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COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY,
AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
The gift
of CksL ^hAsu^
No. ^f(J%
BULLETIN
ESSEX INSTITUTE,
VOLUME XVII.
1885.
SALEM, MASS. PRINTED AT THE SALEM PRESS, ^1886.
CONTENTS.
Hugo Ried's Account of the Indians of Los Angeles Co., Cal.,
with notes by W. J. Hoffman, M. D., .... 1
Opening of Hatteras Inlet, communicated by William L.
Wpjlcii, 37
Through which inlet did the English Adventurers of 1584 enter the Sounds of North Carolina, also some changes in the coast line since their time, communicated by William L. Welch, 43
On the Carapax and Sternum of Decapod Crustacea, by How- ard Ayers, 49
Annual Meeting. Monday, May 18, 1885, 59
Election of officers, 59 ; retrospect of the year, 61 ; members, 61 ; field meetings, 65 ; geological excursions, 66 ; meetings, 67; lectures, 68; library, 69; horticultural, 81; museum, 82; art exhibition, 82; excursion, 84; financial, 80.
Indian Games, by Andrew McFarland Davis, ... 89
Ancient and Modern Methods of Arrow Release, by E. S.
Morse, 145
(iii)
BULLETIN
ESSEIX: IIsrSTITTJTE.
Vol. 17. Salem: Jan., Feb., Mar., 1885. Nos. 1-3.
HUGO RIED'S ACCOUNT OF THE INDIANS OF LOS .\NGELES CO., CALIFORNIA.'
VSnTH NOTES BY W. J. nOFFM.lN, M. D.
The following epistles were copied by the writer during the summer of the present year, 1884, from the original MSS. in possession of the Hon. A. F. Coronel, of Los Angeles, Cal., to whom they were written in the year 1852 by the late Hugo Ried from the San Gabriel Mission where the author lived at that time. These epistles were intended as a contributiou to " A History of the Indians of Los Angeles Co.," but of the original thirty-two only twelve refer to the subject in detail, the remainder con- sisting of information relating to the establishment, and decline, of the Franciscan Missions in California, facts with which we are already familiar through other sources.
Some of the epistles are variously signed "Hugo Ried," and " P. Hugo Ried," though the writer could not ascer- tain which was correct. The author, so Mr. Coronel states, was a Scotchman of considerable intelligence, who, after meeting Avith disappointment in an affaire de coeur in Sononi, came to the San Gabriel Mission, married an Indian woman of the tribe located there, and remained,
(1)
2 HUGO RIED S ACCOUNT OF THE INDIANS
literally cut off from the outside world until the day of his death.
AVith the exception of a few preliminary remarks, not germane to the subject under consideration, the epistles are given verbatim et literatim. Unless otherwise stated, the pronunciation of words, and letters, is in accordance with the Spanish language. The superior figures (as ^) in the text refer to the notes at the end of this article. The writer is responsible for all remarks in brackets.
The following are the rancherias with the corresponding present names :
Yang-na
Sibag-na
Isanthcog-na
Sisit cauog-na
Sonag-na
Acurag-na
Azucsag-na
Cucomog-na
Pasinog-na
Pimocag-na
Awiz-na
Chokishg-na
Pimug-na
Toybipet
Hutucg-na
Almp(iuig-ua
Maug-ua
Ilahamog-na
Cabueg-na
Pasecg-na
Suang-na
Pubug-ua
Tibahag-na
Chowig-na
Nacuug-ua
Kinkipar
Los Angeles
San Gabriel
Mision Vieja
Pear Orchard
Mr. White's Place
The Presa
Azuza
Cucamonga
Rancho del Chino
Rancho de Ybarra
La Puenta
laboueria
Island of Santa Catalina
San Jos6
Santa Ana (Yorbas)
Santa Anita
Rancho Felis
Rancho Verdugos
Cabuenga
San Fernando
Suanga
Alaraitos
Serritos
Palos Verdes
Carpenter's farm
Island of San Clemente
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 6
Irup and S.iu Bernardino, etc., belonged to another distinct tribe possessing a language not at all understood by the above lodges, and although reduced by the Spanish Missionaries to the same labor and religion, they never amalgamated their blood, they being considered as much inferior, and named /Sei'ranos or Mountaineers.
The captains or chiefs of each lodge took its name fol- lowed by ic, with sometimes the alteration of one or more final letters. For instance, the chief of Azucsagna was called Azucsavic; that of Sibagna, Sibapic.
The title of a chief's eldest sou was Tomedr; of his eldest daughter, Manisar.
Suanga was the most populous village.
The Cahuillas were named by the Spanish missionaries ; thus misnamed as a tribal name, the word cahuilla signi- fying master.
LETTER II.
They have a great many liquid sounds and their gut- turals are even softened down as to become agreeable to the ear. In the following examples i has the sound of ee; u of 00 ; e of a as in fare ; a of a as in father ; ay of i; gn as in French.
Numerals. 2
1 Pucu
2 Wehe
3 Pahe
4 Watzu
5 Mahar
6 Babahe
7 Watza cavid
8 "Wehez watza
9 Mahar cavifi
10 Wehez mahar
11 Wehez mahar coy pucu [coy-and]
12 Wehez mahar coy wehe
HUGO RIED'S account OF THE INDIANS
20 Webez wehez maghar [jr and h combined]^
30 Pahez wehez maghar
40 "Watzahez wehez maghar
50 Mahares wehez maghar 100 Wehez wehez mahares wehez mahar Once Pucushe
Twice "Wehez
Three times Pahez
Four times Watzahez
Five times Maharez
Ten times Wehez maharez
There is )
There are )
There is none j
There are none !
Yes
No
Presently
Before
To-day
Yesterday
To-morrow
Here
There
Far off
I
Thou
He or she
Man
Woman
Boy
Black
White
Red
Blue
Yellow
Green
Sun
Moon
Stars [sic']
Dog
Coyote
Bear
Deer
Woni
Yahez
Ehez
Hay
Wake
Aunuco
Mitema
Poana
Yamte
Ycuaro
Muro
Poane
Noma
Oma
Man6
Woroyt
Tocor
Quits
Yupiha
Arawatay
Quaoha
Sacasca
Payuhuwi
Tacape
Tamit
Moar
Zoot
Wozi
Ytur
Uunar
Zacat
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA.
To hear,-
1. NoDim nahacua,
2. 0-a nahacua, 8. Man6 nahacua,
1. Non him nahacua,
2. 0-a him nahacua,
3. Mane him nahacua,
1. Nop nom nahacua,
2. 0-pam nahacua,
3. Maue-pom nahacua,
To speak,
1. Non-im sirauaj,
2. 0-a sirauaj,
3. Mane sirauaj,
1. Non him sirauaj,
2. O-a him sirauaj,
3. Mane him sirauaj,
1. Nop nom sirauaj,
2. O-pam sirauaj,
3. Mane pom sirauaj,
Nahacua.
I hear.
Thou hearest.
He or she hears.
I heard.
Thou heardest.
He or she heard.
I shall hear. Thou Shalt hear. He or she shall hear.
- Sirauaj.
I speak. Thou speakest. He or she speaks.
I spoke. Thou spokest. He or she spoke.
I shall speak. Thou shalt speak. He or she shall speak.
They have no word to express love, but terms as to have affection for or to regard. The nearest approach to ex- press the idea of love is uisminoc.
[Present tense.]
Sing.
1. Nonim uisminoc.
2. O-a uisminoc.
3. Man6 uisminoc.
[Past tense.]
1. Non him uisminoc.
2. O-a him uisminoc.
3. Mane him uisminoc.
[Future tense.]
1. No que im uisminoc.
2. O-que-a uisminoc.
3. Mane que uisminoc.
HUGO RIED'S account OF THE INDIANS
LETTER III.
