue their course through the centre
of this mass, and in most species, turn into a short foliated sprout, or
young plant, at the top, casting a few tender radiculi on every side,
into the pulp of the fruit.

“This has been always esteemed the richest and best fruit in
America ; aud indeed its form, size and flavour contribute alike to give
it the pre-eminence; it is in general agreeable to the stomach: but
the natural mellowness of its juice renders it more agreeable to the
natives and old standards, than it possibly can be to new-comers, who
generally think it too rich and cloying. The following sorts are
thought to be only variations of this, but they are seldom so luscious,
grow generally ofa different shape, and are vastly more agreeable to
heated stomachs. The juice fermented would make a good wine; it
is sometimes mixed with the rum liquor, when it ferments, and is-
thought to give it pleasant flavour; it is served up with other fruit at
most gentlemen’s tables in America.

“ The Black Pine-Apple. The Queen Pine-Apple.—These two last
species are more common than the first, and planted in most gar-
dens in this country, their fruit is generally large and roundish but
grows seldom yellow, even in the surface, nor is the pulp of the fruit
so rich though generally more agreeable to new-comers, and people of
a warm habit.”

In the “ History of Jamaica” by Edward Long, published in 1774,
the following varieties are mentioned :—

“The bog-walk pine, of a compressed form, and deep green coat,
white flesh.

133

“¢ The same with a yellow coat.

“The pyramidical or sugar-loaf, with yellowish flesh, and deep
green coat.

«“ The same with a yellow coat.

“ The smooth-leaved or king pine.

« The queen pine, with leaves smooth, or sometimes spiked.

“The smaller green or yellow pyramidal or Montserrat.

“ The bog-walk pine is not so sweet or agreeable as the others ; and
next to the sugar loaf the Montserrat pine is reckoned most eligible ;
there is, however, a variety in their flavour, accommodated to different

alates, some being more acid, or more rich and cloying than others.

“The fermented juice of the sweeter sorts has been made into a
very pleasant wine, and is sometimes mixed in the cisterns that con-
tain the liquor for rum, in order to communicate a more agreeable zest.”

In ‘‘ Hortus Jamaicensis,” by John Lunan, published in 1814, the
following varieties of Pine-apple are mentioned :—Queen, Sugar-loaf,
King, Smooth Green, Black Antigua or Ripley, Grenada, Bog-walk,
Smooth long narrow-leaved, Montserrat, Surinam, and he adds, “ it
is impossible to enumerate all, as new varieties may arise every day.”

In the Annual Reports on the old Botanic Garden at Bath, in St.
Thomas-in-tne-East, from 1846 to 1861, inclusive, the Pine-apple is
only mentioned, incidentally, as a fibre-yielding plant. This may be
accounted for by the fact that the district of Bath is a very wet one,
-and unsuited for the cultivation of this fruit.

In the year 1870 the following varieties of pine-apples were planted
in Castleton Garden, viz, Enville. Prickly Cayenne, Smooth Cayenne,
Providence and Charlotte Rothschild. This district also is not very
suitable for pines, and in 1873 they were transferred to the newly
acquired land at Hope.

In the Annual Report on the Public Gardens and Plantations for
the year ended 30th September, 1880, it is stated that several varieties
-of the more esteemed Pine-apples were being propagated at Hope, and
large numbers were being distributed among cultivators who desired
to try this small, but apparently remunerative industry. The Report
goes on to say that “The example of one enterprising settler who has
realized, according to very reliable data, at the rate of nearly £80
per acre* has been the means of stimulating others to take up pine
growing.”

In the Annual Report for 1882, we read that in order to assist the
industry, the Director of Publie Gardens and Plantations obtained
4through the Royal Gardens, Kew, a selection of all the best Pines
under cultivation in England, such as Lord Carrington, Smooth Cay-
enne, Lady Beatrice, &c., and from the Bahamas, the “Scarlet” and
** Cuban” Pines, which then obtained so much favour in the New York
market. ‘The Report for the following year states, that a well-estab-
lished plot consisting of 3,000 plants of Ripleys, 1,300 Sugar-loaf, be-
-sides a select series of Cuba, Queen, Lord Carrington, Lady Beatrice,
Smooth Cayenne, Pitch Lake (Trinidad), &., existed at the Hope

plantation, and the produce that year was expected to reach 1,000

* According to Mr. Joseph’s own statement ’’ £200 and more from 1} acres pe¥
#nnum.”

134

pines. The same Report states that “For export parposes the more”
common kinds, such as the Jamaica Black Pine, appear te be in
greater request than tke Ripley, as the latter does not travel so well.”

The Report for 1884 gives the following list of varieties then grown
at Hope :—“ White Ripley, Black Ripley, Sugar-loaf, Prince Albert,
Montserrat, Cuban, Providence, Scarlet (Queen), Trinidad (Pitch Lake),
Black (Antigua), Queen, Lady Beatrice, Smooth Cayenne, Thompson’s:
(smooth) Cayenne, Moscow Queen, Lord Carrington, and Enville
Queen.” Many of these were obtained, through the Royal Gaidens,
Kew, from Windsor Castle, and from Lord Carrington’s nurseries.

In the same Report the Director states “I am glad to report that:
the cultivation of this valuable and luscious fruit is greatly extending,
and that the exports shew a marked increase on those of previous
years. In the neighbourhood of all ports and especially where the:
soil is of a free, sandy or gravelly nature, affording good drainage,.
pine-apples might be extensively planted.”

In the Report for 1896-97 the Superintendent of Hope Gardens-
draws attention to the markings on the leaf of the Green Ripley, and
points out that by carefully studying these markings, plants producing
poor, and generally worthless fruits, may be detected at an early stage
of their growth, and discarded. He says “the Green variety has a
pale green leaf, with red stripes situated on different parts of the leaf,
the stripes being very pronounced in some plants, varying from @
dark red stripe an inch in diameter to none atall. As far as my
observations go at present it is only when the Green variety
has the broad red stripe, and that situated in the centre of the
leaf, that the plant is worth growing; the totally green-leaved plant,
or the plant with a narrow stripe, especially when the stripe is on
the edge of the leaf instead of in the centre, is not worth anything,.
the fruit produced usually having holes near the base into which ants
creep, and by eating the fruit start it rotting.”

He continued his observations, and in the next Report he states
‘The plants have been kept under strict observation with a view to
determine what difference might be made by selection and cultivation.
Plants have been propagated, by «slips only, of fifty-five plants, thus
raised from plants with correct markings which are now about a year
or nine months old. Twenty-three have developed bad markings, 7.¢..
red marks on outside of leaves;- thirty-two plants have the correct
markings. Of eleven plants raised from parents with markings on
the outside of the leaf as well as in the centre, ten have developed
bad marks, one only developing correct marks. Of seventeen plants
raised from parents with markings on the outside of the leaf only,
fifteen have developed bad marks, and two have leaves devoid of

colour. Another curious thing noted is that, in the two latter in-

stances, in some cases the main stem has failed to develop, assuming
a twisted form, and developing side shoots only. Five plants of the
eleven mentioned as having markings on the outside of the leaf, as
well as in the centre, have degenerated in this way, and three out of
the batch of seventeen. None of the plants raised from parents with
correct markings have degenerated in this way.” He further states
that ‘‘ Artificial manure has proved of the greatest value, increasing
the vigour of the plants wonderfully, and adding nearly 14 pounds to

135

the size of the fruits, as well as hastening their ripening by fully two
weeks.”

In the Report for the following year the Superintendent in con-
tinuation of his remarks on correlation of the colouring of the leaves:
and good fruits states “Of the fifty-five plaats of the Green Ripley
pine with red markings in the centre of the leaf only, ten have fruited,
every fruit being a good one free from blemish ; the remainder of the
plants are now fruiting, but it cannot be determined whether these
will be perfect until they ripen. No more of these plants have de-
veloped red markings on the side of the leaf *

“Of the eleven plants from pareat with red markings on the out-
side of the leaf as well asin the centre, two have produced inferior
fruits cracked near the base and exuding gummy mutter which at-
tracted large quantities of the black stinging ants, these fruits are
quite uselesss ; three have produced little knobs ; the remainder of the
plants are just commencing to fruit, but are not sufficiently advanced
to enable us to form an opinion as to the quality.**

“Of twenty-seven plants with the markings on the outside of
the leaf only, seven have produced little knobs, eleven have simply
grown with the leaves twisted round in the centre of the plants and
developed side suckers as though they had fruited; four have pro-
duced fruits which were of fair quality, although very small; and
four plants produced small bad fruits,—cracked and exuding gum,

“The greatest care should be taken to propagate plants from those
having the red colouring matter well developed and in the centre of
the leaves only ; plants with faintly coloured or colourless leaves, or
plants having leaves with the red colour on the edge of the leaves,
should be avoided.

“Red Ripley: Since observing the variation in the colouring of the
Green Ripley Pine Apples, I have also noticed that some hing of the
same kind occurs in the Red Ripley. When the colouring of the
leaves is particularly bright, and the leaves have not th> fine bloom
observable in the best type of plant, it often produces an abortion
similiar to those produced by the green variety when badly marked.”

In the Report by the Director 1893-1900, the question of proper
distances in planting is discass:d. He sta‘es ‘‘ we first started to
plant at 3 feet apart in the rows, with rows 5 feet apart, thinking
that at this distance it would be possible to keep the land clean by
cultivators drawn by mule or horse, and so reduc: the cost. This was
quite feasible while they were in the “plant” stage, but as the plants
ratooned, the fruits on the side shoots weighed them down, breaking
off many, and exposing the side of the fruits of all to the sun, causing
“suu burn.” Other dis‘ances were tried, until it was finally decided:
that 2 x 3 feet was the proper distance, the reason being that althouga
the hand cultivation necessary for the first year’s growth is expensive
by the second year the pines so shade the land that tnere is little or
no growth of weeds beyond a few climbers. The plants are close
enough together to prevent leaning and coasequent sun burn.”

* All produced good fruit.
¥* Two of the remaining six produced little knobs, the othar four rather small
fruits cracked at the base.

136

In this same Report the following list of varieties grown at Hope
Gardens is given. ‘Green Ripley Queen, Red Ripley Queen, Enville,
Golden Queen, Smooth Cayenne, Black, Abbaka, Cow boy, Sugar-loaf,
Moscow Queen, Cheese, Charlotte Rothschild.

Further, the Superintendent makes the following observations on
pine-apples in the English market “The one pine-apple being sold
in England is the Smooth Cayenne, but not as many people would
have us believe, on account of its superior quality. The chief reason
at sells so well is that it is a good looking pine, a fruit of good size,
fine colour, and a handsome top, the weight ranging from 8 to 8lbs,
but they average about 4 to 6lbs., larger not being required in England.
‘The second reason for the Cayenne selling better than the much finer
flavoured Ripley, is t' at it gets to market in better condition. Many
dealers lost money over the Ripleys’ being black in the centre,
although apparently good on the outside. Mr Geo. Munroe of Covent
Garden stated that if Ripleys could be got to market in good condi-
tion, they would run the Cayenn:s out of the market. There isa
good murket in England for pine-apples at all seasons, a three-pound
fruit will always fetch 4/ retail if in good condition ; fruits weighing
54 to 6lbs., if not too plentiful, sell retail at 8/ to 10/. There is 4
good demand for pines before the St. Michael’s fruit arrives, which is
generally about the beginning of June, although they are by no
means plentiful before August.”

The following is a list of varieties of Pine-apples now grown in
Jamaica,

. Ripley Queen, Red.
. Ripley Queen. Green.
. Bull-head. syns. Man O'War, Red Spanish of Florida
and the Bahamas.
. Sugur-loaf,
. Cow-boy. syns. Crab Pine, Mammee Pine.
. Cheese. syns. Red Jamaica, Red Pine, Brick Pine.
Black. syns Black Jamaica, Black Spanish,
. Jerusalem. (This has complete miniature pines grow-
ing around the base of the main fruit).

. Smooth Cayenne.
. Abbaka.
. Charlotte Rothschild.

Golden Queen.
. Enville City.
. Porto Rico.
. Moscow Queen.

16. Sugar.

There are o her doubtfully distinct varieties, or forms of well-
known varieties grown in some districts, eg. “Sam Clark” found in
the Parish of St. Catherine, and ‘‘ Goffe” found in the northern coast
lands in the Parishes of St. Mary and Portland ‘There is very little
doubt that when all the varieties or forms are brought together, and
grown in the same locality under exactly similar conditions, that the
slight differences which are now considered sufficient to warrant a dis-
tinctive name, and which are due to differences in soil, moisture, and
temperature will disappear, and the present l'st of varieties in Jamaica

DNB Wme

ee ee
THR WNwOrH OO

—— 2

137

will probably require to be shortened. It is a well-known fact that
the same variety is often known by different names in diffsrent dis-
tricts. The Secretary of the Agricultural Society states that the fol-
lowing varieties, placed in order of merit, are at present considered
the best for export, having realised the highest prices in London this
year :—

Smooth Cayenne. Black Pine.
Abbaka, Bull-head
Ripley, Sugar-loaf.

y
“Sam Clark” (this is probably the same as Cheese Pine.)

The three latter are of equal merit.

The Hope Experiment Station is now experimenting in cross ferti-
lising the Ripley with the Smooth Cayenne It is thought that if a
eross could be obtained that would combine the size, shape, general
appearance, and keeping qualities of the Smooth Cayenne, with the
exquisite flavour of the Ripley, an ideal Pine for export would ba the
result.

The following Table shows the numbers and values of Pine-apples
exported each year from 1876 to 3lst March, 1901 :—

|

Years. Quantities : Dozs. Values £.
1876 195 48

1877 33 8

1878 1,140 341

1879 1,908 381

1889 3,480 522

1881 5,586 698

1882 8,887 iAak:

r-%. 18838 7,728 1,158
1884 14,070 2,111

1885 8,883 1,443

1886 9,557 1,434

1887 8,289 1,243

1888 9,812 1,472

1889 8,293 1,037

4 Yr. 1890 860 140
~ 1890-91 10,527 1,579
1891-92 10,294 1,287
1892-98 6,828 853
1893-94 5,403 675
1894-95 4,939 617
1895-96 4,192 524
1896-97 5,543 693
1897-98 7,698 962
1898-99 3,114 402
1899-1900 6,086 761

1900-1901 7,o11 1,033

a RR RR

138

This fine fruit has been known here for about 200 years, but it is
only within the last 25 years that it has been cultivated to any extent,
and within the last 5 years probably more time and money has been
spent on this cultivation than at any previous period.

From reliable information received on the subject, we estimate the
approximate area now under systematic cultivation at 200 to 250 acres,
and this is being rapidly increased. To this area should be added pro-
bably 20 acres grown in small irregular patches. This might be ex-
tended to an almost indefinite extent, if good and steady mrrkets were
found for the fruit produced. The most common varieties appear to
be Bull-head and Sugar-loaf, but under systematic cultivation they
come in the following order:—(1) Ripley, (2) Smooth Cayenne,
(8) Abbaka, (4) Bull-head, then follow small numbers of other sorts.

The cultivation of the Pine-apple has never been in such a promis-
ing condition in Jamaica as at present. The industry is in the hands
of intelligent growers who are determined to do everything that is

ossible and reasonable to make it a commercial success.

With at least one steamer per week to England, and usually several
steamers per week to various ports in the United States, there is every
reason to hope that the trade in Pine-apples will soon become of very
considerable importance. In addition to the export trade, there is a
good local demand for this splendid fruit, especially the delicious
Ripley varieties.

CULTIVATION.

The best soil for pine apples is a well-drained, sandy loam. Red
clay can be made suitable by thorough tillage, the addition of lime,
and artificial drainage. Pines are very impatient of excessive mois-
ture, and good drainage, either natural or artificial, is essential to the
successful cultivation of this crop.

The site having been selected (it should, if possible be on sloping
ground), the land should be weeded and cleaned, then forked or
ploughed to the depth of a foot or more, the deeper the better, as every
crop benefits by deep cultivation. It should then be thoroughly broken
up by means of a cultivator or harrow, or both where these can be used.

Where it is not practicable to work plough and cultivator the As-
spe fork should be used, first to turn up the soil, then to break it up

ne.

In districts where the average rainfall exceeds 50 inches per annum,
it is advisable to plant in raised beds.

These beds should run in the same direction as the natural slope of
the land, and may be 10 feet wide, which will be sufficient space for
five rows of suckers 2 feet apart, leaving a margin of 1 foot on the
outside of the two outer rows. Between the beds there should be a
trench about 14 feet wide which will serve as a drain, and also asa
path to enable workers to weed the beds without trampling them.

In selecting suckers, take those that are 12 to 15 inches high. The
lower leaves should be pulled off, to allow the young roots to push
freely, and the base of each sucker’should be cut crosswise with a
sharp knife, making a clean cut. )

Having prepared the land, and the suckers for planting, the beds

or grounds should be lined at distances of two feet apart, and the

suckers should be carefully planted at distances of two feet in the row.

.
:
:

139°

At this distance four square feet of ground will be allowed to each’
plant. Some planters recommend 3 feet between the rows, and 2 feet
from plant to plant in the rows, but the tendency now is to plant
closer, as it has been found in close planting that the suckers support
each other and are not liable to be blown over when in fruit, as is so
_ often the case when more space is allowed; also that the plants in time
completely cover the ground and prevent the growth of weeds to a
considerable extent.

In planting, make holes atthe proper distances, and put the suckers.
in just deep enough to cover the naked base of each, then draw in the
earth and press firmly around them. The ground should be kept free
from weeds, and the surface open, by means of a Dutch hoe.

Manures. Iflandis planted that had previously been used for
several years to pasture stock, and the soil is good sandy loam, manure
will not be necessary for a few years; on the other hand, if it is arid and
poor, it would be well to fork in, or plough ina good dressing of
farm-yard manure when breaking up the soil, 6 months or so before
plenting, and give a top-dressing of wood-ashes which should be light-
y raked in after the plants have started to grow. Artificial manures
for pine-apples are now offered for sale, and are largely used by grow-
ers who wish to force their crops. In clayey soils, the application of
lime, when preparing the land for planting, is highly beneficial. Soils
that have become exhausted by other crops may be made suitable for
pines by growing acrop or two of cow-peas, and ploughing these in
when they are in flower.

The best time to plant pines is July-August; good, strong suckers:
put in at this time of the year, will fruit in 9 to 12 months from time
of planting. If planted earlier or later in the year, the suckers will
take longer to fruit, 15 to 18 months or more.

