^/./Iv K^ ' .**/s!.^l " ■J''-^- ^.V: ''t-j^^: BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE EDITED BY WILLIAM FAWCETT B.Sc, F.L.S. Director of Public Gardens and Planiatione. '^E^ VORfc Vol. IV. sotanjcal Garden. HOPE GARDENS, JAMAICA 1906. Il^OEX. -'3RARY '^EW YORK (BOTANICAL OAROEN. Page Acrostichum aureum, excelsum, lomarioides ... 62 African Rubber ... 278 Agricultural Conference 306 " "Don'ts" 96, 119, 142, 192, 215 " Instructors, Conference on ... 238 " Scholarship 1 19 Agriculture in Bermuda 205 of Porto Rico I05 AUouya ... 178 Analyses, Banana Soils 25 Ben Oil ... 114 " Camphor leaves 136 " Cassavas ... 75 " Lemon-grass Oil 106 Soil for Camphor 135 Arrowroot ... 239 " Consumption of at the Public Institutions ... 307 Arsenate of Lead, admitted duty free ... 216, 283 " " for Caterpillars 10 Ashby, Mr., appointment of, as Fermentation Chemist '307 Assam Rubber: ... 274 collection ... 275 distance in planting 276 effect of soil, &c., on yield 274 in Algiers ... 274 in Jamaica ... 277 locality ... 274 planting ... 276 preparation of the rubber 278 propagation ... 276 source ... 274 tapping ... 275 value ... 275 when to tap ... 276 yield ... 274 Attacus jorulla ... 121 Bamber, M. Kelway, on Camphor in Ceylon ... 129 Banana in Bermuda ... 207 " soils of St. Mary and St. Catherine ... 25 St. Catherine — RioMagno... 26 Riversdale ... 31 St. Mary— Hampstead 26 Highgate ... 28,30,32 Oracabessa 29 Port Maria... 30 Barkley, Sir Henry, on Coco de nier 92 Barrett, O. W., on the Lleren 178 " " on the Tanier 180 Bastard Logwood ... 122 Ben Oil, Analysis of ... 114 " " Nature and Commercial Uses of ... 113 Beet root ... 218 Page Bermuda, Agriculture in... 205 Bananas ... 20/ Lily Bulbs ... 205 Onions ... 206 Oranges ... 206 Potatoes ... 206 Tobacco ... 206 Black-leg disease of Cattle 151 cause ... 152 hygienic ... 153 symptoms ... 152 treatment ... 1 52 preventive or prophylactic 153 Blake, Sir Henry, on Camphor in Ceylon ... 177 Board of Agriculture 22, 46, 63, 95, llS, 142, 166, 191, 214, 23S, 283, 305 Boehmeria nivea ... 286 " tenacissima ... 286 Bordeaux mixture ... 157 Botrychium Underwoodianum 202 Brazilian Coffee Legislation 127. 176 Bread-fruit tree, Introduction of, to Jamaica ... 44 Brown-rot disease of Cocoa pods II Brown, S. W., Resignation of 240 Bucher, Dr. E., on Logwood Disease 79 Buck, Sir E. C, on Turmeric 164 Bud- rot disease of the Coco-nut 156 Cabbages ... 218 Cacao cultivation in Ceylon 236 Calathea AUouya ... 178 Camphor in Ceylon ... 129, 177, 232 analysis of soil and leaves 135, 136 Blumea balsamifera 130 botany ... 130 characters ... 140 Cinnamomum Camphora 130 cultivation ... 131 distillation of Camphor 137, 139, i;7 130 177 130 232 140 136 131 134 140 130 141, 177 116 219 233 75 Dryobalanops Camphora elevation exports market value ... 130, 177 oil preparation of the Camphor propagation soils for sublimation experiments uses yield ... 137, Camphor tree weevil Carrots Cartwright, Consul, on export of Kapok from Guayaquil Cassava Analysis of " land in Clarendon, Inspection of ... 240, 283 " Remedy for Caterpillars on 10 '■ Trials, III. ... 7^ " yields of ... 76 n. Page Page Castilloa Rubber : 97, 145, 166, 172, 253 age at which trees may be tapped ... 146,260 as shade for cocoa 256 best districts in Jamaica 255 climate and situation 147, 254 coagulating the latex 99, 150, 262 cost of collecting the rubber 263 culture ... 259 Darien Castilloa 254 Darien ' Caucho' 254 decrease of milk with in- crease of altitude 254 distance in planting 149, 257 flow of sap 146, 254 habitat ... 146,253 ' hule bianco,' ' Colorado' ' negro,' ' tunu' 253 in Ceylon ... 257 in Darien ... 255 in Isthmus of Panama 255 in Tobago ... 257 in Venezuela ... 256 in Mexico ... 146 propagation ... 148, 255 resins in rubber... 260 seeds ... 148, 255 shade for Castilloa 255 study of ... 166 tapping 149, 174, 261 washing the latex 150, 262 yield 146, 262 Castilloa Tunu ... 253 Caterpillars on Cotton, Cassava, &c. Remedy for ... 10 Cattle in Porto Rico ... no CearaRubba: ... 267 age at which the trees may be tapped 269 analysis of rubber 271 best districts in Jamaica 269 climate ... 267 collecting the rubber 270 cost of collecting 271 distance in planting 270 in Brazil ... 268 in Ceylon ... 270 in German colonies 269 in Hawaii ... 269 in India ... 271 in Nicaragua ... 268 locality ... 267 number of trees per acre 271 planting ... 269 profit ... 271 propagation ... 269 soil ... 267 yield ... 271 Ceylon, Camphor in ... 129,177,232 " Grass Oils in ... lOO Chalmers, F. V., on Tobacco of Jamaica ... 59.283,307 China Grass ... 286 Citronella Oil ... 100 Citrus decumana ... 36 " Fruits, Cultivation and Market- ing of ... 49 " " in Porto Rico ill Cocoa Diseases, II. ... 11 Coco de mer ... 87 Coco-nut, bud-rot disease 95, 156 Double ... 87 " in Porto Rico ... 113 " Selection of Seed 63, 176 Coffee cultivation in Brazil 234 " Porto Rico 108 " Legislation in Brazil 127, 176 " Trust, proposed 177 Colletotrichura gossypii, var. barbadense ... 'jy Colocasia ... 181 Colombian Scrap Rubber 271 Commercial Agent in London 63, 95, 118, 143, 167 Congo Rubber ... 278 Corn, Analysis of ... 7 " Notes on Imported and Native, and Analysis ... 6 " production and consumption 304 Cotton, Application of Paris Green to ... 141 " Disease ... yj " in Porto Rico ... 112 " Remedy for Caterpillars on 10 " Seed, Sea Island, for 1906 127 Cousins, H. H., on Cassava Trials 73 " " " Ginep as a Stock Food ... 8 " " " Imported and Native Corn ... 6 Cox, Hon. H. E., on Tea I Cucumbers ... 219 Cultivation and marketing of Citrus Fruits ... 49 Curcuma longa ... 163 Dalrymple, W. H., on Black-leg disease ... 151 Date Palm, The culture of 208 climatic requirements 2o8 fungoid disease of 214 in Jamaica ... 213 in the United States 211 irrigation ... 210 planting and cultivation 209 pollination ... 210 yield ... 211 Dioscorea spp. ... 3 Diseased Plants, and Insect Pests : How to forward ... 85 Disease Cocoa ... n " Cotton ... ■]■] " Coco-nut ... 95, 156 Distillers' Course ... 240 Divi-divi ... 121, 122, 124 "Don'ts," Agricultural ... 96,119,142, 192, 215 Earle, Prof., on Logwood Disease 78 Early Oranges ... 81 Economic Products, Seasons and Prices for, in Kingston 66 Edwards, J. W., on Logwood Disease ... 80 m. Page Fawcett, W., on Early Oranges Fern, New name for a Jamaican " New species of Botrychium " New species of Polypodium Fertilizer, Tobacco Dust as a Fibre Machines ... 300, Ficus elastica Forests and Rivers Formalin, the use of, for preserving fruit Forsteronia floribunda ... Freeman, W. G., Review of book on Para Rubber Fruit, New Method of keeping, by use of Formalin Fruits: Seasons and Prices for, in Kingston Funtumia elastica ... 171, age at which seed is pro- duced ... 171, age at which tree may be tapped ... r7l, as shade for Cocoa 171, attacked by caterpillars best districts in Jamaica 154 66 264 264 264 265 267 265 coagulating the milk 171, 265 collecting and pre- paring the rubber 265 destruction of Ire forests 266 distance apart forplanting 171 elevation for 171, 265 habitat 171, 264 in Trinidad 264 in Western Africa 171, 264 pruning 265 seeds 171 situation for 171. 265 soil 171, 265 value 266 Garcinia Mangostana ... 203 Garden Eggs ... 220 Gillespie Bros. & Co., on Jamaica Ginger ... l65 Ginep, Analysis of ... 8 " as a Stock Food ... 8 Ginger, Jamaican ... 166 Grabham, M., on Silk Worms I2I Grape Fruit and Shaddocks, Notes on 36 Graphiola phoenicis ... 214 Grass Oils in Ceylon ... 100 Grubs, beetles, &c., To destroy 217 Hard and Soft-wooded plants. Planting of ... 16I Harris, W., Notes on Rubber-pro- ducing plants 241 " " Seasons and Prices for Fruits, Vegetables, &c. in Kingston markets 66 " " on the cultivation of vegetables ... 217, 305 " " on Yams ... 3 Hart. Mrs. Ernest, on Ramie and its possibilities ... 296 Hevea brasiliensis ... 169,241 Page Hides and Skins ... 123 Hilipuselegans ... 116 Historical Notes on Economic Plants: Tea ... I Hope Gardens, Appointment of Asst. " " Superintendent 191, 239, 284 " " Description of 33 Plan of ... 34 Howard, Dr. L. O., on Weevil attacking Camphor trees 116 Insecticide, Tobacco Dust as an 178 Insect Pests ... 116 " " How to forward 85 Instructors, Agricultural, Conference 238 " for School Gardens 306 Ire ... 264 Jamaica Ginger ... 166 " Rubber ... 279 collection of milk 279 locality ... 279 preparation of the rubber 280 propagation ... 280 source ... 279 value ... 280 yield ... 279 Kapok ... 233 Keeping fruit, by use of Formalin 154 Kidney beans ... 221 Kohl Rabi ... 221 Lagos Silk Rubber: See Funtumia elastica ... 171,264 Landolphia florida, Heudelotii, Kirkii, Mannii, Owariensis, Peter- siana ... 278,279 La Zacualpa Rubber Plantation : 145 Castilloa lactiflua 146 Castilloa elastica 148 cleansing the rubber 1 50 coagulating — native Indian method 150 labour ... 147 latex ... 149 location of the Plantation 147 planting ... 148 tapping methods 149 washing the rubber 150 Leather, Manufacture of, in Jamaica ... 121, 123 Lemon Grass Oil ... 102 " ■' " from Montserrat 105 Lettuce ... 221 Levy, H. Q., on Cultivation and Marketing of Citrus Fruits 49 Lewkowitsch, Dr. J., on Ben Oil 113 Lily Bulbs in Bermuda ... 205 Lleren: A rare root crop 178 Lodoicea sechellarun ... 89 Logwood : Disease, Cultivation 78, 122 " Root Rot ... 78 Lucas, George L., on Tobacco Dust as Fertilizer and Insecticide 178 II. Page Castilloa Rubber : 97, 145, 166, 172, 253 age at which trees may be tapped ... 146, 260 as shade for cocoa 256 best districts in Jamaica 255 climate and situation 147, 254 coagulating the latex 99, 150, 262 cost of collecting the rubber 263 culture 259 Darien Castilloa 254 Darien ' Caucho' 254 decrease of milk with in- crease of altitude 254 distance in planting 149. 257 How of sap 146, 254 habitat 146, 253 'hule bianco,' 'Colorado' ' negro,' ' tunu' 253 in Ceylon 257 in Darien 255 in Isthmus of Panama 255 in Tobago 257 in Venezuela 256 in Mexico 146 propagation 148, 255 resins in rubber... 260 seeds 148, 255 shade for Castilloa 255 study of 166 tapping 149, 174 261 washing the latex 150 262 yield 146 262 Castilloa Tunu 253 Caterpillars on Cotton, Cassava, &c. Remedy for 10 Cattle in Porto Rico no CearaRubba: 267 age at which the trees ■nay be tapped 269 analysis of rubber 271 best districts in Jamaica 269 climate 267 collecting the rubber 270 cost of collecting 271 distance in planting 270 in Brazil 268 in Ceylon 270 in German colonies 269 in Hawaii 269 in India 271 in Nicaragua 268 locality 267 number of trees per acre 271 planting 269 profit 271 propagation 269 soil 267 yield 271 Ceylon, Camphor in ... 129, 17; 232 " Grass Oils in 100 Chalmers, F. V., on Tobacco of Jamaica ... 59, 283 307 China Grass 286 Citronella Oil 100 Citrus decumana 36 " Fruits, Cultivation and Market- ing of 49 in Porto Rico in Page Cocoa Diseases, II. Coco de mer Coco-nut, bud-rot disease " Double " in Porto Rico ... " Selection of Seed Coffee cultivation in Brazil " ■' Porto Rico 108 " Legislation in Brazil 127, 176 " Trust, proposed 177 Colletotrichum gossypii, var. barbadense ... ^^ Colocasia ... 181 Colombian Scrap Rubber 271 Commercial Agent in London 63, 95, n8, 143, 167 Congo Rubber ... 278 Corn, Analysis of ... 7 " Notes on Imported and Native, and Analysis ... 6 " production and consumption 204 Cotton, Application of Paris Green to ... 141 " Disease ... ^1 " in Porto Rico ... 112 " Remedy for Caterpillars on 10 " Seed, Sea Island, for 1906 127 Cousins, H. H., on Cassava Trials Tl " " " Ginep as a Stock Food ... 8 " " " Imported and Native Corn ... 6 Cox, Hon. H. E., on Tea I Cucumbers ... 219 Cultivation and marketing of Citrus Fruits ... 49 Curcuma longa ... 163 Dalrymple, W. H., on Black-leg disease ... 151 Date Palm, The culture of 208 climatic requirements 2o8 fungoid disease of 214 in Jamaica ... 213 in the United States 211 irrigation ... 210 planting and cultivation 209 pollination ... 210 yield ... 211 Dioscorea spp. ... 3 Diseased Plants, and Insect Pests : How to forward ... 85 Disease Cocoa ... n " Cotton ... yj " Coco-nut ... 95, 156 Distillers' Course ... 240 Divi-divi ... 121, 122, 124 " Don'ts," Agricultural ... 96,119,142, 192, 215 Earle, Prof., on Logwood Disease 78 Early Oranges ... 81 Economic Products, Seasons and Prices for, in Kingston 66 Edwards, J. W., on Logwood Disease ... 80 m. Page Fawcett, W., on Early Oranges Fern, New name for a Jamaican " New species of Botrycliium ■■ New species of Polypodium Fertilizer, Tobacco Dust as a Fibre Macliines ... 300, 304 Ficus elastica ... 274 Forests and Rivers ... 188 Formalin, the use of, for preserving fruit ... 154 Forsteronia floribunda ... 279 Freeman, W. G., Review of book on Para Rubber ... 169 Fruit, New Method of keeping, by use of Formalin ... 1 54 Fruits: Seasons and Prices for, in Kingston ... 56 Funtumia elastica ... 171, 264 age at which seed is pro- duced ... 171,264 age at which tree may be tapped ... r7l, 264 as shade for Cocoa 171, 265 attacked by caterpillars best districts in Jamaica coagulating the milk 171, collecting and pre- paring the rubber destruction of Ire forests distance apart for planting 267 265 265 265 266 171 265 elevation for 171, habitat ... 171,264 in Trinidad ... 264 in Western Africa 171, 264 pruning ... 265 seeds ... 171 situation for ... 171, 265 soil ... 171,265 value ... 265 Garcinia Mangostana ... 203 Garden Eggs ... 220 Gillespie Bros. & Co., on Jamaica Ginger ... 166 Ginep, Analysis of ... 8 " as a Stock Food ... 8 Ginger, Jamaican ... 166 Grabham, M., on Silk Worms 121 Grape Fruit and Shaddocks, Notes on 36 Graphiola phoenicis ... 2 14 Grass Oils in Ceylon ... lOO Grubs, beetles, &c., To destroy 217 Hard and Soft-wooded plants. Planting of ... 161 Harris, W., Notes on Rubber-pro- ducing plants 241 " " Seasons and Prices for Fruits, Vegetables, &c. in Kingston markets 65 " " on the cultivation of vegetables ... 217, 305 " " on Yams ... 3 Hart, Mrs. Ernest, on Ramie and its possibilities ... 296 Hevea brasiliensis ... 169, 241 Page Hides and Skins ... 123 Hilipus elegans ... 1 16 Historical Notes on Economic Plants : Tea ... I Hope Gardens, Appointment of Asst. " " Superintendent 191, 239, 284 " " Description of 33 Plan of ... 34 Howard, Dr. L. O., on Weevil attacking Camphor trees 116 Insecticide, Tobacco Dust as an 178 Insect Pests ... 116 " " How to forward 85 Instructors, Agricultural, Conference 238 " for School Gardens 306 Ire ... 264 Jamaica Ginger ... 166 Rubber ... 279 collection of milk 279 locality ... 279 preparation of the rubber 280 propagation ... 280 source ... 279 value ... 280 yield ... 279 Kapok ... 233 Keeping fruit, by use of Formalin 154 Kidney beans ... 221 Kohl Rabi ... 221 Lagos Silk Rubber: See Funtumia elastica ... 171, 264 Landolphia fiorida, Heudelotii, Kirkii, Mannii, Owariensis, Peter- siana ... 278,279 La Zacualpa Rubber Plantation : 145 Castilloa lactiflua 146 Castilloa elastica 148 cleansing the rubber 150 coagulating — native Indian method 150 labour ... 147 latex ... 149 location of the Plantation 147 planting ... 148 tapping methods 149 washing the rubber 1 50 Leather, Manufacture of, in Jamaica ... 121, 123 Lemon Grass Oil ... 102 " " " from Montserrat 105 Lettuce ... 221 Levy, H. Q., on Cultivation and Marketing of Citrus Fruits 49 Lewkowitsch, Dr. J., on Ben Oil I13 Lily Bulbs in Bermuda ... 205 Lleren: A rare root crop 178 Lodoicea sechellarun ... 89 Logwood : Disease, Cultivation 78, 122 Root Rot ... 78 Lucas, George L., on Tobacco Dust as Fertilizer and Insecticide 178 VI. Page Page Taylor, Sir William, on Rubber in the Federated Malay States Tea Teversham, T. F., Resignation of Thompson, W. J., on Planting of Hard and Soft-wooded plants Tillman, Dr. H., on Early Oranges Tobacco Dust as Fertilizer and Insecticide " experiment under shade " for the Navy " of Bermuda " " Jamaica " " Porto Rico Tomatoes Turmeric : character and value merce cultivation curcumin food haldi medicine preparation of the root-stock Turnips 233 I 96 161 83 i;s 284 58, 307 206 58, 200. 283, 307 109 229 163 m com- 164 163 165 165 163 165 163 230 207 Vanilla statistics Vegetables, Notes on cultivation of ... 217,305 " Seasons and Prices for, in Kingston ... 68 Virgen Rubber ._ 271 age at which crops may be obtained ... 272 elevations for, in Colombia 272 " " in Jamaica 273 propagation ... 272 value of ... 272 Ward, Swinburne, on Coco de mer 89, 93 Water Melons . . . 230 Watson. Dr. Forbes, on Ramie 289, 292 Watts, Hon. F. on Lemon-grass Oil 105 Weevil attacking Camphor trees I16 Wildman. M. E. de, on Lagos Silk Rubber ... 171 Worn-out Soils, Renovation of 193 Wortley, E. J., Analyses of Imported and Native Corn 7 " Appointment as Lec- turer in Agricultural Science 144 Wright, Herbert, on Cacao cultiva- tion in Ceylon 236 " on Grass Oils 100 " on Para Rubber 169, 241 Xanthosoma Yams, Notes on 181 Zacualpa : See La Zacualpa Rubber Plantation ... 145 BULLETIN DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Vol. IV. JANUARY, 1906. Part 1 EDITED BY WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S.. Director of Public Gardens atid Plantations. CONTENTS: Page. Notes on Economic Plants : Yll I Yams 3 Notes on Imported and Native Corn 6 Ginep as a Stock Food ... 8 Palmyra Palm 8 Rust Mite of the Orange 9 Remedy for Caterpillars on Cotton, Cassava L, etc. 10 Cocoa Diseases n. II Value of Mulching II. ... 13 The Talipot Palm 19 The Future of Rubber ... 20 Board of Agriculture ... 22 PRIG E— Threepence. A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send name and address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plautatious, Kingatoii P.O. KINGSTON, JAMAICA : Hope Gardens. 1906. JAMAICA. LIBRARY NEW YORK BULLETIN 7-„-- OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUPtE. Vol. IV. JANUARY, 1906. Part 1. HISTORICAL NOTES ON ECONOMIC PLANTS IN JAMAICA. VI. — Tea (continued.) An article on tea appeared in the Bulletin for June and July, 1903. In order to bring the subject up to date the following para- graphs by Hon. H. E. Cox are reprinted from Jamaica in 1905. " There are at present only two tea plantations in the western hemisphere ; one at Summerville, South Carolina, U.S.A., and the other at Ramble in St. Ann, Jamaica. "Varieties of the tea plant were introduced into Jamaica in 1868, and were planted in the public gardens on the Blue Mountains, some 4,900 feet above sea-level, where they grew well. Some twenty years later a plantation of about 13 acres was formed in the neighbourhood of the gardens at Cinchona, but the cultivation was discontinued, and although the bushes are still growing well, it has not yet been resumed. In 1896 the plantation at Ramble in St. Ann was commenced. Its progress at first was very slow, every step having to be tested by experiment. The soil being different to that at Cinchona, the rainfall less than at that place, and the elevation only 1,600 feet above sea-level, it was necessary to commence by trying whether the plant would grow under the altered conditions sufficiently well to make it worth while to incur the great initial expense of forming a plantation. This test was made with 250 plants and a packet of seed from the Cinchona gardens. The result being favourable, the cultivation was extended as plants or seed could be procured ; but the quantity not being large, for several years only a small acreage could be planted. Of course, seed could have been imported, but it was decided not to do so for two reasons ; firstly, that the tea grown might be homogeneous in character, and secondly, for fear of importing certain enemies of the plant with the seed. Latterly the cultivation has expanded more rapidly, seed being obtained from the plants first put in ; there are now from 80 to 90 acres with plants of various ages. " After demonstrating that the plant would grow in St. Ann, it was necessary to experiment in manufacturing the tea from the leaf to judge whether its quality would justify a heavy expenditure on machinery for curing it. This test having been passed, machinery was procured and tea prepared for market, the first occasion being at the Thickets Show, in August, 1903. Since that time additional and improved machinery has been set up, and with the experience gained by practice in the manufacture, a good class of tea is being turned out. " Tea is essentially a factory crop; it requires a large initial outlay for buildings and machinery ; and there must be a consider- able expenditure for keeping the ground clean while the plants are growing, about five years. In Jamaica this item constitutes a serious handicap on the planter, as compared with India, where the rate of wages is very much lower. For these reasons, tea cultiva- tion requires a much longer period of waiting, before it can be remunerative, than some other cultivations, such as the banana ; but on the other hand, it is not subject to any great risk from hurricanes, and it is a crop with many advantages for the settler who lives within reach of a factory. He can grow the plant in his provision ground without stopping his other cultivation, and when the plants are large enough he will have at the factory at all times a market for his leaf." The Gleaner Newspaper published an interview with Sir D. Morris, Commissioner for the Imperial Department of Agriculture, in the course of which reference was made to Mr. Cox's tea planta- tion, as follows : — " Amongst the newer industries, I am glad to find that the Hon. H. E. Cox has extended his tea cultivation at Ramble, St. Ann, to 90 acres. This area is beautifully kept and the trees are in excellent health. The quality of the tea has greatly improved since my last visit to Jamaica, and when the new machinery which Mr. Cox has imported is in full working order, the tea of the coming season should all be of first-class quality. The tea is entirely made by machinery, and does not come in contact with the hands of the working people during the process of manufacture. This is the only tea cultivation in the West Indies and the prospects for the industry are very favourable." YAMS. By W. Harris, F.L.S., Superintendent of Hope Gardens. As far as I am able to gather the cultivated yams of Jamaica may all be referred to four species of Dioscorea, viz. : — D. sativa, Linn.. D. alata, Linn., D. cayennensis, Lam., and D. trifida, Linn., all climbing plants belonging to the order Dios- coreaccea, and cultivated in the tropics. It is exceedingly difficult to get good botanical specimens of these cultivated plants, but from enquiries made amongst cultiva- tors, and by carefully comparing the information thus gained with the published descriptions of cultivated species of Dioscorea, I have arrived at the determinations here given. If ever the numerous recognised varieties are critically examined, it is possible that some of those now included D. sativa, and D. alata will be referred to other species. Dioscorea sativa, Linn. " Negro Yam. " Stem cylindrical, not winged, more or less prickly ; leaves heart- shaped, roundish, gradually tapering into a sharp point. Tuber large, of a dark colour externally, but the end white and bitter when boiled if not perfectly ripe. This yam is of a dirty white colour when cooked, and is soft, but is considered a good yam. The Negro Yam is always cut before it is quite ripe, otherwise a very small " head" for planting would be obtained. It is a hardy yam and is the best kind for cold districts in the hills. Varieties. — " Man Yam." A larger yam and better flavoured than the " Negro." Tuber oblong, of nearly the same diameter through- out its length. This is allowed to ripen before being cut. " Litcea Yam." This is a longer yam than either the " Negro" or the " Man." In flavour it is considered superior to the " Negro" but inferior to the " Man." Tuber about the same thickness throughout its length. This yam is largely cultivated in the western parishes (Hanover, &c.), and is shipped in considerable quantities from the port of Lucea (hence its name) to Kingston, also to Cuba. It is a first-rate yam. " Mozclla," or " Bitter Yam." Very like the "Lucea," but of a purplish colour underneath the skin, and with a bitter taste when cooked, even when carefully cured. The stems of this variety climb to a great height, reaching the top of the highest tree if they happen to get hold of the branches. Dioscorea alata, Linn. "White Yam." India. Stems sharply angled, winged ; leaves heart-shaped, roundish, or pointed, variable in size and shape, often very large. Tuber very large as a rule, white. Varieties: — "Guinea Yam." One of the larges white yams. Skin smooth ; tuber soft when cooked, flavour good. Like the " Mozella Yam," the stems climb to a great height. "Moonshine Yam." Skin of a purple colour. A good white yam. " Snake Yam." Tubers club-shaped; growing to a length of 3 or 4 feet, and 8 or 9 inches in circumference. Not grown to any extent, being of poor quality. "Silver Yam." A dry, floury yam, one of the best of the white yams. " Bull-head Hard Yam." A rough coated, hairy yam, the shape of the tubers supposed to have some resemblance to a bull's head. It is a hard yam when cooked, but of good flavour. "Two-sister's Hard Yam." Somewhat similar to the "Bull- head." Called " Two-sisters" because each " head" produces two tubers. " Bear-and-drop Hard-head." Produces a large number of small tubers which are joined together in a mass by fibrous roots. When handled, however, they drop asunder. The tubers are very watery when cooked, and this is altogether a useless sort, and not cultivated. " Bragging Tom Yam." Said to be the largest white yam grown. Tubers measuring 3 to 4 feet in length, and 18 inches in diameter, have been grown. It is very scarce, but was formerly cultivated with much care. Large pits were dug, filled with rotten manure, and covered with soil and the " heads" planted. In addition to being a very large yam, it is considered one of the best when carefully cultivated. "Pucka Yam." A large, round sort, and so soft that in cooking it must be steamed, not boiled. A good yam. " Bullet-tree Pucka Yam." A large, round yam like the " Pucka," but the surface of the tuber is curiously pitted, the indentations being of a considerable size. "Flour Yam." A soft floury yam. One of the best. "Barbados Yam." A large yam, but clammy when cooked, and not considered a first-class kind. In some districts, however, it is of fair quality and is much liked. DISCOREA CAYENNENSIS, Lam. "Yellow Yam." " Afou Yam." Stems cylindrical, sparsely prickly below ; leaves heart-shaped, roundish, pointed, 7 nerved, about 3i inches long by 3 inches broad, quite glabrous, papery in texture ; flower spikes usually in pairs, produced from the axils of the leaf stalks. Tuber large, often branched, of a sulphur-yellow colour. If the tubers are allowed to become exposed during growth they are very bitter when cooked. Those grown in good open soils are fairly dry and mealy, but tubers grown in heavy, damp soils are clammy in texture when boiled, and anything but palatable. At best it is a heavy, coarse yam, but is grown extensively and is a general favourite amongst the working classes. It thrives best in hot dis- tricts, but it is a hardy yam and is not so readily affected by unfavourable climatic conditions as the more delicate white yams. It can be had at almost any time of the year, as tubers are cut from the growing plants often twice, the hills are moulded up again and fresh tubers are produced. There do not appear to be any named varieties of this plant. DIOSCOREA TRIFIDA Linn. "Indian Yam." "\ampee" "Ciish- Cusli." Stem angular, slightly winged; leaves 3-lobed ; tuber cylindrical, about 6 inches long. Each plant produces several tubers. This is quite the nicest of all yams for table. The tubers boiled or roasted, and eaten with good butter, are delicious. They have a " nutty" flavour not noticeable in other yams. DIOSCOREA BULBIFERA, Linn. "Acorn Yam." "Bulb-bearing Yam." East Indies. Naturalised in West Indies. Stem sub-cylindrical ; leaves heart-shaped, ovate, pointed ; tuber somewhat globose. This plant produces numbers of rather large bulbils on its stems ; these are of a light brown colour, about 3 inches long, oval roundish, or flat on one side. They may be planted to pro- pagate the plant. The tubers are rarely eaten, but a good starch is obtained from them. Cultivation. There is no crop so generally grown in the West Indies as that of yam of one kind or another. In Jamaica, yams may be seen from near the coast up to 4,000 feet altitude, and they seem to thrive everywhere. Tubecs grown in good open soils are naturally superior to those grown in damp, heavy clayey soils, but certain varieties are suited to the soils of certam districts, and as this is a crop on which the small cultivator largely depends for his food supply, he grows only those varieties that he knows from his own experience, and that of his neighbours, will produce good crops in the land that he cultivates. The main crop of yams is planted from January to end of March, but planting is continued to July. The " Negro" and " Indian" yams are planted first, and they take from five to seven months to produce edible tubers ; the " Afou" or " yellow yam" is planted next, and it takes about seven months ; the " White Yams" are planted last, and they take ten to twelve months to arrive at maturity. The length of time varies according to altitude and climate. In the mountains, from the time of planting to the time of lifting the ripe " heads" occupies twelve months. The first tubers of "Negro Yam" and its varieties, and the " Afou" are cut during the growth of the plants, but the " White Yams" are allowed to finish their growth and ripen before being cut. When the tubers are all cut, the base of the vine, with the fibrous roots is carefully moulded up, and left undisturbed for a period of five or six months, or longer, during which time the " head" is formed. When the stems and leaves turn yellow and begin to decay, the "head" is ripe. The heads, as a rule, are lifted, and kept perfectly dry till required for planting. Shoots are produced by these in the same way as produced by potatoes that are kept for seed. Generally, the heads are planted whole, but occasionally a head is composed of two or three small tubers, and these are separated and planted, two of these small heads being placed in a hill instead of one strong one. Preparing the hills. The cultivator with his hoe digs the ground on an area of about four feet by three ; he thoroughly pulverizes this and picks out all stones, roots, &c., and draws the soil into a mound. The hills are usually 6 feet apart, and when all are pre- pared, he proceeds to plants his "heads." With his hand he makes an opening in the centre of the hill or mound of earth, and carefully plants his " seed," generally one strong head to each hill. As soon as planting is finished, he puts a stout bamboo pole or stake firmly in the ground, one to each plant, as a support for the vines to twine on, and he slants these in one direction up the hill (yams are generally grown on the hill-sides in Jamaica). He care- fully watches his plants, moulding the hills, and training the young vines in the way that they should grow. When the tubers are fit for cutting they are used principally by the grower and his family, but any surplus stock is disposed of. His wife takes them to the nearest local market and either sells them, or barters them for plantains, " new sugar," or any other product not grown or prepared in her own district, or she carries them to Kingston market, and with the proceeds purchases such necessaries as she may require. Catch crops are always grown between yam hills ; these may be corn, peas, ochro, pumpkins, melons, cucumbers, or other quick growing crops. A curious fact in connection with the twining habit of yams may be noted here. As far as I am aware, the stems of all the cultivated species, with one exception, twine to the right, that is from the west, by the south to the east. The exception is the Indian yam, or Cush-Cush, it twines to the left, that is from the west, by the north to the east. NOTES ON IMPORTEDAND NATIVE COR"^ . By H. H. Cousins, M.A., Agricultural Chemist. Analyses of seven samples of imported American corn as sold in Jamaica have been made to ascertain the average composition of the imported article in comparison with well-cured native corn. The average of the seven samples, which show little variation, in- dicates a content of 9"4 per cent, of albuminoids as against I2*4 in a fair sample of country corn based upon a content of 12 '/, moisture. These figures clearly bring out the fact that our tropical corn is richer in flesh-producing material than the imported corn grown in the United States and is therefore superior as a food for horses. These analyses are the work of Mr. E. J. Wortley, Assistant Chemist, and are a continuation of the analyses already published in this Bulletin, Vol. III. Oct., 1905, p. 214. •ajnistotn )/o zi Biseq nospiouranq^V C3 S5 o/o ejqi J ■n/o iB^ U5 CO lO CO CO 1(1 ■ajtnsTO^\[ o CO CO 00 CO CO ■* • o o a 9 O O o »5 GINEP AS A STOCK FOOD. By H. H. Cousins, M.A., Agricultural Chemist. My attention was called to the practical value of the fruit of ginep (Melicocca bijuga) for feeding sheep by Mr. Facey of Montego Bay — Analyses have been made in the Laboratory with the following results : — GINEP. Skin 227 % Seed 317 '1, Pulp 45-6 1 Ripe Fruit. Dried at 100- C. • 3 00 a SO CO 0 •=.(5 rsxi £ 3 to '0 •i 0 0=^ .5 to "5" £ £ 'o J3 -4J O d IS o "o" fei <. ^ •A tq '^ ^ < H < l£< E Seed 54-71 1-22 •84 6 22 •63 5-09 2-69 1-86 11-56 M7 11-21 Seeii, skin & pulp . 80-52 -53 .32 1-97 •25 2.1 2 67 1-64 1011 1 28 10-77 The seed is fairly rich in albuminoids and may fairly be regarded as a concentrated food-stuff that should be valuable as an addition to grass and green fodder. THE PALMYRA PALM. Sir J. E. Tennant in his work on " Ceylon," speaks as follows of the Palmyra Palm (Borassus flabelliformis). " The palmyra is an invaluable palm, and one of the most beautiful of the family. It grows in such profusion over the north of Ceylon, and especially in the peninsula of Jaffna, as to form extensive forests, whence its timber is exported for rafters to all parts of the island, as well as to the opposite coast of India, where, though the palmyra grows luxuriantly, its wood, from local causes, is too soft and perishable to be used for any purpose requiring strength and durability, qualities which, in the palmyra of Ceylon, are pre-eminent. To the inhabitants of the northern provinces this invaluable tree is of the same importance as the coco-nut palm is to the natives of the south. Its fruits yields them food and oil ; its juice " palm wine" and sugar ; its stem is the chief material of their builings ; and its leaves, besides serving as roofs to their dwellings and fences to their farms, supply them with matting and baskets, with head-dresses and fans, and serve as a substitute for paper for their deeds and writings, and for the sacred books, which contain the traditions of their faith. It has been said with truth that a native of Jaffna, if he be contented with ordinary doors and mud walls, may build an entire house (as he wants neither nails nor iron work), with walls, roof, and cover- ing from the Palmyra palm. From this same tree he may draw his wine, make his oil, kindle his fire, carry his water, store his food, cook his repast, and sweeten it, if he pleases ; in fact, he does so live from day to day dependent on his palmyra alone. Multitudes so live, and it may be safely asserted that this tree alone furnishes one-fourth the means of sustenance for the population of the northern provinces." THE RUST MITE OF THE ORANGE. The mite* which causes the rust of the orange, lives on all citrus plants. It is very small, only o^q of an inch in length. The eggs hatch in four or five days, and within seven to ten days the young mites undergo a moult. The period of moulting, or casting the skin, lasts two days, and eggs are probably laid in a few days after the moult. The mites feed on the essential oil of the leaves and fruit, and move from one part of the plant to another as the conditions favour them. EFFECTS OF ATTACK. On the leaves each puncture of the mites causes a minute pimple, and if the mites are abundant, the leaf surface loses its gloss, and has a tarnished dusty appearance. The leaves do not drop off, but there is a loss of vitality, and the growth of the plant is to some extent checked. If the fniit is severely attacked, it does not attain its full size. The skin shrinks and toughens, preserving the fruit from injury and decay, so that it carries better, keeps longer, and is superior in flavour to bright fruit. REMEDIES. In applying remedies, the life history must be remembered ; and that while it is comparatively easy to kill the adult mites, it is very difficult to kill the eggs and the young mites while they are protected by the old skin during the moulting stage. Either the remedy must be sufficient to kill eggs and young as well as adults, or it must be repeated at intervals. Whale Oil Soap. — Whale oil soap solution, made by dissolving one pound of the soap in ten gallons of water, is effectual in killing all the adults, and a large percentage of moulting mites and eggs. Applications should be made by a spray pump, and be repeated several times at intervals of a few days. One pound to five gallons of water in still more effectual but while not injuring the leaves, may cause the blossoms to fall off" if applied when the plant is in flower. Sulphur. — Finely powdered flower of sulphur kills both adult and young mites, but does not affect the eggs. It may be dusted on the plant, or applied in water by spraying, — putting two or three ounces of sulphur to one gallon of water. If scale-insects * H. G. Hubbard in Ann. Rep. U. S. Dept. of Agri. 188i, page 361. 10 are troublesome, the sulphur in the same proportions can be used with kerosene emulsion, so that both the mites and the scale- insects are attacked by each application. REMEDY FOR CATERPILLARS ON COTTON, CASSAVA, &c. Paris Green has been recommended in the Bulletin* as a dry application for the Cotton Worm, and it is believed that under all ordinary conditions the method recommended is the simplest, cheapest and most effective. But wrhere six or seven hundred acres of cotton are planted out in fields of from lOO to 300 acres as a new cultivation with large numbers of wild cotton plants growing all through the neighbour- hood the opportunity for the cotton worm to increase and multiply is at once made use of, and when rain falls every afternoon, washing off the Paris Green, the resultant plague of cotton worms causes very extensive destruction, and a new remedy has to be found to deal with any such emergency. It is believed that such remedy is arsenate of lead applied by means of a knapsack spray pump. It does not wash off easily, and does not injure young foliage as excess of Paris Green does. It is useful for the destniction of any caterpillar or worm that injures by eating, e.g. the cassava caterpillar, and should be kept ready in stock for any emergency that may arise. Prof. Fernald of Massachusetts Agricultural College recom- mends! the following recipe : — Arsenate of Lead. 4 oz. arsenate of soda (50 % strength). II oz. acetate of lead. 150 gallons water. " Put the arsenate of soda in 2 quarts of water in a wooden pail, and the acetate of lead in four quarts of water in another wooden pail. When both are dissolved, mix with the rest of the water. Warm water in the pails will hasten the process." The proportion of water may vary, the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (Bull. 41, Div. Entom.) recommends less than half the water. If fungus also attacks the leaf, as it did cotton in Vere lately, mix with Bordeaux mixturej: as follows : — • "Prepare the arsenate of lead as above, but instead of adding the arsenate of soda and acetate of lead, when dissolved, to the water, mix the two together well, then add one-third of this to 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture". Arsenate of lead is put on the market in a very convenient form under the name of Bowker's Disparene & Swift's Arsenate of Lead. The latter can be purchased in Kingston. •Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica, II. July 1904, page 159; III. Sept. 1905, page 203. t Bulletin No. 96. Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, May 1904. J Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica, III. March 1905, page 61. II COCOA DISEASES. II. In the December Bulletin (page 270) an account was given of a disease of Cocoa pods in which the darkening of the pod is accompanied by white mould on the outside. Mr. Hart in a paper on " Some Fungi of the Cacao Tree* states that in Trinidad "the disease was observed to be most prevalent in places where the atmosphere was humid and where the pods had been allowed to rot beneath the trees." Mr. Albert Howard, formerly the expert in fungoid diseases to the Imperial Department of Agriculture, recommends, f besides the remedies mentioned last month, " Reduction of shade. Where cacao is grown under shade as in Trinidad, and where this dis- ease is prevalent, it would be advisable to diminish the number of shade trees and to prune the cacao trees as much as possible, so as to considerably reduce the humidity of the atmosphere. In this way conditions could be adjusted so as to be unfavourable to the development and spread of the fungus while not interfering with the growth of the cacao tree." Another disease has been noticed as occurring in Jamaica, that known as the " brown rot" disease of the pod. J This was deter- mined here, and confirmed by reference to the Commissioner of the Imperial Department of Agriculture. It is described in the paper by Mr. Howard as follows — " When cacao pods are attacked by this disease, a circular brown patch makes its appearance which gradually extends all over the pod and causes complete destruction of the rind and its con- tents. The time taken in the destruction of a pod varies somewhat according to its ripeness, but usually falls between six and ten days from the appearance of a diseased spot visible to the naked eye. This appearance must not be confused with the rusty or " mahogany" pods which result from " thrips" when the whole of the outside of the pods takes on a rusty colour but when the rind is not diseased.** The definite brown patches in question gene- rally commence either at the insertion of the stalk or at the free end of the pod, but they may occur at other points, especially where the rind has been injured or where the pod comes in contact with a branch. These diseased pods are particularly numerous near the '" breaking-grounds" where the beans are extracted by the pickers. If one of these attacked pods is carefully examined it will be found that the brown area is rotten and that the decay extends to and spreads round the shell of the pod to a much greater distance than would be supposed from a surface examina- tion. The disease soon spreads to the " beans" which are speedily attacked and destroyed by a greyish fungus mycelium which grows * W. Indian Bulletin Vol. I. pp. 4l>2-7 with plate, t W. Indian Bulletin Vol. II. p. 198. j Diplodia cacaoicoia. ** The rusty colour of the pods attacked by "thrips" is caused by the formation of a cork layer, below thn epidermis, which cuts ofE all the cells above it. These cut off cells consequently dry up and turn brown. The cork layer is really a new epidermis layer formed on account of the numerous perforations made in the original epidermal cells by the " thrips." 12 with enormous rapidity in tlie mucilage surrounding the seeds, and eventually dries up the whole contents of the fruit, and gives to it a curious sour smell. " When the diseased patch on the rind is about the size of a penny piece, small circular mounds, about the size of a pin's head, can be seen about the centre of the brown area on the rind from which a greyish white powdery dust is expelled which turns black in a short time. This dust is composed of elliptical dark brown one-septate spores. The small mounds into which the surface of the pod is raised are found to be due to the fructifications of a fungus in which the above spores are formed which rupture the epidermis and liberate the spores through a small circular opening. Remedial Measures. "It is obvious when we consider the character of this disease that no steps can be taken, with any hope of success, to arrest the spread of the fungus when once it has gained access to a pod — in other words, there is no ' cure' for the disease. Preventive measures alone are possible, and these must be directed towards the des- truction of everything in the plantations which harbours the fungus with a view of preventing further infection by means of spores. The following treatment is suggested for dealing with the disease. " I. As a general rule care should be taken not to allow the pods to get too ripe, as the fungus seems most liable to attack pods in this condition. Again, ripe pods, showing small brown discoloured areas, should be picked at once so as to save the beans if possible. " 2. All husks or shells left after the beans have been extracted, should be buried as soon as possible under the trees, and, if the buried heaps are large, lime should be added to hasten decay and prevent local souring of the soil. There are two obvious reasons why this expense in burying pods should be incurred. First, there is the advantage to the soil in supplying humus, and secondly, the fungus is deprived of a substratum on which it thrives and produces countless millions of spores which may infect living pods. The "breaking-grounds" should be moved from time to time so as to give as many trees as possible the benefit of this manuring. Recently, while making a tour through the island of Grenada, I was very forcibly impressed by the general absence of this disease in plantations where the pods were systematically buried, and also by its presence on estates and small holdings where this practice had not yet been adopted. Indications are not wanting, however, that cacao planters are realising the importance of this step, both from the point of view of the enrichment of the soil and the preven- tion of disease. " 3. All badly diseased pods on the trees where the fungus has reached the beans, and all old husks on the ground which have turned black and become covered with the sooty spores of the fungus, should either be buried away from the cacao trees or else burnt. 13 " 4- All dead cacao trees, old prunings and branches should be periodically collected and burnt, and the ashes which are rich in potash, spread under the trees. This proceeding is necessary because the fungus lives on dead cacao wood and will thus be able to infect healthy pods." VALUE OF MULCHING, II. The value of mulching has been recognised in Jamaica for some years, and in the December Bulletin an account was given of exact experiments that had been carried out in Dominica under the general superintendence of Hon. Dr. F. Watts, showing that mulching cocoa with leaves and grass during a period of three years gave a greater increase in crop than various manures. The report of the Annual General Meeting of the United Planters' Association of Southern India held last August, has just been received, and it is instructive to note that the coffee planters there appear to think they may have been using too much artificial manure during the past 20 years, and that they are just beginning to recognise the value of mulching. The following are extracts from the very interesting report of the meeting : — Mr. a. F. Martin : — Dr. Lehmann has told us that the general practice in several countries is that the amount of manure to be put on a field is calculated by first of all determining how much of the soil constituents the crop has removed from the ground ; but in coffee we have not only to consider what amount has been removed by the crop, but we have to consider the general health of the tree. I would like to know if it would not be necessary to give other manures and a greater quantity than has actually been removed by the crop ? Dr. Lehmann : — In other countries, as a general principle, the manure is added in proportion to the soil constituents removed by the crop. It is absolutely impossible, however, to keep a book account of that kind. But as a general principle, it has been recommended by certain German chemists, and the results they have obtained are certainly satisfactory. In regard to the coffee tree, there is absolutely nothing to show that the coffee tree will differ from other crops. The coffee tree will yield in proportion to its vigour. It cannot yield a crop if it is not in a vigorous condition ; unless it is injured to such an extent as to put forth a special effort to repi'oduce its species before it dies, as, for example, in a badly bored tree. But these are abnormal conditions. Under normal conditions, a coffee tree will produce an amount of crop to a certain extent proportionate to the vigour and health of the tree. Perhaps you may have a number of examples which appear to contradict this, for the principle is only generally applicable. If we return to the soil the same amount of plant 14 food we have removed from it, the amount of plant food will remain stationary. Mr. Hughes in his attempt to arrive at a similar basis for Ceylon has taken into account the leaves that drop off and the pulp and everything else. All these are returned to the soil. Therefore they do not require to enter into the calculation. But I do not recommend a reduction in manures. I only recommend, and that most emphatically, the necessity for experimenting with manures. I do not wish to lay before you any facts and figures for reducing your bill in manuring. I only wish to enlist your sympathies in the matter of experimenting, and in order to do so I have pointed out that there may be a possibility of reducing such a very important matter as the manure account. In order to convince you that there may be a possibility of reduc- ing that expenditure, I have quoted facts and figures which have led me to think that there is such a possibility. I don't want to interfere with the present manuring problem. We are not in a position to do so, but we are in a position to realise that we must have information on the matter, that our present system of manuring is not necessarily accurate or the best or the right thing to do. Mr. Harris : — I should like to mention in connection with what Dr. Lehmann said about the matter of experimental plots, that what he stated is perfectly correct and that the average for the past 4 years show that the manured plots have yielded the smallest crops. But it is rather interesting to notice that during the last year of the experiment the no-manured plots show a decided tendency to decrease ; which rather points to the fact that they might have fed on manure previously received. Dr. Lehmann : — That is just what I have been wishing to impress upon the meeting. Probably we have over-manured the plots in the past. If we had done so, we must know it ; because, of the manure that we put into the soil, although a certain propor- tion of it remains there, a certain proportion is lost. The experi- ments which I have made in regard to the after effects of poonac on Ragi have conclusively indicated that there is very little manurial effect of poonacs left in the soil after one year. Our principal manures have been bone and poonac. Bone contains a certain amount of nitrogen. Its principal constituent is phosphoric acid. If we take as a basis the experience of other countries, we may say that phosphoric acid will remain in the soil ; but the nitrogen, which is the most expensive constituent, will undoubtedly be lost sooner or later. If we have applied manures which have given nitrogen for four years, then we have been applying very much, too much of it. The nitrogen that is applied in the poonacs will certainly not last longer than four years. Mr. DANVERS : — The nitrogen in bone, will it not last longer ? Dr. Lehmann : — I might say that in the experiments I have just told you about there was apparently no after effect either from the IS poonac or the bone. As regards the availability of bone meal Dr. Kellner's experiments conducted in Japan are probably the most valuable to us. He found that bone meal was, under the conditions which existed in his experiments, much more available than the results of Wagner, Maerker and other German investiga- tors indicated. Kellner found bone meal about as available as Basic Slag, and in that case the after effect is of course relatively small for if the principal part of the fertilizer is used the first year there is not much left of it for the second and third years. What I saw on Mr. Sprott's estate seems to indicate that Kellner's results obtained in Japan are more likely to apply to India than Wagner's experiments made in Germany. Mr. Sprott had put out what ap- peared to me very coarse bone meal to one of his fields about 10 months before I visited his estate. This bone meal was left on the surface and only covered by the leaves which gradually dropped from the shade trees and coffee bushes. All we could find of this bone meal was a splinter a little over an inch long and a little less than half an inch thick, and this crumbled to powder when rubbed between the fingers. You will agree with me, I am sure, that this indicates that under the conditions existing on Mr. Sprott's estate, bone meal decomposes very quickly. Possibly the reason for this is that the bone meal is surrounded by decomposing organic matter, and that the carbonic acid produced helps to dissolve the bone. Mr. DANVERS : — I think the solubility of Mr. Sprott's bone manure is largely due to the nature of the plots to which it was applied. I am still digging up bones in my estate that were put out 9 or 10 or even 25 years or more years ago. I would like to ask Dr. Lehmann whether he has had any oppor- tunity of ascertaining if there is any difference in quality, judged by analyses, between coffee from these manured and unmanured experimental plots ; whether there has been any deterioration in the unmanured coffee or improvement in the manured ? Dr. Lehmann : — I have not had an opportunity of determining the specific gravity of the coffee from these plots. I shall do so, with Mr. Harris and Mr. Denne's permission, in future. But as there has been no difference in the average quantity of coffee pro- duced apparently manures have had no effect on these plots ; and I do not know whether it will be reasonable to expect that manures had an effect on the quality if they had no effect on the quantity. In regard to the matter of bone manure, I am very much interested in what Mr. Danvers has told us. It seems to confirm the idea I have given you just now in regard to the reason why Mr. Sprott's results are different from those obtained in Europe. In the expe- riments made in Europe with bones in pot-cultures, the soil in the pots is comparatively poor in organic matter. Although Mr. C. Danver's estate soil contains more organic matter than is used in pot culture it does not contain as much organic matter as there is, or was, on the surface of Mr. Sprott's estates. I may here mention another idea I have ; that is, that the organic matter on the surface i6 soil is one of the most essential things we have to consider in the matter of coffee growing. We hear of the deterioration of coffee, and have several indications that that deterioration is due to a diminution of the organic matter in the soil. I think it behoves us to be most careful in regard to this organic matter. In these tropical climates organic matter decomposes very very quickly. There are indications, I believe, that coffee is able to assimilate directly organic matter which is on the surface. As a rule, plant roots are not able to do so. Organic matter in the soil acts only on the mechanical condition of the soil with crops like wheat, barley and oats. But in the case of coffee we are dealing with a plant about which we know very little, and the fact that there is a great cluster of very thick white rootlets going through organic matter on Mr. Sprott's estate seems to me to indicate that probably or possibly, coffee roots may be surrounded with that network of mycelium, which Dr. Butler has found to exist on the roots of tea plants. I cannot speak with any degree of certainty about it. But it appears to me, that the thickness of the white-tipped coffee roots that I have seen is larger than is generally the case ; and from the fact that these roots are found in such large numbers on the surface and from the fact that they are of such large diameter I conclude that there is a possibility that these roots are able to make use directly of the organic matter which is on the surface, and that they do not only make use of this organic matter but may very possibly require it ; and to my mind, at any rate, there is a very hopeful indication that coffee may be improved in quality in the future. I may mention here, too, that all the mulching experi- ments which have been carried out in Mysore have, so far as I know, been very successful indeed. I remember one patch of very poor coffee on a heavy clay soil, in an otherwise nice piece of coffee, which I advised the manager to mulch heavily. The next year when I saw that patch, I could not distinguish it from the surrounding coffee. I think Mr. Harris will bear me out that on his estate the mulching that has been done has been effective. The effect of a mulch is two-fold ; it supplies organic matter to the surface when it decomposes and it prevents the nasty disagre- able caking on the soil which is so deleterious to coffee. MR. SPROTT : — I should be obliged if Dr. Lehmann could tell us what manure had been put to these experimental plots previous to their being taken up for experiments, and also if he could tell us the amount of manure which he put to the manured portions of it. I do not know if Mr. Harris could tell us that. I ask him because I have been very much of Dr. Lehman's opinion, after having had very many conversations with him on the subject. I think we have been very much over-manuring and have wasted a great deal. I am trying now putting smaller doses of manure, for I think there is a possibility of our having over-manured. I am watching very carefully whether coffee deteriorates in any way by lessening the manure. So far, I can only say it has not ; and I think that spreading our manure in smaller quantities over an area will bring in beneficial results. I can also strongly bear out what Dr. Lehmann 17 said about mulching. I have tried it on several bare patches of ground. It has done far more good than a heavy dose of manure. Mr. DanVERS : — I have some patches to which manuring year after year has done no good ; but mulching has done good to them. The Honble. MR. HODGSON : — I have been very much interested in what Dr. Lehmann has told us today. Whenever he comes to our Session, he has a great deal to say to us of very great value. Very important is the problem to us of the psssibility of reducing the cost of manure. I believe that Dr. Lehmann is on the right track in this matter, for I have noticed for some years past that a great many estates have necessarily been obliged to reduce the cost of manuring as a matter of economy. The price of coffee having gone down, they simply have no money for heavy manu- ring, and curiously enough, concurrently with the reduction in the quantity of manure applied, there has been in many cases an increase even in the crop returns. That is a remarkable thing. It rather bears out what Mr. Harris and Mr. Sprott have told us about the two plots of unmanured lands yielding larger crop aver- ages. But then there are two accounts to be considered in work- ing out profits, the Revenue and the Capital account , and both these have to be kept in view. Along with the Revenue account the condition of the estate, whether it has deteriorated or not, must be taken into consideration in working out profits. If this were not done, it would be quite possible to show a good profit in the Revenue account which in reality has been taken out of Capital, that is to say by sweating the trees, and this might even be kept up for two or three years. It is therefore very neces- sary, as Dr. Lehmann always impresses upon us, to be very care- ful as to our facts in drawing conclusions from experiments. Mr. DanvERS : — I think what you say bears out what Dr. Leh- mann recommends, viz., the carrying out of these experiments for a long series of years. In four years the yield of crops may not have reduced but the estate may have deteriorated. Dr. Lehmann : — The reason why I am very cautious in the matter of even hinting at the fact that the manure might possibly be reduced, is, that I know from bitter experience how difficult it is for an estate that has run down to pick up again. It is frightful expenditure and trouble to get an estate into a good bearing con- dition. If it has once been allowed to run down, it is very diffi- cult for it to pick up again. Mr. Harris-.— Mr. Sprott asked me if I could supply him with certain information regarding my plots. I should be delighted to do so. But it is difficult to go back in memory to ten years. If he is interested in the matter I will try and have the information collected for him from my records. As regards the plots there are ten diff- erent plots ; with the exception of the two unmanured plots, the rest of them are all manured, and have been manured for the last four years, with different mixtures. The object of the experiments is i8 to determine which is the most satisfactory manner in which we could apply phosphoric acid. Dr. Lehmann : — I think there are two objects ; one to find out in what particular constituents the soil was lacking, because if we apply nitrogenous manure to a soil which is already rich in nitrogen but poor in potash, nitrogenous manure will give us no result. But if we apply potash, it will give good results in such land ; so that the whole plan of experiments was to find out first of all in what particular constituents that soil was lacking, whether potash or phosphoric acid, nitrogen or lime. In addition to that Mr. Harris' plot was particularly deficient in phosphoric acid, and he had been recommended to apply phosphoric acid over and over again. It had been previously manured with basic slag. It was desired to find out whether bone or superphosphates would give better results. That was applied on this estate, because Mr. Harris' estate is not particularly rich in iron. On some estates there was, to my mind, a suspicion that superphosphates would not act properly, because it would be transformed into phosphate of iron, whicn is, according to recognised dogmas of agricultural chemists, valueless. However, it was in their experiments in connection with soil to find out whether it was rich in organic matter, they found that phosphate of iron is valuable. It is a notion that phosphate of iron is valueless because it is insoluble. Whether such is the case we do not know. We have to fight shy of these notions and suggestions and suppositions. We must experiment and try to find out what really is the truth. Mr. DANVERS : — I suppose it will be difficult to find any estate in India which has not been manured for 20 years. Dr. Lehmann : — I saw an estate 20 years old. It was in a magnificient condition, had an exceptionally rich soil, and was in a favoured locality. An estate like that will do very well to experiment with very small doses of manure Mr. Harris : — May I ask Mr. Sprott to what extent he has reduced the application of manure, roughly speaking .' Mr. Sprott : — Speaking from memory, we used to put out as much as 7 to 8 cwts. of bone and poonac. I have put out 5 cwts. bones and poonac or fish in one portion of the estate every year for some eight years, and it has steadily improved, previous to that the chief manure I used was cattle and fish manure. Fish manure I have put as much as 7 to 10 cwts. per acre. The manure I have put out for the last 20 years has all been on the surface. I have put out this year in February I cwt. refined saltpetre to some portions of the estate without anything else at present. 1 am now going to back it up with 3 cwt. of fish manure or bones and poonac, thus making 4 cwts. for the year; on other portions I have put 2 cwt. of crude saltpetre, and it will get 3 cwt. bones and poonac or fish later. Dr. Lehmann : — In good poonac we already apply all the phosphoric acid that is removed. If there is a mistake — I don't 19 know that there is a mistake — in manuring, it is that we have been putting out too much bone. There is five times the amount of potash removed that there is of phosphoric acid, and we have applied no potash. We have applied bone and poonac. Bone contains 23 per cent, of phosphoric acid. In 2 cwt. of bone we have 20 times as much phosphoric acid as we really require. It is a very large amount of phosphoric acid that has been applied to the estate in proportion to the potash and nitrogen. Potash has been particularly disregarded in former years, and now they may apply very much potash. THE TALIPOT PALM. The famous Talipot Palm (Corypha umbraculifera) is a native of Ceylon and the Malabar Coast. In Ceylon it is rather common in the moist region up to 2,000 feet altitude. It has an erect, straight, cylindrical trunk 30 to over 80 feet high. The measurements of a specimen that flowered at Peradeniya, Ceylon, were as follows : — Height of stem 84 feet, of flower panicle 21 feet, total 105 feet; girth at 3 feet from the ground round the persistent bases of the leaves 13 ft. y inches, at 21 feet from the ground 8 feet 3 inches ; age about 40 years. The tree dies after once flowering and fruiting. The trunk is surmounted by a crown of gigantic fan-like leaves. These leaves have prickly stalks 5 to lo feet long, and when fully expanded form a nearly complete circle of 8 to 16 feet in diameter, and composed of 80 to 100 radiating segments, joined together and plaited like a fan till near the extremity, where they separate and form a fringe of double points. The leaves are made into fans, mats, and umbrellas, and are used for writing on. They are also largely employed for thatch- ing. "The leaf being dried is very strong and limber, and most wonderfully made for man's convenience to carry along with them ; for though this leaf be thus broad (enough to cover 15 or 20 men) when it is open, it will fold close like a lady's fan, and then it is no bigger than a man's arm ; it is wonderfully light." (Knox.) A bread is made of the pounded soft interior of the trunk. The seeds have the hardness of ivory, and are known as Bazarbatu nuts ; they are used as beads in Ceylon, and largely in the manufacture of buttons in Europe. The young fruit pounded is used for stupefying fish. Visitors to the old Botanic Garden at Bath a few years ago will remember the fine specimen that existed there. It fruited in 1902, and then died. A supply of seeds was obtained and plants raised from these may now be had from Hope Gardens. The Talipot is not suited for small gardens, but where space can be spared for it on a lawn it will grow into a noble tree. 20 THE FUTURE OF RUBBER. (From a Special Corrcsp07ide)it in "Madras Mail, llth October.") We may be certain that present prices are enabling the Ameri- can Rubber gatherers to exploit very out-of-the-way districts, in- volving heavy transport charges ; and yet the increase in output is not serious, the rise in exchange no doubt taking away much of the benefit from the enhanced price. So that it looks likely that, if Brazilian exchange is maintained at its present level, a compara- tively moderate drop in prices would render it unprofitable to work much of the country that is now being tapped, in which case a really serious drop would be deferred for an uncertain number of years. Supposing, however, that the continual planting up of Rubber in the East finally brings this about, and there is a struggle ending in the survival of the fittest, the only possible result can be the knocking out of wild rubbers and the transference of the indus- try into the hands of the planter, who could, if necessary control output. This is looking far ahead indeed, but both in cinchona and tea the maintenance of some control over output is recognised, and as the rubber supply will eventually be chiefly in British hands, the possibility of such a control, if ever required is evident. It is use- less at present, to attempt careful estimates of rubber production. In Ceylon, apparently all tea land under some 2,000 ft., and much other land, is going into rubber, but what will it do and what the yield will be is another question. Mr. Burgess holds the view that the Straits must eventually excel Ceylon in production on account of the fine land that is being opened in the former country. But against this is the great accessibility of all the Ceylon districts, and transport is a very important point after leaving the sea. No doubt the more sanguine estimates of yield will not be realized, and I hear that the large trees at Peradeniya, which Mr. Wright expected would give some I2lb. of rubber each per annum under the latest method of tapping, have stopped their flow of latex to a great extent. I am satisfied with the, to me, unavoidable conclu- sion that a good class of rubber, under suitable conditions, will yield large profits for many years to come. MR. BURGESS' VIEW. Mr. Burgess, the Straits expert, states that Eastern plantation rubber is found not to be as resilient or of such recuperative power as the wild product (Amazon Para). This is hardly surprising, seeing that, practically. Eastern rubber is all from young trees, whilst the American is from picked forest giants ! The same reason may, perhaps, partly account for the fact that some Eastern rubber at any rate has shown signs of not keeping after a couple of years, though Mr. Burgess is inclined to think that the acetic acid or formalin used for coagulation has produced this effect. This is a matter for the chemist and experience to decide ; I cer- tainly have samples of rubber, taken in India four years ago, 21 which are practically as sound as they were at first and no coagu- lant was used. WHICH IS THE BEST SPECIES TO GROW ? Para is first and the rest nowhere with most planters, especially in Ceylon. The Castilloa at Peradeniya are not impos- ing trees for their age, and Mr. Wright's experience of this variety does not seem very favourable. The trees milk fairly well, but are apt to die within the year. Another keen planter, with Castilloa growing at 1,000 feet found it almost impossible to get the latex to coagulate. In S. India, however, these difificulties do not occur. It takes a very large amount of ill-treatment to even affect the health of a Castilloa at 3,500 feet and the latex coagulates without special difficulty. Generally speaking the Castilloa prefers a drier climate than that which Para revels in, and also does better at a fair distance above sea-level. Ceara is being tried here and there, planters being encouraged by the copious flow of milk from the old trees which survive from plant- ings of twenty years ago and more. These certainly produce excellent rubber nearly if not quite equal to Para in appearance when carefully prepared, and the tree grows on very poor soil and at a considerable elevation. It also does not demand a heavy rainfall, though like all rubbers it thrives best with a good allow- ance of moisture. Ficus elastica is certainly not a tree to plant amongst coffee or near anything valuable, if one may judge from the Peradeniya trees. These completely occupy a large area with their roots, and are now showing signs of decay. As, however, I understand they are getting on for 50 years old, there would be time to extract a fortune out of them if they contained it ; some quicker-yielding trees,however,are preferable. Funtumia trees grow well in S. India at 3,000 feet or so ; at Peradeniya it is found that they are so eaten by caterpillars that nothing can be done with them. I would certainly give the award, as a general thing, to Para. It is as far as I have seen, decidely the hardiest of all. It resists ill treatment wonderfully and is practically unaffected, as far as I can see, by excess of rain or severe drought ; whilst it is a useful shade for coffee for a good term of years. In South India I have given measurements of growth at 3,500 feet and I may mention that I have plants 6 feet high from seed planted at stake, amongst coffee, in 1904. Taking the opinion that " it does not pay to tap trees at over 3,000 feet," what does this mean ? We must remember that the nature of the forest tapping, where trees are scattered and where, we are told, trees of 2 feet girth would not be noticed as worth tapping and only the widely scattered giants, giving 5lb. or more rubber, are selected. At over 3,000 feet these giants would be comparatively rare and take much finding, but plantation conditions would make all the difference. At 3,500 feet the trees on a plantation would be at just the same distance apart as at 1,000 feet or 2,000 feet. They would perhaps require another year to make equal growth, but this would not prevent their paying handsomely. 22 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES. The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held on Tuesday 1 2th December, present : Hon. H. Clarence Bourne, Colonial Secretary, Chairman, the Director of Public Gardens, the Island Chemist, the Superintending Inspector of Schools, His Grace the Archbishop, Mr. G. D. Murray and the Secretary. The following letters from the Colonial Secretary were sub- mitted : — 1. re W. I. Agricultural Conference intimating that the propo- sal for holding the Agricuhural Conference in Jamaica next year had been definitely abandoned owing to insu- perable difficulties in transport. 2. Sending copy of letter from Imperial Institute re Cotton Cultivation and asking the Board to comply with the re- quest made that the Imperial Institute should be kept in- formed of the progress of cotton cultivation in the Colo- nies and that reports or special information should be regularly forwarded. Also asking that the Board might consider it desirable to send additions to the standard collection of cotton referred to. This was directed to be circulated. 3. Asking whether the Board of Agriculture could arrange for the syllabus in connection with the proposal to confer the Jamaica Scholarship on Agricultural Students. With reference to the last letter, His Grace the Archbishop said that a Committee of the Schools Commission consisting of the Chief Justice and Mr. Capper had considered the various matters involved and had made a report, a precis of which he read. He suggested that the matter might wait over a month until this report had been considered and adopted by the Commission at its first meeting and sent to the Governor. After discussion it was accordingly resolved to hold over con- sideration of the matter until next meeting. (The Chairman here left the meeting as he had to attend a meet- ing of the Privy Council and he asked the Director of Public Gardens to take the Chair.) The Secretary submitted letters on the subject of Jamaica Tobacco and Mr. Chalmers' experiment in blending with Virginia Tobacco for use in the Navy, which were directed to be circulated. The Secretary read letter from Mr. Robert Thomson suggesting that a report he had made on agriculture in the parish of Man- chester with special reference to packing of oranges might be published in the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture. It was pointed out that this report had been made to Mr. Haggart and published in the newspapers, but had not been sent either to 23 the Board of Agriculture or to the Agricultural Society as it ought to have been. The Secretary was directed to reply to Mr. Thomson and say that if the report was sent to the Board, it would consider whether it should be published. The Secretary submitted a letter from the Rev. J. F. Gartshore, Secretary Hanover Agricultural Society, thanking the Board for the services of Mr. Cradwick. This was directed to be circulated. The Secretary submitted two letters from the Honourable J. V. Calder acknowledging receipt of the copy of Mr. Olivier's minute re the Locked Still matter, with memo by the chairman to whom it had been submitted. These were directed to be circulated. The following reports by the Chemist were submitted : — 1. Application of A. A. Forbes to give his son a second year's course as an agricultural student without a scholarship and without fees. This was allowed on the recommen- dation of Dr. Cousins. 2. Application from C. A. Liddell for admission as an agri- cultural student on the usual terms. This was approved. The following reports of the Director of Public Gardens were submitted : — 1. Hope Experiment Station. 2. Reports from Mr. Cradwick and letter re drainage experi- ment. These were directed to be circulated. A report from the Secretary re Cotton Gins and Baler was submitted and directed to be circulated. The following papers in circulation since last meeting not yet submitted to the Board, were now submitted, as follows : — Letters from the Colonial Secretary forwarding letter from Hon. T. H. Sharp asking for the appointment of an Entomologist in Jamaica, with comments by members of the Board. His Grace the Archbishop moved "That the Board of Agricul- ture is satisfied of the fact that the successful development of various industries in Jamaica will largely depend upon the advice and guidance of a competent Entomologist and therefore earnestly recommend the Government to make provision for the appoint- ment of such an officer at the earliest possible opportunity." Mr. Capper seconded and this was unanimously agreed to. The Secretary was instructed to forward the resolution to the Colonial Secretary as the unanimous opinion of the Board. Memorandum on the Standardization of Jamaica Rum, with comments by the Board. After discussion it was agreed that the most judicious course would be first to have a meeting of representative sugar planters to talk over the matter. The papers were referred back to Dr. Cousins to make further suggestions as to communicating with sugar planters. 24 The following papers which had been circulated were submitted for final consideration : — Chemist's Reports : — 1. Research in Tropical Medecine by Capt. Wanhill, R.A.M.C. 2. Training of Distillers at the Laboratory. 3. Distribution of Cane Tops. Reports Director of Public Gardens : — J. Experiment Station. 2. Mr. Cradwick. Letters re Jamaica Tobacco from I. Sir D. Morris, 2. Mr. F. V. Chalmers, 3. The Imperial Institute, with members' comments on the last, which were read. The Director of Public Gardens read a paragraph which had appeared in the Jamaica " Daily Telegraph', reporting on the sailors' opinion in the Navy of tobacco issued to them for trial ; they objected to the pipe tobacco but were well pleased with the cigarette tobacco. Papers re Mr. Nolan and Jamaica Rum, with the Chemist's comments on same urging a standard of 200 parts of Ether. This standard was approved of. [Issued 10th January, 1906.] Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kinysion, Jam. BULLETIN OF THB DEPARTMENT OF AGMCULTimE. Vol. IV. FEBRUARY, 1906. Part 2 EDITED BY WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S., Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. COI^TENTS: Some Banana Soils Hope Gardens Grape Fruit and Shaddocks The Breadfruit Tree Board of Agriculture ... Page. 25 33 36 44 46 P R I 0 E— Threepence. A Copy wiD be supplied free to any Besident in Jamaica, who will send name and address to the Director if Pal>lic Girleus aid PUatibiotn, Kiugitou P.O. KINGSTON, JAMAICA : Hope Gardbns. 1906. JAMAICA. NEW VOR''^ B XT L. T J E T 1 1^ eoTANicAb GARDEN. OF THE DEPARTMENT OF A(iRICULTURE. Vol. IV. FEBRUARY, 1906. Part 2. SOME BANANA SOILS OF ST. MARY AND UPPER ST CATHERINE. By H. H. Cousins, M.A., Government Chemist. At the suggestion of the writer, the Board of Agriculture ar- ranged that Mr. Cradwick should take a number of soil samples from typical cultivations of the smaller planters in St. Mary for partial Analysis in the Laboratory, so that advice might be given as to the need of drainage, humus, or lime in each case ; our pre- vious Analyses and experiments having indicated that the banana soils of St. Mary are not in present need of commercial fertilizers, but require special attention to drainage and humus and in some cases lime, it appeared desirable that a good number of typical soils should be examined to this end. Mr. Cradwick made a special visit to St. Mary * and early in 1905 sent in 51 examples of soil to the Laboratory, with observa- tions as to the conditions he noticed in each case. Unfortunately several of the samples were labelled with perish- able labels and only 39 samples were capable of being identified. These have been examined as to A. Mechanical condition. B. Percentage of Lime as Carbonate. C. Percentage of Humus, soluble in Ammonia, and the results cr. are here given. Mr. Cradwick's original observations being quoted '— in each case. C<1 » Mr. Cradwick's Keport will be found in Bulletia Oct, 19C5, page 220. Editor, BuUctin. 26 A.— Rio MAGNO— St. Catherine: [" Soil from the bank near River, Bananas poor, cocoa very poor."] No. I — Surface Soil. Sample lost. No. 2 — Subsoil. Lime as carbonate ... Abundance Humus ... I- 28/ Mechanical condition ... Clay, loam Observations. From a previous sample examined in the Laboratory from the same source, it was found that this soil was variable, some pat- ches being very good soil for bananas and others below par in hvmius and general fertility. The soil does not lack lime. No. 3 — Surface soil. [" Near Immortelle nursery, between house and river, poor bananas, cocoa worse".] Lime as carbonate ... Abundance Humus ... 2.23^0 Mechanical condition ... Clay, loam Observations. This soil does not lack lime and the humus is fairly good. The soil is inclined to be heavy and drainage is probably the factor required to ensure a good and vigorous growth of bananas and cocoa. The subsoil sample was lost,, but there are indications, that the subsoil here is impervious and that deep drains would be neces- sary to enable the cocoa roots to penetrate and develop. No. 5 — Surface soil. [" From corner near cow-pen, good bananas and good cocoa."] Lime as carbonate ... I ■25/; Humus ... 4- 16/^ Mechanical condition ... Stiff clay Observations. The humus in this case is very high and despite the stiff na- ture of the soil, the results of the cultivation are reported as satis- factoiT- If well drained, this soil should be of very high fertility. There is abundance of lime and an unusual amount of humus. Hampstead— St. Mary. No. 7 — Surface soil. (Missing). No. S— Subsoil of No. 7. ["Just inside gate — a spot where nothing has thriven, the pro- prietor says it is improving from the application of banana trash."] Lime as carbonate ... Abundance Humus ... 0.36; Mechanical condition ... Clayey marl 27 Observations. This soil is almost devoid of humus and one that would absorb an enormous amount of vegetable matter without greatly improving its nature. It is doubtful whether soils of this type can be profitably culti- vated for bananas. No. 9 — Surface soil. ["Near by cotton tree — everything thrives here, but I think more drainage would improve the bearing of cocoa. Bananas very fine and very large cocoa pods on some trees grown from seedlings from Hope Gardens."] Lime as carbonate ... Abundance Humus ... 4-4'7o Mechanical condition — Stiff soil, inclined to clay Observations. This soil is very rich in humus and contains an abundance of lime. Mr. Cradwick's suggestion as to deeper drainage can be confi- dently supported. This soil is worth handling on intensive lines of cultivation and has a large reserve of banana-producing power to draw upon. The contrast between this soil and the previous one is very striking. No. II — Surface soil. [" From spot where bananas give good bunches but do not finish up well. Cocoa does not grow in spite of being near a big guango."] Lime as carbonate ... Abundance Humus ... 3-37% Mechanical condition ... Heavy clay No. 12 — Subsoil of above. [" This land wants more drainage."] Observations. This soil only needs deep drainage to produce excellent results. The humus is well up to standard. In my opinion this soil would repay the cost of deeper drainage and intensive cultiva- tion. No. 13 — Surface soil. [" One of the spots I suggested as no use wrestling with, better plant some good trees and grass on it."] Lime as carbonate ... Very high Humus ... 4 -4/0 Mechanical condition ... Clayey loam Observations. This soil is so rich in humus that if adequate drainage is prac- ticable, it should grow good fruit. A trial should be given of this before abandoning the land to grass. 28 No. 15 — Surface soil. ["Spot where the Laboratory has been experimenting with manures."] ["Very poor and 'shotty,' has improved with manure but still looks pretty bad. The bananas look spotty and thriftless, do not bear, and have a lot of little round galls or warts on them. The manure has grown about the finest Spanish needle I have ever seen."] Lime as carbonate ... Excessive Humus ... 0.95/ Mechanical composition Clay marl Observations. This soil is quite unsuited for bananas by nature, and in my opinion will not repay the heavy applications of vegetable refuse and manure that would be required to enable it to produce good fruit. No. 17. — Surface soil. [" ' Pasture Piece,' a field of young cocoa, about 3 years old, most of which are growing nicely. The land has some drains, but they are not systematic, and I recommend, in order to make a success of this field, that contour drains at intervals of not more than 24 feet should be put in."] Lime as carbonate Abundance Humus ... 4- 25/' Mechanical condition— Stiff clay with similar subsoil. Observations. A first class soil, but demanding deep drainage. Unless this is attended to the cocoa will probably fail after a few years. HiGHGATE, St. Mary. No. 21. — Surface soil. ["'John's Piece,' where cocoa is growing well. More drainage would improve the bearing. Fine bananas were growing on this land, but shelter trees would be useful both for bananas and cocoa."] Lime as carbonate ... 1-25^ Humus ... 