The Santa In6z tongue is understood by the Indians of the Purissima, Santa Barbara* and San Buenaventura, with this difference, that the two latter splutter their words a little more, which almost seems impossible ! The I is used in this tongue, although not in the Gabrielino, which is strange. The only word in the Gabriel tongue which has an I is an interjection, dlala, equal to Oho ! The Serranos have no I either, in use, and their language is as easy as that of San Gabriel.
The Serranos generally employ a <, when the Gabriel- inos would use an r.
LETTER IV.
Gabrielino.
Father, mother, husband, son, daughter, face, hair, ear, tongue, mouth and friend, are words never used without a personal pronoun, as :
Father, nach^ my father, ni nack, thy father, mo nack, his or her father, a nack.
Husband and wife. If they have had children, instead of saying ni asum, my husband, they often say ni tdliaisum, which may be translated ^a?*^ of my body.
All brothers older than the speaker are styled apa; ni apa, my brother ; all younger, by apeitz; ni apeitz, my younger brother. They have no word to express Indian. Tahat signifies people. The whites are termed chichina- bro, reasonable beings.
Face and eyes are expressed by the same word.
Ear, nanah; the leaves of a tree are called its ears.
Snow and ice are the same.^
Tobagnar, the whole earth ; lahur, a portion of it, a piece of land.
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 7
Caller, forest. No word to signify tree, all varieties have their special names. Cabatcho, good looking. Zizu, devil, an evil spirit. Ayopu-cushna, brother-in-law. Qua-o-aVj God. Held in great reverence, and the name was seldom pronounced among them. They gener- ally used the term, Y-yo-ha-riv-gnina, that which gives us life.
LETTER V.
Government, Laws and Punishment.
The government of the people was in the hands of the chiefs, each captain commanding his own lodge. The command was hereditary in a family, descending from father to son, and from brother to brother. If the riglit line of descent ran out, they immediately elected one of the same kin nearest in blood. Laws in general were made as they were required, with the exception of some few standing ones. Robbery and thieving were unknown among them, and murder, which was of rare occurrence, was punished by shooting the delinquent with arrows until dead. Incest was held in deep abhorrence and punished with death ; even marriages between kinsfolk were not allowed. The manner of death was by shooting with arrows.
All prisoners of war were invariably put to death, after being tormented in a most cruel manner. This was done in presence of all the chiefs, for as war was declared and conducted by a council of the whole, so they had to attend to the execution of enemies in common. A Avar dance, on such an occasion, was therefore grand, solemn and maddening.^
If a quarrel ensued between two parties the chiefs of
8 HUGO RIED'S account of the INDIANS
the lodge took cognizance in the case and decided accord- ing to the testimony produced. But if a quarrel resulted between parties of distant lodges, each cliief heard the witnesses produced by his own people, and then in coun- cil with the chiefs of the opposite side they passed sen- tence. Should they disagree, another chief, impartial, was called in who heard the statements made by the two captains, and he decided alone. There was no appeal from his decision. Whipping was never resorted to as a pun- ishment, restitution being invariably made for damages sustained, in money, food and skins.
If a woman proved unfaithful to her husband and he caught her in the act, he had a right to put her to death, if he chose, without any interference by any of the tribe. But what was more generally practised, he informed the paramour he was at liberty to keep her, and then he took possession of the other's spouse. The exchange was ad- mitted as legal by all concerned, and the paramour would not object.
Although they counted by moons, still they had an- other mode for long periods, which was to reckon from the time the sun was farthest north, till he was at his southern extremity, and then back again. Summer was counted from the time frogs were first heard to croak. This was used to count war scrapes by, and under the recollection of the chief. When other tribes had to be chastised, the chief sent an express to all other lodges. They brought up from children a number of males, who were taught to hear long stories by the chief and to repeat them word for word. In this manner they became so perfect as to be able to recite the longest oration any one could produce.
They were not much given to travel, for they only relate of one who left his people and proceeded north till he
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. d
Clime to the laud where the geese breed. And even he appears to have possessed that property ascribed to his race, for on his return he informed them of having fallen in with people whose ears reached down to the hips ; others of a small stature ; and finally a people so perfect that they would lay hold of a rabl^it or other animal, put it near the mouth, draw a long breath and then throw the rest away ; which on examination was nothing but excre- ment ! They sucked with their breath the essence of the food and so lived without any calls of nature.
LETTER VI.
Food and Raiment. The animal food used by the Gabrielinos consisted of deer meat, young coyotes, squirrels, badgers, rats, go- phers, skunks, raccoons, wild cats, the small crow, black- birds and hawks, and snakes, with the exception of the rattlesnake. A few eat of the bear, but in general it was rejected on superstitious grounds. The large locust or grasshopper was a favorite morsel, roasted on a stick at the fire. Fish, whales, seals, sea-otter and shell-fish formed the principal subsistence of the immediate coast range lodges and Islanders. Acorns, after being divested of the shell, were dried and pounded in stone mortars, put into filterers of willow twigs worked into a conical form and raised on little sand mounds, which were lined inside with two inches of sand ; water added and mixed up ; tilled up again and again with more water, at first hot, then cold, until all the bitter principle was extracted ; the residue was then collected and washed free of any sandy particles it might contain ; on settling, the water was poured off"; on being well boiled it became a sort of mush, and was eaten when cold. The next favorite food was the kernel of a species of plum which grows in the
ESSEX INST. BULLKTIN, VOL. XVII. 2
10 HUGO RIED'8 account OF THE INDIANS
mountains and islands. It is sometimes called the moun- tain cherry, although it partook little of either, having a large stone -wrapped in liljre and possessing little pulp. This, cooked, formed a very nutritious, rich, sweet ali- ment and looked much like dry frijoles. Chia, which is a small, gray, oblong seed, was procured from a plant apparently of the thistle kind, having a number of seed vessels on a straight stalk, one above the other like sage. This roasted and ground made a meal which was eaten, mixed with cold water, being of a glutinous consistence and very cooling. Pepper seeds were also much used, likewise the tender tops of wild sage. Salt was used spar- ingly, as they considered it having a tendency to turn the hair gray. All of their food was eaten cold or nearly so.
The men wore no clothing; the women of the interior wore a short waist skirt of deer-skin, while those of the coast had otter-skin. Covering for sleeping consisted of rabbit-skin quilts.^ The women wore ear-rings, the men passing a piece of cane or reed through the ear lobe. The ear-rings of the women were composed of four long pieces of whale's tooth ground smooth and round, about eight inches in length, and hung, with hawks' feathers, from a ring of abalone shell. Their necklaces were very large and heavy, and consisted of their money beads, of beads made of black stone® and pieces of whales' teeth, ground round and pierced. They used bracelets of very small shell beads on both wrists.
LETTER VII.
Marriages. Chiefs or captains had one, two, or three wives, as their inclinations dictated. Their subjects only one. When a person wished to marry, and had selected a suit-
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 11
able partner, he advertised the same to his relations. On the day appointed, the male portion of the lodge and male relations living at other lodges, brought in their contributions of shell-bead money, generally to the value of twenty-five cents each. The contribution read}'', they proceeded in a body to the residence of the bride where all of her relations were assembled. The money was then di- vided equally among thera, the bride receiving nothing, as it was a purchase. After a few days, the l)ride's female relations. returned the compliment in taking to the bride- groom's dwelling baskets of meal made of Chia, which was distributed among his male relations. These prelim- inaries over, a day was fixed for the ceremony, which consisted in decking out the bride with innumerable strings of beads, paint and skins. Being ready, she was taken up in the arms of one of the strongest of the tribe who carried her, dancing, towards her sweetheart's habi- tation, all her family connections dancing around and throwing food and edible seeds at her feet at every step, which were collected by the spectators as best they could in a scramble. The relations of the groom came and met them, taking a^vay the bride from the carrier and doing the duty themselves, as likewise joining in the ceremonious walking dance. On arriving at the bridegroom's lodge, %vho was within waiting, the bride was inducted into her new residence, placed beside her husband, and baskets of seeds emptied on them to denote blessing and plenty. These were likewise scrambled for by the spectators, who, in gathering up all of the " seed cake," departed, leaving them to enjoy their honeymoon according to usage. The bride never visited her relations from that day forth, but was at liberty to receive their visits.