YIELD OF RUBBER.

Although we have on several occasions given full particulars con-
cerning rubber-planting, yield of rubber, &c., we have repeated in-
quiries as to the net returns which may be expected from a planta-
tion. Perhaps the following letter addressed to the India Rubber
World by Mr. A. H. Berkhout, late Conservator of Java Forests, will
convey to intending rubber-planters the necessary information. - Mr.
Berkhout writes :—

In The Indian Forester (Vol. XXIV., page 160*). I presented some
facts in relation to the oldest india-rubber plantation in the world,
which is located on the Pamanukan-Tjiassem estate, in the Residence
Krawang, in Java. At that time I wrote that the plantation came
into existence in the year 1872, basing my information on personal
conversation with the owner of the estate, but the opinion of the
present chief overseer, Herr van Henkelom, seems to be that the plan-
tation dates from the year 1864.

The young plants of Ficus elastica were obtained from the adjacent
forests, by cuttings of branches, or by mareotting the uncultivated

* Quoted in The India Rubber World, 1st August, 1898.

140

trees, an operation to which the inhabitants of Java frequently resort.
“The before-mentioned rubber trees are especially adapted to the pro-
cess of marcotting. All that is necessary is the removal of a strip of
bark + inch wide, and to bandage the wound with earth. After about
fifty days, roots will appear through all sides of this ball, which
can then be cut off. It is advisable before planting these young
plants, which are about 20 inches in height, to place them, or rather
nurse them, in rich, well-shaded soil for a period of about fifty days,
in order to heal the cut thoroughly.

It is my opinion that the original cost of this plantation on the
Tjiassem estate was not very much, because the Ficus elastica was
planted about 84 yards apart each way, or seventy-two to the acre,
within coffee plantations which were no longer productive, and re-
quired not much cultivation, I estimate the cost of the plantation at
about 29s. per acre. Altogether 72} acres, embracing 5,200 trees,
were planted.

The first tapping was done in 1886, and the following figures will
give the details :—

,

Years. Pounds. |Average Ounces Value.
per Tree.

me
1886 dts aes 5,512 17 572 0
1887 — ae 4,954 15 518 4
1888 ae —— 1,514 4 158 4
1890 = oa 3,307 10 345 6
1891 Pe ae 6,113 18 371 6
1892 = 5,992 18 245 8
“1895 = = 3,197 10 394 6
1896 oes i 3,113 10 312 2
1897 — <= 6,731 21 729 6
1898 Sea = 6,731 21 842 6
Total 4 47,164 4,490 8

Tappings could not be made in every year. In thirteen years (in
three of which the trees were not tapped) a total of 47,164 lbs. was
harvested, an average of 3,628 lbs. per year, or 10 ozs. per tree per
year. During the four years, 1895-98, the average was 4,943 lbs.,
or 15 ozs. per tree. The yield per acre, therefore, from 1886 to 1898
averages 50 lbs., and from 1896 to 1898, 68 lbs.

The figures given above, by the way, in the column headed “Value”
must be understood as referring to the income to the planter after de-
ducting all expenses, not only of harvesting the crop, but also the
initial expenses and the yearly expense for care of the plantation.

From the information supplied to me in regard to the prices obtained |

for the rubber, I should infer that the yearly expense for the last
four years covered by the table had amounted to an average of £2 10s.
per acre per year.

An analysis of the figures above given will show an average yearly
met profit of £8 3s. 9d. per acre, the figures for 1898 showing a profit
per acre of £12 1s. 8d.

With respect to the possible yield from Ficus elastica, it may be

.
|
:
:

141

mentioned that Herr Mulder, in Sudimara, (West Java) obtained in
in 1897 from three trees 105-6 lbs. and twenty months later from the
same trees 99 lbs. This is, respectively, per tree 354 lbs. and 383 lbs..

YIELD OF RUBBER IN MEXICO.

R. P. Probasco, of Chicago, favours The India Rubber World with
the results of tapping cultivated Castilloa rubber trees by A. B.
Coate, superintendent of La Soledad Plantation, on Trinidad River,
Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Mr. Probasco received four specimens—-

1. Weight, 3 lb. 2 0z.; collected from three trees, in diameter 16, 124 and
14 inches.

2. Weight, 1 lb. 2 oz. ; yield of one tree, 12 inches in diameter.

3. Weight, 1 lb. 9 oz. ; yield of one tree, 114 inches in diameter.

4, Weight, 2 lb. 4 0z.; yield of one tree, 18 inches in diameter.

Total weight, 8 lb. 1 oz., yield of six trees, gives an average of 1 |b.
5i oz. per tree. None of the trees is over eight years; some of them
only six. Rain fell while the trees were being cut, washing away
some of the rubber milk, and various other unfavourable conditions
existed.— (Queensland Agricultural Journal.)

THE ALMOND BAG WORM.

A correspondent has sent specimens of the Almond Bag Worm
attacking the Orange tree. No record has been made of its having
been found before on the orange.

There is a note in the Journal of the Institute of Jamaica for
August, 1893, on this insect, It quotes from Mr. Bowrey’s Report
as Curator for year 1879-80 :

“The curious ‘ case’ caterpillar, of which I have secured a specimen
of the male moth which is winged, and also of the female which is’
apterous and never leaves the ‘case’ formed by the larva. This is the
caterpillar which was noted on almond trees shortly after the August
hurricane. This is its ordinary food plant, and I can only account for
its being specially noted in August last by supposing that the trees
on which it feeds being blown down it was brought under popular
notice. For years I have seen it on almonds, and I doubt if it has
been as plentiful this year as it usually is. Its ‘case’ so exactly re-
sembles in colour and texture the small branches of the almond as to:
pass unnoticed except special attention be called to it.”

Prof. C. H. T. Townsend proceeds as follows, and then gives an
exact description of the insect, probably Otketicus abbottii Grote :

“A large number of these small bag-worms were found on an
almond tree in the Marine Gardens, in Kingston, on June 24, 1898.
Individuals of all sizes occurred, from tiny to large and evidently
fully grown ones. The largest ones were found attached very strongly
to the under side of the branches in places, where they were with
great difficulty detached owing to the great strength of their silk.
The smaller growing ones were found on the leaves, clinging to the
underside of the latter in which they eat irregularly round holes,
which they gradually enlarge. This gives the foliage the appearance
of having been raked and riddled with shot of various sizes.”

142
“PROTECTION OF TREES AGAINST ANTS.

Ants cause so much trouble and loss especially to citrus groves that
-any suggestion of a remedy will doubtless be welcome to planters.
The following paragraph is taken from the Queensland Agricultural
Journal. The method is promising, as it is well known that the cas-
tor oil plant is most repugnant to insects.

“Many a freshly grafted bud on an orange tree has been destroyed
by ants, which, with some other insects, are the bane of budders. An
American fruit-grower has discovered a plan by which, he says, ants
may be kept in their place. His plan is to saturate wool strings with
castor oil, and tie these tightly round the trunk or limbs of the trees
which have been budded. ‘The ants go up as far as the strings, but
mone were seen to cross one of the bits of wool. Cotton strings will
not do, and experiments with other oil have not been successful.
“Woolen yarn must be used. The seme treatment is effectual on other
trees.”

eo SS

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
DEPARTMENT.

Liprary (Serials).

EvuRopE.
British Isles.

Annals of Botany. Vol. XV. No. LVIII. June 1901. [Purchased.]

A New Admixture of Commercial Strophanthus Seed. By Pierre Elie Felix
Perredes. (Reprinted from Pharmaceutical Journal April 27, 1901.)
[The Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories. ]

Botanical Magazine, June, July. [ Purchased, ]

British Trade Journal, June. [Editor.]

Chemist and Druggist, July 13, 20. [Hditor.]

Colonial and Diplomatic and Consular Reports, April, May. [Col. Sec.]

Garden, July 13, 20,27. [Purchased.]

Gardeners’ Chronicle. July 13, 20, 27, Aug.3. [Purchased. ]

International Sugar Journal, Aug.. [Editor.]

Journal Royal Colonial Institute, May,

Journal of Botany, June. [ Purchased, |

Notes on Potamogeton. By Arthur Bennett. Reprinted from Journal of
Botany, June 1901.

Nature, July 11.18. [|Purchased. ]

Pharmaceutical Journal, July 13, 20.

The Public Ledger, May 24. [Editor.]

The Hepaticae of Ross Island, Killarney. By David McArdie, } Library of
Report on the Hepaticae of the Dingle Peninsula. Bot, Gard.,
Additions to the Hepaticae of the Hill of Howth. Glasnevin.
France.
Sucrerie indigéne et coloniale, July 9,16, 23. [Hditor.]
Germany.

Tropenpflanzer. June. [Editor.]
Notizblatt. Berlin. July. [Director.]

Switzerland}

Bulletin de )’Herbier Boissier. [Conservateur. ] a cates

———

143

ASIA.

India.
Agricultural Ledger, (Calcutta) No. 24. [Lt.-Gov. Bengal. ]
Planting Opinion, June 29. [ Editor.]
Mad1as
Vol. 1I. Bulletin No. 43. (Sugar Cane in the Godavari and Ganjan Dis-
tricts.) [Dept. of Land Records and Agri.]
Pro. Agri. Horti. Soc. Madras. October—December, 1900. [Secy.]
Ceylon
Times of Ceylon. June 27. July 4. [Editor.]

AUSTRALIA.
NN. 8S. Wales.
Agri. Gazette, June. [Dept. of Agri.]
Queensland.

Queensland Agri. Journal. June. [Sec. of Agri.]

Queensland Sugar Journal. Juneld. [Editor.]
Western Australia.

Journal of the Dept. of Agri., June. [Dept. of Agri.]

AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope.

Agri. Journal, June 20. [Dept. of Agri.]
Natal. )
Agri. Journal and Mining Record, June 21. [Dept. of Agri.]
Central Africa.

C, African Times, May 18, 25. June 18. [Editor.]

West INDIEs.

Burbados.
Barbados Advocate, July 24, 25. )
Scale Insects of the Lesser Antilles [Comr. Imp. Dept. of Agri.]
Sweet Potatoes from the West Indies for West Indies,
Cultivation of Vegetables in Barbados |

Trinidad.
Proc. of Agri. Society, June. [Secretary. |

British Norra AMERICA.

‘Ontario.

Thirty-second Annual Report of the Fruit-Growers Association, 1900.

[Dept. of Agri. ]
i ine Annual Report of the Fruit Experiment Stations, 1900. [Dept. of
ti.

Deca Report of the Dairymen’s Associations, 1900. [Dept. of Agri, |
Ottawa.

Experimental Farm Report for 1900. [Dept. of Agri.]

Unitep StTaTEs oF AMERICA.

Publications of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. [Directors. |

Scientific Bureaus and Divisions.

Experiment Stations.

Experiment Station Record, Vol. XII. No. 10.

Kansas. 102 (Forage Plants for Kansas)

103 (Digestion Experiments with Kansas Feeds)
« Press Bulletin, 96 (Feeding Wheat).

Kentucky. 90 (Commercial Fertilizers) 91 (I, Enemies of Cucumbers and
Related Plants. 2. Experiments with Potato Scab. 3, The Food of
Toad.) 92 (Grapes.)

Louisiana—

Bulletin of the Agri, Exp. Station of the Louisiana State,

144

University & A. & M. College, Sec. Series No. 64.

Thirteenth Annual Report of the Agri. Exp. Station for 1900.
Maine. Sixteenth Annual Report of the Agri. Exp. Station.
Michigan. 189 (Note on Strawberries) 190 (Vegetable Test for 1900).

191 (Shrinkage of Farm Products).

New Jersey. (Annual Report of *Agricultural Experiment, & Agri. Coll.
Experiment Stations, 1900). 150. (1. Losses in Farm Manures, II. The
Relative Usefulness of the Nitrogen in Fresh and in Leached Manures,.
Iif. The Comparative Value of the Nitrogen in Commercial Forms and
in Natural Manures.) 151 (Bean Diseases and their Remedies.) 152
(Domestic Pasteurizing Methods, and the care of milk in the Home.)

Ohio. 126 (Sugar Beet Investigations in Ohio in 1900.)

Oregon. 66 (The Grape in Oregon), 67 (The Silo & Silage.)

Rhode Island. 77 (Rations for Milch Cows), 78 (Analysis of Feeding.
Stuffs.

Viruinia. 113 (Animal Parasites. Part VI.) 114 (Animal Parasites, Part-
VIL.

West Tinginia. 75 (Apple Districts of West Virginia.)

American Journal of Pharmacy, August. [ditor. ]j

Botanical Gazette, Chicago, July. [Editor.]

Revision of certain species vf Antennaria, by H. Nelson (From Proc. U.S. Nat
Mus. XXIII. 1230.) [Smithsonian Institution. |]

Torrey Club Bulletin, July. [Hditor. |

The Forester, July. [EHditor. |

Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin No. 47.

CENTRAL AMERICA.
Boletin del Instituto Fisico-Geografico, Costa Rica. [Director.]

POLYNESIA.
Planters’ Monthly, Hawaii, July. [Editor.]

Lisrary (Books).
Nature Teaching. By F. Watts. [Commr. Imp. Dep. of Agri for the W. Indies. }.

SEEDS.
From Botanic Department Trinidad—
Petrea alba, erecta.
From Reasoner Bros. Oneco, Florida— |
Cocos Alphonsii.
From G. S. Jenman, Esq., British Guiana—
White Nymphea.
From Hon. Oscar Marescaux, Cherry Garden—
Bombay Mango.
From Royal Gardens, Kew—
Erythrina sp.
Kalanchoe crenata
Mammillaria stellata
Tobacco.

PLANTS.
From Hon. Oscar Marescaux, Cherry Garden—
Bulbs of Zephyranthes flava.
From G. S. Jenman, Esq., British Guiana—
Tubers of red Nymphea
we white do.

HERBARIUM.
From Hon.Oscar Marescaux, Cherry Garden—
Sp. of Tacsonia.
From B.S, Gosset, sq, Farm Hill—
Blue Mountain Coffee (cured.)

[Issued 4th Sept., 1901.]

New Series. OCTOBER, 1901. Vol. VIII,

Part 10.
| OF THE
~ BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA,
: a od ce
EDITED BY
: WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc., F.L.S.
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations,
—___— > 8-9
CONTENTS:

; | Paag.

The Banana Soils of Jamaica ote 145
Cattle Food 153
Historical N otes on Economic Plantsin Jamaica . : 154
-Cinchona Bark from Jamaica 157
Banana as a Diet in Typhoid Cases : 158

Additions and Contributions ! pate | 158

P R1C E—Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O,

: KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
GOVERNMENT PRinTING Orrice, 79 Duke Srauxz,

Seetnntentd

1961,

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

SL 5 SS a

New Series. ] OCTOBER, 1901. ae

THE BANANA SOILS OF JAMAICA.
By H. H. Coustys, M.A., F.C.S., Government Analytical and Agri-

cultural Chemist.

I. PortTLAND AND Sr. Mary.

The value of soil analysis as a practical guide to the cultivator has
often been exaggerated, and it would be a most unsound policy to at-
tempt to deduce practical measures from analyses only. When such
analyses are carefully carried out with the precautions and methods
which the latest experience of Agricultural Chemists have devised, and |
interpreted, not in an absolute, but in a comparative manner ; and fur-
ther when associated with field experiments and careful records of crop
returns under various treatments, soil analyses may be of the greatest
value in givinga short cut to the vital conditions of economic produc-
tion.

In publishing these first results, it must be understood that they
are but the preliminaries to a wider survey of the soil conditions of
Jamaica and that they will receive a more practical interpretation in
the light of the field experiments which the Board of Agriculture has
now instituted to cover all the chief cultivations of Jamaica.

The figures and the observations that follow them in each case speak
fer themselves. The soils from Burlington and Quebec Park are truly
extraordinary. Despite a century of cane cultivation and a long series
of banana crops, these soils are still in a very high state of fertility.
‘Tomb Piece’ at Burlington is an agricultural curiosity. It is at least
30 times as rich as good average wheat land in England.

The Phosphoric Acid is, I believe, a record. The amount was so
enormous that the analysis was repeated and carefully checked before
it was accepted. There isa mine of wealth in these soils which needs
but energy and enterprise to dig it out and realise its possibilities.

146
SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number—2 From Hon. R. P. Simmonds, Port Maria.
Source Details—A Soil growing bananas at Quebec Park.

9-24 in. A,
Depth of Sample—9 inches. A, (surface soil) 24-36 “ A, >Subsoil
36-48 “ At

PuysicAL ANALYSIS.
PER CENT.

AMA, | A A

Sianes | SE lool 1.081 Na

Gravel ...| 1.83} 5.02) 5.02) 4.387)
Sand | US eOsls i2Oon ote
Fine Sand ...| 80.71) 387.71} 38.47) 86.88
| Silt ...| 18,25) 25.98) 29.68) 27.33] | Fine
Agricul- ¢ Fine Silt ...| 83.99] 12.92) 12.54) 14.35] (Earth.
tural Clay | Clay 11.06] 2.14 2.19] 2.27 |
pS oem } 8.37/ 7.50) 8.22| 7.34] |
rganic matter J
Total .../100.00/100.00)100 00/100.00
Per Cent.
Retentive Power for water (A,° me 53.00

CuHEmicAL ANALYSIS A,.

(Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at 100°C.)

Insoluble Matter 68.07
Soluble in Hydrochloric ‘Acid ~
( Potash . 9249
| Lime as 1.62
< Phosphoric Acid ... .138

| Carbonic Acid as 506
| Carbonate of Lime :
Combined Water and organic matter 7.93

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 3.58
Nitrogen aoe .196
Hy groscopic Moisture ... 7.62
Fertitiry ANALYSIS.
Available Potash = 0.0272
Available Phosphoric Acid 0096
OBSERVATIONS.

*{The surface soil is a loam of ideal composition and high fertility
It is so rich in all the elements of fertility that is is doubtful whether
any manures are at present required to produce full bunches of bana-

147

‘mas. Such a soil will repay the highest cultivation, and demands
good drainage as a first essential. The subsoil becomes gradually
lighter than the surface soil, the proportion of clay diminishing,
while that of the coarser free draining particles increases. Drains of
a minimum depth of 3ft are indicated as desirable. The soil is not
sour, and I do not think that it is likely to be benefitted by a dress-
ing of burnt lime. This soil would reaet with superphospates or basic
slag should it become necessary to manure the binanas. I[ expect
that this soil would carry full buaches of bananis for several years
without the use of any fertilizers, provided good cultivation is main-
tained. Any agriculturist with such land at his command should fiad
its cultivation both encouraging and profitable.