2.57 Mechanical condition — Stiff — inclined to clay, with similar subsoil. Observations. Drainage is clearly essential. The humus is good, but might be higher to advantage. The soil does not lack lime. 29 No. 23. — Surface Soil. ["Bananas and cocoa, 2 years old, nearly all look poorly. This sample is not taken from the worst spots, which I have advised to be thrown up and planted in trees and grass to provide manure for the better land from which the sample was taken."] Lime as carbonate ... I-O^ Humus ... 3-2j? Mechanical condition — Stiff clay with similar subsoil. Observations. With drainage this soil should grow good bananas. The hu- mus in this sample is higher than in the previous one reported upon (No. 21). Oracabessa a. St. Mary. No. 25. — Surface soil. [" Very mixed cultivation of good bananas, cocoa, coffee and coco-nuts. Bananas are very fair as ratoons, but late, and the proprietor says are late every year. Well-drained land, but not forked since the prize-holding contest of three years ago."] Lime as carbonate ... 2.75/^ Humus ... 2.84/ Mechanical condition — Stiff, inclined to clay. Observations. This land is in good heart, but would give better results with more tillage. This land should be forked thoroughly and a sup- ply of green manure secured, so as to maintain the standard of humus. No. 27. — Surface soil. [" From heavy flat, near house, bananas grow well here, but are also late. I have suggested that bananas on this land should be replanted oftener and particular attention be paid to drainage. Trash, which is very easy to obtain, should be applied as heavily as possible, and the land receive a dressing of lime."] Lime as carbonate ... 2.25^ Humus ... 3-39^ Mechanical condition — Stiff, inclined to clay. Ooscrvations. The analysis shows that this soil contains abundance of lime. The addition recommended by Mr. Cradwick might prove of advantage in making the soil more friable, but it would tend to a somewhat rapid loss of humus. Drainage and tillage are obviously the chief requirements. The present standard of humus is quite good for an average banana soil. 30 Oracabessa, B. No. 29. — Surface soil. ["Bananas planted July, 1904. Drained and in good health, but in many spots the bananas are coming on very slowly."] Lime as carbonate ... I ■25/^ Humus ... 3-39% Mechanical condition — Stiff soil, with very stiff clay subsoil. Ohscrvatioiis. The indications are that more drainage would remedy the de- fect noted by Mr. Cradwick. The lime and humus are quite satisfactory. HIGHGATE B. No. 31. — Surface soil. Lime as carbonate ... 2.5^ Humus ... 3-0/o Mechanical condition — Stiff clay. No. 33. — Surface Soil. Lime as carbonate ... l-0/( Humus ... 2.32/^ Mechanical condition — Medium clay. Observations. No. 31 is a good soil for bananas if well drained. No. 32 is somewhat deficient in humus. There is no deficiency of lime. Drainage is the chief factor to be considered in the cultivation of these soils. No. I'^.^-Surface Soil. ["A fair sample of many 'gall spots' which appear in the midst of very good land, fruit is both small and late. A manure that would increase the size of bunches and bring in the fruit earlier is much needed"]. Lime as carbonate ... 3-0^ Humus ... I- 84/$ Mechanical condition — Light soil of medium texture. Observations. The humus in this soil is below par, and it is very doubtful whether any manure other than farmyard manure would do much good. Galls are often a temptation to the use of extravagant manur- ing that the crop cannot pay for and in many cases are best left alone. Port Maria. No. 37. — Surface soil. [" From cocoa walk near house. I have suggested as a first step, systematic drainage, forking right through the land, manuring with trash or any kind of manure available, together with Lime and the replanting of the bananas. 31 The cocoa here was badly damaged by the hurricane."] Lime as carbonate ... 1-62^ Humus ... 2.86/^ Mechanical condition — Very stiff clay with impervious sub-soil. Observations. All Mr. Cradwick's proposals, with the exception of the use of lime, are fully supported from the Laboratory observations. This is a very heavy soil and would be benefited by deep drainage and tillage and the humus could be increased to advan- tage. PORT Maria — B. No. 39 40. — Surface and Subsoil. [" From a spot where bananas practically go to nothing, it is drained very irregularly to a depth not exceeding 18 inches."] Lime as carbonate ... Considerable. Humus ... 3-07% Mechanical Condition — Stiff clay with light coloured clay marl, sub-soil. Observations. This soil cannot be expected to grow good fruit without a really deep and efficient system of drainage. Considering the amount of chalk in the soil, the Humus must be considered good. This is a type of soil on which bananas grow with difficulty and if all the land were similar to this, it would be expensive to work and the results probably disappointing. RIVERSDALE. No. 41 & 42. — Surface and Sub-soil. ["From Banana Walk, Eastern slope — Bananas four years old, good stems but damaged by winds. Land wants draining and cultivating only."] Lime as carbonate ... 0-6l^ Humus ... 1-55^ Mechanical condition — Red soil, stiff clayey loam, with similar sub-soil. Observations. This soil is deficient in Humus and a heavy covering of refuse manure should prove beneficial. Drainage is obviously necessary. The soil is capable of great improvement. 32 No. 43 & 44. — Surface soil and Sub-soil. I" From flat near house ; Bananas not so good. Land wants draining and manuring."] Lime as carbonate .. Nil. Humus ... 0.89% Meclianical condition — Clay loam, with similar sub-soil Observations. This soil is entirely deficient in chalk, and should be treated with half a ton of lime each year. The humus is so low, that bananas cannot be expected to grow. Heroic measures are required to improve this serious deficiency. Drainage is also imperative. As compared with the^previous soil, this presents far greater diflRculties in converting it into good banana land. HiGHGATE C. No. 47. — Surface soil. [" From Orange River field about the centre where cocoa trees look well.'']. Lime as carbonate ... I -87/0 Humus ... 5-09% Mechanical condition — Stiff clay soil. Observations. A soil with a splendid standard of Humus and containing abundance of chalk. Retentive and demanding drainage. No. 48. — Surface soil. ["Higher up the same field where the cocoa looks middling"]. Lime as carbonate ... 1-87/ Humus ... 3-11^ Mechanical condition — Stiff loam. Observation. This soil only has f as much humus as the previous sample and this would account for the trees not doing quite so well. No. 49. — Surface soil. [" Top of the same field, cocoa trees poor, much exposed to wind or rain. There the trees require a good wind-brake to protect them. I would suggest as an experiment that the proprietor should drain a small section of this land to an extent that might even seem extravagant"]. Lime as carbonate ... 1-75^ Humus ... 2.56^ Mechanical condition — Stiff clay. 33 Observations. A comparison of the three last soils will illustrate how in the tropics, the upper area of hills in cultivation get washed and poor in Humus, while a progressive enrichment is found in the lower levels. All these soils indicate the desirability of drainage. They do not need lime. The humus of the upper portion is so much less in amount than that of the lower, that it is not surpris- ing that the cocoa should be poor, apart from the exposure to wind which Mr. Cradwick has pointed out. Any drainage works would have to be carried out at a carefully adjusted gradient and the washings carefully replaced on the soil. Every effort should be directed towards reducing loss of fertility in the upper area. Conclusions. These soils indicate that the original idea upon which the work was based is sound, viz : — That in most cases the needs of the banana soils in St, Mary and the neighbouring districts are not chemical fertilizers, but rather — (i) Drainage (ii) Humus and in some cases (iii) Lime. Mr. Cradwick is to be congratulated upon the way in which his advice has been generally supported by the conclusions derived from the subsequent examination of the soils in the Laboratory, as is here evident and it is hoped that this work may be extended in the future so that a large number of the smaller cultivators may be advised as to the practical treatment of the soils on their holdings. HOPE GARDENS. The cultivated area at the Hope Gardens contains not only an ornamental garden but also an Experiment and Teaching Station. The first beginning of an Experiment Station at Hope was in 1874 under Mr. Robert Thomson. The Government came into possession of 200 acres of land there in 1873, and determined to transfer the new varieties of Sugar Cane, received from the Botanic Gardens of Mauritius and Martinique and planted in the small garden at Castleton, to the ample area at Hope. Nearly 18 acres were put under Cane in 1874, and 5 more in 1875, and during the same year 10 acres were planted in Teak. A small nursery was also formed. In 1885, Sir D. Morris, at that time Director, proposed that the land round the nursery should be made into a public park at a cost of £5,000, though he thought a Botanic Garden could not be carried on without a system of reservoirs for the storage of water. However, Governor Sir Henry Norman decided that, as there were no conveniences at that time for people travelling cheaply from Kingston, there should be no outlay except grad- ually in forming a Garden. 34 In 1897 the Government transferred the present Director with Office and Herbarium from Cinchona to Hope, with the intention of malcing it tlie central botanical establishment of the island. Since that time the Garden has gradually been formed and ex- tended.* The following plants are grown for experimental purposes, and also for use in teaching agricultural principles, and the best methods of dealing with these tropical crops : — Sugar Cane, Cocoa, Coffee, Tobacco, Banana, Rubber, Nutmeg, Citrus, Grape Vine, Pine Apple, Cassava, Sweet Potatoes, &c. Practical instruction is given in the Garden to apprentices, to boys from the Industrial School, to Students at Training Colleges, to Elementary School Teachers in their vacation, to Agricultural Students, and to Planters themselves. There are about 8 acres under Sugar Cane of several varieties which are being tested by the Agricultural Chemist and distribu- ted to Planters. Seedlings are grown from seed and are tested as they mature. Forastero and Criollo Cocoa are grown, and experiments are being made as to the effect of shade trees, and as to the difference in growth, and yield of crop, when planted close and at wider distances apart. Coffee of several kinds may be seen : — Arabian or common Coffee, Liberian, Abbeokuta, Highland Coffee of Sierra Leone (stenophylla), Maragogipe, Golden Drop, &c. Tobacco is under cultivation, and the leaf is cured in the to- bacco house close by. The apprentices are instructed in all the details of cultivation, and the technique of curing the leaf for cigar tobacco. A quarter of an acre of Sumatra seed tobacco is grown under the shade of cheese cloth. This tobacco yields a very high-class leaf for the outside wrapper of cigars. A collection has been established of twenty-three varieties of Banana from various parts of the world, chiefly obtained through the kindness of the Director of Kew Gardens and the Commis- sioner of the Imperial Department of Agriculture. Budded Citrus plants have been planted out for comparison, both of varieties that have proved successful in Florida and Cali- fornia, and also of native seedling trees. Attempts are being made to get a variety of Orange which will bear fruit when the highest prices are obtained in English and American markets. Pine Apples of several varieties are grown, and experiments are being made in cross-fertilising different varieties, with the object, for instance, of getting a pine with the flavour of the Rip- ley, the fine appearance of the Smooth Cayenne, and the good carrying qualities of the Red Spanish. Rubber plants of various kinds are grown : — Para, Castilloa, Ceara, Lagos silk rubber, Landolphia, &c. * ^ee Guide to Hope Gardens by Walter Jekyll. Published by MeBsre. Aston Gardner &■ C"., Kingston. Price, One Shilling. 35 There are 28 varieties of Cassava collected from different parts of Jamaica, 10 from Porto Rico, and 30 from Colombia. These 68 varieties are being tested as to weight of tubers per acre, and percentage of starch. The starch is said to be better for laund- ries and for dressing Manchester goods than that produced by any other plant. It is claimed also that Cassava yields more starch per acre than ony other plant. Similar tests, besides value as food, are also carried out with reference to Sweet Potatoes, — 2^ varieties from Jamaica, 12 from Barbados, and 9 from the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Results of tests of plants are published from time to time in the Bulletin and Annual Reports. A plan of the cultivated portions of the Government grounds is given, so that visitors may readily find any particular kind of economic plant grown there for experimental or teaching purposes. The following is an Index to the numbers on the plan : — 1. Lemon Grass. 27. Assistant Superintendent's Quar- 2. Cassava. ters. 3. Pine Apples. 28. Canes. 4. Yam Beans. 29. Bananas. 5. Tobacco and Cassava. 30. Navel Oranges and Sweet Potatoes 6. Citrus Grove and Cassava. 31. tChus-khus Grass. 7. Bananas and Mangoes. 32. Pergola with Climbers. 8. Tanias, Cassava and Sweet Potatoes. 33. Crotons, &c. 9. Cassava. 34. Director's Residence. 10a. Tobacco. 35. Economic Plants. 10b. Sumatra Tobacco under Shade 36 & 37 Vanilla, Cocoa, &c. Cloth. 38 Orchid Walk. 11. School Garden. 39. Pergola with Climbers. 1 2 Plantation of Cananga an d Para 40. Lawn Rubber. 41. Road to Castilloa Rubber. 13. Cassava. 42. Rockery with Lace Bark plants 14. Cassava. and Succulents, and, beyond^ 15. Ippi-appa. Honduras Logwood. 16. Seedling Canes. 43. Lawn with Date Palms, 17. Cocoa. 44. Director's Office. ]8. Cassava. 45. Lawn bordered with Oleanders 19. Canes (Seedling). and Carob Bean plants. 20 Ippi-appa. 46a. Nursery. 21. Canes. 46b. Plant Houses. 22. Cassava. 47. Vanilla. 23. Tobacco House. 48. Rose Garden. 24. Cassava. 49. Water Works Conduit. 25. Sweet Potatoes. 50. New Nursery. 26. Seedling Canes. 36 GRAPE FRUIT AND SHADDOCKS. The following popular notes on varieties of grape fruit and shaddocks, by Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G., D.Sc, D.C.L., appeared in Garden and Forest, an American horticultural journal published at New York, April 22, 1896. Recently applications for information in regard to the respective merits of grape fruits and shaddocks were received from the Board of Agriculture in the Bahamas and other sources, and with the view of placing the facts on record in an accessible form, they were reprinted in the pages of the West Indian Bulletin* and are now reproduced here : — During my recent visit to New York I was much interested to notice the considerable demand that existed there for grape fruit,t from the West Indies. It appears to be very strongly recommended by the medical faculty for its refreshing and tonic properties, and, in consequence, the use of it has become an important feature in the diet in American cities. The fruit I saw in New York called grape fruit consisted of various sorts and qualities, and there is little doubt that much confusion exists as to what is really grape fruit as distinct from the allied citrus fruits passing under such names as Pumelow^, Shaddock, Forbidden fruit, Paradise fruit and others. The chief characteristics of all these fruits, distinguish- ing them from the different varieties of the orange, are associated with the size and colour. They are all, or nearly all, larger than the largest orange, and they are uniformly of a pale-yellow colour. In texture the rind may be smooth or even polished. It is seldom rough, nearly always firm and not very thick. The pulp is pale yellow or greenish-white, sometimes pink or crimson. The vesi- cles of the pulp (juice bags) are more distinct than in the orange ; very juicy, somewhat sweetish with a distinct, but agreeable, bit- ter flavour. The pith surrounding the segments possesses more of the bitter then the pulp, but is less agreeable, and on that ac- count is never eaten. In shape these fruits vary a good deal. Some are quite globular, others somewhat flattened at the top and tapering below, forming a pear-shaped body. Even in the globu- lar fruits the top is more or less flattened. There are none, I be- lieve, pointed at both ends. Having indicated the general characters of this class of citrus fruits, I may venture on a brief sketch of their origin and history. It is agreed by all authorities that these fruits are quite distinct from the other groups of the orange family, such as the true oranges and the citrons. They have, therefore, been kept apart and ranged under the Giant Citrus, Citrus decumana. In this species the tree is 12 to 18 feet high, with a flat crown and spreading branches, usually with no spines. The leaves are elliptic-rounded at both ends, emarginate (that is, with a notch at the apex) and crenulate (having the edge marked with small depressions) ; * From West Indian Bulletin, VI., 1905, page 284. t It is so called because the fruits grow in clusters like n bunch of grapes. X It is invariably spelled Pomelo in the Unitad States. 37 the under side of the leaf is softly hairy, with the wings broad, • Granulated as in the leaves, and bordered with fine hairs. The flowers are in clusters of from three to nine, large, white, and fra- grant. The fruit is either globose or pear-shaped, forming many seedling varieties without distinct names. This is supposed to be a native of the islands of the Pacific, whence it had been brought to southern China, Japan, and India. It was introduced to the West Indies, according to Macfayden, from China by Captain Shaddock, whose name has since been given to it. The term shaddock may be correctly applied to any of the larger members of the giant citrus, and is equivalent to the French pompelmouse, which is another form of the Dutch pomplemoes. The word po- melow, so widely used in India and Ceylon, is supposed to be a contraction of ' pomum melo,' the melon apple. The largest " pu- melows' in India are said to reach ' 2 feet in circumference and weigh 10 to 20 lb.' The best sort, according to Bonavia, is 'the thin-skinned, red pumelow of the Bombay market.' This is of a globose shape, juicy, and ' of the colour of raw beef internally.' There are, however, numerous grades in size, some being almost as small as oranges. In India the varieties do not appear to have recognised names. Elsewhere the smaller fruits have been vari- ously called Paradise apples. Forbidden fruit, and Grape fruit. As regards the proper classification of the West Indian varieties, I cannot do better than record that put forth by Dr. James Mac- fayden, the learned author of the Flora of Jamaica, which, however, he never lived to carry into more than one volume and part of another. Referring to the large-fruited sorts, he states : ' There are two varieties of shaddock. In the variety a. maliformis, the the fruit is globose, with the pulp of a pale-pink colour, approach- ing to a very light yellow. In the variety b. pyriforniis the fruit is more or less pear-shaped, and the pulp is of crimson colour, more or less intense. The second of these varieties is the more esteemed, being sweet and juicy and having only in a slight and palatable degree the acridity which abounds in the first. . I may remark that I have always found the pear-shaped variety good, whereas it is seldom the case with the round-shaped fruit. There cannot be a doubt but that, if budding, as is done in China, were more gene- rally practised, instead of trusting to propagation by seed, the fruit would be much improved.' The smaller pumelows or shaddocks are ranged by Macfayden under a distinct species, which he calls Citrus paradisi. The tree is described as 30 feet high, of handsome appearance, with sub- erect branches and sharp at the apex. The leaves are oval, rounded, and smooth on both sides. The flowers have linear petals and the stamens are twenty-five in number. The differences between this and C. dcciifiiaua appear to consist in the more erect habit of the plant, in the rounded (not emarginate) leaves, and in the linear-rounded (not oblong-obtuse) petals. With regard to the fruit he remarks : 'There are also two varieties of this species : var. a. pyrifonnis, Barbados Grape fruit ; var. h. maliformis, For- 38 bidden fruit. Tlie pear-shaped variety, as the shaddock, possesses most of the sweet principle, and is, on the whole a preferable fruit.' This classification was made by Macfayden nearly sixty years ago, therefore long before these fruits were so widely dis- tributed as now in other parts of tropical America. He was so accurate and sl^ilful an observer that, as far as the new world fruits are concerned, we cannot very well improve upon it. It is doubtful whether the small- fruited sorts he places under C. paradisi really deserve specific rank, but that point does not affect the main question with which we started, namely — what are the differences, if any, existing between the shaddock and the grape fruit ? In summing up the results of the investigation, we may say that all the larger-fruited sorts may be called indifferently either pumelows or shaddocks. These are merely the eastern and western names for the same thing, and are perfectly interchangeable. No dis- tinction appears ever to have been made between them. There are two well-marked varieties, one being globose, with the flesh of a pale-pink colour, and the other pear-shaped, usually with a deep-pink or crimson pulp. As regards the small fruited sorts, these, according to Macfayden may be either globose, when they are called forbidden fruit, or pear-shaped, when grape fruit is the older name. The name forbidden fruit (from a fancied connexion with the Garden of Eden) is tolerably old in the West Indies. Tussac, in the Flores dcs Antilles, published in 1824, gives a good figure of the typical shaddock, which he translates into the French Chadcc. In Vol. Ill, pp. 73-74, he states: ' J'ai eu occasion d' ob- server a la Jamaique, dans le jardin botanique d'East, une espece de Chadec dont les fruits, qui n'excedent pas en grosseur une belle orange sont disposes en grappes : les Anglais de la Jamaique don- nent a ce fruit le nom de " Forbidden-fruit," fruit defendu, ou smaller shaddock.' Later on he refers to the same fruit in the following words : ' C'est une assiette de dessert tres distinguee et fort saine' (p. 74). In the case of the forbidden fruit and grape fruit they are exactly reversed. As usually happens, when a name has become familiar in commerce, it is eventually applied in a much wider sense than the original one. Thus, the term grape fruit has become so general that any moderately large fruit pro- vided the skin is pale-yellow, thin and smooth, and the pulp of a delicate flavour, is designated by it. The fruit commonly called grape-fruit in New York is really the forbidden fruit of the West Indies. The true grape fruit is pear-shaped, and according to Mac- fayden, when obtainable at its best, is preferable to the forbidden fruit. The fruit shipped from the Bahamas as grape fruit is usual- ly round with a polished yellow skin of a silky texture and very heavy. This is probably one of the best of its class, and quite equal to Macfadyen's pear-shaped variety. Next comes some ex- cellent fruit from Jamaica, no doubt that already referred to by Tussac under the name of forbidden fruit, a smaller shaddock. According to the New York estimation, this would be almost a typical grape fruit, supplying ' une assiette de dessert tres distin- guee et fort saine.' 39 Further information on the pumelow was contributed by Sir Daniel Morris to the Gardeners' Clironidc, 1896. Vol. II., p. 616, as follows : — I have been asked more than once lately whether there is no fruit, yet unknown to most English palates, which might be in- troduced into this country, and form a pleasant article of food. As there seems to be some general interest in the subject, your readers may, perhaps, like to hear of some fruits which have come under my notice. The pumelow of India, one of the giant members of the orange tribe, is well known to people who have lived in the East. Some very large specimens have been known to attain a circumference of more than two feet, and to weigh from 15 to 20lbs. Generally pumelows are not held in high esteem in India and Ceylon, except by those who have lived long there, and know how to select the best sort by their size and colour. The best Bombay pumelows are said to be exceptionally good. They have a pink pulp of a juicy character, sweet in flavour, with a slight but agreeable bitter taste. The first pumelows were brought to the West Indies by Cap- tain Shaddock about 150 years ago. Since that time the fruit has always been known in that part of the world as the shaddock, in compliment to the person who introduced it. Owing to circum- stances of soil and climate, and to the raising of plants almost exclusively by seed, many varieties have sprung up that have be- come recognized by distinct names. Of the larger fruits, the pumelow or shaddock proper, there are two well marked forms ; the first is the apple-shaped shaddock, usually with a whitish or a pale pink pulp, the other is a pear-shaped fruit, with a pink, and sometimes a deep crimson pulp. Both these are large fruits, weighing from 3 to 6 lbs. in weight ; they have the characteristic pale yellow skin, and inside there is a white pithy layer more or less thick ; then comes the pulp with the vesicles or juice bags very prominent — indeed the latter are so distinct that they can be easily separated the one from the other. The bitter flavour is very marked in the inferior sorts, in some instances it becomes quite acrid. The best sorts have a sweetish flavour and only a slight taste of bitter, of the smaller fruits, to which Macfadyen has given the name of Paradise fruits, there are in the West Indies two well marked forms. The apple shaped fruits are known as for- bidden fruit, while the pear shaped sorts are known as Barbados grape fruit. Both these are vei'y attractive looking fruits ; they have a pale yellow skin usually very thin, are soft and silky to the touch, while the pulp is sweet and refreshing. The slightly bitter flavour is regarded as giving them tonic properties of great value in dyspepsia and allied ailments. During the last fifteen years the paradise fruits, or more cor- rectly grape fruit, have been in great demand in the United States. They have been very strongly recommended by the medical faculty, and in consequence their use has become an important feature in the diet of a large number of the American people. 40 The consumption of them has increased by leaps and bounds, and every year for the past few years it has more than doubled. A few days ago (says Garden and Forest) 2 barrels of small-sized grape fruit realized the extraordinary price of £5 each in New York ; and 7 barrels of similar fruit were sold in Philadelphia for £5 los. each. Such fruit would retail at more than $1.00 a piece This is probably the highest price ever paid for specimens of the orange tribe. It shows very clearly how keen is the demand for grape fruit, and what importance is attached to it as a refreshing and healthful adjunct to the food supply of the United States. At one time there was a better mai'ket for grape fruit — or, rather forbid- den fruit, as it was called — in the United Kingdom than in Ame- rica, but the tables are now turned. America especially since the destructive frosts in Florida, has now absorbed almost the whole supply from the West Indies. Sooner or later, however, English people will realise the special merits of the grape fruit and a demand will arise for it, to the possible ad- vantage of those West India Islands which are in a position to supply it. It would be well, therefore, for the people in that part of the world to establish small orchards of grape fruit trees of the best quality, and to be prepared to ship the fruit in such condition that they may get the best price for it. This would be one way of alleviating, to some extent, the depression under which they are now suffering, owing to the unremunerative character of the sugar industry. The following, containing further notes on grape fruits and shaddocks, was contributed by Sir Daniel Morris to Chambers' Journal of January 30, 1 897. Under the title of 'paradise fruits," Dr. Macfadyen, many years ago, described some interesting members of the orange family. Their origin was not clearly traced, but there was little doubt that they had been produced by seed variation in the West Indies. Their nearest relations were the common shaddocks or pumelows {Citrus deciimana). These are well known as the largest of the citrus fruits ; some fine specimens have weighed as much as 20lbs., and measured 2 feet in circumference. According to Alphonse de Candolle, ' shaddocks and pumelows are probably natives of the islands east of the Malay Archipelago.' They were found in a wild state by Seemann and others in the Fiji Islands and the Friendly Islands, so there is little doubt of their Polynesian origin. They are now distributed in most tropical countries, but, except in a few localities, they are not so highly esteemed, for instance, as the best oranges. Usually the skin is thick and pithy, and the pulp bitter, and there is little or no demand for them in commerce. The paradise fruits, on the other hand, are in great demand, and they are regarded as the most refreshing and wholesome of any of the citrus family. Recently in New York, some of the latter were retailed at almost fabulous prices, and the demand increases every year. The paradise fruits, while they fall specifically under Citrus decumana, or the giant Citrus, have many points of merit, not the least of which, is the keen preference shown for them by 41 the people of the United States. They are quite distinct from the true oranges, citrons, and other groups of the orange family. The typical fruits of Citrus dcciimana are those known in India as pumelows (a contraction of poinnm melo, the melon apple) called by the French Pompelmouse or Pamplemouse, and by the Spanish and Dutch Pompelmoos. As these fruits were first introduced to the West Indies by Captain Shaddock, in that part of the world they have always borne his name. Pumelows and shaddocks are only the old and new world names for the same fruit. Some- times it is stated that the largest fruits are called shaddocks and the next in size pumelows. There is no authority for this distinc- tion. In this place, I shall quote pumelows and shaddocks indif- ferently as convenient popular names for all the largest fruits of the typical Citrus dccumana. A preference may unconsciously be given to the use of the word shaddock, but only because it is the most familiar name in the West Indies. As regards the varieties of these fruits existing in different parts of the world, they are for the most part distinguished by the locality where they are grown rather than by any character they may possess. For instance, in India the best pumelow, according to Bonavia, is the thin-skinned, red pumelow of Bombay. This is a perfectly globose fruit, very juicy, and whh the pulp of a rosy-red colour. The botanical characters of Citrus dccumana are perhaps more marked than in any other species. The tree is larger, and both the young shoots and under side of the leaves are covered more or less with soft down. No other species of citrus has the latter characteristic. The tree may be as high as 20 feet, with a flat crown and many spreading branches. Usually there are no spines. The leaves are distinctly rounded at both ends, with a notch at the apex ; the edges are uneven or wavy, owing to the presence of a number of small de- pressions ; the stalk or petiole is furnished with two broad wings, also wavy, and bordered with fine hairs. The flowers are somewhat like those of the orange, but larger, and are both white and fra- grant ; they are usually in clusters of three to nine. The fruit is spherical or pear-shaped, very large, sometimes even as large as a man's head, and very heavy. The juice is always slightly acid, while the rind in the common sorts is remarkably thick, with a bitter inner membrane. The vesicles containing the juice are very prominent, and arranged transversely ; in the orange they are hardly discernible. Pumelows or shaddocks differ from other citrus fruits in size ; they are invariably larger than the largest orange and, in addi- tion, are compact and very heavy. In colour, they are pale-yellow, almost like lemons, but they differ from the lemon in having usually a smoother skin. The flesh is pale-yellow or greenish- white ; in some sorts there is a tendency to pink or crimson, as in the so-called 'blood-oranges.' The pink-fleshed shaddocks, if otherwise acceptable, are more esteemed than the white-fleshed. They are said to be sweeter and more juicy, and have only in a slight and palatable degree the peculiar flavour of the ordinary 42 shaddocks. Macfayden, sixty years ago, stated that he always found the pear-shaped shaddocks better than the spherical sorts. His experience is not invariably endorsed at the present time. Some of the spherical fruits are of a very delicate flavour, and, as already mentioned, the best of the Indian sorts are not only spheri- cal, but have also a pink flesh. So far, I have described the fruits of the typical Citrus dcciimaua only. When we come to the smaller fruits, we find that both in the tree yielding them, as well as in the fruits themselves, there are certain distinguishing features which show they are rightly separated by Macfadyen, although we cannot go so far as he has done in assigning the plant producing them specific rank. Mac- fadyen grouped the smaller fruits under Citrus paradisi, thus ex- pressing his appreciation of them by designating them the fruits of Paradise. He distinguished two varieties, to which he gave the names of forbidden fruits and the Barbados grape fruit. He described the tree as of handsome appearance, about 30ft. in height, with branches sub-erect and sharp at the apex. It will be noticed that in the shaddock the tree was 20 feet high, with a flat crown and spreading branches. The leaves are oval, rounded, and smooth on both sides. The flowers have linear instead of oblong petals, and the stamens are twenty-five to twenty-six in number instead of thirty to thirty-five. The fruits, as in the shaddocks, are either spherical or pear shaped. To the pear shaped fruits were assigned the name of grape fruit, because they usually grow in clusters ; while the spherical fruits were called for- bidden fruit from a fancied connexion with the Garden of Eden. This classification was made by Macfadyen nearly sixty years ago therefore long before these fruits were so widely distributed, as now, in various parts of tropical America. The forbidden fruit was known to Tussac in 1824, who called it 'Fruit Defendu, or smaller shaddock.' Later he refers to the same fruit in the fol- lowing words : ' C'est une assiette de desert tres distinguee et fort saine.' With the exception of the shape, forbidden fruits and grape fruits are very much alike, but they are both superior to any shaddock or pumelow — the fruits of Citrus dccuiiiana — ^ while the smaller and more delicate fruits bear the distinctive name of para- dise fruits. Of these the grape fruit is the one now so highly esteemed in the United States. The Penny Cyclopcvdia had adopted a similar classification even in 1837. It is stated :' When these fruits arrive at their greatest size, they are called pompelloes or pompelmousses ; when at the smallest, they form the forbidden fruit of the English markets. Another small variety, with the fruit growing in clusters, is what the West Indians call grape fruit.' The grape fruit is not a shaddock nor a pumelow. It is quite a distinct fruit, and possesses exceptional merits ; at its best, it differs from the shaddock as much as a fine apple from a common crab. 43 We may be sure that such keen-witted men as the fruit mer- chants of New York would not give high prices for grape fruit unless it were in great demand and thoroughly appreciated by people able to pay for a choice and delicate article. It is esti- mated that there were received in the United States last year grape fruit of the value of about £20,000. The demand for it is quite of recent date, but it is increasing so rapidly that in a few years the grape fruit will be one of the most valuable of the citrus fruits in the New World. There are doubtless, many inferior sorts of grape fruit. In fact in the West Indies the plants have been allowed to run almost wild. No care has been taken to select the best varieties, or ta bud and graft them, so as to keep them uniformly at a high stan- dard. Garden and Forest, the leading horticultural journal in America, very wisely advises that, wherever the fruit is grown, it should be borne in mind that the highest success will only come with the use of the best varieties. There is no need to grow the thick-skinned and bitter sorts, and those with a dry, cottony pulp, while there are varieties both of the apple-shaped and pear- shaped fruits with a silky skin, full of juice and of a most delight- ful flavour, with just enough bitter to give it piquancy and sug- gest its valuable tonic qualities, Mr. C. B. Hewitt gives the following account of the grape fruit : — At one time it was not thought much of in Florida, being only eaten by the old Floridians as a spring tonic, to drive away malaria. As soon as its great medicinal qualities were recognized, the doc- tors began to recommend it for indigestion, and also as an appe- tizer. The majority of people who eat this fruit do not like it at first, and many have not tried to like it, on account of the bitter- ness of the pithy membrane dividing the pulp. The correct way to eat this interesting fruit is to remove carefully this lining and to eat only the pulp. Some people prefer to cut the fruit open through the middle, take away the seeds, and then sprinkle a little sugar over the cut surface, and work it in with a spoon. Then let it stand for a little time, or overnight and eat before meals.' ' There is nothing,' continues this writer, 'in the fruit line yet discovered that possesses the medicinal quali- ties of the grape fruit. The demand for it will increase from year to year, and take up all the fruit that will be grown for the next twenty years. As many as 6,000 fruits are said to have been gathered from a single tree. This was an exceptionally fine spe- cimen. It was described as 49 feet in height and 30 feet across its widest branches. It was thirty-four years old.' There are many varieties of grape fruit, some seedless, or with an occasional seed only. The grape fruit is in such great demand in America chiefly be- cause it has been so highly recommended by the medical faculty for its valuable dietetic and tonic qualities. It is also very re- freshing, and is regarded as a specific for dyspepsia. The Ameri- cans are large fruit-eaters, and seldom begin or end a meal with- 44 out fruit of some kind. To supply them witli bananas alone, there arrived from the West Indies during the year 1895, 185 car- goes of this fruit, comprising nearly 17,000,000 bunches, of the value of over £5,000,000 sterling. Jamaica furnished the larger share of this immense shipment of tropical fruit; and that island is becoming quite prosperous in spite of the great depression that has overtaken all the sugar-producing countries in that part of the world. Hitherto, Florida has supplied a good deal of the grape fruit for the American market, but since the disastrous effects of the 'freeze' of last yeai% the Florida plantations have been almost destroyed. Much English capital invested in fruit growing in that state has been lost, and many of our young countrymen set- tled there have suffered a severe reverse of fortune. Even where the groves are not quite destroyed, it will take years of toil and expenditure to bring them back to their former condition. For some time, at least, the chief supplies of grape fruit must therefore be drawn from the West Indies. The people in that part of the world would do well to establish trees of the best varieties, and take advantage of the opportunity to participate in what promises to be a steady and remunerative industry. THE BREAD-FRUIT TREE. Stephen Fuller, the writer of the following letter (one of the last he wrote in his official capacity), was agent for Jamatca in London for no less than thirty years — from 1765 to May I795> when he was succeeded by Robert Sewell. He belonged to a well-known Jamaica family founded by Colonel Thomas Fuller, a soldier of fortune, who, coming out un- der Venables in 1655, became a member of the Council. Other members of the family sat in the House of Assembly during the eighteenth century. The Council and the Assembly at that period considered it de- sirable that, their agent should have a seat in the House of Com- mons, and when Sewell succeeded Fuller they raised the salary from £500 to £1,000 with that end in view. Fuller represented Jamaica in the House of Commons during the early part of the struggle which led to the abolition of the Slave Trade, and was an out and out supporter of the planters' views, publishing various Reports on the subject by direction of the Assembly. The bread-fruit trees referred to had been brought to Jamaica, from Otaheite, by Admiral Bligh, in 1 791 ; for which Bligh re- ceived a vote of one thousand guineas from the House of Assem- bly of Jamaica, and the gold medal of the Society of Arts of London. The letter appears in the manuscript letter-book of the Agent of Jamaica for 1794-1801, in the Library of the Institute of Jamaica. F. C. 45 London, 31st March, 1 795. HoNBLE. Gentlemen It is with singular pleasure I have heard that there are many of the breadfruit trees, now in fruit, and many more in blossom in our island. As we owe the blessing of this introduction entirely to the King, I arti sure you will think as I do that he has a peculiar right to the primities, the fruits first produced from those trees. I know nothing that would give his Majesty greater pleasure, and if it was accompanied with a proper compliment from the Legis- lative body, it would make the present still more acceptable. The manner I would wish it to be sent in, if you think proper, is this, to send ten or twelve in number of the fruit, in a large jarr, covered with strong rum, well corked, bound with leather and pitch and resin melted upon the cork. And I would wish it to be directed to the Chairman of the Custom House, with a letter to him by the same ship (tho' I will signify to him that he may expect such a present), setting forth the reason of sending it to him, in order that it may not be overhaled by the searchers, who will be sure to do it some injury or other : and if you will give orders for it to be delivered to me, I will take care to get a capital flint glass vase for it, properly inscribed and to put some proof spirits instead of the rum and present it myself. His Majesty knows me, and has been pleased to express great satisfaction at the method I took two or three years ago to enrich his garden at Kew with a great number of Ja- maica plants more than had been introduced there in twenty years before. I will consult Sir Joseph Banks upon it, and we will en- deavour to make it an agreeable present, equally honourable to the maker and the receiver. I have been many years in persuit of this object, even since Captain Cooke's returned from his first voyage to Otaheite ; old Beeston Long and myself being the two first persons that subscribed our names to a paper drawn by my- self promising a reward to the first person that should bring the Breadfruit tree to the Island of Jamaica ; but all our endeavours proved abortive, till His Majesty most nobly undertook it, strenously persevered in it after one failure, and at last accom- plished it. His Majesty is a true friend to the colonies. I am of opinion we owe more to him than is generally known in regard to the defeat of the absurd attempt of abolishing the slave trade, which I think we shall hear no more of, even in the H. of Com- mons after the next general election. Till then, you will. I hope to live to see a considerable increase of negroes in our Island, and every one of them with two or three breadfruit trees in his own garden. They will then see who are their friends. I have the honour to be, Honble. Gentlemen, Your most obliged and obedient servant, Stephen Fuller. The Honble. The Committee of Correspondence. 46 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at Headquarter House, on Tuesday, l6th January, 1906, at 11.15 a.m. Present: — Hon. H. Clarence Bourne, Colonial Secre- tary, Chairman ; the Director of Public Gardens, the Superintend- ing Inspector of Schools, the Island Chemist, His Grace the Arch- bishop, Messrs. C. E. deMercado, J. W. Middleton, G. D. Murray and the Secretary. The Secretary submitted the following letters from the Colonial Secretary's Office : — I. Contagious Diseases Animals Bill. — Re Contagious Diseases Animals Bill, stating that it was not proposed to introduce the proposed bill at the next session of the Legislative Council. The Secretary read a minute saying that when he was attending a meeting of the local Agricultural Society at Appleton, one small penkeeper said that he had lost 10 cows and one bull in two weeks and that the carcases had been allowed to lie and rot. He sug- gested that a description of a few of the most contagious diseases among animals might be published throughout the island, that it might be made compulsory to report to the police the outbreak of any such diseases and the Ijurning of carcases ought also to be made compulsory. (The Chairman here left the meeting to attend a meeting of the Privy Council and the Director of Public Gardens was asked to take the Chair.) After discussion Mr. Middleton moved that members of the Board should meet members of the Board of Management of the Agricultural Society at the latter's meeting the next day and dis- cuss the whole matter of legislation regarding contagious diseases among animals so as to get something practical settled as soon as possible. This was agreed to. 2. Coco-init Disease. — Letter from Mr. G. P. Dewar, Harmony Hall, Duncans, asking if the Government could not introduce some law to make it compulsory for the owners of diseased coco- nut trees to cut them down and burn them, as the disease was prevalent in Hanover where he was in charge of a valuable pro- perty, and seemed to be gradually spreading without anything being done to prevent it. The Secretary was instructed to reply first that the matter had been referred to the Director of Public Gardens, who had replied that the same bud-rot disease had been dealt with in the Bulletin, in which was stated the result of experiments laid down by him and carried out by Mr. Cradwick, that the disease could be pre- vented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture ; and secondly that the Board would arrange for Mr. Cradwick to give a demonstration at Lucea. On the suggestion of the Archbishop it was resolved 47 that the Director of Public Gardens should publish a leaflet em- bodying what was known concerning this disease. 3. Sivcctstiiff Factory. — Letter from Mr. Edward Redsue, British Colombia, suggesting that a big sweetstuff factory should be started in Jamaica for the production of Jamaica Rum Lime Tablets and other Rum flavoured Sweetmeats. The Secretary was instructed to ask the authority of the Gover- nor to have this letter published in the newspapers for the infor- mation of all whom it might concern. 4. Jamaica Scholarship. — Letter from Schools Commission re Ja- maica Scholarship. Mr. Cousins' memo re proposed alteration in Jamaica Scholarship with criticisms of the Superintending In- spector of Schools and the Archbishop were also read. After discussion the Archbishop moved that — " In the opinion of the Board of Agriculture it is undesirable to allocate the Jamaica Scholarship every third year for agriculture, that a more efficient stimulus of general agricultural education might be effected on the following lines as indicated more fully in the correspondence, each of the Scholarships to be available an- nually : — 1. The restriction of the Jamaica Scholarship to as low a point as is consistent with making it really available for the purposes of various classes of students. 2. The appropriation of the remainder of the available money for an Agricultural Scholarship tenable for two or three years at an Agricultural College abroad to be awarded upon the Diploma Examination of the Board of Agriculture." This was unanimous- ly agreed to. School Chart. — His Grace the Archbishop brought forward a mat- ter which had been discussed at the Board before and which had been in hand for nearly two years. This was a list of "Agri- cultural Dont's" prepared by Mr. E. J. Wortley in conjunction with Messrs. Hicks and MacFarlane, to form a chart to be hung up in schools and be repeated over twice a week by scholars. The Secretary was instructed to get copies of this typed and sent to each member of the Board who were asked to make any sug- gestions. Mr. S. Olivier. — A letter of acknowledgement from Mr. Sydney Olivier re the Locked Still matter was directed to be circulated. Cotton. — A letter from Mr. G. Musgrove, Jackson, Mississippi, in reply to the Secretary's letter sending him a sample of cotton was submitted and directed to be circulated. Reports. — The following reports from the Chemist were sub- mitted : 1. Agricultural Scholarships Examination. 2. Report work of Agricultural Students for Michaelmas Term. 3. Report on Banana Soils of St. Mary. 4. Progress Report Distillers Experiments. 48 5- Appointment of two assistants, Sugar Department. These were directed to be circulated. The Director of Public Gardens submitted Reports as follows : — 1. Experiment Station. 2. Instructors. 3. Letter from India re varieties of bananas. These were directed to be circulated. The following papers which had been circulated, but not yet submitted to the Board, were submitted : — 1. Memo re proposed alteration in Jamaica Scholarship. 2. Report of Committee appointed to investigate the Cotton Caterpillar Pest in Jamaica. It was resolved to publish this re- port in the form of a special 'Bulletin.' 3. Publications on ' Bud-rot Disease of Coco-nut Palms' and forwarding diseased plants and insect pests, both sent by the Im- perial Department of Agriculture, Barbados. [Issued 17th February, 1906. Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston,, Jam. BULLETIN DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Vol. IV. MARCH, 1906. Part 3. KDITKI) BY WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S., Director of Public Gardens and Flaittatioris. CONTENTS: Cultivation and Marketing of Citrus Fruits Tobacco of Jamaica : IV A new name for a Jamaican Fern Selection of Seed : Coco-Nuts Board of Agriculture ... Season and Prices for Fruits &c. Page. 49 58 62 63 63 66 PRIG E— Threepence. A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send name and address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. KINGSTON, JAMAICA : Hope Gardens. 1906. JAMAICA. LIBRARY BULLETIN Bor'lN.rAL OF THE OARDEN. DEPARTMEXT OF A(iPiICULTUJiE. Vol. IV. MARCH, 1906. Part 3. CULTIVATION AND MARKETING OF CITRUS FRUITS. By H. Q. Levy. An Address delivered at the Auniicd Meeting of Elementary School Teachers Jor Agricultural Instruction, January, 1906. The subject set down against my name on the Syllabus, is "The Cultivation and Marketing of Citrus Fruits." Some may well ask why it is that I persistently advocate the cultivation of Citrus fruit year after year when we cannot dispose of those we already have growing wild about the different parts of the Island. My answer would be, as I have often repeated, because by cultivating standard varieties we would have a ready-made market for all the fruit we could grow ; secondly, we would have a more even grade of fruit that would better stand shipment, and thirdly, by having the trees in grove form we could handle them quicker and more carefully than by the present system. I advise, time and again, the planting of the improved varieties of oranges and grape fruit as I firmly believe that there will always be a market for them if shipped in a proper manner and given every chance of their ar- riving at their destination in a good condition ; on the other hand, I have always said that at no distant day we will have no sale for our wild oranges except when the foreign markets are bare of sup- plies. Now this is a subject well forth considering, for it means bread and butter to many of us. Are we going to waste time until we are elbowed out of the market altogether ? or are we going to set about planting improved varieties and so gradually capture a portion of the market that is ready waiting for us ? Do not be UD discouraged by the number of failures that have taken place in the S past, for if you enquire into each one you will be sure to find that "" in every case the parties were doomed to failure from the very ,__, commencement. Citrus culture needs careful study and a special <: 50 knowledge of the requirements of the tree to ensure its success, so that at the outset when men who knew nothing of the cultiva- tion or principles to be followed, launched out by planting 30 or 40 acres of oranges and grape fruit, were simply tempting Provi- dence. Now it is not my intention or desire that any of you should go away from this Lecture Hall believing that by taking up citrus culture you are going to make your immediate fortunes, or that even if you follow my instructions implicitly there will be no failure ; these things I cannot promise, but this I will say, that it is my firm belief that all those who embark in citrus culture on a small scale at first, and follow out my instructions will in the years to come find they have in their small groves quite as profitable an invest- ment as any other product they may grow, and one that is espe- cially suited to the man of small means. For all practical purposes, in dealing with citrus plants this afternoon, although there are endless varieties, we need only take into consideration for commercial purpose, two of the species, the " Sweet Orange" and the Pomelo, or as we call it in Jamaica, " Grape Fruit," and as the cultivation and treatment of both are similar, I will treat them under one head, which will both save time and prevent any undue confusion in your minds. In the first place I would particularly warn you against the great mistake most people have made in starting on too large a scale, a quarter of an acre you will find will be quite large enough an area for a start, extending your cultivation as you gain expe- rience and your means allow. A universal mistake that nine- tenths of the men in Jamaica make, whether in Commerce or Agri- culture, is, taking on more than they can manage. Always bear this in mind, that whereas the right amount of money spent on just sufficient cultivation, may bring you in a handsome profit, the same amount spent on twice the acreage or undertaking, is sure to land you in serious losses and make you disgusted with that special industry. In starting a citrus grove the first thing to be considered is suit- able land, and this is a great point if you desire to meet with suc- cess. In every case a gentle slope will be found to give much better results than very level land, heavy clays should be avoided, a soil of limestone formation such as the red soils of St. Ann and Manchester, do admirably for oranges and grape fruit, and you might say constitute the natural home of the orange in Jamaica. The ideal location for a grove will be found on soils that are inter- spersed whh limestone rock, but yet having plenty of deep soil around them ; it will not be so easy to cultivate but will be found in the long run to give better results. A rich sandy loam is also good, but you will find that this description of soil, being found nearer the sea coast, is accompanied by a very dry and hot at- mosphere, the fruit takes longer to mature and the colour will not be so good when it ripens. Having chosen the spot for your grove you must set about pro- pagating plants to stock it. For this purpose I would advise your 51 -starting a small nursery, as it is better to grow your own plants than purchase them from other parties, it will be found cheaper, more interesting, and when the planting time arrives, you may cull out all the bad ones, only planting those with good fibrous roots and well-developed stocks. I will not go into the method of forming a nursery, as I under- stand that is part of the course which you are now undergoing in the section of field work. But I must tell you this, under any circumstances use only grape fruit stock for budding on, and at all times use budded trees in preference to seedlings for your groves, and you are sure to get the same quality and kind of fruit as the description from which you took your bud-wood. But if you grow seedlings and allow them to become permanent trees you are sure to get the majority of them bearing very indifferent fruit, and of uncertain shipping qualities. Grape fruit is an exception to this rule, so long as you procure your seeds from trees that are far removed from any other variety of citrus plants, but even then the fruits from which you take the seeds, although looking fine and a desirable sort, may have been hybridized by some inferior one in that particular section. Having started your nursery, the plants doing well, and near ready to be transplanted, that is, when they have reached a height of about two or three feet, it is best to turn your attention to the land chosen for your grove. It should be cleaned and lined out, — for oranges 20-25 feet apart, and for grape fruit 25-30 feet, the rows running parallel and square to each other ; at each stake dig a hole 2 feet in diameter and about the same depth, say one month before planting ; leave it open until just the day before so that the sun may get a fair play on the soil in the bottom of the hole. In filling in a hole put the top soil at the bottom and fill in with the surrounding top soil scraped from around the hole, using the earth from the bottom of the hole to replace any such soil taken away from the adjacent land. The tree should be planted on a hill somewhat resembling that used for planting yams but not quite so high and somewhat more rounded over the top, this will enable your plant to be placed about 6 inches higher than the surround- ing soil. In taking up the plants from the nursery be careful to preserve every small root, do not take up more than you can plant immediately and never expose, even for a moment, the roots to the direct rays of the sun or to high winds ; the ends of the longer roots should be cut back a few inches, also the tap root, the head of the plant must have its share of trimming and all the leaves cut away three-quarter of their area, as by so doing you equalize to a certain extent the shock to the plant that you have caused by disturbing the roots. Arriving with your plant at the side of the hill, use your hand to make a hole in the centre of it, large enough to take in all the roots when laid out in their original position : stand the plant upright, then put in some earth and firm it well around the tap root, leaving no air spaces, as this would be sure 52 to cause the death of the plant or stunt its growth : pour in some water and put in more earth, firming it again, continue putting earth and water alternately until the soil is level with the highest root; that highest root should now be about 6 inches higher than the surrounding soil. As the earth settles, so will the tree, until it takes up a permanent position with the top root just exposed to the air. Citrus plants should never be planted deep, better to have them six inches too high than half an inch too deep ; de- fective planting has been the cause of more failures than all others put together, as by planting too deep you will find it make no growth and be a fitting subject to all the diseases to which the citrus family is subject, and these are many, especially when planted under unfavourable conditions. It will be well to spread some dry grass or trash of any kind all over the hill until you are certain that the tiees have taken root, say in about four weeks, as by so doing you ;onserve the moisture in the soil ; if no rain, you must water at lea ;t once a week until the first growth after plant- ing has fairly ripened, this stage is reached when the new leaves turn to a dark green. As it would be very expensive to keep the land clean for a number of years where only citrus plants are cultivated it is ad- viiable to establish catch crops which would give some revenue and at the same time not injure the trees in your grove. Fortunately theie are many such crops that may be grown without detriment, such as bananas, cocoes, yams, cassava, corn or peas. Try to avoid planting sweet potatoes in any citrus grove, except you plant only two rows down the centres and keep the vines from spreading too near to the trees, the same applies to pumpkins. I will now demonstrate to you the distances apart it would be best to plant the plants I haye named so as to give you a maximum yield and a minimum amount of damage to your citrus cultivation. (l) Banana as catch crop until orange trees are 2 or 3 years old, orange trees 20 ft. apart, bananas in the middle of the rows at a distance of 8 ft. from one another : — Oranges Bananas Oranges Bananas X o X o 53 (2) Yams put in between the oranges at distances of 5 ft. then another row of three yams at distances of 5 ft., and so on : — Oranges Yams Oranges X o o o X (3) Cocoes put in like the yams, but one also in the middle of each square, and so on : — Oranges Cocoes Oranges o o o X o o 0 0 0 o o (4) Corn and peas : the corn should be put in at distances of 4 feet apart, and the peas between the rows of corn : — to a a -r a ri t. a «H rt f-i - o § o to o X o ^ o ^ o ) o X ( o < o < o { o < o < o < o < o 54 Always keep your land clean and as soon as your trees start to bear, remove all catch crops from the land except peas which you may continue to grow for some time as this being a nitrogeneous crop rather adds to the fertility of the soil than otherwise. I should not pass this stage without giving you some advice as to the varieties of oranges and grape fruit to plant. In the citrus family we have a large number of species, and these are again divided up into endless varieties. For instance 'ake the sweet orange. Of the cultivated varieties we have under the class called Navel : — Petersfield, Washington, Australian, Thom- son's Improved, &c., and under ordinary or seeded varieties, St. Michael, Valencia, Ruby, Homosassa, Parson Brown, Majorca, Jaffa, Pineapple, Tardif, Rivers, Blood, &c., and a host of others too numerous to mention ; then it is almost the same with grape fruit ; the imported varieties include the following : — Marsh seed- less. Triumph, Pernambuco, Royal, Walters, Duncan, &c., and in Jamaica there are almost as many varieties as there are trees in the island. But for our purpose we can bring the oranges down to two or three varieties that are worth while cultivating. I would advise your propagating in preference to all others the Petersfield Navel as being the most vigorous grower and heaviest cropper of them all ; the Washington and Thomson's Improved Navel are also very good ; all Navels are classed as seedless varieties. Of the seeded sorts you cannot get a better than the Pineapple, for although it contains a very large number of seeds it is a very strong grower and cropper, and is seldom attacked by disease of any kind, and having a very tough skin, is one of tlie best shippers I know of. Of grape fruit I should advise your planting some selected Jamaica variety as the foreign sorts are not to be compared with them either for flavour or texture. I have tried all the oranges and grape fruit quoted, therefore I speak from actual experience. The citrus tree requires very little pruning except in the tim® of its first growth after planting when all suckers below a heigh^ of two feet from the ground should be removed with a sharp knife and covered with some paint, after that just prune up the limbs that have a tendency to droop towards the ground, and any dry branches ; more than this would not be necessary. With manuring we have to be very careful, as the citrus are very particular. Stable manure of any kind should never be used except very old and well rotted, the same applies to that obtained from the pig. Sheep manure is different, it can be used at once. Ashes are good at all times. Remember all manures must be applied in advance of the roots so that it may be thoroughly in- corporated with the soil before the roots reach it, in which case it will be of benefit to the tree, otherwise applied it will bring on endless diseases of the root. This brings us to the stage when I must say something as to the diseases of the citrus. All are more or less caused from bad man- agement, such as planting too deep first and foremost, the appli- 55 cation directly to the roots of rank manures, bad cultivation, and a disease that I call "Greedy Choke Puppy" i,e., planting catch crops right up to the trees, allowing pumpkin and bean vines to grow all over them. I will first deal with a disease known as " Foot Rot." It is first observed by a yellowish gum exuding from the roots or the trunk adjacent to them and when the bark is pealed off the wood imme- diately under it will be found to be of a brownish colour in the first stages, and later quite dead. This disease, if handled at once can easily be cured ; first remove the soil from around the root for about l8 inches, cutting away all diseased bark and wood and applying white-wash, with a little coal tar added, to the cut surfaces and allowing the hole to remain open until filled up by the natural washing of the rains. " Die Back" as its name denotes, is a dying back of new growths and smaller branches. This is due to the application of highly ni- trogeneous manures and also wet soil ; if these causes are removed and some dry wood ashes applied to the root system the trees will soon recover. "Scale Insects" are more prevalent in densely shaded groves and poorly fed trees. They exist under the most favourable con- ditions and if not checked will eventually kill the tree. For these pests soft soap emulsion is a good remedy, but it has to be re- peated until you have eradicated the pests, and ever after keep a watchful eye for the return, dosing them as soon as they make an appearance. What I have told you will be quite enough to give a fair start and if you follow out my instructions as regards planting and growing the catch crops I have mentioned, you will find at the end of about four years you will have a nice grove that will be capable of helping out your income and which has cost you almost nothing as far as ready money is concerned I hope I have not wearied you with this long string" of details, but they are all quite necessary to entail success and must be carefully followed. Now there is the other part of my discourse which I will treat as briefly as possible, and that is the marketing of citrus fruits. The present system I think is an impossible one, and is bound to bring ruin sooner or later to all concerned in it. I am sorry to have to say it, but our ordinary labourer is far too careless an in- dividual to be trusted to pick and handle oranges and grape fruit all over a property as is now done. To get good work you must personally supervise the picking, and this is not possible where you have to employ dozens of hands scattered over a large area. In a grove it is different as the trees are blocked together and you can take row by row ; then the trees being of lower growth, most of the fruits can be picked directly from the ground or from short ladders, put in small canvas bags hung from the shoulder and these 56 when filled emptied into the field boxes, which in turn can be carted to the packing house instead of the fruit being bulked in a cart as is done at present. Citrus fruits should at all times be handled as carefully as eggs ; in picking, if an orange should drop on the ground destroy it at once, do not let that orange get in your pack as it will be sure to rot and contaminate others. If possible clip the oranges directly from the trees as by doing this the buds imme- diately behind the oranges, which will form the growth for the succeeding crop, are not destroyed as is done when a part of the stem is picked from the tree along with the fruit. After pick- ing, oranges should be placed in thin layers in the packinghouse, remaining thus for at least four days before packing and grape fruit at least a week ; by that time the skins have become tough and all bruises are easily recognised. All fruits bearing these marks should be discarded. The fruit is now ready for packing opera- tions. First all fruit should be divided into three classes, brights or fully ripe and clean, secondly, fully ripe but discoloured or russet, and thirdly, greenish fruit ; then each of these grades must be sized and packed separately. Now wrap in tisssue paper, if pos- sible bearing the packer's Trade Mark, then pack in Standard size boxes, each box holding according to the size of orange or grape fruit the following number of fruit. The standard packs for oranges are 96, II2, 126, 150, 176, 200, 216, 225, 250 ; smaller oranges than these are generally classed as unmarketable. Grape fruit are packed in the following sizes. The method of placing oranges in the box to get them to hold the exact quantity is illustrated by the following diagrams* : — A B 1 Packing flfi totliebox: four layers, alternating, as in A and B. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A B 2 Packing 112 to the box : four laj'ers, alternating, as in A and B. 0 o 0 0 o c 0 0 0 f> 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 o V 0 o 0 0 o o 0 o 0 o 0 o o o o o n 0 0 0 0 o 0 A B H — Paclcing 126 to the box; firsf, third and fifth layer as in A, and second and fourth layer as in B. A B 4 — Packing 1.50 to the box ; five layers, alternating, as in A and H. 'See Bulletin of the Botanical Department, December, 1895, page 283. 57 o o 0 o 0 o o 0 o o o o 0 o 0 o 0 0 0 o o o 0 0 o o o 0 0 o o 0 o 0 0 A B 5— Packing 176 to the box ; first, third and fifth layers as in A, and second and fourth layers as in B. o o o 0 o o 0 o 0 o o o o o o 0 0 0 o o o 0 o 0 0 o o o 0 o 0 0 0 o o o o o o o A B 6— Packing 200 to the box ; five layers, alternating, as in A and B. o o o 0 0 o o 0 o o o o 0 o 0 0 0 o o o 0 o o o 0 0 o 0 o o 0 0 o o 0 0 o o o o a 0 0 o 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 o o 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 o o 0 o o 0 0 o 0 0 o 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 o 0 o o o 0 A B 7— Packing 225 to the box : five layers, alternating, as in A and B. A B 8 — Packing 250 to the box ; five uniform layers. Always remember that neatness counts for much in putting up oranges. After packing slightly above the edges of the box, this is as it should be, in putting on the cover use gentle pressure dis- tributed as even as possible over the whole surface to get the fruit to settle down'; then nail on the cover with three straps, which should go completely around the box ; neatly stencil your mark and despatch. All this of course refers to the packing of boxes. With barrels it is different. The oranges should be allowed to remain in the house as before, and as it is unnecessary to size as with boxes, this operation is saved. Neither is it advisable to wrap in tissue paper ; ordinary straw paper being the kind adopted. It is not generally known that it requires an expert to properly pack a barrel of oranges, but nevertheless such is the case, and this is how it should be done. First search the barrel well for any nails that may be protruding inside through carelessness of the cooper, then start by packing oranges around the outer edge of the bottom of the barrel, using a slightly smaller size of orange for the first row round than you intend to put in the middle part ; this will com- pensate for the inside lining. Turn all the whorls of the paper up for about four layers and see that as far as possible each layer after the first one contains the same size oranges, as the object should be to get each layer exactly level before starting another one. Never use your thumb to push an orange in place ; you are sure to injure it, but use all your fingers to give a gentle pressure sideways to each orange ; when you come to the centre, if space allows, put in three oranges at once and use the palm of your hand to gently firm the three down into their place and so act as a wedge against all the others ; continue each row like this until you come to the last, which should just come level with the top of the barrel. Place the heading on top of the oranges and give the 58 barrel a slight but sharp rocking motion to and from you, pressing the top down with your elbows in the meantime ; on uncovering you will find that the fruit has settled down just to the chine of the barrel ; after heading up, stencil and despatch. With these details I must bring my lecture to a close, but before doing so, let me seriously impress on all of you, the desirability, in fact the absolute necessity, of the better handling of our fruit. An orange or grape fruit is not an India rubber ball, but a fragile fruit, which if properly handled can be kept for months so long as it is well ventilated, but if bruised at all will be decayed and un- fit for anything after a few days, and in some instances, after a few hours. Your obligations are not over when you have nailed the heading down ; they continue until the fruit reaches the con- sumer and he finds it the article you represent it to be. You call the shopkeeper a dishonest and unscrupulous man who sells you an article that is not up to that standard he represents it to be ; well the same name applies to the packer who gets an order for good marketable fruit, but instead puts up half rotten and unmarketable stuff or handles the fruit carelessly and so jeopardises its keeping qualities. Also remember that you are not only injuring your own name by pursuing this dishonourable course, but that of your country and its products in the markets abroad, and that if some reformation is not immediately started these same markets will be forever closed to all of us. TOBACCO OF JAMAICA :— VI.* 32 S.S. 371 Colonial Secretary's Ofiice, 30th January 1906. SIR, I am directed to transmit herewith, to be laid before the Jamaica AgriculturalSociety, for their information andforpublication should the Board of Management so desire, a copy of a despatch from the- Secretary of State for the Colonies, enclosing copy of correspon- dence in regard to Mr. F. V. Chalmers' experiment of blending Jamaica with Virginia tobacco for use in the Navy. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your obedient Servant, T. L. ROXBURGH, Asst. Col. Sec. 371 Downing Street, 30th October, 1905. Governor Sir J. A. Swettenham, K.C.M.G., &c., &c., &c. SIR, With reference to my despatch No. 347 of the 6th inst., and to previous correspondence, I have the honour to transmit to you for your information, the accompanying copy of a letter from Mr. F. V. Chalmers relative to the supply from Jamaica and other British * Coatinued from Bulletin of tite Department oj Agriculture Dec. 1905 page 271. 59 Colonies of the tobacco required for His Majesty's Naval service, together with copies of correspondence with the Admiralty on the subject. I have, etc., (Sgd.) Alfred Lyttelton, 13 Devonshire Square, Bishopsgate, E.C., 20th September, 1905. C. P. Lucas, Esq., C.B., Colonial Office. SIR, I have the honour to report to you the result of my interview with you some time since, upon the introduction of Sir Alfred Jones. I have been twice to the West Indies, Jamaica, and have also reported upon growths from Barbados and St. Kitts to the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture. At the request of the Lords of the Admiralty, I blended and manufactured 8,657 tins of tobacco by way of experiment for the Navy, and I am pleased to tell you that the production is second to none. Should this meet with the approval of the seamen, it will give a great impetus to the West Indian Tobacco Industry, and I see no reason in future, if proper care and advice are given, why the whole of the tobacco for the Navy should not be composed of tobacco grown in one or other of the Colonies, entirely eliminating foreign growth. Such being the case. Colonial tobacco would vie with American or any other growth. In other kinds of tobacco, I have advised Jamaica to ex- periment and the results are most gratifying, and I have reported that in my opinion, with some small modifications the productions should compete with Havana and Sumatra, and I am told the in- crease in acreage this year is to be very considerable, but this ex- periment will have to be watched most carefully and continu- ously or there will sure to be delay, if not relapse. I am, etc., (Sgd.) F. V. Chalmers. 33923-1905 Downing Street, 26th September, 1905. The Secretary to the Admiralty, Sir, With reference to your letter of the 15th of December last, (V. 8192) relative to Mr. F. V. Chalmers' suggestion for the supply from British Colonies of the tobacco required by His Majesty's Naval service, I am directed by Mr. Secretary Lyttelton to acquaint you, for the information of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, that he understands that 8,657 tins of West Indian tobacco have been supplied by Mr. Chalmers for the Navy, by way of experi- ment, and I am to state that Mr. Lyttelton would be glad to be informed of the result of this experiment. 1 am, (Sgd.) C. P. Lucas. 60 Admiralty, S.W., 2lst October, 1905. The Under Secretary of State for the Colonies, Downing Street, Sir, I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to acknowledge the receipt of Mr. Lucas' letter of the 26th ultimo, No. 33923/1905, on the subject of the supply from British Colonies of the Tobacco required for H. M. Naval service. 2. In reply, I am to acquaint you for the information of the Sec- retary of State for the Colonies, that with the assistance of Mr. Chalmers, the Admiralty obtained a supply (1,508 lb.) of Leaf To- bacco from Jamaica, but, as it transpired that this tobacco by itself was not suitable for pipe smoking and that there is not at the present time any Colonial grown Tobacco suitable for blending with it, arrangements were made for it to be blended and manu- factured with a quantity of Virginia grown Tobacco, the proportion being 1,508 lb. Jamaican to 5,075 lb. Virginian. This preparation is now undergoing trial in the Fleet and my Lords will be happy to communicate the general results of the experiment in due course. 3. As, however, more than 75 per cent, of the blend now under trial is of American origin, it is evident that this test does not go very far in the direction of substituting Colonial for Foreign grown Tobacco, and it is doubtful whether such a step is practicable at the present time. It is true that My Lords are informed that much attention is being given to the cultivation of Tobacco in Victoria and Rhodesia, and that it is hoped eventually to produce there a type possessing the same qualities as that now grown in Virginia, and therefore suitable for blending with West Indian Tobacco. But planting in these. Colonies seems to be, as yet in the experi- mental stage, whilst, so far as their Lordships are aware, supplies even of Jamaica Tobacco, are not at present procurable in the open market in any quantity. 4. In the event, therefore, of the present trial proving successful, it must still be a matter for careful consideration whether any re- liance can be placed upon obtaining regular and sufficient supplies of Colonial grown Tobacbo at a reasonable price, and it would be very helpful to their Lordships in dealing with this question if they can be given fuller information with regard to the position and prospects of the Tobacco planting industry in the Colonies generally, and also as to whether the Secretary of State is pre- paring to take any special action in regard to the promotion of Tobacco cultivation which will be likely to assist the Admiralty in obtaining adequate supply from Colonial sources. I am, etc., (Sgd.) GEO. H. HOSTE, Pi. Sec. The following paragraphs are taken from a letter of a corres- pondent in Africa, who has had considerable experience in grow- ing Sumatra tobacco in Sumatra. His notes will be of great 6l interest to those who are engaged in the cultivation of this tobacco in Jamaica : — Many thanks for Bulletin of July, 1905, which I have read with interest. I have further received your letter of the 1 2th October and in reply to your query re fermentation. A light coloured leaf in Sumatra tobacco by no means implies want of fermentation. Most of the cigar manufacturers are under the impression that fermentation darkens the leaf, which it does of heavy tobacco, but a certain proportion of Deli leaf is very light coloured (L. sorting mark) and sells at the highest price for the American's in the Amsterdam market. My experience is that a cigar manufacturer of course knows whether a leaf suits him or what its faults are, but when they try to find a reason or suggest a remedy for these faults, they are at sea, because they have no experience as growers. Twenty* tons is a good weight of Sumatra leaf to ferment ; less would probably be insufficiently fermented, therefore this to- bacco is not a poor man's business. With regard to your Bulletin, which is of great interest to me, you may like to have the following notes, but having no experience of your climate or soil, of course they must be considered merely in the light of Sumatra and African experience, and for this reason may not be of great value. Topping — I see you did not top apparently, but let the plants flower. If 1 remember aright, this was done also in the Connecti- cut Valley ; it was also tried in Deli about 1 897, but abandoned in favour of the old plan of topi^ng, as it was found the leaf by not topping was too papery to work, also the lengths were poor. Age of plant when harvested — The quicker the growth the finer the leaf of course. In Deli, lOO to 1 10 days, from date of sowing to harvesting, is the rule. Curing— Yonrs is the first attempt I have seen to grapple with the problem of too rapid curing in the Bam ; a state of affairs which seems to prevail everywhere I have tried Sumatra tobacco, except in the very moist atmosphere of Sumatra itself. Here we ran three streams in furrows through the C. Bams. day and night while the tobacco was curing, also watered the floor heavily, with however but little effect ; the dry bulb of Psychro- meter still showed 10^ and 12 difference to the wet one, conse- quently the leaf cured blotchy. I should like to try the method of hanging the cloth round Bam but should think it expensive. I note you partly sweated the leaf on floor before hanging to turn it yellow. Perhaps in your cli- mate this may do well, but in Deli we were specially warned against this, as " green sweat" is said to give the leaf an acrid flavour, impossible to eradicate by fermentation. * A press of half a ton of Havana tobacco ferments well, and if part of this, say 90 lbs., be Sumatra, the latter is fern ented. Editor. 62 Fermentation — Your tobacco would appear to have followed the lines of the American Sumatra leaf in the Washington bulletins which perhaps suits that leaf, but it is quite different to a Deli ferment. For instance, you ran it up on first bulking to 125 F. 52 C. I should have turned it at 40 once or twice, and then brought it gradually up to 52" or higher, but of course all depends on how the tobacco looks when turned. Too rapid fermentation makes the leaf first tender then weak, and an excessive rise in temperature may burn it altogether. Too slow and you dry it out, so it's like fly fishing, cast too fine or too coarse and you lose your fish. It would seem the climate of Jamaica is very suitable for the growth of a nice cigar leaf, and I trust that your experiments will induce growers to take it up. Our shade unfortunately was blown right away in a storm, so I have no shade tobacco in Bam. The plants were about 3 feet high, growing fast and gave every promise of being a fine leaf, so I was sorry. Perhaps later you would feel inclined to exchange samples of our fermented leaf. I am just beginning fermentation now and will be finished about March. I find a good plan is to get a few bundles of Sumatra leaf to keep by one as a standard. A NEW NAME FOR A JAMAICAN FERN.* By William R. Maxon. In the first fascicle of Christensen's Index Filicum (1905), Acros- tichum lomarioides, Jenman, a middle American species, is reduced to A. aureum, L., supposed to be dispersed generally throughout the tropics. In first proposing lomarioides, Jenman suggested that A. aureum might prove an aggregate of several more or less closely related species ; and arguing from analogous cases we judge this to be likely. But at present we are concerned only with lomarioides, described at length by Jenman ; this and aureum he held to be as distinct as " any two closely allied species in any genus." Seve- ral recent writers have not held to this opinion ; but from field observation and the collection of adequate material we are quite convinced that the two are, as Jenman has said, absolutely distinct, and we shall try to prove this conclusively in a later paper. Jenman's use of lomarioides for an American plant is, however, invalidated by the earlier application of the same name to an East Indian species, by Bory. In its stead we propose, with the same type: Acrostichum excelsum nom. nov. Chrysodium lomarioides, Jenman, Timehri 4 : 314. 1885. Acrostichum lomarioides, Jenman, Bull. Bot. Dept. Jamaica. II. 5 : 154, 1898. Not Bory, Belang. Voy. Bot. 2 : 21. pi. 2. 1833. * Pioe. of The Biological Society of Washington. Vol. XVm. Oct. 17. 