Should the husband beat the wife and ill-treat her, she gave advice of it to her lodge, when her relations col-
12 HUGO RIED'S account of the INDIANS
lectetl all the money which had been paid at her marriage, took it in deputation to the husband's lodge, left it with him and led oflf the wife, whom they married immediately to another.
LETTER VIII.
Birth and Burial. Immediately on the birth of a child, the mother and in- fant were purified, in the following manner : In the centre of a hut a large hole was dug, and an immense fire was kindled in which large stones were heated until red- hot. When nothing remained but hot embers and the stones, bundles of wild tansy were heaped on the same and covered all over with earth, with the exception of a small chimney or aperture. The mother had then to stand over the aperture with her child wrapped up in a mat, flannel fashion ; water was then poured by degrees in at the opening which caused immense quantities of steam or vapor, causing the patient to hop and skip a little at first and provoked profuse perspiration afterwards. When no more steam was procurable, the mother and child lay down on the heap, covered up, until the steam- ing was renewed again. Three days was the term of purification, morning and evening being the times of sweating. No food was allowed the mother during that time, and her drink (water) was warmed. She was now allowed to eat of everything at discretion, with the ex- ception of animal food, which was debarred her for two months. Her diet at length complete, three pills were prepared of the size of a musket ball composed of one part of meat and one part of wild tobacco. These swal- lowed, she was allowed to eat meat ; but she was not per- mitted to share her husband's bed until the child was able to run.
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 13
When a person died all the kin collected to lament and mourn his or her loss. Each one had his own peculiar mode of crying or howling, and one could be as easily distinguished from the other, as one song from another. After lamenting awhile, a mourning dirge was sung in a very low tone, accompanied by a shrill whistling by blow- ing into deers' bones. Dancing can hardly be said to have formed a part of their rites, as it was merely a monoto- nous action of the foot by stamping on the ground. This WMS continued until the body showed signs of decay, when it was wrapped up in its covering with the hands across the breasts and tied from head to foot. A grave having been dug in their burial place, the body was in- terred according to the means of the family, by throwing in seeds, etc.^ If deceased was the head of a family, or a favorite son, the hut was set fire to, in which he died, and all of his goods and chattels burned with it, reserving only some article with which to make a feast at the end of twelve months.
LETTER IX.
Medicine and Diseases.
Medicine men^*^ were esteemed as wizards and seers, for they not only cured disease, but caused disease and poi- soned people ; made it rain Avhen required ; consulted the Great Spirit and received answers ; changed themselves into the form of diverse animals, and foretold cominir events.
The medicine man collected the poison used for dipping the heads of arrows. Fire was supposed to destroy its hurtful properties, consequently the fiesh of animals so killed were eaten Avithout any misgivings. The Seers pretended not only to know poisons which destroyed life by giving it internally, but also others which the simple
14 HUGO RIED'S account of the INDIANS
touch was sufficient to produce the desired eifect ; and that some were instantaneous, and that others required one, two, or even twelve months before action took effect.
Rheumatism comprised nearly all the general com- plaints. Syphilis" was unknown. Toothache seldom troubled them. Rheumatism was treated by applying a string of blisters, each the size of a dime, to the affected part. The fur off the dry stalks of nettles was used for blistering; this was rolled up, compressed, and applied with saliva; then fire was applied, when it burned like punk ; as one was extinguished, another was lit. For lumbago, they drank of a sweating herb and lay down for twenty or thirty hours in hot ashes. Fever was treated by giving a large bolus of wild tobacco mixed with lime (of shells), causing vomiting, besides other herbs and manipulations of the Seer.
Local inflammation was scarified with pieces of sharp flint and procuring as much blood as possible from the part. Paralysis, stagnation of the blood, etc., was treated by whipping the part or limb, with bunches of nettles for an hour or two, likewise drinking the juice of thorn apple which caused ebriety for two or three days. Decline (of rare occurrence) was treated by giving the cooked meat of the nuid turtle for a period of time.
Shell lime was well known, but none made from lime- stone. For an emetic, it Avas mixed with wild tobacco and taken immediately in bolus, but in a more agreeable form it was pounded up and formed into a cake, and used in fragments as required.
Strangury was treated by sweating, as in the lying-in woman, only marsh mallows were employed instead of tansy ; then a large bolus of chewed tobacco produced general laxation and prostration which often produced relief at once. If this failed, drawing blood by sucking
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 15
the abdomen immediately above the bladder hardly ever failed to give relief. This operation was performed with a great many rites, prior to the suction, such as smoking to the Great Spirit, pressure and frotation [sic] of the ab- domen with the hands, and a song at the end of every verse concluded with the words
Non im mainoc, ni mainoc, Non im maiuoc, ni mainoc,
Yobare ! " I do, what I am doing, I do, wliat I am doing.
Oh Church ! "
Bites of snakes were cured by the application of ashes and herbs to the wound, and herbs and ashes and the fine dust found at the bottom of ants' nests given internally.
Red clay was sometimes applied to the hair, covering it all over, and allowing it to remain for twenty-four hours when it was washed ofl', to prevent the hair from splitting.
Chilicotes were burnt to charcoal and applied morning and evening to cure baldness.
LETTER X.
Tradition. There were seven brothers Avho married seven sisters — according to their respective ages — who lived in a large hut together. The husbands went daily to hunt rabbits, and the wives to gather flag-roots, for food. The hus- bands invariably returned first, and on the wives' arrival reported always bad luck in hunting, with the exception of the youngest brother who invariably handed his wife a rabbit. Consequently the poor women fared badly in regard to animal food. Tliis continued as a daily occur- rence for a length of time, until in a conference held by
16 HUGO ried's account of the Indians
the women they expressed a conviction of being cheated by their husbands, declaring it strange that with the sole exception of the youngest husband, nothing was ever killed. At the same time to find out the truth, they agreed that the youngest should remain at home the fol- lowing day under pretence of toothache and watch the return of the party. Next day the men as usual took their bows and arrows and set forth. The six sisters then departed, leaving the other hidden among flags and rushes at the back of the house, in such a position as to command a view of everything transacted within. Sev- eral hours before sunset the hunting party returned laden with rabbits, which they commenced roasting and eating, with the exception of one which the youngest put apart. The others called him a fool, telling him to eat the rabbit, which, however, he refused to do, saying he esteemed his wife a little and always intended to reserve one for her. " More fool you," said the others, " we care more for our- selves than for them." The feast concluded, the bones were carefully gathered together and concealed in a suit- able place outside. After some time, the youngest wife arose and presented herself in the hut, to the surprise of the males, who asked her where she came from? "I have been asleep at the back of the house," answered she, "and I have only this minute awoke, having had to remain be- hind from toothache." After a while the women came home, who ran to their sister asking for her health. They soon found an opportunity to leave the hut and learn the results of the espionage, besides visiting the place where the bones were deposited. They cried very much and talked over what they should do. " Let us turn to water," said the eldest. This was objected to by all the rest, saying that their husbands would then drink them, which would never do. The second proposed that they
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 17
should turn into stones, Avhich was likewise rejected, be- cause they would be trod upon. The third wanted them to turn into trees; rejected, as their husbands would use them for firewood ; and so on until it came to the turn of the youngest, who proposed they should change them- selves into stars ; an objection was made on the ground that their husbands would always see them, which was at length overruled from the circumstance of being out of reach. They accordingly went to the lagoon where they procured flagroots, and making an engine (flying concern) out of reeds, they ascended to the sky and located them- selves as the seven stars.
Only the youngest brother appeared to be vexed at the loss of his wife, and sought her daily. One day, having wandered to the edge of the lagoon, his wife had compas- sion on him and spoke, directing his attention to the ma- chine they had made, telling him to ascend. He did so, but not wishing him in their immediate vicinity, he was placed a little way off.