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number—3. From Hon. R. P. Simmonds, Port Maria.
Source Details—B. Soil at Quebec Park growing Bananas. j
Depth of Sample—9 inches ‘Tilled surface soil.

PuysicaL ANALYSIS,

Per Cent.
Stones a ~
Gravel iH 23>)
Sand Fi, Nie ok
Fine Sand a 33.19
Silt hh 31.181 Fine
Agricultural ¢ Fine Silt ba. 21.35 ‘ Earth
Clay Clay ve 5.34
Combined water, } 8 50
Organic matter. A saat
Tatar’ 5.. 100.00
Per Cent.
Retentive Power for water = 57.00

\
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS,

Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve, dried at 100° C.)

Insoluble Matter ea. 49.35
Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid -
( Potash ees . 6446
| Lime bs 13.59
< Phosphoric Acid ... 157

Carbonic Acid as *
= of Lime \ oe
Combined Water and organic matter 9.18
Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 4.96

Nitrogen bia .1431
Hy groscopic Moisture ... 7.53

148

FrertTiLiry ANALYSIS.

Per Cent.
Avawtlable Potash ual 0.0024
Available Phosphoric Acid 0.0048

OBSERVATIONS.

A marly loam of high fertility. It contains much chalk and a con-
siderable reserve of plant-food. The amount available for present use
is however, not very high as regards phosphate and potash and mar kedly
below that in soil A. Should the gerade of fruit fall off, a dressing of
4 cwt. superphosphate and 1 cwt. sulphate of potash per acre should
be applied. Basic slag is not suited to this soil. Green dressings
would be of benefit. The soil is not sour. Drainage should be care-
fully attended to, although the soil is naturally more free draining
than soil A.

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Reference Number- -4. From Hon. R. P. Simmonds, Port Maria.
C1 Soil from Quebec Park in Bananas 18 years,
has always, and still grows good fruit.
Depth of Sample—9 inches. Tilled surface soil.

PuysicAL ANALYSIS.

Source Details

Per Cent.
Stones coe Nil
Gravel sins 0.24)
Sand bas 1.41
Fine Sand esis 29 .86
Silt Pes | 42.46! Fine
Agricultural ¢ Flint Silt ove 15.16 6 Earth.
Clay. Clay ae 3.04
Combined water, i 7 93
Organic matter 4 orick
Total i22 100 00
Per Cent.
Retentive Power for water 55.5

C, C; C, (subsoil moderately porous for? ‘depth of 4 feet).

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
(Soil passed through 3 m. m. Sieve dried at 100° C.)

Insoluble Matter. 42.93
Soluble in Hydrochloric ‘Acid —
( Potash 0.7458.
| Lime it. I7.22
< Phosphoric Acid ae .1228
| Carbonic Acid as
| Carbonate of Lime i ee

Combined Water ‘and organic matter 8.38

Humus (soluble i in Ammonia) 2.50
. Nitrogen .1161
Hygroscopic Moisture 6.96
2 FERTILITY ANALYSIS.
Available Potash ie 0.0048

Available Phosphoric Acid - 0.0008

149

OBSERVATIONS.

This soil, a marly loam is rather lighter in texture than soil B., but
otherwise is fairly similar in general composition. The remarks made
on soil B., apply generally to soil C. The most striking fact brought
out is the very great reduction in available phosphoric acid and to a less
extent the nitrogen, in the soil through continuous cropping. A por-
tion of this land should be kept under bananas without manure, to de-
termine the minimum limit of available phosphoric acid required to
produce full bunches. It would seem that the soil is now on the verge
of exhaustion as regards phosphoric acid. A dressing of 4 or 5 cwt.
of superphosphate per acre should have a marked effect. The humus
is getting low and the nitrogen is below that in the other soils. A green
dressing of cow-peas should effect animprovement of these two factors
of fertility.

A further sample of soil is required when the untreated portion
shows decided signs of being exhausted.

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Reference Number—5.
Source Details—“ Stiff soil from St. Mary where Bananas have not
done well.”
Depth of Sample—9 iuches.

PuysitcaLt ANALYSIS.

Per Cent.
Stones ove nil
Gravel ase 0 26>)
Sand tls 0.94
Fne Sand ae 22.07
Silt os 22.87 | Fine
Agricultural ¢ Fine Silt Be 24.11 ( Earth
Clay Clay ii 17.46
Combined water, \ 12.30 |
Organic matter. wt) OU
Total>... 100.00
Per Cent.
Retentive Power for water ae 63
CurmicaL ANALYSIS.
(Soil passed through 8 m.m. Sieve, dried at 100° C.)
Insoluble Matter ae 54,22
Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid 45.88
( Potash an .2907
| Lime Bi 2437
< Phosphoric Acid 0254
| Carbonic Aeid as \ 120
| Carbonate of Lime ! ¥

Combined Water and organic matter 12.30
Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 3.15
Nitrogen 2107
Hygroscopic Moisture 9.66

150

Fertitity ANALYSIS.

Available Potash Ny. 0.0150
Available Phosphorie Acid 0.0329
OBSERVATIONS.

This soil presents a normal composition for a fertile soil with the

following exceptions :—
The Carbonate cf Lime is so low that efficient nitrification can not
take place.

The total Phosphoric Acid is very low, although a considerable pro--
portion of it is in a readily available state. This soil would very ra-

pidly suffer from exhaustion in this respect. Otherwise the soil con-
tains an adequate supply of plant food.
Practical suggestions :—

1. Drainage is an obvious necessity, and for bananas heroic efforts:

in this direction would be necessary.

2. Applications of lime or marl are greatly needed. A top dressing
of 10 tons marl per acre or of two half tons of burnt lime (in separate-

applications) per acre should have a marked effect.

5. I recommend the regular use of basic slag at the rate of 5 to 7
ewt. per acre as a source of phosphoric acid and as a source of Jime to
the soil.

4, The present store of humus should suffice for two or three crops ;

green dressings of cow-peas or other leguminous crops should be em--

ployed when necessary.
5. Iam of opinion that this soil requires very thorough manage-
ment and a scrupulous attention to the foregoing points in arder to

grow bananas successfully. This soil is vastly inferior naturally, to.
such soil as those of Quebec Park and Burlington where Bananas

grow freely and readily.

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number—6 Burlington A. From Hon. H. Cork.

Source Details—Surface soil growing bananas. High land. Type o
splendid banana soil “Tomb Piece.”

Depth of Sample—9 inches.

PuysicaL ANALYSIS.

Per Cent.
Stones im -
Gravel :. 0.41)
Sand Pa 5.46
Fine Sand 28.89
Silt Bea'a 93.65! Fine
Agricultural ) Fine Silt - 13.77 f Earth.
Clay Clay = 2.72 |
Combined water \ 25 10
Organic matter es
Total ... 100.00
Per Cent.

Retentive Power for water = 44

151

CuEmicaL ANALYsIS. |
(Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve, dried at 100° C.)

Insoluble Matter a 27.870
Soluble in oydrochias ‘Acid 72.130
( Potash .6796
| Lime i 1.379
< Phosphoric Acid ... 2.760
| Carbonic Acid as i 600
( Carbonate of Lime :

Combined Water and organicmatter 25.100

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 9.86
Nitrogen a . 7036
i ae Moisture ... 24.860
FeErtitity ANALYSIS.
Available Potash ms 0.0571
Available Phosporie Acid 0.0908
OBSERVATIONS,

This is a remarkable soil. It contains a large proportion of vege-
table mould, and is yet possessed of a desirable proportion of fine soil
particles. It is bi th free-draining and retentive of moisture. An
ideal medium for the root system of the banana. The subsoil is po-
rous and self-draining. The proportion of nitrogen and phosphoric
acid is most extraordinary, the former being 7 times and ‘the latter 30
times greater then good average arable land in England. The availa-
ble potash and phosphoric acid are both high. This isa typical
specimen of a Jamaica soil specially prepared, as it were, for the
kindly growth of the banana. I can suggest no manures as desirable

or necessary, and conclude that cultivation alone will suffice for full
crops of standard fruit for many years to come.

SOIL ANALYSIS.
- Reference Number—7. Burlington B. from Hon. H. Cork.
ee Tet. Surface soil growing bananas well. Flat land.
‘ \ Type of good average banana land. ‘Clarke Piece,’
Depth of Sample—9 inches.

PuysicaL ANALYSIS,

Per Cent.
Stones sia Nil
Gravel eo 3.23)
Sand ae 7.97
Fine Sand ae 44.38
Silt . 30.20 | Fine
Agricultural (¢ Fine Silt oe 7.05 | Earth’
Clay. ( Clay oo. 0.54
Combined water, } 6.63
Organic matter. Pa on
Total ae 100.09
Per Cent

Retentive power for water ss 45

152

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
(Soil passed through 3 m. m. Sieve, dried at 100° C.)

Insoluble Matter 67.593
Soluble in Hydrochloric ‘Acid 32.407
( Potash in 072
| Lime wes 1.881
Phosphoric Acid ... 161
| cesiini Acid as 291
Carbonate of Lime \ :
Combined Water and organic matter 6.63
Humus (solublein Ammonia) 1.75
Nitrogen .1184
Hy groscopic Moisture 4.898
FERTILITY ANALYSIS.
Per Cent.
Available Potash 0.0210
Available Phosphorie Acid 0.0422

OBSERVATIONSe

This soil consists mainly of fine sand and silt and is naturally porous
and free-draining. The subsoil is porous and readily permits a free
passage for surplus rainfall. Asastore of fertility this soil is marked-
ly below “Tomb Piece.” The humus and nitrogen are low for a
banana soil. The carbonate of lime is also very near the minimum
limit. The available phosphoric aicd and potash are above the average.
This soil is fertile in its present state, but I imagine it will need as-
sistance if bananas are to be grown continuously for a period of years.
Cow-peas and mar! are indicated as useful amendments to this soil. For
the rest, cultivation and good plantation management should suffice.

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Reference Number—8. Burlington C., from Hon. H. Cork.
Surface soil from land that does not grow Bananas.
Source Details. Plants give out when about to shoot. “ Miller Piece”
Depth of Sample—9 inches.

Puysical ANALYSIS.

: Per Cent.
Stones A Nil

Gravel Be 0 52)
Sand 3 Bh: 2.50
Fine Silt ee: 46.47

Silt Ene 33.74 \ Fine
Agricultural f Fine Sand ; bt 10.95 { Earth.

Clay. Clay = trace
Combined water, \ 6.20

Organic matter. i aa
Total pea 100.38

Per Cent.

Retentive Power for water a 46

1538
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

(Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve, dried at 100° C.)

Insoluble Matter A 68.150
Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid 31.850
( Potash bas 0.445
| Lime ve 2.120
< Phosphoric Acid ... 0.134
| Carbonic Acid as \ 0.317

| Carbonate of Lime

Combined Water and organic matter 6.20

Humus soluble in Ammonia 1.59
Nitrogen a 0.1738
Hy groscopic Moisture 5.627 -
Fertitity ANALYSIS.
Per Cent.
Available Potash ae 0.0242
Available Phosphoric Aeid 0.0311

OBSERVATIONS,

This soil is similar to that of “ Clarke Piece” in general composition.
It is a light free draining soil with a porous subsoil. It is below the
aforesaid soil in fertility as for instance humus, potash and phosphoric
acid, total and available. The percentage of carbonate of lime is also
low. When “Clarke Piece” has been reduced to this state by con-
tinuous cropping there is every possibility of a failure of the banana
crop. I recommend cow-peas, a dressing of 10 cwt. burnt lime or a fair
application of marl and a top dressing of

3 cwt., superphosphate
1 “ steamed bone flour per acre.

1 “ sulphate of ammonia

CATTLE FOOD.

The problem of the best food for stall-fed cows in dairies where
grass is scarce in dry weather is one to which it is important that at-
tention should be directed.

A commercial cattle-food is said to be largely composed of the
carob or locust bean of the Mediterranean region, or of the guango
bean imported from South America.

The guango is naturalised in Jamaica, the beans are well known to
be a favourite food of cattle and horses, and valuable especially in
times of drought. They should be collected as soon as they drop, and
‘kept in a dry place where they will not become mildewy. If they get
damp in the rainy season, they should be spread out at the first oppor-
tunity in the sun. j

The value for cattle food is about the same as that of the carob.
‘The analysis given below was worked out by Prof. Harrison of Dem-

154

erara, and published in a Report by Messrs. Jenman & Harrison on
the agricultural work in the Botanical Gardens for 1890.

Composition of ripe Saman or Guango (Pithecolobium Saman) beans
(pods and seeds ) :—

In fresh state. dried at 130° F.

W ater Ie 54°08 ne 9.26
Glucose ae 10°85 aire 21°45
Gums. pectose, etc. ... 8°89 =e 17°58
Albuminoids a3 Ee) ac 14°44
a. Oils, fats, etc. cn 76 ee 151
Starch and digestible fibre 13°73 a 27.07
Indigestible fibre... 2°96 ae 5°85
Mineral matters sar 1:43 nee 2°84
100:00 100-00

a. Containing nitrogen ... 1:16 ss 2°31

A plantation might be made of the Breadnut tree which also grows
well in dry situations. Small branches make an excellent fodder, and
so do the nuts which are produced in large quantities in September and
October. The Ramoon might be grown also for the same purpose.

Leguminous plants which send down their roots long distances, like
Alfalfa, are well worthy of a careful trial, as they stand drought very
much better than grass.

HISTORICAL NOTES ON ECONOMIC PLANTS
IN JAMAICA. ?

By the Editor and W. Harris, F.LS.
IIT. Bananas.

Bananas and plantains, whether edible, or ornamental only, belonging
to the genus Musa, are all natives of the Old World. Sloane says :—
‘‘This tree was no native in the West Indies, but brought thither
“from the Canary Isles by one Thomas di Berlanga, a Friar, to Santa
“ Domingo in the year 1516, from whence they were sent to the other
“Isles and Main, and they being very useful and taking extremely,
“were planted everywhere. Oviedo, lib. 8 cap. 1, but in all proba-
“bility this plant came first from Guiana to the Canaries ”

The edible varieties cultivated now at Hope Gardens have almost.

all been received from Kew Gardens, either directly, or from the

Botanic Gardens at Dominica. The following is a list :-—
1 Almeido pisang.
2 Apple.
3 Champa.
4 Chinese or Dwarf.
5 Cinerea( Saharanpur).

—_—- ee |,

a ae

155

6 Discolor.
7 Guindy (Ootacamund.
8 Jamaica or Martinique.
9 Kudjo Hudang pisang (Java).
10 Lady’s Finger.
11 Lady’s Finger (Panshonger),
12 Maas pisang (Java).
13 Martabanica.
14 Oleracea.
15 Palembang pisang.
16 Radji pisang.
17 Raja Siem.
18 Ram Kela.
19 Red.
20 Sereh pisang (Java).
21 Species from the (Congo, from M. Patin).
22 Susu pisang (Java).
23 Vittata

Jamaica or Martinique Banana.

The banana almost exclusively exported from this island is known
in England and the States as the Jamaica banana, but it was known
here at first as the Pouyat or Martinique banana. The following let-
ters tell the story of its first introduction from Martinique :—

Kingston, 14th September, 1901.

Dear Mr. Fawcett,

I sent my notes concerning the Banana Pouyat to Mr. Pouyat’s
grandson who now fills the office here of Registrar of Titles, and I have
his reply confirming my notes and, which I now send you in reply to
your letter.

The Banana in question was known here ever since I can remember
as the “ Banana Pouyat,” and the name is still used by some. From
1796-97, to 1830, Kingston and the neighbouring parishes of Saint
George, St. Andrew, and Saint Thomas-in-the-Vale were largely colo-
nized by the members of refugee families from Haiti, who came over
through the negro rebellion in that country. Kingston was almost a
French town. My own family came over from Haitiat the same time.
I remember another Banana which was brought over by (as it is said)
a refugee of the name of St. Marie, who settled in the Above Rocks.
district of Saint Thomas, in St. Thomas. It is a coarser and smaller
fruit than the Pouyat, with a flesh-coloured pulp. It is now sometimes
seen in our markets, but itis not much cultivated. It was called from
the country whence it was brought here “ Figue d’Haiti.”.

With kind regards,
Yours truly,
Henry VENDRYES.

156
Kingston, 12th Sept., 1901.
Dear Mr. Vendryes,

I have your letter of the 10th instant asking me for some informa-
tion respecting the introduction into this Island of the Martinique
Banana.

You are quite right in stating that it was my grandfather (whose
name was John Francois Pouyat) who brought that fruit from the
Island of Martinique, he did so in the early thirties of the last cen-
‘tury.

John Frangois Pouyat was born in 1780 at Limoges in France and
his profession was that of a Botanist and Chemist. He went to
Philadelphia (U.S.A.) where he had relatives (the D’Espinoses) about
1804 to 1806 and entered into business there as a Chemist—his first
visit to Jamaica was in 1808-1809, to ask for the hand of a Madle.
Lubin, the daughter of Louis Lubin a refugee from San Domingo
who came to Jamaica about 1796-97—he Lubin became naturalized
and bought a Coffee property called “Belle Air’ in St. Andrew. On
my grandfather’s marriage with Madle. Lubin he went back to Phila-
delphia and remained there for some years returning to this Island
about 1820 with his wife and children. After the death of Louis
Lubin my grandfather acquired “Belle Air” through his wife, she
being the sole surviving child and heiress of Louis Lubin. In the
early thirties he went to Martinique (for what purpose I am unable
to find out) and on his return, besides other plants, he brought the
Martinique or Banana-Pouyat, a plantain called the “Tiger Plan-
tain’ on account of its black spotted appearance, (this plantain is still
to be found in some parts of St. Andrew), and another Banana of a
small size with a thin pale yellow skin and of a luscious flavour, this
last it seems has entirely disappeared.

The first Martinique Banana was planted at “Belle Air” and the
first bunch of Bananas was sent to the then Agricuitural Society who
awarded a prize of a doubloon to my grandfather for introducing it
into the Island.

My grandfather died in 1857. I remember him distinctly as I was
then 13 or 14 years of age. He had often told me that it was he who
brought the Martinique Banana to Jamaica.

My mother who is alive and is 76 years old—and who married in
1848, my father Henri Pouyat, (the youngest son of Jean Frangois
Pouyat,) remembers also to have heard my grandfather say that it
was he who brought over our Banana (of commerce) from Martinique.