190 63 The type of Jenman's species is from British Guiana, but the plant occurs also in Jamaica, Porto Rico, Florida, Mexico and Guatemala. SELECTION OF SEED : COCO-NUTS. The coprah produced by i,000 Ceylon ordinary nuts is about twice as much as that obtained from Seychelles nuts. This re- sult has been obtained in tlie same soil, under tlie influence of the same climate, and is entirely due to selection. It is to be hoped that the discussion raised on the subject by the planters after their having seen the nuts introduced from Ceylon may prove the be- ginning of a careful selection of nuts for planting in Seychelles. Many of them have already informed me that they have found on their estates a few of their trees producing nuts similar to those of Ceylon and that they intend keeping them for propagation. It is probable that the trees which produce very small nuts have less requirements than those which produce bigger nuts, and that varieties which produce big nuts normally will bear smaller nuts if they are starved out. But when one thinks of the very trifling amount of plant food which is removed from the soil by coco- nut cultivation, there seems to be no difficulty in supplying the elements which are required to a greater extent by the big-nut varieties. The planter must choose between having small nuts without trouble and having double the crop by using proper me- thods and selection. — Annual Colonial Report, 1904, Seychelles. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Extracts from Minutes. The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held on Tuesday, 13th February, at Headquarter House. Present : the Director of Public Gardens, the Island Chemist, His Grace the Archbishop, Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, C. E. deMercado, J. W. Middleton, and the Secretary. The Secretary read an apology for absence from the Chairman, Hon. H. C. Bourne, intimating that there was a meeting of the Privy Council which he had to attend at the same hour, and asking that Mr. Fawcett might take the chair. The Secretary read minutes of previous meeting which were confirmed. The Archbishop asked leave to bring up a matter he had men- tioned at last meeting, viz. : the question of a Jamaica Agent in London to protect and facilitate their commercial interests. The same matter had been discussed some years before by the Mer- chants' Exchange and such an appointment had been approved of, the only objection being lack of money. Mr. Middleton in support of the proposal, moved that a Committee be appointed. The Chairman asked the Archbishop and Mr. Middleton to form this Committee, and make a report to the Board on the subject. 64 As the day and hour of the meeting of the Board so often clashed with the meeting of the Privy Council, it was resolved to alter the day to the Monday of the same week in the month, at the same hour. The Secretary read the following letters from the Colonial Se- cretary's Office : I Authorising publication of Mr. Edward Redsue's letter re Sweetmeat Factory. In connection with this the Secretary said that sweetmeats were now being made at the Barossa Creamery and the person doing so had promised to experiment in the direction mentioned, namely rum and lime juice tablets. 2. Sending copy of report of the Second International Congress of Master Cotton Spinners & Manufacturers Association. This was directed to be circulated. 3. Reports from Mr. Nolan giving results of his work in the United Kingdom. With regard to the matter of the use of steam coils in Jamaica pot-stills especially referred to the Board, the Secretary stated that to save time he had sent the papers to the Chemist for his opinion which he now presented. This was read together with a list of the estates using steam coils. It was resolved to advise the Government " that it was the opinion of the Board that the contention that steam heat is in- jurious cannot be maintained and that the erroneous impression arises from a confusion of pot-stills heated with steam coils, and continuous stills in which the liquor is brought into direct contact with the live steam." The Secretary was directed to forward this resolution to the Government together with a copy of the Chemist's minute and list of estates using steam coils and resuls of their crops, for the information of Mr. Nolan. 4. Letter from the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies sending copy letter to him from Mr. F. V. Chalmers advising satisfactory results of a blend of Jamaica Tobacco in that issued to the Navy. The Secretary submitted Draft Contagious Diseases Animals Bill as revised by a joint committee of the Board and the Agricul- tural Society and said the draft had been submitted to the members of the Committee and Penkeepers for further revision orsuggestions. The Secretary submitted letter from Mr. E. A. dePass, London, to the Chemist giving opinions re the commercial aspects of High Ether Rum on the Continent. This was directed to be circulated. The following reports from the Chemist were submitted : I. re Award of Scholarships reporting that of seven candi- dates who had competed for three scholarships, only one candidate, Mr. L. L. Carrington, attained a standard of over half marks and recommending that he be awarded a Scholarship and the other two be held in abeyance. 65 This was agreed to. 2. Asking authority to publish the results of the Sugar Experiment Station worlc for 1905 in the form of a special report, which was granted. 3. Asking authority for the purchase of a steam-heated pan from Mr. Lazarus, Kingston, at a price not to exceed £15 to be charged to " Aherations" and New Plant for Estates Distilleries on the estimates of the Sugar Ex- periment Station. This was granted. The following reports from the Director of Public Gardens were submitted : — 1. Report Hope Experiment Station. 2. " Instructors. These were directed to be circulated. The Secretary reported that Mr. Sharp advised safe receipt of the Steam Gin and that it had been erected in the Ginnery at El- tham and was in good working order ; also safe receipt of the Baler from the railway workshop, also found in good order. Owing to the heavy loss on cotton by his Company through cater- pillars, Mr. Sharp said he would be unable to make an offer for these at present. The Secretary stated that although he had written several times to Mr. Levy of Brown's Town to return the Hand Gin which he had not been able to get in working order, it had not yet been sent back. One Cotton Gin was in the hands of the Black River Agricultural Society and one with Mr. Shore at Little River, and one retained in the office. The Secretary submitted a small book by Mr. E. J. Wortley en- titled " Agricultural Practices and Morals" and which embodied a list of the " Agricultural Don'ts" prepared for the Board for use in Schools. The Board's approval of the Book was asked. This was directed to be circulated. The following papers which had been circulated, but had not yet been before the Board were now submitted : — 1. Notes on School Gardens together with notes by Mr. Cradwick and comments by members of the Board. All these were directed to be returned to Mr. Williams. 2. Itinerary of Mr. Hirst, Instructor in St. Catherine. The following papers which had been circulated were submitted for final consideration : — 1. Agricultural Scholarships' Examination. 2. Report : Work of Agricultural Students for Michaelmas Term. 3. Report on Banana Soils in St. Mary. 4. Progress Report Distillers Experiments. 5. Appointment of two assistants. Sugar Department. 6. Report Hope Experiment Station. 7. Report Mr. Cradwick. 8. Letter from India re Bananas. 9. Lettter from Mr. Sydney Olivier re Locked Still. 66 SEASONS AND PRICES FOR FRUITS, A^EGETABLES, AND OTHER ECONOMIC PRODUCTS IN KINGSTON, JAMAICA. Compiled ly Wm. Harris, F.L.S., Superintendent of Hope Gardens. As there is a good deal of misapprehension with regard to the seasons for the various crops grown in Jamaica, and the duration of the season for each crop, the compiler visited the principal market in Kingston once a week fortwelve months for the purpose of noting the various products offered for sale, and tlie prices charged to consumers. These prices are at least one-third, and frequently tliree or four times higher than the prices paid by the retail dealers to the growers of the commodities enumerated. The prices noted for economic products such as ginger, anatta, &c., were those paid by a large exporting firm to the producers. It will be readily understood that the seasons vary somewhat according to prevailing weather conditions, and the prices also vary according to supply and demand. Approximate Seasons for, and pi ices in Kingston, of fruits, vegetables and other 2>roducts Common name. Botanical name. Seasons and prices in Kingston Market. Fruits. Banana Blackberry BilbeiTy Cashew fruits Cashew nuts Coco-nuts — dry . Coco-nuts —green Cherimoya Custard Apple Ginep Granadilla Grape Fruit Grapes — black Grapes — white Musa sapientum Rubus janiaicen- sis Vaccinium meri dionale Anacardium occidentale Anacardium occidentale Cocos nucifera Cocos nucifera Anona Cheri- molia Anona reticulata Melicocca bijuga PassLflora macro- carpa Citrus decumana Vitis vinifera var. Vitis vinifera var. Throughout the dozen fingers. June to Novembar — 4d year — l^d. to 3d. per to 9d. per quart. Summer months — id. to Gd. per quart. May to August — 3d. to 4d. per dozen. INIay to September — lid. to 3d. per quart. Throughout the year — 9d. to Is. per dozen. Throughout the year — Is. to Is. 6d. per dozen. October to February — Id. to 3d. each. Plentiful November to mid' He of February ; scarce during remainder of the year — Is. per dozen. August and September — Jd. to IJd. per buiich. Throughout the year, but most plentiful during the winter months — 3d. to 6d. each. Scarce April to August — 10s. to 123. per 100 ; fair supply August to November — 8s. to ] Os. per 100 ; plentiful November to end of March — 5s. to 10s. per 100. Scarce and poor .January to March — Is. 6d. per lb., none middle March to end of May ; June to end of year fair supply — Is. to Is. 3d. per lb. None in the early part of the year ; scarce and poor April and May — 2s. per lb., June to end of year fair supply — Is. 6d. to 28, per lb 67 Common name. Lime Mango, Numerous va- rieties Melon Melon Cantaloup Melon — Musk Melon — Water Naseberry Orange — Sweet Orange — Tangier- ine Papaw Pine-apple Bull-head Pine-apple Ripley Pine-apple Sugar-loaf Pindar-nut Shaddock Sour Sop Botanical name. Citrus medica, var. acida Mangifera indica Seasons and prices in Kingston Market. Cucurbita Melo Cucumis Melo . Cucurbita mos- chata Citrullus vulgaris Achras Sapota Citrus Auran- tium Citrus nobilis Carica Papaya Ananas sativa. Ananas sativa, var. Ananas sativa, var. Arachis hypogsea Citrus decumaua Anona muricata Scarce and green April to August — fairly plentiful end of August to December; plentiful December to March — Is. per 100. The regular season for this fruit begins in April and prices for No. 11 and other favourite varieties are then 3d. per dozen. The fruit is very plentiful from middle of June to end of August, and prices drop to Jd. per dozen. Frum October to May the fruit is occasionally seen in the market, and the price is Jd. to Id. each, according to variety and quality. Winter and spring months — 4id. to 9d. each. Plentiful during the spring, autumn and winter months — Cd. to 9d. each. Plentiful during winter and spring months ; scarce and poor March to end of August — 6d. to 9d. each. Throughout the year, but most plentiful during the autumn and winter months — Od. each. Plentiful April to middle of June — 3d. per dozen ; scarce middle of June to July, ■lid. to 6d. per dozen ; none July to (October then fairly plentiful to Aprils 4id. to 6d. per dozen. Scarce June to end of August — Ss. to 4s. per 100; fairly plentiful September to November — 3s. to 4s. per 100; plentiful November, to end of May— 2s. to 3s. per 100. Scarce during June ; none July and Aug- ust ; fair supply September to November; plentiful November to end of May — Od. per dozen. Throughout the year — Id. to 2d. each. Rather scarce September to March — 5d. and 6d. each ; fair supply March to May — 4^d. to 6d. each plentiful May to end of August — 2d. to 6d. each. Same seasons as previous — 3d. to 6d. each when plentiful ; 6d. to Is. each when scarce. Same seasons and prices as for Bull-head. Throughout the year — 1 Jd — 2d. per quart. Plentiful November to June, and to be had all through the year — 6d. each. Plentiful December to June — Id. to 2d. each ; scarce in July — ;id. each ; none August and September ; scarce in October and November — 3d. each. 68 Common name. Star-apple Sweet Cup Sweet Sop Vegetables. Akee Avocado, or Alligator Pear Beans — French Beans — Lima, or Sugar Beetroot Breadfruit Cabbage^native grown ■ Calalu or Spinach Calalu, Jockatoe (See also Indian Kale) Carrot Chocho — White and Green Cocoes Corn, Indian or Maize — Green Corn Botanical name. Chrysophyllum Cainito Passiflora mali- formis Anona squamosa Blighia sapida Persea gratissima Phaseohis vulgaris Phaseolus lunatus Beta vulgaris Artocarpus incisa Brassica oleraceai Amarantus vii'idis A. gangeticus A. spinosus Phytolacca octandra DaucuB Carota Sechium edule . Xanthosoma sagittaefolium Zea Mays Seasons and prices in Kingston Market. Scarce during February— Is. per dozen. ; plentiful March to beginning of June — 3d. to 9d. per dozen ; scarce during latter part of June — Is. per dozen ; none from early part of July to February. Throughout the year — IJd. to 3d. per dozen. None from February to early part of June ; fairly plentiful middle of June, and plenti- ful July to September ; then a fair supply to end of January — 3d. to 9d. per dozen. Plentiful July to October — ^f d. per dozen ; November to end of June not plentiful — lid. to 2d. per dozen. Season begins early part of July, and pears are plentiful to end of September — Jd. to lid. each; scarce from October to end of April — Id. to 2d. each ; none during May and June. Throughout the year, but most plentiful during the autumn and winter months — 2d. per lb. when plentiful, to 6d. per lb. when scarce. Throughout the year — 4Jd. to 6d. per quart. Throughout the year, but most plentiful and best during winter and spring months — 9d. to Is. per dozen. Throughout the year ; most plentiful Decem- ber to March — Id. to 2d. each. Throughout the year ; best during winter and spring months — 4id. to 9d. each, according to size. Throughout the year ; very plentiful during and after the rainy seasons — Id. to IJd. per bunch. Throughout the year — Id. to l^d. per bunch. Throughout the year ; best during winter and spring months — IJd. to 3d. per bunch. Throughout the year, most plentiful Novem- ber to end of February — 3d. to 6d. per dozen when plentiful, 6d. to Is. per dozen when scarce. Throughout the year, most plentiful Novem- ber to March — 6d. to 9d. per dozen tubers. June to August, and October to December — 6d. to 9d. per dozen cobs 69 Common name. Botanical name. Seasons and prices ia Kingston Market. Corn, Indian, or Maize — Sweet Corn, or Sugar Corn Cucumber Garden Egg Gourd, Bottle, or Sweet Indian Kale, Calalu, or Spinach Lettuce Ochra Parsley Pea — English, or Green Pea — Black-eye Pea — Gungo, Congo, or Pigeon — dry Pea — Gungo, Congo, or Pigeon— green Pea— Red Kidney Bean, ■ Haricot Bean Plantain Potato — Irish Potato — Sweet . Pumpkin Scallion Zea Mays Cucurais sativus Solanum Melongena Lagenaria vul- garis Xanthosoma atrovirens Lactuca sativa . Hibiscus esculentus Carum Petro- seliuum Pisum sativum Vigna Catjang Cajanua indicus . Cajanus indicus Spinach (See Calalu, and Indian Kale) Tomato Turnip Phaseolus vulgaris Musa sapientum, var. paradisiaca Solanum tuber- osum Ipomoea Batatas Cucurbita Pepo Allium iistuloaum Lycopersicum eaculentum Brassica Rapa June to August, and October to December — Gd. to 9d. per dozen cobs. Throughout the year, small but plentiful — (id. to Is. per dozen. Throughout the year 9d. to Is. Cd. per dozen Throughout the year, but most plentiful during the cool months of the year — 3d. to 6d. each. Throughout the year — Is. to Is. 6d. perdozen bunches. Throughout the year — 6d. to Is. 6d. per dozen heads. Throughout the year — 2d. to 6d. per lb. Throughout the year — Id. to l^d. per bunch. During the winter and spring months, not plentiful — 3d. to Gd. per dish Throughout the year, but most plentiful April to June, and October to December — 3d. to 6d. per quart. Throughout the year — 3d. to Gd. per quart. Throughout the year — 2jd. andSd. per quart. Throughout the year, but most plentiful March to June, and November to Decem- ber— 4|d. to 6d. per quart. Throughout the year — ^d. to Id. each finger. During the winter and spring months — H to 2d. per lb. Throughout the year — |d. to jd. per lb., or 4s. to 5s. per 100 lbs. Throughout the year — 4^d. to Gd. each. Throughout the year, but most plentiful during the cool months — l^d. to 3d. per bunch, according to size. From February to July, plentiful and good — 3d. to 4^d. per lb. ; from July to Febru- ary, fair supply medium quality — 4§d to Gd. per lb. Throughout the year, but plentiful and good during the winter and spring months — IJd to 3d. per bunch. 70 Common name. Botanical name. Water Cress Yam — Negro, Lucea, &c. Yam, White, Guinea, Barbados, &c. Yam — Yellow or Afou Yampee, or Indian Yam Nasturtium offici- nale Dioscorea sativa Dioscorea alata . Dioscorea cayennensis var. rotunda Dioscorea trifida Seasons and prices in Kingston Market. Throughout the year — Id. to 1 Jd. per bunch. June to December — Ts. to 10s. per cwt. January to May — 10s. to 12s. per cwt. January to June, and August to end of year — 8s, to 10s. per cwt. Throughout the year, but most plentiful during the autumn, winter and spring months — 6d. to 2s. per dozen according to size. ECONOMIC PRODUCTS. Common name. Anatta Bitterwood Cocoa Coffee (Fancy) * Coffee (Fine) Botanical name. Bixa Orellana Picraena excelsa Theobroma Cacao Seasons and prices paid by Merchants to Growers. Coffea arabica Coffea arabica 25s. to 30s. per 100 lbs. end of May. Crop from Dec. to 30s. to 3ts. per ton of 20 cwts., 6s. per ton extra for free on board. From April to October there was no demand and no trade. 32s. to 34s. per 100 lbs. in January with a gra- , dual rise to 44s. per 100 lbs. in March when the spring crop closed ; 40s. to 41s, per 100 lbs. for middle year crop — Middle of May to end of July : 40s. to 44s. per 100 lbs. for autumn crop, starting in September and lasting to end of year. 36s. per 100 lbs. in January to May, and 34s. to 40s. in June when crop finished. No business July to middle of October, when new crop started at 36s. per 100 lbs. dropping to 34s. in November and Decem- ber. 33s. per 100 lbs. in January to June when crop finished. No business July to middle of September, when new crop started in Manchester at 30s. per lOOlbs This price was maintained to middle of October when all crops started and the price advanced to 32s. dropping to SOs. again in middle of November and remaining at that figure to end of year. * All the produce of Estates is sent direct to London or Liverpool. Blue Mountain Coffee realises as high as 130s. Cocoa gets 62s. 71 Common name. Coifee (Ordinary) Coffee (Good Or dinary) Botanical name. Coffea arabica Coffea arabica Coffee (Parch- ment) Divi-divi Fustic (roots) Cofl'ea arabica Fustic (trunks) Cffisalpinia coria- ria Chlorophora tinctoria Chlorophora tinctoria Seasons and prices paid by Merchants to Growers. 28s. to 30s. per 100 lbs. in January to end of crop in June ; no business to begin- ning of September when new crop started in Manchester at 20s. per 100 lbs., this price was advanced to 22s. during Sep- tember and remained at that figure to middle of October when all crops came in and the price rose to 23s. and 24s. at the be- ginning of November ; in the middle of No- vember the price dropped to 22s. at which figure it remained to the end of the year. 30s. per 100 lbs. at beginning of January to end of crop in June. This grade of coffee continued to appear after the end of the crop in June to the opening of the new crop in Manchester at the end of August when the price dropped to 23s. per lOOlbs. ; this price was maintained to beginning of November when it rose to 26s. and re- mained at this figure to the end of the year. 20s. per cwt. (112 lbs.) at beginning of Janu- ary rising to 21s by middle of the month, and 24s. by end of the month. During February to end of March the price remained steady at 15s. per cwt., it then rose to 16s. and remained at that figure to middle of May when it went up to 24s. per cwt. From middle of August to middle of Oct. none was offered, then all crops came in and the price started at 20s. per cwt. and remained at that figure to end of the year. 5s. 3d. per cwt. for large quantities, sellers finding their own bags ; 4s. 6d. per cwt. for small quantities — January to June. In December the prices paid were £5 per ton for large quantities and £4 10s. per ton for small quantities. From January to middle of April 35s. per ton (20 cwts.) and 6s. extra for free on board ; during May and early part of June 39s. per ton ; June to beginning of August, 43s. ; August and September 48s. ; Octo- ber to end of November 40s. and during December 3(is. per ton. From January to middle of April 48s. per ton of 20 cwts., and 6s. extra for free on board ; May to early part of June 523. ; from middle of June to end of September, 568. ; from beginning of October to end of November 48s. and during December 44s. per ton. 72 Common name. Botanical name. Seasons and prices paid by Merchants to Growers. Ginger Kola-nuts Zingiber offici- nale Cola vera Logwood (roots) Logwood (trunks) Orange, Sweet Pimento Pimento sticks and clubs Pine-apple (Bullhead) Pine-apple (Eipleys) SarsapariUa Haematoxylon campechianum Haematoxylon campechianum Citrus Auran- tium Pimenta officina- lis Pimenta officina- lis Ananas sativa var. Ananas sativa var. Smilax papyra- cea January 2os. to 28s. per lOOlbs. ; in February 26s. to 28s. ; from February to end of April, 28s. ; Ma}', 32s. to 34s. ; June, 36s ; crop all reaped ; July, 32s.; August, 35s. per lOOlbs. No trade after early part of August to middle of December when crop started at 24s. per I'lOlbs. Crop starts in March. No trade before June when 12s. Od. per lOOlbs. was paid for fresh nuts. This price advanced to 15s. per 100 lbs. by middle of June and dropped to 8s. in July for cured nuts. It remain- ed at 8s. to end of crop. The trees give 2 crops — Mar. to June, and Aug. to Nov. From January to June 34s. per ton of 20 cwts., and Us. extra for free on board. From middle of June to end of year 50s. per ton. For local consumption at Chemi- cal Works the price paid is equal to shipping rates free on board. 48s. per ton (20 cwts.) at wharf, 6s. extra for free on board, Jan. to middle of April; 52s. May and June ; 50s. to end of year. 10s. to lis. per 1,000 January and February ; 12s. 6d.— 133. March ; 14s. April ; 15s., May; 16s. to 18s., June — Crop over; 20s. July and August. New crop started in August with a demand for Canada ; 18s. in beginning of September, ch'opping to 15s. by end of the month ; 12s. Gd. to 12s. in October; and 12s. 6d. and 13s. during November and December. 16s. to 1 8s. per 100 lbs. January to March; 18s. 6d. to 20s. March to beginning of ' May when the Southside crop comes in and lasts to about end of June ; July 18s. full crop in August, 18s. Od. ; September 18s. 6d. dropping to 1 4s. 6d. at end of month ; October 13s. M to 168. 6d. ; November 15s. 6d. : December 15s. Sticks, J inch to IJ inch, diameter, 8s. to 10s. per 100. Clubs, 3 inches to 0 inches, diameter, 4s. to 8s. per dozen. Both in good demand. January to early part of March, 3s. per doz. ; 4s. in April ; 2s. to 3s. per doz. from April to August. No trade from end of August. During March, 4s. to 7s. per dozen ; April, to end of June, 6s. per dozen, July, 5s, per dozen, August, 4s. per dozen. 4d. to 4jd. per lb. from January to end of August. The real crop time is from January to end of June. [Issued 22nd March, 1906.] Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam. JAMAICA. BXJLI.BTIN OF THB NEW YORK 80TANJCAL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ^^'^'^^^ Vol. IV. APRIL, 1906. Part 4, CASSAVA TRIALS III. Final results of test of 23 varieties. By H. H. Cousins, M.A., Oxon., F.C.S., Island Chemist. The results obtained in this series of trials at the Hope Experi- ment Station of Cassavas at 12 and 1 5 months' growth have been given in this Bulletin (1905 pp. 152-155 and 218-219) and the final results of the tonnage and starch yield per acre after 21 months' growth have now been obtained. Tables are given showing the results of the final yield, the comparative yields of tubers and of starch at 12, 15 and 21 months' growth, and finally of the increased yield of tubers and of starch by prolonging growth from 1 2-1 5 months and 1 5 to 21 months respectively. Best varieties for harvesting at 12 months. ' White Top' proved the best variety in these experiments with a yield of 10.5 tons tubers containing 7,902lbs. starch per acre. Next came 'Long Leaf Blue Bud' with 9.0 tons tubers followed by 'Blue Top' with 8} tons per acre. 'Smalling' was fourth, closely followed by 'Rodney' and ' Luana Sweet.' Best varieties for harvesting at 15 months. 'White Top' fell off after 12 months' growth and is clearly a variety that does not improve by a longer period of growth than a year. At 15 months, ' Long Leaf Blue Bud' proved to be the most prolific variety, yielding 15.4 tons of tubers with 4,955lbs. starch per acre. ' Smalling,' ' MuUings' and ' Luana Bitter' fol- lowed in the order named. Best varieties at 21 months. 'Blu^e Top' is the champion cassava of this series having given us 21.9 tons of tubers and over 7 tons of starch per acre (15,818 lbs). This result would have been considered fabulous previous to this careful series of field trials, and it is claimed that we have now proved that cassava can be grown without irrigation in the plain of Liguanea in Jamaica to give a yield of starch greater than has ever been recorded before of any starch-producing plant. It is true that this crop has taken the plant practically two years to produce, but when we remember the cheapness of \z.n& 74 and the low cost of cultivation involved in the prolonged period of growth, it is abundantly clear that the cost of increasing the starch yield from 3i to 7 tons per acre is out of all proportion to the value of the increased product. It would appear therefore, that the most economic production of starch would be attained by the cultivation of such a variety as 'Blue Top' upon a biennial basis. For quick returns 'White Top' would be the better variety and in starting a starch factory it would be advisable to grow half the cassava area as an annual and half as a biennial crop. The variety ' Black Stick' has steadily improved during the second year of growth and now holds second place in starch pro- duction with the record percentage of 38.2 per cent, of starch in the tubers and an indicated yield of nearly 7 tons starch per acre. 'Smalling,' although giving a bigger tonnage of tubers than 'Black Stick' stands decidedly below that variety in starch yield. "Mai- lings" comes fourth with a little less than 6 tons starch per acre, while 'Long Leaf Blue Bud' that led at 15 months has not since gained at all in yield of tubers and shows only a very small increase in starch per acre as the result of the further 6 months' growth. Clearly, this is a variety that is at its best at 15 months, and one that it would not pay to grow as a 21 months cassava in com- petition with the other varieties. Percentage of starch in the tubers. — -At 12 months' ' Luana Sweet' had the highest content of starch (35.2 per cent.), at 15 months,' 'Long Leaf Blue Bud' heads the list with 37.4 per cent., while at 12 months' growth this variety is very slightly inferior to 'Black Stick,' which leads with 38.2 per cent, of starch in the tubers. The recorded maximum starch content for a Jamaican Cassava is 39.1 per cent, for the variety 'White Smooth Bitter' grown by the Hon. T. H. Sharp at Inverness in Clarendon in 1903. This variety as grown at Hope only attained a content of 35.5 per cent, of starch. These experiments emphasize the fact that Cassava varieties are so variable in their yield under different conditions of soil and locality that it is most desirable to carry out careful tests of a selected series before the best varieties for any given place and purpose can be correctly ascertained. Not only is there a great variation in the yield of tubers, but also of starch content and period of growth. Conclusions. 1. Under conditions obtaining at Hope and without irrigation a yield of loi tons tubers at 12 months, of 15J tons at 15 months and of nearly 22 tons tubers per acre at 21 months has been re- corded. 2. The indicated yield of starch per acre has risen from 3i tons at 12 months to 5| tons at 1 5 months, and 7\ tons starch at 21 months' growth. 3. This yield has been obtained at a cost of about £5 per acre and it is abundantly clear that we can produce enormous crops of 75 cassava in Jamaica at a cost that should enable us entirely to replace Potato starch in the British market. 4. Cassava can be grown to give a large yield upon a soil and with a rainfall that would not give good crops of sugar cane without irrigation. Large areas of land, at present producing little or nothing, could be profitably used for the growth of cas- sava for starch manufacture. This is an industry that can be confidently recommended to capitalists and land owners as one of the most promising means of increasing our exportable produce without trenching upon land at present productive of other pay- ing crops. I desire to acknowledge the work of Mr. F. A. Thompson of this Department in analysing the tubers and the careful way in which the Superintendent at Hope Gardens recorded these results in the field. Cassava Trials III. (Twenty-one varieties harvested after 21 months growth.) 2 .iH 1 2 '6 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Variety. Tubere Tons per acre. Blue Top Black Stick Smalling Mullinga Long Leaf Blue Bud. Duff House Prize or Silver Stick. White Smooth Bitter. White Slick Brown Stick Black Bunch of Keys White Top Silver Stick Bobby Hanson Black Bitter Long Leaf Blue Bud White Bunch of Keys Cotton Tree Luaua Sweet New Green Rodney Luana Bitter 21.9 18.0 19.3 18.0 15.4 15.4 12.9 12.9 11.6 11.6 11.6 11.6 10.3 10.3 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 11.6 10.3 9.6 o 61.9 68.3 59.2 64.4 55.9 60.2 5S.0 57.0 54.8 58.5 60.3 60.8 58. 3 56.1 65.3 67.6 55.5 61.3 64.4 65.9 64.9 38.1 41.7 40.8 35.6 44.1 39.8 42.0 43.0 45.2 41.5 39.7 39.2 41.7 40.9 44.7 42.4 44.5 38.7 35.6 34.1 35.1 1.8 1.6 0.9 1.1 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.1 1.8 1.3 1.4 0.9 1.4 1.1 33.2 38.2 32.0 32.8 38.0 36.4 36.9 34.3 37.3 34.2 34.1 33.5 37.1 35.5 Gain per acre from 15 to 21 months. 1.0 37.4 1.5 0.9 1.5 1.3 1.7 1.5 36.9 36.7 35.1 26,4 28.3 29.7 15,818 16,433 13,883 13,277 13,187 12,632 10,666 9,920 9.742 8,927 8,894 8,753 8,574 8,197 7,567 7,466 7,221 7,102 6,895 6,547 6,425 2.1 2.5 6!9 5.1 0.6 O.2I 6,085 10,236 5,330 5,097 330 5,034 6,622 2,485 6,615 1,522 4,308 1,115 3,974 2,063 2,374 2,560 '562 38,08 384 Loss 1,261 Loss 76 Comparative yields at different stages. Variety. Tons per acre. i Lbs. Starch per acr?. No. 12 15 21 j 12 15 21 m'nths m'nths m'ntlisni'nths i m'nths m'nths ] Blae Top 8.25 14.2 21.9 15,636 9,733 15,818 2 Black Stick 6.5 6.5 18.0 4,878 5,197 15,433 3 1 Smallin^ 7.5 11.1 19.3 5,494 8,553 13,883 4 MuUings 5.75 11.1 18.0 4,160 8,180 13,277 5 Long Leaf Blue Bud 9.0 15.4 15.4 6,552 12.857 13,187 6 Dnft" House 5.5 10.6 15.4 4,107 7,598 12,632 7 Prize or Silver Stick 3.5 5.1 12.9 2,634 4,044 10,666 8 White Smooth Bitter 3.25 9.4 12.9 2,460 7,435 9,920 9 White Stick 3.25 3.9 11.6 2,522 3,127 9,742 10 Brown Stick 3.25 11.6 11.6 2,384 7,405 8,927 11 Black Bunch of Keys 3.25 6.5 11.6 2,388 4,586 8,894 12 White Top 10.5 11.0 11.6 7,902 7,638 8,753 13 Silver Stick 3.5 6.5 10.3 2,744 4,000 8,574 14 Bobby Hanson 6.25 8.4 10.3 4,777 6,134 8,197 15 Black Bitter Long Leaf Blue Bud 6.01) 6.9 9.0 4,462 5 193 7,567 16 White Bunch of Keys 5.25 6.5 9.0 4,069 4,906 7,466 17 Cotton Tree • •■ 9.0 • >• 7,221 18 Luaua Sweet 6.75 8.1 9.0 5,322 6,540 7,102 19 New Green 5.25 6.5 11.6 3,192 3,086 6,895 20 Rodney 7.5 9.7 10.3 6,337 6,931 6,547 21 Luana Bitter 4.25 9.4 9.6 3,075 7,686 6,425 22 Mass Jack 4.25 5.1 ... 3,091 3,243 ... 23 Yellow Belly 3.5 3.2 ... 2,321 1,921 ... INCREASE. Variety. Tons tubers per a. lbs. starch per acre No. 12-15 15-21 12-15 15-21 months. months. months. months. 1 Blue Top 6.0 7.7 4,097 6,085 2 Black Stick ,,, 11.5 319 10,236 3 Smalling 3.6 8.2 3,059 5,330 4 MuUings 5.3 6.9 4,020 5,097 5 Long Leaf Blue Bud 6.4 ... 4,955 330 6 Duft House 5.1 4.8 3,491 5,034 7 Prize or Silver Stick 1.6 7.8 1,410 6,6-22 8 White Smooth Bitter 6.1 3.5 4,975 2,i85 9 White Stick 0.6 7.7 605 6,615 10 Brown Stick 8.3 >•■ 5,021 1,522 11 Black Bunch of Keys 3.2 5.1 2,198 4,308 12 White Top 0.5 0.6 264-1 Loss J 1,115 13 Silver Stick 3.0 3.8 1,850 3,974 14 Bobby Hanson 2.1 1.9 1,357 2,063 15 Black Bitter Long Leaf Blue Bud . 0.9 2.1 731 2,374 16 White Bunch of Keys 1.2 2.5 837 2,560 17 Cotton Tree • •• .*• • ■• ... 18 Luana Sweet 0.3 0.9 1,218 562 19 New Green 1.2 5.1 106 1 Loss J 3,809 20 Rodney 2.2 0.6 1,594 384 1 Loss J 21 Luana Bitter 5.1 0.2 4,611 1,261 Loss 22 Mass Jack . 0.8 • •• 152 ... 23 Yellow BeUy 0.3 1 Loss J ... 4001 Loss J ... n COTTON DISEASE. From Commissioner, Imperial Department of Agriculture, to Director of Public Gardens. Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies, Barbados, January 23, 1906. My dear Fawcett, I am in receipt of your letter of the 8th instant advising the sending of some bolls from Mr. DeMercado's cotton in Vere ap- parently attacked by anthracnose. I enclose for your information a report prepared by Mr. Stock- dale on the samples sent. With kind wishes, Very sincerely yours, (Sgd.) D. MORRIS. Imperial Commissioner, The four cotton bolls forwarded by Mr. Fawcett from Mr. De Mercado's estate in Vere are small and ill-shaped. Two of these show the characteristic spots of anthracnose, from which spores of Colletotrichum gossypii are given off. These spores appear to be of a greater diameter than those described by Mr. Lewton-Brain (W. I. B., Vol. v., p. 191) as Colletotrichum gossypii var. harhadcnse, and I should be pleased if Mr. Fawcett could obtain further specimens, so that this difference might be looked into more fully. The spots of anthracnose on these two bolls were over-grown with Fusarium which is probably saprophytic (West Indian Bulle- tin. Vol. v., p. 178). The other two bolls show no signs of anthracnose, but appear to have been dried up through some purly physiological causes and have subsequently become covered with Fusarium. I have seen many such examples in Barbados this year, more frequently immediately after changes of weather when the plant does not seem able to support or properly feed a large number of bolls. Suggested Remedial Measures — The fungus that causes the An- thracnose spreads by means of spores which are disseminated by wind and insects and is capable of growth on all parts of the plant. If the area is badly attacked it would be advisable to destroy all diseased plants and parts of plants and not to set cotton in the infected area for a few years. If a young crop of cotton is badly infected, spraying with Bor- deaux mixture would probably prevent the germination of spores and so prevent further infection of bolls. This must not be done if any of the bolls are matured, as the solution of copper salts would seriously discolour the lint and therefore reduce its value. If the crop of cotton is advanced and the disease is doing serious damage, experiments with dry fungicides might be conducted, say 78 with a mixture of sulphur and lime (the lime being in excess of the sulphur). This mixture can easily be made and can readily be applied. The slowly-evolved gases, are readily soluble in water, forming a solution which should be strong enough to kill the spores and germinal tubes, but too weak to injure the leaves of the plant. I have been unable to obtain any information respecting any ex- periments that have been carried on either in America or the West Indies with a view to obtaining a treatment for the pre- vention of anthracnose of cotton, and therefore this makes it all the more important that experiments should be started even on a small scale, to obtain such information. Another point in the treatment of this disease is very important — this is the sterilization of cotton seed before planting. Spores are held attached to the seed coat and these possibly produce the disease in the cotyledons of seedlings. Further information on the sterilization of cotton seed will be forthcoming before next planting season as experiments are now in hand dealing with this subject. F. A. STOCKDALE, Mycologist. LOGWOOD : DISEASE AND CULTIVATION. In the fall of the year 1902 the Director of Public Gardens went on special leave to the ;States. He was fortunate enough to in- terest Dr. Britton, Director of the New York Botanical Garden, in Jamaica, and on his return Dr. Britton allowed Prof. Earle to ac- company him to study generally the plant diseases of the Island. Prof. Earle made a report which was published in the Jamaica Bulletin for February, 1903. , One of the diseases investigated was the Logwood Root Rot, and the following is Prof. Earle's state- ment about it. Recently letters have appeared in the " Gleaner" from Dr. Bucher and Mr. J. W. Edwards on the subject, and it has been thought well to call the attention of planters again to the subject. I. By Prof. Earle. On some estates, especially toward the western end of the island, logwood trees are dying in considerable numbers. The diseased trees usually occur in groups, the infection spread- ing slowly but in constantly widening circle. An examination of dying trees shows the roots to be badly rotted. Their surface tis- sues are invaded by a white fungus mycelium that is usually more abundantly developed in the region between the bark and the wood. The disease seems to attack first the small rootlets, grad- ually spreading to the larger roots and the crown when the tree dies. In many cases seeming heahhy trees near the border of infested areas were found to have the roots on the side next the dying trees badly diseased, while on the other side they were still perfectly healthy. The fungus seems to be the mycelium of some of the Hymenomycetes. Numerous species of Polyporaceae 79 and Thelophoraceae were taken on logwood stumps and logs, but in no case could their connection with this root rot be satis- factorily proven. Whatever the nature of the fungus, leaving stumps of trees that have died from this disease in the neighbour- hood of living trees is clearly dangerous. Dying trees should be dug and the roots burned as soon as the disease can be detected. Where it is confined to certain small definite areas as is often the case, it would be advisable to dig a trench three feet deep just out- side of the diseased area in order to prevent its spread under- ground to the roots of healthy trees. On a few of the estates ex- amined the disease was so widely scattered that this method of treatment would not be practicable. Here it would seem best to clear the infested tract entirely of logwood, marketing such as was sufficiently mature, and allowing the land to grow up in pimento and limes, or reserving it for pasturage or cultivation. It should be mentioned in this connection that pimento trees are said to die from a similar root rot in some parts of the island. If this should prove to be identical with the logwood root rot, pimento would not be available as an alternative crop. This root rot seems to spread slowly. One old logwood chip- per assured me that trees had been dying for thirty-five years on a spot that he pointed out. This area does not now include over three or four acres. This would indicate that by vigorous mea- sures it could be controlled. The disease was found on various kinds of soils and under moisture conditions varying from dry rocky hill sides to the margin of swamps. In some cases the dis- eased areas were on spots where the soil was rich and deep and the moisture and drainage condition perfect. It was not observed on the heavy clay lands towards the eastern end of the island but whether this was due to the absence of infection or to the char- acter of the soil could not be determined. n. By Dr. e. Bucher. In driving through Westmoreland one cannot but notice that the logwood blight investigated some time ago by Prof. Earle of the New York Botanical .Garden* is rapidly spreading. Too many pastures look as if the logwood trees, young and old, had been singed by fire from the top downwards. Prof. Earle pronounced the blight to be a contagious root disease. If not attended to, it will do serious damage to the logwood industry in that part of the island. Logwood growers will do well to remember the disastrous ex- perience of European wine growers with phylloxera. That insect pest appeared to be harmless enough at first, until it spread so fast that it was hopeless to cope with it. The best vineyards of France were laid bare. Those who had thought themselves to be the wealthiest cultivators suddenly found themselves to be almost * Now Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Cuba. Ediior. 80 beggars. Utter ruin was only averted by making a fresh start, pulling out every vine stock and replanting the vineyards with the hardier American plant. A logwood grower who sees the disease appear on his property owes it not only to himself but also to his neighbours to eradicate the disease as it appears and prevent its spread. If any one doubts that this can be done successfully let him pay a visit to that model logwood property, Old Hope. There he will look in vain for a dead logwood tree. Mr. J. W. Edwards, the attorney, will perhaps be good enough to tell us by what means he has managed to keep Old Hope free from the disease. We will be thankful to him if he will give us the information. m. By J. W. Edwards. With reference to Dr. Bucher's letter, I am bound to admit that the remarks about the logwood generally in Westmoreland are only too correct. I took Prof. Earle, when he was in the country three years ago, to Old Hope. The Professor went to considerable trouble to inspect the trees at different positions on the property that showed signs of the disease and after most minute investigation he pronounced it a root disease that was highly contagious. Acting on his advice I have from that time cut down and burnt wherever practicable, any trees showing the slightest trace of the disease, with satisfactory results. As Dr. Bucher who is such an eminent authority on logwood, thinks that Old Hope is in a fair state of cultivation, it may in- terest logwood growers to show the system that has been pursued at this property. The growth of young saplings is encouraged every year with the view of having rotation crops. Saplings are grown thickly in order to induce the growth of long straight trunks, but after a time the useless ones are thinned out to give light and air to the most promising ones. On no account are any saplings allowed to be trimmed of the prickles which are evidently given them by nature to protect them from stock, and when the trunks are sufficiently strong to resist pressure from animals in rubbing against them, the prickles dis- appear naturally, the trunks then presenting a nice clean smooth bark. If after the trunks are naturally cleaned off, it is thought that too many limbs are thrown out some of the lower ones should be cut off with an upward cut to prevent soakage by water. The shippers are never allowed to rest their wood against other trees, in order to preserve the bark from injury by chafing. Another matter that receives attention is the killing of duck ants' nests, which are so frequently seen on trees ; this is done by arsenic sweetened with molasses, or sugar. 8i EARLY ORANGES. 24th January, 1906. The Governor directs* the publication, for general information, of the following letter from the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, containing suggestions for promoting the earlier ripening of oranges. By command, H. Clarence Bourne, Colonial Secretary. Department of Public Gardens and Plantations. Hope Gardens, Kingston, P.O., 1 2th January, 1906. SIR, I have the honour to acknowledge your letter No. IIOO2/13504, dated 14th ultimo with reference to the controversy on the ship- ment of unripe oranges, and asking nie to consider whether it is feasible to cause oranges to ripen earlier. 2. There are two classes of oranges exported viz. : the fruit of seedling trees, and that of budded trees, of which the number ex- ported of the former is enormously in excess of the latter. The problem therefore refers chiefly to the fruit of seedling trees. 3. Budding trees from early varieties can to some extent and after a considerable time, bring in early fruit : these trees will also be affected by any solution of the general problem. 4. To the peasantry, who own the vast majority of the trees, 1 would offer the following suggestions. Early fruit is encouraged by:- (1) removal of all fruit late in October or early in Novem- ber, (2) removal at the same time from the trees of all dead wood, lichens, moss, and other growths, — this of course should be also done throughout the year. (3) opening up the main roots for a foot or 18 inches from the stem, and removing the soil from them. (4) application of lime on surface of ground from stem as far as branches extend, — all the above work to be finished during November. (5) forking up the soil in December for a breadth of a foot all around the tree just outside the extremities of the root-system, and application of woodashes, bones and a little well-rotted pen manure to it, or the equivalent in commercial fertilisers. (6) maintaining a mulch of grass, &c., from January until the fruit is full and then removing it. * Jamaica Gazette, 25th Januavj', 1906. 82 (7) irrigating, whenever possible, by using waste water, &c., during the same months that the mulch is used. (8) thinning out the fruit by one half when they are about the size of marbles. 5. I believe that these cultural operations would have a decided effect in bringing in earlier fruit, and would be well worth the expense. I have, etc., W. Fawcett, Director. The Hon. The Colonial Secretary. The following letter on the same subject is reprinted from the "Gleaner" of the I2th February. The Director of Public Gardens and Plantations to the Editor of the " Gleaner." Hope Gardens, 9th February, 1906. Sir, Mr. T. H. Sharp's letter on producing early fruit in the orange is interesting and suggestive. His statement that '" the trees have two energies : the energy of reproduction and the energy of growth" is correct, and the theory and its practical applications have been treated at some length in the Bulletin for February, 1904, in which it is shown that "a de- crease in nutrition during the period of growth favours the develop- ment of the reproductive parts while abridging the vegetative parts." The consideration of this fact in the economy of plant life was not omitted in the letter to the Colonial Secretary, but the method suggested is that used by nature herself, checking or preventing nutrition, rather than injuring and half-killing the tree, as Mr. Sharp proposes, by " smashing the outer bark as well as the cam- bium" of the trunk near the ground by blows from a mallet. Under natural conditions plants undergo a decrease of nutrition from various causes : two of these causes, — drought, and in some plants, the fall of the leaf, e.g., in our " common cedar," are readily recognized by every one as natural checks to growth. The fall of the leaf prevents the chemical union of the mineral constituents taken up by the roots with the carbon extracted from the carbonic acid of the air, — which chemical change takes place in the leaf, forming the food of the living organism. The check by drought to the absorption of food materials by the roots is much more serious, if it is thorough, and if it lasts long enough. In treating the orange we cannot cut off its leaves, but we can interfere with the action of its roots. We cannot prevent rain falling, but we can do something to prevent absorption by the roots, and so imitate drought. 83 The removal of the soil from the roots was suggested for 12 to 1 8 inches from the stem ; if that is not sufficient to stop growth, I would remove the soil to a greater extent, but then comes in the question of expense and whether it would pay to do so. Forking round the extremities of tlie root system was also sug- gested ; this should be done in such a way that the roots would be carefully cut baclc, so limiting root action. These two methods of checking nutrition are not only effective for that purpose, but they conduce to greater vigour. Opening up the main portion of the roots near the stem aerates and dries the soil all round, checks any tendency to foot-rot, and prevents attacks there by grubs. Shortening back the roots leads later on to extensive branching and development of the roots, especially as the ground has been loosened in the direction of growth. I am, etc., W. Fawcett. Dr. Tillman has kindly contributed the following account of the methods adopted in his Orange Grove, which is a model for cul- tivators. Dr. Tillman to the Director of Public Gardens. Camden Grove, Race Course, P.O. Jamaica, lOth March, 1906. Dear Sir, In reply to yours of the 28th December, I beg to enclose here- with, a/c sales of fruit sold in December ; and you will see that the prices range from 8/ to 9/ per box. It cost 6/ to place a box of oranges on the market, including everything— capital paying prices for that time of year. During August I got 15/ to 16/ ; September, 14/ and 14/3 ; Octo- ber, 11/ to 12/, and November, 10/ to ll/. You must pardon my not answering before, as I had to wait for the last a/c sales, and they did not come to me until end of last month. Re my efforts to obtain early fruit: Immediately after the October seasons will permit, I pick off all fruit, say early in No- vember, and start ploughing with two pony ploughs, up and down each side of the intervals, between the trees ; making three cuts on each side, about three inches deep — the first cut being made directly under the extreme end of the outside of the lateral branches. "■ • The same cuts are made by the other plough, the other way of the interval, so that the fine terminals of the surface roots are sliced through on each of the four sides of the trees that is pruned. The whole interval is not ploughed or close ploughed, for the reason that I would not be able to do the whole 32 acres quickly enough. As soon as each interval has had three cuts made both sides, all over the cultivation, then the ploughs are allowed to plough 84 thoroughly the whole field. The ploughing is so done that each cut of the plough throws the earth towards the tree, so as to pro- tect the cut ends of the roots with the fine dirt thrown by the next cut. The ploughs have new soclvs every six days to ensure clean and deep cutting when the above work is being done (ordinarily only every fourteen days are they changed). The trees are in the meantime gone over with a gang of women under two headmen ; all infested leaves that are bad are cut off with the scissors, and those with scale insect scrubbed by hand with small pieces of bagging dipped in warm soap or kerosene emulsion — branches also scrubbed. All the inner branches and twigs that prevent light and air from going freely through the tree, are pruned away to throw all the energy for blossoming into the terminal branches. No water is allowed near the trees for fully six weeks — that is, the whole of November and part of December. Water is then applied, say about the second week in December, and the trees thoroughly flooded, the cultivator being passed over two days after, to save the earth drying and cracking and conserving the moisture below the surface. Pruning roots and branches and cleaning the trees coupled with the rest that the trees get for the six weeks while suffering for want of water, compel a large number of the trees to commence to blossom about three weeks after the first application of water, and from then, each watering (three weeks apart), brings out more blossoms ; so that blossoms first appear during the first week in January. This year fully a thousand trees commenced to bloom during the first ten days of January ; of course in the majority of cases, only partially. I have had quite a few trees that I picked fruit from as late as the middle of November, bloom in January slightly, but of course the trees that had been relieved of fruit earlier than November, bloomed earlier and heavier. This coming season I do not intend to pick any fruit in Novem- ber ; so that I will have all fruit shipped by end of October. All blossoms after the 15th March will be picked off so as to save the trees carrying late fruit needlessly and thus ensuring an early bloom next season. The above method can only be adopted in the irrigated districts of Vere and St. Catherine, as only with irrigation can the trees be controlled in a great measure ; and as you are aware, there are barely half a dozen groves altogether in the two parishes named ; but I am certain that a great deal of good could be effected in the hills where practically, all the fruit comes from, if the trees were treated as you recommend them to be. Of course the trees in the hills are entirely at the mercy of the seasonal rains and would not, even with irrigation, bloom very early in the year owing to the climatic conditions. Even at the present time of writing, many of the wild trees are loaded with over-ripe and unmarketable fruit, thus perpetuating a lot of the mischief and compelling the sending away of immature 85 fruit in August and September, the trees not blossoming until April ; in consequence, our fruit continues to have such a bad name in the marl^et. A very important fact also must not be lost sight of, and that is, that the fruit grown in the lowlands only take from seven to seven and a half months to mature, whereas fruit in the hills take from eight to nine months. Hoping the above will prove that not only can fruit be grown in the irrigated lowlands, but what is more important still, that groves established and properly cultivated, can be made to pro- duce early ripe oranges to supply the best market. That would give Jamaica an unrivalled position as a citrus fruit centre. Florida California, and the Mediterranean, owing to the climatic conditions, would never be able to supply mature fruit in the months of August and September. Cuban groves under go-ahead American management, with irri- gation, would be our only competitors. I will with great pleasure give all the facts and figures after the coming season to the public as I feel sure there is a great future before the industry on these lines. Yours faithfully, (Sgd.) Harry G. Tillman. FORWAKDING DISEASED PLANTS AND INSECT PESTS.* Much disappointment has lately been experienced, both by the sender and also by the receiver, through plants, supposed to be diseased, and insect pests reaching the laboratories of the Impe- rial Department of Agriculture in an unfit condition for scientific examination. It is hoped that officers of the department and others will carefully study and follow the suggestions that have been given by the Department on former occasions. (See Agricul- tural News, Vol. I, p. 243, and Vol. II, p. 235.) The chief reasons for this state of things are one or more of the following : — (l) The fragmentary nature of the material sent for investiga- tion. (2) Lack of care in transmitting , the specimens arriving shrivelled or dead or mouldy. (3) Absence of information as to the conditions under which the plants grew. It must be pointed out that a few fragments of a diseased plant are of little use for investigation, and sufficient material should be sent so that the primary cause of the trouble may be located. In order that time and labour may not be wasted in the exami- nation of unsuitable material, care must betaken in collecting and packing specimens so that they may arrive at Barbados in good condition. Fresh specimens of moist vegetable matter should not be sent packed in boxes or in envelopes, but should be either suitably dried and sent in a well-ventilated package or, preferably * Repriuteil from the Agricultural News, Vol. IV., p. Sli6. 86 placed in spirit immediately after collection and forwarded in a bottle or corked tube. Care must be taken with the strength of the spirit used. A 30-per cent, spirit is quite sufficient to act as a preservative, and this can easily be obtained by taking distilled rum and adding two parts of water to one of the rum. If mate- rial is sent in undiluted spirit or high wines, it becomes so hard and brittle that examination is exceedingly difficult. When leaves, buds, or twigs are attacked, the specimens should show as many stages of the disease as possible. Detached leaves alone are, as a rule, useless. If practicable, the root, after the soil has been shaken off, should be sent, as in many instances, the primary cause of the trouble is located there. When fruits or herbaceous stems are attacked, pieces showing all stages of the disease, should be placed in spirit as before. When it is thought desirable to send very large specimens, such as portions of branches, roots, or whole cacao pods, these should be collected as late as possible before the mail steamer leaves and sent in a well ventilated case. Full particulars should also be forwarded, giving details of the time of appearance of the disease, the damage done, the part at- tacked, the nature of the soil, drainage, and also whether an ap- parently similar kind of disease had been previously observed. With regard to the forwarding of insects for examination, di- rections have already been given in the Agricultural Nctvs (Vol. IV. p. 168), but on account of the repeated disappointment resulting from material being badly packed the following detailed instruc- tions have been prepared : Insect material for transmission must be packed in such a way (l) that it will not be broken, bruised, or crushed, and (2) that it will not be spoiled by the growth of moulds, mildew, or bacteria. In considering the manner of forwarding insects, these may be divided roughly into these three groups : (i) Larvae that is, grubs, maggots, caterpillars, including borers, etc. (2) Hard insects, such as beetles, bugs, grass-hoppers, crickets, bees and wasps. (Scale insects may be included in this group.) (3) Frail insects, such as butterflies, moths, flies, etc. In packing for transportation the following rules apply to these groups : — Group I. — When sent alive, larvae should be packed with a supply of the food plants on which they have been found feeding or in the plant material they infest, in such way that they should not be rattled about in the package or crushed by portions of the food plant, etc. When not sent alive they should be preserved in a tightly-corked tube or vial in diluted spirit or formalin. Group II. — When sent alive these insects should be provided with food, as for instance, in the case of lady-birds, leaves and twigs infested with the plant lice or scale insects on which they feed should be included and packed in such a way that they can- not rattle about in the box. Footholds, such as crumpled pieces of blotting paper, should be given the insects also. When not sent alive insects of this group should be dried and wrapped loose 87 ly in soft tissue-paper, each insect in a separate paper, and then packed in a strong box. In the case of scale insects, each infested leaf and twig should be folded or wrapped in soft paper and dried before being enclosed in a tight package. — -' Group ///.—Insects of this group should be killed and handled carefully to prevent injury, folded or wrapped in paper and well dried before being packed. Butterflies, with their wings folded together, may be folded in paper, moths may be wrapped loosely in tissue paper, and flies may be included in layers of tissue paper between cotton wool, in small boxes. Full notes should accompany all insect specimens, stating the nature of the damage done, the part of the plant attacked where insects were found, and whether larva or adult does the damage ; if the larva, a specimen of the adult should be included also, if possible. Notes on their habits such as whether night feeder or day feeder, where eggs are laid, etc., should in every case be added so far as known. Disappointment is most likely to resuh from (l) insufficient ma- terial, (2) insufficient notes and information as to habits, etc., (3) bad packing which allows specimens to be crushed or to decay in transportation, and (4) from sending specimens so broken and battered that it is impossible to identify them. THE COCO DE MER, OR DOUBLE COCONUT. Several " double coco-nuts" were received from the Commis- sioner of the Seychelles Islands in 1896. There is one plant now growing in the Hope Gardens close to the Casuarina tree on the other side of the stream, and a plant also in Castleton Garden. They grow very slowly, no stem being yet seen above ground ; the height of the top of the largest leaf is loi feet. A nut which failed to germinate may be seen on application at Hope Gardens, and another at Castleton Garden. The history and the structure of this palm are of such an interesting nature that the following articles on it are reprinted. I. By George V. Nash.* In the Indian Ocean several hundreds of miles to the eastward of Zanzibar, and about four degrees south of the equator, isa group of islands known as the Seychelles. These were discovered by the Portuguese as early as 1505 ; were occupied by the French in 1743 ; seized by the British in 1794, and formally ceded to them in 1814. Here at the time of the French occupation in 1743 was discovered a beautiful palm, the fruit of which had been known for many years, but the origin of which had been one of the mysteries of those early times. As in those times mysteries al- ways give rise to most fabulous tales, so was it with this unknown fruit, which, on account of its obscurity, was accredited with most ♦Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, January, 1906, p. 7. 88 wonderful properties and given a worth far in excess of its intrin- sic value. It was known as coco de mer, coco de Solomon, and coco des Maldives, this last name being applied because so many of these nuts had been found floating in the sea near the Maldive Islands. It was averred by these ancient people that it was not a product of the earth but of the sea, and the Malay and Chinese sailors insisted that it grew on a tree deep in the water off the coast of Sumatra, but that the tree instantly disappeared when they dived down to see it. The negro priests were firm in the belief that it grew near the island of Java, its branches protruding above the water, and that here a monstrous bird had its home, from which it made nightly sorties to the land, killing tigers, ele- phants and other large animals ; they further asserted that ships were attracted by the waves which surrounded the tree, an attrac- tion from which there was no escape, and that the sailors fell an easy prey to this voracious bird. One can well understand with what care the poor superstitious sailors of the Indian Archipelago must have avoided this spot. Not only did these tales serve to bring the fruit into notice, but its reputed value as an antidote to poisons made its acquisition greatly to be desired by the princes of Hindostan, who, prone to use such poisons on others, were constantly in fear of being made victims themselves of some wily poisoner. It is not strange that they were willing to pay large sums for these mysterious objects which would protect them from their enemies. They firmly believed that water which had been kept in one of these was purified from all harm, and could be drunk with im- punity, no matter how active may have been the poison placed in the liquid. The sovereign of the Maldives was not long in turning this to his own advantage as a means of increasing his wealth, for he made it a matter of death for any one to have in his posses- sion one of these nuts — all ^vere his property, which he disposed of at a high price or used in making royal presents. But in 1743, upon the discovery of rhe tree which bore these fruits, this value and repute quickly subsided, for, so they must have reasoned, where there is no mystery how can there be any virtue. One of the earlier accounts of this palm occurs in a book of voyages published in 1 776 in Paris.* A plate illustrating the Seychelles themselves and several other plates depicting features of the palm and its fruit are given. It is there stated that many of these palms grow near the shore of the sea, most of the fruit of such trees dropping into the sea and floating upon its surface. The winds waft them, and the currents, the direction of which in those parts is E.N.E., carry them to the shores of the Maldives, the only part of the world where these fruits had been known previous to the discovery of their origin on the Seychelles. The palm grows upon three of the islands of the Seychelles, occuring in all parts of them, the best trees growing in deep gorges. One such gorge on the island of Praslin is known as the Ravine * Voyage a la Nouvelle Guinee par M. Sonnerat. Paris. 1776. 89 of the Coco de Mer, and is said to be one of the most beautiful spots in tropical climes, the trunks of these charming palms rising to a height of ninety or a hundred feet and bearing aloft a crown of magnificient fan-shaped leaves, often twenty feet long and ten or twelve feet wide. The many economic uses of this palm make it of exceeding value to the natives of the Seychelles. The heart of the crown of leaves is eaten as a vegetable, as is done with the cabbage palm. The leaves, perhaps, are the most important, being used extensively in house-building, not only for thatching, but also for making walls and partitions; and the down of the young leaves is used in filling mattresses and pillows. The nuts are made into utensils of various kinds, and the young leaves furnish material for making hats. II.* Oil the Double Cocoa-nut of the Seychelles (Lodoicea Sechellarum) "Sea Cocoa-nut," "Double Coconut," " Coco de mer." By Swinburne Ward, Esq., Civil Commissioner, communicated by Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S., & L.S., &c. This extraordinary specimen of the palm tribe, the largest and most curious of all the many varied kinds scattered over all tropi- cal regions, is found only in two small islands belonging to the Seychelles group, " Praslin" and " Curieuse," which lie in juxta- position between 4° and 5° of S. lat., and 55° and 56° E. long., — nearly three hundred miles north-east of Madagascar, which, though itself an island, may, from its immense size, be legitimately considered the nearest mainland. The name by which it is best known, that of " Coco de mer," was given to it by some French navigators who had picked up the nut floating at sea, and being unable to ascertain anything respec- ting the tree that produced it, supposed it to be the production of some unknown submarine plant. It has often been found on the coasts of Ceylon and the Maldive Islands, drifted thither by some of the mysterious currents which perplex mariners all over the Indian Ocean. The nuts attained in these countries to an almost religious value, and were sold in India for fabulous prices. A medicine was made of the kernel, which was said to possess res- torative qualities much in request in those countries where poly- gamy prevails. It was not until the discovery of the Seychelles Islands by the French in 1742 that authentic information was obtained respecting the true nature of the tree, and the astonishment of those previ- ously acquainted with the Coco de mer may well be imagined upon their finding large forests entirely composed of this palm, growing most luxuriantly upon a small and quite unhabited island, and towering far above all ordinary tropical vegetation. But little is even now known respecting the growth and peculi- arities of this extraordinary palm, owing to the great length of time it requires to arrive at maturity, and the consequent difficulty *Joui'nal of the Linuean Society, VIII, 1865, p, 135 90 of obtaining accurate information with regard to its developments The information gathered from the inhabitants is not of much value , they are very unobservant, and the truth of their replies to any questions that may be put to them can never be depended upon. The shortest period before the tree puts forth its buds is thirty years, and one hundred years must elapse before it attains its full growth. No one can tell how long it will last, or how old some of the gigantic specimens may be. No nuts planted since the British came into possession have arrived at their full growth. One in the garden at Government House, planted fifteen years ago, is still quite in its infancy, about sixteen feet in height, but with no stem yet visible, the long leaves shooting from the earth like the Traveller's Palm and much resembling them in shape, only much larger. Nine months after the nut has been planted,- supposing germination to have begun at once, the leaf sprouts at an angle of 45° from the root; it is very closely folded, with a smooth hard surface, terminating in a sharp point. When about two feet above the surface it expands, and nine months after another leaf follows, coming up the grooved surface of the midrib of that which preceded it, and so on at intervals of nine months, each succeeding leaf becoming larger in size. All these leaves cluster together and support each other, no stem ap- pearing above the ground. From the age of fifteen to twenty-five the tree is in its greatest beauty, and the leaves at this period much larger than they are subsequently. They consist of two layers of fibres crossing each other at right angles, imbedded in a thick stratum of parenchyma enclosed in a tough skin. The stem of the full-grown tree, like that of all Palms, consists of hard fibres imbedded in medullary substance enclosed in a hard sheath, so hard that a good axe is required to cut it. It splits readily, but is extremely durable. Unlike the Cocoa-nut trees, which bend to every gentle gale and are never quite straight, the Coco de mer trees are as upright as iron pillars, undisturbed in their position by the heavy gales and violent storms so often oc- curring in tropical regions. At the age of thirty the tree first puts forth its blossoms. The male and female trees are quite distinct ; and the female blossom may be considered as the germ of the nut, as it offers nothing of the appearance of what is generally regard as a blossom. The female tree alone produces the nut, and it is twenty feet shorter than the male tree, which frequently attains a height of one hun- dred feet. The male flower is an enormous catkin, about three feet in length and three inches in diameter, of a reddish-brown colour, and covered with rhomboidal valvate scales disposed spirally about the stem, from the angles of which the stamens spring. Within its circumference, at intervals corresponding to the apertures from which the stamens shoot, are found little masses containing such a succession of stamens in progressive stages of development that the flowering is maintained for eight or ten years, each coming. 91 stamen thrusting off and replacing the one that preceded it. The whole has a most disagreeable, oily odour, and if cut and put in any accessible place, is greedily attacked by ants. It may be seen in all stages upon the same tree — in full bloom, faded, and quite decayed. The female blossoms spring from a strong stem forming a regu- lar zigzag, and are composed of three bracts three or four inches in diameter. A gummy secretion exudes from the apex of these, which secretion doubtless arrests and secures the pollen necessary for their fecundation. The fruit stalk is supported by three very strong bracts ; the outer one of these, the top of which is wedge- shaped, penetrates the stalk of the leaf immediately above it, in the under side of which nature has left a fissure accessible to it. By this provision the stalk is enabled to support the weight of fruit which hangs upon it, sometimes exceeding four hundred- weight. Eleven nuts have been seen on one stalk, the probable weight of each being about forty pounds. Such clusters are, how- ever, very rare, and four or five may be taken as the average num- ber on one stalk. From fructification to full maturity a period of nearly ten years elapses. The fruit attains its full size in about four years, and is then soft, and full of a semi-transparent jelly-like substance of an insipid, sweetish taste. The mesocarp is a leathery sub- stance of a brownish-green colour, adhering to the shell. As the nut ripens this gradually dries up into a white, horny kernel, about half an inch in thickness, and of no use whatever, supposed to be poisonous, but, probably, only quite indigestible. The nut in its perfect state is about eighteen inches long, and of the same breadth, something in the shape of a heart, with two separate com- partments. It is enveloped, like the Coco-nut in a fibrous husk ; but its texture is not nearly so thick or so strong, and it drops off soon after the nut falls from the tree. The nuts, sawn in half, and divested of the kernel, form excellent calabashes, and are uni- versally used for baling boats. The entire nut is frequently used as a water-keg, and holds three or four gallons of water. It has, however, to be " caulked" in the centre, where germination takes place, before it becomes completely watertight. The arrangements provided by nature for the roots of both male and female trees are of a most peculiar nature, quite distinct from those provided for any other known tree. The base of the trunk is of a bulbous form, and this bulb fits into a natural bowl, or socket, about two and a half feet in diameter and eighteen inches in depth, narrowing towards the bottom. This bowl is pierced with hundreds of small oval holes about the size of a thimble, with hollow tubes corresponding on the outside, through which the roots penetrate the ground on all sides, never, however, becoming attached to the bowl ; their partial elasticity affording an almost imperceptible but very necessary " play" to the parent stem when struggling against the force of violent gales. This bowl is of the same substance as the shell of the nut, only much thicker. As far as can be ascertained, it never rots or wears 92 out. It has been found quite perfect and entire in every respect sixty years after the tree has been cut down. At Curieuse many sockets are still remaining which are known to have belonged to trees cut down by the first settlers on the island. This curious arrangement renders it impossible that the trunk could grow in a slanting position ; and there is no known instance of its doing so, either on the flat, or on the steep sides of the mountains, in both of which situations the tree thrives equally well. The high price still fetched by the nuts will ultimately be the cause of their complete extinction in these islands. The growth of the palm is so very slow that no one can expect to reap where he has sowed, and the people consequently never take the trouble to plant any for the benefit of posterity. Not content too with dig- ging up those nuts that have fallen and taken root they ruthlessly destroy whole trees by cutting them down for the sake of the nuts and the heart leaves, which latter are used for making hats, fans and baskets. Many of the trees still standing are quite spoilt by the practice of cutting out these centre or heart leaves, leaving the tree shorn of its beauty, and with an untidy, ragged appearance. Besides the ravages of man, fire is a terrible enemy to these forests, a year seldom elapsing without there be- ing sufferers by accidental conflagrations, especially those forests situated at the nort-west end of Praslin, in which are now found only such male trees that from their height overtopped the flames that destroyed the females. At the south-east end of Praslin they are more plentiful the dry season being in the south-east monsoon, and as the forests are to windward, they are not exposed to much danger from spreading fire. No suggestions will induce proprietors to abandon their present habit of wilfully destroying the trees for the sake of the nuts and leaves, or to take some pains for the cultivation and reproduction of this magnificient palm. Not many years will elapse before the Coco de mer becomes in reality as rare as it was supposed to be when first picked up at sea by the wondering mariners, and the only relics left of its former magnificence will be the decaying blackened stumps of the trees so wantonly destroyed, and the curious sockets in which they stood for so many years. Seycelles, April l6, 1863. Ill* Letters from SiR H. BARKLEY and SWINBURNE WARD, ESQ., relative to the Coco de Mer Government House, Mauritius, 6th June, 1864. Sir, Having brought the resolution adopted by the Linnean Society, on 3rd of March, relative to the destruction of the Sea Cocoa-nut Tree in the Seychelles Islands, under the notice of the Civil Com- missioner of that group, and called upon him to suggest officially * Journal of Linaean Society, IX, IStJC, p. US. 93 what measures could be taken to ensure the preservation of the re- maining trees, I have received the report of which I now beg to enclose a copy. The Society will be glad to learn that Mr. Ward did not find on a visit of inspection, that that destruction had been carried so far as had been represented to him, but that, on the contrary, one for- rest of these palms in He Praslin is carefully preserved by its owner, and still contains magnificent specimens. As this island is almost entirely private property, the interfer- ence of the Government would be difficult, except in the way of exhortation and remonstrance ; but as He Curieuse, where a certain number of trees are found, is still vested in the Crown, and used for a purpose which renders it inaccessible to the public, I trust there can be no danger under any circumstances of the extinction of this most interesting species. I am confident that whilst Mr. Ward remains in his present post he will do all in his power to protect the existing trees, and to secure the planting of others. I remain, Sir, Your obedient Servant, Henry Barkley. To George Bentham, Esq., President L.S., &c., &c. Preservation of the Coco dc mer. Civil Commissioner's Office, Seychelles, May 17, 1864. Sir, I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter (No. H. 890) of May 6th enclosing a communication from the Linnean Society on the subject of the destruction of Coco de mer trees at Praslin, and directing me to report, for the information of His Excellency the Governor, upon the measures which ought to be taken for the preservation of such of the Lodoicea trees as now remain. The paper on the Coco de Mer, to which the Linnean Society alludes, was written a short time after my arrival ; but although I had made a tour of inspection round the islands, including Praslin and Curieuse, I had not then visited the district in which this palm principally flourishes. There is no doubt that the Coco de Mer has entirely disappeared from many parts of the island of Praslin, where it formally abounded — destroyed by accidental conflagrations, and ruthlessly cut down to make room for manioc cultivation. The land in these parts of Praslin, with a very small exception, is entirely in the hands of private individuals, and no steps could have been taken by Government with respect to preserving the trees. 94 I returned, on the 9th instant, from a visit to the more distant islands of the group in the " Pleiad," which was placed at my dis- posal by Colonel Playfair, and I took the opportunity during this tour, of visiting the Lodoicea forest at Ause Marie Louise, on the southern point of the island of Praslin — a small lovely valley reaching to the sea-board, surrounded by lofty hills, the sides and crests of which are covered with Lodoicea several hundred in number. This forest is in the property of a Mr. Campbell ; and I am glad to be able to report that more care is taken of the trees here than is the case in any other part of the island. They may be seen in all stages of growth, from the sharp, sword-shaped spattie just shooting from the ground, to palms one hundred and twenty feet in height, long since arrived at maturity, and at whose age it is impossible even to guess. None are actually planted by the pro- prietor ; but he occasionally allows nuts to remain and take root where they fall ; and as the trees are usually surrounded at the base by thick undergrowth, many other nuts are overlooked by the men employed to collect them, a certain amount of reproduc- tion being thus ensured. The leaves of the male trees alone are cut for the sake of the material from which hats, fans, and baskets are made. Cutting these leaves prevents the trees from giving any blossoms ; but the male trees preponderate over the female, and these growing in al- most inaccessible spots, which flower undisturbed, are quite suf- ficient to fecundate all the female trees in the district. The flowering process continues for years ; and the small blossoms that spring from the huge catkin forming the basis, as it were, of the flowers, are reproduced, apparently, ad iiifinitiim. A comparatively small number of trees are found on Curieuse Island, and these never attain the same size and perfection as those at Praslin. Soon after my arrival, I gave directions to Mr. Forbes, in charge of the lesser establishment, to keep up the sup- ply by planting germinating nuts ; but he succeeded with but a small proportion of those planted. Unfortunately, too, several trees which were thriving in the vicinity of the cemetery were accidentally burnt. I have directed him to plant all the germin- ating nuts that he can find for the future, and to take all the care he can of the trees now remaining. When at Praslin, I selected a Coco de Mer with a perfect healthy germ nearly a foot in length, which I forwarded to Sir William Hooker, by the 'Nomo,' on the llth instant. I have the honour to be. Sir, Your most obedient servant, Swinburne Ward, Civil Commissioner. The Honourable The Colonial Secretary, Mauritius. 95 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES. The monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at Headquarter House on Monday, the I2th March, at II. 15 a.m. There were present : — The Hon. H. Clarence Bourne (Chairman) ; Director of Public Gardens ; Superintending Inspector of Schools ; Island Chemist ; His Grace the Archbishop of the West Indies ; Messrs. J. W. Middleton, G. D. Murray and Jno. Barclay (Secre- tary). Commercial Agent.— The. Secretary read the report of the com- mittee appointed in matter of a commercial agent for Jamaica in London, the adoption of the report was unanimously agreed to. The Chairman asked the Archbishop, Mr. Middleton and Mr. Murray to form a deputation to wait on His Excellency and pre- sent the report ; and the Secretary was instructed to write the Co- lonial Secretary and ask when it would be convenient for the Governor to receive the deputation. Day of Meeting. — As Mr. Murray reported that he could not attend the meetings of the Board if they were held on Mondays, the Archbishop proposed that the meetings should be held on the Wednesday of the same week of the month at 2 p.m., instead of II. 15 a.m. This was agreed to. Contagious Diseases. — The Secretary reported that the committee appointed had again revised the draft of the proposed Bill and it had been sent on by the Agricultural Society to the Governor. Cotton Gin. — The Secretary reported that he had received the Hand Cotton Gin from Mr. Levy, that it had been sent to the Railway workshop for repair and it would be stored in the office for future use. Diseased Coco-nuts. — A letter was read from the Colonial Secre- tary informing the Board that Mr. G. P. Dewar had pointed out that he especially desired to call attention to the need for owners of blighted coco-nut trees to be compelled to cure or burn them, as until they were made to do so their neighbours would suffer. He said that when the trees showed any symptoms of unhealthiness they were beyond remedy as the leading bud was rotten and de- cayed, and that while spraying was good, eradication was better. The Governor asked the views of the Board on Mr. Dewar's proposal. The Director of Public Gardens said that Mr. Dewar was wrong in saying that when the trees showed signs of unhealthiness they were beyond remedy, that bud-rot could be cured in its earlier stages by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, which arrested the de- cay. He had arranged for Mr. Cradwick to visit Lucea on the 19th May and Mr. Dewar could arrange to meet Mr. Cradwick there. The Secretary was directed to reply to the Colonial Secretary to this effect. 96 Mr. Nolan's Work. — The Colonial Secretary also forwarded a letter from Mr. Nolan, forwarding cutting from The Wine and Spirit Gazette, and also a report of the case which he had instituted under the Merchandise Act with a copy of a prosecution which took place in Lanark under the Food and Drugs Act in which the defendants were convicted. These were directed to be circulated. Resignation of Mr. Teversham. — A letter was also read from the Colonial Secretary intimating the resignation of Mr. T. F. Tever- sham as from the 28th February on account of ill-health. The chairman stated that various alternative proposals were before the Government and provisions had been made in the estimates of £200 for carrying on the work. Standardisation of Jamaica Rum. — The following papers which had been circulated but had not yet been before the Board were submitted : With regard to the standardisation of Jamaica rum, the Director of Public Gardens' minutes on the subject were read to the effect that a standard of this kind was unnecessary and would be injurious to our interests. Of the members present Mr. Cousins, Mr. Murray, and the chair- man were in favour of the proposed standardisation. Mr. Fawcett was opposed to it and the Archbishop thought that the facts as contained in the papers should be reported to the Go- vernor to form his own opinion. The Chemist was asked to make a summary of the arguments in favour of his case to be sent first to Mr. Fawcett to state his arguments against it, both then to be circulated among the mem- bers of the Board. Agricultural " Don'ts." — In reference to the above, these having been revised by the Superintending Inspector of Schools with the suggestion of the members of the Board before him, were ap- proved. The Archbishop said that he hoped to get the Board of Education to adopt them and have them hung up in the form of a large chart for use in schools. Report from Mr. Cousins on his visit to Trelawny and West- moreland and Report Hope Experiment Station were also pre- sented. [Issued 12th April, 1906.] Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam. BULLETIN DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE. Vol. IV. MAY, 1906. Part 5. EDITED BY WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S., Director of Public Gardens and Plantatioiis. CONTENTS: Page. Notes on the " Castilloa" Rubber Tree 97 Coagulation of Castilloa Rubber 99 Grass Oils 100 Agriculture of Porto Rico io6 1 Nature and commercial uses of Ben Oil 113 Snails and Slugs ... 115 Insect Pests ii6 1 New Species of Fern 117 Board of Agriculture 1 Ii8 PRIG E— Threepence. A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in .Jamaica, who will send name and address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. KINGSTON, JAMAICA : Hope Gabdbnb. 1906. JAMAICA. BXJLI.ETIlSr ^^j^«^^«>' NEW VOUK OF THE ^OTaN/CaL ^ A Kotos DEPARTMENT OF A(}RICULTURE. Vol. IV. MAY, 1906. Part 5. NOTES ON THE " CASTILLOA" RUBBER TREE. By "A Forester," Bluefields, Nicaragua, Jan., T906.* The roots of young plants of Castilloa clastica (the Central American rubber tree) are well developed and branch a good deal. They are very thickly clothed with root hairs at the tips. These hairs are very fine and fragile and in transplanting young seedlings great care should be taken not to injure them. I believe that the condition of the roots of a tree makes more difference with the amount of rubber it will give than the leaves. A tree with small yield is generally healthy in the leaves, but has some defect in the roots. Transplants are likely to have defective tap roots and on this account blow over. There are two distinct types of branches on the Castilloa tree — temporary and permanent. All the branches for the first three or four years are temporary. They grow alternately on different sides and almost at right angles to the trunk. After some time the temporary branch drops, when besides the scar which is left will be found a small bud. This bud is either to the right or left of the scar, but never above or below it. Whenever one such bud on a tree grows to the right all the other buds do the same, and vice versa. I have never found a tree with buds on both sides. Such buds are the beginning of permanent branches. Only a small number grow into branches, but any of them can be forced by cutting through the bark to the wood, above the bud, and thus severing the sieve tubes connecting the leaves and roots. These permanent branches project upward at an angle of 45° or less. Forced branches do not grow as fast as natural ones. The permanent branch bears temporary branches of its own, and later may bear other permanent branches. This question of branching may prove important. Some planters claim that trees that put out permanent branches early grow faster and yield better than later branching trees. Others * From the India Rubber World. 98 claim that branching is not good for the trees. I believe that branched trees grow somewhat faster because they get a larger leaf sm-face, but I do not think that this leaf surface affects the amount of latex. Trees planted far apart branch moi'e freely and earlier than those which are close together. There also seem to be more branches on trees grown in the sun than in the shade. It has been suggested that it would be well to grow branches on the trees — by the forced method above described — in such manner that the trees could be ascended by tappers without a ladder. The fact that some temporary limbs turn permanent might be in- vestigated, and perhaps a way could be found to make them turn permanent at will, if desirable. The CastiUoa is a fast growing tree. It appears to grow faster between the ages of two and four. The leaf surface of the tree, and consequently the amount of light it gets, has a great deal to do with its growth. Shade grown trees are not nearly so large at the same age as those grown in the sun. Some planters believe that trees grown in at least partial shade yield more latex, but if this is so, I do not believe that they yield enough more to pay for the loss in growth, for under any ordinary conditions the trees yield in proportion to their size. Monthly measurement of a large number of CastiUoa trees shows that they grow on an average of about \ inch per month in circumference. This varies, however, the trees sometimes growing not at all for a month and growing | inch or more the next month. An experiment in the effect of tapping on growth did not show that it made any difference. The proper distance in planting depends a good deal on how soon the plantation is to be tapped. Trees planted 10 x 10 feet begin to crowd each other at about six years. If the plantation is to be tapped at this age, or earlier, this is a good distance for planting. When the trees get older, the poorer and weaker ones can be bled out. The experiment of planting four trees in a hole shows that it is possible for two, three, or even all four to grow well and apparently not to hinder each other. If these trees continue as they have begun, it seems to me that the way to grow the most good trees on a given piece of land would be to stake the land at a distance of 15 or 20 feet, and to plant a circle of 8 or ID trees about each stake. Any trees grown in this way which did not keep up to the others should be cut down, and by the time they are ready to tap there should be three or four good trees in each group. This method would avoid one trouble which has shown itself where one tree was planted to a hole, and that is that when the time for tapping came many of the trees were poor and stunted and not worth anything. This irregularity of growth loses much time and can be avoided where only the best trees are allowed to grow. Whatever the method of tapping employed for CastiUoa, the healing of the cut requires to be considered. The general idea has been that the cut must not be made too deep and this is true to a certain extent. But it may also be made too shallow. Be- 99 tween the bark and the wood is the growing part of the tree, a tissue called cambium. This part alone has the powers of form- ing new bark and new wood. If a cut is made which does not go into the cambium, the cut will not heal over with new material. Of course, it will dry up and turn black, and in this way protect the tissue under it, but the piece of bark taken out is gone for good. On the other hand, a cut made just to the cambium will heal quickly. The Para rubber tree (Hevea) shows some important differences in latex from the Castilloa. Of course all that I have noted on this tree is done here in Nicaragua and it may behave differently in Brasil or Ceylon. The first noticeable thing in cutting the Para tree is the small yield. When a Castilloa is tapped, the cut is immediately filled with latex, which runs in a small stream from the lower end. The Hevca when first cut shows no latex. In a few seconds it begins to appear in drops on the cut surface and after 3 to 5 minutes begins to drop from the end of the cut. The small yield at the first tapping seems to be balanced by the fact that more can be got by multiple tapping. In Ceylon, according to report, the yield increases each day, but here I have noticed no increased yield. I tapped one tree nine days in succession, and though it yielded every day (a thing which Castilloa would not do) the yield decreased instead of increasing. The Hevca tree will not do here because there is too nuch labour involved in multiple tapping. I think the trees here, if tapped rightly, would yield as much as those in Ceylon, but as labour cost so much more, it would not pay. I am confident from comparing yields printed in The India Rubber World that Castilloa will yield as much with four tapping operations a year as Hevea will with ten or twenty when the trees are the same age. COAGULATION OF CASTILLOA RUBBER. Mr. S. W. Sinclair, Manhattan Plantation, Bluefields, Nicaragua, to Director of Public Gardens. Manhattan Plantation, February 2nd 1906. Dear Sir, Your favour of June 23rd 1905 has just reached me. Replying to your enquiry about the Sinclair Coagulator, beg to say that it consists of a piece of board through which holes are bored 2 ins. by 2 ins. (holes should be about i inch). Over this board a sheet of absorbent paper is placed, (I enclose sample) ; paper must be laid on the board wet, if put on dry, it will warp and give an uneven sheet of rubber. Having the board and paper laid on wet, now proceed to tack on the rim or frame, which should be from l\ in. high to li in. and your box will be ready for coagu- lating. As soon as the latex is brought in from the field, I add four times its volume of water, then strain through a fine metal sieve ; then I place the whole in a cone bottom tin tank to settle, which takes about one hour. I then decant off the water until the 100 latex becomes as thick as when it came from the tree, then I pour it in my boxes and the water that is in the latex, which can't be decanted off, will pass through the absorbent paper in about 10 minutes leaving the rubber. I then expose it to a heat of no degrees F. for 5 or 6 hours, when the rubber can be lifted off the box. A new sheet has to put on after being used 10 or 12 times. The time of exposure to heat varies and it is hard to give a cor- rect formula in this respect, but one soon learns by the feel of the sheets, just when to take them from the boxes. I take them off as soon as my fingers don't stick, when pressed against them. I may mention here that this method is for Castilloa elastica. The Hevea latex passes through the absorbent paper. I am carrying on experiments now and expect soon to be able to handle both kinds of latex. Rubber coagulated on the above method becomes transparent like Ceylon biscuits, and runs it a close second in price, we aim to bring it up to par. With respects, I am, Yours sincerely, S. W. Sinclair. GRASS OILS.* I. CiTRONELLA AND LEMON GRASS IN CEYLON. By Herbert Wright, Controller of Experiment Station, Ceylon. (Paper read before the Ceylon Agricultural Board.) The Citronella industry is far from being in a flourishing con- dition in Ceylon, and many persons who in the old days found it a profitable cultivation now declare it to be unremunerative. It is common knowledge, however, that Citronella oil exported from Java obtains a much higher price than that from Ceylon, and it has been argued that, if the same price could be realised for the oil exported from this island, it might once more become an in- dustry worthy of serious consideration. Planters in the Straits and the authorities of the bnperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies are taking up the subject in earnest, and residents in this island are beginning to send in numerous enquiries as to the possibilities with this product. The moment, therefore, seemed opportune to present a few facts regarding Citronella and also Lemon Grass, as results have been obtained at the Experiment Station, Peradeniya, and in various parts of Ceylon. CITRONELLA. We will first consider Citronella oil. I have brought with me a sample of one of the grasses from which the oil is obtained, and also a quantity of pure oil fresh from the still. As you are pro- bably not concerned with the exact botanical identity of Citronella grass, i may dismiss that vexed question by saying that the speci- For previous articles on Grass Oils, see Bulletins, March, lii03, p. 53: Dec. 190.S- Feb. 1904, p. 43; Oct. 1904, p. iL'*; March, 1905, p. 49. lOI men as here presented is as near the wild "Mana" grass as it ean be, and is by most botanists regarded as being a variety of the " Mana" grass so common in many parts of this island. The cultivation of Citronella has hitherto been confined to the Southern and South- West Provinces, the Matara, Galle, and Hambantota districts being well-known in connection with this product. Exactly why it has been more or less limited to these localities it is difficult to say, as the grass grows well in districts having an annual rainfall of 80 to 100 inches, and, as will be shown later, has been success- fully cultivated at an elevation of 2,000 feet in the Central Pro- vince. It is not easy to obtain reliable information as to the yield per acre in these provinces, but it is usually estimated that about 36 bottles each containing li lb. of oil are obtainable per acre per year. If such is the case it can be asserted that the Peradeniya district, at an elevation of 2,000 feet, is as good as any part of the Southern Province for this product. At Peradeniya one acre of the Maha-pangiri variety gave in 1904 19,320^ lb. of grass, from which 84 lb. of pure oil were obtained ; in 1905, the same plot produced 5, 757! lb. of grass, which yielded 38 lb. of oil. This one-acre plot gave in the second and third year from plant- ing 122 lb. of oil or 61 lb. per year. From other plots in their first year 60 lb. of oil were obtained per acre. Value. — Messrs. Chas. P. Hayley & Co., of Galle, have offered 85 to 88 cents per lb. for the crude unfiltered oil. The yields I have given you were obtained from a plot on the rocky hill-side facing the Peradeniya Gardens, which was previously occu- pied by Mana grass and Lantana, It is not a rich soil but a typi- cal patna-like compound similar to what may be seen in many parts of the Island. The results show that we can obtain a crop of 60 lb. of oil per acre per year (210 to 250 lb. of grass giving I lb. of oil), the oil realising from Rs. 51 to Rs. 53 per acre in Galle. It must be admitted that this is not a very big return, but it is about as much or even more than what is obtained on many Citronella estates. The yearly expenditure for weeding, cutting, transporting and distilling is probably about Rs. 20 to Rs. 30 per acre, and if the good variety is cultivated it will require re-plant- ing every third year at a cost of Rs. 3 per acre. In addition to such current expenditure one must allow for clearing, for plants, and the wear and tear of the machinery. It is obvious from these remarks that Citronella cultivators are not rolling in profits, and various points will require attention if the prospects of the in- dustry are to be made brighter. Points Requiring Attention. — The first and foremost is to check the adulteration which has been practised, so that Ceylon can obtain a better reputation and command a price equal to that paid for the oil exported from Java. This matter is, as most of you are aware, receiving the attention of Government, and it is not necessary for us to make any remarks beyond pleading for a ces- sation of adulteration, or exporting the adulterated article under definite grades, so that buyers will know what they are purchasing. Another point of practical importance is the complete condensa- 102 tion of the oil. Often the oil and water, as they pass into the re- ceiver, are quite warm instead of being cold. The cold water should enter the condensing chaniber at the end furthest from the distilling chamber, so that the oil-vapour will meet a cooler atmo- sphere the nearer it gets to the receiver. I find in practice that a 60 foot coil of piping, 3 to 4 inches in diameter, is sufficient to effect perfect condensation, and it is the opinion of many that the good yield of oil obtained at Peradeniya is partly due to the completeness of the condensation which is obtained. There are other points of importance which might be touched upon, but be- yond advising the planting at definite distances, instead of at hap- hazard, selecting the better variety and paying attention to the seasons and the time of cutting, I propose to dismiss the subject of Citronella. As most of you are aware, certain Citronella planters have found relief in quite another way, namely, by taking up the cultivation of Lemon grass in place of Citronella. LEMON GRASS. The main reasons which have led to this change are, first, that Lemon grass oil is valued at 35 to 40 cents an ounce in Galle ; and, secondly, the grass can be cuhivated and distilled in just the same manner as Citronella. Of course, the demand is not an un- limited one, and the price may be lowered if too much oil is placed on the market. The Lemon grass is quite a different plant, but, as you can see from this specimen, it is similar in many respects to Citronella grass. It yields a valuable oil, a pure sample of which I have placed on the table for your inspection. The prac- tical details connected with Lemon grass cultivation are identical with those of Citronella, and therefore need not be dealt with here. The points to consider are the yield and value of the oil. I can- not give you the figures of outsiders, but the results at the Experi- ment Station are probably , similar to those obtained elsewhere. At Peradeniya, at an elevation of l,600 feet, the grass can be cut six months after planting, and from one plot, which was planted in July, 1904, we obtained in December of that year 8,063 lb. of grass yielding I3i lb. of oil per acre, the same plot cut in April of this year gave 5,28 r lb. of grass and 13 lb. of oil per acre so that the yield per acre in the first year has already been 26} lb. of oil. This works out at 40 cents per ounce in Galle, at over Rs. 160 per acre in the first year. You will remember that the Citronella may give a gross return of Rs. 51 to Rs. 53 for the same period. The ease with which these products are cultivated is remarkable. All that is necessary is to make holes, mamoty wide and mamoty deep, and plant young shoots in rainy weather. Nearly all the plants will grow well, and the grass can usually be cut and distilled six months after planting. Constituents Removed.— In comparing the value of Lemon grass as against Citronella, it is as well to bear in mind the effect of cultivating these products on the soil. In each case the weight of grass removed is considerable, and it is somewhat surprising that crops so exhausting can be grown on relatively poor soils. In order to emphasise this point I now quote the results of analyses 103 made by Mr. Bruce, which show that every 10,000 lb. of Lemon grass contain about 65 lb. of potash, 12 lb. of nitrogen, 12 lb. of lime, and 9 lb. of phosphoric acid. The same quantity of Citron- ella grass removes less potash and lime but more nitrogen and phosphoric acid. The weight of Citronella grass per acre is usually much greater than that of Lemon grass, and is in most cases the more exhausting of the two. Sufficient has been said to show that we have in Lemon grass and Citronella two products which can be regarded as catch crops since they gave a return six months from planting ; the cultivation is simple, the plants are very hardy and seem to be compairatively free from disease. They can be grown on poor soils in a very large part of this Island, and there is a fair demand for the oil. It is proposed to publish the results in detail in the Magazine of the Society, and to show by means of diagrams and photographs the nature of the plants and also the machinery, used in these industries, and it is therefore unnecessary for me to prolong my remarks. THE DISCUSSION. H. E. the Governor : You mentioned that the cost was Rs. 30 an acre ? Mr. Wright: That was for cutting the grass, transporting, and distilling, and also weeding. H. E. the Governor : Does anybody know about the range of these grasses — the elevations at which they would grow .? Mr. Wright : Hitherto they have been confined to the South- ern Province ; and this is the first time, I believe, that we have grown them at 2,000 feet elevation at Peradeniya. H. E. the Governor : I have seen some plants growing very freely at Nuwara Eliya, 6,000 feet elevation, apparently in Patana land ? Mr. Wright : Citronella grass, as is well-known, is a variety of the Mana grass, which grows wild. Wherever Mana grows you might undoubtedly grow Citronella grass. H. E. the Governor : We might try it somewhere in the hill country. Mr. Wright mentioned the Horton Plains. The Hon. Mr. J. FERGUSON enquired if Mr. Wright would recommend planters who had Mana grass fields to try Lemon grass or Citronella. Mr.,WRIGHT thought there would be no objection provided the planting was considered a part of the co-operative experiments being carried on by the Department. Any particular product that the authorities considered experimental they would help the planters to grow, provided they gave the results in return. The Hon. Mr. J. FERGUSON : Are co-operative experiments to be introduced at different elevations ? Mr. WRIGHT said that was a matter they wished to see brought forward. They would carry out experiments and see if certain plants would grow at every thousand feet elevation. 104 Mr. Ferguson remarked it would be well for the Society to get planters to make co-operative experiments. As regarded eleva- tion, Mr. Campbell mentioned to him that in the Himalayas at 7,000 feet elevation that grass grew. H. E. the Governor : What I observed two days ago showed that this grass will grow up to 7,000 feet ; we can try several elevations. We have got at the present moment a certain number of gentlemen in various parts of the Colony who are prepared to assist us in experiments, and whose names are noted as being affiliated for the purpose. Variation in Yield at Certain Seasons.— Mr. Ferguson : Mr. Wright might be able to give us details as regards crops in relation to acreage. Mr. Wright said that there was a great variation in the weight of grass obtained at certain times of the year and in the weight of the oil. In the case of Citronella, taking three seasons' records it roughly worked out at I lb. of oil from 250 lbs. grass. Oa the other hand from Lemon grass they roughly got I lb. of oil from 5 00 lb. grass. Lemon grass, of course, was smaller. He pointed out that at the end of the dry season they got more oil from a given quantity of grass. Soil Exhaustion and Rotation. — Dr. H. M. Fernando remarked that it was well-known that Citronella grass exhausted the soil to a great extent, would it therefore be advisable to plant it as a catch crop among coco-nuts, etc.? Mr. Wright explained that Citronella was very exhausting to the soil if grown alone, but if it was associated with other products the exhaustion was far from being at all dangerous to cultivation. If at the end of two or three years they did not re-open land in Citronella or Lemon grass but adopted a rotation crop, either of crotalaria, or ground nuts, or even chillies — he had seen that product used in the Southern Province — they would get better results from the soil after that. Of course, if they did not grow anything with coco-nuts or cocoa or rubber the land would lose all the same by being allowed to remain exposed. Mr. Ferguson pointed out that the gross return from Lemon grass was given at Rs. 160 an acre, and Citronella Rs. 54. Was there any particular reason for the difference .■' Adulterated Oil.— Wr. Wright explained that in the old days Citronella oil obtained a better price than Lemon grass oil. The price was simply the result of the greater demand for the one article than the other. They might be able to raise the price of Citronella oil by exporting it under a Government guarantee of purity. At the present time Citronella oil was simply adulterated. H. E. the Governor : Am I to understand that the price obtained for Citronella oil, at the present time, is the price of adultei^ated Citronella oil exported from Ceylon ? Mr. Wright : — It is the price of crude, unfiltered oil. The Hon. Mr. W. H. JACKSON wished to know if any analysis had been made of the waste grass after the oil had been expressed. 105 He had seen it used for stocking the still. It might be returned to the soil. Mr. Wright remarked that he, too, had seen it used as fuel and also to feed cattle which seemed to relish it greatly. The only thing that was lost by using it as fuel was the nitrogen. The potash would be there and the lime. The ashes might be used on the land. Planting up Patanas.— The Hon. Mr. W. H. Jackson said that if the grass grew like Mana they might try it on waste land which, in places, grew nothing but Mana. H. E. the Governor : That is what is proposed to do near Hakgala — to grow it on Patana land. Mr. WRIGHT: — I have already established places at Band- arawela. Will that place answer ? The Hon. Mr. W. H. JACKSON :— I think so. That is about the barest place. II. Lemon-Grass Oil from Montserrat* A specimen of lemon-grass oil was forwarded to the Imperial Institute in September, 1903, by the Hon. F. Watts, Government Analytical and Agricultural Chemist to the Leeward Islands, with the request that its commercial value might be ascertained. In the letter accompanying the sample, analyses of this and other West Indian lemon-grass oils were given, and the character- istic partial solubility of these oils in alcohol was noted. No information was given, however, regarding the exact botanical ori- gin of the Montserrat oil, and as a knowledge of this point is of some importance in placing such products on the market a request was made for a herbarium specimen of the plant from which the oil was distilled, in order that it might be identified ; at the same time a larger sample of the oil was asked for. These supplement- ary materials were received in January, 1904. Identification of the Plant. The herbarium specimen of the plant was submitted for exami- nation to the Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, who identified it as Andropogon nardiis, L. var genuinus, Hack, which is commonly known as the true lemon-grass. Chemical examination of the oil. The oil was examined in the Scientific and Technical Depart- ment of the Imperial Institute, and gave the following results : The specimen measured about eight fluid ounces, and consisted of clear, limpid, yellow liquid, with a pleasant lemon grass odour. It dissolved to the extent of about 97 per cent, in 70 per cent, alcohol, and on distillation about 25 per cent, of the oil was ob- tained between l8o°-220° c, and 50 per cent., which was princi- pally citral, between 220°-230'c. The following table shows the analytical results obtained with the Montserrat oil both at the Imperial Institute and in the West * From Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, II. io6 Indies, and for convenience of comparison the corresponding figures for commercial lemon-grass oil distilled in India from Andropogeu citratus. Montserrat Lemon- grass Oil. East Indian Imperial Institute Analysis. Mr. Watts' Analysis. Lemon-grass Oil. Specific gravity at 15" c. ... Angle of rotation in lOO m.m. tube Citral determined by the sodium bi-sulphite method 0906 — 0 10' 74-6:^ 0-886 — 0 126' 74-2/^ 0-899 to 0903 -M°25 to 3°5' 70 to 7S7o These results indicate that the Montserrat oil contains as large a proportion of the valuable constituent citral as the East Indian oil, and only differs from the latter product in being incompletely soluble in 70 per cent, alcohol. Lemon-grass is now principally employed as a source of citral, and the commercial value of the oil depends principally upon the amount of this constitutent contained in it. Commercial valuation of the oil. Specimens of the oil, accompanied by a statement of the results of its chemical examination, virere submitted to dealers in essential oils both in this country and on the Continent for commercial valuation. The reports from these firms indicated that, although in some cases there was a tendency to quote a low price (4jd. per oz.) for this oil owing to its being incompletely soluble in alcohol, yet the general opinion appeared to be that, if placed regularly on the market in fair quantities, it would be worth from 5d. to 6d. per ounce, which is about the price of good quality East Indian oil at the present time. These results indicate that Montserrat lemon grass oil, in spite of its peculiar partial insolubility in alcohol, would probably find a ready sale at remunerative prices in this country and on the Continent. AGRICULTURE OF PORTO RICO.* Porto Rico is essentially an agricultural country. This follows, as a natural result, the even climate, the cheap labour, and the good market for the various products of the soil. * From Register of Porto Rico for 1905, Compiled brj the Secretary of Porto Rico, December 1905. 107 Since the American occupation there has been a steady increase in the acreage under cultivation, and, owing to the generally good prices obtained in the fiscal year just passed a marked impetus has been given to the raising of sugar, coffee, cattle, tobacco, cotton, citrus fruits, pineapples, cocoanuts, &c. Land suitable for agricultural purposes has increased at least 20 ^ in value during the past year, and hardly an acre of ground within a radius of 15 miles of San Juan can now be purchased for less than $100. In the country districts, within easy access of the railroad or macadam roads, fairly good land will average $40 per acre ; and in the interior and in places remote from transporta- tion, grazing land can still be purchased as low as $5 to $10 per acre. Much credit is due to the United States Agricultural Experi- ment Station for its practical demonstrations of what crops can be grown to advantage in Porto Rico, and of the most modern methods of cultivation. This information is made public by bulletins issued by them from time to time. There has been a marked increase in the importation of modern agricultural implements, which admit of the cultivation of larger tracts of land with little additional labour. Fertilizer is also used much more extensively than in former years, and in order to guarantee the quality of the same, the last Legislative Assembly of Porto Rico passed an Act to regulate the registration and inspection of commercial fertilizers, fertilizer materials and chemicals in Porto Rico. This law makes it a misdemeanour to sell for offer or sale in this island any fertilizer or fertilizer material which does not conform to the formula given on the tag attached to the package. As a further incentive to agricultural pursuits, the Legislative Assembly appropriated the sum of $10,000 for the development of the fibre plants of the island, this sum to be expended under the direction of the Governor in the purchase of fibre or other product grown by planters on the island, the purchase and opera- tion of machinery for the preparation of such products for market- ing, or in such other ways as in his opinion will best tend to the demonstration of the possibilities of growing and marketing such products upon a remunerative basis to persons engaging in such work. In order to afi'ord every possible protection to coff'ee, cotton, and citrus fruits, the last Legislature also passed a law to guard against the importation of plant diseases or insects harmful to plants. This law provides that no coffee tree or plant, or any portion thereof, or the seeds of same (except roasted coffee for domestic consumption), and no rooted citrus plants or cuttings, and no cotton seed, seed cotton, cotton lint, loose or in bales shall be brought into the island of Porto Rico from any state or territory or other country whatsoever, without having attached thereto in a prominent and conspicuous place, a certificate under oath signed by a duly authorized state or government entomologist, stating that such trees, plants, roots, seed hulls or seed, and any io8 and all portions thereof are free from disease ; provided that in the case of cotton seed, seed cotton, cotton seed hulls or cotton lint, such certificate shall state in addition that the shipment originated in a locality where, by actual inspection by said attest- ing official or his agent, the Mexican Boll Weevil was not found to exist. Sugar has been grown in Porto Rico since 1548 and unquestion- ably has now supplanted coffee as the chief source of the Island's wealth. For the fiscal year 1904-1905 there was exported (almost entirely to the United States) 271,325,118 lbs. of an estimated value of $11,925,804, as against 259,294,060 lbs. of an estimated value of $8,690,814 for the fiscal year 1903-1904. The good price obtained for last season's crop has boomed the sugar industry of the Island and great activity is now being shown in the opening up of new land, formally used only for grazing purposes, in order to supply the growing capacities of the mills. New centrals have been built, others are in course of construction and all the old factories of any importance are installing modern machinery. The introduction of improved agricultural implements into the island during the past few years, has permitted the more rapid exploitation of great areas of land at a considerably less rate of expense than was formerly possible. The use of fertilizer has become more prevalent and has amply repaid those who have made use of it. The manufacture of sugar can be undertaken profitably only by capitalists, and on a large scale with modern machinery. Sugar land is easily worth $100 per acre and a sugar central will cost approximately $1,000,000. A net profit of $75, to $100 is a fair yield per acre. COFFEE. Coffee, which has always formed one of the three principal staples of the island, is now attracting much interest in the United States, and the tide of public opinion seems to have at last turned in its favour. This is evidenced by the fact that previous to the Spanish-American war but one-half of one per cent, of the coffee crop of the island went to the United States, while in the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1903, the States took three per cent, of the crop, and in the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1905, they took nine per cent. This shows a steady increase in the quanthy exported to the United States, and, as a convert to Porto Rican coffee can never be induced to use anything else, it is confidently expected that in the near future the coffee crop of Porto Rico will again reach the high water mark of 60,000,000 pounds as in 1896, and will be almost entirely consumed in the United States. Every effort is being made to create a market there for the Porto Rican bean and the last Legislative Assembly passed an Act providing for the establishment of a Commercial Agency in the United States for the sale of coffee and other products of Porto Rico. This agency is now open for business 109 at No. 91 Wall Street, New York City, and it is the duty of the agent in charge to correspond with the coffee planters and dealers, and other producers in Porto Rico, with a view of putting such growers and producers in direct communication with purchasers of such products and to promote in every way possible the opportunity for growers and producers to market their products directly with purchasers. All products consigned to the agency will be disposed of to the best advantage and without charge to the shipper other than for cost of transportation, storage, and actual expenses incurred in marketing the same. Coffee can be grown profitably on nearly all kinds of soils, provided there is a good drainage. Virgin forest soil on the mountain sides, however, is the best, and much of this land can still be had for about $10 per acre. In order that the Porto Rican coffee may command the highest prices it must be able to compete with the fine grades of Java coffee. With this end in view the Coffee Experiment Station is now experimenting with fine coffees from all parts of the world. Samples of these and their breedings will be sent to the United States markets, and after it has been demonstrated which best suit the American taste, these selected varieties will be recommended to the coffee growers and, if possible, seeds or seedlings will be placed at their disposal. Experiments are also under way to increase the production per acre, which now averages about 250 pounds as against a far larger output in other countries. Until quite recent years the cultivation of coffee was conducted in a very primitive way, but the cultivation now is conducted along up to date lines and seed and nursery beds are found in the coffee districts where a few years ago only volunteer plants were used. TOBACCO. The poor prices paid for ordinary leaf tobacco on the field during the past two years, disheartened the farmers, and, in con- sequence, the 1905 crop was a very small one. There was a good demand this season and much higher prices were paid, and the few fortunate farmers who had not exchanged their crops for provisions or sold their field of tobacco before picking, made very fair profits. It was a somewhat unusual occurrence for the bulk of the profit to be made by the farmers, as they usually sell to speculators, who, in turn, sell to the factories. The farmers have been greatly encouraged by the rise in price and knowledge that in future the factories will buy direct from them, and as a result a large crop is being prepared for 1906. The new system of picking the leaves for wrappers from the standing plants and drying separately from the stalk, has given very good results, and wrappers treated in this way have greatly improved in quality and have brought a much better price. Tobacco grown under cheese-cloth continues to give good results ; this method of planting is gradually extending and proves very profitable if carried out on a large scale. The cuhivation and curing of leaf tobacco in Porto Rico is still in a very crude state : the land is badly prepared and the no seed not judiciously selected ; for instance, some districts whose speciality is fillers use the same seed as those that grow tobacco for wrappers, and vice versa : there is no uniformity of leaves among the plants, the seed principally used is mixed, and there- fore, gives a variety of plants ; and finally, practically no fer- tilizing is done, although an increase of from 25 to 30 per cent, can be obtained by its careful application. It is worthy of note, how- ever, that the stimulus of this year's good prices has made the farmers more careful in the selection of seed, in cultivating and in fertilizing. The style of barn in which the drying is carried on (very little curing being done by the farmers) is responsible for the spoiling of half the tobacco brought in from the fields, they are usually open at the sides and the tobacco is at the mercy of the wind and rain. Very fine tobacco is often destroyed by careless handling and improperly built barns, and tobacco which would be worth $15 to $18 per quintal if properly dried, will not bring more than $10 or $12 if carelessly handled. The barns should be so con- structed that they may be immediately and tightly closed, or opened for ventilation. There is a great future for leaf tobacco in Porto Rico, especi- ally for light wrappers, if modern methods are adopted, but it is difhcult to persuade the average farmer to give up his old way of doing things. CATTLE. Cattle raising in Porto Rico has always been a profitable busi- ness, as there is a continual demand both for beef cattle and for draught animals. Some few American mules and horses have been imported for ploughing and other agricultural work, but, while they accomplish more in a given time, they are more ex- pensive to keep, as they require grain if used for heavy work. Oxen, on the contrary, feed entirely on grass, and, although slow, are steady workers and accomplish a great deal of work. Practi- cally all the hauling to the towns in the Island which are not connected by railroad, is done by bullock teams which draw im- mense loads. While it is true that, owing to the increased area which is being devoted to the raising of cane, the available pas- turage has been greatly reduced, still there is plenty of land in the interior of the Island suitable for cattle raising, which can be bought for from five to ten dollars an acre. Prior to the American occupation there was a large export trade to Cuba and adjacent islands, but this has been gradually falling off, as is shown by the fact that 13,110 cattle were exported during the fiscal year 1903-1904, while only 8,185 were exported during the fiscal year 1904-1905. The native horses, though small in size, are tough and wiry, and as they live exclusively on grass they are inexpensive to keep. They make good coach and saddle horses and almost all the travel from one part of the island to another is done either by coach or on horseback. Ill The native mules, although small, make very satisfactory pack animals, and are used extensively for the transportation of coffee from the mountains to the shipping points. All the livestock in Porto Rico has deteriorated greatly owing to the continual in-breeding, but steps have been taken to improve the breeds by crossing with good stock brought from the United States. CITRUS FRUITS. It is estimated that there are 7,000 acres under cultivation at this time in citrus fruits, of which about tSI. is planted in oranges, 257' in grape fruit (pomelo) and %% in lemons. This acreage is continually increasing and there will be approximately 1,500 acres more planted during the next twelve months. Among the varieties of oranges most commonly planted here are the Parson Brown, Ruby, Washington Navel, Pineapple, Hart's Late, Val- encia Late, Enterprise Seedless, Jaffa and the native : and among the grapefruit are the Duncan, Walters, Bowen, Marsh Seedless and Thomson Seedless. This acreage has all been set out in citrus fruits since the American occupation, and although sufficient time has not yet elapsed for the marketing of a full crop, yet some shipments were made from these groves last winter which reached New York in good condition and brought a fair price. This has demonstrated that Porto Rican oranges, if intelligently handled, have the necessary keeping qualities and will bring good prices. In past years shipments were made of the native orange gathered from trees scattered around, but they were shaken from the trees, carried to the point from which shipment was made in baskets on pack animals, and then packed promiscuously in boxes and barrels without any attempt at sorting. Naturally this fruit arrived at its destination in poor condition and required so much re-handling and sorting that there was very little margin for profit, and the Porto Rican orange acquired the reputation of being a poor shipper. Now, however, that the oranges can be gathered from the groves where they receive intelligent supervision from the time they are picked until they are placed aboard the steamers, it will take but little time to overcome any bad impressions that may have been created. The present rate of freight from Porto Rico to New York on a box of oranges is about 28 cents, as compared with 35 cents freight and 56 cents duty from Cuba, 98 cents freight from Cali- 'ornia, and 72 cents freight from Florida. This allows quite a margin in favour of the native fruit as far as the question of freight rate is concerned. While it is true that the two steamship companies running between Porto Rico and New York do not at this time provide adequate facilities for the shipping of fruit, yet they have made every assurance that as soon as there is a suffi- cient quantity of fruit to warrant it, they will undoubtedly meet the situation. A careful study of the conditions in Porto Rico would seem to indicate that in order to obtain the best results, oranges and grape- fruit should be budded on the native rough lemon stock. In a 112 majority of the groves the trees are set out 25 feet apart, making about 70 trees to the acre. One advantage of this system is that pineapples may be planted between the rows for the first two or three years. The principal drawbacks with which the orange growers here have to contend are the wind, scale and ants ; the former may be overcome by a wind-break, and the scale and ants can be kept within bounds by constant spraying and washing. The Porto Rico citrus fruit proposition is an enticing one and there is apparently little risk in the venture. It does not require a large capital, as nursery trees of all kinds can be bought in Porto Rico at $25.00 a hundred ; land, according to location, from $20.00 to $100.00 per acre, and unlimited labour can be secured at from 30 to 50 cents a day. There is absolutely no reason why a grove that has received careful and intelligent cultivation should not return to the grower a net profit of $200.00 per acre at the end of the fifth year and a proportionately greater profit in the suc- ceeding years. PINEAPPLES. Pineapple culture has been taken up largely by the orange growers as a means of deriving some income while waiting for their groves to come into bearing. When planted between the rows of trees, about 4,000 pineapple plants can be set out to the acre without interfering with the trees, and when planted by them- selves from 8,000 to 10,000 pines can be set out to the acre. The pines which appear to grow best in Porto Rico are the Red Spanish, the Cabezona, the Pan de Azucar and the Smooth Cayenne. Red Spanish is the favourite with the planter as it has shown good keeping qualities and shipments have brought on an average of $2.50 per crate, thus allowing a handsome profit to the grower. The good returns from last season's crop has resulted in the plant- ing of a greatly increased acreage and it is estimated that at least 4,000,000 plants have been set out this year. The climate of Porto Rico seems to be peculiarly adapted to the raising of pineapples and careful cultivation and a little fertil- izer show a corresponding increase in the size of the fruit. Several canning factories are now in operation and as a good supply of fruit is now assured, more factories will soon be erected. COTTON. Forty years ago the cultivation of cotton in Porto Rico had de- veloped into an important industry, the larger portion of the crop being planted in the southern districts. From 1879 to 1903, how- ever, the cultivation of cotton was practically abandoned. In 1903 interest in cotton was again revived and some few farmers planted small tracts as an experiment. The quality of the fibre obtained was so desirable that the acreage has been gradually in- creased and it is estimated tliat there are now about 6,000 acres under cultivation. The quality of the fibre of the crop of 1904 met with favour both in the United States and in Europe, but this year the fibre has been found to be very weak and inferior and the planter has been discouraged by the low prices obtained. It is claimed by the cotton experts on the island that the inferiority of 113 this year's crop is due to tiie fact that poor land was used for plant- ing, that fertilizer was not used, that the cultivation was indifferent, and that the cotton was picked before it had sufficiently matured. Experiments have proved that a good quality of of Sea Island cotton can be grown in Porto Rico which will average a yield of 1,200 to 1,700 pounds per acre. Suitable land can be procured for about $40.00 per acre. As yet neither the Boll Weevil nor other serious pests has made its appearance. The caterpillars have done some inconsiderable damage but they were quickly exterminated by the use of Paris Green — they only attacked the leaves and generally left the bolls uninjured. COCO-NUTS. Coco-nut trees are scattered all through the island but grow to best advantage along the coast, and where these trees can be found in any large number close to some shipping point the coco- nuts can be handled quite profitably. There are some few groves on the island now in full bearing and many more are being set out. About fifty trees are planted to the acre and a good crop can be gathered at the end of the seventh year with a correspond- ing increase in the quantity of coco-nuts as the trees become older. Coco-nut trees require very little care from the time they are planted until they come into full bearing, and land suitable for the growing of coco-nuts can be bought as low as $10.00 per acre, but the price increases according to the proximity to a shipping point. THE NATURE AND COMMERCIAL USES OF BEN OIL.* [The first part of the article condenses the information published in the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica, Jan., 1904, on MORINGA, then comes the following : — ] A firm of oil manufacturers in Kingston, Jamaica, have recently made an experiment to ascertain the cost of production of the oil. They paid 8s. per cwt. for the seed, and found that the husks constituted 40 per cent, and the decorticated seeds 60 per cent. The seed when expressed warm, but not hot, yielded about 12^ lbs. of oil per cwt. Their final result showed a cost of £80 per ton for the oil. A sample of this oil was sent to England for valuation, and a report was received which stated that " Oil of Ben" was now superseded by an oil obtained from the head of the sperm whale, and that the value of the sample submitted was about equal to that of the best cotton seed oil. In May, 1903, a small specimen of Ben oil was supplied to Dr. J. Lewkowitsch from the Imperial Institute. A report on this sample has been published in " The Analyst, 1903," vol. 28, p. 343, from which the following extract is taken : — " The chief interest in this oil depends on its low iodine value ; this explains why the * From Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. II., 1904, pages 117-120. ■ 114 oil is specially applicable for lubricating watch-springs and other delicate machinery." The following constants were determined : Specific gravity at I5°c. (water at 15'c. — l) 0' 91267 Iodine value ... ... 72' 2 Iodine value of the liquid fatty acids 97' 53 Refraction (butyro-refractometer) ... 500' A sample of pods and seeds which were identified as those of Moringa pterygospcrma has been received recently at the Imperial Institute from Northern Nigeria. On e.xamination in the Scientific and Technical Department, the seeds were found to contain 38 per cent, of a pale yellow oil which was almost odourless, and possessed a bland agreeable taste. This oil (obtained by extrac- tion with ether) consisted of a liquid and a solid portion which were separated by filtration at 17 to iS^c. and separately examined. The analytical constants of these two portions are given in the following table : — Liquid p rtions. Solid portions. Specific gravity at I5"c. ... Acid value Free fatty acids (calculated as oleic acid) Saponification value Ether value Iodine value Samples of the seed and of the oil were submitted to brokers for valuation. They reported that in order to obtain trustworthy commercial quotations, large samples of the oil would be neces- sary for practical trials, and that if the results of these trials proved satisfactory the oil would probably be able to compete for edible and culinary purposes with American refined cotton seed oil, which is at present worth about £22 per ton. The seeds were valued at about £7 per ton delivered in London. Another sample of Ben oil from Jamaica was received at the Imperial Institute in December, 1903. It had a very slight, pleasant odour, and an agreeable taste. On examination in the Scientific and Technical Department it yielded the following re- sults. When filtered at I7°c. it was found that 60 per cent, of the material was liquid, whilst the remaining 40 per cent, consisted of a nearly white solid fat. The liquid portions was clear, bright and of a pale yellow colour. The constants of these two portions were found to be as follows : — 0914 153 7-7% 189-2 I73'9 707 194-4 68-3 Liquid ] portions. Solid portions. Specific gravity 09124 at 15'c, , 08650 at ioo°c. Acid value 8-7 7-2 Free fatty acids (cal- culated as oleic acid) 4-4;^ 3-6 r Saponification value 196-3 1936 Ether value 1876 186.4 Iodine value 70-1 652 * Compared with water at lo'c. 115 From these accounts of Ben oil, it appears that although it would not yield the extravagant profits expected in 1817, yet if it could be produced at a sufficiently cheap rate it would be likely to find a market for dietetic purposes, and possibly an opening might be secured for the liquid portion of it as a lubricant for fine machinery. The cost of producing the oil as given by the firm of oil manu- facturers at Kingston, Jamaica, appears very large ; it must be pointed out, however, that the initial cost of the seed was very considerable, the yield of oil was less than would be expected from the fact that the decorticated seed contains from 35 to 38 percent, of oil, and no allowance seems to have been made for the residual cake which might be of value as a cattle food. SNAILS AND SLUGS.* NATURAL ENEMIES. By far the greatest natural checks are birds, which not only eat slugs, but are especially partial to snails, breaking their shells against a stone and picking out the mollusc. Toads are great devourers of slugs and small snails. Poultry and ducks eagerly search for them. Centipedes attack slugs, and ants frequently kill snails, but none of the foregoing save birds do any appreci- ably good in keeping down an excess of these molluscan creatures. PREVENTION AND REMEDIES. The following may be mentioned as tending to prevent and lessen the attacks of these pests : — (i) Drainage, because dampness favours them. (ii) Avoid long manure, or in fact any organic manure where slugs are abundant in the soil. Employ artificials for a time. (iii) Dry dressings of some irritant to kill the pests, (a) Soot and lime; (b) salt and lime; (c) lime and caustic ; soda or to act mechanically, (d) powdered coke. The lime must be in a very finely-divided state and quite fresh. Two or three dressings must be given, the second some 15 to 30 minutes after the first. Lime and caustic soda is found to act best — four parts of caustic soda to 96 of lime well mixed. Dry dressings, except powdered coke, should be applied very early in the morning. (iv) "Rings" of slaked lime or fine ash soaked in kerosene may be put round choice plants, (v) Heaps of bran-mash or moist oatmeal or cornmeal may be placed here and there. These baits attract the slugs, which may then be easily collected, (vi) Heavy applications of soot are best to keep of¥ snails, which should be dealt with mainly by hand picking and by trapping with cabbage leaves. •Extract from Leaflet No. 132, of Board of Agriculture & Fisheries of England. Ii6 (vii) Rows of peas, &c., are best protected either by spreading cinders and lime along the rows, or by heavy dressings of slaked lime, (viii) Hedge bottoms, and rough herbage at the base of walls should be cleaned out and the masses of hibernating snails crushed, (ix) Land that is thoroughly fouled with slugs should be treated with gas-lime and in the winter deeply trenched, (x) Ducks and poultry should be kept, as they greedily devour both kinds of pests, (xi) Birds should be encouraged. It is easier to keep them off fruit than to suppress the snails and slugs which they largely devour. INSECT PESTS. The following letter has been received from Dr. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology of the U.S. D ;pt. of Agriculture. This weevil was killing the Camphor trees at Cinchona, but has not been noticed on any other trees. If it be a fact, as Dr. Howard supposes, that this insect pest has been imported in some way from Central America, it is an additional proof of the neces- sity of stringent precautions against such importations by care- ful fumigation. Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief, of Bureau of Entomology, Dept. of Agri, U.S.A., to Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Jamaica. Washington, D.C. December 2 1st, 1905. Dear Mr. Fawcett, I have received yours of the 7th instant, with specimens of larva and beetle found attacking young camphor trees at the Botanic Garden at Cinchona. Mr. Schwarz reports that the weevil is Hilipus clegans, Guerin. of the family Curculionidae. There are several hundred species of this tropical or sub-tropical genus known from Central and South America, including a few species from the West Indies. Your species is not a native of the West Indies, but has been manifestly imported during recent times from some part of Central America where the insect is said to be quite abundant. Nothing is known of the habits of any of the species, but since the genus Hilipus is closely allied to our northern pine weevils it may be inferred that they live under bark of various deciduous trees. I am not able to give you any remedial measures, but any camphor tree that shows the least sign of being affected by the weevil should by all means be uprooted and burned. Yours very truly, L. O. Howard, Chief of Bureau. 117 A NEW SPECIES OF FERN OF GENUS POLY- PODIUM FROM JAMAICA. By William R. MAXON, U. S. Nat. Museum, Washinton, D. C* Among the ferns collected in Jamaica by the writer in 1904 is a simple-leaved Polypodium which is distinct from the several re- lated species of middle America. It may be known as POLYPODIUM NESIOTICUM, new species. Rhizome suberect, about I cm. long, densely clothed with close- ly appressed imbricate lanceolate dull light-brown scales ; fronds few, approximate, 15 to 22 cm. long ; stipe relatively very short (I to 2 cm. long), densely beset with slender spreading rigid red- dish hairs ; lamina (largest) 20 5 cm. long, 09 cm. broad, bright green, firm, moderately thick, linear-lingulate, rather blunt at the apex, attenuate and decurrent at the base, the under surface sparsely hairy, the upper surface glabrate, the margins regularly marked by broad shallow undulations, ciliate ; midvein apparent on the under surface nearly throughout, on the under surface con- cealed by the parenchyma except towards the base ; venation free, the oblique veins for the most part alternately 3 to 5 times forked ; sori round, either terminal or dorsal, wholly superficial, 2 to 4 to each group of veins irregularly disposed in two or four interrupted rows. Jamaica — Founded upon a single specimen, U. S. National Herbarium, No. 520,770 from the vicinity of Vinegar Hill, altitude 1200 meters ; William R. Maxon, No. 2773 ; June 23, 1904. Grow- ing upon the trunk of a forest tree, ten feet from the ground. The present species appears to be a very rare member of a group of tropical American species represented in Jamaica by the well known Polypodium trifiircatum. L. and by P. Faivccttii, Baker,t and P. deiidricolum, Jenman+ the last apparently very close to the Colombian P. /'(7r/c//«!<;«, Klotzsch.§ P. Faivccttii and P. deiidrico/iini have been well distinguished by Jenman [| since their original publication. P. ncsiotictim is very distinct from both, but for the benefit of those who have not material of these rare species the following notes may be of use. P. Fawcetiii is correctly said by Jenman to be " infrequent at 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude in damp forests on the trunks and branches of trees." Two numbers (2723, 2760) were collected in such situations by the writer in 1903 and 1904. It is character- ized, briefly, by its dark villous slender conspicuously upright rhizome, numerous closely set small, very narrow fronds, and al- most simple veins, — the sori being borne in two rows near the midvein, each upon a short spur given off by the otherwise simple * Reprinted from SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS (QUARTEELY ISSUE) Tolume 47. Published April 5, 1905. ^Jmirti. Bot. Srit. and For. 27 ; 270. 1889. t Gai-A. Chron. HI. 16 ; 467. 1894. § Linnaea 20 ; 373. 1847. Illustrated by Kunze, Farreukr. 2; 41. pi. 117, f. 1. 1848-1851. II Bull. Bot. Dcpl. Jamaica II 4 , 68-69. 1897. Ii8 vein. In all these characters the plant contrasts strongly with P. nesioticum. P. dendricoluin appears to be a very rare species. Professor Underwood states (in lift.) that it is "represented at Kew only by a tracing of the type," the type being presumably in the Herbarium of the Jamaican Botanical Department at [Hope Gardens] Kingston, Jamaica.* There is, however, a single frond from the type specimen preserved in the Jenman herbarium at New York, and this agrees absolutely with two other numbers of Jamaican specimens, vis. : one (without definite locality), collected by D. Watt in 1903; and another from the slopes of Monkey Hill (above New Haven Gap), altitude about 1,800 meters, Maxon, No. 2,736 ; both of which numbers are represented in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden and the U.S. National Herbarium. This species is somewhat more closely related to P. nesioticum than is P. Fazvcettii. It is distin- guished by its reduced stature (5 to 7 cm.), thicker texture, more general villous covering, deeply scalloped (instead of undulate) margins, simpler venation, and particularly (l)by having the mid- vein covered on both surfaces by parenchyma, and (2) by what Jenman calls " embossed respectacles," i.e., having the parenchy- ma considerably raised (on the under surface) above the concealed veins toward their extremities, thus imparting a marked rugose effect to the under surface. The last character is sufficient in it- self to distinguish P. dendricohim at sight. The venation of P. nesioticum is peculiar and shows an approach to that of P. trifurcatum. . . BOARD OF~AGRICULTURE. EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES. The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, nth April, 1906, at 2 p.m., present : — The Hon. H. Clarence Bourne, in the chair, the Director of Public Gardens, the Superintending Inspector of Schools, His Grace the Archbishop, the Island Chemist, Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, G. D. Murray and the Secretary. Commercial Agent. — In the matter of a Commercial Agent to re- present Jamaica in London, the Secretary reported that His Grace the Archbishop, Mr. G. D. Murray and himself, (Mr. Middleton being ill with fever), met His Excellency in the forenoon of the day of the meeting, who, after discussing the matter, promised to put it before the Privy Council. The Secretary was directed to forward to the Colonial Secretary the report of the Committee on the matter ; and letters from Mr. A. R. Davey of London to the Archbishop which the latter submitted in confidence. Stwidardization of Rum.— The papers referring to the standardi- zation of rum were put before the meeting, but as they had not circulated round the Board, the Secretary was directed to send them on. * The type with Jenman"s name in liis own handwi-iting is in the Herbarium at Hope Gardens. Editm- BvlMin of the Deparhncnt oj Am-iciiltiire. 119 A cutting from the Glasgow Herald forwarded by the Chemist, pointing out the variation of the contents of ethers in Jamaica rum and the necessity for a standard, was submitted. Agricultural Don'ts. — A letter from the Superintending Inspector of Schools to His Grace the Archbishop, referred to the Board, was submitted, asking the Board if it could supply a copy of " Agricul- tural Don'ts" Chart to every school in the island. After discussion the Secretary was directed to write the Colonial Secretary informing him that this Chart has been prepared at the instance of, and was approved by the Board, that it had been revised by and had the approval of the Superintending Inspector of School, and asking His Excellency to approve of the cost of such charts to be issued to all schools being placed on the estimates either of the Agricultural or Education Department for next year. Letters from the Colonial Secretary's Office were submitted among others on the following subjects : — 1 Salary of Superintendent of Field Experiments. — Re increase in salary to Superintendent of Field Experiments, advising that the Governor approved of the reduction of £30 of the amount for "Distillery Materials for Estates" and of the increase by £20 perannum of the salary of the Su- perintendent of Field Experiments. 2 Resignation of Mr. Teversliam. — Re resignation of Mr. Tever- sham. Agrieultural Seholarship. — Forwarding copy of a Bill entitled " The Scholarship Law, 1901, Amendment Law, 1906," His Grace the Archbishop and the Superintending Inspector of Schools thought it was not advisable to reduce the Scholarship below £180 per annum which they thought the lowest figure that a student could pay his way at Cambridge. Mr. Cousins, Mr. Fursdon and Mr. Murray considered that £156 per annum was under the circumstances sufficient. Mr. Fawcett thought that it was not desirable that there should be any change in the Scholar- ships, but that the examination for the Jamaica Scholarship might be so arranged as to ensure the teaching in schools of the principles of Agricultural Science and so encourage the students to adopt agriculture as a profession. Under the circumstances the Chairman agreed with the majority. The Secretary read two letters he had received from the Secretary of the Schools Commission as follows: — ■ (1) Examination for Agrieultural Scholarships. — In reply to the report by the Island Chemist expressing regret at the disappointing results of the recent examination for agri- cultural scholarships at the Government Laboratory, pointing out that it was no doubt clue to the existence of an impression among students that learning in scientific agriculture, as a profession, would not afford them as good means of livelihood as the practice of one of the learned professions. (2) Cambridge Local Agricultural Section. — Transmitting copy of 120 letter from Dr. Cairns, Cambridge, in reply to one ad- ' dressed to him conveying suggestions by the Island Chemist for the amendment of the second part of the Agricultural Science Section of the Cambridge Senior Ex- amination, intimating that the syllabus had been modified in the direction suggested by Mr. Cousins ; also asking Mr. Cousins if he had any further remarks to make on the schedule. A copy was referred to the Chemist for his remarks. Cotton Gill. — The Secretary submitted an offer of Mr. Sharp of £5 for the Cotton Gin now in his possession. It was resolved not to accept the offer, and meantime to retain ownership of the Gin of which Mr. Sharp had the use. Mr. Cradwick in St. Mary. — The Secretary submitted a letter from the Hon. R. P. Simmonds making application for the services of Mr. Cradwick in connection with the St. Mary show to be held on the 5th July, asking if he would be allowed to spend the first week in June, and the week of the show in St. Mary. After discussion it was agreed that Mr. Cradwick could spend the first week in June and the week of the show in St. Mary, but that ihe should return to his ordinary duties the day after the show. Reports. — The following reports from the Director of Public Gar- dens were submitted and directed to be circulated : — 1. Hope Experiment Station. 2. Instructors. The following reports from the Chemist were submitted; — 1. Proposal as to distillers' course at the Laboratory. This was approved of. 2. Report on successful working of new plant at Hampden estate. 3. Distillery progress in Westmoreland. 4. Appropriation Accounts Government Laboratory and Sugar Experiment Station for 1905-06. 5. Mr. Calder's enquiries as to Agricultural Students with memo from Chemist. All these were directed to be circulated. The following papers, which have been circulated, were now submitted for final consideration : — 1. Reports of two cases instituted under the Merchandise Marks Act. 2. Letter from Mr. Nolan forwarding cutting from the Wine and Spirit Gazette. 3. Report Hope Experiment Station. 4. Reports Mr. Cradwick. 5. Letter from Mr. J. B. Sutherland re apprenticeship of his son at Hope Gardens. The meeting then adjourned till l6th May at 2 p.m. [Issued 14th May, 1906.] Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam. BULLETIN OF THB DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Vol. IV. JUNE, 1906. Parte. BDITBD BY WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S., Director of Public Gardens and PlatUations. CONTENTS: PAGE. . Note on Silk Worms from Colombia 121 Report on the tanning materials and manufac- ture of Leather in Jamaica 121 Statistics of tanning materials and leather for Jamaica 124 Brazilian Coffee Legislation 127 Sea Island Cotton Seed for 1896 127 Camphor in Ceylon 129 Paris Green: Application to Cotton 141 Board of Agriculture 142 PRIG E— Threepence. A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who wiU send name and address to the Director of Pablic Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. KINGSTON, JAMAICA : Hope Gardens. 1906. JAMAICA. LIBRARY OF THE NEW YOPK: BOTAMCaI. DEPARTMENT OF AGIRICULTURE. <^^^^^^- Vol. IV. JUNE, 1906. Part 6. NOTE ON SILK WORMS FROM COLOMBIA. By M. GRABHAM, M.A., M.B. Notes on Attacits joruUa* : — 250 young larvae received from M. Patin, (Belgian Consul to Colombia) in June 1900. Eggs brought by him from Sta. Fe de Bogota, Colombia. He stated that their natural food was a species of Hippomane, as this food plant was not obtainable here, the sandbox {Hura crepitans) and Plum (Spo)idias purpurea) were used at his suggestion. Branches of the trees were isolated in bags of mosquito netting and the larvae placed on the leaves. They grew well in their early stages, but in the final moults most of them refused to eat and died. It was thought that this might have been due to the lack of moisture, M. Patin said that in the Andes about Sta. Fe the moisture was in- tense. The leaves were frequently sprayed but this had no effect. Some larvae were kept in an insectarium and fed on freshly gathered leaves ; these fared no better. About ten spun very indifferent cocoons and about six moths developed — all of very feeble vitality. A few eggs laid by these moths did not hatch. Specimens of the moths were placed in the Museum of the Institute of Jamaica ; and some were sent to the U.S. National Museum at Washington for identification. The common Wasp {Polista sp.) proved the most formidable enemy, killing and devouring the caterpillars whenever they approached too close to the netting. REPORT ON THE TANNING MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURE OF LEATHER IN JAMAICA.! By M. NIERENSTEIN, Ph. D. Plants. The following plants yielding tanning materials are stated to occur in the Island : Acacia Catechu, Bauhinia varicgata. I Caesalpinia _Q coriaria (Divi Divi), Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove). Of 2 * The identification was made by Dr. Dyar of the U.S. National Museum. tQuarterly Joiii-nal. The Inftitute of Commercial Research in the Tropics, Liverpool ' University. Vol. I, 2, April, 1906. ?0 Jylcacm,5wma(notA.C'afec?iM) occurs in Jamaica: it closely resembles 4. Catechu,s,ni . has similar properties. Bauhinia variegata is generally known as the " Butterfly Tree." ;Z: Ei'-ifnr, Bidhtlii oj the I>(partinent of Agriculture, Jamaica 122 these " Divi-Divi" pods and the barks of the red and white man- groves appear to be in regular use in the Colony. There appears to be a small export trade in tanning materials ; thus, in 1903,478 tons* of Divi-divi pods were exported, princi- pally to Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, and in the same period, 133 tons of bark were exported, part of which was pro- bably bark for tanners' use. Comparison with Dominica, where tannin-yielding plants, such as Cassia Jisliilaf C. Siameaf and ( TenninaUa Catappa),^ " are found, and with Mauritius, where " Badamir bark" {Tcrminalia Catappa), and "Jamrose bark" {T. Manriiania) occur, lends support to the supposition thai these plants also occur in Jamaica. Only about a year ago different Australian species of Eucalyp- tus appeared on the European market, such as Eucalyptus occi- dcntalis (Mallet Bark) and E. oleosa (Morrel Gum), containing 52 to 55 per cent, of tanning materials : the export of these new materi- als has been a great success. I find that in the West Indies dif- ferent kinds of Eucalyptus are to be found, especially E. punctata. I It seems that the Logwood industry suffers in Jamaica through the so-called "Bastard Logwood," which does not contain the dye stuff, and according to F. S. Earle, late of the New York Botani- cal Garden, who has been in Jamaica,§ " a wise policy would ensure the prompt destruction of such trees whenever detected, as they have no value except for firewood, and should not be allowed to produce seeds." A. G. Perkin, and also the present writer have found that there is a close relationship between the tannins and colouring matters in the plants. The relation between the Divi- divi and Algarobillal" plants containing 40 to 50 per cent, tan- nins, with the logwood, makes it probable that the " Bastard Logwood'' could find use as a tanning material. A similar relationship Exists between Qucrcus tinctoria, from which the dye stuff " Quercitron" is obtained, and some different kinds of oak used for tanning, such as Qucrcus robur, Q. pciidunculata, &c., 'where, 'with the increase of the tannins, the amount of colouring matters becomes less. From the tanner's point of view the cultiva- tion of Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove), which has been mentioned as being found in Jamaica, should be very successful, as it would be one of those very seldom obtainable exotic plants which could be used for tanning light leather, and if produced on a large scale could compete successfully with " Mangrove extract ;" this substance, which is principally derived from the bark of a tree found in the German Cameroons, produces only dark leathers. * See figures in Bucceeding aiTicle. — Edibyr. f These trees are all cultivut' d in Jamaica. — Tcrminalia Catappa is commonly known as the "Almond" although it is very different from the almond of commerce. There is ii native TerminaHa (viz. : T. hitifolia), called " Broad Leaf." Kditor. X Species cultivated in Jamaica include Ji. Globulus (iu Blue iUts.) H. citriodora, E. saligna, IS. robiista, E. rodrata. Editor. § See Bulletin, of tlie Department of Agncultme, Jamaica, Vol. I. Part 2, Feb. 1903, pages SO, 31. Editor. % Algarohilla is the name given to seed-pols of Prosopis ^!;/ffi)-oin7;a, a native of the Argentine Kepublic, and P. i«Ii/Jo)u, native of Mexico, a:id mountiiiuous lands south to Chile. Editor. 123 There is also a good opportnnity for introducing other plants which contain tannins, and would grow successfully in those one and a half million acres not cultivated at present. Of course according to the reports of the Kew Botanical Gardens, the at- tempts to introduce Gambler in the West Indies has not been a success, but I have reason to believe that this is due to the sensi- tiveness of the plant to climatic changes. Similar observations have been made by M. Greshoff on Gambler of the Malay pen- insula. But greater success can be expected from the introduction of " Quebracho Colorado." * Quebracho belongs to those trees which would probably prosper there, and which are very important in the tanning trade. 3,525 tons of Quebracho Extract were imported in the years 1898-1902 from Argentina into the United Kingdom, and about one quarter of the 11,786 tons, which have been imported to Germany, were sent afterwards to British ports. HIDES AND SKINS. It seems that there is not much breeding of cattle, sheep, &c., done in Jamaica, t which is rather astonishing, as the island seems to have open waste pastures and plenty of Guinea and Scotch grass, both well adapted for the feeding of cattle. As to the cattle of Jamaica, Mr. B. M. Greaves, of Portmadoc, who recently visited the island, writes to me, " I think I saw more Shorthorn cattle than any other sort, and some of them were really good looking beasts." The sheep seem to be of a similar build to the Welsh, and could be used in this case for making "roller leather;" (this is used for covering the wheels of cotton spinning machinery). There is a good market for this kind of sheep skin in Great Britain. G. M. Rummel, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. A. De- partment of Agriculture, describes the Barbados sheep in the Breeders' Gazette as follows : — " The skin is thicker over the upper part of the ribs than in other parts of the body, and becomes thicker towards the tail, the difference of the rump being quite perceptible. Loose skin (not folds, however) may be seen on the top of the neck." A leather tanned from a sheep's skin as des- cribed is sure to have a market. According to the reports of Messrs. P. C. Cork and J. M. Gibb, V.S., the conditions of introducing and breeding sheep in Jamaica are favourable. LEATHER MANUFACTURE. The Leather manufacture seems to be quite in its infancy. There are in Jamaica only twenty-one tanneries, employing in all fifty-five persons, and producing from twenty-eight to thirty-one tons of leather per annum. There is, however, a large import trade in raw and manufactured leather ; thus unwrought leather to the value of £6,027, and leather manufactures valued at £66,999, were imported in the year 1903-4. * (Jmhrachia Lorentzii, growing chiefly in province o£ Corrientes, Argentine Repub- lic. Editor. j Th.? official statement by the Collector General gives the number of horned stock as 107,694 in the year ended 31st March, l'JO.5. Editor. 124 CONCLUSIONS. What has been stated above indicates that thei^e is a possibility of developing the leather industries in Jamaica. The following methods might be mentioned : — I. To develop the cultivation of tanning trees and plants, especially the White Mangrove. 2. To investigate the question of the Bastard Logwood in respect to tanning properties. 3. To introduce tannin-containing plants from the other West Indian islands, and the Quebracho Colorado. 4. To encourage the breeding of cattle and sheep, and to try to introduce the Barbados sheep. 5. To develop tannin extract works : it would be advisable to try with primitive methods, similar to those used in South America, and to develop them afterwards into more modern methods. 6. To develop the present important industry of leather manufacture. Probably the Bastard Logwood would contain a tannin which yields " bloom" on the leather. I notice in the last number of the Collegium that the German Consul in Freemantle (Australia), has been ordered by his Govern- ment to collect the seeds of Eucalyptus occidentalis (Mallet Bark) and E. oleosa (Morrel gum), mentioned in my paper, for the pur- pose of introducing into Hereroland, western parts of West Africa and inner parts of the Togo. STATISTICS OF TANNING MATERIALS AND LEATHER FOR JAMAICA.^^ EXPORTS OF TANNING MATERIALS. Statement showing the export of Divi Divi and bark of all kinds for the three years 1902 to 1905. DIVI Divi. Countries. 1902-3. 1903-4- 1904-5. United Kingdom Canada Germany France Mexico 274,387 lbs. 44,646 " 7,000 " 45,800 lbs. 98,504 " 30,154 " 2,600 lbs. 2,050 " 84,137 " 59,403 " United Kingdom United States of America Bark of all kinds. £1 I 0 1,782 lbs. 20,990 lbs. 3, SOD " (Mangrove) £20 6 0 29,472 lbs. 810 bags *Supplied by the Hon. Collector General, Jamaica. 125 France £42 19 0 294,215 (i 213,362 lbs Canada 18 ,900 " Holland 2 ,240 " Germany £lI2 0 0 Bermuda (Lace) £760 Imports of leather manufactured AND UN\yROUGHT. Imports 1903-4. Leather manufactured, viz. : Boots and Shoes. United Kingdom £21,455 19 10 United States of America ... 35,587 10 II Canada 134 2 4 Germany 220 I 10 Foreign States 7 5 2 Cuba 4 12 4 British West Indies 0 II 0 Austria 20 5 8 Hayti 0 II 0 £57,431 0 I United Kingdom 219 13 6 £57,650 13 7 Leather, viz. : Other manufactures unenumerated. United Kingdom £3,377 10 3 United States of America 994 14 3 Canada 5 12 9 Germany 39 0 I France 27 2 3 £4,443 19 7 United Kingdom 22 15 6 £4,466 15 I Saddlery and Harness . United Kingdom £7,518 0 4 United States of America ... 1,653 12 9 Canada 21 15 10 Germany 19 IS 9 Cuba 3 6 0 £9,216 10 8 United Kingdom I 0 0 United Kingdom 127 4 0 United States of America 4 17 6 £9,349 12 2 Leather Unwrought. llnited Kingdom £4,179 14 ID United States of America ... 1,848 2 4 £6,027 17 2 126 Imports 1904 -5- Leather manufactures, viz. : Boots and Shoes. United Kingdom £17.981 19 : [0 United States of America 31,302 18 9 Canada 40 6 3 Germany 206 4 6 Hayti 0 16 6 British West Indies 48 9 II Austria 121 4 4 British East Indies 5 8 9 Cuba 0 II 0 Foreign States 17 18 0 £49.725 17 10 United Kingdom 692 13 0 £50,418 10 10 Leather, other manufactures. United Kingdom ^ £2,365 4 7 United States of America ... 470 5 0 Germany 58 17 6 Foreign States 0 17 7 £2,895 4 8 1 Kingdom 49 13 3 £2,944 17 II Saddlery and H; arness. United Kingdom £5,158 14 8 United States of America ... 912 5 8 Canada 19 5 0 Germany 4 19 0 Cuba 6 12 0 Bermuda 6 12 0 £6,108 8 4 United Kingdom 4 8 0 £6,112 16 4 Leather unwrought. United Kingdom £3,441 8 10 United States of America ... 2,111 2 0 Germany 5 II 10 Norway 0 2 2 £5,558 4 10 127 BRAZILIAN COFFEE LEGISLATION. The "Times" says : — In our Fiiuvwiiil ami Commercial Supplement for February 19 we published a letter from our Rio de Janeiro correspondent describing the new law which empowers the Execu- tive to regulate the trade in coffee, in agreement with the govern- ments of the coffee States of the republic. On Monday Reuter re- ceived a telegram from Rio de Janeiro to the effect that the Presi- dents of the States of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes, and St. Paulo have signed an agreement with regard to the pricing of coffee, and stipulating for a minimum price on the home markets of 55f. to 65f. (gold) per sack of 60 kilogrammes of No. 7 grade coffee. " The contracting parties also agree to take measures of a na- ture to prevent the export of the inferior qualities of coffee, to push advertising in Europe, and to reduce the acreage under culti- vation. They finally authorize the State of St. Paulo to raise a loan of £15,000,000." SEA ISLAND COTTON SEED FOR 1896. Hon. Sir D. Morris to Director of Public Gardens, Jamaica. Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies, Barbados, March 31, 1906. Sir, I have the honour to enclose, for your information, copies of an extract from the "Agricuhural News" containing a state- ment of the arrangements proposed to be adopted by this Depart- ment for supplying specially selected and disinfected Sea Island cotton seed during the coming planting season. 2. I also enclose a copy of an announcement which I have recom- mended to appear in the Official Gazette and of a "Notice" in regard to the conditions under which selected seed will be shipped by this Department. 3. It is desirable, in order to maintain the high quality of the West Indian product that, as far as possible, only the specially selected d^nd disinfected st^A supplied by the Department should be planted in these colonies. I trust you will do all you can to encourage and advise planters in this direction. Recent prices ranging from I7d. to 20d. per pound prove that by a systematic selection of seed West Indian cotton is steadily attaining a higher standard of quality than the average cotton produced in the Sea Islands. During the last few weeks applications for West Indian seed on a large scale have been received from Florida, Cuba, and Porto Rico. I have the honour to be. Sir, Your most obedient servant, D. Morris, Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies. 128 Enclosure. [Reprinted from the A,s:ricultural Ncivs, Vol. V. p. 97.] It is recognized that the most important matter requiring atten- tion, in order to maintain the high quality of the Sea Island cotton produced in the West Indies, is to plant seed obtained from healthy plants that have given a good yield per acre, and that have produced lint which has fetched the highest price during the current season. The experience of a successful cotton grower is : — The selection of seed is the one thing that cannot be over- looked. As it will be impossible to obtain further supplies of seed from the Sea Islands, the West Indies have to depend on their own re- sources. This is not a difficult matter, provided growers realize the necessity of making the selection of seed a matter of the first importance. They should be prepared to take some trouble in making themselves acquainted with the subject, and in carrying out for themselves the process of seed selection, or they should be prepared to pay a reasonable price for selected seed. Seed of in- ferior quality should not be planted on any account. The difference in cost between good seed and inferior seed is a small matter as compared with the difference in the price realized for the crop. The general lines on which cotton growers are recommended to make a choice of cotton seed for planting during the coming season are these : First, the plants from which it has been obtained should be thoroughly healthy, and they should not have suffered severely at any time from the cotton worm or other pests. The next point is to ascertain that the plants are of good habit and are prolific, yielding, on an average, say, not less than 200 lb. of lint per acre. The third point, and perhaps the most important of all, is that the plants have yielded lint that obtained the highest prices during the current year. As already stated, the Imperial Department of Agriculture has undertaken a' series of experiments in seed selection that are likely to prove of great value to the industry. These experiments are intended to cover the careful selection of seed, on field results, for immediate planting, as well as the systematic selection of im- proved seed from individual plants, as described in the Agricultural News (Vol. V, p. 38), for future years. It has been abundantly proved by general experience both in the Sea Islands and in the West Indies, that it is impossible to obtain first-class cotton from inferior seed. In Egypt, also, the importance of selecting good seed is fully recognized. Mr. Foaden states : — 'Of all plants , cotton responds the most liberally, as far as both yield and quality are concerned, to careful treat- ment, and the sowing of good seed is the very first essential to the production of good stapled cotton. However careful our land may be prepared and manured, the production of superior cotton from inferior and mixed seed is an impossibility.' Further, there is the opinion of the British Cotton-growing Association, as fol- 129 lows : 'The bulk of the cotton from the West Indies is turning out very well, but you must impress on all the growers the necesssity for very careful selection of seed, and extreme care in cultivation and handling, for unless Sea Island cotton is quite right in all respects, it suffers severely in price.' As announced in the columns of the Agricultural Neivs (Vol. V. p. 89), the Imperial Department of Agriculture is prepared to supply specially selected and disinfected cotton seed for plant- ing during the months of May to August next, and to deliver the seed at any port in the West Indies at the rate of five cents (2 Jd.) per lb. Applications for such seed will be received by the prin- cipal agricultural officers in each island, as follows : For An- tigua and Montserrat, by the Hon. Francis Watts, C.M.G. ; for St. Kitt's, Nevis, and Anguilla, by Mr. F. R. Shepherd ; for Barbados, by Mr. J. R. Bovell, F.L. S., F.C.S. ; for St. Vincent, by Mr. W.N. Sands. Applications from Jamaica, British Guiana, Trinidad, and other colonies not mentioned above, may be forwarded direct to the Imperial Commissioner of Agricultural, Head Office, Barbados. All applications will be dealt with in the order in which they are received. In order to prevent disappointment in regard to the germina- ting qualities Of the seed, it is recommended that immediately on its arrival it be turned out of the bags or barrels, in which it is packed, and spread out on a dry floor in order that any excess of moisture may be removed. After the lapse of a day or two, the seed may be replaced in the bags or barrels, and kept until it is planted. It is also recommended that about lOO seeds, taken from the bulk, be sown in soil, or placed between folds of damp cloth, as described in the Agricultural News (Vol. II, p. 153), in order to test its germinating power. In the event of doubt arising as to the condition of any selected cotton seed received from the Imperial Department of Agriculture, a sample of not less than 100 seeds should be forwarded within seven days from the date of the ar- rival of the seed, to the agricultural officer through whom it was ordered, in order that it may be carefully tested. It should be borne in mind that the best results are likely to be obtained when the selected cotton seed is sown within a period of one month after it has been received. CAMPHOR IN CEYLON.