A song survives, having reference to the seven stars.
LETTER XI.
Sports and Games. Few games, and of a gambling nature. The principal one was called churchurki (or peon, Spanish). It con- sists in guessing in which hand a small piece of stick was held concealed, by one of the four persons who composed a side who sat opposite to each other. They had their singers who were paid by the victorious party at the end of the game. Fifteen pieces of stick were laid on each side, as counters, and a person named as umpire, who, besides keeping account, settled the de])ts and prevented cheating, and held the stakes. Each person had two pieces of wood, one black and one white. The white
ESSKX INST. UULI.KTIN, VOL. XVII. 3
18 HUGO REID'S account of the INDIANS
alone counted, the black being to prevent fraud, as they had to change and show one in each hand. The arms were crossed and the hands hidden in the lap ; they kept changing the pieces from one hand to the other. Should they fail to guess right, he lost his peon, and counters allotted to the others, and so on until the counters were gone, or all the peons killed, when the others had a trial. They bet almost everything they possess. The umpire provided the line and was paid by the night.
Another game called charcharake was played between two, each taking a turn to throw with the points down eight pieces of split reed, eight or ten inches long and black one side.
Another game, called hararicuai^ consisted in throwing rods or canes of the length of a lance, at a ring put in motion, and see who could insert it. The ring was made of Inickskin with a twig of willow inside, and four inches in diameter. This is not played now.^-^
Football was played by children and by those swift of foot. Betting was indulged in by the spectators.
LETTER XII.
Legend. In Muhuvit,^^ which lies behind the hills of San Fer- nando, a woman married a captain of Verdugas. The woman was very stingy and selfish, and when the people brought them roasted rabbit, she devoured it alone and never invited any one to eat with her. The young chiefs would surround her, but she never invited any of them. They returned to their houses, and when their mothers in(|uired if they had partaken of the feast, said no. Then the peojjle got angry about it, and asked the hus- band to send her home again to her mother. She, by this time, had a daughter. Old men spoke with him ;
OF LOS ANCiELES CO., CALIFOUNIA. 19
do what you like, said the husband. The old men accord- ingly ordered the people to hunt ral^bits as usual, l)ut to stuff them, before roasting, with pieces of wet buckskin, lizards, and other unpalatable reptiles. They did so be- fore giving the repast. The old man asked of the chief, what was to be done with the daughter, whether to take her away or not? "Leave her," said he, "to die with her mother." This day, however, she invited her spectators, for on taking out the leg of a toad, she inquired what it was? "It is a quail," she was answered. "Eat it thou, then," said she, and so she proceeded, taking out strange substances and giving them away. An order w^as like- wise given to refuse her water, and being very lazy, it was presumed she would not go to the spring. The re- past gave her great thirst. " Give me water !" but none was procurable. She proceeded from hut to hut, with like success, until she arrived at the last, where a large basket of urine was prepared for her; she nearly finished it at three sups, only leaving a little for her daughter. This occurred every day ; at the end of ten days, all her hair fell out, and from being very pretty, she became old and wrinkled. Seeing herself in such a state, she deter- mined to return to her father, and taking her daughter in her arms, she left ; but on the road, she repented, having taken her daughter, and said, "What a fool I am to be carrying this load, as if they liked m6 so much." So she threw it away. After going some little distance she looked back and seeing the little infant stretch out its little arms to her, her heart softened, and she exclaimed, "What fault has it committed?" she turned back and took it up again. She went on and on until she got so weak she could go no farther ; at last she was at a great rock, when she took the child by the heels and dashed its brains out, the blood of which is still visible at this aay.
20 HUGO RIED'S account of the INDIANS
Many aflSrm the child did not die but turned into a squirrel.
Then the mother went on alone until she came to the place where her mother usually kept her seeds and acorns, and lay down with the Charnuca. At length her mother came to take out food, and on putting in her hand gave a loud cry and jumped back. "Yes, be afraid of me," said the daughter, " after all the injury you have heaped on me by marrying me to a man who did not care for me." The mother then heard the story, and left to in- form the father, taking him out of the hut so no one might hear it.
The father proceeded with his wife to take food to their daughter, and every day they brought her the same, and herbs to drink so as to restore her to health and purge her of the filth she had eaten ; also to restore her hair and eyebrows, which she had lost, they applied the fat or oil of the hamisar, a black berry. In three moons she was well again, fat, young and beautiful, hair nearly equal to her father's and brother's, which reached to the ground. She was commanded then by her father, to go and bathe herself daily in her brother's bathing place. She did so, and the brother from seeing the water when he came, not limpid as usual, suspected something. At last coming one day, shortly after the other had done, he was convinced, and more so on finding a hair half the length of his own. This troubled him much, that others were bathing in his well, and he became sad. At last, arriving one day, he caught her in the bath, and saying, "so it is you who daily dirty the water of my well," caught her by the leg and threw her out ; she fell back and he beheld her nakedness. This caused her so great grief and shame, that she left and proceeded to the seashore to drown herself. She made a run twice to throw herself into the sea but each
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 21
time turned liack, but the third [.sv'c] time :icconiplished it. The brother returned to the house and told his mother of having found an unknown woman in his bath and threw her out of it and saw her nakedness. The father and mother left the hut together, and on seeking their daughter could not find her. " She has gone from shame," said the mother; "Where shall we find her?" The father took the twig of a willow, made a ring of it, and covered it with buckskin ; this was thrown to the north, it returned again ; he threw it to the south, and the same result ; he then threw it east ; then w^est, the ring following all the turnings and windings of the daugh- ter. The father followed the ring until it came to the sea- shore. "She has drowned herself," said he, when he saw the ring enter the ocean. He returned, debatino^ with himself whether it was better to punish his son first, or the chief of Verdugas ; he determined on the former first. On arriving home he told his wife who cried bitterly, which amazed the people much. Calling together all of his people, he told them they must take his son with them on a hunting excursion and let him be killed by wild beasts. His son was accordingly decked out in all his ornaments and money beads and told to go with the people hunting, when they were to stay out all night. He went, and they slept out, and the next morning a fire was kindled at which all were warming themselves. One of the old Seers had brought a screech owl with him, hidden, which was no other than the father of the boy, which he let out and frightened all the people who ran ofi" leaving the boy alone, when a large bird, the Ciiivot (cry cu, nothing of which, save its shadow, had ever been seen), said to bo the boy's f;ither in another form, came and took him up. Then the people came back crying, "the Cwcot has carried oil' the chief's son." As they came up, the bones came
22 HUGO ried's account of the Indians
tiiinblinir clown from above. The bones were then buried and the people returned to their huts.
Shortly afterwards, the chief saw some one coming and went to meet him ; " Where are you going, where are you from ? " " From Verduga." " Oh ! " said the chief, " How are you getting on there ? " " Very well, the chief is get- ting another wife, and a great feast is preparing." "Be it so," said he, " they have laughed much at me, now we shall laugh and all perish together. What were they do- ing when you left this morning?" "The women had all gone to gather prickly pears." Hearing this, he went to Avhere the women were gathered, and said, " What are 3^ou gathering so many prickly pears for ? " " For the feast," said they, "as the captain is to be married." " Take a sieve," said he to an old woman, "and fill it with tunas^* and sift the fine thorns into my eyes." She re- fused ; he insisted and the others told her to do as com- manded. He opened his eyes wide and she commenced, when all of the women set up a wail at once. They were blind. He burst out laughing and said, "Now I laugh, it is my turn now." He left them and went to where the feast was prepared, and going round to the west side changed himself into a huge eagle and went, low down, to where the feast was. On seeing an eagle come, they cried out, " Catch it, catch it !" with the exception of an old woman who was taking care of her grandchildren during her daughter's absence, who immediately covered the children with a blanket, and cried out to the people not to touch the eagle, as it was a human being and not a bird. The people only called her an old liar, and pro- ceeded to catch it, which they did. " Let us pull its wings off," said they, and they did so. Blood gushed out from one side and green matter from the other. Fever and bilious vomiting commenced among them, and killed
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 23
all of the people but the old woman and her two grand- children. The old woman had to bnry the dead the best way she could and to burn the things. The eagle soared up above and never more was heard of.