Iam unable to state whether he occupied any official position in
France, America or any of the French [slands but in Jamaica he held
no such position,

I am,
With kind regards,
Yours truly,
(S¢d.) Hy. F, Povyar.

157

Export.

The fruit trade between Jamaica and the United States, which is
now the most important industry in the Island, was started in 1869
by the efforts of Captain Bush, who after one or two experimental
ventures, loaded seven vessels with bananas from Port Antonio. Capt.
Baker afterwards went on with the work, and ten years later (1879)
the value of this fruit shipped was £32,895. By the end of the next
ten years (1889), owing to a subsidy of £5,000, granted by the Go-
vernment to the Atlas Steamship Company, it had increased to a value
of £252,114. At the end of the next ten years (1899), the value was
£468,580. In the year ending March, 1901, the number of bunches
exported was 8,248,485, of the value of £618,636, or about 33 per cent.
of the exports of the Colony, (excluding gold and bullion,)—these were
mainly shipped by the United Fruit Company, of which Capt. Baker
is President.

The distribution was as follows :—

Where Exported. Bunches. Value.
United Kingdom - 38,880 £2,916
United States 00 Ge0a,007 615,297
Canada a 2,513 188
Bermuda 2,365 fae
British West Indies 690 52
Cuba 80 6

8,248,485 £618,636

In the early part of this year (1901), a subsidised line of steamers,
(Messrs. Elder, Dempster & Co.) with specially fitted cool-air ch ambers,
eommenced running from Jamaica to England, mainly for the purpose
of carrying fruit.

Ome of these steamers leaves every fortnight and proceeds to Bris-
tol, whence the fruit is distributed to various centres in the United
Kingdom. Each steamer takes, on an average, about 20,000 bunches
of bananas in addition to other cargo. As the trade develops, larger
steamers will be employed, and one will leave each week.

CINCHONA BARK FROM JAMAICA.

In June last 290 Bags of Cinchona Bark from the Government
Plantations were sold in the London market, realising the sum of
£594 12s. ld. The total weight of bark was 25,613 Ibs., so that
the average price per lb. is about 52d.

The insurance, wharf charges, printing, advertising and brokerage
amounted to £32 0s. 3d.; the freight and charges to £32 1s. 2d.;
and eost of bags and earriage in Jamaica to £20 lls. 6d.

158

BANANA AS DIET IN TYPHOID CASES.

An American Doctor (Dr. Usery, of St. Louis), says the Liverpool
Journal of Commerce, has lately confirmed the previously stated belief
accepted in some medical quarters, in the value of the banana as a
food for typhoid patients. During the progress of this malady, the
use of solid food owing to the thinness of parts of the intestinal walls,
is attended with danger; but it is asserted that the banana is both
safe and beneficial, the stomach prictically absorbing the fruit owing
to itsnature. It contains only about 5 per cent. waste matter, 95 per
cent. possessing nutritive properties.

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
DEPARTMENT.

Liprary (Serials).

EUROPE,

British Isles.
Board of Agri., England, Leaflets 68 and 69. [Secty.]
Botanical Magazine, Aug. [Purchased,]
Chemist and Druggist, July 27. Aug 3,10,17. [Editor.]
Garden, Aug. 3,10,17. [Purchased. ]
Gardeners’ Chronicle, Aug. 10,17. [Purchased,]
International Sugar Journal, Aug. [Editor.]
Journal of Botany, Aug. [Purchased,]
Nature, July 25. Aug.1,8,15. |Purchased.]
Pharmaceutical Journal, July 27, Aug 3,10. 17.
Foreign Office Reports Annual Series June, July, 1901. .
Foreign Otlice Reports (Miscellaneous Series) June-July. 1901. Giclee
Colonial Reports—Annual—Nos. 322-325. 1901, ‘ ye
“ As Miscellaneous No. 16.

France. |
Sucrerie indigéne et coloniale, July 30. Aug. 6,13, 20. [Editor.]

Annales de ’1 Institute Colonial de Marseille, Vol. VIL. [Prof. E. Heckel.]
Fasc. 1, Le Tabac by Dr. L. Laurent.

Fasc. 2, Contribution 4 Vhistoire naturelle de quelques Gryllidae...

qui cause des ravages dans les plantations de café ..b y Dr. Bordas.

Germany.
Tropenpflanzer. Aug. ([Hditor. |

Switzerland
Bulletin de L’ Herbier Boissier No. 8. [Conservateur.]

ASIA.

India. .
Planting Opinion, July 6,13, 20,27. [EHditor.]
Proc. Agri. and Hort. Soc. of India, Jany., March, 1901. [Secretary. ]

Ceylon ;
Times of Ceylon. July 11,18, 25. Aug.1. [Hditor.]
Annals of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. June. [Director.]

OE a a

159

Java.
Proefstation, West Java, No. 52
Ditto East Java, No. 28

\ [ Director. ]
AUSTRALIA.
Queensland.
Queensland Agri. Journal. July. ([Sec. of Agri.]

AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope.
Agricultaral Journal, July 4,18. [Dept. of Agri.]

Natal. ,
Agri. Journal and Mining Record, July 5,19. (Dept. of Agri.]
Report on Natal Botanic Gardens, and Colonial Herbarium, Janry. 1st to
June 30th, 1900. [Curator.]

Central Africa.
C, African Times, June 15, [Editor.]
Wesr InpIEs.

Jamaica.
Journal, Jamaica Agri. Soc. Aug. [Secretary.]

Barbados.

Circular Note 4. Sweet Potato Worm
« Note 5. ‘Treatment of Sweet Potato
Worm
Manures and Leguminous Plants at Barbados |
Bee-Keeping in the W. Indies

[Comr. Imp. Dept. of Agri.]
for the West Indies.

British NortH AMERICA.

Montreal.
Pharmaceutical Journal, July. [Editor.]

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

Publications of the U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture. [Directors. |
Scientific Bureaus and Divisions.

The U.S. National Herbarium, Vol. VI. July, 1901. (Plant Life of Alabama.)

Experiment Stations.

Experiment Station Record, Vol. XII. No. 2. Vol, XIII. No. 1.

Arkansas. 66. (Oat Experiments)

Florida, 56 (The Cottony Cushion Seale) 67 (Top-working Pecans)

Kansas. 104 (Fall Seeding Alfalfa)

fowa. 47 (Noteson Vegetables) 48 (Dept. of Animal Husbandry) 49 (Mis-
cellaneous Insects) 50 (Insecticide Methods) 51 (Winter Wheat) 52 (Dairy
and Chemistry Dept) 54 (Grasses) 55 (Field Experiments) 57 (Exp. in
curing Cheese) 58 (Parturient Paralysis and the Schmidt Treatment.)

Michigan, 192 (Fertilizer Analysis)

Rhode Island. 79 (Analysis of Commr. Fertilizers.)

160

Vermont. Thirteenth Annual Report of the Agri. Exp. Station, 87 (Ana- -
lysis of Commr. Fertilizers Part V.)
Virginia. 111 (Animal Parasites. PartIV.) 112( Ditto. Part V.)
West Virginia. 70, (Spraying). 71, (Poultry Experiments.) 72 (Com-.
mercial Fertilizers.)
Botanical Studies, Minnesota. [Conway McMillan, State Botanist. ]
3 Gazette, Chicago, Aug. [Editor.]
Torrey Club Bull., Aug. [Editor. ]
The Forester, Aug. [ Publisher. ]
The Plant World. July. [Publisher.]

Liprary (Books).

Hame!-Smith (H.)
Cocoa Planting in the W. Indies. London, 8 vo, 1901. [Purchased.]

Ward (H. Marshall)
Disease in Plants, London, 8 vo. 1901. [Purchased. |

Bouant (Emile)
LeTabac. Culture & Industrie. Paris,8 vo, 1901. [ Purchased. ]

Jumelle (Henri)
Le Cacaoyer. Sa culture et son exploitations dans tons les pays de produc-

tions. Paris, 8 vo. 1901. Purchased. |

Bngler (A.)
Das Pflanzenreich. Regni vegetabilis conspectus. Monimiaceae, by Janet

Perkins & Ernest Gilg. Leipzig, 8 vo. 1901. [ Purchased, ]

SEEDS.
From G. 8S. Jenman, Esq., British Guiana—
Licuala grandis
PLANTS.
From Messers, Reasoner Bros. Florida—
Suckers of Porto Rico Pine-apple,

«> “Red Spanish =“
« «© Egyptian Queen “

[Issued 4th October, 1901. ]

New Series. NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER, 1901. Vol. VIII.
. Parts 11 & 12.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, JAMAICA,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT, BSc., F.LS.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.
qq“qg978 > 9a —

CONTENTS:

Pace.
Historical Notes ; 3 161
Some New Bananas ‘ : 179
Disease of Ginger in Jamaica ; 180
Nathaniel Wilson eet , , 182
Fumigation of Imported Plants 184
Additions and Contributions © = | 185

P RIC E—Sixpence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O,

KINGSTON, JAMAICA ;
GOVERNMENT Paintine Orrics, 79 Doxx:StRExT,’

1901 e

JAMAICA.

BULLETIN

OF THE

BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Vol. VIII

New Series.] NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER, 1901. Partsl1l1&12 12

HISTORICAL NOTES ON ECONOMIC PLANTS
IN JAMAICA.
By the Editor and W. Harris, F.L.S.
IV. Tue Manco.

The Mango is a native of the Hast Indies, but is naturalised or
cultivated in most tropical and sub-tropical countries. It is an ever-
green tree attaining a height of 30 to 40 feet, with a spreading, or
rounded head of dense foliage which, ina young state, is of various beauti-
ful rosy tints, purplish, &c., but finally it assumes a dark green hue,
giving the tree a rather sombre aspect. It isa handsome tree, but too
sturdy and low to be called stately. In the eirly morning the air is
perfumed with the delicious fragrance of the small flowers which are
produced in great profusion in branched panicles. It is now almost
impossible to think of Jamaica without its mango trees. They are
the principal feature in the landscape almost everywhere from seas
level up to 3,000 or 4,000 feet altitude.

To those who do not know the history of its comparatively recent
introduction, it would appear to form a part, and an important and
prominent part of the indigenous flora. Many of the old, scarred
monsters, with huge trunks and limbs, and spreading heads, look as
if they have braved the elements for a couple of centuries at leist, and
yet it is not 120 years since the first Mangoes were brought to Jamaica.

In 1782, Captain Marshall of His Majesty’s Ship ‘‘ Flora,” one of
Lord Rodney’s squadron, captured a French ship bound from Mauri-
tius to Haiti, and on board were found many plants ani seeds of
economic value, amongst thera being the Manzo, Cinnamon, and Jack-
fruit. The plants were all numbered, and No. 11. was the Mango
which has since become so famous. The ship was sent as a prize to
Jamaica, and Captain Marshall, “with Lord Rodney’s approbation”
deposited the collection of plants and seeds in tae garden of Mr. Hin-
ton Kast, afterwards for a time a public Botanic Garden, situated near
Gordon ‘Town, in the Parish of St. Andrew.

In 1794, Dr. Dancer had an advertisement in the Royal Gazette,
offering 18 plants of Mango for distribution, 6 for each county. The
Mango found a congenial home, and appears to have rapidly increased
in nambers and variety of kinds, for we real in Lunan’s “* Hortus Ja-
maicensis,” published in 1814, just 32 years after the tree was intro-
duced, that it had “become one of the commonest fruit trees in Ja-

162

maica, in a great;/number of varieties.” Even at this early date, we
are told by Lunan that “this fruit is very justly and generally es-
teemed wholesome and agreeable ; in some of the varieties it is indeed
delicious. When takon from the tree before they are fully ripe, they
make a good preserve, sweetmeat, or pickle; and, when brought to
table cooked in puddings or dumplings, have a near resemblance in
taste to apples. Hogs, as well as other animals, are very fond of this:
fruit, and in many places where they abound, are fed upon them. This

lant is easily raised from the seed, but does not bear transplanting
well, and will bear in three or four years; they bear abundantly, and
make a beautiful appearance both when in flower and in fruit, and.
thrive well in almost every situation.”

Varieties. In Macfayden’s “ Flora of Jamaica” published in 1837,
we learn that in Mr. East’s garden there was a large number of plants,
producing several varieties of this fruit. ‘‘ The rebeing a great num-
ber of plants producing several varieties of the fruit, they were regu-
larly numbered. Hence two of the most esteemed sorts have since
come to be known by the names of No. 11 and No. 82. The No. 11 is
a flat-sided green fruit, of a delicious aroma, and an agreeable sub-acid
taste. The No. 82 resembles it inform and fragrance, but is of a
yellow colour, and possess a more luscious sweetness. Besides these,
the following varieties may be noticed. 1. Carrot Mango, a large fruit,
with the pulp hard, and in taste, somewhat resembling the root which
gives it its designation. 2. The Papaw Mango, of the same size with
the last, but the pulp is juicy, and to the taste a luscious sweet. 3.
Yellow kidney-shaped Mango, a very good fruit. 4. Green kidney-
shaped Mango, a fruit of a luscious sweetness. 95. Tie-tie Manyo, so
named from the branches of the peduncle being long, and supporting
the fruit like a bunch of onions; rather an inferior fruit. 6. Plum
Mango, a small variety of the fruit and scarcely eatable. 7. The
Parrot Mango, an oval plump fruit, of a green colour with an erubes-
cent tinge when ripe, juicy, with a somewhat turpentine flavour, sub-
ject to be infected with maggots. 8. The Hard, or Turpentine Mango,
resemblirg the lest, but of a yellow colour, with the pulp hard, and
only fit for stock. 9. The Finger Mango, a long fruit resembling in
shape the human finger, of no value. 10. The Dwarf Mango, growing
in the upper mountains, size of a small plum, of no count as a fruit.”

No. 32, mentioned ebove, does not now appear to be known.

In the report on the Botanic Gardens for 1269 we find that through
the influence‘of Sir John Peter Grant, then Governor, two Ward’s
cases of grafted Mangoes arrived from India, vid Kew, the first case
with six varieties, in July, and the second in December with sixteen
varieties. Of the first, five are thriving admirably; cf the latter,
twelve are safe and in good ccndition. The first were unnamed, but
the latter consist of the following :—

Dalhogni Goa
Madame (introduced to India from Langera
the Mauritius)

Khyroapatty Soonderehaw
Bhadoorea D’Cruze’s Favourite
Bangalore A gabey

Madras : Bombay

el be

163

In the report for 1873, it is stated: ‘The numerous varieties of
Indian Mango, impo-ted in 1869, some of which now assume
the aspect of trees, are capible of extensive propagation by
grafting, and this will be resorted to next spring. Although the cli-
mate of Castleton is extremely favourable for the growth of these
plants, the reverse is the case so far as the production of fruit is con-
cerned, especially in the early stage of growth.”

In the next Report we find it stated: ‘“‘ New Mangoes—Last Spring
eighteen new mangoes were propagated by the process of inarching,
the allied system of grafting not having been yet successfully pur-
sued.” And in the Report for 1876-77: ‘Indian Mangoes—Two
dozen plants of the East [Indian Mangoes have been propagated this
season by inarching. They are worked on stocks of the common
forms, the union of the scion and the stock is accomplished in six or
eight weeks, and a further period of six weeks has to be allowed for
the gradual severing from the parent tree; unfortunately the trees oc-
cupy a low, wet piece of ground, on the level and within atmospheric
influence of the Wag Water River. The ordinary mangoes along the
lime of the river never, or very rarely, fruit; the Kast Indian trees
have flowered regularly fr several years, but only in a single instance
has the fruit set.”

The succeeding Annual Reports record that the Bombay Mangoes
were steadily propagated by inarching, and distributed ‘throughout
the island. In 1884, grafted plants of the following varieties were -
received from the Botanic Gardens, Martinique :—

D’Or Cedot

Julie Sabot

Amelie Croesus

Freycinet Poiget Dore
. Martin Jacot

Fifine Gabrielle

In his Annual Report for the year the Director writes: “It is
often asked, can nothing be done with the thousands of tons of man-
goes annually produced in this island and for the most part left to lie
on the ground and rot for want of using? The mango tree in all its
various forms has now been thoroughly naturalised in the island, and
since 1790 it has spread spontaneously and abundantly everywhere.
It especially affects land thrown out of cul:ivation and the sides of
roads and streams where its seeds are cast aside by men or animals,
and it practically re-clothes the hills and lower slopes with forest. It
thus enables the land to recuperate its powers under its abundant
shade-giving foliage.

“To the mango, possibly, more than any tree in the island (with
the exception, perhaps, of the logwood) is due the reforesting of our
denuded areas; and, as in consequence of the changes taking place in
the climate indigenous plants are unable to maintain their ground, it
is fortunate we possess in a vigorous and hardy exotic like the mango,
the means for counteracting the baneful effects of deforestation.

*“Astothe utilization of the fruit of the mango on a large scale,
there is a vast and practically untouched field here for the chemistry
of organic products. Some would suggest that the best varieties
might be canned or preserved for exportation, or made into preserves

4

164

and jellies; others that the grosser kinds might be utilized for the
production by distillation of useful spirits; others that a starch com-
pound might be prepared from the inner layers of the flesh next the
seed; whilst lastly, 1 would venture to suggest that taking into account
the present commercial value of glucose, the peculiar form of sugar
which exists in grapes and other fruits, the ripe mango might be
made to yield large quantities of this at a small expense.

“The fruit is very tender, and requires care and judgment in gather-
ing, as well as in the necessary packing. Gathered a little before they
are ripe, and kept in a cool storage there is no reason whatever to
doubt that mangoes might become as common in the markets of Lon-
don and New York as the pine-apple.”

In 1887, the late Mr. John McLean of Cold Spring, presented 4
plants and 26 seeds of a superior variety of mango from Mexico.
The plants did well, but the seeds were old and only two germinated.

In 1897, some of the mangoes from Martinique fruited, and one of
these is described as ‘‘a fine, fibreless mango, but not equal to the
Bombay mango introduced in 1869.”

In the Annual Report for 1898-99, it is stated :—‘‘ The inarching of
Bombay mangoes during the past year has been very successful, chiefly
owing to the raising of better kinds of stocks after the methods men-
tioned in last year’s Report. We have been able for the first time to
keep the supply of grafted plants equal to the demand which is still
small as these exquisite fruits are not well known, and we have a stock
on hand of about 50 grafted plants”

‘“‘Seeds of Mexican mangoes, supposed to be something very supe-
rior have been received and a nice stock of plants raised.” “ Several
plants of mangoes imported some years ago from Martinique have
fruited, one very freely, this is a fine fibreless mango with a yellow
skin and of good flavour, but not so good as the Bombay mango.”