*' By M. KELWAY BAMBER, Government Chemist, and J. C. Willis, Director Royal Botanic Gardens. The recent establishment by the Goverment of Japan of a monopoly of the production and sale of camphor in Formosa has attracted much attention to this product, and at the same time, by raising the market price, has rendered it by no means unlikely that this may prove to be a profitable cultivation in Ceylon. The * From Circular, Koyal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon. Series l.~No 24, November, I'JOl 130 present circular is issued to lay before the planting public the chief facts connected with this industry, and to describe the methods of cultivation and preparation which have been found best suited to Ceylon in the experiments so far tried with this tree. The total export of camphor to Europe and America is perhaps about 60,000 piculs annually, or 8,000,000 lb. The market value of crude camphor in Europe is at present about 155 shillings per cwt., or about is. 4id. per lb. Camphor was formerly used chiefly as a drug and for the prevention of insect ravages in clothing, &c., but of late years, in addition to these uses, it has been largely employed in the manufacture of smokeless powders and of celluloid. The tree also produces an oil — cam- phor oil, — obtained with the camphor in the preparation of the latter, and which is used in the manufacture of soaps and for other purposes. Botany. Common, Formosa, Chinese, or Japanese camphor is the product of Cinnamomum Camplwra, Nees, a tree occurring native along the eastern side of Asia, from Cochin-China to Shanghai, and in the islands from Hainan to South Japan ; its limits of latitudinal range are from 10° to 34° N., but it is cultivated in Japan to 36° N. In the southern parts of its range it occurs chiefly in the hills. Two other forms of camphor are frequently met with, though rarely exported to Europe. Barus, Bhimsaini, Borneo or Malay camphor is the product of Dryobalaiwps Ciimphora, Colebr., a large tree of the family Dipterocarpaces, occurring in the Islands of Sumatra, Borneo, &c. This camphor is slightly heavier than common camphor, and is highly prized by the natives of India and China, who purchase the entire very small produce at fancy prices, from 100 to 200 shillings per pound. A third form, Ngai, or Blumea camphor, is prepared in S.E. China from Bliimea balsami- fera, one of the family Compositae. In Ceylon the natives prepare a small quantity of camphor from the roots of cinnamon, Ciniia- momum zeylanicum, a plant nearly related to the true camphor. In the remainder of this paper only the common camphor, Cinnamomum Camphora, will be deal with. In its native country the plant grows into a tree about 1 00 feet high with a trunk 2 to 3 feet in diameter. It is evergreen, with moderate sized laurel-like leaves, which when crushed smell strongly of camphor. It may be well to mention in this con- nection that the tree is very handsome when young and forms one of the best ornamental trees for roadsides, parks compounds, &c., in Ceylon. The native habitat of the species is not widely extended, but it has been successfully cultivated in Ceylon, India, Australia, Florida, California, and elsewhere. It was introduced into Ceylon by the Royal Botanic Gardens in 1852. In 1895 plants were largely distributed fi-om Hakgala to many planters and others. These were the result of seeds obtained in the autumn of 1893 from Japan. Mr. Nock, Superintendent of Hakgala, has collected 131 information about these trees, some 950 in all, and reports as fol- lows : — "During 1895 plants of camphor were distributed from Hakgala to planters in various parts of the Island at elevations ranging from 250 to 6,450 feet, with annual rainfalls varying from 54 in- ches on 104 days to 2\^ inches on 212 days. Replies as to the growth of the plants have been received from thirty localities, and I think it is pretty well proved that under certain conditions of soil and climate camphor will thrive at all elevations in Cey- lon from about sea level to the highest mountains. "It appears to thrive best in a well-drained deep sandy loam in sheltered situations with a rainfall of 90 inches and over, and dislikes poor or close, stiff, undrained soil. The growth is slow in sterile soil, but, under favourable conditions, in good soil is very rapid, the tree reaching a height of 18 to 20 feet in five years, with a spread of branches of 8 to 12 feet and a sten. jf 6 to 7 inches in diameter. This compares very favourably with the growth of the trees in their native habitat, where a tree 30 feet high and 6 inches in diameter at ten years old is considered good. The best five-year old tree (from planting) in Ceylon is at Veyan- goda, at an elevation of about lOO feet with a rainfall of about 100 inches on 180 days. It is 25 feet high and growing luxuri- antly. The next best are at Hakgala, where the largest is 20 feet high, with a spread of 1 3 feet, and a stem-diameter of ^\ inches at the ground. "The habit of the trees in Ceylon in good soil is bushy, with a tendency to throw up many stems. This is a point of importance, as it shows that the tree will coppice well and stand frequent cut- tings or prunings, and possibly even plucking of the flush as with tea. In close, hard, undrained or stiff clayey soil the growth is poor, and the habit stunted or dwarfed, and this is also the case in exposed windblown situations. " Of course tt is only in the experimental stage here yet, but judging from my experience of it for some years, it is my opinion that as a minor product it should be grown in the form of hedges, planted at distances of 6 to 9 feet apart and 2 to 3 feet apart in the row. The rows should run N.W. and S.E., or across the di- rections of the prevailing winds, and the plants be allowed to grow 6 to 9 feet high. Planted in this way there would be ample room for cultivation, and each row would shelter the other from the N. E. and S.W. winds, besides forming a large surface for clipping. As the young shoots appear to yield the most camphor, the crop could be obtained by clipping the hedge with a pair of light shears, and the expense would be very slight. The trees might also be planted at 6 feet apart, and treated in the same way as tea bushes, or they might be planted 12 feet apart, and trained as pyramids, or again planted 4 feet apart and alternate plants coppiced in al- ternate years." PROPAGATION, CULTIVATION, &C. Mr. Nock states : — "Camphor plants are best and easily propagated from seeds. 132 The seeds do not keep well, and should be sown as soon as pos- sible after ripening. They ripen in Japan, which at present is the only important source of seed, in October and November, and sliould be ordered some time in advance, so as to obtain them as soon as they are ripe. I find it a good plan to soak the seed in water for twenty-four to forty-eight hours before sowing, agitating tlie water occasionally. The best seeds, being heavier, will sink to the bottom, and these should be sown thinly by themselves ; the lighter ones should be sown thickly, as only a small percent- age will germinate "The seeds should be sown in well-prepared beds of sandy loam and leaf mould ; they should be sown from A to f inch deep, making the bed firm, but not tight. The beds should be kept shaded and just moist. Too much wet will cause the young seed- lings to damp off, and if allowed to get too dry the germs will quickly dry up and die. " We have been most successful when the seed has been sown in boxes (made of ^ inch wood) l8 by 13 by 3i inches, filled with the kind of soil described above. The boxes are handy to lift about, and can be easily protected from heavy rain and strong sun. Sheds made after the style of the old cinchona seed sheds answer well for standing the boxes in, and if made light and airy would do well to sow the seeds in direct, but care should betaken not to allow the young plants to be 'drawn.' " We find it a good plan to prick out the seedling into supply baskets as soon as they are large enough to handle comfortably, or transplant them into beds, placing the plants 6 inches apart every way, and keeping them shaded and watered until they begin to grow, when they will bear the full light of the sun, but will require to be freely watered in dry weather. " When the plants are from 9 to 1 5 inches high they are at their best for final planting, but if the weather is unsuitable they may be kept in the nursery till they are 2 feet high, or until good planting weather occurs viz., dull showery weather. In such weather they require very little shading, and soon take hold of the soil. " Cuttings do not strike root readily, and only under certain conditions will they be successful. If the prevailing weather should be too dry they soon go off, and if too wet and cold they decay before roots are formed. We have had batches of cuttings with 70 per cent, beginning to callus over, and young shoots forming, that have gone off after three or four days of rough wea- ther— cold high winds and heavy rains — and others that have gone the same way after a week of dry sunny weather. The favourable conditions are equable heat, light, and moisture ; with these, and wood for cuttings in a proper state, a large percentage will strike root and make good plants. "The nursery beds for seeds as well as cuttings should be made in a well-drained situation, and as near water as possible. The beds may be any length, and from 3 to 4 feet wide. The soil for cuttings should be composed as follows : one part good sandy 133 loam, one part leaf mould, and one part clean sharp sand (to this it would be beneficial to add a good sprinkling of powdered char- coal), all thoroughly mixed. The soil should be 6 to 9 inches deep. A layer of good sharp sand one inch thick should be laid on the surface. As a protection against hot sun and heavy rains it would be well to put a roof of thatch over the beds in the form of a shed but it should be constructed with open sides to allow plenty of light and air. A shed 4 feet wide, with a lean-to roof on stout posts, open at the back and front, will be found a useful size. The posts should be 6 feet high in front and 3 ft. 6 in. at the back. The roof may be thatch, shingles, or other light material. If more than one is required, a space 4 feet wide should be left between the sheds to give room for watering, weeding, and general atten- tion. " The best material for cuttings is that from straight, healthy, and well matured shoots of the current year's growth, not too soft or too hard. If too hard they will not root readily, and if too soft they will be liable to damp off. The cuttings may be of any size from the thickness of a lead pencil to f inch in diameter. They should be cut into lengths of from 6 to 9 inches. A clean cut with a very sharp knife immediately below a joint to form the base of the cutting is of the greatest importance. If the cut por- tion is torn or jagged, or too far away from the joint, it is almost certain to decay, though it may remain green for a long time. "The operation for inserting the cuttings is best done by open- ing a trench with a sharp spade so as to form a straight edge. The prepared cuttings should be laid against this and the soil pressed firmly round them. They should be placed in rows 9 to 12 inches apart and 3 inches apart in the rows, and at a sufficient depth to leave only two or three buds above the surface. "The sooner the cuttings are made and put in after being taken from the trees the better. After the cuttings are put in, the beds should be watered to settle the soil, and if in the open, they must be carefully shaded and sunlight must be only gradually let in as they become rooted and can bear it. If all goes well they should be rooted in 2 to 3 months, but they will not be ready for planting out for three or four months. " Camphor may also be propagated by layers. The operation of layering is very simple. The shoots should be bent down to the soil. The branch at the bend should be cut half-way through, then cutting upwards for about li to 2 inches, so as to form a tongue. The cut portion must be kept apart by a slight twist, or by placing a piece of brick or a small stone in the cleft. The shoot should then be pegged down firmly into a groove made in the soil for its reception and covered with soil. The end of the shoot must be kept upright by tying it to a stick. •' Another simple way is to split the branch at the bend where it is to be laid in the ground, making the split about 2 inches long, and keeping the cut parts open by inserting a piece of wood or stone. Peg down well into the soil and stake. The ends of the shoots should be cut back a few inches with a sharp knife." 134 It is thus evident that the plant will thrive almost anywhere in the Island if the water supply be sufficient and the soil well drained. The best method of treatment is probably to grow it as hedges, which are easily managed and clipped. It may also be planted along roads, jungle edges, &c.. but should never be mixed with the tea, as the young leaves are very like those of tea, and a twig or two of camphor will spoil a whole break of tea. The following analyses of two soils at Hakgala — on one of which (A) camphor does very well, on the other (B) only modera- tely— will help to guide to the selection of suitable spots : — CAMPHOR SOILS. " Six samples of soil were received from Mr. Nock at Hakgala, which represented the character of the soil and sub-soil, where camphor trees grew well and only fairly well. " 7/0. 7 /I, represents a section 15 inches deep between trees showing the best growth, viz., 20 to 25 feet high and 12 to 15 feet in diameter at five years and nine months from the time of plant- ing. The surface soil here is about I foot deep. It is composed of agglomerated particles of dark brown colour and yellow frag- ments of decomposing gneiss. It is very rich in nitrogen and the lower oxide of iron, has a fair amount of lime, but is deficient in potash and phosphoric acid. "No. 2 A, representing the upper 6 inches, is of a dark brownish colour when dry, and is almost entirely composed of the agglo- merated particles mentioned in No. I A and rootlets, &c. The analysis shows it to contain the bulk of the nitrogen, and an ex- cess of the lower oxide of iron, but it is deficient in potash and phosphoric acid. No. 3 A, represents the sub-soil at 15 inches deep or 3 inches below the actual surface soil.' It is composed of yellow pieces of decomposing light-coloured gneiss, more or less bound together with a clayey matrix. It also contains a fair amount of nitrogen and rather more phosphoric acid and potash than the surface soil, and would be fairly easily penetrated by roots. "No. I B. — This is taken from a section 15 inches deep, where the camphor is only doing fairly well. The plants five years and nine months old are from nine to ten ft. high and 6 to 8 ft in di- ameter. It is more finely divided than No. I A, and is of a lighter brown colour. Chemically, it is also somewhat poorer, though containing a good amount of nitrogen. Lime and mineral plant food generally may be considered deficient, especially potash, and this no doubt accounts for the poorer growth of the camphor trees in this part. "No. 2 B, representing the top 6 inches, is a dark coloured loam, somewhat richer in nitrogen and phosphoric acid than No. I B, but is very poor in lime, magnesia, and potash. No. 3 B, representing the sub-soil 15 inches from the surface, is a yellow loam much more finely divided than No. 3 A, but other- wise of somewhat similar composition. When wet it is of a re- tentive clayey nature requiring drainage. 135 HAKGALA, NUWARA ELIYA Analysis of soil (Camphor). Mechanical Composition. No. 1 A. Per cent. Fine soil passing 00 mesh Fine soil passing 60 mesh Medium passing 30 mesh Coarse sand and small stones 20 00 15-00 7-00 58-00 100 00 Moisture Organic matter and combined water Oxide of iron and manganese Oxide of iron and aluminum Lime Magnesia Potash Phosphoric acid Sand and silicates Chemical Com^position. No. 1 A. Per cent. 5 100 U-500 8-200 11-340 -140 -072 -030 •012 CO -GOO 100-000 Containing nitrogen Equal to ammonia Lower oxide of iron -308 •374 Good Mechanicdl Composititm. No. 1 B. Per cent. Fine soil passing 90 mesh ... 25-00 Fine soil passing (50 mesh ... 23-00 Medium soil passing 30 mesh ... 8-50 Coarse sand and small stones ... 43 50 100-00 Chemical Composition. Moisture Organic matter and combined water Oxide of iron and manganese Oxide of iron and aluminum Lime Magnesia Potash Phosphoric acid ... Sand and silicate.s ... No. 2 A. Per cent. 26-00 24-00 5-00 45-00 100 00 No. 2 A. Per cent. 5-000 17.700 7-080 7-575 -124 •075 -Oil -035 62-400 100 -OOO •490 ■595 Much No. 2 B. Per cent. 17-50 16-50 6-50 59 50 100-00 No. 3 A. Per cent. 34-00 18-50 7 50 40 00 100 00 No. 3 A. Per cent. 5 900 11.500 9.800 10 000 -050 -020 -061 .069 63 000 100 000 •182 -221 Fair No. 3 B. Per cent. 47-50 26-50 5-00 21-50 100-00 5-100 . .. 5 100 . .. 5-800 n-900 . .. 15-500 . .. 11-400 8-000 . .. 8-200 . .. 8-520 9-210 .. 8-050 . .. 12-502 •080 , •060 . •040 .070 . -014 . .046 -015 . •007 . -0.54 0.25 . •069 . .038 65-600 .. 63-000 . .. 61 6110 100-000 100-000 100.000 •259 •371 ... ■128 ■314 .. •450 ... ■156 Fair ... Much ... Trace 136 Containing nitrogen Equal to ammonia Lower oxide of iron " The ash of the camphor leaves was analyzed to determine the constituents most required by their growth. The leaves con- tained— Per cent. Water ... ... ... T4.32 Organic matter* ... ... 19-58 Ash ... ... ... 610 inooo *Contaiiiinf» nitrogen \^^^ per cent. Ei)U!il to ammonia 1 78 " Comjwsitiim of Ash Per cent. Lime ... ... ... 32-90 Magnesia ... ... ... 6-48 Oxide of iron ... ... 2-00 Alumina - ... ... 3 11 Potash ... ... ... 14-86 Soda ... ... ... 4-21 Phosphoric acid ... ... 2-16 Sulpliuric acid ... ... 2^00 Sand and silica ... ... 1-20 Carbonic acid ... ... 26 "10 Carbon and undetermined ... ... 4-98 100 00 "The chief mineral ingredients required by the camphor plant for the growth of leaves are lime and potash, an average yield of prunings removing 196 lb. of lime and 87 lb. of potash, which could be returned to the soil after the distilled wood had been burned for fuel purposes. '■ M. KELWAY BAMBER, F.C.S., &c." PREPARATION OF THE CAMPHOR. As soon as the plants have reached a fair size and formed stout woody stems below — say in three years or less in very good situations — they may be clipped. The simplest method will per- haps be to use hedge shears, placing a long basket below the hedge to catch the clippings. Only the leaves and young twigs are required ; woody twigs yield little or no camphor. In Japan, where however, they only use the wood of full-grown trees as a source of camphor, the chips of wood are distilled in a primitive-looking but effective still, with bamboo tubes (these have the advantage that they can afterwards be split to remove any camphor from them) and a wooden condenser with water running over its lid. In Ceylon probably the best method will be to fix up 137 a small still of any good pattern with a glass condenser and plentiful water supply, working it by means of steam from the factory boiler. As the distillation is a somewhat uncertain opera- tion, especially to the beginner, and as it is probable that more efficient methods will be discovered, the details of the principal experiments tried are given below. Material for these experi- ments was obtained from the gardens at Peradeniya (l,6oo feet), Hakgala (5, 600 feet), and Anuradhapura (300 feet). CAMPHOR DISTILLATION. The first distillations were from Il2lb. of prunings received from Hakgala on the 28th June, 1900. These were conducted in a large cask fitted with a metal cover leading to a metal condenser which was cooled by a constant flow of water. Distillation was effected by means of steam from a boiler, passing into the lower part of the cask below a perforated iron plate. The prunings were chopped up into fragments about I inch long, covered with water, the top, connected with the condenser, luted on, and steam turned on to gradually bring the water to the boil. A strong pungent smell of camphor and eucalyptus came off as soon as distillation commenced, which persisted for some time even when the distillate was cooled to 50° F., a temperature below that which could be obtained practically. The loss was mini- mized by bringing the water to the boil very slowly, and only admitting just suificient steam to keep it at the boiling tempera- ture. It was found that the metal cover to the cask retained a good proportion of the camphor, but it was not so pure as when con- densed in a wooden box similar to that in use in China and Japan. The purest camphor was obtained when the distillate was made to pass through a long glass tube surrounded with a jacket of cold (running) water, the crystals being deposited when the tempera- ture of the glass did not exceed 50° C. or 122' F., a temperature that could easily be maintained in a condensing apparatus up- country at all times of the year. In the low-country a more rapid flow of condensing water and a proportionately longer conden- sing apparatus would be required to obtain the same results, as the water is much warmer and the steam also is at a higher tem- perature. In all the experiments the camphor had almost entirely distilled over during the first three hours, as several distillations conducted for twelve hours and longer resulted in no better yield, and the smell of the camphor under these circumstances was contaminated with that of decomposition products from the nitrogenous matter, &c., in the leaves and twigs. Three distillations could be made in the same apparatus during the day. The amount of steam required for the distillation even of large quantities would be nominal, and would hardly be felt in an ordi- nary boiler working in a tea factory. YIELD OF CAMPHOR. The first distillation from part of the prunings obtained from Hakgala in June, 1900, only yielded -35 per cent., but this was 138 increased to '62 percent, by better regulation of the steam pressure and the condensing water. Tlie camphor had a slight smell of eucalyptus, and was not so strong as ordinary camphor. The leaves were quite fresh when distilled. Separate distillations were again made in August with fresh leaves and twigs, and the green branches of about half inch to I inch thick the former yielded "85 per cent, camphor, but the latter a mere trace, both of camphor and oil. 7th September, igoo. — Three distillations of camphor leaves from Peradeniya were made in the usual manner, the yield from the first being I '10 per cent, of camphor and camphor oil. In the second distillation, when the leaves had partly dried, l'06 per cent, of camphor and oil was obtained, calculated on the fresh leaves. In the third distillation the leaves had undergone partial decompo- sition, the result of becoming heated to a temperature of 106" F. The yield in this case was '68 per cent, camphor and "38 per cent. of oil, so that it would appear advisable to distil the leaves as fresh as posssible, as the oil is less valuable than the camphor. gth October, igoo. — A sample of young camphor flush weighing Ililb. plucked from two trees in Hakgala, one 8 feet in diameter and 12 feet high, yielding 8 lb., and the other 5 feet in diameter and 7 feet high, yielding 3^ lb. This was carefully distilled in a copper retort over a lamp, and the vapour condensed in a glass vessel. In the first four hours "63 per cent, of pure camphor was obtained, which smelled only of pure camphor ; on further distil- lation '08 per cent, more camphor was obtained, which did not smell quite so pure. Heating by the direct llame beneath the ves- sel appears to take longer in removing all the camphor than driving it over with steam under slight pressure. 24th October, igoo. — A distillation of camphor clippings from Hakgala yielded .77 per cent! camphor and '27 per cent. oil. 30th October, igoo. — A distillation of 12 lb. of camphor flush was made in a copper vessel with a glass condenser, yielded "69 per cent, camphor and "34 per cent, camphor oil. The trees were in active growth when this flush was plucked. gth January, igoi. — A camphor tree that had become slightly cankered was received from Hakgala in separate parcels of leaves, branches, stem, and roots. Several distillations of the leaves and twigs were made both in the fresh state and when air-dried, some of them being continued for twelve hours. The yield of camphor and oil varied somewhat, but appeared to depend on the propor- tion of leaves to twigs, the latter containing much less than the former. A glass condenser was employed for all these distillations, the camphor and oil being obtained quite pure. The first experiment yielded '875 per cent, camphor and "986 per cent, oil, a far larger proportion of oil than in any previous distillation of similar leaf. A second distillation, which was continued at a low tempera- ture for eleven hours, yielded I '08 per cent, pure camphor and 0'32 per cent. oil. 139 Five other distillations at intervals of some days with the air- dried leaves gave the following yields : — No. 1. — 2-310 per cent, camphor and -114 per cent, oil, ecpial to 1-02 per cent. on fresh leaf. No. 2. — 2-149 per cent, caniplior and oil, equal to -98 per cent, on fresh leaf. No. 3. — 2-425 per cent, camphor and traces of oil, equal to 1 -C'5 per cent, on fresh leaf. No. 4. — 2-3 > per cent, camphor and traces of oil, eijual to 1-01 per cent, on fresh leaf. No. 5 — 2-08 I per cent, canqilior and traces of oil, equal to -90 per cent, on fresh leaf. From these figures it will be seen that air-drying the leaf before distillation does not cause any appreciable loss of camphor, though a certain amount of oil disappears, either by volatilization or oxidation. The camphor obtained from the air-dried leaf also had a somewhat purer smell than that from the fresh leaf, though this latter was easily rendered pure by re-distillation with steam. Three distillations were made of the branches and stem of the camphor tree, but no appreciable quantity of camphor was ob- tained from either, nor did the bark of the stem appear to contain more than traces. The roots, however, contained an oil, 5lb. of roots yielding i"22 per cent. This oil was located mainly in the bark and in a thin layer of wood beneath it. It had only a slight smell of camphor, and more resembled a mixture of aniseed and peppermint. On the 7th August, 1901, 5lb. of young flush was received from Hakgala in a slightly heated condition. It was at once put into a copper vessel with fifteen pints of water, and a glass dome luted on, which was connected with a glass condenser. The water was heated slowly from below, and a thermometer placed, so as to register the temperature of the vapour 2 inches above the water and camphor leaves. At 50° C. (122° F.) crystals of camphor condensed on the glass dome, which at 90° C. (194° F.) were carried back into the water by the condensed steam. At 1 00 C. the steam and camphor vapour was passing rapidly into the glass condenser, while the leaves were covered with oily drops of camphor and oil. Distil- lation at 100° C. was continued for two hours, when 4^ litres (7"93 pints) of water containing camphor and oil had collected in the condenser. This was then passed through a wet paper filter to separate the camphor and oil from the water, 24'53 grams of the mixture being obtained, equal to I "10 per cent. The oil was separated from the camphor as much as possible, the yield of each on the original flush being 755 per cent, pure camphor and ■345 per cent, camphor oil. Another distillation was made in the same way of lolb. of coppice shoots one year old from a tree that had been cut down. The yield of camphor from this was very small, only "192 per cent, and shows that the first year's growth from a tree cut down to the ground is practically valueless, but it is probable that young flush from such coppiced trees would in- crease in the camphor contents during the next and succeeding years. Further distillations were also made of the entire prunings 140 weighing 50lb. of a five year and nine months old tree of average growth, the leaves (271b.) and branches (231b.) being distilled separately, the former yielding 767 per cent, of pure camphor and some oil, the latter only traces of oil, showing that the whole of the camphor is practically in the leaves and not in the yomig wood. The reason of this should be investigated, as it is from old wood that the bulk of the camphor of commerce is obtained. CHARACTERS. The camphor obtained from all the above experiments has the usual crystalline form, and is perfectly colourless unless condensed in an iron vessel, when it is tinged with red from the o.xidized iron. It floats on water, in which it is almost insoluble, and small fragments rotate rapidly when floated on this liquid. It burns with a yellow smoky flame, leav- ing no residue, and volatilizes readily at the ordinary temperature. It is easily soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform, and is preci- pitated from the former in white fiocculent masses, when the solu- tion is poured into water. It sublimes readily, and has an odour of camphor, but not so powerful as ordinary camphor from old wood. Its specific gravity is 987; it melts at 175° C, (347° F.) and boils at 205° C. (400' F.). It dissolves readily in nitric acid, with some development of heat, and immediate separation of the solution into two layers, the upper of a red colour and the lower pale yellow or colourless. The addition of water precipitates the camphor as a white mass from the upper layer of the solution ap- parently unchanged. SUBLIMATION EXPERIMENTS. These were conducted at varying temperatures and under different conditions in order to try and obtainthe translucent state common to commercial camphor. The most successful method was by mixing the crude camphor with slaked lime in the pro p tion of 40 to I, and subjecting this in a closed vessel to a low heat for twelve hours, the heat being gradually increased up the sides of the vessel in order to drive all the camphor into the upper por- tion. Copper vessels are the best for the purpose, as glass is liable to fracture from condensed moisture running down to the heated sides. Before sublimation can be effected it is essential that all the camphor oil should be expressed from the camphor. The cam- phor when first distilled appears to be practically free from oil, but after standing some days oil gradually separates and sinks to the bottom of the mass of crystals, and this appears to continue for months. Filtration with the aid of a vacuum effects a partial separation, but in practice on a large scale it would be best effected by means of a centrifugal machine similar to that employed for the separation of crystalline sugar from molasses. OIL. The oil obtained with the camphor from the leaves is of a clear yellow colour, having a specific gravity at 80' F. of "9662. It con- 141 tains a certain amount of camphor in solution, wliich can be sepa- rated to some extent by cooling to 10° C. It would therefore be advisable to cool the mixture of camphor and oil, as much as pos- sible, before submitting it to centrifugal expression. The root oil, of which I '22 per cent, was obtained from the air- dried roots, was almost colourless, and had no smell of camphor. It consisted of a mixture of two oils, one lighter and one heavier than water, the specific gravity of the mixed oils being ro58 at 80° F. YIELD AND PROSPECTS. The figures above given show that the yield varies a good deal, but that on the average about '75 to I per cent, of camphor may be expected from the young leaves and twigs, as well as a small quantity of camphor oil, which also has a market value. Samples of camphor mixed with the oil were valued lately at Rs. 126 per cwt. If we assume that clippings will yield about I per cent, of camphor and oil worth Re. I per lb., we should be well within the mark. The cost of obtaining this should be about Rs. 53 per acre, made up as follows: — Rs. 0. Pruning 1,210 trees and carrying t factory 57 0 Distilling, fuel, packing, &c. ... 16 0 53 U /. c, camphor can be put on the market as cheaply as tea per pound if the yield be at the rate of 177 lb. per acre (cost of tea being estimated at 30 cents.) Now 177 lb. will be yielded by 17,700 lb. of clippings. In the case of bushes 6 feet apart this means 14^ lbs per bush per annum, or about seven times the weight of flush obtained from a prosperous tea bush. On the other hand, the bushes are only half as many to the acre, and the plucking is much coarser, so that this estimate is not unreason- able, and the product is more valuable than tea. It seems not unreasonable to expect that where a bush, with 36 square feet of space to grow in, yields 12 to 15 lb., of clippings a year, the cul- tivation will prove remunerative — not a bonanza, but yielding a fair profit. In Hakgala Gardens this yield is exceeded, so far as rough experiments show. PARIS GREEN : APPLICATION TO COTTON. Mr. Win. B. Scahrook to Director, Public Gardens and Plantations.* James Island, South Carolina, U. S. A., February 2lst, 1906. My Dear Sir, I remember the interest you took in the appliance used for ap- plying Paris Green to the cotton plant for destrsying caterpillars. I am now trespassing upon your time to give you some further in- formation on this subject. Last summer there was introduced a * For previous letter by \Vm. Se.ibrook on P.iris Green, see Bulletin July, 1904, page 159. 142 small kind of bellows, called a " powder gun," with long handles, and the nozzle terminating in a little fixture like the sprinkling nozzle of a watering pot. The Paris Green powder is put in a receptacle in the bellows, the nozzle is put in the middle of the cotton bush, a very slight convulsive movement of the bellows handle — that is all. The little puff of powder that is blown out is so slight that it is hardly possible to see it, pump it out until you can see it, and you will be sure to burn up the cotton. It is the simplest to operate of any contrivance yet devised ; is more effica- cious in its deadly work on the worm, and the most convenient to handle. When I wrote to Sir Daniel Morris about it, he immediately asked to be put in communication with the manufacturers, looking forward to obtaining a supply another season, should they be needed. While instructing them to send him one of their catalo- gues I took the liberty of instructing them to send one to you too. I hope you will get it safely.* My thoughts are full of pleasant memories of Jamaica — beauti- ful Island — and of the pleasant acquaintances made, and friend- ships enjoyed during my brief stay there. I remember with kind- est interest Mr. Fursdon and Mr. Sharp, who were very kind to me. Cjiye them my kindest regards, should you see them. I am very sincerely and truly yours, Wm. B. SEABROOK. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at Headciuarter House on Wednesday, l6th May. Present: The Hon. H. Clarence Bourne, Colonial Secretary, in the chair, the Director of Public Gardens, the Island Chemist, His Grace the Archbishop, the Superintending Inspector of Schools, Messrs. C. E. DeMercado, J. W. Middleton, G. D. Murray and the Secretary. Standard for Jamaica Rum. — The Secretary read letter from the Colonial Secretary's Office stating that the Governor was not pre- pared at the present moment to prescribe a standard quantity of ethers for Jamaica rum. The Secretary also read a letter from the Secretary of the North- side Sugar Planters Association stating that it was the opinion of the Association that any law to standardise Jamaica Rum was un- fortunate and likely to deal a stiff blow against the rum industry. He also submitted the papers giving the Chemist's arguments in favour of standardisation and the criticism of members of the Board. He was directed to reply to Mr. Shore informing him of the Go- vernor's decision regarding standardisation. Agricultural Don' ts.— The Secretary read a letter re " Agricultural Don'ts" from the Colonial Secretary, stating that when next year's estimates were under consideration the amount required for print- ing the charts of " Agricultural Don'ts" might be submitted for con- *One of these iiowder guus is uow in u-e, aud can be seen at Hope Gardeos. 143 sideration under Agricultural Vote. Also letter from the Education Department stating that the Board of Education was willing to re- commend that the chart be placed in schools if the Board of Agri- culture was willing to print it. Commercial Agent in London. — The Secretary read a letter from the Colonial Secretary on the matter of the appointment of a Com- mercial Agent in London, stating that the Governor had consulted the Privy Council on the matter and they had advised that the rule laid down by Mr. Chamberlain when Secretary of State should be followed, viz. : that such an Agent should be ap- pointed and maintained by the commercial community in the Colony and be entirely unconnected with the Government, though there would be no objection to the Government making if neces- sary, and the Legislative Council was willing, a small grant to some such body as the Royal Jamaica Society of Agi-iculture and Commerce if that Society were willing to take the matter up, but on a previous occasion when this decision was intimated to that Society, the Secretary replied that its funds were unable to stand the expense and they desired the Government largely to in- crease its suggested grant. This the Government was unable to do. It remained for those interested to make some arrangements whereby the funds necessary for carrying out their suggestion be provided by those likely to profit most by the Agency. Sugar Grant. — The Secretary submitted copy of Law 3 of 1906 entitled "A Law in aid of Law 45 of 1903" to give the Board of Agriculture, with the sanction of the Privy Council, a wider dis- cretion as to the expenditure of the £lO,000 therein mentioned, in the interest of the sugar industry. Demerara Rums. — The Secretary submitted a copy of the Official Gazette of British Guiana, also an extract from the Demerara Ar- gosy showing the variation in the contents of ethers in Demerara Rums which ranged from 30"l to 1227. Truck System. — The Secretary submitted a private letter, referred by the Governor, where complaint was made of a practice found prevailing on the writer's estate and others, of overseers supply- ing bread, beef and pork to the labourers and stopping the cost of it out of their wages when they were charged for more than they got, and that they did not get work unless they agreed to pur- chase these things. The writer suggested that there should be a law here similar to the Truck Act in England to prevent this. After discussion in which it was said that there were very few estates where this practice would be carried on, it was resolved to refer copies of the letters to the Westmoreland and Northside Sugar Planters Associations for their remarks. Cotton Seed. — ^The Secretary read letters from the Imperial De- partment of Agriculture calling attention to the importance of using the Department's selected and disinfected Sea Island Cotton seed. It was stated that matter on the subject was being published in the Bulletin and in the Agricultural Journal. Leave for Mr. Cousins. — The Secretary submitted a letter from the Colonial Secretary's Office stating that Mr. Cousins had ap- 144 plied for leave of absence for three months from the 23rd July- next and proposed that the Assistant Chemist should act as Go- vernment Chemist and manage the routine work of the office, while the Fermentation Chemist should be placed in charge of the Sugar Department and act for Mr. Cousins on the Board of Agriculture, and asking him to ascertain from each member of the Board whether there was any objection to the proposed ar- rangements. The Secretary stated that none of the members of the Board had had any objection to offer and the Governor had accordingly granted leave to Mr. Cousins. Chemist's Reports. The Secretary submitted Reports of the Che- mist as follows : — 1. Applications from Distillers to attend special Course. This was referred to the Advisory Committee of Sugar Experiments. 2. Work of Agricultural Students for Easter Term. This was directed to be circulated. Director Puhlie Gardens' Reports. The following reports from the Director of Public Gardens were submitted : — 1. Hope Experiment Station. 2. Instructors — Mr. Cradwick and Mr. Briscoe. These were di- rected to be circulated. Lecturer in Agricultural Science and Assistant Chemist. The fol- lowing paper which had been circulated but had not yet been be- fore the Board was submitted : — '*'([!. Letter from Mr. Cousins recommending Mr. E. J. Wortley to fill the appointment of Lecturer in Agricultural Science ; and stat- ing that the best plan for filling the post of Assistant Chemist would be to offer a salary of £220 rising to £240 by annual incre- ments of £10 through the Crown Agents on a three years' agree- ment, the funds to be provided as follows : — Present salary of Assistant Chemist £150 to £200 by £10, salary of Assistant in Sugar Laboratory (vacant) £70. It was agreed that this latter recommedation should be adopted. A letter was submitted from the Colonial Secretary intimating that Mr. Wortley had been appointed in Mr. Teversham's place. The following papers which had been circulated were now sub- mittted for final consideration : — 1. Re Standardisation of Jamaica Rum. 2. Proposals as to Distillers' Course. 3. Report on the successful working of the high ether Instal- lation at Hampden Estate. 4. Distillery Progress in Westmoreland. 5. Appropriation Accounts, Government Laboratory and Su- gar Experiment Station for 1905-06. 6. Reports Instructors. 7. Report Hope Experiment Station. [Issued 14th June, 1906.] Printed at thu Govt. Printing Office, Kingstwi, Jam. BULLETIN OF THB DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Vol. IV. JULY, 1906. Part 7. EDITED BY WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S., Director of Public Gardens a^td Plantatiuin. CONTENTS: A Mexican Rubber Plantation Black Leg A method of keeping Fruit by use of Formalin Coco-nut Bud Rot Disease How to keep Mosquitoes from the House Exporting Seed of Para Rubber Acreage in Rubber ... Planting hard and soft wooded plants ... Turmeric Jamaica Ginger Study of Castilloa Rubber Board of Agriculture PRIG E— Threepence. Page. 145 151 154 156 158 159 160 161 163 166 169 166 A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who wiU send name and address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. KINGSTON, JAMAICA ; Hope Gardens. 1906. JAMAICA. B XJ Li Ij E T I N NEW VORK OF THE BOTANICAL Garden. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Vol. IV. JULY, 1906. Part 7. A MEXICAN RUBBER PLANTATION.* We have received particulars about the fine La Zacualpa rubber plantation in Mexico, of the Hidalgo Plantation Co., in an in- teresting pamphlet entitled " Rubber : what it is and how it grows," by the general manager of the company. This is the second edition of the pamphlet, (which is illustrated from photo- graphs), and in his foreword the author says : " Since the first edition was issued, rubber has advanced in price, with every pros- pect of its going higher, and the attention of the business world is more than ever turned to this profitable industry. This book is dedicated to the young people of our public and private schools, with the hope that the matter it contains will be found interesting as well as instructive." The first part deals with rubber generally, but here we only quote some particulars about La Zacualpa estate, which show how a big rubber estate in Mexico is run, and give information of use to planters of Castilloa elastica, LA ZACUALPA RUBBER PLANTATION. La Zacualpa rubber plantation is, without doubt, the foremost of its kind in Mexico, and for depth of soil, requisite rainfall, sys- tematic drainage and intelligent management has not its equal in the world. It is situated between the towns of Huistla and Es- cuintla, about 20 miles from the Pacific Ocean, and near the Pan- American railroad which is to connect Tapachula with the Te- huantepec railroad at San Geronimo. This road has already reached Tonala, and will be pushed through to completion under a most favourable concession from the Mexican Government. The planted trees are easily accessible at all points by avenues run- ning for miles ; seven of these have already been named, as fol- lows : Harrison avenue, Van Court avenue, Alicia avenue, Butler avenue, San Carlos avenue. La Reina avenue, Santa Helena ave- nue. These are crossed by streets that are numbered, and the • From "CeyloQ Observer." 146 visitor can ride for miles through groves of healthy rubber trees, the branches of the older trees arching overhead. At the present writing some 8,000 acres are planted. CASTILLA LACTIFLUA. In a letter received from Mr. O. F. Cook, of the Agricultural Department, Washington, he says: "You will doubtless be in- terested to know that I have recently described the Soconusco rub- ber tree as a distinct species under the name Castilla lactiflua. The Castilla of the Soconusco District of the State of Chiapas ("C. lac- tiflua"), is peculiar in having the complemental inflorescence flat- tened and with a broad mouth ; it is very similar to the primary, except in the smaller size. The specific name alludes to the fact that the milk of the tree flows freely when the bark is cut, so that it can be collected in quantity and coagulated by improved (creaming) methods, instead of the rubber being harvested wholly or partly by pulling the 'scrap' (bunic/ia) from the gashes in which it has dried." The Department (or County) of Soconusco, in the state of Chia- pas, one of the twenty-seven States forming the Republic of Mexico, is the natural home of the Castilloa elastica, or Mexican rubber tree, as is proven by the great number of wild rubber trees which grow spontaneously in its forests. In their wild state they grow tall and lank, reaching a height of over fifty feet and a dia- meter of twelve to eighteen inches. As far as known the trees are long-lived, and increase their output of latex yearly until as many as twenty-five pounds of crude rubber have been taken from a single tree. It is only within a few years that attention has been called to the cultivation of this tree. During the years 1889 and 1890 a grove of some 5,000 of these trees was planted on La Zacualpa, a plantation in the above Department, which trees are now (1905) on an average, eighteen inches in diameter and forty feet in height, and are yielding about two and one-half pounds of rubber to the tree. They stand about 400 to the acre, and are in prime condition. These are the trees referred to by Mr. O. F. Cook, Bulletin 49, is- sued by the United States Department of Agriculture, as follows : " The planted trees at La Zacualpa abundantly demonstrate the practicability of rubber culture." The successful production of rubber and growth of these trees, combined with their present healthy state, has proved the fact that Castilloa elastica can be easily cultivated in its native habitat, with large profits. Cultivated trees are raised from the seed, and begin to yield milk during the sixth year from date of planting. The trees have no natural enemies, as by reason of the quantity of resin and albuminoids contained in the milk, they are not mo- lested by worms, insects, birds or animals. Owing to the successful conditions noted above, this plantation has been extensively developed, and under the care of expert rub- ber cultivators about 3,000,000 rubber trees are growing vigorously. The cultivation of rubber is a new enterprise, calling for the most 147 careful study, and is a notable addition to the world's varied in- dustries. Consequently, the questions of soil, rainfall and climatic conditions must enter largely into the calculations of those con- templating its future. The rubber tree requires a rich loam soil ; warm, moist climate ; low altitude ; a large and evenly distributed rainfall, and perfect drainage. All these conditions exist in the Department of Soco- nusco. The rain record, taken daily by the British Vice-Consul, R. O. Stevenson, has averaged l6o inches for many years past. The plantation consists of 18,791 acres of land, of which 12,000 acres have been set apart as La Zacualpa Rubber Plantation and are now being planted with rubber trees. LABOUR. The management is entrusted to one superintendent, two major- domos, or sub-managers, and one corporal to every thirty men. During the planting season about 300 men are employed, with ten corporals. All the planting is done under the supervision of rod- men who have formerly worked with engineers, and the lines out- lining the planted squares and avenues between are run with great care. At sunrise the plantation bell calls the labourers to work, all assembling in the patio, or yard, in front of the mana- ger's house. The major-domos receive their instructions from the manager and communicate them to the corporals, who in turn di- rect their men regarding the work of the day, and are responsible for the performance of their respective duties. The bell, which can be heard in all parts of the plantation, announces the noon hour, and at I o'clock work is resumed, continuing till sunset. Everything is done in the most systematic manner, and the plan- tation is kept clean and in good order at all times. The supplies needed are furnished from the company's store, and a large bake oven is provided for the use of the labourers. Generally four or five women do all the baking, and sell bread to those wishing to buy. THE LOCATION OF THE PLANTATION is an ideal one, level for the most part, but sufficiently rolling for good drainage, well watered, entirely free from stones and gravel, and has the reputation all through that country of being a very choice strip of rubber land. The elevation at no point exceeds 400 feet, and at some places is as low as lOO feet. La Zacualpa Rubber Plantation is a most interesting place, and improvements are constantly being made. A sawmill is in constant use, prepa- ring timber for the construction of permanent houses for the na- tive labourers and other buildings for the company's use. Excel- lent tiles have been made from clay found on the plantation, and are used in roofing buildings. The population of La Zacualpa to- day, including men, women and children, is over 600. The same plan has been carried out in the buildings for the labourers as that used in the plantation proper, the buildings being situated on plazas, or squares. 148 THE CASTILLOA ELASTICA TREE. The Castilloa elastica, or Mexican rubber tree, is between five and six years old when it blooms. Before blooming the tree sheds its leaves. The blossoming season begins in January and con- tinues until April. Clusters of small, whitish blossoms first put forth, and three weeks later the tiny petals fall, leaving a little green centre which gradually enlarges, and is filled with seed points sticking fast to a round disc. The blossoms are as nu- merous as the leaves, and each one has at least twenty seeds about the size of an ordinary pea. When the blooming and seeding time is over the trees put forth new leaves. SEEDS. The seeds are encased in a shell which is hard while green, but it soon softens into a sticky substance like fish gelatine. The first turning in the ripening process is to a sickly yellow, which gradually changes to a bright red. As soon as the seeds are ripe, with the first rains they begin to fall. This is a busy time on the plantation. The seeds literally cover the ground underneath the trees, and the labourers gather them into sacks and carry them to the nurseries. There they are dumped into pails filled with water and washed thoroughly to detach them from the discs and rid them of the enveloping gelatine substance. When the seeds have been ripe sixty days they will no longer germinate, and to get the best results should be planted immediately after washing, which is done to facilitate handling and prevent them from germinating in the gelatine coating. PLANTING. There is some difference of opinion among planters as to the best methods of planting, some advocating partial shade, and again some would plant from a nursery previously formed, and others with the seed at stake. Difference of local and climatic conditions is no doubt the cause of this diversity of opinion, as each section calls for different methods. The method adopted on La Zacualpa, and that which has been productive of the best re- sults in that locality, is the following : — The land is first surveyed into squares of thirty-three acres each, which includes avenues and roads twenty-four feet wide be- tween them. The roads run in straight lines, and are cleared of all trees and shrubs, thus making them available for the use of the workmen and inspection of the plantation. The roads run- ning north and south are called avenues, and those east and west streets, the former being named and the latter being numbered. The roads are now several miles long, and in order to facilitate trans- portation of the labour to various parts of the plantation, the Company is about to put in a small electric railroad. The land is cleared by cutting down the forest and is then burnt off. Some of the largest trees are left, and most of them escape the fire and send out new foliage, which then acts as partial shade to the young trees. After the burning the land is then staked out to 149 allow for 400 trees to the acre. A small mound of earth is made at each stake, and the rubber seeds are imbedded therein. The seed will germinate in from eight to fifteen days, and one month from the time of planting the plant attains a height of about eight inches, and its growth from this time on is rapid and may roughly be put down as one foot per month. Our three- years-old trees are over thirty feet high, and those of four years about thirty-five feet. After the planting has been done, great care is taken that the forest growth does not choke out the young tree. This growth is kept down continually, thus giving the young rubber tree a good start until it is able to take care of itself, which it can do two years after planting, after which time it re- quires very little attention. TAPPING METHODS. The native Indian method of tapping is as follows : — Before be- ginning to tap, a place is selected on the tree, preferably on the inclined side, and a hole made in the ground below, lined with a wide green leaf. The tapper makes two incisions with his machete at right angles, coming together in the centre. This is done to ascertain where the milk runs best. Once decided, the tapper makes a narrow incision at the point of convergence and impro- vises a funnel of the same leaf used in lining the hole in the ground. This acts as a conduit for the milk, which runs from the tree in a steady stream into the hole until it coagulates along the line of incision, when, if desired, it is scraped off twice or more before the stream finally ceases. Very often the milk spurts out, and one could not stand close to the tree where the machete is at work without getting one's clothes spoiled. The rubber coagu- lates where it falls on the clothes, and will not wash out ; only a solvent will remove it. The bark of the tree is not only cut once, but at least four or five times, at intervals of two feet. The next year the angles cross each other, giving the tree a peculiar criss-cross appearance. Once the milk is flowing freely, the tapper leaves the tree and goes to another, repeating the process already described. By the above method a dozen trees are considered an average day's work. When the milk ceases to flow the tapper returns and carefully picks up the leaf in the hole and pours its contents into a large gourd. This is naturally a crude and wasteful process. An un- skilled tapper either gets all the milk on his own clothes or else it runs round the tree and is lost. It is usual to begin tapping in May and continue until December inclusive. THE LATEX. The latex, or milky juice of the bark of the rubber tree, is quite distinct from the sap which circulates through the wood, and contains from 32 to 44 per cent, of gum. Pure rubber milk is white when it first runs from the tree, closely resembles that of the cow ; but in the drying process it gradually oxidizes and turns black. 150 COAGULATING — NATIVE INDIAN METHOD. When the milk is brouglit in from the forest it is thinly spread on the long, palm-shaped leaves of the oja blanca, which have first been laid on the ground in the hot sun. Toward the stem, where the milk lies thickest, it is necessary to stir it while drying; other- wise it would coat over thickly on the outside and be full of the residue fluid, bringing a lower price in consequence. When the leaves are coated evenly, a quarter of an inch thick, they are piled one above another and pressed hard enough to cause the rubber strips to adhere closely. Then by a dexterous movement, the tough leaves are pulled off and the thin layers are rolled into slabs ready for packing. CLEANSING THE RUBBER. The slabs of dried rubber are packed in bales of 150 pounds each, covered with the native-made matting, sewed up in sacks, shipped per steamer to various countries and sold to the rubber manufacturers. The first process in the manufacture of crude rubber — necessary on account of its being prepared by the native method— is to pass the slabs through large corrugated steel rollers, water falling from a reservoir upon the rubber as it passes through. This is repeated a number of times until all the dirt and foreign matter is eliminated, and the rubber rolled into thin perforated sheets having a rough surface. These sheets are from eight to twelve feet long, and eighteen inches wide. They are then hung in the dry room, where they remain until all the moisture has evaporated. The rubber is then ready for the next process. WASHING THE RUBBER. By the methods now adopted the foreign matters are washed out of the latex before coagulation takes place, thus producing a very high grade of rubber from the Castilloa, having a marketable value equal to that of Para. Until now it was generally assumed that the Central American rubber was of much inferior grade to that of Para. It has now been proved, however, that the actual difference is very slight, if there is any, and resolves itself into the question of preparing it for the market at the time of tapping. During the past few months the best qualities of some rubber from cultivated Castilloa trees brought $1 .54 and $1.56 gold per pound on the London market. This price was higher than that of best South American Para sold at the same time. Mexican rubber from wild Castilloa trees and shipped in the old way already referred to was quoted at 60 and 65 cents per pound, or less than one-half the price ob- tained for the same rubber prepared according to modern methods. As it is necessary to treat the latex as soon as possible after it is collected from the tree, receiving stations should be established on a large plantation, such as La Zacualpa, so as to avoid the transportation of the latex to any great distance. 151 BLACK-LEG."' By W. H. Dalrymple, R.C.V.S. From time to time the Veterinary Department receives requests for information regarding "Black-leg," a disease quite fatal to young cattle frequently in the best of condition, but which does not appear to be recognized by many, and it is for the purpose of supplying to our cattle owners something like accurate data on the subject that the Station publishes this short bulletin at the present time. We are not prepared to say that this disease is of more frequent occurrence than heretofore in the State : but, on account of the greater tendency on the part of our people to raise and own animals of better breeding, and, in consequence,^ of greater value, losses occurring in their stock may be receiving more attention as to cause, with the result that the trouble is being more frequently recognized rather than becoming more frequent. The value of young " scrub " cattle is relatively so inconsider- able that when a few of them die on the farm little thought is taken of the probable cause of death and, therefore, no investiga- tion is made to endeavour to discover it. Black-leg may have been at the bottom of many of such fatalities in the past, unrecognized, and because of the proper sanitary measures not having been taken to destroy infection in the bodies of the victims, the disease may, no doubt, have become established in certain localities, laying the foundation for the cases in the more valuable animals, and which, because of their greater value, has caused owners to seek more information regarding the fatal ailment. Fortunately, although the disease is a very fatal one among young cattle, it can be almost wholly prevented by vaccination. In fact, statistics recorded by the National Department of Agriculture at Washington go to show that out of 1,500,000 animals vaccinated, the loss reached only about one-half of one per cent. Besides being known as black-leg, the disease has other names, such as black-quarter, quarter-ill, symptomatic anthrax, symp- tomatic charbon, etc. To avoid confusion, however, we will confine ourselves to the first name, black-leg. The use of the terms, symptomatic anthrax and symptomatic charbon has led to a good deal of misunderstanding and error in our State, so far as this disease is concerned, because, having anthrax or charbon as a part of the name, many have been led to think that the disease was genuine anthrax or charbon. Some writers on veterinary medicine use the terms, symptomatic anthrax and charbon symptomatique (the French), because of its apparent resemblance to the external appearance of that disease, especially a swelling that is usually to be found in those parts of the body thickly clothed with muscular tissue. But since bacteriology has as- sumed the rank of a most import science, it has been found that the two diseases are separate and distinct and produced by entirely ♦Bulletin No. 8E, March, 1906, of the Agii., E.xperimeDt Station of Louisiana. 152 different organisms or germs. So that, in reality, the one has nothing at all to do with the other ; the only similarity of importance being perhaps that both are rapid and fatal in their effect. For the in- formation of our German settlers we may mention that this disease is known in their language as " Rauschbrand." CAUSE. Black-leg is a rapidly fatal infectious disease of young cattle and is caused by a spore-bearing organism, the Bacillus Chaiivoei- Spring and fall are said to be the most favourable seasons for the development of the ailment, and cattle between the ages of six and eighteen months are the most liable to become affected, al- though partial susceptibility seems to remain up to about four years. The manner of infection is by indirect contact with the germ on infected soil, the organism gaining entrance to the body through abrasions of the skin, and, perhaps, in rare cases, through the mucuous membrane of the mouth and other parts of the alimen- tary canal. The wounds or abrasions are generally quite minute in size, but sufficiently deep to penetrate through the skin into the tissues underneath. Punctured wounds, such as those received from barbed wire fences or from stubbles or briers in pastures, seem to be the most likely method of infection, and correspond somewhat closely to the only manner in which the disease may be produced artificially — viz., through injection of the virus hypo- dermatically. SYMPTOMS. The disease is easy of recognition on account of the symptoms being quite characteristic. It is characterized, first, by the symp- toms of a more or less intense fever, and by the appearance of a specific tumour, or swelling, upon the body, neck or upper part of the limb above the knee and hock, causing stiffness or lameness. This swelling is almost constantly found in the thick flesh or mus- cles of the parts mentioned. It consists of a progressive inflam- matory enlargement, of firm and uniform consistence, rapidly ex- tending in area and depth, and later becoming insensitive, crepi- tant and resonant, or in other words the swelling emits a crack- ling sound when the hand is passed over it. This crepitant sourd is due to the collection of gas in the affected flesh, and which is produced by the germs of the disease. When the swelling is cut into, a frothy, dark red fluid escapes, and the flesh of the swel- ling is dark in colour, with the appearance of being mortified. With few exceptions, the disease terminates fatally, death usually occurring in from twelve to thirty-six hours after the first appearance of the symptoms. TREATMENT. With regard to treatment, it may be said that curative (.-') agents are of little or no avail — prevention being the only satisfactory method of attacking the disease. This may be divided into the following, viz., hygienic and preventive or protective. 153 Hygienic. This aims at destroying or preventing the spread of infection in all places where cattle are kept, and the second, to endeavour to fortify the systems of susceptible animals against an invasion of the black-leg germs. Similar to anthrax (charbon) in this respect, black-leg infection is largely spread from the dead animal through the medium of carnivorous animals and birds (dogs, buzzards, etc.), or omnivo- rous animals (hogs) attacking the carcasses and carrying the germs broadcast, or the victim may be skinned for its hide, or in- cisions made into the swellings to "doctor" the patient, and the infection scattered from the cuts made in the swelling. These and other processes naturally assist in disseminating the virus or poi- son. In a circular on this disease, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C, thefollowingpara- graph is italicized in order to give it emphasis: "It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that cattle owners in the infected dis- tricts be made to realize that an animal affected with black-leg may be the cause of large subsequent losses from the same disease, perhaps not immediately, but within a period of years to follow, and it can not be recommended too urgently that they make every effort to reduce the danger by taking adequate measures to des- troy, as completely as possible, this source of renewed infection." The best method of disposal is to cremate or burn the dead ani- mal, and in order to ensure complete destruction of it, it should be placed on a couple of logs, or over a trench, and plenty of dry wood heaped around it. A few quarts of coal oil should then be poured on, and fire set to it. It has been claimed that in some parts of the State it is not possible to obtain sufficient wood for the purpose of burning up the bodies of animals that have died from infectious diseases, such, for example, as in certain parts of southwest Louisiana. This section, however, has the advantage of having oil in abundance, and an inexpensive and convenient method is, first, to dig a trench of sufficient size, and placing in the bottom of it a quantity of old sacking to act the part of a "wick," then saturating the sacking by directing a pipe from a barrel filled with oil into the trench. By regulating the flow of oil, a continuous flame may be kept up until the carcass is com- pletely consumed, and at a minimum of cost where such a method can be conveniently undertaken. It is important that the carcass be entirely destroyed. The place, also, where the body has lain should be subjected either to heat or it should be sprinkled with some powerful disinfectant, such as crude carbolic acid, creolin, zenoleum,ilime, or other agent. Unfortunately, there has as yet been no sure method found of completely eradicating black-leg infection from a pasture. Preventive or Prophylactic. It is to the division of prevention which we term prophylactio, combined, necessarily, with the hygienic, that we have to look for the most gratifying results, which are to be found in preventive 154 vaccination of susceptible animals, and for which we are indebted to the discovery of Arloing, Cornevin and Thomas, that animals could be protected against black-leg by injecting them with more or less virulent material obtained from the tumours of animals that had died of the disease. The beneficial results of this treat- ment may be appreciated by the reference made in our prelimi- nary remarks concerning the record of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. And, further, it may be mentioned that during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, the Department dis- tributed over 1,000,000 doses of black-leg vaccine, which were used and reported upon by over 10,000 persons with highly satis- factory results, the mortality reaching only 0.44 per cent. Black leg vaccine is now a commercial commodity and may be obtained from, or through, any of our large wholesale druggists, di- rections accompanying the material, or it may also be had, free of cost, by making application to Dr. A. D. Melvin, Chief of Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, and subscribing to certain stipulated condi- tions. In conclusion, it may be stated that, although sheep and goats, as well as cattle, are susceptible to black-leg, they are rarely at- tacked by it, the disease being most common and destructive in the young bovine species. NEW METHOD OF KEEPING FRUIT BYTHE USE OF FORMALIN. ■ A good method of conserving fruit in as nearly as possible its natural state has been largely sought after for a long time, but whatever means have been employed, a perfect result has not been obtained. One reason is the rapidity with which fleshy fruits ferment and rot under the action — as Pasteur has de- monstrated— of various organisms, fungi and bacteria. Taking this view, and believing that if these micro-organisms could be destroyed, the period during which the fruit can be kept in per- fect condition might be considerably prolonged, the English agri- cultural authorities have instituted a series of experiments under the direction of the Jodrell Laboratory, Kew. These have been very successful. The English Journal of the Board of Agriculture re- viewed them in a recent number (No. 5, August, 1905, "Method of preventing the rapid decay of ripe fruit.") This high authority gives its fullest support to the scheme. The method which has produced the best results is to immerse the fruit in cold water containing 3 per cent, of trade solution of formalin (40 per cent, of formaldehyde.) There are two methods employed, accoi'ding as the fruit has a soft pulp or is firm-fleshed, and whether it is eaten whole or not. With the former class, to which cherries, strawberries, grapes, &c., belong, the fruit is plunged into the solution for ten minutes. *From the Jimriial tV Agncvlture Pratviite, in Agrumltwal Gazette of 2f.S. Wales. 155 Then it is taken out and steeped for five minutes longer in cold water, and is finally spread out on a metal strainer, or in any other suitable place to allow it to drain and dry. In the second case, when the fruit has a peel or skin which is not eaten, it is subjected to the formalin solution only. The Kew experiments were carried out on five kinds of fruit — cherries, strawberries, gooseberries, pears, and grapes. These had not been specially selected, but were bought in fruit-shops, and in some cases from street vendors. The following figures show the number of days during which the fruit so treated remained perfectly sound, after an equal quan- tity of each fruit, non treated, taken for comparison, had become rotten : — cherries, 7 days ; strawberries, 4 ; gooseberries, 7 ; pears, 10; and grapes, 4. These results apply in every case to fruits which were perfectly ripe at the time of treatment ; but if they are subjected to the process before maturity, they keep just as well, while the normal development and flavour undergoes no more alteration than when the fruit is placed in a refrigerator. It would have been interesting to know the length of time which elapsed between the beginning and end of the experiment, in ad- dition to the number of days during which the treated fruit re- mained in good condition longer than the other. The practical English people, having proved that this msthod of conservation is excellent for their indigenous fruits, are hoping to see their mar- kets supplied with several delicious varieties of tropical fruits, which, under former conditions, has been impossible. A minute examination of ripe fruit from the West Indies intend- ed for the Colonial Produce Exhibition at the Crystal Palace, clearly showed that the decomposition of the mangoes, for in- stance, during the journey was entirely owing to mould and fer- mentation caused by bacteria and fungi attacking the outer sur- face, and not owing to a tendency of the fruit to decay or ripen too quickly. A similar treatment could be profitably employed on a number of tropical fruits which are imported in a good condition (such as bananas), but which often have a dark and disagreeable appearance, caused by an exterior fungus. Pears, apples, oranges, citrons, &c., might all be treated with the same advantage. In England great importance is attached to this new means of conservation, which is at once very simple, inexpensive and ab- solutely harmless. Several other preservatives have been tried, but taking all conditions into consideration — ease of application, smallness of cost, and perfect safety during its application — for- malin comes easily first. It is easy to understand why the English, who are the greatest importers of fruit from all parts of the world, should be eager to discover a process for preserving as long as possible its quality and appearance ; and it is because of their in- contestable and official statements that we think it obligatory on us to bring this new process under the notice of all producers, merchants, and consumers, to whom the preservation of fruit is a daily problem. 156 But although the use of the preservative is chiefly directed to- wards the keeping of table fruit, it might be applied quite as ad- vantageously to cider fruit. Many cider apples and pears, in spite of the great resistance of their anatomical structure, as com- pared with that of the garden varieties, have just as much need of protection. The greatest enemy to cider apples intended to be kept for a long time is rot. It originates in the same way as on eating-apples, and there can be no doubt that the same treatment will produce the same results on similar subjects. We repeat the mode of procedure. Plunge for ten minutes in cold water con- taining 3 per cent, of formalin. A tub or a cask cut in halves will serve for the purpose of a bath. Take out the fruit, and drain and dry on trays, then place in the storeroom as usual, putting on one side for comparison a lot of the same species and weight which have not been sterilised. The expense of this new method of conservation is quite insignificant, and the profits must be very high if the fruit will keep for some time in a perfect state as is alleged ; and if the treatment can be as successfully carried out with the more delicate garden fruits, it will become of immense importance, and affect every species under the sun. COCO-NUT BUD ROT DISEASE. Coco-nut trees are often unproductive for various reasons, and they die from diseases due to different causes. But for some years it has been evident that a specific disease has been attacking these trees independently of unsatisfactory or unhealthy conditions. This is known now as the " bud-rot" disease, from its habit of attacking those portions of the tree which are in the young, immature, or bud stage. The flowers, while still in a very immature stage of budding, are most liable to attack ; but instances also occur where the "cab- bage" is first attacked while the tree is in full bearing and shows no sign of disease. As the " cabbage" is the vegetative bud of the whole tree on which its life depends, the disease is fatal when it reaches it. The appearance of the flowers is well known. There are several long branches, covered with numerous small flowers, which con- tain pollen only, and a few larger knob-like flowers, which gra- dually grow and become coco-nuts. The flowers and branches are at first all enclosed in a sheath or spathe, and in this condition the whole thing is commonly called a "sword." The earliest appearance of the "sword" is as a small protuberance just above the base of the leaf-stalk. The disease is most liable to attack the tree when the " swords" first bud out. If it attacks these when they first appear, the pro- bability is that they rot away without growing much, and the tree has the appearance of being sterile. Or, it may insinuate itself at a later stage, and grow up amongst the flowers possibly even without affecting the outer sheath. The effect is to cause the nuts 157 to drop at various stages, either when they first appear after push- ing out from the sheath or even when they are nearly full-grown. The disease extends from the flower bud along the stalk of the adjacent leaf, causing it to turn a yellow colour, and spreads along the stem itself, until finally it reaches the "cabbage" and kills the tree. Although bacteria have been found in great numbers in diseased spots, it is not yet decided whether they constitute the disease it- self, or whether they are only the accompaniment of another disease. But the practical point is that by means of experiments which have now been carried on for some time, it has been shown that this disease can be checked by two methods. One plan is to fire the tree by putting a light to the fibrous material, the so-called " strainer," at the base of the leaves during dry weather. The fii'e burns the leaves, and scorches all the tender parts, killing the disease. Another plan is to spray the head thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture. Several instances can be pointed- out where trees have been sprayed, and are now healthy-looking and are holding their nuts. It is advisable, however, to spray diseased trees every six months, for say two years, as a prevention against its breaking out again. Firing a tree is the easier method, and there is no expense for spray pump and for the Bordeaux mixture : but the leaves have been burnt, and it will take about two years before any fruit is obtained. If the average annual crop is worth 4s., this delay means a loss of 8s. a tree. The expense of the Bordeax mixture and its application is esti- mated to cost about 2d. a tree, without counting the cost of the spray pump. The spray pump can be worked by two boys, one to climb the tree, and point the nozzle at the end of the hose downwards all round the head, while the other works the pump. When the cabbage is rotten, or when a tree dies, it should be cut down, and the head with its leaves should be thoroughly burnt, otherwise it remains a source of infection to other trees, not only in the neighbourhood, but probably for long distances round. BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Bordeaux mixture is best made according to the following for- mula : — Blue Stone (Copper Sulphate) 6 pounds Unslacked Lime 4 pounds Water 50 gallons It requires careful mixing, or the ingredients will not combine properly. Put 25 gallons of water into a barrel. Tie up 6 pounds of copper sulphate in a piece of coarse sack, and hang this by a stick laid across the top of the barrel so as to be just beneath the surface of the water until it has slowly dissolved. 158 In another barrel slake 4 pounds of lime very slowly and care- fully, at first only adding about a quart of water at a time, until a perfectly smooth paste, free from grit is obtained. Add water to make the whole 23 gallons, and wait until cool. Now pour both together into a cask holding 50 gallons. The milk of lime should be thoroughly stirred before pouring, and finally the mixture should be well stirred for four or five minutes with a wooden pad- dle. If not perfect, the mixture is liable to injure the foliage, and in order to test this, put the blade of a penknife into the mixture and leave it for one or two minutes. If there is any deposit of copper on the blade, showing a brownish colour, it is not safe to use it, and more lime must be added until the knife is not discoloured. HOW TO KEEP MOSQUITOES FROM THE HOUSE. The following rules for preventing the mosquito plague is adapted from the United States Bulletin : — 1. Mosquitoes breed o>ily in water; usually standing water in artificial places, not running streams. 2. Mosquitoes occur in the vicinity in which they breed. In- vasions from long distances are exceptional. 3. The young mosquito or " wriggler" lives in water at least 10 or 12 days. 4. Although the wrigglers live in water, they iniisl come fre- quently to the surface to breathe. 5. Kerosene oil on the surface of the water prevents the wriggler from breathing. 6. Destroy the breeding places and you will destroy the moscjuitoes. 7. Empty the water from all tubs, buckets, cans, flower pots, vases, etc., once a week. 8. Fill in or drain all pools, ditches and various excavations, such as post holes left unfilled, etc. 9. Change regularly all water needed in chicken-runs, yards, etc. 10. Treat with kerosene oil all standing water which cannot be screened or drained (l oz of oil (two tablespoonsful) will cover 15 square feet of surface). The oil does not affect the water for use if the water is drawn from below. 11. Put wire netting over cisterns, wells and tanks of water in every-day use. 12. Places in which it is undesirable to place oil, such as watering troughs for stock, ponds, etc., can be kept free of the wrigglers by putting in gold fish. The nymphs of dragon flies and tadpoles of frogs also feed on the wrigglers. 13. See that the plumbing about the place is in perfect order. Prevent leakage of pipes or clogging of eaves and gutters. 14. Inspect all cesspools and see that the covers are absolutely tight. 159 IS- Clean away all weeds, grass and bushes about ditches, ponds, and other possible breeding places, since these afford a hiding place for the adult mosquitoes. 16. Clean up vacant lots and back yards of all cans, tins, bottles and rubbish. 17. First do away with or treat all places where mosquitoes are known to breed, and then begin to work on places where they might breed. Remember that large quantities breed in wild pines, hollows in trees and in banana leaves. Keep the vegeta- tion low near the house. 18. As a citizen of your community you should feel a personal responsiblity for the destruction of the mosquitoes in your district, and seek to co-operate with your neighbours in the work of doing away with breeding places. Inspect and treat with kerosene-oil, gutters, culverts, ditches, man-holes, catch-basins, etc., along the roadside. Man-hole covers should be screened. 19. Where oil is applied to standing water it must de distri- buted evenly over the surface. Use a hand syringe, or, if the area is great, a knapsack sprayer. 20. Houses should be cleared of all winged mosquitoes by the burning of insect powder. The mosquitoes will fall to the floor, and should be collected and burned. 