The old woman brought up the young ones, and when old enough, she constructed a bow with arrow for the boy, and a batea for the girl, teaching the one how to shoot and the other to clean seed. The boy, at last, killed first a lizard, then a mouse, then a gopher. When old enough she married them, but shortly after the girl turned out bad ; at first she gave the old woman to eat, but after- wards she refused to give her any meat brought by the husband. The old woman, to be revenged, took an awl made of deer's bone and placing it where the other sat, she hurt herself; she put it into the bath, and again hurt herself. When her husband came home she acquainted him, saying, "I have had injury done me twice, and know I have to die ; at any time you are out in the hills and I die, you will know it by feeling some drops of water fall- ing on your left shoulder." Not long after, when out hunt- ing, he felt the drops as he had been told he would. He threw the bow and arrows away and hastened home. In the meantime the old woman had burned and buried the body. "AVhere is m}'' wife?" "I have buried her." " Thou hast done this and shalt die for it ; " taking up a billet of W'Ood to knock her brains out, when she changed into a gopher and hid in the ground. The husband re- mained three days and nights by his wife's grave. On the third day he saw a small whirlwind arise which soon gave out, then another a little larger, and a third, still larger, came out of the grave, and he arose and followed it. After going a long distance he perceived footprints on the ground where it passed over. " This is my wife's," said he, and he followed an iinniense distance, and a voice from
24 HUGO RIED'S account of the INDIANS
the whirlwind addressed him and said, " Return to your hut." "No," said he, "I intend going wnth thee for- ward." "That cannot be," said the spirit, "for I am not as formerly. I am dead to the world, and you cannot go, for no human being can go where I am going, nor can earthly eyes behold our figures ; therefore return." He w^ould not. " Well ," said the voice, " how can I take thee, there is an immense sea to pass." At last finding him positive, she bound him to her waist with her sash, tell- ing him to hold his breath as they went through the air. They arrived at last in the land of spirits where he could see nothing like human fonns, and only heard innumer- able voices, exclaiming, " What a stench of something earthly, you must have brought that." The wife ac- knowledged she had, but exculpated herself on the ground that the being she brought w^as a superior one, being not only a great hunter, but could do anything. " Return him to the earth again, take him away," exclaimed the voices. But one voice at length said, " Let us try him first and see what he can do." He was ordered to climb a pole of great length, and bring down a feather from the top. He felt afraid to ascend, but his wife told him to try, but not to look down wiiile doing so. He accom- plished the feat and there was great applause, when the voices cried out aijojyui-cushna — our brother-in-law — is good at climbing. He was then given a long hair and told to split it from end to end. This again made his courage fail, but his wife told him to do it and to have faith. He had faith in her word and the hair split from end to end with ease. " Well done, our brother-in-law," exclaimed the voices. He was told to make a map of the constel- lation of Ursus Major and show the position of the North star. Ho felt great fear to attempt this as he had seen the Seers do this but had never learned it himself. His
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNLV. 25
wife again aided him and he came out triumphant. They then wanted to test his hunting powers, and four of them were dispatched to drive the deer into his range. He soon heard loud cries of " Brother-in-law, there go the deer," but no deer could he see. The spirits ridiculed his hunting. Another trial Avas made with the same re- sult. At last his wife told him he would be given a third trial and that he must kill this time. "How can I kill deer if there be none," he said. "Did you not perceive black beetles?" said his wife. "Yes." "Well, those are deer ; things are diflerent here to what they are on earth, kill them." They went on their third hunt, and hearing the cry of "There they go," he saw black beetles coming on the sands. He drew his bow, shot at, and killed one ; it was converted immediately into a fine, fat buck ; this encouraged him, and he slew right and left, until the spirits told him to desist. The game was carried home, he saw the deer lifted from the ground and carried in the air, though he could not see the carriers, although he could perceive their shadows. Great joy was mani- fested by all at his success. " Sister," said the other spirits to his wife, "no one has ever been permitted to return to earth, as thou knowest, but as our brother-in- law is so good and he cannot participate in our company of those joys and pleasures Ave partake, and on account of the gross materials of which he is formed, out of compas- sion to him, return again to earth." And addressing him they said, "Brother-in-law, return again to the earth with thy wife, but for three days thou art not permitted to co- habit with her, after that time thou art free, but a non- compliance will 1)0 attended Avith disappointment." They left the spirit realms and travelled on earth toAvards their home, the wife still invisible. At night he built a large fire and lay down; on aAvakening before daylight he saw
KSSKX INST. IILI.I.KTIX, VOL. XVII. 4
2G HUGO REID'S account of the INDIANS
his wife lying ;it a short distance. They travelled the second day as before and at night he again made a fire ; on awakening he again beheld her, and although he had re- bellious thoughts, still he restrained himself, for he thought that only one day more and he should triumph. The third day also jDassed in travel and on awakening that night he saw his Avife more distinctly than ever ; love for her was this time more poAv^erful than reason ; the three days are assuredly expired by this time, and he crept towards her. He laid hold of the figure and found an old rotten trunk of a tree in his arms. He remained a sorrowi'ul wanderer on earth till his death.
Whenever this legend was to be told, the hearers first bathed and washed themselves, then came to listen.
The bird Cuvvot is still believed in. It is nocturnal in its habits, never seen, but sometimes heard. Its cry was simply Cu. It is said that a man was once carried away by it from the Lodge of Yan (Los Angeles).
Some state that the return of the woman to life after the soul had fled, could not have happened. It being only a compassionate ruse to get the husband back to earth, to return again at a proper time in the form of a celestial being.
NOTES.
Refers in particular to the sub-tribe located in the vicinity of San Gabriel, usually termed Tobikliar, and known as the Kizli of former investigators. The subdivisions of the Kauvuya tribe are only recognized on account of dialectic diflerences. The tribe is one of the group composing the Shoshouian lin- guistic family, and formerly extended from the coast to the Colorado river, and from near San Piego, northward to the San Fernando mountains. Later, the tribe was divided into the tSerranos, or mountaineers and Fkujuanos, or lowlanders. Of the hitter are the Tobikhar.
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 27
Tlio laniiuage is still spoken b_v a mimber of people, not- witli>;tandiiii? statements niaile to the contrary. The words Cahuilla and Coaluiilla should be abandoned, as they are liable to cause confusion with a similar name, of a distinct stock, in Mexico. The word Verdugos also occurs as Verdugas, in Letter XII. The herds of cattle and horses owned by the Missions were grazed in favorable localities, each herd being under the con- trol of a chief herder and the neces.sary number of assistants. The chief herder's duty was, also, to have every animal branded, a record of which was kept in the shape of a notched stick, or Bali, which was regularly submitted to the major dovio of the Mission. Fig. 1 represents a stick of this kind, now in the collection of Mr. Coronel of Los Angeles.
The stick is about twenty-four inches in length, and three- fourths of an inch thick in diameter, each way. The handle has the edges bevelled and upon each of the four faces thus pro- duced are the characters I, II, X, >• , signifying respectively bull, cow, heifer and ox. For cattle, the end opposite the handle is notched, thus giving the rude idea of horns. For horses, the end is pointed, in imitation of the sharp ear of a horse. When the stick is used by a herder of horses, the same marks are used, upon the handle, as for cattle, but with the signification, in order, as follows: stallion, mare, colt, gelding. Whenever an animal is branded, a notch is cut into the sharp edge of the proper stick, and upon the line of the char- acter on the handle to designate the sex or age of the sub- ject. Thus an accurate record was kept of nil stock handled, a custom and method vrhich was copied by the Mexican herders and retained until a few years ago.