In the Report for the succeeding year we find there were then
planted out at Hope Gardens 20 grafted plants from trees of the noted
Bombay mangoes imported by Sir John Peter Grant and sent to Cas-
tleton ; also the following from Prof. G. Landes, Martinique—2 Julie,
1 Martin.

One of the trees of the Mexican mango ripened fruits. ‘They were
of excellent quality, large, of good appearance and of excellent flavour.”

Colonel J. G. Griffith, the owner of Hodge’s Pen, near Black River,
imported at great expense, grafted plants of the “ Alfonse” or ‘‘ Afooz’”’
mango from India. This Mango is described in the Dictionary of the
Economic Preducts of India, as follows :—‘‘ This is the celebrated
Bombay mango, a lovely orange colour, with reddish flesh. It is
really not a Bombay fruit at all, but probably came originally from
Salem. Absurd prices are often paid for this fruit, as much as R60
per 100 being given dealers. Like most mangoes this should never
be eaten fresh, but should be gathered ripe from the tres and laid
upon a shelf, for a few days to fully mature. Weight 8 to 12 ozs.”

The number of varieties now in Jamaica is very large. and nearly
every district has its own particular kinds, Next to the imported
Alphonse, Bombay, and other kinds, the celebrated No. 11 is prime
favourite everywhere. It is a full, fine flavoured mango, but some-
what fibrous.

'? -_ 9 MPs ew ba Cage |

165

Although the mango grows freely everywhere, it is not a fruitful
tree in every district ; in the southern plains, and the low, dry lime-
stone hills it produces enormous crops year after year, and very often
two crops a year, the main crop from May to August, and the second
crop later in the year, The crop season varies slightly according to
locality and altitude, so that it is possible to get mangoes nearly all
the year round. In districts where the fruit is plentiful, the natives
to a large extent subsist on it during the season, and appear to suffer
no ill effects, but on the contrary look well and strong. As already
stated, all animals are exceedingly fond of the fruit. Horses will
leave a feed of corn to eat mangoes, and when being ridden over
mountain roads, horses and mules will stop to pick up a fallen fruit.
Cows collect under the trees in the pastures and scramble for the fruits
as they drop. In humid districts, and along the northern coast, the
tree is not at all fruitful except in very dry years, and in the wet dis-
tricts like Castleton it rarely fruits. This is probably due to the fact
that in such districts the trees are never at rest, but always in a state
of vigorous growth ; or it may be due to defective pollination ; trees
in humid localities often flower profusely but fail to set fruit, and
this would indicate that the pollen, owing to the excessive humidity, is
never in a suitable condition to be carried abut by insects or by the
wind. |

The export trade in mangoes is small, but is capable of enormous
expansion. In 1877, the number of fruits exported, was only 600.
valued at 15s. ; ten years later the number was 93,470, valued at
£116 6s.; at the end of the next ten years, 894 packages of this fruit
were exported, valued at £207; for the year ending March, 1900, the
number was 515 packages, valued at £143 Lis.

The fruit is considered by some to be best when picked fresh from
the trees, but of the choice East Indian varieties it is said that they
should be gathered when full, and laid on a shelf for a few days to
mature and ripen The taste for mangoes is readily acquired by Eu-
ropeans and Americans, and children of Europeans in the tropics eat
the fruit with keen relish as soon as they are able to eat anything.

Propagation—The choice varieties are propagated by inarching, and
the commoner kinds are grown from seeds. It is a curious fact that
the choice, delicate imported varieties are seldom produced quite true
from seeds, whilst the No. 11, Black Mango, Kidney Mango, etc.,
nearly always come true.

Budding has been successful, so far, only to a very limited extent,
at the Hope Gardens. Experiments in this direction will be continued
to determine several points that at present are not quite clear, 1e., the
best time of the year to bud, the age of the stocks and the best
variety of stock to use, &c.

‘The tree is remarkable for its vitality; it is quite a common prac-
tice to cut off all the limbs, and leave nothing but the stump of a large
tree that is giving too much shade for other crops, and yet, in a year

_ or two it will again have a fine head of branches and foliage.

The following special opinions on the subject of mangoes, have

_ been received :—

From Colonel J. G. E. Griffith, Hodges, Black River.
I am very pleased to place at your disposal any information I pos-

166

sess in re the Indian Mango, and having served 32 years in India,
mostly in the Bombay Presidency, I think I may be able to make it
fairly complete.

Since 1884 I have been struggling to introduce the two best kinds
of Indian mango into Jamaica, and have made three separate importa-
tions; the Ist., doubtful ; 2nd., a complete failure; 3rd, eight healthy
plants planted out at Hodges, and doing well, out of twelve started
from India, two dying and two sickly on voyage to London, the two
sickly ones dying out here. The eight planted out at Hodges are
healthy and showing good growths. The two kinds I have imported
are the famous Mazagon mangoes. (Mazagon is a suburb of the city
of Bombay) the ‘‘ Alphonse” also called by the natives of Bombay
** Afoos,” and the Peréé, the latter has a raspberry flavour. You can
eat both with a spoon, and there is not the slightest taste of turpen-
tine, neither are they a bit stringy, the stones are small and thin.

My reason for persevering, is, | believe there is money in it, as
a single fruit of Peréé or Alphonse used to fetch in Bombay, on
the spot, 6d. and sometimes ls. in 186, Europeans, Americans,
and Parsees eagerly buying them at those prices and people hundréds
of miles up country use to get them by rail for dinner parties and
balls, packed in ice - This was 15 years ago, and as: verything has
got dearer in India, Bombay especially, since then, these celebrated
mangoes are not likely to have decreased in value. The mango tree
flourishes and thrives at Hodges, quite as well asin Mazagon, Bombay,
it isa mere question of cultivation, hence my belief that there is
money to be made in cultivating these two particular kinds of mango,
shipping them to England and America.

Firminger says ‘‘the two principal localities in India where man-
goes of the finest description are’said to be produced are Mazagon at
Bombay, and Malda.”

Firminger’s book bears date of 1864, it may have been so then, but
people in Bombay Presidency, and others hundreds of miles north, con-
sider the Mazagon Mango the finest, otherwise they would not trouble
to get them up by rail, in ice, all that distance.” Still the Malda
Mango is an excellent one, but cultivation during the last 35 years,
the situation on the harbour, and the soil have combined to put the
Alphonse and Peeréé first, such is the consensus :f opinion generally in
India. They don’t thrive everywhere, thut is, they don’t produce the
same excellent fruit excepting in favoured localities and soils; they
appreciate the sea air.

Hodges has large Mango Groves: as they are situated on Negro
House Common and other spots where the slaves lived, there can
be little doubt they were planted by the slaves, indeed tradition says
so. Mango trees do so well at Hodges, I am confident the Alphonse
and Peeréé will be a success.

I firs imported the Alphonse (or Afooz) into Jamaica in 1886, 12
plants, only two survived, one is at Elim, St. Elizabeth, the other in
Hodges Yard; it is doubtful whether the graft has not been knocked
off the latter. Neither tree has yet fruited, possibly owing to want of
proper cultivation as a grafted mango should fruit in five years, 2nd
importation, 6 Alphonse Plants in 1899, none survived.

2rd Importation, in 1901, 6 Alphonse and 6 Peeréé plants sent from

167

Mazagon, Bombay last year via England, 8 plants now survive, planted
-out at Hodges, and doing well. Ifmy memory serves me rightly
five are Alphonse and three Peréé, but I am not certain.

The altitude of Hodges House is some 30 odd feet above sea level.

The plain from Fonthill to Pedro Savannah is more or less the same
with rising ground here and there.

The plain from Hodges Wharf on the sea up to the foot of Hodges
Mountain land on Louana Hills, is about 14 to 1? miles. Mangoes do
far best on the plain.

Mangoes are in season early at Hodges but it depends greatly on
the seasonand the rain. This year the fruit commenced to ripen early
in May and the fruit continues for some three months [ should put
down June as the month for the principal crop on the plains. During
dJast five years, highest temperature in Hodges House 93 degrees, low-
est (in front verandah) 59 degrees, mean temperature during day 87
& 88 degrees, at night 72 to 74 degrees.

From Mr. H. W. Griffith, Hodges, Black River.
The names of mangoes known round about Hodges district are:

Turpentine Greenskin
Milly Apple
Sweetie Kidney
Windsor Robin
Plum 3 No. 11.

Also one very large mango which weighs up to 2lbs each, but vul-
garly known as “John-crow-belly-full.” All these mangoes are very
stringy. A small place I have on the hills facing the sea, behind
Hodges and situated 780 feet above sea level, has one East Indian
Mango tree, which bears very large mangoes similar to Hope Gardens
East Indian Mango, not in the least bit stringy aud a delicious flavour,
slightly turpentiny if eaten too close to the skin.

At the Rectory they have a young mango tree, the mangoes much
resemble in shape the ones I have on the hills, ¢.e. they have a bump
in place of an indentation which the Jamaica mangoes have.

The Rectory mango, I believe, came from Brazil. One important
point in mangoes for exportation, I have noticed, and that is, if the
Hast Indian (stringless) mangoes are picked when full, but before they
turn yellow, and put on one side to ripen, when cut open and eaten
with a spoon, they are found to be slightly stringy, whereas if picked
off the trees when ripe, and kept for a day or so (before they go too
ripe) they are quite stringless; by this I fancy all mangoes exported
will be more or less i cient The rainfall here for the last twelve
years is as follows :—

Ins. Pts. Ins. Pts.

1890 50 . 64 1896 39 . 65

91 1 as 97 GHUsoES

92 5D. 26 98 48 . 81

93 62 . 99 99 67 . d3

94 63... 18 1900 is ee
95 40 8

‘The formation of soil here is mostly sand, clay, marl.
From Mr. W. Panton Forbes, Yardly Chase, Southfield.
This is one of the best mango districts ; bear heavily as a rule, they

168

begin to ripen in May and go on till September. The droughts in
this particular district seem to favour their bearing.

Our altitude is 1,550 feet, and we are $ miles from the sea, with
table land and good roads to the edge of the cliff.

Local names :—Robin Mango; No. Eleven; Green Skin; Turpen-
tine; Common; Yam; Cashew; Mammee; Black; Kidney (No. 1) ;.
Cotton; Beef; Hairy; Kidney (No. 2) Dardy William; Blue.

From Mr. 8. A. Shaw, Alligator Pond. |

The “Commcn Mango.” In the lowlands here this kind is much
preferred, a very delicious mango, round in shape, bright yellow, with
rosy cheeks.

2. “Robin.” This is rather flat in shape, ripens green, with a
shading of reddish brown; a most luscious mango, though rather

stringy, very soon after ripening spoils, getting black spots.

3. “No. Eleven.” This is generally known, I need give no descrip-
tion.

4, “Kidney.” I doubt not so called from the shape, ripens green,
fairly agreeable in flavour, not very stringy.

5. ‘Big Breast.” May be the same as ‘‘ Yam Mango, or “Beef |

Mango,” large size and round, rather mealy and when not quite ripe
cuts like a yam; nothing particular to recommend it in flavour.

6 “Turpentine.” Somewhat round, ripens green, strongly fla-

voured of turpentine.

7. “Scratch.” Oval in shape, ripens green, reddish brown cheeks,
scrapes the tongue and throat; only for pigs.

8. “Green Skin.” This I believe is known elsewhere as “ Black

Mango,” rather small in size; there are two descriptions in this dis-
trict, viz, one ripens green, the other pale yellow, a most delicious.

mango, very much esteemed. It has little or no string, but soon spoils.
9. “Cashew Mango.” Resembling in shape a Cashew nut, and
vely little larger, black and agreeably flavoured, sold by the quart. -
10. “Cow Tongue.” A long flat shaped, paie, greenish-yellow 3.
nothing special in flavour.
The approximate altitude for mangoes is 600 feet; over 1,000 feet
they do not bear fruit, or very rarely, the temperature I should say
about 60 degrees and the rainfall an average (7.e. this district) 16

inches for the year. Mangoes are generally in season from May to

August or September. .
‘ From Dr. James Neish, Old Harbour.

In answer to your inquiries relating to mangoes, I have to say
that I think I may include my own inquiries in the locality and

;

send you the result.
ORDER OF Mpnrit.

List 1. List 2.

Noll Miss Lucy ) growing at Dairs, St.
Black Mango Nelly Catherine, 500 ft.
Hairy Skin Pint of Wine, St. Catherine
Kidney No. 11
Plum Mango (avery smallkind Kidney

sold by measure) Hairy Skin. Common over a large.
Ladies Finger area of western St. Catherine,

Pint of Wine most abundant in St. John

a ee

169

List 3. Black
Busha’s Wife. Growing at Al- Beef (St. Catherine)
bion Estate St. Thomas. Name Nelly (Dairs, St. Catherine),
comes from the fact that the Stone
overseer’s wife in former days’ -

used to watch the tree to make List 5.
sure that the fruit was not Hairy Skin
stolen Black
No. 11 Robin
No. 11
List 4. Yam Mango
Robin (a mango growing in St. Plum (sold by the quart at 1§ to
Elizabeth) 3d.)
No. 11

I have found an almost universal preference given to the
and I have satisfied the curiosity of many of its admirers and consum-
ers by te!ling them how the name arose. The newly introduced man-
goes, as the Bombay from India, have not been cultivated here as yet.
The most abundant of all mangoes in this locality is the Hairy Skin.

It seems to grow at all elevations; in the peasants’ yard, at the
level of Old Harbour, and close to the seaside, and almost at sea level
-at Old Harbour Bay, and at below Barton’s 1,800 feet and under at
Marly Hill, 2,016 feet, and at Ballard’s Gate, (now corrupted into
Bella’s Gate) at 2,750 feet. It has thus a wide range and it seems to
grow equally well in the red ground or red soil derived from white
limestone rock tinged with ferric oxide, and the felspathic soils
. (richer in potash than the red ground) at Marly Hill, Ballard’s Gate
. and Coco Walk, down to the Bodles pen.

List No. 1 is my own, the others are those of friends who do not
give their names. My own opinion is that the Department would do
well to extend the cultivation of the Nelly, Miss Lucy, Robin, Pint of
Wine, and lastly, in this order of enumeration, but first in the esti-
mation of my friend and informant, the Busha’s wife So loud are
the praises I have heard of this mango, that I feel sure we owe a debt
of gratitude to the lady who took such watchful care of the tree and.
its choice fruit.

The season lasts from June to September and early October. It is not
uncommon for a tree to bear two and even three crops of fruit in the
season. ‘The first crop may grow on a particular side of the tree and
be limited to this aspect and division of the branches; the second and
third crops are more likely to be produced on those parts of the tree
which did not bloom at the period when the first crop was being
formed.

The year 1901, must be recorded as a famous year in regard to man-
goes. ‘There was an early bloom of very profuse character. The pro-
longed rains of June and early July have helped on the growth of the
fruit, and in the elevated, cultivated lands the growth this season is.
simply enormous, and the crop has sufficed mainly for the nourish-
ment of a large impoverished population in St. John. .

On the 12th of July I made an extensive journey of 22 miles on
the main and parochial roads of St. Catherine ; mangoes everywhere,
-mangoes in the hands of children, women and men; head loads, ham-

170

per loads and cart loads, all mangoes, all got ready for the morrow’s
market on Saturday. The coachman stopped my vehicle for luncheon
under the cool shade of a noble mango tree. Mangoes strewed the
roadside at the place all about (we were then some 13 miles distant
from Spanish Town, near to the Point Hill Road) and my man helped
himself to some really fine and handsome hairy skin, rather than allow
them to rot on the ground. In many places, in fact, decayed man-
goes were to be seen, a sign of their superabundance.

From Mr. C. W. Treleaven, The Bogue, Balaclava.

I was at Golden Grove Estate in Hanover from Monday and re-
turned yesterday. There are lots of trees (mango) on that estate, but
none of them are bearing at present, and very seldom do. The eleva-
tion is from about 750 to 1,000 feet. On my way home yesterday I
passed Ramble, Knockalva, Barneyside, Woodstock, New Savannah
and Newmarket. There were plenty of mango trees with magnifi-
cent foliage but notany fruit When I got below Newmarket, (Black
River side) the trees began to show a little fruit, and bore heavier as

one got farther on, until reaching the lowland where the trees were.

bearing very heavily indeed. So far as I have seen, places of over or
near 1,000 feet, with a large rainfall do not seem so suitable for man-
goes as places of the same elevation, but with less rain: the higher
parts of St. Elizabeth and Manchester, for instance. Here, at Bogue,
we always have a good crop of mangoes, provided we do not get any
or very little rain when the blossom is setting, but rain at that time
seems fatal. This year, in this district, the mangoes are bearing very
heavily. As regards names, except in the case of No. 11 and one or
two others, they differ, I fancy, in different localities; the undermen-
tioned are all that I know of, and placed so far as I know, in order of
quality. ,

Ordinary No. 11, Robin Mango, Guinea Mango, sometimes called
Jenny, Milk Mango, Sweet Mango, and Hog Mango. There is also
an immense mango, which is scarce, and in this district goes by the
name of “John Bellyful.”

From Hon. Oscar Marescaux, Cherry Garden.

My Mango came from Castleton, and was one of the first inarched
’ from the trees imported from India by Sir John Peter Grant. I was
given four varieties, but one of the plants died when quite young,
another was cut down during one of my absences from the Island, and
the third which has developed into a fine large tree has never borne
any fruit, though this year it had one spike of blossoms none of which
fructified. The fourth and last is the tree in question, a very hand-
some one, with branches down to the ground and which bore two dis-
tinct crops this year.

It may interest you to know that there is at Cherry Garden besides,
numerous No. 11 and other common mangoes, the “Sophy,” which
bears late in the season (not ripe yet) and is very aromatic, quite dis-
tinct from the ordinary sorts, and the ‘‘ Simon” mango, an early
fruiter, without turpentine or filaments, which is nauch prized; I am
sorry to say that the only tree I have is very old and has little vigour.
From Martinique I have imported and planted out a dozen ‘Grafted
Mangoes,” which are only now coming into bearing.

171

From Mr. Josepn Shore, Cinnamon Hill, Little River.