21. Relief in any community or district depends entirely upon the co-operation of the members of the community. EXPORTING SEED OF PARA RUBBER. By H. N. Ridley, M.A., F.L.S., Director of the Botanic Gar- dens, Straits Settlements. * As is well-known, the seed of the Para Rubber tree deterio- rates very rapidly after it is ripe and soon loses its germinating power, it is not always easy to send seed long distances without a very large percentage of losses, at the same time the demand for seed in distant parts of the world is very considerable, and a good many experiments have been tried m the Botanic Gardens in various methods of packing to ensure their arrival in good con- dition. The reports received from the recipients of these seeds have been remarkably good, as the following records will show :- Of 7,500 seeds sent to Jamaica on August, 31st, were received on 25th October, and Mr. Fawcett writes : — "The 7,500 seeds sent in biscuit-tins are all germinating very well and we shall scarcely lose 500 of them." t One hundred were sent in a similar manner to Calabar on the date July, 6th and arrived on September, 20th. The Acting Secretary writes in reply : — " The seeds were soaked in water for * Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and Federated Malay States. Vol. V., No. 1., Jan., 1906. t Over 87 per cent, of the seed-^ sown gerninated, hut some of the seedliujjs %vere constitutionally week and died, so that only 5,071 plants sui vived, or ahout (iS per cent, of the seeds sown A War IImu case arrived with 2,h00 seeds, but only 18 plants were raised out of the whole number. Direetar, Bulletin of the Agricultural Department Jatnaioa, i6o two days on their arrival and were tlien planted with the upper portion left above the soil. Ninety out of the hundred seeds have already germinated (Nov. 7th.) and appear healthy young plants. To the Royal Gardens, Kew, 135 seeds were sent on July, 6th, packed in charcoal, in a biscuit-tin. They arrived in a month, and 123 germinated. On February, I2th, 1903, 20 seeds were sent to Mr. J. C. Harvey, Vera Cruz, Mexico, who writes. May 19th, 1903, that " out of the 20 seeds of Hcvca hrasiliensis I have 14 young plants. They came up in a few days, and possibly a few more may germinate, though three seeds were decayed." These were all sent in biscuit tins. Those sent to Jamaica were packed in slightly damped incinerator earth, but it was necessary to replace the upper part of the packing with sawdust to reduce the weight, as incinerator earth is very heavy and the box, a two- pound tin, which contained 150 seeds would have been over par- cel post weight. The other tins were filled with damp charcoal finely powdered. In packing, a certain amount of care is required in damping the charcoal so as to get it eciually moistened all through, and not either over wet or over dry. This is best done by damping the charcoal thoroughly and then drying it in the sun constantly stirring and turning it over, till it is uniformly slightly damped. The incinerator earth which had been exposed to the elements was damp when received and only wanted partial drying to fit it for packing. Its v/eight is against its use, but both it and the powdered charcoal have the great advantage of preventing any attacks of mould or bacteria likely to cause decomposition. Other experiments with powdered coir fibre, and coir dust, saw- dust and variously prepared soils have been tried, but the results do not seem to have ever been as successful. One experiment was maae in putting the seeds in water for a month, and though that might be effective for a fortnight or so, they had all perished by the end of the month. ACREAGE IN RUBBER. Sir Frank Swettenham writes with regard to an article which appeared in Tlic Standard of August 8 last : — The acreage planted with Para rubber in the Straits and Malay States on January i last was 30,000 acres, and in Ceylon 25,000 acres. Since that date the total area planted in the Malay States does not amount to 10,000 acres. The United Planters' Association in the Malay States have taken pains to go into this queston, and in their latest report they give the following figures : Total acreage planted with rubber in the Straits and Malay States 30,000 acres; Sumatra, 5,000 acres ; Java, 5,000 acres ; Ceylon, 25,000 acres ; India and Burma, 5,000 acres ; total 70,000 acres. Allowing that all this is good, and will give the i6i good yield of 200 lb. per acre, the amount produced would be 14,000,000 lb. This acreage cannot, however, be all in full bear- ing till the end of 191 1, and they calculate that no more than this acreage can be in bearing till 191 1, because it is not yet planted. The exports from Para for the last three years have remained practically constant at about 30,000 tons, and the world's pro- duction was, in 1898, as nearly as it can be ascertained, about 60,000 tons, or 134,000,000 lb. The present production is estimated at 70,000 tons, or 156,000,000 lb., of which Asia can only produce 14,000,000 up to the year 191 1, What she can produce after that date will depend upon the area planted and successfully cultivated between now and 191 1. — Standard, Dec. 6. PLANTING OF HARD AND SOFT WOODED PLANTS. By W. J. Thompson, F.R.H.S., Travelling Instructor. In travelling about the country I am surprised to find how few people seem to remember that hard and soft wooded plants need totally different treatment to enable them to develop properly. People go on planting young cocoa and orange plants just as they plant banana suckers, with the result that most hard wooded trees are not giving more than half the crop they should. Two typical types of soft wooded plants are banana and cane ; two typical types of hard wooded plants are cocoa and oranges. The soft wooded plants, which consist chiefly of water, need to have their bases covered with a considerable amount of damp soil if they are to continue thriving. On the other hand, hard wooded plants, consisting chiefly of wood, need just the reverse condition to get them to grow as they should, viz., the base of the plant must be kept level with the surrounding ground, so that it can get enough sun, light and air. It is most important that planters of all degrees should realize the different requirements of the two different classes of plants. In almost all cases where I am asked to inspect sickly plants and trees of cocoa, &c., I find that most of the cases where the young plants are not growing, or old plants are not fruiting, or dying off, can be traced to the plants having been planted too deeply. I have come across scores of cases where cocoa plants have had their bases from 3 ins. to 12 ins. below the surface of the ground ; and although when the bases of this class of plants are planted too deeply, nature comes to the tree's assistance by young roots being formed just below the surface of the ground, these surface roots do not compensate for the loss of the natural upper roots of the tree which have died off, or are in a half dead condition through not getting enough light and air. With deep planting, if the plant does not die after a few years, it does not give the amount of fruit that a properly planted tree will do. Too much time and care cannot be given to the planting of these hard wooded plants to see that they are planted properly. I62 In July last, in St. Catherine, I inspected about 20 cocoa trees — old trees, about 12 feet high; only three of the trees had their bases showing level with the surrounding ground ; and although this is the season when we do not expect to see many cocoa pods on the trees, one tree had 60 pods, the other two had from 40 to 50 pods each, while the rest of the 17 trees had not 60 pods between them. Within the last few months I have been paying a good deal of attention to the question of shade for cocoa, but I have found that in all cases, if the cocoa tree has been properly planted that the trees gave good returns whether they were shaded or not ; but where the tree had been planted too deeply, whether shaded or not, the condition of the tree and the yield were not satisfactory. In planting out hard wooded plants, intelligent workmen should be employed, and it should be strongly impressed upon the work- men which the base of the plant is and that when the soil has fi- nally settled down, the base of the plant should be level with the surrounding ground. I observe that when the workmen are going to plant out seed or young plants of cocoa after the soil has been cultivated, that they are careful to make a kind of shallow basin, and when it comes to planting the seeds or plants are placed from two to six inches deep. This way of planting is wrong, and is responsi- ble for such a large percentage of plants not giving satisfactory results. The way to prevent the plant from settling down too low after planting is to leave the cultivated soil six inches higher than the surrounding ground where the plant or seeds are to be planted. As a rule if seeds are being planted, there is not so much risk in putting them too deeply ; but even with seeds, after the soil has been made somewhat fine, pare should be taken to see that they are not planted more than an inch under the ground. I find that it is when seedlings are planted out, that the greatest loss takes place. When transplanting the young cocoa plant from the bamboo pots or beds, care should be taken to take off a little of the sur- face soil till the base of the young plant is reached, and after this is found, make a small hole in the raised soil and put the young plant in the soil ; just deep enough for the base of the plant to be on a level with the raised soil. It is better to place the young plant an inch too high than half an inch too low. ^woaAHj This may seem a small matter to some people, but I have looked into the subject minutely, and to say that one-fourth of the young plants planted out each year die, and that from the fruiting trees we are not getting as much cocoa as we should by 40 per cent, through the trees being planted too deeply, is making a very low estimate of losses. This deep planting of such plants as cocoa and oranges is a most serious matter for the planter. If all small, stunted cocoa trees, such as make a little growth in the dry weather and die back in a wet season are examined, it will 163 be found, if the soil is taken away from the stem, that the base of the plant is several inches below the surface of the ground. In such cases I would strongly recommend that the plants be dug out and thrown away ; they cannot be transplanted and would never do any good if left to grow. The same advice applies to citrus plants. Unless care is taken to get these young plants properly planted, good soil, manure, labour, etc. are all wasted, and those who will look into the matter will find that all the cocoa trees that are giving good returns, have their bases level with the surface, and those that are not giving good returns or are in a half dead state will be found with their bases several inches below the surface of the ground. The reason why these hard-wooded trees do not thrive when planted too deeply in the soil, is because the base of the tree is kept too damp and cold, the lower roots of the tree die off and the few surface roots cannot support the tree. That Jamaica has the climate and soil conditions suited for producing very fine cocoa can be judged from the fact that we have cocoa trees in the Island measuring 6o inches round the trunk two feet from the ground, the trees being in a healthy condition and giving large crops of pods each season. These trees are exposed to all the sun that passes, and the bases stand level with the surrounding ground. TURMERIC. Turmeric * is extensively cultivated all over India for its roof stocks, and is now found more or less wild in Jamaica, especially in the western districts. It is the well-known haldi universally used as a condiment with curry-stuffs and also as a dye, and is one of the most profitable of crops in India. The dye-yielding rhi- zome is harder and much richer in colour than the edible. CULTIVATION. The preparation of the soil necessary for turmeric is similar to that for ginger, but lands intended for turmeric need not be worked so fine. The usual planting time in India is about the 20th of May. The plants spring up in about a fortnight. One or two weedings are necessary, and care must be taken that the fields are not inundated. After about a year and nine months turmeric is lifted. When it is raised the first year, as is the practice in some places, the produce is less in quantity and inferior in quality. PREPARATION OF THE ROOT-STOCK. Various systems are apparently practised for preparing the rhi- zome for the market. Of Bengal it has been said : "After the rhizomes have been dug out of the ground, they are freed from the fibrous roots and cleaned. They are then put in earthen pots, the mouths of which are to be carefully closed with earthen covers * Curcuma longa, Linn. luformation from Dictionary of Economic Products of India; and Bentley and Trimen's Medicinal Plants. 1 64 and cow-dung. These pots are then very carefully heated. The turmeric is made to boil in its own juice, a process which gets rid of the raw smell of turmeric. It is then dried in the sun, the dry- ing taking nearly a week, during which the turmeric requires to be covered in the night to protect it from dew. In some places tumeric is boiled in water in which a little cow-dung is mixed." Of the north-west provinces. Sir E. C. Buck says : — " When dug up the roots are boiled and dried in the sun ; in this form they are the turmeric sold in the Indian bazaars. When the dye is to be used the roots are again boiled and powdered while wet. A decoction is then made of this paste in water, in which the cloth is well steeped, being subsequently dried in the shade. In the Kumaon district the roots are soaked in lime-juice and borax before being powdered instead of being boiled." Of the Punjab, Mr. Baden Powell says the tubers are taken up in November and dried partly by the action of fire and partly by exposure to the sun. Of Coimbatore it is reported : — The roots are carefully sized and separately boiled in a mixture of cow-dung and water, dried and sent to market." CHARACTER AND VALUE IN COMMERCE. There are two sorts of turmeric seen in commerce — the round and the long, but both are the produce of the same plant ; the cen- tral rhizomes or root-stocks constituting the round, and the lateral or secondary rhizomes (r?(foT5) the long ; the latter are the more abundant. The former are roundish or somewhat ovate, usually from about one inch and a half to two inches in length, and one inch in diameter, pointed at one end, and marked externally with annular ridges. They are often found cut into halves. The latter are somewhat cylindrical, more or less curved, pointed at the two extremities, frequently having on their sides one or more short knobs or shoots, about the thickness of the little finger, two or three inches long, and marked externally with annular ridges. Both sorts are yellowish externally, very hard and firm, and when broken having a waxy-resinous appearance, and an orange-yellow or reddish-brown colour. The powder is orange yellow. Tur- meric has an aromatic taste and odour somewhat resembling gin- ger, but peculiar. When chewed it tinges the saliva yellow. The following is a quotation from the Market Report published in the Chemist and Druggist for 23rd September last : — "Good Madras finger has been sold at from 17s. to 17s. 6d. per cwt., being steady, and Cochin split bulbs are quoted at from 7s. 9d. to 8s. per cwt., according to quantity." DYE. A special form of turmeric is grown for this purpose, namely a harder root, much richer in the dye principle than in the ordi" nary condiment form. The colour is only deposited in the rhizome with age, and hence, in all probability, the above mentioned forms have been obtained by a process of careful selection of stock 165 observed to produce the colour freely. It is of importance, however, that the European merchant, in purchasing for dye purposes, should see that he gets the hard dye-yielding form and not the softer aromatic condition, which is used as a condi- ment. The rhizome is still largely used by the European dyers, though the fluctuation in the trade may be viewed as due to the development of the aniline industry. Professor Hummel says of it :- "Notwithstanding the very fugitive character of the colour it yields, it is still much used, especially by the wool and silk dyers for the production of compound shades — olives, browns, &c. It gives a bright yellow colour without the aid of a mordant, but when mordants are used with it, it yields other colours not unlike those obtainable from the yellow dye-woods. The colouring matter of turmeric is one of the few for which cotton has naturally a strong attraction." Although turmeric is rich in colouring matter, its want of per- manence is a hindrance to its application as a dye-material. Some time back the use of turmeric was almost exclusively limit- ed to printing and dying silks. It is now employed to a vast extent in stuff-dying, forming an important constituent in certain compound colours, especially the so-called " sour-browns. " FOOD. Turmeric forms one of the indispensable ingredients in curries, and is used for colouring confections, etc. MEDICINE. Turmeric contains about one per cent, of a volatile oil, to which its odour is due, some starch, a yellow colouring matter called curciimiu, and other unimportant substances. The alkalies change the colour of curcumin to reddish brown ; and boracic acid pro- duces an orange tint ; hence paper tinged with tincture of tur- meric is largely employed as a test of the presence of alkalies. Turmeric is not now used as a remedial agent, but is introduced into the pharmacopoeias as a test of the presence of alkalies. For this purpose the British Pharmacopoeia directs unsized white paper to be steeped in tincture of turmeric and dried by exposure to the air. It is also occasionally employed in pharmacy in colouring ointments and other preparations. Used as a stimulant in native medicine in India : externally applied in pains and bruises, and internally administered in dis- orders of the blood. Its use as an external applicant in bruises, &c., is perhaps its most frequent medicinal application. The fresh juice is said to be an anthelmintic. A decoction of the rhizome is applied to relieve catarrh and purulent opthalmia. 166 JAMAICAN GINGER." According to Gillespie Bros. & Go's. New York Market Report for March l6, ginger continues to be the principal factor in the spice market. The continued upward movement of the European market, and the situation in Jamaica as reported by cable, make it almost impossible to attempt to predict what price Jamaica root will reach, or even to name quotations, London has advanced 2s. per cwt. within the past fortnight, and buyers here have advanced their offers let. per lb., but were unable to obtain any ginger even at the advance. With the situation as it is to-day, it is possible to obtain almost any price within reason for the small parcels that are coming to hand. On to-day's market we quote from 8c. to 8|c. per lb. for dark scraggy root, and from lOc. to I lie. per lb. for the small white to bright bold ginger. STUDY OF CASTILLOA RUBBER, t On La Zacualpa plantation in Ghiapas, Southern Mexico, there has been established a botanical station, the principal object of which is to study the Gentral American rubber tree (Castilloa elastica), its culture, and the preparation of commercial rubber from this tree. On La Zacualpa and affiliated plantations there are now planted over three million trees, and at least two addi- tional million trees will be planted. In connection with the botanical station, there is a laboratory for chemical and physiological inves- tigation of the latex. A complete meteorological observatory will soon be ready on La Zacualpa, and two meteorological substa- tions, will be established in the mountains close by, where simul- taneous observations will be made at the elevations of 2,000 and 3,500 feet. The main station is situated at 250 feet above the sea, twelve miles from the Pacific Ocean, on the lowlands at the foot of Sierra Madre, about sixty miles from the border of Guatemala. The director of the station is Dr. Pehr Olsson-Seffer from Stanford University. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES The usual Monthly Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, 13th June. Present :- The Director of Public Gardens, the Island Chemist, His Grace the Archbishop, the Superintending Inspector of Schools, Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, C. E. DeMercado, J. W. Middleton, and the Secretary. Acting Chairman — The Secretary read letter from the Colonial Secretary's Oifice intimating that the Governor had appointed Mr. * Extract from the Agriciiltwral A'eios, April 14th, 1906. tFrom Science, March 16. I:fl6. p, 439. i67 T. L. Roxburgh, Acting Colonial Secretary, to act as a Member of the Board, and as Chairman in the room of Mr. Bourne, Colonial Secretary, who had been granted leave of absence from the 9th inst. Mr Roxburgh then took the chair. The Secretary read the minutes of the previous meeting which were confirmed. Commercial Agent in London — The Archbishop said as a mat- ter arising out of the minutes he would like to ask the opinion of the Board whether they should drop the matter of a Commercial- Agent in London owing to the adverse reply of the Governor, or whether they should go on with it, and if so what should be done. He quoted from a lecture delivered at the Colonial Institute, what South African Colonies were doing to find new markets for their products. He believed that what His Excellency had quoted as Mr. Chamberlain's decision against Crown Colonies having Agents did not refer to Commercial Agents, but referred first to a political agent and second to a man doing business on his own account, but what we wanted was purely a Commercial Agent whose atten- tion would be wholly devoted to the commercial interests of the Colony. There was need in this Colony for Government support, not only for the stimulus it would give the matter but for the status it would give the Colony. Mr. Middleton supported the idea of going on with the matter. Mr. DeMercado said he supported the idea, but in this matter almost everything would depend on the personality of the agent. The Board unanimously agreed that the Committee already ap- pointed to deal with the matter should take it up again, viz : the Archbishop, Mr. Middleton and Mr. Murray. Elder Dempster & Co. £500 & Instruetors — The Secretary read let- ter from the Colonial Secretary's Office transmitting copy of a despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies stating that this Government would receive £500 a year to be paid by Messrs. Elder, Dempster & Co. in lieu of their Instructors, provided the money was devoted by the Government to the same purpose. The Secretary submitted letter from the Colonial Secretary's Office stating that the Governor had perused with interest the report on the successful working of the High Ether Instalation at Hampden Estate. Labourers on Estates — The Secretary read letter from the Secre- tary of the Northside Sugar Planters' Association in reply to his letter, stating that with reference to the sale of beef, pork and bread by overseers on sugar estates the practice did not prevail on the northside estates as it was the general rule on them that particular care be taken to pay the labourers in full, and no compulsion was put on them to buy anything, and that it appeared the present law was sufficient to meet such cases. The Secretary stated that he had no reply from the Secretary of the Westmoreland Sugar Planters' Association. Mr. Cradwick & St. Mary Shoiv — A letter from the St. Mary Show Committee was submitted stating that as rains prevented Mr. Crad- wick from carrying out his programme for week ending June 9th I68 they would ask the further concession of allowing him to be in the parish for week ending 23rd June, besides week ending 30th as at present arranged. The Board agreed that if this could be carried out, without dis- arranging Mr. Cradwick's itinerary materially, it might be done. The following reports from the Director of Public Gardens were submitted : — 1. Hope Experiment Station. 2. Instructors. The following report from the Chemist was submitted : — Candidates selected by the Advisory Committee to attend Distillers' Course. These were approved with the addition of Mr. F. L. Clark, Richmond Estate, who was one of the first applicants but whose name had been omitted in error from the list, the extra £lO grant to be met from savings in the Sugar Experiment Station vote. The following papers which had been circulated but had not yet been before the Board were submitted : — Resignation of Mr. Rudolf— Letler from C. S. O. for the information of the Board re resignation of Mr. Rudolf. The Secretary stated that the Report of the Board of Agriculture and of the Chemist for the year ending 31st March, 1906, had not been returned from circulation yet. The following papers which had been circulated were now sub- mitted for final consideration : — 1. Work of Agricultural Students for Easter Term. 2. Report Hope Experiment Station. 3. Reports by Mr. Cradwick and Mr. Briscoe. The meeting then adjourned till Wednesday Ilthjuly, at2 p. m. [Issued lllh July, 1906.] Printed at the- Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam. BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTimE. Vol. IV. AUGUST, 1906. Part 8. EDITED BY / WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S., Director of Public Gardens aiid Plmitations. CONTENTS: • PAGE. Para Rubber 169 Lagos Silk Rubber ... 171 Notes on the "Castilloa" Rubber Tree — II 172 Planting Seed Coco-nuts — II 176 Brazilian Coffee 176 Camphor in Ceylon — II 177 Tobacco dust as a Fertilizer and Insecticide 178 The Lleren : a rare root crop 178 Tanier, the oldest crop 180 Ring Barking 182 Forests and Rivers ... 188 Board of Agriculture 191 PRIG E— Threepence. A Copy will be supplied tree to any Resident in .Jamaica, who will send name and address to the Director of Public GarJous and Plantations, Kingston P.O. KINGSTON, JAMAICA ; Hope Gardens. 1906. JAMAICA. BULLETIN LIBRARY ^ " •: OF THE B- DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Vol. IV. AUGUST, 1906. Part 8. PARA RUBBER. Review by W. G. Freeman, in Botanisches Centralblatt. Wright, Herbert, Hcvca braziUensis or Para Rubber. Its botany, cultivation, chemistry and diseases. (A .M. and J. Ferguson, Colombo. I06 and VII. pp. With 28 plates. 1905.) The first plants of Para Rubber were received at Heneratgoda, Ceylon, from Kew in 1875, having been raised from seed collected by Mr. Wickham in the Ciringals of the Rio Tapajos. Propaga- tion, first by cutting and later by seed, was carried on and now there are some 40,000 acres of this plant in Ceylon whilst large quantities of seed have been distributed to many parts of the world. Although at first it iwas thought that Hcvca should be planted in places but little above the sea-level it has been shown that it will grow up to 2,000 feet and even higher in some districts of the island. The laticiferous system is briefly described and the functions of the latex discussed. At Para itself there is a rain-fall of 80 to 120 inches and a mean temperature of 75' to 8l"F., and although it is pointed out that these conditions are not absolutely necessary for the cultivation of Para rubber, many parts of the tropics possess them and in these areas the industry promises to become as important as in Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula and India. The cultivation of the plant is dealt with in detail, and illustrated by views of trees grown in various conditions, e.g., drained swampy lands, rocky hillsides, &c. With wide planting coffee and cacao can be grown with success amongst Hevea,^Nh.\\si as "catch crops" for the first few years, Groundnuts {Arachis hypogaca), Cassava {Manihot utilissima) and lemon grass {Andropogon) have given good results. A chapter is devoted to soils and manuring. Three chapters treat fully of the important question of tapping. The harm done by bad tapping by which the wood is injured is illustrated. Vari- ous patterns of tapping instruments are described and illustrations given of several ; GoUedge's knife, and Bowman's and Northway's 170 knives are spoken of as having given good results. The use of scrapers of any kincf is deprecated on the ground that in practice they tend to clog the freshly opened latex tubes. There are four principal methods in vogue of tapping trees, (a) single oblique lines, (b) V-shaped incisions, (c) single oblique cuts joined by a vertical channel ; known as " half-herring-bone" when all the cuts are on one side of the vertical line, and "full herring-bone" when on both sides, (d) spiral curves. The advantages and disadvan- tages of the various methods are discussed. Owing to the favour- able results obtained, the last method has recently gained favour in Ceylon and elsewhere. The main stem is practically the onlj^ part of the tree to be tapped and the greatest yields are obtained from the lower portion, up to six feet from the ground level. Some doubt appears to exist as to the quality of the latex obtained from higher levels and contrary lesults are reported from different localities. It is most important in practice to take advantage of what is now generally known as the " wound response" which is usually obvious within 24 to 48 hours after the first tapping. In an experiment quoted the yield of latex obtained from the same number of incisions, over approximately the same area on one tree, increased from 61 cc. on the first tapping, to 449 cc. on the four- teenth tapping, about two a half months later. Tapping every day either for the whole of the rainy season or during alternate months has given excellent results on a large scale on several Ceylon estates. Trees to tap should, in Ceylon, be not less than 20 inches in circumference 3 feet from the ground and at least 4 to 6 years old. Such trees may be expected to yield I to 3 lb. of dry rubber per tree up to their tenth year and much more in sub- sequent years. Exceptionally well developed trees have given as much as 12 to 25 lb. a year without shewing any ill effects or signs of exhaustion. The general physical and chemical properties of latex are briefly touched upon and analyses quoted of that derived from the plant under discussion. The production of rubber from latex is fully discussed, and the various methods and machines employed are described, as also the purification, vulcanisation and uses of rubber. The commercial varieties of Para rubber are enumerated, their preparation described, and comparative chemical analyses given of various kinds of plantation rubber from Ceylon and the Straits Settlements. The recently established value of the seeds of Hcvea hrasilicnsis as a source of oil is pointed out, as also the possible use of the residual cake as a feeding stuff. The methods of transporting the seeds in a living condition are discussed ; the best results appear to have been obtained by packing them in powdered char- coal and sawdust in sealed tins. The use of Wardian cases is however still the most satisfactory method. A chapter is devoted to the diseases of the plant, and an appendix contains estimates supplied by planters of the cost of planting rubber in Ceylon. 171 LAGOS SILK RUBBER. The following notes on the Silk Rubber of Lagos are taken from an article by M. E. De Wildman published in the Revue des Cultures Coloniales, and translated in the Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and Federated Malay States, Vol. II., 4 April, 1903, p. 136. The plant is specially cultivated at present in Western Africa in the Congo Free State and on the Cameroons, and is, according to the author, the best rubber plant to cultivate in these regions, and this is so for several reasons, it is easy to procure seed as the plant is wild in this part of the world and one can be sure that it will grow well as the soil and climate are naturally suitable for it. The German Colonial reports show that Funtumias of the same age as Castilloas are relatively more advanced, the Funtu- mias give seed at the end of two years and a half, while the Cas- tilloa fruits only at the end of from three and a half to four years. If one compares the latex of the two, at the same age, one can see that it is much mojre concentrated, less watery and sticky in Fun- tumia than in Castilloa, and that it can give a return more quickly. Castilloa, according to M. Koschny can only be milked when eight years old. As to the rubber itself, that of Funtumia is as good or better than that of Castilloa. The results of comparative researches with Funtumia and Castilloa in West Africa are in favour of the former. The seed, sown freshly gathered, sprouts after about 15 days and grows very rapidly, and the plants are readily transported. If at first the stem bifurcates forming a bush, either a shoot is deve- loped above the bifurcation, or one branch grows more strongly than the other eventually forming the trunk. Among the advan- tages of Funtumia one may mention that the latex flows more easily and quickly than that of Castilloa or Ficus and the seeds keep good for 6 weeks and even germinate after three months. Nor is the Funtumia particular as to soil, it grows equally well in lateritic or basaltic soils, in soils rich in humus or stony. As to altitude, it has been noticed that it does best below 800 metres. It is reckoned that in April, 1902, there were in the Cameroons 200,000 plants, exclusive of wild ones. The plan of planting Funtumias in a lightly cleared forest as has been frequently done is not recommended. They do not grow so well in shade as in full sun when they are too week to resist the drying action of sun and wind, they naturally should be protected, but when they are strong enough to resist this'they develop better when fully exposed to the sun, provided that the ground is damp enough. From the experiments made in plantations in German territory the Funtumias should be planted 6 metres apart. The tree is one of the best shade trees for cocoa, but as it is pyramidal in foim it will be necessary to plant close which is not a disadvantage. It is also recommended to use the tree to grow vanilla on as in ten years when the vanilla is dying out the rubber trees will be ready for tapping. The latex is coagulated by boil- 172 ing, but this must be done gently and can only be done after the addition of water. It is advisable also to stir the mass while boil- ing slowly to prevent the formation of a porous mass in which por- tions of uncoagulated latex may be included. After coagulation the rubber must be carefully washed. NOTES ON THE "CASTILLOA" RUBBER TREE-II.*^ By "A. Forester," Bluefields, Nicaragua, February 1906. What latex is to the tree is still a debatable question. I think that it is simply a protection against insects and evaporation whenever the tree is wounded. Anything striking against the out- "side bark, if it hits hard enough, will bruise the inner bark so that the latex flows. An examination of this place a day or two later will show a thin coat of rubber entirely covering the bruise. Tro- pical trees do not have the thick outer corky bark of northern trees. Anything striking them is liable to bruise the inner bark. This sheet of rubber forming would protect the bruise from too much evaporation and from insect attacks. Leaf cutter ants do not attack the leaves of Ccistilloa and cattle do not seem to be fond of them, but I believe that this is not due to the latex but due to the thick coat of epidermal hairs, a thing which few tropical trees seem to possess. It is noticeable that ants do attack Hcvca which has not a hairy leaf. The study of the structure of the latex shows that it has two dis- tinct parts — watery solutions and a solid substance in minute glo- bules. The watery solutioi>s contain no rubber. They do contain the substance which forms the residue of the black water, though this substance is apparently changed by oxidation before becom- ingblack water. They may also contain sugars and proteids, as these substances are evidently there, but it is more than likely that these substances are not in the original latex but come from some other bark tissue than the "milk tubes." The solid globules are principally rubber but they are said to be surrounded by protoplasm and contain a nucleus. In that case they would be cellular in their nature. As the tube in which they are enclosed is already a cell, it would be a case of a cell within a cell, which is rather rare in botany. At the same time they are very small for cells. I have not been able to examine the structure of the single globule, as my microscope is not powerful enough, but I think that they are not cellular but are originally chromotophores in which rubber has been stored. In that case they would be forrsed in a similar manner to starch grains in a potato and other roots. I believe that this is the case and that the substance in so- lution, later forming the black water, bears the same relation to rubber that sugar does to starch ; that is, they are similar forms of ♦From the India Rubber World. Continued from Bulletin for May. 173 carbohydrates which can be readily changed from one to the other by the action of an enzyme, and when they are to be transported from the soluble substance and, when stored, the solid substance. This state of things seems to be the same in all latex bearing plants, as all that I have examined contain this watery solution and the solid globules, though the watery solution does not always turn black and the solid globule is not always rubber, but some times a sticky substance. Dr. Weber asserted that the black water was due to oxidation and he believed that rubber itself was an oxidation product. Latex which is gathered and quickly corked up away from the air, forms no black water. Black water gets blacker for longer stand- ing in the air until about five days after gathering. Fresh black water can immediately be turned to its deepest black by ammonia, but ananonia will not affect black water five days old. I believe that the action of ammonia is the same as the oxidation in the air. Contact with metals will make black water blacker. Sugar slowly takes the black colour away and latex which has not been allowed to oxidize has water which resembles that formed by sugar. I believe that sugar reduces it to its former state. I do not see any reason to think that rubber itself is an oxidation product. It is possible, but if so it can be further oxidized by the use of nitric acid. The problem of tapping has a great deal to with how the latex is situated in the tree. According to most writers it is carried in " milk tubes" which are in the bark and are arranged vertically. I have not found any writers who seem to know what these milk tubes are like — whether the latex runs up or down in them, or what connection these milk tubes have with other parts of the plant. When I first got here I tried a number of experiments, trying to increase the flow of latex by multiple tapping, gradual tapping, and so on, but all these failed. The reason for these failures I now attribute to the shape and position of the latex carrying tissue in the plant. This tissue, I believe, is the part known as the bast fibre. Bast fibres are long fibrous threads, tapering to a point on each end, having a thick, tough wall and in most plants dead, and containing nothing in the cell cavity. In the Castilloa, the microscope shows that the bast fibres have a larger cell cavity than in most plants. It is reasonable to sup- pose that they are in such cases alive and contain something. I have seen no other tissues in the Castilloa bark which contain the latex and therefore believe that these bast fibres do. The bast fibres are arranged vertically and are probably only a few inches long. Those I have examined in temporary branches were from I to 3 inches, but they are probably longer in older parts of the trees. The fibres are probably connected to each other by pits but I have not been able to locate these connections. These pits would not allow solid substances to pass from one fibre to another, but would allow water and watery solutions. The rubber being in solid globules is probably formed right in the fibre itself. The fibres are not arranged in regular joints, as 174 was the opinion of Carlos Berger, but are irregularly arranged, the tapering end of one fibre fitting between other fibres. When the fibres are cut across by a tapping instrument their content is ejected by bark pressure. Such a cut will take latex from the tree only for a distance of 3 or 4 inches each side of the cut. This shows that the latex does not run up and down the tree or from one fibre to another. If no more cuts are made, the latex will not be renewed in the cut fibre for some time (not entirely for about 3 months), although the surrounding fibres are full of latex. This shows that all the latex from the tree cannot be taken from one cut. The distance apart that cuts should be made around the tree is a disputed subject, and depends not only on the length of the bast fibres and the way to get the most yield, but also on the amount of injury done to the tree. If yield were the only consideration, one foot would be a good distance and would give, I believe, the maximum yield. Eighteen inches will give close to the maximum, giving enough more latex from each cut to make up for the fewer cuts. Both of these distances, however, are objectionable, because a large number of cuts appears to detract from the healing powers of the tree, and the more cuts, the greater the chances of the tree being injured by the borer. Another point in the number of cuts is the time and labour in making the cuts. Six cuts to a tree is twice as much labour as 3 cuts, but if it does not give twice as much rubber it would be cheaper to make 3 cuts and tap a larger number of trees in a day. The tapping is now being done with only 3 cuts per tree ; one at the base, one at 5 feet from the ground, and one halfway between these. Tapping above 5 feet necessitates the use of lad- ders, and this would mean' more labour and would hardly pay with young trees. I believe the making of 4 cuts, the top one 6 feet from the ground, would give enough more than 3 cuts to pay, if it is not too great an injury to the tree. The first signs of healing appear between one and two weeks after the cut is made, and in two months at the latest the cut is well healed. In time the old cut will fill with new material which contains latex and can be tapped again if necessary. Another strong reason why the tool should cut to the cambium is that not only does the shallow cut miss cutting some " milk tubes" but it misses a very large proportion of the tubes. The milk tubes are formed by the cambium in layers. The ones closest to the outside bark were formed when the tree was very young and small in cir- cumference. At that time the patches of tubes were'close together. Since then the same number of tubes had to spread out and cover a circumference of, say 18 or 20 inches. The spaces between these tubes are filled by medullary rays which run from the pith outward through the wood to the outside bark. Therefore the out- ermost layers contain very few milk tubes, the next more, and so on, until the innermost layer has the most since it was formed when the circumference was greatest. This is borne out in facts. 175 A much larger yield is actually obtained by cutting into the cam- bium than by cutting almost into it. Another thing to be avoided is cutting too deep. When a cut goes through the cambium into the wood the healing commences at the edges of the cut cambium, and has to spread slowly, making new cambium before it can make new bark or wood. If too much wood is exposed in this case it will often dry up before the cam- bium can heal over and in that case it never heals. I have seen an old machete cut with a half inch of wood exposed, with the bark thoroughly healed all round it. I was told that it had been that way without healing for two years. As to the time to tap, there appears to be no reason why the trees should not be tapped at any time during the rainy season. I should imagine that the dryest season in March and April would be a poor time, but I have not been here during that season. Rain generally makes the milk rather watery and makes it flow more freely, but I have never seen it so watery that it would not pay to tap, except in a tree which had been recently tapped. Tapping in heavy rain would not do, as it would wash the latex, which does not flow into the cups and might fill up the cups and spill the latex in them. Temperature affects the flow of latex very noticeahly. The yield of rubber is much greater in the early morning than at any other time of the day, and always decreases toward noon and in- creases toward night. This is not so noticeable on cool cloudy days. It would probably not be so noticeable in a shady planta- tion and for this reason some people have claimed that shade grown trees yield more. I believe that the reason temperature af- fects the flow is because a large amount of the water is evaporated and the latex is more solid and does not flow so fi'eely. Experiments of others have shown that young trees and younger parts of old trees contain a large percentage of resin in their rub- ber. I have made one observation which suggests a reason for this. In cutting a temporary branch, or leaf stem, it is noticeable that the latex comes very close to the outside bark and that there appears to be a second ring of tubes in the inner bark. Micros- copic examination of these parts shows a large number of collen- dyma cells close to the outside bark. These cells are similar to bast fibres, but the the thick part of the walls is not uniform. Col- lenchyma cells are never formed by older trees except in their young parts. I think it possible that these coUendyma cells carry latex which is richer in resins than ordinary latex and which may possibly be entirely resin. Of course these coUenchyma cells re- main in the plant as it grows older but form a very small propor- tion of its tissue at that time. It is possible that rubber or resin may have some chemical relation to the cellulose of which the thick walls of both coUenchyma and bast fibres are formed. 176 PLANTING SEED COCO-NUTS.-II.* The following notes on the preparation of seed coco-nuts for planting, from the Report of the Philippine Bureau of Agriculture, are worth noting : — "In preparing nuts for planting the best results have been ob- tained in the following manner. The nuts are selected from trees known to be good bearers, bearing not less than 150 nuts per year, these uniform in size, brown in husk, rich in copra and fully ripe. Fully 98 per cent, thus selected will germinate successfully. After cutting they should be placed immediately in the nursery provided (of course in the shade), on the ground — not hung on poles as the native is said to do. Prior to placing in seed beds, a bit of the husk should be chipped off on one side, it should then be laid, cut side up, and left to germinate. Nine months usually elapses before they are ready for planting. The nut when placed on end, as is sometimes done, sends out a spindling plumule, easily broken at Ithe point of protuberance, and at best never gains the vigour of those germinated according to the method given. Two thousand nine hundred and thirty-one trees have been planted this year, most of them on ground that has been ploughed and pulverized and put in the same condition as for a corn crop. The result has been a marvellous growth, the trees being more than twice as large as those left to themselves." BRAZILLIAN COFFEE. The "Times" correspondent Rio Janiero says : — t EXCHANGE. The downward course of exchange continued apace from I7f on the 1st February last to I4{ f; on the 14th of this month. The recent movement was little short of hysterical. Between Good Friday and Easter Sunday, there was no reason to believe that there would be any greater demand for bills this year than usual, yet the Banco da Republica changed the bank rate fifteen times ! Every one of these changes is telegraphed up and down the coast at enormous e.xpense, and yet the only difference between opening and closing rates was 3% or three points — that is to say, the mar- ket opened at four point's below the closing on the previous work- ing day, and oscillated round I5d. at intervals of about 20 minutes for no other visible reason than to jkeep the brokers running and the cable busy. If the 15 millions for valorisation is borrowed and remitted (a contingency not more improbable because it has been repeatedly denied) the balloon will once more be filled with gas, but otherwise the ballast thrown out by the Banco da Repub- lica can only help for a little while, and we may soon rest again * Fro a the Hawaiian Forester and Agriculturist, April, 1906. t See Bulletin, Oct., 1905 p. 215 ; June, 190C, p. ISr. 177 on the hill of 1 2d., dangerously near the precipice over which we fell in 1897. THE PROPOSED COFFEE TRUST. The coffee valorisation scheme continues stagnant, owing to the refusal of President Alves to call a special Session of Congress. Dr. Nilo was very well received at the capital of Minas, which ap- pears to indicate that both the States of Minas and Rio are luke- warm regarding the project. In Sao Paulo, on the other hand, planters and politicians are highly indignant at the dilatory action of the Federal Government, and a seditious spirit is commencing to make itself felt. Valorisation or separation is now the motto of the extreme faction, and the government is doubtless now bit- terly repentant at having been induced to play with fire. The po- sition is extremely difficult, and it will be very interesting to see how the executive will set about reconciling the Paulistas until November, when President Penna will have to shew his hand. Daily entries of coffee are much larger than usual for the time of year, and Rio already shows an increase of over 300,000 bags in comparison with last year. It is quite possible that we may re- ceive nearly ten thousand bags per diem until the end of the sea- son. An optimistic estimate of only 3,500,000 bags for next sea- son has been widely disseminated. CAMPHOR IN CEYLON.-II. An article on this subject was published in this Bulletin for June, page 129. The following extract is from a speech of His Excellency Sir Henry Blake a short time ago in Ceylon. I want to read you the results of an experiment made by Mr. Kelway Bamber from four camphor trees growing at Hakgala, which, as you know, is 5,500 feet above sea-level. Camphor is growing and growing well at Henaratgoda almost on sea-level. Therefore, we may assume, it will grow over almost any part of this Island. These four trees were of different sizes. They took the prunings of six or eight inches, and these six or eight inches gave at the rate of 47 lbs. of prunings per tree. They calculated that each tree ;would bear pruning four times a year, and that would give 188 lbs. of prunings per tree per annum. Planted 12 by 12, it would give 56,400 lbs. per acre per annum of fresh pru- nings. Now Mr. Bamber distilled from the fresh prunings I ' 5 per cent, of camphor, and from that 56,400 at I ' 5 there would be 864 lbs. of camphor per acre. Then take the cost of planting, etc., at R144, distilling, fuel and labour at R30, weeding per acre R6, in all R180, ;and you get a net result of £74 4s. per acre. That is calculating camphor at 2s. per lb., camphor being 3s. per lb. at present. Taking half the weight of prunings, take even a quarter and you get about £l8 per acre; and it seems to me this additional product is worth considering." 178 TOBACCO DUST AS A FERTILIZER AND INSEC- TICIDE. By George loutrel Lucas. The waste product of all the American tobacco factories, in the form of stems stripped from the leaves in the manufacture of to- bacco products, is saved and finely ground and forms a valuable by-product in the shape of a fertilizer and insecticide. Good unsoaked stems contains 2 to 3/^ of nitrogen and 6 to I0/{ of potash, and only a trace of phosphoric acid ; the nitrogen ex- ists in both the nitrate and organic forms. The potash occurs principally in the soluble form, and is free from chlorides judging from analysis. The stalks are richer in nitrogen than the stems ranging from 3 to 4% nitrogen, but are considered poorer in potash. Tobacco is an exhausting crop, and the dust would prove an excellent ferti lizer to apply to tobacco fields. A ton of good tobacco stems should contain nitrogen equivalent to 500 pounds of nitrate of soda and potash equivalent to the amount contained in 200 pounds of sulphate of potash. I have used hundreds of tons of tobacco dust in the past 20 years, and my faith in its fertilizing properties is unshaken, and could I procure it in any quantity in Jamaica, I would take all offering ; but it is unprofitable to use unless finely ground, be- cause, being so bulky in the form of stems, it becomes too expen- sive to haul and handle. Tobacco dust is especially valuable as a fertilizer and insecti- cide for pine-apples, and it is the only safe article that can be used for dropping in the bud or heart of the plants ; my plan is to go over the pine-apple fields after the suckers or slips have been planted 4 or 5 weeks and drop about a good pinch or two tea- spoonsful into the heart of each plant ; this acts as a splendid stimulant and kills the mealy bug and discourages ants from building their nests at the base of the 'plants, and whilst it will not kill ants, it will eventually drive them away for the want of mealy bugs to feed upon ; the potash and ammonia contained in the dust will stimulate the plants and force them to make a vigo- rous growth and keep them free from insects and in a healthy condition. THE LLEREN: A RARE ROOT CROP.^ By O. W. Barrett. Though perhaps one of the oldest cultivated plants, Calaihea Alloiiya is almost unknown outside of the West Indies ; it is occa- sionally cultivated in Trinidad and several other of the British Antilles but appears to attain its greatest development and popu- larity in Porto Rico. » From Plant World, Vol VII, No. 6, June 1904. 179 Taxonomically it stands in the Zingiberaceae near Phrynium. In habit above ground it resembles the Turmerics (Curcuma) but has the pseudo-stem of Amomum ; the subterranean habit is very similar to that of some of the Phryniums. According to Grise- bach, the flower is small, white, and borne in roundish heads, like those of ginger — very unlike the large, fragrant, pale lilac, radical flower of Calathea (Phryiiiiini) zcbrina. The clumping habit of the family is exemplified in the slow- spreading cluster of 10 to 25 loosely attached "heads," each of which bears a false stem composed of 4 to 8 erect, sheathing petioles. These " heads" may be considered as a kind of short stem, some 2 to 3 inches long and about I inch in diameter, or as a rhizome lying just beneath the surface of the soil and receiving at its base the roots and tuber stipes. New shoots are produced either from the tip of the " head" or from the side ; thus the indi- vidual head is at least biennial while the clump is, of course, perennial. Growth ceases at the end of the rainy season, about December, and begins about April : the mat of dead leaves serves to protect the succulent, truncate " heads" from the fierce winter's sun. The oblong-linear or linear-lanceolate leaf blade tapers abruptly at the tip but runs very gradually at the base into the slender, yellowish, channelled petiole. The strong veins, running at a rather small angle with the mid-rib, especially near the base, give the lamina a somewhat corrugated appearance ; and though the petiole is always erect and rather stout, the mid-rib allows the long blade to droop gracefully. Strong clumps growing in rich, cool soil or in partial shade attain a height of 3 or even 4 feet, the leaves from the central heads being much taller than those from the outside of the clump. By nature the Lleren is evidently a plant of the jungle and shaded river banks. At present it does not lappear to grow wild any- where in Porto Rico ; like the " Yautia" {Xanthosoina spp.), it seems to have become through its hundreds of centuries of domestication an utter slave to human husbandry. In ifact it rarely flowers and never (?) produces seed; while it is not impossible to find natives who will admit having seen the large " Yautia" (Xanthosma) flowers, I have been uable to find one who remembered seeing those of the Lleren. The most important part of this interesting plant, however, is the peculiar tuber-like bodies which are borne on slender roots or stipes, from 3 to 6 inches beneath the soil surface. This pseudo-tuber is oval or elliptic in shape, from I to 2 inches in length, and covered with a thin smoothish cuticle of a pale yellow- ish colour ; a few small rootlets are attached to the outer skin as well as to the stipe. The fact that no " eyes" are present pre- cludes its being termed a tuber, but the abruptness with which it arises at the tip of the more or less specialized root which is not continued within the starch body, mark it as the limit of a root running tuberward. The centre of this body, to the extent of about one-third of the entire content, is occupied by a translucent i8o portion of a firm and crisp but gelatinous nature ; the main por- tion resembles the interior of the common potato but is finer- grained and much more gummy. Though the glutinous character disappears upon cooking, the crispness remains even after pro- longed boiling. The thin cuticle being removed after cooking, there appears a delicious morsel, snow-white outside, semi-transparent in the centre, which may be eaten as a side dish with butter, or, as many prefer, as a relish with salt, like radishes ; it is also good in soups. From December to May it is fairly common in the markets and is also frequently sold, cooked but not peeled, in the streets in the evening — a dozen or so tied in a bunch with the attached root- stems, at I cent, per bunch ; they thus take the place of pea-nuts. The flavour of the Lleren is difficult to describe — there is cer- tainly a taste like sweet-corn, and something quite its own besides. The surest thing about it is that if you try it once, you will again. TANIER, THE OLDEST CROP." By O. W. Barrett. Of all the plants which made life possible to the wild men of old Caribea, the handiest was undoubtedly the Tanier. It grew in the loose alluvium along the forest streams and its tempting tubers were continually in evidence to the savage ancestors of the forefathers of the Arawaks. The idea of the goodness of these roots once grasped, a few worthless plants pulled out from among the edible ones, a sprouting tuber fragment purposely trodden into the soil — and agriculture was begun. There is very good reason, as Mr. O. F. Cook has shown,t for believing that the cultivation of economic plants originated in Tropical America ; and in many ways the Tanier appears to have been cultivated longer than any other plant in this region. Nearly all the cultivated plants of the world readily produce seed ; but the Tanier, though flowering under favourable circum- slances, has entirely lost its natural power to ripen seeds. Some varieties of the yam, the sweet potato, and even of the banana occasionally bear seeds in the home of the Tanier ; but many of their varieties have been introduced from other regions and their varieties are not so numerous in islands like Jamaica and Porto Rico as those of the Tanier. As a vegetable slave this remarkable old crop has been spared the fate of most economics — exile from its own home ; for, strange as it may seem, the Tanier still remains almost unknown outside of Tropical America. Other food-plants have been carried to the far corners of the earth ; others less easily propagated and less productive, like the taro and the yam, have become staple * From the Plant ]]'orld, October 1904. ■f "The American Origin of Agriculture," Populwr Science Monthly, October, 190S. i8l articles in all hot countries, Central America included. This ap- parently paradoxical fact will undoubtedly be explained when the history of agriculture is better known. The family Araceae is one of the most interesting and impor- tant in the realm of plants, the genus Colocasia alone includes about fifty edible varieties (thetaros) and XantJwsoma (the taniers) holds about the same number of kinds. Until recently the taniers were confused with the taros, the usual local confusion of names helping to perpetuate the error even amongst those who must have known better. To be sure there is some similarity between the two plants in their appearance above ground, but the intrinsic characters of the leaves, flowers, and roots are very dis- tinct. Though its varieties have scores of names throughout Tropical America, "' Yautia" is probably the oldest name of which we have any record ; this was the general term applied by the aborigines when the Spaniards arrived in Porto Rico, the island which, from the first, was most famous for its agricultural advancement. And in this island has the " Yautia" reached its highest development — running here into some twenty distinct native varieties. About ten kinds are grown in the Windward Islands ; northern South Ame- rica has but very few ; Cuba and Hayti have half a dozen or less ; and the few varieties of Central America appear coarse and un- producttve in comparison with the Porto Rican sorts. Taya, Tanier, or Cocoe are the common names in the British West In- dies ; in Cuba and Santo Domingo both Taro und Tanier are in- cluded under the name " Malanga ;" while in the Central American republics it passes under almost as many names as there are In- dian tribes. Few plants yield a higher proportion of food material for the weight of the entire plant than does the Tanier; in fact fully 75 percent, of the weight of some types is food. In the " Rollisa" variety of Porto Rico the tubers comprise about 35 per cent, of the weight of the living plant and the edible rootstock about 20 per cent, more ; the young leaves are also edible, closely resem- bling spinach when boiled, but having more " body" and a richer flavour. The central stem, or rhizome, of many varieties is com- monly eaten by the poorer classes but contains some fibre and only 15 to 20 per cent, of starch. The obovoid or roundish tuberous roots are borne just below the surface of the soil, loosely attached at right angles to the cen- tral stem. In cropping, the leaves are grasped in the hands and the whole mass of tubers usually comes up with one good pull, and a quick shake will detach most of them from the parent root. Individual tubers weigh from a few ounces in some types to one and one-half or even two pounds in the better sorts. Each plant produces from two to four pounds, but since six thousand to ten thousand plants can be grown on an acre the yield is six to twenty tons of superior roots containing 20 per cent, to 30 per cent, of starch and little fibrous matter. Five to ten tons of the rhizomes, which may be utilized for feeding swine or for making starch, l82 may be added to these figures. By removing tlie first tubers as soon as ripe, by means of a " macliete" and allowing the plant to remain in situ for six months longer, a second crop may be har- vested ; by this method, called " castration" in Trinidad, it is esti- mated that an acre of Tanier can be made to yield thirty tons of tubers at one planting ; few crops can produce one half of this amount. Though preferring rich, moist loam, the Tanier is content with almost any soil ; like its near relative, the Taro, or Elephant's Ear, it revels in plenty of fresh water, but while the leaf develop- ment may be greater in wet situations the tuber percentage suffers. The leaves vary from pale green to deep mauve purple ; in some sorts, like the " Palma," leaves three feet wide by four feet long are common. A Tanier field in its prime is a beautiful sight. Boiled, fried, or baked, the better kinds of Tanier are superior to the Irish potato ; though most varieties are not so " mealy" they are richer, firmer, and possess more distinct flavour. Most sorts are pure white, but four are pinkish purple, and several are of various shades of yellow. The roots keep fairly well after har- vesting and would undoubtedly endure shipping to the Central States. And now that the days of popular prejudice against anything new in the food line are dying out fortunately, we may expect to see the rare and royal old Tanier soon entering the northern mar- kets and rapidly gaining favour as one of the best of many good things to come out of the Tropics. Twenty thousand years late but it will win ! RING-BARKING. By A. TATHAM, Australia.* Seeing what a vast amount of ring-barking has been performed in Australia in the past, it may seem somewhat of an anomaly to describe the process now. This article, it is hoped, will be of use to future operators, and tend to prevent, or at least lessen, some of the annoyances and expense usually connected with it. Tne sub- ject will be discussed under the following heads : — Why does ring-barking kill a tree .'' How to ring-bark. When to ring-bark. Ring-barking compared with felling and burning-off. WHY DOES RING-BARKING KILL A TREE .' The only way to answer this question is to describe the struc- ture and functions of the roots, stem, and leaves of a tree. A tree cannot grow unless it gets moisture, as it is utterly incapable of getting nourishment from the soil except in a soluble form. The roots that perform this office are the very fine thread-like ones ♦Agricultural Journal of Victoria, IH. 9, 190.5, p. 642. 183 found at the ends of the large ones. They are composed of elongated cells, the walls of which contain numerous thin spots on their surface. So thin are these that water can pass through them but absolutely nothing else, not the smallest particle of solid material, except the root is in any way injured. These cells are packed close together, and the thin spots in each coincide with those of the adjacent one. There is no opening whatever in their walls. So far, science has not actually proved exactly how mois- ture ascends to the leaves of a tree. As many cells are found in the stem that have such dense walls, it almost appears impossible for moisture to penetrate them. And yet it is by these cells in the stem that the sap ascends, the action being different to that of the root cells. Whenever two liquids of different densities are separated from each other by a membranous partition, it is na- ture's law that the denser fluid v\?ill attract the lighter, until both become the same density. This action is called endosmose. Now the cells in the roots of trees contain reserve material, stored there from the previous year's growth, and composed of mucilage and protoplasm, which is far denser than water. When the soil gets moist, the water in it is attracted through the cell walls to the denser liquid in the cell. This action goes on from cell to cell till it reaches the stem. Here capillary action starts. The sap ascends to the leaves, through the wood cells of the vascular bun- dles. These, in addition to other kinds of cells, form what is known as the sap-wood. The action of the rising sap is very rapid. As soon as it gets to the leaves it is elaborated and re- verts again to the roots. The water taken up is largely evaporated by the leaves ; the matter retained by them being the nourishment obtained from the soil, plus the reserve material from the roots. This at once causes a denseness of cell contents, that attracts the thinner rising sap, and so the action goes on till want of moisture in the soil prevents it. A tree, as is well known, is composed of two kinds of wood — heart and sap. The heartwood is to all in- tents and purposes dead, it takes no part in the life of the tree, other than to support the crown. It is in the heart that decay first sets in. It is possible for a tree to live for years with little or no heartwood, as may be seen in the case of a hollow one. The sapwood on the other hand, is the life of the tree, as by it the sap ascends and descends. Having now seen how sap rises in a tree, the next and most important point is how does it come down, for it does come down, otherwise tree stems would never increase in girth. The leaves are the organs of nutrition, as well as respiration. The substance sent up by the roots has been utilized to form new shoots and leaves, in other words, height growth. As soon as warm weather sets in, the leaves begin to collect material from the atmosphere, mostly, carbon. Quite four-fifths of the carbon used in the struc- ture of a tree is obtained in this way, the quantity used may be guaged by the amount of charcoal left after the wood has been burned. They also return to the atmosphere oxygen. The pro- cess of respiration is carried on through minute cells, found chiefly 1 84 on the under side of the leaf, called stomata. During dull, cold, or wet weather these cells are closed ; but on a bright warm day they open, and the work of the tree growth is briskly carried on. The leaves collect the gases from the atmosphere, digest the car- bon dioxide with the moisture, and dilute plant food from the roots, and pass it down along the branches and stem to them again. As this substance passes down, it takes a totally different course to the sap that came up. Instead of going down through the cells in the wood, it descends between the stem and the bark, and, as it does so, adheres to the stem, and gives birth to the cambium layer which forms the annual ring, or a year's growth of new wood. It is as well to remember this growth begins at the top of the tree ; if it were not so, ring-barking would be work thrown away. The roots of ithe tree are also supplied with nutrition, which is stored in their cells, and is used the following season for future height growth. Having seen now the uses of the different parts of the tree and the system adopted by nature to keep life going, it is not very difficult to understand why ring-barking kills a tree. When a ring of bark is removed from the stem it severs, so to speak, the connection between the leaves and the roots. The downward flow of sap is voluminous, as well as rapid, and if only a narrow strip of bark be removed the wound is soon healed over. But let a broad band be taken, the sap, as a rule, cannot repair damages and the drying influence of the atmosphere and sunlight cause it to perish. But even this can be healed, if paper is wrapped round the ringed portion, so as to exclude air and light. Now, above the cut or ring, growth, still progresses. The root still send up sap. The leaves still send it down, but it cannot pass back to the roots. The roots are now isolated ; they are unable to get nourishment for themselves, or to store up any for next season's growth. Their cells are at last emptied of nutriment. They con- tain only the material procured from the soil. Nature's law no longer acts. Passing up moisture to the leaves ceases, and the tree dies. HOW TO RING BARK. Although this operation is simplicity itself, still, unless care is taken it will result in endless trouble, and unnecessary expense. More especially in the case of young trees ; in fact, the younger the tree the harder it is to kill, as a rule. Before describing the manner of doing the work, it will be as well to explain some often misquoted terms. Suckers are, strictly speaking, shoots that grow from the roots only, not from the stem. Shoots grow from the stem and branches. To ring bark properly, a band of bark should be removed from round the stem of the tree of sufficient width to prevent the possibility of the renewal of the bark. Not less than 10 inches is advisable, and in the case of gum trees 15 inches is not too much, as they seem to possess greater recupera- tive power than other trees. Great care should be taken that the bark is entirely removed, and that the stem of the tree is cut into as little as possible. It is advocated by some that to give a cut 185 into the stem tends to hasten the death of the tree; but it is not, as a rule, an economical system. First, by cutting into the sap- wood, the rise of sap is arrested ; not being able to get up to the leaves, it causes a dense mass of shoots to grow below the cut. These often take two stripping operations before the stump is killed. Second — the cutting into the wood, especially in young trees under 8 inches in diameter, causes them to be so weakened that the first gale breaks them off. The result is double work getting rid of the shoots, and also the fallen tree. It must be ad- mitted that the tree-top often does die very quickly after this style of work ; but as it is the roots that have to be killed, and as it fails to do so, it cannot be recommended. "More haste less speed," is very applicable to ring-barking. Where trees of. a large size have to be operated on, say 2 feet and over in diameter, what is often permissible, and, in fact, preferable, is to "chip-ring," i.e. cut well into the sapwood ; the death of the tree is speedy, and only in a few cases do shoots grow. The reasons for this are : A large or old tree has fewer dormant buds existing on the lower portion of the stem. The dormant buds are very numerous in young trees, and lie under the bark. It is one of nature's provi- sions to enable a tree to recover in case of accident. In aged trees the germs of the buds may be buried by successive growths of wood, and the bark is thicker, especially near the ground. Again, an aged tree makes very little height, or circumference growth annually. Its energy is chiefly concentrated on the production of seed. This seed bearing is a severe tax on a tree, so much so, that, after bearing a crop, it takes two or more years to recover enough material to enable it to bear another. Therefore, when a tree of this description is ringed, it is not in a state to bear the shock, and a speedy death results. It often happens that an old tree, in spite of chip-ringing, still continues to live. This is caused by the existence of what is known as " internal bark." When a tree has been severely wounded, and has renewed the bark over the place, decay will often comrr.ence under the bark on the wounded surface. The new bark will, so to speak, follow the decay trying to cover it, and, although the external appear- ance shows no indication of this and even after ringing it cannot be perceived, a strip of bark exists that connects the top and bot- tom of the cut. This is sufficient to upset all calculations, and if not rectified will enable the tree to make a good recovery. The only method is to fell a tree of this description. From the pre- ceding remarks it may be gathered that in the case of young trees full of vitality, ring-barking is best, as it does not prevent the sap rising, and therefore enables the roots to exhaust themselves ; but it allows no additional nourishment to return to them. In aged trees chip-ringing is permissible, the tree does not possess vitality or nutritive material enough to cope with the shock it receives. WHEN TO RING-BARK. This is undoubtedly the most important part of the operation. There can be no question, that the time for doing it is when the i86 sap is moving freely, so as to facilitate tlie removal of the bark. But as often as not the operation is undertaken too early in the season, the result being a dense growth of shoots, whereas if the ringing is left over till spring has set in, a speedier death of the tree is assured, few, if any, shoots are thrown, and most of the shoots will die, when the crown dies. Nourishment for the roots is only collected on warm, bright days, and it is highly probable that the storage of reserve material only takes place towards the end of summer. However, owing to climatic differences, no hard- and-fast rule can be laid down, for in the northern portions of Victoria, August might prove the best month ; south of Dividing Range, September ; whilst at an elevation of 1,000 feet or over, October. RING-BARKING COMPARED WITH FELLING AND BURNING-OFF. Both these systems have their advocates where small areas are concerned, but where the acreage runs into hundreds, only one is mentioned — ring-barking. Seeing the object in view is to des- troy the timber, so as to allow sunlight into the soil, and so induce a growth of sweet grass, naturally the cheapest and quickest method is the one to be favoured. Undoubtedly ring-barking is at first the cheapest, if not in the long run ; but it is the slowest method. No good results can be looked for under twelve to fourteen months, and probably no really decent grazing can be expected under three years, unless a fire has run through the area. By the time the last tree has fallen, and the logs have been cleared up, can it be said to be a cheaper method than direct felling .' Certainly the operation is spread over a number of years, therefore the annual outlay, especially as the necessary work can be done in slack seasons, is often so slight, that it can almost be made to appear an inexpensive system. Hence its adaptability to the requirements of the usual run of graziers. It has many disadvantages ; the incessant accumulation of rubbish by windfalls, and especially after a fire; the greater danger of fire being carried from dead tree to dead tree, with the least chance of stopping or preventing it ; the great harbour it affords to rabbits, attracted by the grass and sheltered by the decaying roots and logs, and the least chance of eradicating them ; and the surprising growth of seedlings that takes place, which, if not destroyed in the earliest stages of growth give end- less trouble, and often lead to the abandoning of the area. On the other hand, in some districts the resulting firewood has a not insignificant market value, so much so, that instances are not want- ing in which, after deducting all charges connected with ringing of trees, and cutting of fuel, a balance has been left of ten shillings and more per acre. The humus caused by ages of decayed vege- tation, and the addition of the leaves and twigs of the rung timber, must add materially to the value of the land, and though at first is often detrimental to a sweet growth of grass, will eventually cause a thick sward to form. Felling and Bitniing-ofi. — As a rule, this is only practised on small areas, its initial cost being far too heavy to suit most selec- 187 tors. Its chief advantage is that in twelve or fifteen months, work can be accomplislied equal to ten years or more where ring- barking is done. It has the further advantage of affording a quick growth of sweet grass, especially if seed has been sown broadcast over the ashes of the burn, as ought always to be done. Its disadvantages are its first cost ; its destruction of what is often a marketable commodity, the resulting firewood is too charred to be acceptable for household purposes, and very little remains if the work is properly done. The intense heat of the fire destroys the humus layer, even burning into the soil in places. These patches of burnt ground, especially where piling has taken place, are often the cause of the introduction of one of the worst pests to the grazier in the cooler and moist districts — the bracken fern. Its spores are blown considerable distances by wind, and find the best of material for germinating on when they strike a patch of burnt earth or charcoal debris. Grass, on the other hand, avoids the severely burnt patches. The burning-off is also a source of great danger to neighbouring properties. Ring-barking, prior to burning of the dense undergrowth, is a good method where practicable. In districts like Gippsland, a lot of rubbish is destroyed, including shoots from the trees. But it may not always be possible to combine the two, the undergrowth being too dense to permit of ringing till after the burn. An argument is often put forward in favour of ring-barking, as compared to felling or grubbing, and that is the loss of "goodness" to the soil. It is maintained that a ringed tree returns something to the soil, which is lost to it otherwise. Such a theory cannot be accepted, except it be that the resulting decaying debris acts as a top dressing, in other words, humus. If a tree can directly return " goodness," then the object of ring-barking will fail. The tree grows from the top downwards. The operation of ringing, if successful, is as effectual in severing connection between head and I'oot as felling would be. Even allowing the possibility of such an action, its influence would be restricted to the roots and the soil directly surrounding them. If any reason exists for the better growth of grass near stumps or on sites previously occupied by them, it may be put down to the influence of decayed vegeta- ble matter, and the, so to speak, trenching operations, caused by the roots of the tree having given the soil an upward lift as they increased in size. This article is written after a series of experiments, extending over three years. The question, when to ring-bark, may not be actually proved to satisfy all districts and species of trees. But it is hoped that the remarks made, may, in addition to the expe- riences gained by others, assist future operators and lessen the often tedious work. FORESTS AND RIVERS.* At the recent meeting of the International Navigation Congress at Milan, one of the questions taken into consideration was "the influence which the destruction of forests and the desiccation of marshes has upon the regime and discharge of rivers," and seven papers bearing on the subject were read and discussed. Of these, three were from Austria, and the others from Germany, France, and Russia. The problem as to the effect of forests on the water supply of rivers and on climate is of great social importance on account of the agricuUural and commercial interests which are so closely connected with the use of timber, and with the utilisation of running water. It is allowed by all the authors of these papers that, due to the improvident way in which the forests have been dealt with, there has been a marked change in the water supply of the neighbour- ing rivers ; that where forests have been cut down brooks have disappeared, and many small rivers that at one time were useful as sources of power are so no longer for want of water ; that in the larger rivers torrents have become more impetuous, and flood- ing more frequent ; while, on the other hand, navigation suffers at times for want of water. The greatest harm has been done in the mountain districts, where the steep slopes allow the rain-water to run off" too rapidly, carrying away the surface soil and transporting pebbles and boul- ders into the rivers, causing shoals, thus decreasing their capacity to discharge the flood water. The extent to which forests, both on the Continent and in America, are being cut down and destroyed, and large areas of land, which at one time were covered with primaeval forest, have become barren wastes by fire or the lumberman's axe without any attempt at re-afforestation, was one of the subjects dealt with in the presidential address of Mr. J. C. Hawkshaw at the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1902. Mr. Hawkshaw pointed out that, notwithstanding the displacement of wood in building structures by iron, yet large quantities of timber are still required, not only for building purposes, but for temporary structures, such as coffer dams and scaffolding ; pit props for mining ; sleepers required for the railways, which, in this country, he estimated at an annual value of 18 million pounds, and those required for renewals at three-quarters of a million pounds ; while for the railway service of the united States there are required 15 millions of acres of forest land to maintain a supply of sleepers. The question for consideration at the Congress was whether the wholesale destruction of forest land for cultivation or for timber supply is having any material effect on the rainfall and consequent water supply ; and the effect of forest destruction on the rivers of the country from which the trees are removed was also considered. * From " Nature." Februari) 1, 1906, i89 The physical conditions of forest land are that, owing to the shelter from sun and wind, the atmosphere is generally colder and damper than in the open country, and evaporation conse- quently less. It is calculated that a hectare of forest land (2i acres) gives off every day 37 cubic metres of oxygen and 37 metres of carbonic acid, leading to a great expenditure of heat ; and that from every hectare of forest land sufficient heat is ab- stracted to melt 316 cubic metres of ice. Ligneous plants also withdraw from the ground and discharge as vapour more than 40,000 gallons of water per hectare per day, which causes a sen- sible reduction of temperature. When clouds pass over a forest they encounter a cool, damp atmosphere, the point of saturation comes closer, and rain is caused. This condition of forest land has been remarked on by aeronauts, who find that a balloon is invariably affected, and drops when passing over forests. The advantages claimed for forests with regard to water supply are that the trees act as regulators of the rainfall ; that the aver- age quantity of rain falling on land covered with forests is greater than in the open ground to the extent of about one-sixth ; that it holds up the water for a time and discharges it later on when water is most required in river basins, the rain being held back by the leaves of the trees and coming to the ground more gradually ; the rain that falls on the surface is also taken up by the layer of dead leaves on the ground, which permits of a gradual percola- tion to the sub-soil. Observations show that in summer the ground of the forest is damper than that of the adjacent cleared land, and snow remains for a much longer period in forest land before melting than in cleared land. On the other hand, it has been contended by some of those who have made a study of sylviculture that forests do not increase the quantity of water flowing to the springs and rivers, but reduce it. The numerous striking facts quoted do not bear out this conten- tion, which is mainly based on the fact that the substratum water stands at a lower level on forest land than in the adjacent cleared ground. This fact is generally admitted to be the case at one period of the year. As the result of many years' observations, it has been found that the maximum level of underground water is reached in May, that the water accumulates in the ground from August to January ; and that the rivers are supplied by this re- serve, and were it not for this accumulation many brooks and river feeders would cease to fiow in summer. Several very striking examples are given by the authors of the papers as to the deleterious effects of cutting down forests', espe- cially in hilly districts. In the commune of La Bruguiere, the forests on the slopes of the Black Mountain were cut down ; the consequence of this removal of the trees was that a brook which ran at the foot, and the water from which was used for driving some fulling mills, became so dried up in summer as no longer to be of any use, while in winter the sudden floods caused very great damage in the valley. The forests were re-planted, and as the 1 90 trees grew up the water coming to the brook was so regulated as to serve its former useful purpose in driving the mills, and the torrents in winter were moderated. Several other examples of a similar character are given. In Switzerland, amongst other examples is quoted one that occurred in the canton of Berne, where, owing to the re-planting of the mountain-side with fir trees, the water again appeared at a spring which had ceased to flow. After a period the trees were cut down and the land converted into pasturage, since when the spring has almost disappeared only opening out at occasional in- tervals. In the Kazan district of Russia, once celebrated for its forests of oaks and linden, which are now nearly all cut down, there were formerly seventy water-mills constantly at work. Less than half now can be worked, and even they only run half time, and are idle in summer for want of water ; while in winter the little rivers that worked these mills are converted into impetuous torrents, breaking up the mill dams and doing other damage. These aban- doned water-mills stand out as a striking proof of the conse- quences of the destruction of forests. In Sardinia, where the surface consists of plutonic rocks covered with a thin layer of earth, all the streams have a rapid slope. The woods, which occupied in 1870 an area of more than 2h million acres, or about 43 per cent, of the whole surface of the island, now are reduced to about one-sixteenth of this area. Since the removal of the trees the floods in the rivers rise with a rapidity and flow with a velocity never known before, and a great number of bridges have been destroyed by the floods. The beds of the channels have been raised in some places above the surface of the land, owing to the detritus brought down in floods. In Wisconsin, U.S.A., the settlers cut down the forests and con- verted the land into tillage and pasture. During a period of about seventy years nearly the whole of the forest land was thus cleared with the result that, as the forest disappeared, the water in the river became lower; finally thirty miles of the channel entirely dried up, and many water-mills that were formerly worked by the stream are now deserted and useless, owing to the want of water to run them. In Sicily, owing to the cutting down of the forests on a vast scale in the province of Messina, the bed of the river has been raised by the stones and earth carried down by the torrents so as to stop all drainage from the land, and great damage has been done by the floods. Several other examples are given to the same effect where forests have been cleared in the same district, and these are compared with other streams where the forests still exists and their condition remains unaltered. In the former case, land- slides from the mountains have become very frequent. 