Notched sticks were also used by the herders and laborers to record their accounts with the major dome. These sticks were nicely worked out of dogwood, polished, though not quite as long as the above. Only two sides were used, one bearing the character IXI, for money, and a simple line cut cross- wise, for work. On the money side there were notches for reals and long cuts, extending across the stick, for dollars. Upon the opposite side notches for days worked, and lines across the surface for weeks. In this manner credit could be given on the " money side," and there was always exactness between these stick records and those kept in proper form by the superiors.
Other records were also examined by the writer, in which
28 HUGO RIED's account of the INDIANS
the authors had recourse to paper; at the top of the sheet was a representation of the brand used, and beneath the regular number of short and long lines, denoting the decimal system of recording. Sometimes small rings were inserted at every tenth point, instead of the longer vertical stroke.
When a rancheria possessed cattle only, there was no neces- sity for notching the end of the stick to denote " cattle," as there was no cause for error. Consequently the sticks were cut off transversely, without any specific pointing or notching. The same was adopted, also, where horses were owned, ex- clusively.
Tattooing was practised and nearly all of the older mem- bers of the tribe still bear faint lines upon the chin; this is noticeable to a greater extent among the women than the men. At present, personal ornamentation is done in colors only, applied in the form of vertical lines upon the chin, transverse bars upon the cheeks, or both. The tattoo design worn by a laud-owner, formerly served as a property mark by being cut or painted, upon trees or posts selected to indicate the boun- daries. These marks were almost equivalent to the owner's uame, and were known to the remainder of the tribe. In this respect of engraving tattoo marks upon the bark of trees, there is great resemblance to a custom prac- tised by the natives of New Zealand, where the facial deco- rations of a dead man are reproduced upon ti'ees near his grave ; this is equal to an autograph and can be readily inter- preted by a native.
Knotted cords were used by some of these Indians, in busi- ness transactions, a custom adopted after their northern neighbors, the Palonies, — a sub-tribe of the Chemeliuevi, — so called by the Spanish settlers, on account of wearing the hair cut so short as to suggest the idea of "baldheadedncss." The method of using knotted cords was in the following manner : Each year the Paloni selected a certain number of their tribe to visit the settlement to sell native blankets, and every one who sent goods provided the salesman with two cords, twisted out of the hair of some animal, on one of which a knot was tied for every real received, and on the other, the number of blankets sold. When the amount reached one dollar, a double knot was made. Upon the return of the agent, each person would select his own cords, count up the number of blankets sold and the amount received for the goods, lor which the ^;eller was responsible.
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNLV. 29
3. The combination of the letters g and h is intended to represent
the sound of the Spanish j in mujer ; ach, German, etc., now expressed by the character /. In the MS., Mr. Ried wrote the letter g over the h.
4. During the time of the writer's recent investigations among the
few Indians remaining in the vicinity of Santa Barbara, he learned the tribal designations of that people, which they gave as Sioqtun'. The band occupying the region about the Cathedral Oaks, was known as the Snmwitsh. That located nearer the coast, at the Partera, the Saq'pili'. All town villages, i. e.. at Santa Barbara, were called Mikique. The Indians formerly living in Santa Cruz Island (now extinct) termed themselves Tsliiima. (In the preceding words, the q has the sound of ch, in German nicht).
5. The word, at the present time, is iu'at.
6. Three forms of war- clubs are given in Figures 2, 3 and 4. They
are all made of extremely hard, heavy wood, and in some examples there is evidence of an attempt at ornamentation, done in lines burnt upon the surface, no doubt with a metallic substance. The club represented in Fig. 2, measures thirty- four inches in length, one and a quarter inches in diameter near the handle, and two and a half inches at the opposite end; Fig. 3 measures eighteen inches in length, the handle two and a half inches in diameter, while the four-sided head, four inches each way, is armed with sharp conical points of wood projecting nearly an inch iibove the surface. These projections are of hard wood, and are secured by a socket, into which the pieces were driven previous to point- ing.
Fig. 4 is of the same length as the preceding; it has three sides, each face measuring four inches in width, with just sufficient handle to aflbrd a good grasp.
The object represented in Fig. 5 was used as an accompa- niment to the rattle, in dances. Two pieces of hard wood twenty inches long, each two inches broad and a little more than half an inch thick, are secured at the handle with thongs and vegetable gum, allowing the ends of tlie wooden blades to be about an inch apart. This is shaken, and makes a noise resembling clapping of hands. Fig. 6 is a rattle, made by passing a wooden haniUe through two boards, each throe and three-fourths by four inches in width, over which rawhide is stretched to form a hollow case. Inside of this are seeds, and small stones. The top is ornamented with feathers.
7. Rabbits were killed with the Mafcdna, or boomerang, the form of
30 HUGO RIED's account of the INDIANS
which is given in Fig. 7. The original measures two feet in lengtli in a strnigiit line, one and one-fourth inches across at the handle and one and tiiree-fourtiis inches at the l)roadest part. The average tliiclcness is about tiiree-fourths of an inch. The weapon is made of hard wood (apparently dog- wood, or mesquite), and ornamented with various markings which are burnt upon the surface. The end opposite the handle is finished so as to imitate the head of what appears to be a snake.
When viewing the weapon edgewise, it will be observed that considerable curve exists, but it is not known that these Indians were ever acquainted with the art of throwing the Makdna so as to produce the strange and erratic motions pur- sued by a boomerang at the hands of a native Australian.
The weapon was thrown near the ground, so as not to pass over a rabbit while it was running. Its general form seems similar to the Zuiii Kleani, and a similar weapon used by the Moqui, a notice of which was first published by the writer in the Trans. Anthrop. Inst, of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. IX, p. 464. 8. The black beads referred to are made of dark, greenish black ser- pentine, some specimens resembling diorite, excepting as to hardness. They vary in size ; the smallest one measuring about one-fourth of an inch in diameter and one-eighth in thickness, and the largest, known to the writer, measures seven-eighths of an inch in diameter by one and a half inches in length. The perforation in this specimen is one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and presents transverse striae caused by the sand used in drilling.
The shell beads were usually made of Haliotis and Tivola. Shell money-beads were flat, and about one-third of an inch in diameter. Other beads used for necklaces were cylindri- cal or sub-cylindrical, larger in the middle than toward either end. Many of them, found in graves, present the same style of delicate perforations as we find in the beads from Santa Cruz Island. The writer is of the opinion that tliese narrow perforations were made by means of sea lions' whiskers as drills, and extremely fine silicious dust. The channels are scarcely large enough to admit a good sized thread, and in several beads which have split lengthwise it is apparent that drilling was done from both ends, as the perforations cease a short distance beyond the middle of the bead, thus passing one another, perhaps less than the tenth of an inch. It is evident, from the appearance of other unfinished specimens-
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 31
that the boring was begun by using a stone drill — of which many and various forms occur — after which the bristle was applied. The chauuLls are slightly conical toward the outer end, and at about one-fourth the length of the shell there is a constriction beyond which and near the middle of the bead, the channel again becomes wider, assuming an elliptical form. No doubt the rapid rotary motion of a flexible drill would cause sufficient divergence to produce such an effect. In addition to this, delicate transverse strise are also visible without the aid of a lens. A body was recently discovered on Santa Cruz Island, with which was obtained a bunch of these bristles carefully wrapped from end to end. Further- more, it is well known that Chinamen on the Pacific coast purchase all the bristles of the sea lion that can be obtained, paying twenty-five cents apiece therefor, to be prepared and sold as tooth-picks.
Most of the shells required for use were obtained at the Santa Catalina Islands. These, as well as the islands oppo- site Santa Barbara, are fine localities for Haliotis shells even at this time. The Serpentine, used in making beads, ollas and large rings, was also obtained at the islands first named.