This isa very dry locality with only 39 inches average rainfall,
and only the hardy kinds of mango thrive here, these being also the
coarsest kinds, viz., Black (smallish, covered with black spots, very
sweet and free from worms.) Kidney (medium size, reddish yellow,
very subject to worms, kidney-shaped) Round-point and Long-point
(or stringy mango, the former smaller than the latter, full of fibres
yellow colour, the commonest mango about here, generally free from
worms.) These are the varieties about here ; further inland and in the
Queen of Spain’s Valley where the rainfall is 40 to 60 inches there are
some more kinds such as No. 11 (the best, very seldom found in pas-
tures but mostly in settler’s lands and in gardens) Bastard No. 11 (like
the former kind in shape, but of inferior quality and subject to worms,
blacker in colour) Rosy-cheeked mango, or Nubby mango, (a small
very sweet and clean mango, bright red shade with green.) Mammee
mango (large, coarse, of rather nutty flavour.) Sugar Mango (very
large, very sweet, rough brownish black skin, found in large groves in
many estates and pens.) Saltfish Mango very like the Sugar kind in
appearance, very large, with a peculiar fishy odour when cut.) Tur-
pentine (a coarse strong flavoured mango, the twigs from which the
fruit is pulled having a strong turpentine smell.

These are all the kinds usually to be found, of course there are some
others that are grown in gardens that have fancy names, but seem to
be only wild mangoes transformed by cultivation, and of one or other
of the sorts named above. The commonest of all is the Stringy or
Long Point.

As to the season, I have found from careful observation that in this
district mangoes bear once in !8 months, one year in June or July,
the next in December, of course the weather conditions may make a
difference of a month in bearing, but these are the usual seasons, July
and December. Sometimes there may bea crop in July and another
in December of the same year, but not from the same trees, and if there
is a heavy crop at one time there may be no crop at all ora very small
one the next period. I have seen trees bear once in twelve months,
but after unusually good weather conditions, the usual period is once
in 18 months.

The mango season usually lasts two months, but is variable accord-
ing to the weather The average altitude of the distri:t is about 350
feet, but the best mangoes grow a little higher, say at 600 to 800 feet,
the commoner kinds seeming to thrive better at the lower levels.

Mango trees generally blossom and bear heavily in seasons of great
drought, not asa rule giving much of a crop in a seasonable year.
Hence the negro saying that a heavy mango blossoming means hard
times.

From Mr. Dermot O. Kelly-Lawson, Hampden Estate, Hampden,

No. 11, is our best mango, then in order of merit, come, Black or
Sugar mango. Round Point of which there are several sorts, then Long
Point, called Hog mango, Turpentine, and a small mango called
Guinea Chick.

The Queen of Spain’s Valley which is my district has an altitude of
about 600 feet. Temperature averages in shade about 82 to 85 Faren-
heit during the day, 75 to 80 at night and early morning, that is at

172

this time of year but Dec, Jan. and Feb., I have seen it at 56 in morn
ing early, and 75 during the day. Heavy fogs cover the land at day-
break usually and the dew is heavy.

Rainfall averages about 52 inches per annum, minimum about 40
inches, maximum about 65 inches; May and October are our two
seasonable months, but the May rainfall sometimes runs into June and
the October rains continue through November and to a lesser extent
into Dec. and Jan.

The prevailing idea is, that ifa heavy rainfall meets the mango
trees when in blossom, no fruit sets and consequently no crop for that
year, also that the heavy / ‘ogs we have injure the setting fruit buds, I
cannot vouch for this, but itis only every 4¢/ or 5th year that mangoes
bear plentifully in the Queen of Spain’s Valley, and it is usually in a
very dry year that they do. Number Eleven Mangoes come in first,
then Black or Sugar, lastly “ Round Point” which by the way is often
called Stringy mango.

From Mr. J. O. Mason, Orange Bay.

Ist, Number Eleven. This mango 1s highly esteemed.

2nd, Black Mango otherwise called Greengage, good.

drd, Mammy otherwise called Yam Mango,

4tn, Round or common, also culled “Salt fish’’

5th, Parrot

6th, Turpentine, acid in flavour.

7th, Long point mango.

éth, Kidney.

9th, Miss Guskett, a large thick skin, coarse in eating: this is what
the people in the district call it. Several of these mangoes grow in
different parts of the Island, especially on the north-side. They grow
from ‘sea level” to one thousand feet. The temperature varies from
75 to 90 degrees.

Mangoes start to blossom in February and to ripen in May, and
generally last till August and September.

From Mr. R. H. Eluworthy, Fair Prospect, Priestman’s River.

We have only two varieties of Mango o» this property, the No. 11
and the Common or Stringy The property borders on the sea and
runs back into the hills, and they grow from the level to about 200
or 3800 feet elevation (here) but from my own experience mangoe
grow at almost the highest elevations.

Rainfall ‘here for the last 3 years, averaged 116 inches.

Two other varieties, viz., Kiduey and Black mangoes.

From ir. J. Thompson Palache, Clocer, Mandeville.

The varieties are very numerous and have a number of local names.

Ist. Lhe No. 11, confine i almost entirely to the Porus district of this
Parish, and very rarely found in any other part of the Parish, consi-

dered the best Mango we have, and in my journeyings all over the .

island have never found any N umber 11 equal to them; the next in
approach to the Porus number 11 being those found in the vicinity of
Montego Bay.

No. 2. The Robin, principally found in the Prospect district of St.
Elizabeth, on the Parlor of Manchester; greenskin, very luscious,
and by some preferred to the No. 11, [have never seen it in any other
part of the Island.

,
SS eee

EE ae eer ee a ee re ee wt oe A

Lats

173

No. 3. The Black mango, called by some Greengage, green skin,
flesh the colour of Greengage Jam. ‘This mango I have come across
in all parts of the Island.

No. 4. Yam Mango, largest variety, pale, yellow flesh, almost string-
less, found in all parts of the Island.

No. 5. Turpentine, pale flesh, strong turpentine flavour, found in all
parts of the Island and in a very great number of varieties.

No. 6. Common Yellow Mango most plentiful in all parts of the
Island.

No. 7. Kidney Mango, kidney shaped, delicate, pale yellow flesh,
almost stringless, but develops insects very speedily in the ripe state
and therefore only regarded as pig feed.

On almost every property in this Parish there is some specific va-
riety with a special nam» differing from the others, evidently hybrids
of the above varieties that would take some time to collect and ar-
range.

‘4 fact worthy of notice is, that for about 40 years, the mangoes
have ceased to bear in the mountains of Manchester, and it is only in
the lowlands that we can get mangoes; they do not bear at any ele-
vation above 700 feet. When I was child, they used to bear just as
heavily as they now do in the lowlands. I have numbered varieties
in the order that I think they are esteemed. The season begins here
in May, and lasts until the early part of August, although there are
always some early ones to be hadin March or April, and some
late ones after August. They are always most plentiful in June. A
mango we had about Chapelton in Clarendon I never saw anywhere
else, called the Plum Mango, it was about the size of a Hog Plum,
ripened yellow, and the flesh was egg-coloured, no string, and very
small, flat seed and most delicious flavour; I think this variety would
be worth looking after and propagating, now that our mangoes are
likely to be exported.

From Mr. George Nash, Mandeville.

The mountains of Manchester are not famed for mangoes, only after
severe drought can a few be found, and then of poor quality. The
trees here are usually cut down and used with other wood in making
lime kilns.

A large number of mangoes are sold throughout the Parish, and
are brought to market on head or in hampers on donkeys; they come
from Porus and from the Savannah districts of St. Elizabeth, and low
down on the range of the ‘‘ Carpenter Mountains.” .

Mountain mangoes are chiefly fed to pigs, they have rough and

thick skins, dark in colour, poor in flavour, and some descriptions are

full of worms.

The mango known as the “ Robin” grows chiefly on the Savannahs;
a few are now coming from Porus. They are large, with a distinct
and pleasant rich flavour, they ripen green, at timesa yellowish green,
and some with a tint of red flushed on each cheek; this mango is not
sold in Kingston, so I conclude not grown in St. Andrew.

The ‘‘ Number Eleven,” a few are now coming from the Savannahs,

the larger number are from Porus; the description from the Savan-

nahs are sweet to the seed, not so with the Porus description, this be-

comes acid near the seed, the difference is due to too great moisture,

174

they have a fine skin, ripen yellow, with a stringy but not unpleasant
scent, and if properly cultivated, would be free of strings.

Green Skin Mango ripens green, some with a yellow tint, is free of
string, with a distinct and pleasant flavour. The Green Skin in King-
ston is known by the name of “ Black Mango,” it grows in the town
and is brought in from the surrounding country; this has a very
slight flavour of turpentine. (In fact, I think all descriptions have
in a greater or less degree )

There are the Common, Yellow, Kidney, Beef, Yam, Apple, Go ose,
Turpentine, Burke ; all these I consider inferior to those I place in
order of merit.

The altitude for mangoes ranges, I should think, from sea level to
about 800 feet; it may be higher in some districts, due to location,
soil, &c.

From Mr. 8. T. Scharschmidt, Hanbury, Shooters Hill.

Order of merit :—

1. Number 11 Mango

2. Robin J

3. Green “ stringless

4, Yam ef “fleshy and compact, very sweet
might do well for shipment.

5. Turpentine es

6. Common or hairy ‘

7. Kidney or water ‘‘ poor description

1, 4, 5, 6, & 7 grow about my district, but only bear well in very
dry years.
My district is about 1,500 ft. above sea-level with an average rain-
fall of 100 i: ches Too much for mangoes.
Mangoes bear well from sea level to 1,000 ft. and at high elevations
where the rainfall is not great.
The usual season for mangoes is from Ist May toend July.
Sometime mangoes may be got in warm dry places at about Christ-
mas time, but this is an off crop.
From Mr. Chas. L. A. Rennalls, Mavis Bank.
The names of the mangoes are arranged in order of merit.
Name. Season. a>!
1. Beef Mango, July to October, belongs especially to this district,
at least the best specimens of this

variety.
2. No.11 °* June to August, Common in nearly all parts of the
; island.
o-sdiairy \ * 4 se
4. Yam 73 73 'T3
5 Black .“ see =
6/ijons,~ * 3.) This is like a small East Indian

mango in shape and flavour.
There are many other varieties some of which are not obtainable in
large quantities.
Some, however, are abundant, for instance a roundish mango, small
sized, of good flavour, commonly called Bastard No. 11.
The Beef mango is by far the best variety grown in this district.
The best specimens of this variety are obtained at an elevation of

175

from 2,000 to 3,000 feet. The annual mean temperature is about 67
degrees F, Average rainfall from 90 to 100 inches.
From Mr. W. Jekyll, Robertsfield, Port Royal Mountains.

Altitude 1,500-2,500 feet.

Minimum observed indoor temperature 63 degrees F.

Maximum % “ 87 ao elh £4

Mid June to mid September the thick of the crop

The first spell of heavy wet makes all the mangoes drop.

Headlam esteems mangoes in the following order.

1. Supporter, a single tree at Union, now dead, it was very sweet,
no string, plenty juice, red, middling size, middling seed.

2. Cowstone, green to yellow, rather large, delicious smell, hard, not
juicy, fine, ie. not ropy, not fibrous (hereafter fine means flesh
without fibre; ropy means flesh with fibre); good flavour, seed moderate
size, thick skin.

3. Grandy. Blue (meaning always the colour of the healthy native
coffee leaf) small, rather bigger than Black mango, round, very
geod and sweet, juicy, very thin, flat sed.

4, Kidney, red, all sizes, hard skin, long, very sweet, juicy, fine,
plenty of meat, seed flat and long.

5. No. 11. Very good in some places, but are liable to maggot.

6. Duckanoo, ‘blue, big enough, round, very sweet, enough juice,
fine.

7. Yam, green and red, big and plenty of flesh, kidney shape, hard,
fine, fair flavour.

8. Black, blue, round, thin, tender skin, sweet, juicy, the smallest
of the mangoes.

9. Parrot, green and red, long, thick skin, very good in some
places, others full of maggots, distinguished by its large and conspi-
cuous red nipple or lumps, hard skin, though not as hard as kidney,
very sweet, plenty juice, fine, plenty meat, small seed.

10. Hairy, yellow with red cheek on the sunny side, inclining to be
round, thin skin, but not tender, like Black mango, good flavour,
juicy, moderate size (all kinds appear very variable in respect to size,
sometimes Black mangoes are quite big) ropy, would otherwise be ex-
eellent, seed rather large.

11. Turpentine, greenish, small, long, juice plenty, sweet, strong
smell.

12. Hog, thick at the stem end, tapering suddenly, very juicy and
not sweet, fine.

13. Flatside or Beef, red, yellow, greenish, fine (v. definition under
Cowstone) coarse flavour, very large, plenty of meat.

Funny is the name given to all other kinds,

Levi Parkes’ selection in order of merit, same district :—

B No ii.

2. Black.

3. Cowstone.

4. Grandy, no rope, very big and juicy.

5. Hairy and Supporter.

6. Grandfather, not the same as Grandy, only one tree of it on
Stewart’s land, lining at the top with mine: big tree, big fruit

7. Parrot} §

176

8. Kidney.

9. Turpentine

10. Yam.

1]. Beef or Flatside.

I agree more with Levi’s selection than Headlam’s placing.

Ist class No. 11 and Cowstone (both scarce)
2nd =“ Hairy, Black Yam (the first two are our commonest ‘kinds)
Lowest “ Flatside or Beef (common)

I do not know at all Grandy, Supporter, Turpentine, Hoz, Grand-
father, and I am too slightly acquainted with Kidney, Parrot, Duck- -
anoo, to offer an opinion on their merits.

Mangoes are so much better eaten out of doors, that no test of
merit is valid unless comparison is made between kinds all eaten out
of doors or all eaten indoors.

Then kinds of the same name vary; Levi calls Supporter a rather
improved kind of Hairy, whichis quite different to Headlam’s Supporter.
Colouragain varies much according to greater or less exposure to sun.

From Mr. L. Tate, Shaftston, Bluefields.

My district is a very poor one for good mangoes; there are a great
many varieties grown, but all of the common sorts, and as a rule they ©
are very much troubled by worms. The finest mangoes grown in the
district is a variety of Pearl mango, it is of fine size, with a beautiful
red and yellow bloom, not very rich, but with thick flesh ; the tree is
on Mount Edgecombe, the property of the Hon. C. B Vickers, who
has also on the same property an Kast Indian variety grown from
a plant procured (as I understand) from His Excellency sir John Peter
Grant, when Governor of the island. Beyond these two varieties and
the several varieties that I procured from Hope, some of which have
fruited this year for the first time, we have the Common or Bunchy
mango, which is a very coarse variety and full of fibre. |

The ‘‘ Dunkeld” or ‘‘ Greengage” which I think is the same descrip-
tion known in some parts as the “ Black mango,” a very delicate and
delicious little mango, to be enjoyed must be eaten the same day it is
taken off the tree.

The Long or Kidney mango of fair size, flesh very rich and creamy
but in nine cases out of ten it is wormy, and is consequently not ap-
preciated.

The Bees box mango of fair size with plenty of flesh and fine look-
ing, but absolutely without flavour.

The Mammee or Yam mango.

There are one or two other varieties which I occasionally meet with
but do not know their names, but they are not of any special fine
quality. The mangoes are produced from the flat by the sea shore
quite to the tops of the mountains. This property is about five hun-
dred feet above the level of the sea, and the rainfall is fairly good.
I have now growing several varieties of your Hast Indian mango,
grafted plants as well as seedling plants of different varieties that I
obtained from different places. ‘The Mango season starts in June and
continue for about two anda half months. The rainfall on this pro-
perty for the past two years is as follows :—

189 aos 134 inches, 42 parts
1900 eee pee. $F a

177

From Hon. Chas. B. Vickers, Mt. Hdgecombe, Bluefields.

I cannot give any particulars as to the name or origin of this tree.
It stands in a guinea grass pasture about a mile from the house,
and though mango trees abound oa this property and in the neigh-
bourhood, it is the only one of its kind. The negroes call it the
“Beef” mango. My late brother William told me, that a Manchester
(Ja.) visitor of his said he knew the Mango and called it “ Bessy or
Sally So and So” giving the name which I have forgotten, I had sent
my brother, as usual, some of them.

The tree is rather lofty fora mango and does not spread much.
It is getting old and I should very much like to have plants of the

kind for myself and the country generally.
- ‘The’planted seeds do not give the same good mango.

Iam equally in the dark as to the introduction of mangoes into
Westmoreland. I have a flourishing tree of the Bombay mango, a
plant which Sir J. P. Grant sent to my said brother.

THE SHIPPING OF MANGOES AND THE REASON FOR THEIR ABSENCE IN
THE MARKETS oF THE UNITED STATES.
By Jonn W. Harsupercer, Pu. D., Philadelphia

The traveller from temperate countries in first visiting the tropics
is naturally much impressed with the large number of new and un-
tried fruits which he meets with on every hand. He tests them all,
and after his experimentation has gone on for some time, he generally
reaches some conclusion as to those fruits which suit his fancy best.
Almost universally, the mango is chosen as one of the most desirable
of the ‘new’ fruits tried. If this is so, why do we not find the mango
for sale in the fruit stores, markets, grocery stores and fruit stands of
the cities and towns of the United States? Itis due, one reasons, if
not familiar with the facts, to the imperfect or decayed condition of
the mangoes when they reach the northern ports of consumption. Is
this so, or is the scarcity of this delicious tropical product due to the
lack of energy and business capacity on the part of tropical agricul-
turists ?

This article is written as in part an answer to the above questions,
and is based upon actual experiment—the writer having recently
visited Haiti and Jamaica on a botanical excursion A little history
will be of some help in this discussion. According to the Pomologist
of the United States Department of Agriculture (Bulletin 1, Division
of Pomology): ‘‘ No fruit stood higher in the popular esteem of peo-
ple in parts of South Florida than the Mango. Woaen the disastrous
freeze of January, 1885 occurred, every, or almost every tree north of
Fort Myers was destroyed. In 1884, 126,968 mangoes were shipped
from Jamaica to the United States and brought $900. In their eighth
year from seed two Florida trees bore 19,000 fruits. Some of these
fruits weighed a pound. Mangoes were shipped to Chicago and
brought 60 cents a dozen.” So much for the history of the first in-
troduction of the mango, as a fruit, into the markets of the United
States.