191 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, nth July, 1906. Present : — The Hon. T. L. Roxburgh, Acting Colonial Secre- tary in the chair ; the acting Director of Public Gardens, the acting Isand Chemist ; the Superintending Inspector of Schools, Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, J. W. Middleton, G. D. Murray and the Secretary. His Grace the Archbishop sent an apology for absence, as he would be away in Trelawny and St. Ann for II or 12 days. No Truck System— The Secretary submitted a letter from the West- moreland Sugar Planters' Association with reference to the matter of estates compelling labourers to purchase bread, beef and pork from the estates, saying that the Association was not aware of any estates doing so. The Secretary was instructed to acknowledge receipt of the letter, and he was also instructed to write the Colonial Secretary that the Board had not been able to find out that the practice com- plained of existed on more than the estate given. Official Letters — The Secretary read the following letters from the Colonial Secretary's office : — 1. Re Agricultural Instructors, that the suggestions of the Board with regard to the Instructors, to be employed with the £500 from Elder, Dempster & Co. would be conveyed to the Agricultural Society. 2. Re Asst. Superintendent at Hope Gardens, that the Governor has already approved of the employment of foreman Taylor tem- porarily as Agricultural Instructor at the Experiment Station at a salary of £lOO a year, and that the matter of permanently filling the post of Asst. Superintendent would be considered with the estimates for 1907-08 : and that His Excellency had authorised the Director of Public Gardens to insert £150 as salary for the officer to be selected. Mr. Middleton moved that a committee be appointed to go more thoroughly into the matter and report to the Board. This was agreed to and Mr. Middleton and Mr. Fursdon were appointed. 3. Standard of /?;/;«.^Sending copy of minute by the Chemist re standard quantity of ethers for Jamaica rum. It was agreed that the Secretary should acknowledge receipt of the letter, and say that the Board would allow the consideration of this matter to lie over for a time. 4. School Gardens — Special grants to school gardens ; referring minutes by the Superintending Inspector of Schools and the Di- rector of Public Gardens on the matter. The Secretary was instructed to reply that the Board would ap- prove of the transfer of £30 under the allocation for model gardens 192 from the estimates of the Public Gardens to the amount on the estimates of the Education Department for school gardens and would approve of there being one vote in future for this purpose, and that should be on the estimates of the Education Depart- ment. Course Postponed. — The Secretary submitted a letter from the Island Chemist to the acting Chairman, stating that owing to the recent heavy rains sugar crops were so baclvward that many dis- tillers would not be able to attend the Distillers' Course as arranged ; that he was convinced that the only way was to postpone the Course to October 8th to 26th when Mr. Allan would be able to take part, and if his (the Chemist's) leave commenced on July 5th he would get back in time for the Course. As the matter was urgent he asked the acting Chairman to approve, which had been done. The Board approved of the action taken. Reports Presented. — The following reports from the Chemist's De- partment were submitted : — 1. Postponement of Distillers' Course. 2. Work of Agricultural Lecturer. 3. Suggestion by Mr. Cousins that he be permitted to visit various centres in Great Britain and Germany in the interest of Jamaica rum, to be on half pay for a fortnight, his travelling expenses from London as a centre to be paid from the Laboratory allowance for travelling, and asking that the Colonial Office in London be re- quested to furnish him with introductions to the British Consuls at Bremen and Hamburg. It was agreed to inform the Colonial Secretary's Office of the proposals and that the Board approved of them. 4. Proof of Chart of " Agricultural Dont's" for approval. With some alterations in the type of printing, this was approved of. Reports I and 2 were directed to be circulated. The following reports from the Director of Public Gardens were submitted : — 1. Hope Experiment Station. 2. Instructors. These were directed to be circulated. The meeting adjourned till Wednesday, 15th August at 2 p.m. [Issued 4th Aug., 1906.] Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingstmv, Jam. BULLETIN DEPARTMENT OF AGMCULTUBE. Vol. IV. SEPTEMBER, 1906. Part 9. EDITED BY WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S., Director of Pvhlic Gardens (f>id Plantatiotts. CONTENTS: PAGE. Renovation of Worn-out Soils 193 Tobacco from Jamaica — VII 200 A new Botrychium from Jamaica 201 The Mangosteen 203 Corn Production and Consumption 204 Agriculture in Bermuda 205 Vanilla Statistics ... 207 Culture of the Date Palm 208 Board of Agriculture 214 PRIG E— Threepence. A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send name and address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. KINGSTON, JAMAICA : Hope Gabdbns. 1906. JAMAICA. BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AURICULTURE. LIBRARY NEW VOK'K nOTANJCAL (JARUeN. Vol. IV. SEPTEMBER, 1906. Part 9. RENOVATION OF WORN-OUT SOILS." By W. J. SPILLMAN. There is a vast difference in the natural fertility of soils. Some do not produce well from the start unless special attention is given to making them productive ; others produce large crops for a short time and then rapidly diminish in fertility ; while others, known as strong soils, remain productive for many years without attention to their fertility. But even the strongest soils will wear out in time unless they are intelligently managed. NATURE OF THE SOIL. In order to understand the methods necessary for restoring worn- out soils, let us consider what occurs in a fertile soil that is grow- ing a large crop. Imagine a cubic inch of ordinary field soil magnified into a cubic mile. It would then present very much the appearance of a mass of rocks varying from the size of a pea to masses several feet in diameter. Scattered among these rock masses would be many pieces of decaying plant roots and other organic matter, resembling rotting logs in a mass of stones and gravel. The masses of organic matter would be found to contain large quantities of water, and to somewhat resemble wet sponges while every mass of rock would have a layer of water covering its surface. The open spaces between the solid masses would be filled with air. If a crop were growing on this soil, its roots would be found threading their way among the masses of rock and decaying roots and pushing these aside by the pressure exerted by the growing roots. From the surface of the growing root, near its tip, small 3 hollow threads (the root hairs) extend into the open spaces and ^ suck up the water covering the rock particles. The root hairs are >- not open at the end ; they absorb the water through their walls. ^ The plant food is dissolved in this water, but is usually present in X ->-i * Farmers' Bulletin No. 245, U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture. 194 exceedingly small quantities. While the plant is growing a con- stant stream of water flows up through it and evaporates at its leaves. For every pound of growth in dry matter made by the plant, from 300 to 800 pounds of water flow up through it. The plant food substances dissolved in the soil water may be divided into two classes according to their ultimate source. MINERAL PLANT FOOD. Plants in their growth make use of thirteen chemical elements, nine of which they secure directly from the soil. These are called the mineral plant foods ; they are phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, silicon, chlorin, and sulphur. We have already seen that the soil consists mainly of small particles of rock. The rock particles are of many kinds, but nearly all kinds contain more or less potassium, calcium, phosphoric acid, &c. Every year the soil water dissolves off a thin surface layer from each particle. Plants appropriate this water and thus secure mineral plant food. Many generations of plants have thus been collecting their small toll of food from the soil and storing it up in their tissues. The amount of plant food made ready for plant use during each growing season through the slow solution of the mineral par- ticles of the soil is doubtless supplemented to a considerable degree by the same kinds of materials set free from the organic matter also found in the soil — that is, the mineral matter originally secured from the dissolving minerals, but built into plants during some former season, may again be used by other plants when the old matter is given an opportunity to decay in the soil. These foods derived directly from the mineral matter of the soil and in- directly from it through the growth, death, decay, and return of former crops are also supplemented in many cases by the ap- plication of mineral matter in the form of commercial fertilizers. NITROGEN COMPOUNDS. In addition to the nine elements already mentioned, the growing plant requires four other elements, as follows : hydrogen, which it secures from water (water is a compound of hydrogen and oxy- gen): oxygen, which it secures partly from water and partly from the air ; carbon, which is secured from carbonic-acid gas in the air ; and nitrogen. Nitrogen is in many respects the most important of all the plant- food elements. It is not found in appreciable quantities in the rock particles of the soil. Ordinary plants depend for their nitrogen entirely on decaying organic matter. As decay proceeds nitrates are formed from the nitrogen contained in organic matter. The nitrates are exceedingly soluble, and unless soon made use of by growing crops they are washed out of the soil. Nitrogen is therefore usually the first element to become exhausted in the soil_ Fortunately, there are certain species of bacteria that can use atmospheric nitrogen, of which there is an inexhaustible supply. One family of plants — the legumes — has learned to exchange work 195 with these bacteria, and these plants are thus easily supplied with an abundance of nitrogen in a form which they can use. When these nitrogen-fixing bacteria are present in a soil on which a le- guminous crop is growing, the bacteria invade the roots of the legume and live there. Their presence is usually made manifest by swellings — the so-called tubercles — on the roots of thrifty plants of clover, alfalfa, beans, peas, and other legumes. Nitrogen from -the soil filters into the roots, where the bacteria appropriate it, manufacture an abundance of nitrates, and give a portion to the plant in exchange for starch. The tissues of leguminous plants become very rich in nitrogenous compounds, and when they decay in the soil they set free large amounts of nitrates for the use of any crop which may be growing at the time. The cultivation of leguminous crops is one of the most im- portant and economical means of maintaining a supply of nitro- genous plant food in the soil. Nitrates may, of course, be supplied in commercial fertilizers ; but fertilizers containing nitrogen are very expensive, and it usually pays better to supply nitrogen by growing legumes or by the application of stable manure, which is rich in nitrogen when properly handled. In good farm practice both stable manure and leguminous crops are used as sources of nitrogen. SOIL MOISTURE AND HUMUS. In order to produce a ton of dry hay on an acre of land it is necessary that the growing grass should pump up from that acre approximately 500 tons of water. In order to supply this enormous quantity of water, the soil must not only be in condition to absorb and hold water well, but it must be porous enough to permit water to flow freely from soil grain to soil grain. The presence of large quantities of deca5''ing organic matter (humus) adds enormously to the water-holding capacity of the soil. One ton of humus will absorb 2 tons of water and give it up readily to growing crops. Not only that, but the shrinkage of the particles of decaying organic matter and the consequent loosening of soil grains keep the soil open and porous. Furthermore, humus of good quality is exceedingly rich in both nitrogen and mineral plant food. The maintenance of fertil- ity may almost be said to consist in keeping the soil well supplied with humus. The first step in renovating worn-out soils is to give them an abundant supply of humus of good quality. Perhaps the best source of humus is stable manure containing both the liquid and the solid excrement, especially when the stock are fed with rich nitrogenous foods. Even a poor quality of barn-yard manure, which has had much of the plant food leached out of it, has con- siderable value because of the humus it makes. Another cheap and valuable source of humus, but one which must be used understandingly, is crops grown to turn under as manure. The legumes are especially valuable for this purpose because of the nitrogen they contain, but other crops, such as corn sown thickly, may sometimes be made to supply large quantities 196 of humus of fair quality. Crops thus used are called green manures. SOIL AIR. A proper circulation of air in the soil is just as important as any other factor of plant growth. Nearly half of the volume of ordi- nary soils is occupied by air spaces. The air spaces in the soil wind in and out between the soil particles, just as they do in a heap of larger stones. If the layer of water on the surface of the soil grains becomes so thick as to stop the air passages here and there the soil is then too wet for most crops and needs drainage. Plants have no special breathing organs, the oxygen required in their breathing finding entrance all over the surface of the plant. Plant roots must therefore be supplied with air, and hence the soil must be porous enough to permit of free circulation of air. A good supply of humus and proper tillage will accomplish this result in clay soils. Sandy soils are usually too porous, needing humus to help them to retain water. Another reason why air must circulate freely in the soil is that large quantities of oxygen are required to insure proper decay of organic matter to supply plant food. Also, carbonic acid gas is produced iby the decay of organic matter, and this must escape easily to make room for the atmospheric oxygen needed in the soil. The movement of air in the soil is frequently shown by the bub- bles which appear at the surface of the soil just after a heavy rain. As the water soaks into the soil it drives the air out, and bubbles may be seen at the surface if water enough is present to form them. One of the most important objects of ploughing is to loosen up the soil and mix fresh air with it. SUBSTANCES THROWN OFF IN THE SOIL BY GROWING PLANTS. Considerable evidence has been accumulated during recent years to show that the cause of the failure of some soils to produce satisfactory crops may be ascribed to unfavourable conditions pro- duced in the soils by the plants themselves. It is thought that during the growth of the plant certain unknown organic substances are given off which, when they accumulate in the soil to any ex- tent, are harmful to the further growth of plants of the kind that produce them. It is possible that some of the benefits known to arise from systematic crop rotation may be explained on this basis. These harmful substances seem to be disposed of rapidly by cer- tain soils, usually those in which organic matter is readily con- verted into humus. Other soils, usually marked by a lack of the brown carbonized organic matter, do not seem to possess this property of removing harmful plant products to such a degree. This idea is in accord with the common experience that dark- coloured soils, well filled with organic matter, are usually very productive. In connection with the study of these poisonous organic pro- ducts, it has been found that they may be destroyed or at least 197 rendered harmless in a variety of ways. Barn-yard manure or de- caying organic matter, sucli as a green crop of cow-peas, turned under has a very marked effect in freeing the soil from them. Thorough and complete airing of the soil will often destroy or overcome these poisonous substances. The beneficial effects of ploughing and of thorough surface tillage are thus explained, in part at least, on the basis of the thorough aeration secured. When the same crop is not grown oftener than every three or four years on the same land the injurious substances the crop throws off seem to have time to disappear before the same crop is grown again ; hence the benefit from crop rotation. When the soil is well sup- plied with humus there is seldom any trouble from this source, and the same crop may be grown year after year with good yields, though continuous cultivation of the same crop may invite injury from certain insects and fungous diseases which live over in the soil or in the remains of the crop. EFFECTS OF TILLAGE. Improper methods of tillage add very greatly to the evil effects that result from lack of humus. In many parts of the country the land is ploughed only 3 or 4 inches deep. Below the ploughed stratum the soil becomes sour, densely packed, and unfit for plant roots. When such soils are ploughed deeply and this sour packed subsoil is mixed with the upper portion, the growth of many crops is greatly retarded. This has led many farmers to believe that deep ploughing is ruinous. Some farmers have tried to remedy the difficulty by subsoiling. The subsoil plough breaks up the packed layer but does not throw it out on top. But while subsoil- ing does break up the hard layer into chunks it does not pulverize it or put humus into it. In most cases work done in subsoiling is practically wasted, and it is doubtful if it ever pays. A much better method is to plough a little deeper each year until a depth of 8 or 10 inches is reached. This gives a deep layer of good soil, particularly if the supply of humus is kept up. When new soil, or that which has lain undisturbed for several years, is broken up, it is always best to plough deep from the be- ginning, for the deeper layers will be about as fertile as any, except the top inch or two. It is wise too, never to plough the same depth twice in succession. In general, autumn ploughing should be from 7 to 9 or 10 inches and spring ploughing from 5 to 7 inches deep. There are special cases in which these rules do not apply, but their discussion would take us too far from the purpose of this paper. We plough the soil in order to loosen its texture and get air into it ; also to turn under stubble, manure, &c., to make humus. Killing weeds is another object accomplished by ploughing. After a soil has been thoroughly pulverised to great depths, so that there is no danger of turning up packed clay, the deeper the ploughing the better the crops. But the cost also increases with depth so that ordinarily it does not pay to plough more than about 10 inches deep. 198 EFFECT OF PLOUGHING SOIL WHEN TOO WET OR TOO DRY. Sandy soils are usually not injured by handling when wet ; but the case is different with clay soils. A fair quality of brick can be made from any heavy clay soil by working it thoroughly when wet and then drying it in the sun. The effect produced by work- ing wet clay soils is known as puddling. Irrigation ditches in the west are puddled by first flooding them to make them muddy, and then driving bands of sheep along in this mud. This makes the bottom impervious to water and prevents loss from leakage. If a clay soil is ploughed, or even harrowed, when too wet, it is more or less puddled. In this condition it becomes cloddy and imper- vious to air and water. Old roadways that have been thoroughly puddled from traffic in all kinds of weather may be distinguished in fields many years after they have been ploughed up and put into cultivation. The proper time to plough land is when it is just moist enough to break up mellow, neither wet enough to leave a slick surface where rubbed by the mouldboard nor dry enough to break up in large clods ; or, as the southern farmer puts it, when the soil has a good season in it. If continued rain follows wet ploughing, little harm follows ; but hot, dry winds would soon leave only a mass of unmanageable clods. In spring and midsummer ploughing, parti- cularly, it is of the utmost importance to run the harrow immedia- tely after the plough. This prevents the formation of clods. TERRACING AND SOIL WASHING. One of the most serious results that follow shallow ploughing, at least in hilly regions, is the washing away of the soil in torren- tial rains. When terraces are properly laid out they do prevent washing, but they are a very expensive means of accomplishing the end sought. They occupy land that ought to be in crops. They seed the land with weeds. When improperly constructed, and they usually are, they cause great ditches to be washed in the hillsides. Besides this they cut the land up into small, irregular patches and greatly increase the cost of tillage. There is a better way of preventing washing in nearly all cases. In the first place, where land has been ploughed only 3 or 4 inches deep for several years the subsoil becomes impervious to water and can not absorb a heavy rainfall fast enough to prevent its flowing over the surface. But when the land is ploughed gradually deeper until a good depth of loose soil is obtained, and particularly when an abundance of humus is supplied from grass roots and stubble, or from green crops turned under, or, better still, from barn-yard manure, the soil becomes so porus that the heaviest rains cause little or no flowing of water on the surface. IMPROVING THE SOIL. We have seen that poverty in soil may be due to poor texture, unfavourable structure, lack of humus, deficiencies in the amount, form, or proportion of plant food, and to the presence of harmful mineral or organic compounds. With the exception of nitrogen, 199 most soils, even those that are very poor, usually contain an abundant supply of plant food, though sometimes other elements are lacking or are present only in those forms that plants can not use. To increase fertility we must improve texture and add plant food and humus. Tillage may do much to improve texture, but tillage alone w^ill not sufifice. We must add humus. In doing so we add plant food, and make the soil more permeable to air and water. INCREASING THE STOCK OF HUMUS. There are three general methods of supplying humus to the soil. The first and best is the addition of stable manure. When pro- perly managed it adds large quantities of both plant food and humus. But manure is not always available. When such is the case, the best thing to do is to make it available. Raise more for- age, keep more stock, and make more manure. But this takes time and capital so that other means are sometimes necessary. When stable manure is not to be had, we may plant crops for the pur- pose of turning them under, thus adding large quantities of humus at comparatively little cost. Ploughing under green crops is called green manuring. Under certain conditions this is an excellent practice. STABLE MANURE. Properly handled, stable manure is by all means the best remedy for poverty of the soil. Very few farmers handle manure so as to get even as much as half the possible value from it. There is probably no greater waste in the world than in connection with the handling of manure by the farmer. Five-eights of the plant food in manure is found in the the liquid part of it. This is usually all lost. Not only is this the case, but the solids are heaped beside the stable, frequently under the eaves, where rains wash away much of their value. Fermentation in these manure heaps also sets free much of the nitrogen to escape into the air. GREEN MANURES. The practice of ploughing under green crops as manures is not very general, and we do not know as much as we should like to know of the value of this method. Some crops do not thrive when sown on land into which a green crop has recently been ploughed. This is particularly true of those crops that like a solid seed bed, or which are sensitive to acids. When a heavy green crop is ploughed under, it goes through a fermentation not unlike that which occurs in a barrel of kraut, resulting in the formation of a considerable amount of acid. Alfalfa is particularly sensitive to acids, and it also requires a compact seed bed. It is unwise, therefore, to green manure the land just before sowing with alfalfa. Generally speaking, when it is desirable to plough in a green crop before fall-sown crops, it should be done a month or six 200 weeks before planting time, and the soil should be harrowed fre- quently or otherwise compacted. A few good rains will wash out most of the acids and aid in compacting the soil. The acids may also be counteracted by adding lime. COW-PEAS. The cow-pea has been a boon to the farmers of the Southern States, and its value is coming to be generally recognized. During the past few years the demand for cow-pea seed has exceeded the supply, and high prices have resulted. It seldom pays to turn under a crop of cow-peas in the green state. It is better practice to make hay of them, feed the hay, and put the manure back on the land. As is the case with all legumes, the roots of the cow-pea crop add a great deal of nitro- gen to the soil, and have a marked effect on fertility. If a heavy green crop of cow-peas is ploughed under in the autumn it is best not to plant the land until the following spring. SUMMARY. We may sum up the matter briefly thus : To build up and main- tain fertility in the soil, feed a large part of the crops and return the manure to the land. If manure is not available, plough under crops grown for the purpose. Plough deep (but do not subsoil). Grow leguminous crops for the nitrogen they add to the soil. TOBACCO FROM JAMAICA. VII. '•' This sample of tobacco was sent to the Imperial Institute by the Director of the Department of Public Gardens and Plantations of Jamaica. It was grown experimentally under shade cloth during the season 1904-1905 from Sumatra seed. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE. The sample consisted of six leaves of the " wrapper" type of cigar tobacco, showing a dull, olive-brown tint. The leaves were of fair length, uniform in colour, thin and free from "stains" and " burns." They were somewhat brittle when handled, but this was probably due to their having been packed between sheets of card- board, which had absorbed the moisture, rendering the leaves abnormally dry. When ignited the tobacco burned evenly and steadily, evolving a fairly fragrant aroma and leaving a greyish-white ash. As the sample was very small, it was impossible to submit it to chemical examination. It was therefore sent to a firm of tobacco experts to be tried for wrapping cigars and for the determination of its commercial value. The experts' report on the tobacco was as follows : — "The tobacco is of very handsome appearance, thin in texture and therefore highly productive as a ' wrapper' for tobacco ; in use it is somewhat ' tender' and does not appear to have quite as * From BuUetiii of The Imj/erial Institute, Vol. IV. No. 2. 201 much elasticity as Sumatra tobacco of similar texture [see note under ' Description of Sample' as to probable reason of this ' tenderness"] ; the burning is very fair, and the flavour not unsatis- factory. Similar tobacco, well put up, would fetch on the English market up to about 3s. per lb. for first lengths, say 2s. 3d. per lb. for the second lengths, and from is. 3d. to is. 6d. per ft. for the third lengths. " We feel sure that the soil and climate which have produced this tobacco are suitable for growing 'wrapper' tobacco equal to most in the world, and if labour is plentiful and cheap and the area of suitable ground large enough there is a chance in time of this district of Jamaica becoming a serious competitor of Borneo, Sumatra, and Java." The experts also suggest that it might be worth while to carry out a similar cultivation experiment in Jamaica with Java tobacco, as this would probably yield a " wrapper" leaf which would be stronger in texture and of even better flavour than the present sample. Tne results of the experts' trial of this tobacco show that it is of good quality, and that if a similar quality can be placed on the English market in quantity, it will probably realise remunerative prices. A NEW BOTRYCHIUM FROM JAMAICA.'' By WILLIAM RALPH MAXON. The systematic status of the members of the group of Botrycliiiini ternatum has been the subject of a good deal of comment within the past ten years. Naturally there have developed legitimate differences of individual judgment and interpretation ; and, while in one or two instances the results offered have been such as to suggest doubt that the author was in actual possession of some of the forms under discussion, it is probably true that no two students working with the same series of specimens would arrive at con- clusions absolutely identical. It becomes often an exceedingly difficult matter to decide whether a given series of plants — and too often a small series — constitutes a sufficiently marked and coherent assemblage to stand apart, specifically distinct, from an obviously related form ; or, whether, on the other hand, it is to be regarded as a mere local variation induced, it may be, by habitat. Of the so-called species recently recognized,t several — and they are, in the opinion of the writer, very few in number — do not ap- pear to be valid species in the ordinary sense of the term : they lack distinctive diagnostic characters and pass insensibly into another form. And, it must be confessed, a study of the entire * From the Bulletin of the Torrey J}otaii iftil Chih, .S2: 210-222, pi. G. 1905. t Underwood, An index to the described speciis of Botrychiiim. Bull. Torrey Cluh 30, 42-55. Ja., 1903. 202 group must of necessity be more truly comparative and involve a wider view than is usually to be required in most groups of pteri- dophytes. But the fact remains, that there arc distinct groups, in- habiting definitely restricted areas and comprising individuals in close agreement in habital and foliage characters, which offer com- paratively small but absolute differences from allied groups of in- dividuals from other regions ; and it appears to the writer that, unless reduction of the most sweeping sort is to be made, it is undoubtedly the most logical proceeding to recognize these as species and to designate them as binomials. The recognition of svib-species implies or ought to imply the existence of specimens snowing the transition from the typical form to the sub-specific centre of variation. In two or possibly three instances among the recently recognized " species" referred to above, such intermediates seem to exist, and the writer hopes to discuss these later at greater length ; but in the majority of cases intermediates (if existent at all) have not found their way into herbaria, and the supposed justification for the reduction practised by several American writers appears to be contained in the fast disappearing fallacy that the sum of the differences and not their constancy is the criterion for specific segregation, — a logical pursuit of which principle would lead by no very circuitous route to the treatment accorded the group by Hooker and Baker. The plant here to be described is not associable specifically with any described form. It may very appropriately bear the name of one whose studies must necessarily prove largely instru- mental in a final elucidation of this perplexing group. BOTRYCHIUM UNDERWOODIANUM sp. nov. Plant of large stature (3 dm.), to be placed between B. Jciiiiiaiii and B. dccompositum of the ternatum group. Roots copious, stout, cordlike, corrugate above, fasciculate from a short (l-2 cm.) under- ground prolongation of the axis : common stalk short (about 2 cm.), bud densely covered with a compact growth of silky hairs ; sterile division short-petiolate (5-10 cm ), 12-20 cm. broad and nearly as long, commonly pentagonal in shape, tripinnate, the basal pinnules of the lowermost lateral divisions usually much elongated and again deeply pinnatifid ; ultimate segments relatively very large, bluntly obovate or broadly spatulate, the margins evenly and finely crenate-dentate with an occasional shallow lobation ; texture slight, lesembling that of B. obliquni ; venation manifest : sporophyl about 30 cm. long ; panicle rather lax, about 8 cm. long, bipinnate ; sporangia large, sessile. Jamaica. — Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, Jenman collection. Co-type in the U.S. National Herbarium (no 521 103). Of the several specimens collected by Jenman only one is fertile. Other Jamaican specimens are : Underwood i~g and 2620, Ma.voii 1573, and D. E. Watt{\J. S. N. M. 520982). all from the vicinity of Cinchona, altitude about 1500 meters ; and two speci- mens in the herbariam of Capt. John Donnell Smith, communicated 203 by Hart. The last, though indicated by Dr. Christ as represent- ing a new species, were not described, presumably on account of their immature condition. The series at hand indicates that B. Undenvoodiauum is one of the most distinct species in the tcniatiim group. As stated, it ap- pears to be most nearly related to B. Jcnmaiii, Underw.* and B. de- compositum Mart. & Gal.t From the former it differs conspicuously in its greater size and more delicate texture ; and from the latter imperfectly known species very noticeably in the following dis- tinctive characters : (l) the peculiar shape and spacing of the seg- ments, and (2) the wide divergence of the main divisions which spread ordinarily at an angle of nearly or quite ninety degrees. There is, moreover, in most specimens so pronounced a basiscopic development of the first lateral division as to give a decided pen- tagonal shape to the leaf, though this feature is not especially noticeable in the type specimen. {United States National Museum). THE MANGOSTEEN.t The species included in the genus Garcinia are a comparatively small but valuable group of oriental tropical economic plants. For, not only are the timbers furnished by the Garcinias well adapted for building-construction and furniture, but some of the tamarinds, the gamboge of commerce, as well as the much esteemed mangosteen of Malaya are among the products yielded by them. Of all these products, the luscious mangosteen, which, by univer- tal consent, has been admitted to be the most delicious of oriental fruits, is perhaps the best-known to the layman. In the sunny re- gions of the Malayan sea-board where, for the major portion of the year, sunshine and shower regularly alternate to result in a truly marvellous equability of climate, the Garcinia Mangostana grows to perfection. Its artificial cultivation in those regions as well as on the friable loams of the evergreen forests that follow the courses of the rivers of the Peninsula has always been attended with con- siderable success. For, within the favoured localities of its limited but indigenous distribution, few fruit-crops demand less attention in cultivation ; while, after it survives the early stages of its growth, no operations of a cultural nature, beyond manuring, require to be done for the maintenance of the crop. Well-grown seedlings would be at least a foot in height at the close of the first year and bear from four to six leaves each. At the commencement of the south-west monsoon, the seedlings should be removed from the nursery beds and planted out in pits previously prepared on the plantation. These pits are best excavated at dis- tances of 20 ft. from one another, and should be located in open, » Fera Bull. 8. 69. I'JOO. (Type from Jamaica), t Mem Acad. Sci. Brux. 15': \h. nl. 1. 1S42. (Type from Mexico). JFrom" T(uj Tropical Agricaltarid, March 1906. 204 well-draiaed loamy land. They should each be 3 ft. square and 3 ft. deep, and be filled in with surface soil, vegetable mould and cattle droppings worked up to a friable and fine degree of tilth. In planting, care should be taken to see that every transplant occu- pies the centre of the pit in which it is put out ; for, the species being a surface feeder, the fullest facility should be afforded it for developing its feeding-roots evenly around it. The plants should be shaded with light bamboo-and-grass tatties placed horizontally over each and supported upon bamboo uprights 6 ft. high. This shade should be given directly the transplants are put out and be maintained for at least one year. The tatties may be removed when there is rain as well as at night and in the cooler parts of the day. The plants should also be copiously watered throughout the warmer months of the year for at least two years after they are put out. The mangosteen plant has been known to bear fruit in the fifth year from planting out or in the sixth from germination. At this age it ordinarily attains to a height of 10 ft. and a basal girth of I ft., and its conical crown, which is formed low on the bole, casts a cover of about 10 ft. in diameter. The yield of fruit varies with locality as well as care in manuring and general cultivation ; but it usually is small and continues to be poor unti". the plant reaches its tenth year. Again, the earlier fruits are small and irregularly developed and contain very few pulpy seeds. Thus, the number, size, shape and flavour of the fruits are improved only with advancing years ; but, even in young crops, considerable improvement could be effected by heavy periodic manuring and watering. A healthy plant in its tenth year is capable of yielding from two to three hundred mangosteens valued at from Rs. 3 to Rs. 5 per hundred. An acre stocked with plants standing at dis- tances of 20 ft. from one another would hold at least lOO plants. And if, at the end of the tenth year, they yield, on an average, 200 fruits each, valued at the rate of Rs. 4 per hundred, the plantation would yield an approximate income of Rs. 800. The species is well adapted for cultivation in all localities with heavy rainfall, a a loamy soil, and enjoying freedom from frost. It luxuriates in bright and vigorous sunshine and demands plenty of light for its most perfect development. The soil, however, should be moist and well drained. It is best grown as a pure crop, unmixed with species other than itself. — Madras Mail. CORN PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION « It is evident from the experience of the past few years of good crops that the consumption of corn [maize] in the United States has increased much more rapidly than the production. Indeed it may be doubted whether there has been any enlargement in the corn area during the past eight years. The statistics of the Agricultu- ral Department show an area last year 14 millions greater than in •From " Tlie Loumanu Planter and Sugar Manvifacturcr," Vol. XXX VII, Ko. 2. 205 1897. but the census of 1900 show conclusively that the figures of the Agricultural Department were grossly inaccurate for at least five years prior to and including those of 1900. In the past eight years the population has increased 13 millions, or nearly 20 percent. The prevailing relatively high prices, therefore, seem to be due to the fact that consumption has caught up with production and consequently low prices for corn are not to be expected again unless there is a large increase in the area devoted to producing this crop. An important factor affecting prices of corn in recent years has been the changed method of marketing the crop. Farmers have taken their time in disposing of their surplus. The policy has prevailed generally of holding ample reserves through the year, so as to provide for deficiences in case of crop failures. This has prevented the accumulation of large stocks " in sight" which always have a more depressing influence on prices than liberal supplies in farmers' hands. The remarkable situation exists to-day of an almost complete exhaustion of stocks of corn at market centres, notwithstanding the fact that last year's crop was the greatest on record. Under such conditions the farmer is in a position to dictate the price, within a reasonable limit, and he is likely to continue in that position. Speculators who have under- taken to depress prices by short selling have not yet met with any success. — Kansas City Star, May 21. AGRICULTURE IN BERMUDA. The following notes of interest are taken from the Report of the Superintendent of the Public Garden, Bermuda for 1905 : — Tomatoes. — " The opening up of new sources of supply has con- tributed not a little to the low prices and a now somewhat limited demand for Bermuda produce in New York ; indeed the once very profitable tomato trade was brought to an end in 1900 by large quantities being sent in early from the Southern States ; and now that it has been proved possible to export from Cuba and Jamaica excellent fruit from November to March and April, the year round supply is complete : the resuscitation of this colony's lost tomato trade is not, therefore anticipated. In 1871 the boxes of tomatoes exported to New York numbered 115,868 valued at £13,718 ; in 1900, 146 were sent, valued at £ll." Lily Bulbs. — " The lily bulb industry was, until quite recently, in danger of being destroyed, through the dis^.ppointing results obtained by American forcers from Bermuda bulbs ; many having given up growing them. Happily some four or five of the larger Bermudian growers realized the importance of selecting and care- fully cultivating pure Harrisii stock, though, perhaps, somewhat late in the day, for already a large proportion of the trade has been diverted to Japan. It may be assumed, however, that Bermuda growers will, by careful attention to the requirements of the American and English 206 forcing trade, be able to secure the present prices for unmixed Harrisii bulbs of £5 to £6 per lOOO for many years to come." Onions. — "These comprise in value about three-fifths of the total output of produce from Bermuda : during the year under review 400,138 boxes were shipped, valued at £62,454." Potatoes. — "The figures for 1904 shew that the potato at any rate pays for the labour expended upon it : 23,417 barrels were imported from Canada and the United States, valued at £7,260 ; assuming that one-fourth of these were sets for planting, the cost would be about £1,815. Against these, 31,134 barrels were ex- ported, valued at £23,805: shewing a yield of 5} barrels to one planted and a balance in favour of the colony of £22,020. This year 28,590 barrels were shipped yielding £21,214". Tobacco. — Professor Dunstan states as follows : " It may be pointed out that although 5d. per lb. is quoted for the sample of Connecticut wrapper leaf it does not follow that it will ultimately pay best to cultivate this variety. The Connecticut leaf is not economical as a wrapper and for this reason is falling out of favour with cigar manufacturers, and it may be taken as a gene- ral rule that a ' filler ' of the Cuba type and a wrapper of the Sumatra type, are what is principally in demand for the cigar trade at the present time. " Having regard to the fact that it would be useless to intro- duce to Bermuda, as a new crop, anything that yielded less than 50 per cent, on the outlay it was decided by the Board to proceed with a preliminary experiment in growing tobacco under tent cloth on the lines practised in Florida and Connecticut as it was seen by the reports of United States Department of Agriculture that these tobaccos were being sold for from 6/ to 10/ per lb. The writer had also seen bales of wrapper tobacco opened at Jamaica which had cost 10/ per lb. A sum of £lOO was granted by the Legislature for this experiment, which was commenced in April." Oranges. — " The destruction of citrus trees in Bermuda by scale insects is almost complete ; the extreme virulence with which these parasites attack their host is almost beyond belief. In view of the desirability of resuscitating the growing of oranges in the colony, having regard more especially to their added value during the tourist season, special efforts have been made to settle the question as quickly as possible of whether it is possible to give back to Bermuda her lost oranges. As a result of close observation and of previous experience it soon became evident that the solution lay in the selection of a variety immune, or in some degree resistant to the scale insect. It has come within the writer's experience among citrus trees in Jamaica to observe that the " Navel" orange enjoyed almost com- plete immunity from the attacks of scale insects, and moreover was a very satisfactory all round fruit to grow. And now, judging by the behaviour of this variety in the collec- tion at the Public Garden, the statement may be recorded that it is only a question of time, or rather of the rate at which they can be 207 propagated, when budded trees of this practically immune variety will be available for distribution. Twelve thousand Rough Lemon and Seville Orange stocks have been raised from seed obtained from Jamaica ; these are now ready for transplanting to the nursery rows where they will be budded and prepared for distribution. Buds can be imported from Ame- rica at a cost of $1.50 per lOO." Bananas. — "The Canary Island banana (Musa Caveudishii) thrives exceedingly in Bermuda, probably better than in any other part of the world ; including that part of China which is its native habitat. Its doing so well here is another instance of the peculiar effect of our uni(|ue climate upon certain plants. There are in Bermuda probably not more than thirty acres under bananas, planted and cultivated in a style that did very well when there was plenty of land and some to waste, but which would have to be replaced by more up-to-date methods if the banana became an article of export. There is evidently a good demand for Canary bananas in America, for the United Fruit Company, the great collecting and distributing firm, sends as far as the Cana- ries for them : and it is quite possible that if constant supplies were forthcoming from Bermuda this firm would undertake to re- ceive them at New York. Planted ten feet by eight apart and given even less care than is bestowed upon potatoes, an acre of bananas could be made to yield in Bermuda quite 2,000 bunches per annum." VANILLA STATISTICS.'^* Mr. Hermann Mayer Senior, vanilla importer, gives the follow- ing figures, which approximately represent the world's output of vanilla during the seasons 1905-6: Burbon, 70 tons ; Seychelles, 45 tons ; Mauritius, 5 tons ; Comores, Mayotte, Madagascar, &c. 120 tons ; Guadeloupe, Java, Ceylon, and Fiji, 10 tons ; Mexico, 70, tons; Tahiti, lOO tons— total, about 420 tons. Comparing the above figures with 1904-5 it may be noted that the world's output was larger by about forty tons. A British Consular report on Tahiti states that the exports during 1905 amounted in value to £12,087 against £15,969 in 1904, £23,424 in 1903, and £47.417 i" ^902. Last year the exports by weight amounted to I22{ tons against I34i tons in 1904. The U. S. A. received 92 tons, France 25^- tons, New Zealand i\ tons, and the United Kingdom 7| tons. No steps have yet been taken to conserve this industry at Tahiti, remarks the Consul, and as a consequence, the local price has further fallen from the equivalent of is. oi^d. per lb. in 1904 to I0| per lb. in 1905. * From "The Chemist and llrihiflw«.— Of similar shape and size as Large Bell, but of more delicate flavour ; colour yellow. Seed, 5 cents per packet, 25 cents per ounce. POTATOES. Plant from October to January to have new Potatoes ready for market from end of December or beginning of January to April. Soil. — Potatoes will grow in almost any kind of soil with good cultivation, but a good friable loam, rather light than otherwise, and free from stagnant water is the best. Good potatoes are pro- duced in light sandy soil, but a liberal supply of manure is neces- sary to ensure a heavy crop. Manure. — The quantity and kind of manure to be employed must depend on the nature of the soil, to a light sandy soil, a liberal supply of thoroughly decomposed manure should be given, but if the soil is of a heavy, damp nature, half rotted long manure is best. In hot, dry soils, cow dung when it can be obtained, is preferable, as it retains more moisture than stable manure, but it should be well mixed with litter. Pig's dung is too powerful in an unmixed state, but when mixed with about twice its own bulk of earth it forms an excellent manure. Generally speaking, how- ever, for the hills of Jamaica, farm-yard manure, that is the excre- ments, both solid and liquid, of the various animals kept about a place, mixed with litter and refuse and allowed to decompose, is probably the best. " Seed " or Sets. — There is some difference of opinion as to whether the tubers should be planted whole or cut, but from experi- ments made in the Gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Chiswick, London, it was found on the mean of two plantations that the produce from cut sets exceeded that from whole tubers by nearly one ton per acre. Good sized tubers are considered best for sets. The eyes in the Potato are true buds, and it stands to reason that good sound tubers with strong eyes or buds, will pro- duce much more healthy and vigorous plants than small tubers with comparatively weak eyes. This, also, has been proved by actual experiment. When good sized tubers are used for sets they may be cut in halves passing the knife through from the bunch of eyes at the top, and generally the halves may be divided again. One good eye to each set is all that is really necessary, but it is safer to cut the set so that it may have two eyes, as sometimes an eye is blind, or so weak as to be unable to push. The sets should not be planted for a few days after being cut, but kept in a dry place, and some wood ashes or such like mate- rial mixed with them to absorb the juice exuding from the fresh cuts, and thus prevent decay setting in. 226 Modes of planting — For garden cultivation, or small patches of ground, drawing drills with the hoe, if the soil is well pulverised, or digging trenches are probably the best methods. I have no doubt that drawing the earth into hills, as is done for Sweet Potatoes, and planting a set in each hill would be an excellent plan. By this means each plant could be moulded with fine soil when needed, and the hills being above the level of the ground would ensure good drainage, and it should always be borne in mind that two of the main things necessary to ensure success in the cultivation of the Potato are good drainage, and a good body of pulverised soil. In heavy wet ground a good plan is to throw the soil up in ridges. These are really raised beds about 4j feet wide, with trenches l8 inches wide between them ; the soil taken from the trenches is thoroughly broken up, and used for covering the sets, and for moulding the plants later on. The trenches act as so many drains during heavy rains and keep the ridges com- paratively dry. Some growers spread the manure on the ridges, or in the drills or trenches just previous to planting and lay the sets on it; but this is not considered a good plan, as later on the young tubers come into direct contact with the manure which causes them to scab, and as the manure is provided to afford nourishment to the fibrous roots, not the tubers, it is a mistake to run the risk of spoiling the appearance of a crop by adopting this method. For field cultiva- tion I should recommend opening trenches or drills from end to end of the ground, spread the manure evenly in the bottom of the trenches, or on the tops of the ridges if that system of cultivation is adopted, and cover it to the depth of a couple of inches with fine soil, then lay the sets and cover up. If only a garden, or small piece of ground is to be planted it will be better if it is evenly manured and well dug over sometime previous to planting, and when the season comes round the trenches can be opened and the sets planted without any further manuring. Dibbling in the sets is a system followed in England to a con- siderable extent, but unless the soil has been well cultivated previously it is not a system to be recommended here. The sets are likely to be placed at unequal depths, and the chances are that the eyes will be turned down in the holes instead of being placed uppermost, and in performing the work the ground gets trodden unnecessarily, the consequence being that if dry weather follows, the soil cakes and the buds are unable to push through it, whereas if rain follows immediately after planting, it collects in the holes and as likely as not causes the sets to rot. Distance apart. — The distance at which the sets should be placed apart varies with the nature of the soil and vigour of the kind grown ; in rich soils a greater distance should be allowed than in poor soils. In general, the distances should be 2| to 3 feet between the rows, and I2 to 15 inches between the sets in each row, but as a rule, the greater the distances the better the yield. Depth. — The depth to which the sets should be covered also 227 varies somewhat, but 4 to 5 inches in heavy, and 5 to 6 inches in light soils are about the proper depths. Subsequent culture. — This consists in keeping the ground free from weeds, earthing up the plants as they advance in growth, and keeping the soil stirred and fine, as the more it is pulverised, the better, but taking care not to injure the young roots or tubers. Lifting. When the tops are observed to wither from natural decay the crop may be lifted, and this should not be delayed too long, as if so, in this climate the new tubers are apt to vegetate. Choose fine, but if possible cloudy weather as potatoes should be exposed to light, and specially bright sunshine as little as possible. Exposure to the sun causes the tubers to turn green, and it is well known that the green parts of a potato contain a more or less poisonous principle. After lifting, the potatoes should be stored in a dry airy room or shed, but light should be excluded as much as possible. Potatoes are too often exposed to the light, and when such are cooked they are yellow in appearance and have a decided bitterish flavour, whereas if kept in the dark till required for cooking they would be white and floury. Varieties. — The varieties of the Potato are exceedingly numerous, but the kinds to be grown for shipping during the winter months are those known as '' new potatoes" — the various kinds of Kidney potato — Carter's First Crop. A re-selected stock of the earliest, most prolific and best Kidney in cultivation. Price 5/ per peck (14 lbs), per i cwt. or bushel 17/6. Carter's Improved Early Ashleaf. — The first early White Kidney Price 4/6 per peck (14 lbs), per i cwt. or bushel 14/. Hyatt's Early Prolific Ashleaf. — This is the variety so largely grown in Cornwall and Jersey as an early Potato for the English markets, and it is probably the most certain early-cropping Kidney in commerce. Price 2/6 per peck (14 lbs), per i cwt. or bushel 8/6. Victor (Sharpe). Several seasons' trial have fully confirmed all that has been said of the Victor Kidney Potato. It is proved to be one of the earliest, most prolific, and best flavoured of all early potatoes. Price 3/6 per peck (14 lbs), per i cwt., or bushel 12/. Snowdrop. — Of sterling merit, both as to quality and produc- tiveness. One of the handsomest Kidneys grown. Price 3 per peck (14 lbs), per i cwt. or bushel, 10/6. Early Norther. — This variety seems to do well everywhere. Its table qualities cannot be excelled, cooking dry and floury, whether baked or boiled. Price 70 cents per peck, $2.25 per bushel. PUMPKINS. Plant at same time as Squash, in hills 8 feet apart each way, and only allow one plant to each hill. Varieties. — Calhoun, Winter Lu.xury, Yellow Cashaw, Jonathan, Large Cheese. Price of seed. — American, 5 to 10 cents per packet. 228 RADISH. The radish will succeed in any light, open soil, but rather a shady spot should be selected. To grow them properly the ground should be dug deeply, and the surface raked fine. The seed is usually sown thinly broadcast in beds about four feet wide, and the surface lightly raked over after sowing. In dry weather the beds should be watered early in morning. Quantity of seed required. — One and a half ounces of seed will sow a bed l6 feet long by four feet wide. Varieties. — Earliest Long Frame, Carter's Violet Freneh Breakfast, Carter's Early White Turnip, Carter's Extra Early white-tipped Scarlet, Mi.ved Turnip, Early Round Dark Red, Market Gardeners' Early Long Scarlet. Prices of seed. — English, from 4d. to 8d. per ounce ; American, 10 cents per ounce. SPINACH. By sowing at intervals of two or three weeks from beginning of August till March, a succession of spinach is easily kept up from about October till May. The soil for spinach should be deep and rich, neither very stiff nor very light, and should be rather moist, otherwise frequent waterings will be necessary. The seed should be sown in drills about an inch deep, and IS to l8 inches apart, and the plants should be thinned out to about 6 inches apart in the rows. Beyond keeping the ground free from weeds, the soil stirred occasionally, and watering frequently and copiously in dry weather, no further cultivation is needed. Quantity of Seed required. — To sow a drill one chain in length J of an ounce of seed will be needed. Varieties. — Carter's Market Favourite, The Carter, Bloonisdale Spinach, Ever Ready, Prickly Seedcd-Curled, Round or Summer. Prices of seed. — English, 3d. and 4d. per ounce ; American 10 to 15 cents per ounce. SQUASH. Plant in hills, prepared as for Melons, 4 feet apart each way for the bush varieties, and 6 to 8 feet apart for the running sorts. About 2 plants may be allowed to each hill. If very large fruit is desired only two or three should be left on each plant, selecting the best, and the branches should be cut off about two or three leaves beyond the last fruit. Quantity of seed. ^One ounce for 50 hills. Varieties. — Bush kinds — Long Island, White Bush, Golden Custard Bush, White Bush Scalloped, Yelloiv Bush Crookneck. Running kinds — Landreth's White Turban, Henderson's Delicate Winter Crookneck. Price of seed. — American, 10 to 25 cents per ounce. SWEET CORN. Plant once a fortnight from beginning of August to beginning of January to have young, tender corn from end of October to April. 229 " All varieties of Sweet or Sugar Corn may be either sown in rows four and one-half feet apart, and the seeds placed about eight inches apart in the rows or planted in hills at distances of three or four feet each way, according to the variety grown, or the richness of the soil in which it is planted. The taller the variety, or the richer the soil, the greater should be the distance apart. Quantity of seed. — One quart of seed will plant 200 hills, or a row 100 yards in length; 8 to lO quarts for an acre. Varieties, Perry's Hybrid — An early twelve-rowed variety, grow- ing only 4 to 5 feet high. Kernels white, large, sweet and very tender. Price of seed, 25 cents per quart. Moore's Early Concord. — Ears large and well-filled ; and unsur- passed for richness and delicacy of flavour. Price of seed 25 cents per quart. Stabler's Early. — A valuable second early corn, remarkably large for so early a ripener. Yields an abundant crop, is desirable for family use, and one of the most profitable for market or canning. Price of seed, 25 cents per quart. Squantum. — One of the sweetest varieties, and is largely used for market and canning. It is a general favourite and is wonder- fully productive. The Squantum is the variety used almost exclu- sively at the famous Rhode Island clambakes, which is sufficient evidence of its quality. Price of seed, 25 cents per quart. Extra Early Minnesota. — Maturing for table in about seventy days from germination. Ears well made out. Desirable in the family garden and profitable to shippers. Price of seed 20 cents per quart. Early Landretli Market. — Cultivated on large areas and almost exclusively by the market gardeners of Burlington County, New Jersey. The edible grain is white and sweet. This variety will mature ears for market in about eighty days from germination. The stalk is leafy and grows to a height of 6 feet. A very profit- able sort as a money maker. Plant in rows 4 feet apart, and thin the planf, to two feet in the rows. Price of seeds 20 cents per quart. Landretli' s Sugar. — A remarkably .productive variety; two ears on every stalk, often three, and sometimes four. The ear remains long in milky condition for the table, the edible grain being pure white and exceedingly sugary. Matures for market in about 82 days. This Sugar Corn will afford to growers more baskets of marketable ears to the acre than any other variety in cultivation. Plant at distances of 4A feet between the rows, and 3 feet from plant to plant in the rows. Price of seed 27 cents per quart. TOMATOES. The seed should be sown in prepared beds or in boxes, and as soon as the plants are a couple of inches high they should be pricked off into another bed, a few inches apart, when they have attained a height of about 6 inches they may be planted out. If the seeds have not been sown too thickly the young plants may be allowed to remain in the original bed or box till they are strong 230 enough to be transplanted at once to their permanent positions. They like a light, sandy, well manured soil. They should be plant- ed about three feet apart in rows which should be about four feet asunder. A strong stake should be driven in at the root of each to tie the plants to, and particular attention should be paid to stopping the lateral growths to throw all the strength into the main stem. The tomato is a gross feeder and should be liberally supplied with rich mulching material, and irrigated freely till the fruit begins to ripen, when they should be kept rather dry at the roots. Quantity of seed. — Half an ounce of seed will produce 750 plants. Varirties.^These are so numerous that it is a somewhat difficult matter to make a selection, the following however, are recommend- ed : — Carter's Perfection (a winner of 38 first prizes at Horticultural Shows), Carter's Dedham Favourite (a winner of 22 first prizes), Carter's Market Favourite, Hare field Gem, Carter's Saudwhich Island (specially recommended as being better suited for long journeys, and rough handling than the general run of tomatoes). Ham Green Favourite, Trophy, Acme, Chiswick Red, Duke of ^ork, Carter's Blen- heim Orange, Tlic\ Mikado, Table Queen, Ponderosa, Trophy extra selected. Early Bermuda, Early fersey. The Money Maker. Prices of seed. — English seed ranges in price from 6d. to 36 per packet ; American seed from 5 to 25 cents per packet, or from 30 to 60 cents per ounce. TURNIPS. The turnip succeeds best in light sandy soils. Stiff retentive soils are ill adapted for the growth of good, well flavoured roots. Land that has been well manured seldom fails to produce good turnips, it is, therefore, well to see that the land has been properly prepared for them before sowing the seed. Drills should be drawn about 2 inches deep and 12 inches apart, and seeds sown thinly. As soon as the young plants can be handled they should be thinned to 3 inches apart, and later on a second thinning will be necessary when every other one should be removed. The surface of the soil between the rows should at all times be kept open and free from weeds. Quantity of seed — To sow a drill one chain in length half an ounce of seed will be required. Varieties — Carter's White Sivan's Egg, Carter's Jersey Lily. Carter's Purple Top Straplcaf, Henderson's Golden Ball, Purple Top White Globe, Early Snow Ball, Early White Milan. Prices of seed — English ranges from 3d. to 6d. per ounce ; American, usuallj' 10 cents per ounce, except for new varieties. WATER-MELONS. Cultivate as stated for Musk Melons, except that the hills should be double the distance apart, and only one plant allowed to each hill. Quantity of seed — One ounce to 30 hills. Varieties — Florida Favourite, Henderson's Green and Gold, Kolbs ^31 Gem (this variety is stated to be largly grown in the Southern States for shipments to the northern markets), The Jones. Landretli's Boss, Arkansas Traveller. Price of seed — American, lo to 15 cents per ounce. PACKING, &C. The list here given, though a fairly comprehensive one, does not include the names of all the vegetables that might be grown for export, but if the kinds named, or a few of them at least were grown and shipped, a start would be made and next year a few more varieties might be included. I have been careful to name only such things as can be raised quickly and with- out much trouble, and at the same time such as are pretty certain to meet with a ready sale at remunerative rates if put on the market in good condition. I do not wish to be understood to mean that one grower can successfully cultivate all the kinds named ; soil, climate, water supply and other things will have to be duly considered, and each grower will have to use his own judgment in these matters. One man might try Tomatoes, Gar- den Eggs, Sweet Corn, and Kidney Beans, another might try Melons, Squashes and Cucumbers, &c. ; another Potatoes, Cab- bages, Green Peas, Turnips, Carrots, and Beet-root ; another Salads and so on. What I should like to impress on one and all, how- ever, is, that the time for planting is near at hand and he who would like to try and grow and ship vegetables during the coming winter and spring must be up and doing. The seeds which are named in this list may be obtained from Messrs. Jas. Carter and Co.. 23 J and 2jS, Highholborn, London ; Messrs. Sutton and Sons, Reading, England ; Messrs. Vibnorn-Andricux and Co., 4, Quai de la Megisserie, Paris, France, and the American kinds from Messrs. Peter Henderson and Co.. 35 and 37 Cortland t St., New York ; Messrs. D. Landreth and Sons, 21 and 23 S. Sixth St., Philadelphia ; Messrs. Atlee Burpee and Co.. 475 and 477 N. 5th St.. Philadelphia, Pa. A remittance to cover cost of seeds and postage should accompany orders to ensure prompt attention. The only difificulty I apprehend in this matter is in the packing. There is no doubt that vegetables of excellent quality can be grown here, but careful means will have to be devised to get them to the markets in the best possible condition. In the United States there would appear to be a regulation-size box, crate, or hamper for nearly every vegetable product grown there, and a well recognised method of packing each product, and what we need now is more precise information on these points. It might be possible to procure samples of the various packages for the guidance of intending shippers, who could either have similar boxes, etc., made here, or import them as required if found cheaper to do so. These, however, are matters of detail which can be attended to whilst the crops are growing. The first thing to be done, and that soon, is to decide on what is to be grown, and get the seed in the ground. 232 CAMPHOR CULTIVATION/^ There has been much talk of late in Ceylon planting circles con- cerning the possibility of camphor cultivation in that Island, and many are anxious to learn whether operations are likely to prove profitable, especially in view of the extreme scarcity and high prices which now appear to be more or less permanent. Camphor has been cultivated for experimental purposes in Ceylon and India for a number of years, but not until quite recently has it been successfully produced. So far as we can learn, the planter has not the best methods of distillation at his disposal, and has not been able to extract camphor in paying quantities. This is well illustrated by the fact that nine months ago there were over one hundred acres under the camphor plant in Ceylon, yet up to the present not more than a ton of crude camphor has been produced. Recently the Governor of Ceylon has been talking of the potentialities of camphor culture and since then there has been an unprecedented rush for seed. Concessions of land have been granted in Ceylon, and planting will shortly commence on a substantial scale : and as the climatic conditions are said to be similar to those of Formosa, there seems every reason that the experiment should ultimately be successful. It appears, however, there is great difficulty in obtaining true camphor-seed from Japan, as, naturally, the Japanese are prepared neither to assist the planter nor to give away the secrets of their distillation. If it were possible to get hold of a Japanese or Chinaman actually engaged in the camphor industry, the difficulty might be cjuickly solved, as the Ceylon planter has everything to learn regarding distillation. In other words, he has a certain quantity of raw material at hand, and is as yet unable to obtain an adeciuate yield of the crude product. Mr. Kelway Bamber, the Ceylon Govern- ment chemist, has been at work for some time at Peradeniya, and has succeeded in perfecting an inexpensive still which it is hoped will render the process an easy one. The profit at present prices would be considerable, but a grower would probably have to take a much lower price than the ruling quotation of 350s. per cwt. The demand for camphor is only a limited one, but we believe the danger of over-production in Ceylon is remote, and that planters would be justified in going ahead. Ever since the Japanese monoply was established some eight years ago, the crude-camphor market has been more or less starved or only supplied with extremely limited quantities. This, of course, is not entirely the fault of the Japanese Government, as they have encountered many difficulties in working their monoply in Formosa. Labour-troubles, native rebellions, earthquakes, and the late war have all contributed their quota in regard to diminished shipments. One fact, however, stands out prominent since the institution of the monoply — i.e., the refining of camphor in Europe and the United States has dwindled to a mere shadow compared " From " The Chenmt and Druggist" Aug., 18, 1 906, p, 30.S. 233 with what it was a decade ago ; and, in spite of official denials to the contrary, the refining is gradually passing into Japanese hands. With the advent of extremely high prices undoubtedly the con- sumption has fallen off considerably, and where possible the public for certain disinfecting purposes have had to fall back upon the less-esteemed naphthalin, in which a large business is now done. This is, of course, only natural when it is considered that the wholesale price of refined balls in large quantities in the open market has been from 4s. to 4s. 3d. per lb. for over eighteen months. It was thought that after the Russo-Japanese war there would be a fall in price, but, on the contrary, the price rose to its present quotation, and at the moment the position is regarded as exceedingly firm. It must not be forgotten, however, that there have been some exceedingly dull periods this year, and at times the article has almost " gone a begging," the extreme prices having frightened buyers. RUBBER IN THE FEDERATED STATES.*' In his annual report for the year 1905, Sir William Taylor, K.C.M.G., the Resident General of the Federated Malay States, states that the high price of rubber and the proved suitability of land in those States for its cultivation have led to numerous appli- cations for land in the four States, but more particularly in Se- langor, where almost all the accessible land between the Klang and the Selangor rivers has been taken up for rubber planting. Large areas of land have been applied for and granted for the purposes of this industry, and most of the large estates have been converted into, or sold to, limited liability companies. Next to the coast districts of Selangor, the Sungei Ujong district of the Negri Sembilan appears to be the locality most in favour with rubber prospectors. According to Mr. Carruthers, the Director of Agriculture, the area alienated for the planting of Para rubber is some 100,000 acres, of which about 38,000 acres has already been planted. Most of the Para rubber trees of the age of five years or more have been planted 200 to the acre; some estates have as many as 300 to the acre. The number of trees of all ages in the Federated Malay States may perhaps be put at six to seven millions. The rubber production of 1905 is estimated to have been 300,000 lbs. KAPOK.t According to H. M. Consul at Guayaquil (Mr. H. Cartwright) kapok (the fibre of the silk cotton tree) is a new article of export from that port. It has been enquired for from California, Liver- pool and Belgium. The product is gathered from the districts lying along the coast between Guayaquil and Manta, at Puna, " From the " Board of Trade Journal." Aug, 2.^, 1906, p. 37H. ■ From tlie '-Board of Trade Journal," Auir, 16, ly06, p. 328. 234 Bahia de Caraques and many other places. The price paid varies from I2S. to l8s. per quintal (lOO lbs.) uncleaned. The loss of weight in cleaning is about 50 per cent., consisting of oily seeds, parts of the pod and the inner core of the pod. There is no doubt, says Mr. Cartwright, that a very large quantity of this could be collected in the country, but for the fact that there is such a scarcity of labour, and also that the people in some of the districts where it is gathered find the manufacture of hats more remunera- tive. The quantity of kapok exported is, so far, small — in iq02. 21 tons ; in 1903, 23 tons ; in 1904, 18 tons. COFFEE CULTIVATION IN BRAZIL.'^ The coffee planters of Southern India, wishing to know exactly how their industry stood in relation to that of Brazil, the Govern-^ ment of India in April, 1905, at the instance of the Government of Madras, sent a Despatch to the India Office asking for informa- tion regarding the Brazilian coffee industry. Very detailed ques- tions were asked regarding labour and wages, cultivation, area, soil and forests : the system of cultivation ; the type of trees ; the raising of bye-producls, shade on estates, abandonment of old and opening up of new estates, &c. ; crops and the curing of coffee ; diseases, and pests ; finance, and cost of production ; climate, and physical features of the coffee districts ; transport and duties. This despatch was transferred through the Foreign Office to the British Minister in Brazil, who distributed the lists of questions to the various Consuls, in order that they might make personal enquiry into the subject. The answers to these questions have now been collected and issued as a white paper by the India Office. Transmitting the replies from the Consuls, the British Minister in Brazil, in his Despatch dated the 6th February, 1906, says : "The difficulty of obtaining trustworthy information of a statis- tical nature in this country is sufficiently recognised to render all explanation of the inability to furnish full and exhaustive reports from the various Consular districts unnecessary, The enormous area of the country, the difficulties of communication and the expense of travelling preclude the possibility of acquiring minute information which could only be obtained by a personal visit to the numerous coffee planters scattered throughout a large portion of Brazil, except by experts specially appointed for the purpose, without other occupations to attend to and with considerable funds at their disposal for travelling purposes." RIO DE JANEIRO. The British Consul-General at Rio de Janeiro writes of his district : — " Coffee planting is the principal industry of Brazil and coffee is the principal article of export. The consumption of the world is estimated at 16,000,000 bags, the bulk of which is produced in » Fro'i. " Vie Tropical Agriculturist" July 15th, 1904, p.7i. 235 Brazil which yields some 9,000,000 to 15,000,000 bags. The limited demand for the quantity produced caused a crisis in recent years owing to bumper crops and over-production. Since then there have been schemes to restrict production, but these have only taken effect in the State of Sao Paulo, in which State alone can any official statistics on this subject be obtained. Sao Paulo is the principal coffee district. LABOUR. The conditions of labour are different in each locality. It may, however, be calculated that men earn about $2 a day and women $1 beside food. " Colonials " or those labourers established on the estate receive land and a certain number of trees in lieu of wages ; others have an interest in the crop. The labour is chiefly Italian and negro, and is bad and scarce. Immigration is required, but has been so badly treated that it is discouraged. Owing to extravagance, the planters are mostly in difficulties and do not pay wages when due, or the men are fleeced by the truck system. It is possible for the labourers to live by the cultivation of their own plots. The work on the estate takes some nine months of the year. Note. — I melries = 2s. 2'934d. formerly, now Is. 5d. say Re. I cts. 6. CULTIVATION. It is only the principal coffee districts which are comprised in the newspaper reports ; and there are large tracts of land unplanted and suitable for coffee, and these lands are likely to remain unplanted until the demand for coffee increases. It would probably not be practicable to obtain land for coffee-planting where restriction is in force, nor under the circumstances would it be likely to be profitable. There are extensive railways through the principal coffee districts, the rates vary but are high. Old fazendas are abandoned and not cultivated, but coffee is picked when the trees happen to yield. When the trees no longer bear, the plantation is abandoned, and as the land is privately owned it does not revert to Government, nor is it taxed. Coffee trees yield berries up to 30 years. After bumper crops the next crop or two is smaller. Land in Sao Paula in some districts pro- duces 3 or 4 times as much as that in Rio de Janeiro. There does not seem to be any extension of planting, and that planting is to replace those trees that go out of bearing. There is not much planted that has yet to come into bearing. Trees begin to bear' three years after planting. In Rio the land is hilly, and in Sao Paulo undulating and flat, with a red soil. There is some heavy forest and much scrub, and the undergrowth is very thick, with creepers, thorns and grass ; heavy timber is found in the forests. SYSTEM. The cost of production and placing at local railway stations may be estimated at f4"3000 a bag of 60 kilos (or 132^ lbs.) From " The Tropical Agiimdturist" July 15, 1906. p. 74. 236 THE CULTIVATION OF CACAO IN CEYLON''* By Herbert Wright. It is a matter of common knowledge that the value of the Ceylon cacao has, during the last few years, fallen considerably, and had it not been found that this product could be profitably cultivated as a permanent intercrop with Para and Castilloa rubber, the industry would in all probability have remained stationary. While the value of Ceylon cacao has recently shown a decline, that of many other countries has not done so, and judging from the numerous local applications regarding the varieties to be selected, the suitability of each kind in conjunction with rubber and other matters, it appears necessary to consider our position and see what improvements are possible. In the Matale, Kurunegala, Dumbara and other districts the combined cultivation — cacao and rubber — is rapidly extending, and seems likely to prove a very remunerative one. The output and value of cacao from Ceylon are obvious from a consideration of the following supplied by the Principal Collector •of Customs, Colombo : — Year. Quantity. Total value. Value per cwt. Cwt. qr. lb. Rs. Rs. cts. 1880 121 I 24 3,500 28 92 1885 7,466 I 22 298,657 40 00 1890 15,942 2 I 797,125 50 00 1892 19,176 3 2 1,342,373 70 00 1895 27,522 3 20 1,128,440 41 00 1900 33,696 3 T2 1,651,146 49 00 1905 69,431 0 0 2,433,556 35 04 The price of Rs. 70 per cwt. obtained in 1892, as against that of Rs. 35 per cwt. in 1905, takes us back to the most vital consi- deration i.e., the variety or quality of the cacao grown and exported during these periods. Since the ravages of the disease or diseases affecting the stems and pods first became prominent in Ceylon, there has been a tendency to replace the old Criollo or Caracas variety with the more prolific varieties of Forastero and Amelonado, in the belief that the latter was not as liable to the ravages of parasitic fungi. Now, however, the planters are beginning to realise that all varieties of cacao at present cultivated in Ceylon are liable to be affected by the same diseases, and when the latter appear in the fluted and high stems of the Forastero variety, are very difficult to effectively excise. There has been, during the last two or three years, a distinct tendency to plant the old Caracas type in preference to the Forastero ; the change of variety can be shown to be one of the factors responsible for the varying value placed upon the cacao exported from Ceylon. » From " The Jirojjical Agnculturist," July IB, 1906, p. 73, 237 During recent years the cultivation of shade trees for cacao has also undergone considerable change, and whereas the original plantations contained mixed species of forest types, or a prepon- derance of Erytlirina nmbrosa, they are now giving way to Hcvca brasilicnsis, Erytlirina litliosperma, Castilloa clastica, &c., : further- more, the results of experiments indicate that the shade of Erytlirina litliosperma need not be permanent throughout the whole year, but may be treated so as to form a shade of varying intensity according to the seasons. In all the species mentioned above there is observable one important and common agreement /.t'., they all change their foliage annually and return large quantities of organic matter, in the form, of leaves, to the soil. Methods of manuring have also changed to some extent, during the period under consideration, and the effect of the change in modes of cultivation can be shown to affect the quantity or quality of the article produced. The Ceylon methods of cultivation, particularly with regard to pruning, weed- ing and manuring, are almost unique, and the differences obser- vable in Surinam, Trinidad, Samoa, Cameroon, &c., provide interesting material for our consideration. In Ceylon the methods of fermenting, washing and curing are often quite different and sometimes quite in contradiction to those of other countries, and the effect of these processes on the quality of the article is only too fully recognised. In the opinion of many, the condition of the trees, whether they are free or suffering from disease, is of importance in determining quality and quantity. It is therefore obvious that there are several factors which need to be considered in connection with the present and the past con- dition of the cacao industry in Ceylon. The factor which is perhaps more responsible for the range in value of the cured beans than any other is the variety of cacao selected, and with this we will deal. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO TEACHERS ON SCHOOL GARDENS. In planning the School Garden, run the boundary lines to har- monise with the lines of the School building and the road by making them parallel or at right angles to them. Draw a plan of the proposed Garden to scale, marking adjacent buildings and roads, garden foot-paths and beds, and noting what crops it is intended to cultivate. This plan must be submitted in duplicate to the Superintending Inspector of Schools, and approved by him and by the Director of Public Gardens before a grant is made for the commencement of the garden. The first requisite is such a fence as will keep out pigs and goats as well as the larger animals. The gate should be strongly made and well hung. 238 In dry districts provision for watering or irrigating should be .carefully considered. The land will probably require at first much preparation by tillage and manuring before it is fit to lay out as a School Garden, but such preparation is of the highest educational value. It should be thoroughly forked throughout first, removing stones and stumps and burying weeds. Then mark out the main path 6 ft. wide, and the side paths 3 ft. wide, according to the directions given in the leaflet on School Gardens. A good strong line 66 feet long is essential for this work, and for lining out beds afterwards — such a line costs l/iod. in Kingston. It is recommended to put the whole ground at first under such crops as corn, peas, yams, sweet potatoes. A preliminary plan (in duplicate) of the ground under such crops should be submitted with the main plan. The plan given in the leaflet is merely suggestive and need not be rigidly followed. The chief crops of the district should have an important place in the scheme. When the plans have been approved, they should be mounted on a board, hung up in the school, and if necessary, carried out to the Garden for reference when work is being done. They should be strictly adhered to unless permission is first obtained from the Superintending Inspector of Schools. An estimate (in duplicate) of the expense for fencing and tools should be sent to the Superintending Inspector of Schools with the plans. In exceptional cases it may be necessary to hire labour to remove stumps, plough up very hard land, or erect a fence ; in such cases an estimate of expenditure should also be submitted. The Agricultural Instructor of the district should be consulted as to both plan and estimate, before they are submitted to the Superintending Inspector of Schools. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES. The usual Monthly Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, 1 2th September, 1906, at 2 p.m. : Present : — The Hon. T. L. Roxburgh, Acting Chairman, the Acting Director of Public Gardens, the Acting Island Chemist, the Superintending Inspector of Schools, His Grace the Archbishop, Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, J. W. Middleton and the Secretary, John Barclay. The Secretary read the minutes of the previous meeting which were confirmed. The Secretary read copy of letter from the Colonial Secretary to the Jamaica Agricultural Society, forwarded for the information of the Board of Agriculture, in which the Governor agreed to the recommendation of the Conference on Agricukural Instructors, with the exception that Mr. Cradwick and Mr. Briscoe, being 239 public officers, would not be under the control of the joint Com- mittee of the two Boards. The Secretary also read letter from Mr. Cradwick saying that his engagements already made would carry him up to the 25th March 1907, and to interrupt these would cause a great deal of inconvenience and dissatisfaction to the different local Agricultural Societies and Show Committees, and as he would be away from the district in connection with the Prize Holdings Competition and the Teachers Course three months of this time, he suggested that he should be allowed to remain in the western district till the end of the financial year, and if a new Instructor were appointed he could initiate him to his duties there during the remaining period, It was resolved to advise the Agricultural Society of the circum- stances, and, in the absence of the joint Committee proposed but which had not been appointed, and as Mr. Cradwick's duty was so intimately connected with the Branches of the Agricultural Society, to state that the Board thought it advisable for Mr. Crad- wick to carry out his engagements in his present district to the 31st March, and from 1st April next take up his new district, and to ask their opinion on the matter. The Secretary submitted resolutions from the Central Cornwall, Santa Cruz, Appleton, Petersfield and Hanover Agricultural Societies aski ig that Mr. Cradwick's services might be retained for the western district. The Secretary submitted letter referred from the Colonial Secre- tary's Office regarding the supply of arrowroot to the General Peni- tentiary which was usually obtained from St. Vincent at about 2^d. per lb., with a minute asking whether the arrowroot could not be obtained at the same price or even a little over in Jamaica. The Secretary was instructed to write the Collector-General to ask what quantity of arrowroot was imported into Jamaica. The Secretary reported that he had some time ago made enquiry on the subject and had letters. He found then that although arrowroot was not cultivated but grew in old cultivations from ratoons, people usually would not sell under 6d. per quart which worked out at about 4d. to 4id. per lb. and that he could not get anybody to undertake it under 3 id., that even at that figure tkey would require to know of a certain outlet before they would pre- pare it in quantity. He was, however, again making enquiry. The Secretary submitted a letter from the Hon. H. Cork, asking whether the articles that have been published in the Journal of the Agricultural Society and in the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture on Rubber could not be collected and published in pamphlet form. After discussion, Mr. Harris was asked to edit a pamphlet to contain all the practical instruction as regards rubber growing that was available up to date, and submit the pamphlet at next meeting. The Secretary submitted a letter from Mr. A. B. Lindo, Montego Bay, making application for the post of Assistant Superintendent at Hope Gardens. 240 The Secretary was instructed to forward same to the Govern-^ merit. The Secretary submitted letter from Mr. W. M. N. Henry, Enfield, asking the Board to supply seeds for his school garden. He was directed to reply that the Board had no funds to supply such. The Secretary supplied the following reports ; — From the Chemist : — 1. Arrangements for holding Distillers Course in October, which were approved. 2. Examination of Students for Diploma in Agriculture asking the Board to sanction a grant of £l0 to be paid, as usual, as examiner's fee to Prof. d'Albuquerque out of the amount provided on the Estimates for " Instruction in Bookkeeping", etc., under the heading " Agricultural Education." This was authorised. 3. Resignation of Mr. S. W. Brown from the staff of the Sugar Department, having been appointed Science Master at Wolmer's School, as from the 1st September, also sug- gesting that the vacancy be not filled until Mr. Cousins' return. This was agreed to. From the Director of Public Gardens : — 1. Report Hope Experiment Station. 2. Mr. Cradwick's Report. 3. Mr. Briscoe's Report and Itinerary. These were directed to be circulated. The Secretary read letter which had just been handed in from Messrs. Walcott, Robinson & Dunn, stating that the Directors of the Amalgamated Products Co., Ltd., desired to obtain a fair, im- partial and reliable report as to the quantity and portions of the lands of their estate called ' Longville' in the parish of Clarendon which were suitable for and could be cultivated in cassava on pro- fitable and commercial lines, and asking if Mr. Cradwick could be permitted to inspect the property and furnish such a report. It was ageeed that the Secretary should write Mr. Cradwick and ask him if possible to arrange to take an early opportunity to do so, his expenses being paid by the Amalgamated Products Co. The Meeting then adjourned till Wednesday, 17th October, at 2 p.m. [Issued 6th Oct., 1906.] Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam. BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE. Vol. IV, NOVEMBER, 1906. Part 11. EDITED BY WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S., Director of Ptiblic Gardens and Plantations. CONTENTS: PAGE. 241 283 Notes on Rubber-producing Plants Board of Agriculture PRIG E— Threepence. A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send name and address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O. KINGSTON, JAMAICA ; HoPB Gardens. 1906. JAMAICA. BULTjETIN LIBR NEW ^ OF THK BOTAr OARDtiN. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Vol. IV. NOVEMBEK, 1906. Part 11. NOTES ON RUBBER PRODUCING PLANTS. Compiled by W. HARRIS, F.L.S., Superintendent of Hope Gardens. At the request of the Board of Agriculture the following in- formation on rubber producing plants, much of which has already appeared in various issues of the Bulletin, has been brought to- gether in pamphlet form for the use of intending rubber planters in Jamaica. Rather copious quotations have been made from Mr. Herbert Wright's valuable book on Para Rubber,* this being the most recent work on the subject, a copy of which should be in the possession of every grower of Para rubber. It is impossible to say precisely at this stage of the industry which kind of rubber tree will be found best suited in every respect to the conditions that obtain here, but the indications would appear to be in favour of Castilloa. Personally I am in- clined to think that the Lagos Silk Rubber (Funtumia elastica) will prove to be one of the best if not actually the best for many of our districts. The young trees at Hope Gardens abound in latex which flows freely and we know that the marketable rubber is of very fine quality, and said to be superior to Castilloa. PARA RUBBER. (Hevea hrasiliensis). CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. What is known as Para Rubber of commerce is obtained chiefly, if not entirely, from the species known as Hevea hrasiliensis, a tree indigenous to the vast region drained by the Amazon and its tributaries, estimated to embrace a territory nearly two-thirds the size of Europe. Para is in about south latitutde l°, but the district of the same name extends over a vast forest region to the south and west throughout which, and the enormous forests of *" Bevea hrasiliensis or Para Riihher, its Bohmij, Oultiudtioa, C'hemistnj and Diseases," By Herbert Wright. "Jad edition Colombo, A. M. & J. Ferguson. 242 Central and Northern Brazil, the rubber trees are abundantly found. The climate is remarkable for its uniformity of temperature, usually not exceeding 87" F. at mid-day or below 74 ' at night. The greatest heat recorded is 95 > and the mean for the year is 81". "The rainfall occurs principally during the months from January to June, the maximum being in April when it reaches 15 inches. For the remaining six months of the year very little falls but there are fine days in the wet season and occasional showers in the dry." {Kcxi< Bull. 189B, p. 244.) According to E. Ule, in his book dealing with rubber in the Amazon district, ^the annual rainfall is usually between 80 and 120 inches, and the mean temperature between 76° and 81'. Mr. H. A. Wickham states* : — The whole of the Hevea which I procured for the government of India were the produce of large grown trees in the forest covering the broad plateaus dividing the Tapajos from the Madeira River. The soil of these well-drained, wide-extending forest-covered table-lands is stiff, not remarkably rich, but deep and uniform in character. The Hevea found grow- ing in these unbroken forests rivals all but the largest of the trees therein, attaining to a circumference of 10 feet to 12 feet in the bole. These forest plains having all the character of wide-spread table-lands occupy the space betwixt the great arterial river systems of the Amazon, and present an escarped face, which follows at greater or less distance and abuts steeply on the igapo or bagas, /.('. the marginal river plains subject to inundation by the annual rise of the great river. So thorough is the drainage of this high- land that the people who annually penetrate into these forests for the season's working of the rubber have to utilize certain lianas (water-bearing vines) for their water supply, since none is to be obtained by surface-well sinking, in spite of the heavy rainfall during a great part of the year. The Climate in Ceylon. In Ceylon, according to Mr. Herbert Wright, an elevation of 2,000 feet in the Central Province, and 3,000 feet in the Uva Province [south-eastern] is considered to be near the maximum, and a rainfall of 70 inches near the minimum for the cultivation of this species ... It is being tried in districts having 200 inches of rain per year and also in dry irrigable areas, but reliable results cannot be obtained for many years. Federated Malay States. In the Federated Malay States, Mr. Wright says, there is no evidence of the highest elevation at which Para Rubber will thrive. According to Carruthers the growth of the Para rubber from sea-level up to 300 feet in the Federated Malay States is better than at most places The climate of the Federated Malay States is very uniform and can be described in general terms as hot and moist. The annual rainfall except in places close to the mountain ranges, is about 90 inches. .... There is no well-marked dry season. Generally speaking July is the driest month, but has seldom a less rainfall than 3i * In Bull. No. 49. Rurcnu of Plant Industry. U. S. Dt-pt. of Agri.— " Tlie Cultwre of the CentraJ America Ruhher Tree hy O.V. Coo\^. copion< extracts from which wcru pub- lished in SuVctin nj Sept. of Agriculture for l'J04 and 1U05. 243 inches. The wettest season is from October to December, and there is another wet season of slightly less degree during March and April The average maximum temperature occurring between noon and 3 p.m. is in the low-country just under 90°, and the average minimum occurring before sunrise is just over 70°. The general mean temperature is about 80' Soil — The soil in which the trees grow in the forests on the Amazon and its tributaries is deep and rich, mainly alluvial, sometimes a stiff clay, sometimes a vegetable mould ; and it is frequently inundated along the banks of the rivers. Young plants however, are not often observed to grow actually within reach of the tides. For sake of comparison the following analyses of Para rubber soil in Ceylon (from Mr. Herbert Wright), and a typical banana soil from the parish of St. Mary are here given. Rubber Soils at Henaratgoda Soil under old rubber. Per cent. Coarse sand and small stones 38-00 100-00 Chemical Analyses, Insoluble matter 83-00 Moisture 1-20 Organic matter and combined water 7-8 Potash 0-046 Lime O-040 Phosphoric acid 0-031 Carbonic acid as -( Carbonate of lime J not determined Humus (soluble in "( ammonia) J do Nitrogen 0-154 Available potash COOS Available phosphoric acid trace ... 0^0008 SUITABLE LOCALITIES IN JAMAICA. It will be seen from the foregoing that there are many districts in Jamaica suitable for the growth of Para rubber. Portions of St. Andrew, St. Thomas-in-the East, the lower lands in Portland, St. Mary, St. Ann, St. Catherine, Upper Clarendon, Manchester, St. Elizabeth, Trelawny, St. James, Hanover and Westmoreland. There are available districts in every agricultural parish in the island, districts in which cocoa is or might be successfully culti- vated. " To secure land at the right elevation, with the requisite rain- fall and proper soil, is the first consideration in connection with the successful culture of the Para rubber tree. The elevations most suitable are from sea-level up to i,200 or 1,300 feet. It will grow at a higher elevation ; indeed there are reports of it growing at over 2,000 feet ; but it would probably take longer to come to Banana Soil in St. , Mary- Jamaica. Per cent. Fine earth Nil 100-00 42-93 6-96 8-38 -7453 17-22 ■1223 26-92 - 2-5 -1161 0-0048 244 maturity than if it were planted at a lower elevation. A rainfall of 80 in to 100 in. per annum is usually considered more suitable than an excessive rainfall of 1 50 in. to 200 in." (R. Hoffman : See Bulletin of Department of Agriculture, December, 1905, p. 263.) CULTIVATION. Propagation — The tree may be propagated by cuttings of the green lateral twigs as soon as they begin to harden, and by seeds, the latter method being the more expeditious. Seeds soon lose their vitality on exposure to the atmosphere and should therefore be planted as soon as possible after gathering. We have found that a good method is to place the seeds on a thin layer of sifted coco-nut refuse, or powdered charcoal or a thick layer of sand in a shaded position, then cover them with sacking which should be kept continually moist. The sacking is removed every morning and all the seeds that have germinated since the previous morning are picked out and potted in bamboo pots. Last year we received a consignment of 7,500 seeds by post from Singapore, and owing to the careful way in which they were packed for transport we were able to raise and distribute 68 / of them. Nurseries— The practice in Ceylon appears to be to plant the seed- lings in nursery beds, and when nine to twelve months old, these are cut back and the stumps are planted in the field. In Jamaica, they are planted out in their permanent places, as soon as they are a few inches high ; and our experience is that there is no check, and they grow rapidly in favourable situations. Planting Operations. Distance — Various distances from 10' x 10' to 20' x 20' have been tried in Ceylon, but Mr. Herbert Wright states that in order to allow the plants to develop freely in circumference the maximum distance should be allowed, as the desired length of trunk is usually obtained even when the Para rubber tree is grown in the open. From considerations of the condition of trees from 2 to 20 years old, the following table is compiled in order to show the probable number of Para rubber trees of known age an estate can bear without interfering with the natural growth of the plants : — Total spread of Number of trees. Age of trees. the branches in diameter. per acre. Four years old 12 feet 302 Six 15 " 193 Eight ■' 25 " 70 Ten 30 " 48 Twelve " 35 " 35 Fifteen " 40 " 27 Twenty " 40 " 27 This shows the approximate number of trees to the acre at different ages without any interference of the branches of adjacent trees with one another. There is, however, no objection to the 245 bra:iches of trees partially overlapping, and it is more than likely that any excessive branch development will be kept back by pru- ning or pollarding rather than by reducing the number of trees below 200 to the acre. i/o//w^— With regard to the preparation of the holes, Mr. Wright recommends that they should be li x 2x 2 feet. The larger the holes, the better for the plant. Good holing will give the plants an excellent start ; the dribbling in of seeds in small holes is not to be recommended. It is hardly necessary to point out that the planting operations should be carried out when rain is plentiful. As a mixed crop — Para rubber is much more likely to be grown as a mixed crop with cocoa, bananas, &c., in Jamaica than as a pure crop, at any rate for some time to come, and the question thus arises as to the proper distance to plant amongst other crops. Cocoa has been found to be the best and most profitable crop to grow with rubber trees for the reason that the trees help each other. The cocoa has a heavy fall ot leaf and thus manures and benefits the rubber, and the rubber acts as a wind-break to the cocoa. The successful and continued cuUivation of inter crops with Para rubber mainly depends on the distance the plants are from one another. The rapidly-growing surface roots of Para rubber will ultimately take possession of the soil, and the inter crops of tea, cocoa, or coffee cannot be expected to thrive except the rubber plants are widely planted. The cultivation of tea under closely- planted rubber is more or less of a catch crop ; but several estates are known where the rubber is widely planted amongst tea and both are bearing and doing well. Cocoa and coffee planted in the middle of the lines will last for several years under rubber. The roots of these plants do not as closely ramify the soil as those of the crowded tea plants, though they will ultimately have to face the struggle for existence with the roots of Para rubber and will probably be choked out. Cocoa may be planted 10 to 20 feet apart, and the amount of soil on good cocoa estates which is free from roots is often very large and permits of the growth of other trees on the same acreage. Cocoa under rubber will last much longer than tea, and the protection by the Para rubber trees against excessive exposure is no doubt greatly in favour of the two products being grown together. The planting of both products on the same soil is done in such a way as to allow free root areas for both species during the first five years, many planting the cocoa and rubber both twenty feet apart so that there will be approximately 100 rubber and 100 cocoa trees per acre.* Though the rubber ultimately becomes the stronger component, it is surprising how long both products can be successfully grown together. In the cultivation of inter crops with Para rubber it is essential that both products be planted at the same time, as the Para rubber * But if it is intended to keep both crops growing permanently, it is suggested that the cocoa and rubber be planted alternately at distances of 15 feet apar , so tliat there will be approximately nearly lOi) cocoa and luO rubber trees to the acre. Editor, Bulletin, of the Bepartiiient oj Agriculture, Jamaica . 246 tree is about as strong as the coconut palm in its root system and quickly takes possession of the soil. (H. Wright in Para Rubber.) Manuring. — "The Para rubber does not necessarily require a soil with a high percentage of organic matter and mineral food as was imagined by early investigators, although rubber grows well on such soils. Under cultivation the trees can be made to grow well on light sandy loams at the proper elevation in districts having the necessary rainfall and temperature. So, given a fair balance of plant food the Para rubber tree will flourish, as there is not much drain on the soil by food material being permanently removed — only the mineral matter and nitrogen taken away in the rubber. Although the loss is small, yet it should be taken into consideration after a number of years, and an attempt made to replace the mineral matter and nitrogen. We do not at present advance any opinion as to the effect of manuring on the yield of latex in old trees, nor yet can we refer to any reliable results which would allow us to put forward even an hypothesis. We are at present of the opinion that manuring at the young stage would help on the young plants and thus prove to be beneficial, giving rise to good wood and large supplies of leafy material. We would strongly recommend that the fallen leaves be buried with lime or basic slag in trenches, or round the trees at a distance of 4 to 6 feet from the trunks ; this basic dressing will promote nitrification and give rise to the more rapid decomposition of the organic matter. Light forking is recommended to break up the hard surface of the soil and so aerate it and allow penetration of the rain and air."* " Draining. — t It is erroneous to suppose that because Para rubber is a forest cultivation draining is unnecessary. Draining is as necessary for rubber trees as it is for any other product in order to encourage the free circulation of air, water, and food solutions throughout the soil, and to check wash on steep hillsides. The distance of the drains from one another and their size must depend upon the soil conditions. In swampy and boggy land, little above the water level, the drains should be as wide and deep as possible, either between each row of trees or in exceptional cases around individual trees. Several areas in the low country of Ceylon, consisting of bogs rich in organic matter, have been converted into good rubber land by making drains two to three feet wide and three to four feet deep, and heaping the earth in the middle to form a dry soil on which the rubber plant can live for a couple years. On hillsides the drains need be only about one to one and a half feet deep. They should be made at right angles to the slope in order to check the formation of gorges. The distance of the drains from one another will vary according to the slope and climatic conditions ; on flat land a distance of 60 to 70 feet seems sufficient, whereas on steep hillsides 20 to 30 feet is not too close. . . . * Circular R. But. Oanl , CeyVm, Vol. III., No- 6, p. 82. t Para Kubber, by H. Wiight. 247 DISEASES. "It is often relatively easy to successfully grow a small number of plants in any particular district without their suffering from the ravages of innumerable insects and fungi. But if the same crop is grown on a large scale matters often take a different turn There are already several insects and fungi which live on the leaves of the Para rubber trees, but none of them are very harmful. To a very limited extent the annual fall of leaf that takes place on all Para rubber trees after they have passed their second or third year is an advantage when dealing with leaf pests, as the foliage can be easily and regularly collected and burnt. . , . "Fruit disease. — Para rubber planters in many parts of Ceylon have occasionally been alarmed at the curious behaviour of certain fruits ; some dry up and remain attached to the twigs, and others of all ages fall to the ground without expelling the seeds. The fall of the unexploded fruits is often due to wind, and there is no parasitic fungus to be found in the tissues. It has been stated that the fruits are subject to the attack of a parasitic fungus belonging to the genus Nectria, and Carruthers reports having successfully inoculated Para rubber fruits with this fungus, but was not certain as to whether it attacked the fruits when on the tree or only when they fell to the ground. "Themosteffective way of fighting the fruit disease is to collect all dried fruits which are on the trees and those which have fallen to the ground and burn the lot on the spot. On the average rubber estate there can be no real objection to burning such small quantities of fruits as this treatment involves. " Stem Disease. Fungus. — In his account of canker (Nectria) of Para rubber, Carruthers points out that a parasite fungus occurs on the stems and branches, which may prove fatal to the trees. The area attacked by the fungus can be detected often by the change of colour of the bark or by the exudation of the latex. When, however, the fungus has got a firm hold of any local patch of tissue, the latex tubes become quite empty and dry up, so that it not only threatens the life of the tree, but also robs the planter of the latex or rubber for which the tree is being cultivated. It is necessary that all cankered areas should be excised and the tissue burnt on the spot. All the discoloured areas should be removed, even if the woody tissues below the cambium are permanently damaged in the operation. In some cases it is true that the cankered area is, by means of a layer of cork, prevented from extending to other parts of the stem, but it is unwise to leave the matter to chance. " Root Disease. Fungus. — A root disease due to a fungus has already been mentioned as occurring in the Straits and Ceylon in association with white ants, but probably preceding them. Patch has shown that the Ceylon fungus can spread underground on roots of grasses, &c., and that it is a species of Polyporus (Fomes semitostus). The hyphae are described as occurring on the first six inches of the trunks as well as the roots. Any trees 248 so affected should be isolated by digging a deep trench round them about a foot wide, as in the case of the root disease in tea, and, if possible the diseased specimens should be uprooted and burnt As Messrs. Ridley and Derry have pointed out, this fungus, the mycelium of which is underground, is the worst feature against close planting, as under such conditions it might spread very rapidly. The uprooting of all dead stumps of trees would appear to be necessary if this disease is to be kept in check_ PRUNING YOUNG TREES. " The Para rubber naturally grows to a tall slender tree, and it remains to be seen how by pruning or pollarding the young plants an increase in circumference may be obtained at the expense of the growth in height. Considering what has been accomplished with tea, where plants ordinarily growing into fairly stout trees over twenty feet high have been converted into small bushes two to four feet in height, it would be idle to predict the possibilities with Para rubber. The prevention of the unnecessary growth in height may well form the subject of many experiments. The plants can be prevented from growing into slender woody structures by removing the terminal bud with a knife or thumb- nail pruning, or, as is more commonly the case, by pruning the terminal young leaves and the enclosed bud. If the central bud is effectively and repeatedly removed, without doing considerable damage, the stem cannot grow in height except by means of lateral shoots ; these will subsequently require bud-pruning once they have attained the required size At Heneratgoda the trees which have forked at 7, 9 and II feet from the ground show an increase of about 30 inches in thirty years or an average of one inch per year, throughout a long and fairly reliable period. Young trees which have been bud-pruned in the manner suggested above show an increased rate of circumferential growth, and this means the attainment to a tappable size at an earlier period." — (Herbert Wright.) TAPPING*. "When one considers that the rate of growth of the Para rubber tree in Ceylon is such that a circumference of 20 inches cannot be attained much before the fourth, fifth or sixth year, it is obvious that, under ordinary methods of cultivation, all ideas of extracting rubber from trees under these ages should not be encouraged ... If the tree has a circumference of much less than 20 inches, tapping cannot be recommended, because the available tapping area is too small. The production of new tissue would be a strain on the young plant, and the thin bark tissues would probably be quickly cut away long before the desired quantity of rubber had been obtained. . . . The best Season to Tap. The Para rubber trees in Ceylon drop their leaves in February or March, produce new leaves and flowers after a leafless phase of a few days or a couple of weeks, and yield ripe fruit in August and September. There is an active vegeta- * H. Wright. Para llubber. 249 tive period from September to February, a short resting period in February, and a floral and foliar condition from February to September. The yield of latex should be most abundant when the trees are leafless, as they cannot then lose much water by trans- piration, and it is of interest to note that the experiments made by Arden in 1902 seem to give support to this view. Arden states that the yield from trees tapped when they were leafless was much greater than from trees tapped when the leaves were beginning to appear or when in full foliage. In Nicaragua the latex from other rubber trees contains the highest percentage of caoutchouc during the dry season. The possession of abundance of latex during the dry season lends support to the theory of its function as a water store during drought. In many parts of the tropics, however, the leafless period occurs when the dryness and temperature of the air are at the maximum, and the collecting of latex would, during such a time, be limited to the very early part of the day and the evening. What part of the day to Tap. " The best flow of latex with the minimum quantity of scrap rubber is obtained in the early morning or evening on sunny days, but tapping may be clone further on into the day, when the temperature is low and clouds and moisture are abundant. In a district like Peradeniya the tapping may be continued up to 8 or 9 a.m., and recommenced at 3 to 4 p.m. All- night tapping is of course only possible when the artificial lighting of estates is more perfect than at present. In the early and late parts of the day the temperature is lower, the air usually more moist, and there is less transpiration of water from the leaves ; the combined effect of these factors is a better flow of latex dur- ing such times. According to Ridley* the girth of the tree de- creases during the day and increases towards evening, an obser- vation which may throw some light on the theories regarding tension of the laticiferous tissue and transpiration. Frequency of Tapping. " The frequency of tapping varies con- siderably, but it is by no means clearly proved that the tree will not stand tapping every alternate day throughout the greater part of the year. The fact that an interval of one day is sufficient for the wound response to become obvious is of interest and import- ance. It is perhaps not advisable to judge the eff'ect of very frequent tapping from the results obtained in the Amazon districts, as there the trees are usually very old and in many cases have never been tapped before. Nevertheless, it is of interest to learn that in those districts, the Para rubber tree is often tapped for 180 days continually without apparently doing very serious damage to the trees." Mr. R. Derry says : — " I consider the latex flows most freely when the new leaves appear, which with most Hevea trees is about March, and the advantage of tapping about that time is not so much a question of actual yield as it is of the amount of bark removed in the operation, which would be less at the best season. * Annual Report of the Director, Botanic Gardens, Singapore. 250 There would also be another season commencing in September with those trees then flowering. As with all trees, the ratio of growth is variable at different periods, but taking the girth of Hevea trees here, a 3-year old tree at 3 feet from the ground being 13-15 inches, and an l8-year old tree lOO inches: the annual increment would average nearly 6 inches in circumference, and I am sanguine that Hevea trees can be tapped in Malaya when 6 years old, if not earlier, when I estimate the girth at 24-30 inches on good free soil*. Tapping should be commenced at the base of the tree, working upwards to 6 or 8 feet if necessary, and if a tree be operated on in a workmanlike manner, three annual tappings could be executed before going over old incisions." RUBBER YIELDS, t Yields ill Ccylou. "The yield of rubber varies from 7 lb. per 400 trees in one tapping to a maximum of 25 lb. per tree in twelve months' tapping. The first series of reliable yieldsj are those obtained at Henaratgoda from 1888 to 1896. One tree at Henarat- goda was lightly tapped every second year, and gave for nine years an average annual yield of li lb. of dry rubber: — 27f oz. in 1888 42 oz. in 1890 45 oz. in 1892 51 oz. in 1894 48^ oz. in 1896 This tree was twelve years old when first tapped, and the annual yield of I A lb. was from the 1 2th to the 20th year of the tree's life. The method of tapping consisted of scraping off the rough outer bark and making numerous V-shaped incisions to a height of about five feet. The tree had a circumference of 50i inches and was growing with other trees of nearly equal size, distanced 30 feet apart. Other experiments have been made at Henaratgoda which indicated similar results by consecutive weekly tappings of the trees. Yields oil Estates. "To form an estimate of the yield to b® obtained from large acreages of Para rubber trees of known ag^ is no easy task, and the best way to deal with this part of the subject is to give only the results which have been obtained on rubber estates in this island. Matabele District. " In the Matabele District there are estates where an average yield of | lb. of dry rubber per tree from 5,000 trees has been obtained in one month's tapping. The average circumference of these trees was 35 inches a yard from the ground. On another property a yield of 3! lb. of rubber per tree has been obtained from 499 trees in seven months' tapping. Another estate, in the same district, has obtained an average yield of 3i lb. * In his rei ort to tlie India Office Close mentioned that Hevea trees of 6-8 inches diamtter are tapped in Brazil, t H. Wright, I ara Rubber. j Dr. Trimen, Notes on Rubber Experiments. 251 of dry rubber per tree from 311 trees in one year, The age of these trees varied from 10 to 15 years, and the trees varied in cir-- cumference from 30 to 70 inches at a yard from the ground. These trees were tapped on the full herring-bone system ; the tapping area covered half the tree and extended from the base to a height of seven feet. The tapping was done very carefully, the distance of seven feet being worked through in 240 days of con- tinuous tapping. The yield from these particular trees will pro- bably be increased by a change in the method of tapping and tapping instruments during the current year. On a third Matabele estate the Para rubber is inter-planted among cocoa the cocoa is planted 12 by 12 feet, and the rubber through alternate lines of cocoa, 24 by 12 feet. By the V method of tapping a yield of 3 lb. of dry rubber from each of 10,000 trees is expected during the present year, the trees being 8 to 15 years old. On this estate several encouraging experiments in tapping from 6 feet upwards to a height of 15 feet have been made, light ladders being used for the purpose. The Province of Uva. "The most successful results at high elevations in Ceylon have probably been obtained in the Province of Uva. On Passara Group estate, Passara, Para rubber is being cultivated up to and over 3,000 feet above sea-level. The trees are of various ages, and one specimen, 13 years old, measures 54 inches in circumference a yard from the ground, and 60 to 70 feet in height, though growing at an elevation of about 2,600 feet. Tapping is being carried on with promising results up to 2,8oo feet, and from the trees at an elevation of 2,6oo feet, varying in age from 7 to 13 years, an average yield of 2 lb. of dry rubber per tree was obtained during 1905. South Ceylon : Kahitara, Awbalangoda, Rayigam, &c. — "In the South of Ceylon equally good and often better results have been obtained. On one estate, 8,731 trees, having a minimum circum- ference of twenty inches, gave in one year, an average of 1 . 72 lb. of dry rubber per tree ... A section of another rubber property in the South of Ceylon has given, from ll-year-old trees, the average circumference of which is 30 inches only, no less than 5J lb. of dry rubber from each of 255 trees."' COAGULATION. "If* the pure latex is allowed to stand in a receptacle, it finally coagulates and the caoutchouc globules with other sub- stances float to the top, leaving a more or less clear liquid behind. By the addition of chemical reagents or by subjecting the latex to different temperatures coagulation may he hastened or retarded. The coagulated substance after washing, pressing, and drying is ultimately known as the rubber of commerce. In the production of rubber from latex the planter may either take advantage of the presence of coagulable constituents in the latex or adopt chemical and mechanical means for the separation of the caoutchouc globules from the rest of the latex . . . * H. Wright, Para Kubber. 252 Smoking and Coagulation. — "The coagulation of the latex may be hastened by exposing it to heat and the products of combustion of a fire. The latex can be coagulated fractionally by such a process, and the finished product, when properly manufactured, is less liable to putrefaction than the rubber prepared by many other methods. The smoke from burning palm nuts used in the Amazon district, contains, among other substances, small quantities of acetic acid, acetone, and creosote, The acetic acid is probably the agent responsible for effecting the coagulation ; the other sub- stances, particularly the creosote, are absorbed, the latter acting as an antiseptic in preventing the rapid decomposition of the albu- minoids present. In Brazil the latex is poured into a shallow basin 6o cm. to I metre in diameter and 20 to 30 cm. deep, and pieces of bark, dirt, &c., removed. A fire is then made of wood and resinous substances, and is kept going either with green branches of Miinusops data, or with palm nuts from Attalea excclsa, and Maximiliana rcgia, these palms are usually grown in the Botanic Gardens in various parts of the tropics, the latter species being more commonly known as the " Cocurito " palm. A chatty, open at both ends, is placed on the fire and the smoke allowed to issue from the upper aperture. A paddle like implement is then dipped into or covered with the latex, and held over the smoke until the latter is coagulated. It is stated by Bonnechaux* that 8 litres of latex are completely coagulated in about li hours by these means. "The decomposition of the albuminous substances in the rubber may be prevented by the addition of suitable antiseptic reagents to the latex, when the rubber is prepared in other ways, though quickness in drying or complete extraction of the moisture from coagulated rubber is often sufficient to bring about the same result. Dickson's apparatus is devised to meet many of these requirements." — (Herbert Wright.) "Samples of rubber prepared at Kuala Kangsar have been reported on as equal to good Para (Brazilian) and would fetch best Para prices. I have always found the latex to coagulate readily with only the addition of a pinch of alum, and by placing immediately in smoke, both putrefaction and mould are avoided. If the rubber is sound, the market value depends on the state of dryness in which it is received. What has been prepared at Kuala K angsar has been kept smoked until shipped. A parcel sent to London 3j years ago was reported to have lost 26i per cent, in washing, and the manufacturers thought that if sent home in bulk, the loss would reach 30 per cent. This, however, is a question for the planter himself ; smoke has a chemical action in the coagulation of latex from Hevea as well as saving decom- position, and assists in gradually drying. To be as dry as possible depends on the time the rubber has been kept smoked, and I am of opinion that dry marketable rubber could not be prepared under two months." — (R. Derry, Singapore). * Jumelle. 253 ACREAGE IN RUBBER. Sir Frank Swettenham, K.C.M.G., writes witli regard to an Article whicli appeared in The Standard of August 8, last : — The acreage planted with Para rubber in the Straits and Malay States on Janu- ary I, last, was 30,000 acres, and in Ceylon, 25,000 acres. Since that date the total area planted in the Malay States does not amount to 10,000 acres. The United Planters' Association in the Malay States have taken pains to go into this question, and in their latest report they give the following figures : Total acreage planted with rubber in the Straits and Malay States 30,000 acres : Sumatra, 5,000 acres : Java, 5,000 acres ; Ceylon, 25,000 acres ; India and Burma, 5,000 acres ; total 70,000 acres. Allowing that all this is good, and will give the good yield of 200 lb. per acre, the amount produced would be 14,000,000 lb. This acreage cannot, however, be all in full bearing till the end of 191 1, and they calculate that no more than this acreage can be in bearing till 191 1, because it is not yet planted. The exports from Para for the last three years have remained practically constant at about 30,000 tons, and the world's produc- tion was, in 1898, as nearly as it can be ascertained, about 60,000 tons, or 134,000,000 lb. The present production is esti- mated at 70,000 tons or 156,000,0001b. of which Asia can only produce 14,000,000 up to the year 1911, what she can produce after that date will depend upon the area planted and successfully cultivated between now and 1911. Standard, Dec. 6. Information on Para rubber may be found in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, as follows : — 1894, pp. 99- 105 ; 1890, pp. 82-84 ; 1900, pp. 186-190. And in the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture as follows: — 1905, pp. 258-269; 1906, pp. 20-21, 159-160, 169-170, 233. CASTILLOA OR CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBBER. {CastiUod clastica.) This tree grows in Central America from south of Mexico, south-wards to the west coast of South America. The tree has a variety of local names, the most important of which are ' Hule' or ' Ule' and ' Caucho.' Distinct from this plant is Castilloa Tumi, a tree also found in Central America and sometimes confused with the true Central American rubber tree which it closely resembles in appearance. In an article in the Beihcfte zum Tropcnpftanzcr for July, 1901, Mr. Th. F. Koschny, a planter of long experience in Costa Rica, distinguishes the following varieties of 'Hule' trees: Castilloa elastica : ' Hule bianco' White rubber tree ' Hule negro' Black rubber tree ' Hule Colorado' Red rubber tree Castilloa Tunu : ' Hule tunu' Gutta percha. 254 The names of the three so-called varieties are given from the .colour of the bark of the trees. 'Hule bianco' is described as the only one worth cultivating, giving thick and abundant latex. The tree is not shade-loving, being seldom found in forests, and not easily injured by tapping. ' Hule negro' gives a watery latex, and that of ' Hule Colorado' whilst good, is scanty. The plants distributed from Kew and now under cultivation in various tropical colonies, would be more correctly termed, accord- ing to the place of their origin, Darien, " Castilloa" or Darien " Caucho" trees. This would distinguish them from the Ule trees of Mexico, British Honduras, and Nicaragua, and indicate their history. (W. I. BiiUetiii, 1901, p. 350.) CLIMATE AND SITUATION. The study* of Castilloa furnishes evidence that with this tree there is a relation between climate and rubber production, and that this relation is the opposite of that commonly supposed to exist. Practical experiments in Central America soon showed, that Castilloa will not thrive in swamps or where the drainage is deficient though the need of continuous humidity for Castilloa is still insisted upon. The total rainfall of a place affords but the slightest intimation of its climate in relation to vegetation. A sudden, heavy shower may wet the soil much less than the same amount of water falling as a steady rain, and in the supply of water to plants the .difference is even greater; the period during which the atmosphere and soil are moist is of importance to them, but not the amount of water which patters off their leaves or falls into the rain-gauge. Humidity even to the point of saturation for six months may be of no avail to plants unable to survive an e 1897, pp. 242-243 ; 1898, pp. 37-38 ; 1899, p. 84. And in the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture as follows : — 1905 pp. 72-76, 269. VIRGEN RUBBER, OR COLOMBIAN SCRAP RUBBER. (Sapium sp.) Mr. Robert Thomson, until lately one of Messrs Elder, Dempster and Company's Agricultural Instructors in Jamaica, and formerly of Bogota, Colombia, in 1888 wrote as follows concerning this rubber : — "This rubber is known in commerce as Colombia Virgen. It has been exported chiefly to the United States, and next to the Para rubber, it has realized the best prices in the market . . . 4 92 87-67 2-86 4-55 364 90 09 4-09 2-i8 100 00 100 00 272 " 1 have established in this country during the last five years a plantation of this rubber, consisting of about 70,000 trees, this being, I believe, as yet the only plantation made of this sort. Under cultivation this tree thrives admirably, growing with great rapidity, and averaging about five feet a year. " Crops are obtainable in from six to eight years, but a tree five years old yields as much as I pound of rubber. It is a large forest tree, the trunks attaining six and seven feet in circumference. Four arrotas (lOO lbs.) of rubber have been extracted from a single tree, but the average yield is far less " The important consideration as regards this species, apart from its intrinsic value, is that it grows at great elevations on the Colombian Andes, viz., at from 6,000 to 8,00o feet above the sea. " Prior to the wholesale destruction of this tree (but few now remain) by the rubber collectors, I explored, some five years ago, the forests wherein it abounded in order to examine the soil, climatic and other conditions affecting its growth. It may be mentioned that its area of distribution has been peculiarly limited to a small section of the Cordilleras some 1,500 miles from the sea. The total quantity of rubber exported during the few years the article existed could not have amounted to many hundred tons. " It is very difficult to propagate the tree from cuttings, hence I have had to resort, during my supervision of the plantation, to propagation by seeds, which, moreover, were always procured with much difficulty." Messrs. Hecht, Levis, and Kahn, wrote in May, 1 890, to Royal Gardens, Kew : — " We beg to say that Colombian scrap rubber has been known in the market for the last few years, and is of a very superior quality indeed. " It would be difficult to give you the exact average market value, but it has varied during the last few years between 2/3 and 3/ per lb. At the present moment the value is about 2/1 id. to 3/." (Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, 1894, pp. 110 — III.) In the Journal of the Jamaica Agricultural Society for May, -1906, Mr. Thomson gives some further information with regard to virgen rubber, as follows : — "This is the only important species of rubber indigenous to the cool bracing temperature of lofty tropical mountains. The other important species grow in the hottest zones of the earth. Hence to prospective planters settling in Jamaica the climatic conditions involved are of the greatest consideration. The temperature on the mountains is like a perennial English spring. As is well- known. Englishmen flock to the island of Ceylon to settle on the mountains ; there the mountain climate is duly appreciated. In like manner the varied resources of our mountains are destined to attract attention. The elevation above the level of the sea at which the virgen rubber was found growing in a state of nature, four degrees from the equator, ranged from 5,000 to 7,500 feet " From a cultural point of view, I have never in all my experi- 273 ence of tropical planting cultivated a tree that flourished like this rubber tree. Every plant with its striking foliage and abounding vigour grevir with great rapidity. In the course of a year the plants attained a height of from six to eight and ten feet. In three years the stems were five to six inches in diameter "I remember having collected one lb. of rubber from a wild seed- ling which was about five years old. Under the elaborate cultural treatment to which the other species of rubber are now subjected, there can be no doubt that when 50 to 60 feet high, in less than 10 years, not less than one pound per tree will result. And in a few years subsequent thereto, double and treble this quantity per annum. " I have the pleasure to express my conviction that in certain parts of the temperate climate of the parish of Manchester, with its abundant humidity, and its peculiarly constituted soil, the virgen rubber could be cultivated with great success. Sites should be selected near the foot of the gentle rolling hills characteristic of the district — a district capable of being turned to more impor- tant account than any other in the island. Though this tree grows freely on high ridges in its native habitat, far greater returns are yielded by trees at the base of such ridges. There are thousands of acres of land obtainable above an elevation of 2,700 feet emi- nently fitted for this culture in Manchester. " I have elsewhere pointed out that plants cultivated near the equator at high altitudes (coffee for instance) are cultivated in Jamaica under precisely similar climatic conditions at about 2,000 feet less altitude. Hence the altitude at which the virgen rubber flourishes in Colombia from 4,500 to 7,500 feet, is equalized here at an altitude of 2,000 feet less. " As the virgen rubber is a gigantic tree, care must be taken to plant it wide apart. The permanent distance might be 24 feet asunder. In 10 or 12 years the trees would cover the ground. Subsec|uently the trees would not expand materially, inasmuch as tapping the trees would interrupt growth. Regular crops, I feel sure, would result from the trees when eight years old, and of course annually afterwards." The rubber produced by another species of Sapium, native of Brazil, is used for adulterating Hevea rubber, and even in some cases to replace it altogether. It seems that the great demand has led to the practice for some years past. Dr. Huber, the author of the report, questions if the practice, which he says has passed unnoticed for twenty years, can be described as fraudulent. He considers that if the union makes no difference to the manufacturer, then no harm is done ; and, on the other hand, the knowledge is gained that the sources of supply are greater than was formerly known, as the tree in question is plenti- ful, and exists over a very wide area, and is known in the State of Amazonas by the name of 'Taparu,' and in the neighbourhood of Para as ' Murupita,' ' Seringa-Rana,' Sic."— (Agricultural News, 1905, p. 271). 274 information on Virgen rubber may be found in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, as follows: — 1894, p. IIO. ASSAM RUBBER, RAMBONG. (Ficiis elastica.) Source — Assam Rubber* is obtained from large trees of Fkus elastica. This fig tree generally germinates in the fork of another tree, sending down immense aerial roots into the ground and from the top of these (60 to 100 feet high) it throws out its branches. Locality — It grows in the damp forests which clothe the base of the Himalaya Mountains in Sikkim, and stretch away into Assam and Burma. Effect of Soil. &c. on Yield—" As the distance from the hills increases, and the atmosphere in which the tree grows gets drier, the quantity of rubber to be obtained from a tree decreases ; and whilst it is stated by the men who fetch it from the hills, that one tree is able to produce from 2 to 3 maunds (160 to 240 lbs.), the men who gather ii from the forests at the foot of the hills, only get from 20 to 30 seers (40 to 60 lbs.) per tree, and if far from the hills, only half that quantity is obtained, especially if the ground is gravelly or otherwise severely drained." G. Mann, Conservator of Forests, Assam. Yield— In Algiers, this tree thrives but does not form milk in sufficient quantity to to make it a profitable source of rubber. Continuous tapping for 6 months year after year, Mr. Mann affirms, will kill the trees, and accordingly he urged either that tapping should be restricted to three months a year (January, February, and March), or that a regulation should be made prohibiting the tapping of forests more frequently than once every three years. Mr. Mann further gives instructive figures as to the value of the rubber trees and their yield of caoutchouc. "Assuming that a tree reaches its full size at fifty years without tapping, and would after that, yield every third year, one maund of rubber, which would be collected, manufactured, and delivered in Calcutta at 15 rupees per maund, and should realise the present price of good rubber, viz., 35 rupees per maund, it would have a net profit of 20 rupees, per tree every third year. Besides this, one maund of lac may be reckoned on from every tree per year, which, if collected at its present rate, could be delivered in Calcutta at lO rupees per maund, whilst it fetciies 15 to 20 rupees per maund there now, which is a profit of 5 rupees at least per tree yearly. "All these figures are the lowest, and the tapping the most cautious ; still if the tree planted lives a second fifty years, which it is sure to exceed, it produces 320 rupees for rubber and 250 rupees for lac, which is more than any two timber trees of fifty years each, which might be grown in that time could equal." Mr. Mann then deals with the two kinds of rubber manufactured by the people of Assam, viz., one in irregular solid lumps or loaves * The notes ou (his i-ubber in India are chiefly derived from the information given by Watt's Dictionary nf Bcniiomic Products of India 275 about l6 to 20 oz., in weight, and the other in balls of rubber threads each weighing I2 to l6 oz. The price paid (in 1869) for the two kinds varied, he says, from 8 rupees to 12 rupees, but this was paid for by pieces of Eri silk cloth of that value in exchange for a maund of rubber. This fetched in Calcutta from 20 rupees to 40 rupeees per maund, but Mr. Mann adds " if care were bestowed on the manufacture, it beyond doubt would fetch much higher prices." Messrs. Martin Ritchie & Co., however, purchased their rubber only in the fluid state from the people who tapped the trees. It was brought to them either in earthen pots or cane baskets made water proof with a previous coating of rubber. This coating of rubber, Mr. Mann states, was held to retain the sap in its fluid state. He goes on to say that, rubber in this fluid state was first purchased at 1-8 rupees per maund, but soon rose to 5 rupees for the best or thickest procured from the aerial roots, and 4 rupees for the next best procured from the lower part of the stem, and 3 rupees for the worst supposed to come from the upper branches of the tree and to have been mixed with the juice of other species of Fig and water. A full grown rubber tree of about 50 years old will yield at the very lowest 10 lbs. of rubber, if very carefully tapped, and this quantity may be expected about 16 times, which will be an equally safe estimate for calculating the yield of a rubber tree. To be quite on the safe side, calculate 10 trees per acre which would give about I,600 lbs. of rubber from every acre. This, at the price at which rubber was collected in the Darrang district and sold, and deducting the expenditure incurred in collecting it, would give a net profit of 54 rupees per 80 lbs., or l,o8o rupees per acre in SO years, and if the rubber trees have a longer life, the yield may be reckoned for their remaining years of life at the same, if not a higher rate. Colh'ctioit — Among forest trees and in regard to dimensions, this is facile princeps and there is no other, not even the Banyan that approaches it in dimensions and grandeur. Mr. C. Brownlow points out that every portion below the head of the foster tree is strictly root and incapable of throwing out a branch, and as the head is rarely less than 60 to lOO feet high, it is no easy matter to procure a branch. These cables and buttresses as they approach the ground, throw out smaller and subsidiary rootlets of all thick- nesses down to that of twine. If any of these be cut they die below, but from above grow again downwards. It is only necessary to see the tree to appreciate the fearful risk encountered by the gum gatherers, who by no means confine their operations to the base, but climb up as high as the roots extend, and higher along the hori- zontal branches, chopping at intervals of every few inches, the cuts answering as well for their foothold as for the sap to exude from. Were the base of the tree alone tapped, the yield would be very insignificant, especially in trees that have been frequently tapped before. And as the trees occur very sparsely, and long distances have to be gone over to meet them, it becomes an object to get as much off at each cutting as possible. The trees must be 276 twice climbed, once to cut it, and a second time, after the gum has dried (which talces a day or two) to gather it. This is done by pulling off the tear which gathers below the wound, which brings away with it all the gum that has exuded, and these tears have only to be moulded together to agglutinate into a ball. The quantity that can thus be collected at one cutting does not exceed 8 to 10 lbs. Of course no mercy is shown to the trees, all of which suffer severely ; and many are killed outright. The damage they sustain is apparent in the large cankers, and buttresses rotted off, owing to the bark being unable to heal over the frequent wounds they have received all round. The foliage is wanting in luxuriance and dried branches and roots lying about testify to the injury in health that the tree has sustained. Mr. Mann specially insists on the following points being ob- served : — "(I) Fresh cuts to be made only in February, March and April, and the trees to have rest for two years between each tapping. "(2) The cuts to be at least l8 inches apart, to penetrate into the the bark only, not into the wood, and to be made with an instrument more suitable than the ones at present used. Mr. Mann prefers the German timber scoring knife. "(3) As far as possible, the milk to be collected in a fluid state in narrow-mouthed rattan baskets, and to be brought to central manufactories. "(4) Endeavours to be made to convert the milk into a solid state by a process of slow drying similar to that prac- tised in Para. "(5) Those varieties of caoutchouc which dry naturally on the tree to be collected with care, and to be picked so as to get rid of all impurities. Planting — In his report for 1884, Mr. Mann gives the following particulars : — "The present area under cultivation is fully stocked containing 12,511 trees; they have been planted at 25 feet apart in the lines, which latter are lOO feet apart ; this is double the number of trees that was planted on an acre at the commencement. The oldest trees are about 30 to 40 feet in height, and a few from 45 to 50 feet, but this cannot be put down as the average growth of Finis elastica in ten years, since half this time and longer, these plantations were entirely experimental, and everything had to be learned, as, for instance, the first trees were all raised from cuttings, which mode of propagation has been given up, since the trees raised from seed have proved much hardier and faster growing, and as to the planting of rubber seedlings high up in the forks of other trees, this also has almost entirely been given up, because such trees in most instances, did not make more than a few leaves in the year, and it would, as a matter of course, be out of the question to plant rubber trees where they would take a century to become large enough for tapping, when such trees can be grown in a different way in one-fourth of the time. On the other hand. 277 it has been found that trees planted on small mounds of earth, 3 to 4 feet in height grow very much better than if they are planted on ordinary level ground, and this plan has therefore also been adopted, although it adds considerably to the cost of making these plantations, but the faster growth of the trees amply com- pensates for the higher expenditure. The method of planting adopted from the beginning has been to clear lines from east to west through the forest for the young trees a hundred feet apart ; the width of the lines is 40 feet, so that a broad strip of forest 60 feet wide is left standing between these lines to ensure the utmost amount of moisture in the atmosphere for the young rubber trees. At first the lines were only cleared 20 feet broad, but it was found after a few years that these closed up very soon and thus retarded the growth of the young trees by shutting out the requisite amount of light. However, the widening of the lines also brought about the faster growth of the scrub in them, besides that of the rubber trees, and more money, time, and attention has in consequence to be spent, especially in the rainy season, on those plantations, than had at first been anticipated, but the greatest and most costly difficulty that had to be overcome was the effectual protection of rubber trees against deer, which during the first few years, con- stantly bit off the young plants, and, where they were not entirely ruined by this, they were so much injured and retarded in growth that a considerable increase in expenditure on these plantations had to be incurred on fencing to prevent it. But for the future this expenditure will not be necessary, since it has been found that saplings 10 feet and more in height can be transplanted without difficulty and with perfect success, and if such saplings are tied firmly to stakes, the deer can do little or no damage to them." Assam Rubber in Jamaica — There are a number of these ti'ees in various parts of Jamaica. Mr. W. M. Douet has extracted good rubber from a tree at Sweet River, near Sav.-la-Mar, by making V-shaped incisions with others leading into the lowest point. He says: — " By making several incisions in the roots, branches, and lower parts of the trunks I have extracted 2 lbs. from a tree at one time. The juice runs very slowly and hardens on the tree ; I strip it off and roll it into balls. The trees are large, 12 to 15 feet in circumference and 50 to 60 feet high. They appear to be very old. The late Mr. H. O. Vickers made some experiments in ex- tracting the rubber from these trees, and found that he obtained a greater flow at full moon, also during rainy weather .... The average annual rainfall for the last ten years is 64 inches 17 parts." Mr. M. S. Strickland also extracted good rubber from one of these trees at Great Valley, Flint River. He wrote, " The manner in which the rubber is taken is a rough one ; the trunk and branches are cut with a machete, a small lump of clay is taken to catch the milk as it drops, and formed into a ball. But the milk can be taken by cutting the tree and allowing it to drop into a calabash. . . . The tree here would not do for cocoa shade, as it branches out 5 feet from the ground, and the branches are large 278 and low. The roots run a long distance, and are also very large- The measurements are : girth of trunk, 1 6 feet; girth of nearest branch to ground, 8 feet. I estimate the height of the tree to be 65 feet." Mr. W. Harris made some experiments on three trees at Pleasant Hill just below the Hill Garden. Incisions were made in the bark of the trunks, branches and one large root, but nearly the whole of the rubber was obtained from the trunk of the oldest tree. When any part of the bark was punctured, the milk appeared immediately, but the flow quickly ceased, though it could be pro- longed by removing the milk as it flowed from the incision. Only about one-fifth of a pint of milk was obtained each day for three days from the three trees, making in all three-fifths of a pint. The following method was adopted in preparing the rubber; the milk was kept in the tins in which it had been collected until the following day in each case. Through evaporation of the water, it had become thick, but in order to hasten coagulation, boiling water was added. The milk readily mixed with the water and was easily removed from the tins. The whole was poured into saucers and placed on the top of a cooking stove. The rubber soon coagulated, was removed and pressed out into flat pieces. This is a sufficient indication of the plan that might be adopted on a large scale. The total amount of rubber thus obtained amounted to 4 ounces, which shows that this rubber tree would not be profitable at an elevation of 3,500 feet. Preparation of the rubber in Assatn — Collins states that the prepara- tion on a commercial scale is to pour the milk into large wooden bins, 6 feet square, and partly filled with water, the caoutchouc after a time floating on the top. The caoutchouc (being still fluid) is then taken out and boiled over a slow fire in iron pans, 4 to 6 feet in diameter, and 2 to 2i feet deep, 2 parts of water being added to the caoutchouc, and the whole stirred constantly. As soon as the caoutchouc coagulated into a mass it was taken out with iron forks and pressed, and again boiled and pressed, and then dried in the sun, and finally washed over with lime. Information on Assam rubber may be found in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, as follows : — 1894, pp. 105-109; 1895. PP- 55-56; 1901, pp. 139-141- AFRICAN RUBBER. (Landolphia spp.) African rubber is furnished by several species of the genus Landolphia, which are woody climbers, with stems 4 to 6 inches in diameter. The best quality from the Zanzibar coast is derived from Landolpliia Kirkii ; two other species, viz., L. florida (the chief source of Mozambique rubber), and L. Petersiaua are also sources of the East African supply. On the West Coast L. owariciisis, which has a very wide distri- bution, is the principal species furnishing Congo and Sierra Leone 279 rubbers. L. Jlorida, which occurs on the East coast, and L. Mannii also afford part of the West African supply. (Kew Bulletin, 1892, p. 68.) Laiidolpliia Heudclotii, which produces a good quality of rubber, is being largely planted in the French African possessions. Owing to the climbing habit of the Landolphias it is not practicable to cultivate them in regular plantations as they require the support of trees, and when once tapped several years must elapse before they will yield another crop, but it is well to remember that from these, and similar plants, a very important rubber industry was started at the Gold Coast in 1882 ; and although previous to that year no rubber whatever was exported from that colony, it had attained in 1893 to the annual value of £200,000. I would suggest that plants of these climbers be established in the forest lands belonging to the Crown, e.g., the Cockpit Country, and in course of time they would probably become naturalized and add to the value of such lands. Information on Landolphias may be found in the Bulletin of j.he Botanical Department, Jamaica, No. 10, p. 4. JAMAICA RUBBER. [Forsteronia floribtinda.) This rubber is not yet known in commerce although attention has been called to it in the Annual Reports, and in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department. Source— \\. is obtained from the stems of a climber known locally as " Milk Withe" or " Rubber Withe" which are generally as thick as a man's wrist, but I have seen great lianas in the Cockpit Country in St. James with stems six inches or more in diameter for a distance of 20 to 30 feet from the ground, then branching into several stems and growing to the tops of trees over lOO feet in height. Such stems on being slightly cut with a machete exuded latex in the greatest profusion. The plant also grows over the rocks fully exposed to the sun, or climbs over bushes. Locality — The " Milk Withe" grows plentifully in the limestone districts of the central and western parishes where the surface is exceedingly rough and difficult to traverse on account of the sharp and jagged edges of the hard crystalline limestone. The soil is lodged in hollows of varying extent and depth between the pro- jecting rocks. Collection of Milk — When a cut is made through the bark of the Milk Withe a milky juice flows out for about two minutes, but a number of incisions are necessary before sufficient fluid is collected to fill a four-ounce bottle. Care should be taken not to cut into the bark deeper than is necessary so that the wound may soon be healed by the formation of new bark. Yield — Messrs. Silver, of Silvertown India Rubber Company, reported on samples sent to them in 1888, that one quart of juice yielded one pound of dry and washed caoutchouc, or about 22 ounces of ordinary crude caoutchouc, but the sample sent in 1890 28o yielded only at the rate of two ounces per quart. Probably the difference was due to collection in the former case during the dry months and in the latter during the wet season. The value of the rubber in 1890, was stated by Messrs. Silver to be 3 2d. per pound. Preparation of the Rubber — The rubber coagulates simply on ex- posure to a dry atmosphere, but from experiments made, it is pro- bable that the method described under Assam Rubber as the one used on a large scale would prove the most succesful. Propagation — This plant may be propagated by seed or by cut- tings. Information on Jamaica Milk Withe may be found in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, as follows : — No. 10, pp. 2-3 ; No. 21. pp. 3-4 ; 1894, pp. IO9-IIO. 28l INDEX. Page. Page. African Rubber 2;8 in India 271 Assam Rubber: 274 in Nicaragua 268 collection 275 in the German colonies 269 distance in planting 276 locality 26; effect of soil, S:c., on yield 274 number of trees per acre 271 in Algiers 274 planting 269 in Jamaica 277 profit 271 locality 274 propagation 269 planting 276 soil 267 preparation of the rubber 278 yield 271 propagation 276 Colombian Scrap Rubber 271 source 274 Congo Rubber 278 tapping 275 Ficus elastica 274 value 275 Forsteronia floribunda 279 when to tap 276 Funtumia elastica 264 yield 274 Hevea brasiliensis 241 Castjlloa elastica 253 Ire 264 Castilloa Rubber: 253 Jamaica Rubber : 279 age at which trees may be collection of milk 279 be tapped 260 locality 279 as a shade for cocoa 256 preparation of the rubber 280 best districts in Jamaica 255 propagation 280 climate and situation 254 source 279 coagulating the latex 262 value 280 cost of collecting rubber 263 yield 279 culture 259 Lagos Silk Rubber: 264 Darien Castilloa 254 age at which seed is pro- Darien " Caucho" 254 duced 264 decrease of milk with in- age at which tree may be crease of altitude 254 tapped 264 distance in planting 257 as shade for cocoa 265 flow of sap in dry regions 254 attacked by caterpillars 267 habitat 253 best districts in Jamaica 265 "hule bianco" 253 coagulating the milk 265 "hule Colorado" 253 collecting and preparing "hule negro" 253 tlie rubber 265 "hule tunu" 253 destruction of Ire forests 266 in Ceylon 257 elevation for 265 in the Darien forests 255 habitat 264 in Tobago 257 in the Cameroons 264 in Venezuela 256 in the Congo Free State 264 on the Isthmus of Panama 255 in Lagos 266 propagation 255 in Trinidad 264 shade for Castilloa 255 in Western Africa 264 tapping 261 pruning 265 washing the latex 262 situation for 265 yield 262 soil 265 Castilloa Tunu 253 value 266 Ceara Rubber: 267 Landolphia florida 278 age at which trees may Landolphia Heudelotii 279 be tapped 269 Landolphia Kirkii 278 analysis of rubber 271 Landolphia Mannii 279 best districts in Jamaica 269 Landolphia owariensis 278 climate 267 Landolphia Petersiana 278 collecting the rubber 270 Manitoba Rubber 267 cost of collecting 271 Manihot Glaziovii 267 distance in planting 270 Milk Withe 279 in Brazil 268 Mozambique Rubber 278 in Ceylon 270 ' Murupite' 241 in Hawaii 269 282 Page. Page. Para Rubber : 241 rainfall 242 acreage in rubber 253 smoking and coagulation 252 analysis of banana soil in soil, analysis of 243 Jamaica 2-13 tapping : 248 analysis of rubber soil in age to tap 248, 250 Ceylon 243 frequency of tapping 249 as a mixed crop 245 season to tap 248 climate 241 size for tapping 248 climate in Ceylon 242 time to tap 249 climate in Federated Yields in Ceylon 250 Malay States 242 Rambong 274 coagulation 251 Rubber at the Gold Coast 279 diseases: 247 Rubber of a species of fruit disease 247 Sapium used for adulte- root disease 247 rating Para Rubber 273 stem disease 247 Rubber Withe 279 distance in planting 244 Sapium 271 draining land 246 'Seringa-Rana' 273 habitat of 241 Sierra Leone Rubber 278 holing 245 ' Taparu' 273 localities for in Jamaica 243 Virgen Rubber: 271 manuring 246 age at which crops may be nurseries 244 obtained 272 planted with cocoa 245 elevations for in Colombia 272 planting operations 244 elevations for in Jamaica 273 propagation 244 propagation 272 pruning young trees 248 value of 272 283 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES The usual Monthly Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, 17th October, 1906, at 2 p.m. : Present : — The Hon. T.*L. Roxburgh, Acting Colonial Secretary, Acting Chairman, the Director of Public Gardens, the Acting Island Chemist, His Grace the Archbishop, Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, J. W. Middleton and the Secretary. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Rubber — Mr. Fawcett handed in the manuscript of the article on rubber which Mr. Harris was asked to prepare. It was agreed that this should be published as a Bulletin and that the Secretary should write Mr. Harris thanking him for the trouble he had taken in getting up the matter. Mr. Cradwick — The Secretary read letter from Jamaica Agricul- tural Society stating that they agreed to the recommedations of the Board of Agriculture that Mr. Cradwick should remain in the western district till the end of the financial year and carry through his engagements till that date, but from 1st April it was expected that he should take up his work in his new district ; that as His Excellency had not approved of the recommendation of the Joint Conference with regard to the control of the Instructors the Board of Management took it that the control of the work remained as before. Loiigvillc Cassava Plaiitatiou — The Secretary reported that as directed by the Board, Mr. Cradwick had visited Longville Cassava Plantation and had made a report to the Amalgamated Products Co. ; his expenses amounting to £2 2s. 3d. had been paid by the Company. Swift's Arsenate of Lead — The Secretary read letter from the Colonial Secretary's Office stating that with the advice and consent of the Privy Council the Governor had, under Section 8 of the Tariff Law of 1899, agreed to admit Swift's Arsenate of Lead free. Mr. Fawcett asked for a copy of the report that had been made on the subject and the Secretary was directed to send him this. Tobacco — The Secretary read letter referred from the Colonial Secretary's Office from Granda Bros. & Co., Montreal, stating that they were desirous of becoming better acquainted with the tobacco grown here with the object of perhaps using same, and asking that a few sample hands of tobacco suitable for wrappers be sent to them by mail. The Secretary was directed to publish this letter in the news- papers and send a copy to Col. Kitchener. The Director of Public Gardens stated that when he was in London, he had met Mr. Chalmers, the Tobacco expert, who stated that the blend of Jamaica and Virginia Tobacco which had been used experimentally in the Navy would probably be found suitable, and when the experiment was completed, they would probably want as much as 500 quintals of the third quality at a cheap rate. 284 The Secretary submitted letter from the Director of Public Gardens asking whether the experiment of growing Sumatra Tobacco under shade should be continued this year, and if so, a special warrant for £25 to cover the expenditure would be required. It was agreed not to continue the experiment. Mr. Cradwick and Moiitpclicr Show — The Secretary read letter from Montpelier Show Committee urging that Mr. Cradwick be allowed to remain in that part of the Island until the end of the financial year so that he could carry through matters in connection with the Show. The Secretary was directed to reply that it had already been decided that Mr. Cradwick should carry through all his engage- ments in that district up to the 31st March. Free Postage — The Secretary read letter fiom Central Cornwall Agricultural Society pointing out the inconvenience correspon- dents with the Travelling Instructor had in having to prepay postage to him. The Secretary was directed to say that this same matter had already been brought before the Governor when it was decided that letters to all the Instructors as well as to the Agricultural Society could not be granted free postage, but that letters to the Director of Public Gardens and to the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture were free. Reports — The following reports from the Director of Public Gardens were submitted : — 1. Hope Experiment Station. 2. Instructors. These were directed to be circulated. The following papers which had been circulated were now submitted for final consideration : — I. Report Hope Experiment Station. 2 Mr. Cradwick's Report for August. 3. Mr. Briscoe's Report and Itinerary. There were no remarks on these reports and they were accord- ingly passed. Mr. Middleton brought up the matter of the report that had been made by the Committee on the post of Assistant Superintendent at Hope Gardens, and asked whether a reply was expected. The Chairman said that he had no doubt that a reply would yet be received. School Gardens — The Archbishop said that he had received a communication from Mr. Murray, Superintendent of Field Experi- ments, with regard to school gardens which he thought contained suggestions worthy of consideration and perhaps adoption ; he asked that a Committee be appointed to consider these suggestions. The following Committee was appointed : — Mr. Fawcett, Mr. Capper, Mr. Middleton and the Archbishop. The meeting then adjourned till Wednesday 14th Nov. at 2 p.m. [Issued 16th Nov., J9u6.j Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingstoa., Jam. BULLETIN DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Vol. IV. DECEMBER, 1906. Part 12. KUITED BY WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S., Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. CONTENTS: Page. Ramie, Rhea, China Grass ... 285 Fibre Machine ... 304 Notes on Cultivation of Vegetables ... 305 Board of Agriculture ... 305 PRIG E— Threepence. A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in .Jamaica, who will send name and address to the Director nf Public Gardens and Plantatiou-s, Kiugstou P.O. KINGSTON, JAMAICA : Hope Gasdbns. 1906. .JiVlvrA.TCA. BULT^ETIN" OF THE LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARIJEN. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CD CD I CO Vol. IV. DECEMBER, 1906. Part 12. RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS. BCEHMERIA NIVEA, Hook. & Arn. CONTENTS. Page. ^ Page. Introductory — Harvesting — Description ... 285 Cutting the stems ... 290 Varieties ... 286 Retting ... 291 Introduction into Jamaica ... 2S6 Yield ... 292 Cultivation — Future Prospects ... 292 Climate ... 286 Extracts from lecture at Soil ... 287 Society of Arts ... 296. Preparation of ground ... 287 Machinery for decorti- Propagation and Planting ... 237 cating ■•• 304 Notes on Planting Ramie ... 288 Manure ... 289 About 13 years ago much interest was taken in the subject of Ramie, and notes were published in the Bulletin* for the guidance of planters ; now again some inquiries are being made, and as the above-mentioned Bulletin is out of print, some of the notes are here republished with the addition of the latest information in the form of a lecture and discussion at the Society of Arts last March. Later still Mr. Hubert J. Boeken has published a pamphlet dis- cribing a new machine for decorticating Ramie stems, manufactured by Boeken & Co., of Diiren, Germany and offered for sale at the moderate price of £60. Description — This plant belongs to the Nettle Family {Urticacece). It grows to a height of from 4 to 8 feet. The leaves are alternate, toothed, 3-nevved, broadly ovate, rough above, snow-white on the under surface in one variety, greenish in another. The flowers * Bulletin of t.^o Dotanioal Dc]nirtment, Jamaica, Marcli and April, 1S94. 286 are very small in clusters along a branched stalk, and both male and female flowers occur on the same plant. Varieties — Ramie is the Malay name for the variety native in the Malay Archipelago, which is greenish on both sides of the leaf. It has been cultivated in Assam for long periods, and is there known as Rhea. This variety is distinguished by the name tenacissima. The variety with the whitish under-side of the leaves (nivea) is a native of China and has been conveniently designated the Chinese White Nettle. The fibre prepared from it, and imported into England, is known under the inappropriate name of China Grass. China grass fibre generally obtains double the price in London of Rhea. Some writers state that the variety tenacissima produces the strongest fibre. Introduction into Jamaica — The white-leaved variety was intro- duced into Jamaica in the year 1854 by Mr. Nathaniel Wilson, Island Botanist, and was grown with great success in the Botanic Garden at Bath. Plants were distributed from that centre as early as the year 1855. In 1884, Sir D. Morris, at that time Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, issued Instructions on the Cultiva- tion of Ramie, and also discussed the subject in a Public Lecture at the Jamaica Institute on " Native and other Fibre Plants." Shortly after the delivery of this lecture, the late Hon. Dr. Phillippo deliver- ed another Institute Lecture specially devoted to the subject of Ramie, giving results of his own experiments as well as general nformation on the whole subject. Dr. Phillippo had already in 1881 introduced the green-leaved variety into the Island from Haiti. At this time and for 3 or 4 years subsequently, it was confidently e.xpected that the Favier-Fremy process had solved the difficulty of preparation of the fibre. CULTIVATION. Climate — The Malayan Ramie is essentially a native of an equatorial insular climate, with an equable temperature all the year round, and abundance of moisture. It has not succeeded well in India, except in the south, where a company is growing it, because in summer it is subjected to long-continued droughts and in winter to cold weather. In Jamaica there are no great extremes of temperature, and therefore wherever there is a sufficiency of fresh water for the roots. Ramie will flourish. Even in localities where the annual rainfall does not exceed 50 inches, it would succeed with irrigation. The Chinese White Nettle is a continental plant, and apparently more accommodating as regards moisture and drought than the Malayan variety. It has grown luxuriantly in Jamaica from sea level up to 5,000 feet, and there is no reason to suppose that there would be any difficulty in cultivating it at the highest elevations. In America, it is said that the Chinese variety is the more success- ful. 28; Soil — This plant will grow in Jamaica in almost any soil except stiff clay. It grows best in a rich sandy loam, which is 12 to 15 inches deep, with a free subsoil. It is important to have perfect drainage, for it is intolerant of stagnant water. Preparation of