Between Los Angeles and the coast, near San Pedro, gravestones were erected to the memory of the deceased, or, perhaps simply to identify the location of the body, so that his friends might come to ofler food, and to mourn. Fig. 8 represents the etchings upon a pit-ce of sandstone slab obtained from the above mentioned locality. On account of the fracture of the specimen, and the loss of, perhaps, important parts, only a few characters are visible, but these, resembling whales, were evidently carve«l there to show that the deceased had been a fisherman or whale hunter. Such a custom prevails very extensively among the Kiat6/amut Innuit of southern Alaska. There, the profession of a man, and even a woman, is carefully recorded upon wooden slabs.
The term Shaman is more appropriate in this connection. The Seer was an individual whose profession was distinct from that of the Shaman. With some tribes there are Kain- makers, etc. During the performance of religious or profes- sional ceremonies, the Shaman resorts to many and various utterances and movements not understood by the unitiated. liattles, small dried animals or skins, curiously shaped veg- etable growths, rare sparkling minerals and wrought stones of odd forms, are employed as fetishes. Among the last named the writer found both oblong and pyriform polished
32 HUGO EIED'S account of the INDIANS
Stones, such as have hitherto been considered, and described, as " plummets, plurab-bobs, sinkers, and weights." An old Tobikhar said that such stones would require too much time and labor to be used only to cast into the sea. The Indians terra them " medicine stones," and consider them as possess- ing medicinal properties.
That the Shaman also prepared arrow-poison, there is no doubt. Nearly all of the tribes between the Pacific ocean and the Kocky mountains had more or less knowledge of plants, insects, or other materials, wliich rendered it capable of pro- ducing septicaemia in any person or animal wounded thereby. For more extended information by the present writer, re- specting the methods of preparation, and the tribes by whom used, see Bull. Societe d' Anthropologie de Paris, Vol. VI, 3rd Series, 1883, p. 205, et seq. ; Verhandl. Berliner. Gesell. fur Anthrop. Ethnol. und Uryesch., 1880, p. 91, et seq.
1 1. Although the author says that siphylis was unknown, there is
every reason to suppose that this disease made its appear- ance among the coast and island Indians at a very early day. A skull, which the writer obtained at Santa Cruz Island — and has in his possession still, — shows great destruction over the left parietal bone, beginning at the temporal bone and extending backward and upward, so as to embrace the surface of nearly the lower half of the temporal, while on the frontal bone the erosion extended to greater depth, taking in part of the external portion of the supra orbital ridge, thence upward for about one inch and across the forehead to a point above the middle of the right orbit. In the middle of these eroded areas are the more recent deposits of bony matter, forming, what may have been a healthy reconstruction of the parts. The skull is an extremely interesting one, and the only specimen of this kind known to the writer to have been obtained at that locality. From the general style of burial, and the primitive forms of the relics obtained from the grave, there is every reason to believe that the body was not of recent years.
12. This game was played by many tribes of Indians, and was called
" Chunkee " by Adair, who observed it among the Muskoki. The writer saw it played by the Coyotero Apaches, in 1871, at Camp Apache, A. T., and an extended notice of the subject was printed in the American Naturalist, 1878, Vol. XII, pp. 478-481.
The Indians at Santa Barbara also played a similar game, using a barrel-shaped stone ring, three inches in diameter
OF LOS ANGELES CO., CALIFORNIA. 33
and four in length, at which the players shot arrows, the idea being to penetrate the liole while tlie ring was in motion. The players stood upon either side of the course.
13. Probably the country of the Rlojaves, the tribal name of which is
Anio/awi or Amo;^anii. The western range of their territory formerly extended along the northern slope of the San Fer- nando range, but how far westward is not known.
14. Tunas, generally known as prickly pears, are the edible fruit of
several varieties of Opuntia, or broad-leaved cactus. These were sometimes crushed and mixed with the meal of seeds or acorns. Many of the mortars found in southern California, are merely circular, flat stones, having a slight depression on one side upon which the pounding was done. To prevent the scattering of seed, a funnel-shaped basket was constructed, similar to those used for carrying fruit, etc. ; the lower apex was cut off allowing the hole to be nearly as large as the stone mortar. The cut edge of the basket was then temporarily se- cured to the mortar by applying a thick coating of l)itumen. The basket thus served as a hopper. When the surface of a mortar became smooth by use, it was again roughened by pecking it with a sharp piece of quartz or chalcedony, both of which are abundant.
ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XVII. 5
riof^^^a^.3e\.
OPENING OF HATTERAS INLET.
COMMUNICATED BY WILLIAM L. WELCH.
Hatteras Inlet is on the coast of North Carolina, be- tween Cape Hatteras and Ocracoke Inlet, al)out twelve miles from the Cape, southwest ; and fourteen miles north- east of Ocracoke.
It is mentioned in Blunt's Coast Pilot, but not in the Gazetteers, or Encyclopedias : it is surprising that no ac- count of this Inlet and harbor so remarkable in itself, and of so much interest in the late war, by reason of the Burn- side Expedition passing through it, can be found in any of these books of reference.
The writer was stationed at Hatteras Inlet in the summer of 1864, for about a month, and was then told by one of the native pilots (Reuben Quidley) that the place where the inlet is, and the Avater three or four fathoms deep, used to be dry, solid land, and that he (Quidley) had often walked over it.
When in Jan., 1884, the writer undertook to determine the date of the opening or cutting through of this Inlet, he consulted everything attainable, without success, and as a last resort, wTote (Jan. 12th) to the U. S. Coast Survey at Washington, D. C, for such particulars as they could and would communicate. In the answer to this (dated Jan. 21st) the information was received, that the first survey of the place in question, w\as made in 1850, and the results were published in the Coast Survey Reports for 1851 — and fur- ther
(37)
38 OPENING OF HATTERAS INLET.
" No mention is made of the inlet having been recently formed. I have written to tlie oflicer who made this survey and also to others who from their age and interest in the locality would be likely to know something of it, and so far as any of them know, the inlet has existed from remote times. Can your question refer to Oregon Inlet, at Bodie's Island, considerably higher up the coast? That inlet was formed by the hurricane of Sept. 8, 1846."
This answer was not satisfactory, and Jan. 25th, a commu- nication was sent to Hon. Thos. J. Jarvis, Governor of North Carolina, asking the same questions, and giving the result of the enquiry at Washington, as set forth above. Jan. 28th the Governor replies :
" There was a time in the present half century when there was no Hatteras Inlet. It was cut out in some great storm within that time. I cannot to-day give you the exact date, but will do so soon."
This was encouraging, but the matter lay dormant until a letter was received from Gov. Jarvis, dated April 14, as follows :
"After considerable delay, I have at last got upon the track of the information you desired as to the opening of Hatteras Inlet. It took me some time to get hold of a man who could fix the exact time. I have inquired of many and most of them like myself had a general idea of the fact that it was cut out some forty years ago."
A letter dated April 22d was next received from Gov. Jarvis, enclosing one from Col. Juo. D. AVhitford of New Berne, N. C, to the Governor, and one from lledding E.. Quidley, Esq., of Hatteras Inlet to Col. Whitford. Col. Whitford's letter c(mtained an account of a chart in his pos- session dated 1738, made by James Wimble, on which an inlet is shown between Ocracoke Inlet and Cape Hatteras ; and Mr. Quidley's letter contained an account of the cut- ting through of the present inlet in Sept. 1846.