The experiment to be described was conducted by the writer during
his return from Port Antonio, Jamaica by steam2r to New York, and
thence by rail to his home in Philadelphia. A number of different

178

sorts of tropical fruits were bought by special arrangements on Mon-
day July 22,1901. The list of picked fruits, &., as packed for ship-

ment, comprised plantains, pine apples, oranges, limes, mammee-apples,

yams, breadfruits, guava, papaws, sour-sops and manges. In one box,

or crate, no especial care was taken in the packing—all of the above-
named fruits, &c., being nailed up together for transportation. In

another box, the mangoes were each wrapped in a piece of newspaper,
and carefully packed away in a rather close and partially ventilated
case. Two dozen, or more of these fruits in the green state were thus.
shipped, along with the othersto Philadelphia. An inspection of the
open, well-ventilated crate, when two days out at sea, revealed the
total collapse of the breadfruits and the sour-sops, which had be-
come soft and mushy, and were consequently thrown over board.

The other fruits carried well—the mangoes best of all. Those
mangoes packed in the open box were all more or less in a mel-
low condition, while those in the closer box, (wrapped with paper)
were firm and sound, although fully ripe. In all cases the fruits of
the common sort, ‘ the turpentine mango,’ were found to have changed.
from the green of unripeness to to the golden orange of the fully ripe
mango. Ten days elapsed before the boxes were opened, so that the test
made fully establishes the possibillity of shipping mangoes to the lar-.
ger cities of the American Republic. It should be borne in mind,
that the test was asevere one Without a doubt, the mangoes had.
been collected the Saturday before the writer sailed, July 20th, and.
kept over Sunday until Monday, when they were bought and packed.
The steamer sailed from Jamaica Tuesday afternoon, July 23rd, and.
reached New York Monday morning, July 29th, where the boxes were
expressed to Philadelphia, reaching the home of the writer on Tuesday
afternoon, July 80th. The last mango was eaten on Sunday, August.
4th, so that fully fifteen days had elapsed from the time of gathering
until the date of final consumption.

The writer has no doubt, that a variety of mango can be found, or
selected, which will carry even better than the ordinary kinds sold by
the negro women in the markets of Jamaica. From informationgleaned.
from Mr. William Fawcett, Director of the Botanic Gardens, and trom.
Mons. Charles Patin, Consul General of Belgium, to Colombia, the.
writer believes that the finer races of mango are not known in culti-
vation in Jamaica, but are only to be found in experimental grounds.
and in botanic gardens. He knows that several such varieties are
now under observation at Hope Gardens near Kingston.

Two elements are, therefore, needed to make the cultivation of
mangoes, a profitable undertaking for the people of Jamaica, who
sorely need at this time a diversification of their industries. The
first thing necessary, as suggested above, is a suitable variety of mango
—one that has little fibrous material attached to its seed, one that
will carry well and last a long time, and one which is juicy and pos-
sesses that delicious turpentiny flavour. The second requisite is a com-
pany to push the cultivation in Jamaica, and who will see to its ad-
vertisement and general introduction into the markets of the United
States.

University of Pensylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.

179
SOME NEW BANANAS.

: Nores By A CORRESPONDENT.

The old Martinique is so general a favourite that it is doubtful
whether any other variety will take its place, at least in the estimation
of the Jamaica public. Nevertheless, when there came from th: Hast
reports concerning Bananas of surpassing excellence, it appeared to
be worth while to make trial of some of the kinds specially recom-
mended. Suckers of these were put in the Gardens at Hope and are
now fruiting, and here is our judgment upon some which have lately
come in :—

1. Cinerea (Saharanpur).—At its best this is a good kind and hasa
flavour of apple. There is, however, about it a suspicion of staininess
as it is called, an astringent acidity which leives an unpleasant r ugh-
ness on the tongue. In a finger which is thoroughly ripe this stain-
iness almost, if not quite, disappears, and in this condition it is very
good. Its next best stage is the one just before maturity. Over-ripe
it is not worth eating, nor is it good cooked, the astringent property
giving it a disagreeable taste ;— altogether not likely to be suitable
for market purposes. It is much less sweet than Martinique which
may recommend it to some people.

2. The pretty little Almeido is unquestionably excellent and should
be popular with those who like a dainty fruit. The fingers are only
three inches long, rather wide for their length and well shaped. It
has a fine flavour, and the small hands look very pretty in the’ dish.

3. Kudjo Hudang.—This has a reddish skin. It seems to be want-
ing in flavour and the texture is disagreeably soapy, but the fruit was
over-ripe and in this condition it is difficult to judge it fairly. Mar-
tiniques when too ripe for eating are excellent cooked, but this Kudjo
did not prove so. It was still soapy and flavourless,

4. Red Banana.—This has peculiarly thick fingers. It was in the
best order when tasted and is evidently not a good kind, soapy again
in texture and flavourless,— equally poor when roasted.

It should be remembered that opinions expressed, as these are, by
reference to a single bunch cannot be entirely relied upon. It strikes
us however that Nos. 3 and 4 are certainly not worth growing and
that No. 1 is doubtful. No. 2 should be popular if it can be brought
to the dining-tables of the rich in other conutries when fruit. is scarce
and there should be some demand for it here.

d. Pisang Kelat from Singapore is a small thick fingered-variety with
a speckled skin which in an apple would justify the expectation of fine
flavour This however it does not possess. It is best dead-ripe but even
then is not very good, and in its earlier stages it has an unpleasant
consistency, a kind of flabbiness suggestive of raw meat which is
somewhat repulsive. Altogether not a desirable kind if the sample is
a fair average one.

6. M. rubra does not substantially differ, even if it differs at all, from
the Red reported upon above. It has a coarse flavour and the same
sliminess of flesh It is not even good roasted.

7. Three fingers of Frog or vmugosent by a correspondent look and
taste like the Cuban Plantain. oiled or roasted in the green state it
is good and floury. When ripe it is only moderately good and would

180

not be marketable. It has a curious loose jacket which is also
characteristic of the Cuban Plantain. If it is the same thing, and
this could only be ascertained by seeing it growing, it is certainly not
worth cultivating.

DISEASE OF GINGER IN JAMAICA.
From the Superintendent Hope Gardens, Jamaica, to the Commissioner
Imperial Dept. of Agriculture, Barbados.
21st Oct., 1901.

I send by this mail a couple of roots of Ginger affected by the di-
sease known as “ black rot.” I brought the plants a few days ago from
the Ginger district on the borders of the parishes of Trelawny, St.
Ann, Manchester and Clarendon. |

The disease is well known, and affected plants are easily detected.
The symptoms are—sickly-yellow foliage, stem black and decaying.
The rhizome of such a plant will also be found to be black and decaying.

The growers carefully dig up affected plants, and the apparently
healthy plants next to them in the same row, and destroy them; they
also turn up the soil in which the plants were growing, exposing it to
the sun, and thus check the spread of the disease. If the disease is
neglected, it spreads rapidly, and soon destroys a whole patch of Ginger.

I was told of another disease that sometimes appears in the same
district. It is known as “cork rot,” and cannot be detected till the
crop is ready for gathering. The growth of the plants is not checked
in any way, but when the rhizomes are dug they are found to be of
cork-like texture, without substance, and of no value.

My informant told me that three years ago, out of a crop which
was estimated to yield 50 to 60 barrels of good Ginger he only got a
little over 9 barrels of rhizomes. that were not diseased, the remainder
of the crop having been destroyed by “ cork rot.”

If the material sent is not sufficient for purposes of examination by
Mr. Howard, I would try and get some more from the same district,
and perhaps he would prefer to have the plants in a fresh, or moist
state, instead of being dried. W. Harris.

Imperial Agricultural Department for the West Indies
Barbados, 28 10. 01.
Dear Mr. Harris, .

I enclose a Memorandum on the specimens of diseased ginger by
Mr. Howard, to whom they were referred for examination.

I trust you will be able to carry out the sug%ésted experiment in
which the yields on contiguous acre or half-acre plots in which the
rhizomes used for planting have been treated with Bordeaux mixture
in the one case, and untreated in the other, are compared and report
the results to this Department in due course. It would of course be ©
best if the yields are expressed in pounds or hundred weights per acre,
but if this is impracticable, it could be given in barrels.

With kind regards, believe me,
Yours sincerely, D. Morris,
Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies.
W. Harris, Esq., F.L.S., :

Superintendent of Hope Gardeus, Jamaica.

——

181

Report on the ‘‘Black rot” disease of Ginger from Jamaioa.

The rhizomes show dark areas which contain the mycelium ofa
fungus in which numerous black chlamydospores are produced, fre-
quently in chains. I have placed some of the material in a moist
chamber in the hope of getting some more definite spore formation.
The mode of formation of the chlamydospores resembles that seen in
Wakker’s Allantospora radiicola which causes a root disease of the
sugar cane in Jaya, and in other fungi which attack plants under-

.ground

It is impossible to say whether the fungus in the old rhizomes is
the cause of the disease or not. A more definite opinidn could be
given if specimen of the roots and rhizomes of plants in which this
disease is just showing itself could be examined. It is hoped that it -
will be possible to collect and forward such specimens which should be
placed in methylated spirit‘as soon as the plants are lifted

The fungoid diseases of Ginger do not seem to have been investi-
gated A wilting disease of Ginger occurs here and in St Lucia but
“ black-row” and “ cork-rot” do not seem to be common. I hope Mr.
Harris will be able to send specimens of “cork-rot” especially as the
damage done by this disease appears to be so considerable.

The measures taken by the cultivators in Jamuica to prevent the
spread of ‘ black rot’ seem to be very intelligent. In addition to these
it might be useful to treat the affected soil with lime or with a light
dressing of sulphate of iron and when the diseased patch is large to
separate it before treatment, from the rest of the field by means of a
shallow trench as it would seem that disease spreads under ground.

It would also be desirable if an experiment were made preferably
on a field in which ‘black rot’ has appeared, in which the rhizomes
used for planting were washed with water and then steeped for
half-an-hour in Bordeaux mixture. The resulting crop and its free-
dom from disease should be compared with that from an equal area,
say half an acre, in which the rhizom-s have been untreated. ‘The
results of such an experiment would be of great interest and value to
this Department.

_The very greatest care should be taken not to plant any rhizomes
which show traces of disease or those from diseasei fields. Mr. Crad-
wick might refer to these points in his lectures to the people.

i A. Howarp, 28.10. ’01.

_ Impertant DeparTMEnNr or AGRICULTURE FOR THE West INDIB&s.
Instructions for collecting and forwarding specimens of Plants attacked
| by Fungoid Diseases.

1. Specimens of plants attacked by fungoid pests are constantly
being received by the Department for examinetion and report. Much
labour und time is often wasted over these for want of knowledge on
the part of the senders as to what should be sent and how it should be
packed. This circular is issued with the object of giving information
on these points. |

2. When specimens of moist vegetable matter are packed in boxes
or sent in envelopes they speedily become covered with saprophytic
growths which frequently obscure all traces of the original cause of
disease and render the specimens worthless. This is especially the case

182

when the material has been collected some days before the closing of
the mails for Barbados. |

3. Fresh specimens of diseased plants should in every case be placed
in methylated spirit, high wines, or rum, immediately after collection
and forwarded in a bottle or corked tube. When leaves, buds or twigs
are ettacked, the specimens should show as many stages of the disease
as possible and in all cases a few healthy specimens should also be
sent. If these latter are tied up in an envelope and labelled in pencil
they can be sent in the same bottle as the diseased material. When
fruits, stems or roots are attacked, diseased pieces showing all stages
should be cut out and placed in spirit as before, In this case also a
healthy piece, properly indicated, should be sent.

4. Specimens of bark wood and large fungus fructifications which are
dry should be wrapped in soft paper and sent in a ventilated package.
When it is considered desirable to send vegy large specimens such as
portions of branches, stems, roots of trees or whole cacao pods these
should be collected as late as possible before the mail steamer leaves,
and sent in a well ventilated case.

5. Full notes should be sent giving details of the time of appear-
ance of the disease, the locality, the damage done, the part attacked -
and also the date when the specimens were collected.

All specimens and correspondence intended for the Head Office,
should be addressed :—

THE CoMMISSIONER,
Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies,
Barbados.

NATHANIEL WILSON.
By F. Witson.

Born in Scotland on 18th April, 1809.—Died at his residence,
Spring Plain, Clarendon, Jamaica, on 2nd May, 1874.

Appointed from the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, as Island Bo-
tanist, Jamaica, about February. 1846.

Prior to the year 141, andto the Rev. Thomas Wharton taking charge
of the Botanic Gardens at Bath, there were five or six acres in culti-
vation, containing only 174 plants, some of which were indigenous.

The Gardens were then under the control and management of a
Board of Directors of the Bath of St. Thomas the Apostle.

For a number of years the Gardens suffered under great and va-
rious disadvantages, many-of the members of the Board of Directors
(neither knowing anything nor caring for Botany) not taking any in-
terest in the Institution. Then sgain, no funds were provided for
paying labourers employed in the Garden. At times hogs would tres-
pass and make bavoc of the plants and Garden generally; but for the
untiring energy and zeal of my father, this Institution would in all
probability have come to an end.

In consequence of the want of space, and the overcrowding of plants
at the Botanic Gardens at Bath, several valuable plants died. The
Gardens also suffered from the periodic overflowing of the Plantain
Garden River (or Sulphur River), notably in 1858, when the greater
portion of the Gardens was destroyed in this way.

183

As far back as 1856, my father made strong and repeated represen-
tations to the Governor, and Executive Committee of the House of
Assembly for a better and more adequate site for a Botanical Garden
worthy of the Island; as a result of thesa appeals, a site was selected
by Mr. Parry, (I believe), at Castleton, and my father was requested,
in September, 1859, to visit and report on the general suitableness of
the place.

The report was favourable as to soil and climate. Clearing the land,
-&c., commenced about the end of 1860, or early in 1861. In 1862,
some doubt appears to have arisen as to the desirability of the spot
‘selected in view of its distance from Kingston A Committee was ap-
pointed “to take evidence on oath, and enquire into the expediency
-of continuing the formation of a Botanic Garden on the site recently
selected.” nt

After evidence had been taken, the Committee appears to have been
satisfied, and the work was proceeded with.

An Estimate of the probable expense of the formation and comple-
tion of the Garden, including a Nursery for supplying the Island with
plants, was sought and obtained from my father.

The total Estimate amounted to £2510 15s. 4d., plus some items,
the cost of which he could not very well estimate. |

In 1860, the British Government, acting on the advice of His
‘Grace the Duke of Manchester, instructed the Royal Botanic Gar-
‘dens at Kew to obtain plants and seeds of the Cinchona from Kcuador
in order to establish a Quinine Plantation in Jamaica.

The plants and seeds duly arrived, and my father was successful in
‘growing them, first at Bath and thea at Cold Spring; this experiment*
he reported as having succeeded beyond his expectations.

In 1862, the Cinchona Plantation was established at Mount Essex.
‘Three acres were first established with Cinchona ina healthy and
thriving condition, consisting of three distinct sp2cies, via:—C. suc-
cirubra, C. nitida, and C. micrantha. This was the first step to es-
tablishing the Plantation.

In July 1862, Mr. Robert Thomson was employed as Assistant
Botanist.

Great attention was given by my father to textile and economic
plants, and a great number of them were introduced into the Island
during his tenure of office as Island Botanist. Among the fibrous
plants he introduced were :—Boehmeria nivea, or Chinese Grass
Cloth, various species of Sanseviera or Bow String H>mp of [na lia,
Corchorus olitorius or Jute Fibre of India, Musa textilis, which pro-
duces the Manila Hemp,—this latter he strongly advocated being
given a fair trial in the [sland on account of the diversity of its uses:
he had “but little hesitation in saying that a branch of industry
more inexpensive, profitable, and better suited to the country and
habits of the people dees not exist than the cultivation of fibrous
plants which are a source of wealth to other nations, and surely merit
a fair trial here where nature leaves but little to doin the way of
maturing the plants.”

* Experiments were made at places of different altitudes, Cold Spring being one
of them,

184

I cannot however find that this plant was given a fair trial. It ‘was,
my father’s opinion that the cultivation of textile plants was one of
great importance, and “second only to the cultivation of the Sugar
Cane; ” be also believed that textile plants were destined at no very
distant period to add materially to the permanent prosperity os the
slan

The undermentioned Medals were gained by my father for exhibits
he prepared and sent to the various Internationul Exhibitions of the
world :—

1. Silver Medal, for an exhibit of Shrubby Calceolarias at the Hor-
ticultural Society of Arts, London, on May 13, 1837.

2 Silver Medal for Nectarines at the Horticultural Society, Lon-
don, llth July, '887.

3. Silver Medal for Fibres, London Exhig on February, 1862.

4. Bronze Medal for Fibres and Kasts, Hondon Exhibition, 1862.

5. Silver Medal Ditto Dublin, 1865.
Bronze Medal Ditto Dublin, !* 65.
Silver Medal Ditto International Exhibition,

Erfurt, Prussia, August, 1865.
Copies of the Annual Botanical Reports by my father from 1856 to
1866, inclusive, in menuscript form, are in my possession.
The Office of Island Botanist was abolished on the Ist of October,
1867, when my father retired from the Public Service.

26th October, 1901.

FUMIGATION OF IMPORTED PLANTS.

A. W.. L. Hemoixe.

By His Excellency Sir Aveustus Wititiam Lawson HEmmrine,.
Knight Grand Cross of the mos: Distinguished Order of
Saint Michael and Saint George, Captain- “General and Go-
vernor-in-Chief in and over the Island of Jamaica, and its
Dependencies.

A PROCLAMATION.

HEREAS by a Proclamation dated the seventh day of Septem-
ber, and made under the authority of Section 1 of Law 4 of
1884, (The Seeds and Plants Importation Law 1884,) it was among
other things proclaimed and ordered that immediately on the impor-
tation into this island of any plants, cuttings, buds or grafts, and of
any goods, packages, coverings or things in which such plants, cut-
tings, buds o1 grafts, hereinafter referred to under the general term
of © proclaimed articles” might be packed” they should be subjected

to a thorough process of fumigation to be hereafter decided upon.
And whereas the Governor in Privy Council has since decided upon
adopting the process of fumigation hereinafter set forth for the pur-
pose of completely destroying all animal or vegetable parasites which

185

may have been imported on or along with the said proclaimed

articles : | ra
Now, therefore, I do hereby proclaim and order that the importa--
tion into this Island of all ‘‘ proclaimed articles” sball be subject to
the following conditions :—
All proclaimed articles shall be fumigated, and the work of fumi-

gation shall be carried out by the staff of the Government Laboratory
—a fumigatory box shall be employed for small operations. and a fu-
migatory chamber at,the wharf for large. For ordinary purposes the
dose of cyanide to be vaporised shall be one ounce for every 300 feet
of cubic space and the exposure shall be one hour. For the more de-
licate plants half the ah< ,e dose of cyanide shall be used and the ex-
posure shell be half any ar only. Plants in Wardian cases shall be
fumigated while still ‘S¢ the case. The Island and Agricultural
Chemist shall be the autnority to decide in any question c:nnected
with the fumigation of proclaimed articles which involves the exercise
of any discretion. »

~ Given under my hand and the Broad Seal of this Island, at King’s

House, this fifteenth day of October, in the First year of His
Majesty’s Reign, Annoque Domini, 1901.
By Command,
Sypnery OttviEr, Colonial Secretary.

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
| DEPARTMENT.

Liprary (Serials).

EUROPE.
British Isles.
Annals of Botany, Sept., 1901. Vol. XV. [Purchased.]
Botanical Magazine, Sept., Oct. [ Purchased, ]
British Museum Annual Returns, 1900-1901. [Principal Librarian. |
Bulletin Kew Gardens, Novy.-Vec.,1900. Jan.-Mar. 1901, and App. April-
June, July-Sept. [Director. |
-Chemist and Druggist, Aug. 24,31, Sept. 7,14, 21,28. Oct. 5,12, 19, 26,
[Editor.] .
Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Aug. 1901. [Col. Sec,]
Garden, Aug. 24,31. Sept. 7,14, 21, 28. Oct. 5,12,19, 26. [Purchased..]}
Gardeners’ Chronicle, Aug. 24,31. Sept. 7,14, 21,28. Oct. 5,12, 19, 26,
[ Purchased, ]
Hooker’s Icones Plantarum Vol. VIII Part I. Sept. 1901. [Bentham
Trustees through Kew. |
International Sugar Journal, Sept., Oct [Editor.]
Journal, Board of Agriculture, England. [Sec. Board of Agri.]
Journal of Botany, Sept., Oct. [Purchased,]
Nature, Aug. 22, 29. Sept.5,12.19,26. Oct. 3, 10,17, 24. [Purchased.]
Pharmaceutical Journal, Sept. 7, 14, 21, 28. Oct. 5, 12, 19, 26.
Rothamstead Reports for 1901, By Sir J. H. Gilbert.
7 Plans and Summary Tables arranged for reference in the field.
[Committee. ]
W. Indian and Com. Advertiser, Sept., Oct. [Editor. |
| France.
Sucrerie Indigéne et Coloniale, Aug. 27. Sept.,3,10,17,24. Oct. 1, 8,
15,22, [Ediior.]

186

Germany.

Tropenpflanzer. Sep., Oct. Nos.4and10. [Editor.]

Bericht uber den Botanischen Garten und des Museum zu Berlin um Rech-
anungsjahr, 1900.

Belgium.
Bulletin de la Société d’ Etudes Coloniales,Feb., March, 1900.

Switzerland
Bulletin de l’ Herbier Boissier Nos. 9,&10. [Conservateur.]

ASIA.
India.
Planting Opinion, Aug. 3,10,17; Sep. 7,14, 21, 28. [Editor.]
Agricultural Ledger (Calcutta) Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 1901.
+ ~ No. 7, 1892-1894. , [Lt. Gov. Bengal. ]
Report on Goy. Bet. Gard., Saharanpur & Ar i dh, 1901. [Curator. ]

- Report on Gov. Hort. Gard., Lucknow, 1901. /\. -urator.]
Madras. Dey

Administration Report of the Govt, Bot. Gardens & Parks, Nilgiris, 1900-
1901. [Secretary.]

Department of Land Records & Agriculture: Bulletin No. 36 (Sugar Cane
Pest in Madras) 37 (‘The Ground-nut, Arachis Hypogzea) 38 (The Ground-
nut crops) 39 (The Sugar caie) 40 (The Seed Drill) 41 (The Ground-nut

crop) 42 (Native beliefs regarding hair marks on horses and cattle) 45 (A
Tea-eel worm disease in South India.)

North Western Provinces & Oudh.

Bulletin 12 (Irrigation Wells in the Western Portion of the North-west Pro-
vinces of India) 13 (Cultivation of Sugar-beet in North India) 14 (Different
Systems of housing Cattle and Conserving Manure.)

Ceylon

Times of Ceylon. Aug. 9,15,21. Sept. 4,12, 19,25. Oct. 3. [Editor.]

Japan.

Bulletin, Coll. of Agriculture, Vol. IV, No. 4.
Java. °

Conclusions derived from the Factory Results on some Java Sugar Planta-

tions. Reprinted from “ The International Sugar Journal,” Aug. 1901,
Proefstation Oost-Java, No. 31. [Director.]

Report of the West-Java Sugar Experiment Station “ Kagok” Pekalongan
forr 1900. Reprinted from “The International Sugar Journacl” Aug. 1901.

AUSTRALIA.
NV. 8. Wales.
Agricultural Gazette, July, Aug. [Dept. of Agri.]
Miscellaneous Publications, No. 477. (Dep:. of Agri.]
Notes from Botanic Gardens, Sydney; No.6. _ [Director.]
Observations on the Eucalypts of N.S. W., Part VII. [Director.]
Useful Australian Plants. | Dir, Bot. Gardens, Sydney. ]
Queensland.
Annual Report of Acclimatisation Society for year ending Mar. 1901. [Sec.]
Queensland Agri. Journal, Aug., Sept., Oct. [Sec. of Agri.]
Queensland Sugar Journal, July, Aug., Sept. [Hditor.]
Western Australia.

Journal of the Dept. of Agri., June, Aug., Sept. [Dept. of Agri.[

AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope.

Agricultaral Journal, Aug. 1, 15,29. Sep. 12. [Dept. of Agri.]
Natal.

Agri. Journal and Mining Record, Aug. 2,16, 30. Sept. 13. (Dept. of Agri.]

187

Zanzibar and East Africa.
The Gazette, Aug. 14, [Editor.]
Central Africa.
C. African Times, June 22, 29, July 13, 20, 27, Aug. 3, 10; 17, 24,31 [Editor.]
Mauritius.
Station nue Rapport Annual for 1900.
Composition de diverses varieties de cannes. [Editor.]

West InpIEs.

Jamaica.
Cornwall Herald. [Editor.]
Royal Soc. Agri. & Oommerce (7th Annual Report, 1900-1901.) [Pre sident.]
Journal, Jamaica Agri. Soc. Oct. ([Secretary.]

Burbados.

Agricultural Gazette, Sere, Oct. [Editor]

W, Indian Bulletin, Vol il., No. 3. [Com. Imp. Dept. of Agri.]
Antigua & St. Kitts.

Report on certain Economic Experiments, 1900-1901. [Commissioner.]

Sugar Cane Experiments, Parts I & II., 1900-1901. [Com. of Agri.]
Trinidad.

Botanical Dept. Bulletin, May, July, Aug., Oa. j|Superintendent. |

Proc. of Agri. Society, Sept. 10. [Secretary. ]

British NortaH AMERICA.

Ontario.
Bulletin 77, Crop Report.
Report of Supt. of Farmer’s Institutes of the Province of Ontario, 1900.
[Dept. of Agri.]
Report of Registrar of Live Stock, Provinces of Ontario, 1890. [Sec. &
Editor. |
Annual Heeport a Be ce os Ontario, 19 mann } [Scoretary.

H ontreal.
Pharmaceutical Journal, Aug., Sept., Oct. [Editor.]

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Publications of the U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture. | Directors. | x

Scientific Bureaus and Divisions.

Division of Biological Survey: North American Fauna, Nos. 20, 21.

Division of Botany : 27 Seeds of Commercial Saltbushes) 23 (The Ch tyote):
A Tropical Vegetable). Contributions from the U.S. National Herba-
rium, Vol. VII, No. 2, (Origin & distribution of the Coco Palm.)

Division of Entomology: (Some Insects injurious to the Violet, Rose, and
other Ornamental Plants. )

Bulletins U.S. Dept. of Agri: Circular No. 8 (Bureau of Soils.)

No, 28 (Insect Enemies) No. 29 (Fall Army Worm, &:.) No. 30 (Some
Miss. results.) Farmers’ Bulletins: 130 (The Mexican Cotton-Boll Weevil)
132 (The Principal Insect Enemies of Growing W heat.)

- Hzperiment Stations.

Experiment Station Record, Vol. XI. No. 12. Vol. XIL. No. 12. Vol
XIII. No. 2, 1900.)

Connecticut. (Report, Agri Exp. Station).

INDEX.

PAGE.
Acosta, Joseph, on the Pine-apple 131
Akee, Oil of 7¢
Alkali, kinds of soil which soonest
develop
Alkali lands, Characteristics of
« Drainage the ultimate

38
36

a remedy for 39
ad « Trrigation and 36
Alkalies, Causes of injuries by 36

« in Soil, conditions which

modify the distribution of 38
« Intensive farming may tend
to the accumulation of 37
Almond Bag Worm : 141
Analyses, Banana Soils 146-183
“© Coco-nut : 42
«“ Guango Beans 154
Andrographis paniculata 85
Annual Report of Director for
year ended 31st March, 1900, |
Selections from 10
Ants, Protection of trees against 142
«- Remedy against attacks by 107
Apprentices, Pupil- =
at Hope Gardens 81
Arthur, Prof., on two oppesing
factors of cca 17
tralian Braziletto 125
Bag Worm, The Almond 141
Banana as Diet in Typhoid Cases 158
“ Choice varieties of 43
« Conference 56
‘“< “ flowers 57
“ “ irrigatfon 59
<2 “ leaves ‘ 57
“c 3 pruning 59
“ “ roots 58
ce « stem 58.
“e «* yarieties 58
“ Export of 157 |
« Historical Notes on 154

«“ Pouyat or Martinique, Intro-
duction of 155
«“ Soils of Jamaica 145
« Varieties cultivated at Hope 154
Bananas, Notes on 179
Basin irrigation i 51 |
Bastard Logwood ; 1
Bergamot Orange 84
Berkhout, A. H.. , on Yield of Rubber 139

Braziletto, Australian 12

6 Jamaica 125 |
Breadnut ‘ 42
Brosimum Alicasirum, Sw. . 42
Buchanania latifolia, Roxb. 82
Butter Nut 82
Camoensia maxima in flower 88

PAGE.
Caryocar nuciferum, Linn. . 82
Cattle Food : 153
Cedar, The Juniper, of Jamaica 55
Chemical relations of the soil
to surface washing 66
Cheroonjie 82
Cinchona Bark from Jamaica 157
Citrus, Stocks for 10
Cocoa, Varieties of ‘ 11, 108
Coco nut, Analysis of : 42
“6 > oaperfect : 104.
Coffee i in G;: lombia 11
« in @£i New World, Sta-
tistics of production of 42
Collar Rot disease 107
Conservation of Soil Moisture 49
Contributions, Noteson somerecent 124
Cousins, H. H., on Banana
Soils of Jamaica 145.
Creat 85
Curing and Packing of Produce 97
Date Palms 7
DeMercado, C. E., on Curing
and Packing Produce : 97
Diseases, Ginger 180
* Lemon Trees
‘¢ Pine-apple plants — 83.
Duerden, Dr., on Bastard Pech 1
Dwarf West Inlian Palm, A 82
Elworthy, R. H., on Mangoes
at Fair Prospect 2 172
Eucalyptus and Malaria . 40
“6 Oil of ° 8
Evaporation, Preventing 53
_ Factors of increase, Two opposing 17
Fluckiger and Haubury on Es-
sential Oil of Bergamot 84
Food, Cattle 153
Foot Rot disease 107
Forbes, W. Panton, on Mangoes
in Southfield district 167
Foster, E., on Oil of Akee 74
Fumigation of Imported Plants 184
Fungoid diseases of Cocoa, 113
Brown-Rot of the Pod 115
“ Canker Fungus of the
Stem 121
«© Damage done by Brown-
rot 117

“ Infection Experiments 115-118

“ Natural Infection Mz
* Remedial Measures 119, 122
*« Root disease 123
«| Summary of Conclusions 123

a]

> PAGE.
Garsed, W., on Oil of Akee 74
George & Branday, Messrs., on
Bastard Logwood : 1
Grafting Nutmegs ° 12
- Mango 26
Griffith, Col. i G., on Mangoes 165
is A. W.. on Mangoes at
Hodges : 167
Guango Beans, Composition of 154
Harris, Wm., on Diseases of
Ginger 180
Harris, Wm., Historical No: rig
~ on Economic Plants — 7 Se, 154, 161
Harshberger, Dr.,on Shippi:. 4,
Mangoes : 177
Health and Irrigation : 6
Hilgard, Prof. E. W., on the
Conservation of Soil Mois-
ture 49
Historical Notes on Economic
Plants—Introductory 129
Historical Notes on Economic
Plants— Bananas 154
Historical Notes on Economic
Plants—Mango 161
Historical Notes on Economic
Plants—Pine Apple . 131
Hope Gardens, Pupil Appren-
tices at 81
Howard, A., on Diseases of Gin-
ger . 181
Howard, A., on Fungoid Die
seases of Cocoa : 114
Imperfect Coco-nuts ; 104
Inch of Rain, An é 125
India, Irrigation in : 5
Irrigation ° 28
af and Alkalilands . 36
“ Basin , ‘ 51
6 Health and ; 6
é in inuia : 5
ee Notes on . 2
Jamaican Braziletto 125
Jekyll, W., on Mangoes in the
Port Royal Mountains . 174
Juniper Cedar of Jamaica . 55
Juniperus bermudiana 55
Juniperus virginiana 56
Kelly- Lawson, D. O., on Man-
- goes in Hampden district 171
King, Prof. T. H., on Irriga-
tion and Alkali lands A 36
Knight, Horace, on Grafting
the Mango tree 26
Kupfer, Miss E. M., on Imper-
fect Coco-nuts 0 105

PAGE.
Lemon trees, Diseased : 6
Logwood, Bastard i
Long, Edward, on the Pine- -apple 132:

Longbridge, cae | , on the con-
servation of Soil Moisture 49
Lunan, J ohn, on the Mange 161
‘* Pine-apple 133-

eieeal, Prot D. T., on Di-
seased Lemon trees ‘ 6

MacDougal, Prof. D. T. on Im-
perfect Coco-nuts ° 104-
MacFadyen, Dr., on Mangoes 162
Malaria, Eucalyptus and . 40:
Mal di Gomma ‘ 107

Mango, Choice varieties introduced

from East Indies . 162
First introduced . 161
‘- Grafting the 163, 164

“« Mexican variety introduced 164
“ Propagation of the , 165.
“¢ Selected varieties introduced

ky Col. J. G. Griffith 164, 166
“ Selected varieties introduced

from Martinique 163.
“ Utilization of fruit . 163
Mangoes, Export of 165

Marescaux, Hon. Oscar, on Mangoes
at Cherry Garden . 170
Hon. Oscar, on Remedy
against Ants and Scale Insects 107
Martinique Banana, Introduction of 155.
Mason, J. O., on Mangoes in Orange
Bay District
Masters, Dr. M. T., on the ‘J uniper
Cedar of Jamaioa ‘ 55
Medicinal weed, A. 4 85:
Morris, Dr. D., on Fungoid diseases

172:

of Cocoa . 113

- = Ginger 180:

6 “6 on Thrinax Morrisii 83
Nash, George, on Mangoes in Man-

ohestes 173.

Neish, Dr. Jas., on Mangoes in Old

Harbour district ; 168
Notes on Irrigation 2
Nutmegs, The Grafting of 12
Nuts ° 82
Oiketicus abbottii, Grote 141
Oil industry, The Peanut 87

“ of Akee ‘ 74
“ of Eucalyptus ° 8
Orange, Bergamot ° 84.
Palache, J. T., on Mangoes in

Manchester 172
Palm, A dwarf West Indian 82
Palms, Date 7
Patin, Mons. Chas,, Contribu-

tions by ° 124

Peanut oil industry, The

Peltophorum ferrugineum, Benth.
P.

Linnaei, Benth
Pindar-nut oil f
Pine- apple, Cultivation of
Diseases in :
‘. Experiment at Hope
« Historical Notes on
= Kinds exported
i numpers exported
Pine Apple, varieties grown
Potato diseases and their treat-
ment
Produce, Curing and Packing of
Protection of Trees against Ants

Pouyat, Hy. F., on Introduc-

Pupil-Apprentices at Hope Gardens 81 Theobnagi: from Colombia

tion of Pouyat or Martinique
Banana

Rain, An Inch of
Rennalls, C. L. H., on Mangoes
fin Mavis Bank District
Roosvelt, Governor, on Irrigation
Roots follow moisture
Rubber at Hope Gardens

“ Yield of 4

Seale Insects, Remedy against
attacks by

Scharschmidt, 8. T., on Mangoes

§ sin Shooter’s Hill District

Seychelles, Vanilla in °

Shaw, S. A., on Mangoes in
Alligator Pond Distriet

Shore, Joseph, on Mangoes in

© Little River District

Sloane, Hans, on the Pine Apple

Il
PAGE. : Pace.
87 | Soil Analyses . 146-153
125; “ moisture, The Conserva-
125 | tion of 49
87 | Soils: How to prevent ‘and re-
138 claim washed 4 65
83 | Souari or Butter Nut 3 82
Statistics of production of Cof-
129 fee in the New World 32
147 | Stocks for budding Citrus 10
137 | Subsoil, Knowledge of . 53
186 | Sugar, Seedling D. 95 i4
| Sunflower Seeds ‘ 8
89
97 | Tate, Laurence, on Mangoes in
142| Bluefil4s district 176
124
Thrinax #rrisii 82
| Tobacco . 33
156 | Treleaven, €. W., on Mangoes :
in St. Elizabeth 4 170
Two opposing factors of increase 17
125 | Typhoid cases, Bananaas diet in 158
ai | Vanilla in Seychelles 86
51 Vendryes, Henry, on introduc-
14 tion of Pouyat or Martinique
9 | Banana 105
139 | Vickers, Hon. C. B., on Mangoes
| at Mt. Edgcombe . 177
107 | Washed Soils : How to prevent
and reclaim them 65
174 | Webber, Prof. H. J., on Di-
86 seased Lemon trees ° 7
Webber, Prof. H. J., on Diseases
168 | in Pine-apple plants 3 83
/ Wilson, Nathaniel 182
171 | Wilson, Secretary, on Irrigation
132 | Yield of Rubber e 193

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