Here was a starting-point, and the next step was to determine, if possible, when the old inlet closed, Avhere it
OPENING OF IIATTERAS INLET. 39
was situated, and if it could or could not be idcntitied with the present inlet. The writer in the meanwhile had sent a letter to the Secretary of "War, asking for, and had re- ceived (through the Engineer Department), "Appendix G of the Annual lleport of the Chief of Engineers for 1876, containing the Annual Report upon the Improvement of
Rivers and Harbors in North Carolina." In this,
the report of S. T. Abert, U. S. Civil Eng. to Brig. Gen. A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Eng. U. S. A., has a "Table showing comparative conditions of the Inlets on the coast of Xorth Carolina at diliercnt dates," giving with others the condition of Ilatteras Inlet as shown by maps of Hariot 1585, Lawsou 1708, Wimble 1738, Mouziu 1775, Atlantic Neptune 1780, Lewis 1795, and U. S. Coast Survey 1875. In each and every one of these charts or maps, Ilatteras Inlet is indicated as being open, and the table shows that the Engineer that compiled it, understood, and intended to convey the impression, that the same inlet was there in 1875 that existed in 1585 and that it Avas at the same place on the coast.
A searoJi by the writer among the old charts in possession of the Essex Institute, Salem, Mass., was the means of discovering a "Chart of the Coast of America from Cape Hateras to Cape Roman from the actual Surveys of Daniel Dunbiljin, Esq." This chart is bound with others in " The American Pilot" pul)lished at Boston by William Norman, Book and Chart seller, an edition of 1794. This chart has no inlet between Cape Ilatteras and Ocracoke, and gives 4 fathom of water on bar at Ocracoke, and 9 ft. 6 in. shoalest water on bar inside. A careful perusal of the available histories of North Carolina in the Boston Public Library was made, and in Vol. 2 of Martin's History of North Carolina, page 184, this paragraph occurs:
40 OrENlNG OF IIATTERAS INLET.
" 1764. A chart of the sea coast having been made by Daniel Dun- bibbin, was this year published by his widow, to whom the legislature allowed a small premium."
This last inforniutioii seems to indicate that the charts of Mouzlu 1775, Atlantic Neptune 1780, and Lewis 1795 (mentioned before) are, as regards an inlet between Cape Hatteras and Ocracoke Inlet entirely wrong, and are simply copies of Wimble's or some other older chart. The letter of Mr. Qnidle}^ received in April through Col. Whitford and Gov. Jarvis, was dated at Hatteras Inlet, N. C, Apr. 7, 1884, and says:
"I will say in regard to your request, that Hatteras Inlet was cut out by a heavy gale, a violent storm on the 7th of Sept., at night, 184G. The first vessel that passed through into Pamlico Sound, was schooner Asher C. Havens, on the 5th day of Feb'y, 1847, Capt. David Barrett, Commander : I was pilot of said schooner, conducted her through all safe. No other vessel had ever passed through the Inlet.
The first vessel that ever crossed over the bar of Hatteras Inlet was in Jan., '47. I was then a licensed pilot for Ocracoke Inlet, got on board to pilot the schooner into Ocracoke, wind came ahead, I went into Hatteras Inlet for harbor, stayed all night, went out next morn- ing and went into Ocracoke. I cannot give any correct report what time the first vessel passed out, it was not long after the first passed through ; the second vessel passed through about two weeks after the first, it was a small steamer bound through Core Sound, I piloted it through."
In another letter to the Avriter of this, Mr. Quidley says :
"I was licensed to pilot at Ocracoke Inlet in 1831 ; I then lived at Hatteras and when I piloted a vessel in at Ocracoke, which very often would be two, three, or four a week, and walked home to Hatteras, there was nothing to cause me or any one, to have any idea that there would be an inlet there, sooner than any other part of the beach; there was no water passed over the place except in those heavy east- erly gales, when as a general thing it passes over nearly all our beach from Hatteras to Ocracoke. The day the inlet was cut out, there were several families living where the inlet is now, they had no more thought of seeing an inlet there, than of any part of the beach, but to their great surprise, in the morning thoy saw the sea and sound
OPENING OF HATTERAS INLET. 41
connected together, and the live oaks washing up by the roots and tumbling into the ocean. I was well acquainted with the growth of the land where the inlet now is, I lived with my brother where the in- let is now. I have worked with him cutting wood and chopping yo- pon, where now, I have no doubt there is three or four fathoms of water; the growth was live oak principally, did not grow tall, but large trunks and spreading limbs. I had an old uncle lived about where the inlet is, who had a flue fig orchard, and many peach trees on his lot, with fine potato patch and garden."
Again he writes :
" Since I wrote you last, I have conversed with the two oldest men living on this portion of the Banks (one is in his 75th year, the other in his 72d), both born and raised where the inlet is now.
John Austin, the eldest, says he remembers his grandfather very well; he says he has heard the old gentleman say, there was an inlet about six miles southwest of where the inlet is now; he states that the old man said there was an English vessel, a ship, ran on the bar of said inlet, and was lost, and the wreck sanded up and the beach made down to it and finally closed up the inlet; Mr. Austin's grand- father's name was Styron; died Mch. 7, 1825, aged 86 yrs.
The other man I talked with was William Ballance. He says his father died in 182G, GS years old ; he says he heard his father say that he had seen a piece of wreck standing up, right at, or near the place that Austin speaks of as being the place where the inlet was, and bad been told by older people, that it was the stern post of the ves- sel that closed up the inlet. This place that they speak of is about five or six miles from this inlet we have now, between two points known now as ' Shingle Creek' and ' Quake Hammock. ' "
In a letter from Mr. Quidley dated Sept. 29, 1884, he says :
"The Shingle Creek is about 5 miles from Hatteras Inlet, is 40 or 50 yds. wide, makes up through a portion of marsh and a low growth of woods or bushes to the beach, but not through the beach ; and a little to northeast of it there is another creek, about like the one just named, called the " Old Inlet Creek," which I think might take its name from being somewhere near where the inlet was. The " Great Swash" is a level place of beach, nothing growing on it but some grass or sedge next to the sound side, and extends about a mile to next growth of woods called "Knole": the Quake Hammock is a small clump of woods lying between Shingle Creek and Great Swash.
I cannot give tlie exact time that vessels left oflf passing through
EaSEX U^ST. BULLJiTLN, VOL. XVU G
42 OPENING OF HATTERAS INLET.
Ocracoke. I was one of the first Commissioners of Navigation ap- pointed for Hatteras Inlet, I think in 1852 ; there has been but very little passing through Ocracoke Inlet since 1855 ; there is no vessel passes through there now except perchance, that a vessel goes in case of distress of weather, or head winds, and draws light draught of water, 4 or 5 feet."
To sum up : we find on the old charts of the coast of North Carolina from those of 1585, to that of James Wim- ble 1738, an inlet indicated between Ocracoke Inlet and Cape Hatteras and about eight miles northeast of the for- mer, known as Hatteras Inlet, which from the evidence given must have closed near the middle of the last century ; for the chart of Daniel Dunbibbiu was published by his widow, in 1764, and this was made from actual surveys, and it has no inlet betAveen Ocracoke Inlet and Cape Hat- teras ; and we must conclude that all charts of that coast quoted in the paper above, made later than Dunbibbin's, are faulty in the matter of this inlet, and are simply copies of some previous chart. We also conclude that the claim of the U. S. Coast Survey authorities that the present inlet at Hatteras has "existed from remote times, " and that of Mr. Abert, that this present inlet is identical with that of 1585 is erroneous ; for the evidence given cannot be controverted that the present Hatteras Inlet was opened by the great gale of Sept., 1846, which was so severe on our southern coast.
This paper and its conclusions are respectfully referred to the U. S. authorities and the publishers of Gazetteers and Eucyclopa3dias for their adoption.
THROUGH WHICH INLET DID THE ENGLISH AD- VENTURERS OF 158 4 ENTER THE SOUNDS OF NORTH CAROLINA.
ALSO SO^IE CHANGES IN THE COAST LINE SINCE THEIR TIME.
COMMUNICATED BY WILLIAM L. WELCH.
The following extracts are from the report of the voy- age under Amadas and Barlowe (written by Barlowe) made in 1584. After mentioning their arrival upon the coast, they say ;
" We sailed along the same a hundred and twenty English miles be- fore we could find any entrance or river issuing into the sea. The first that appeared unto us we entered, though not without some dif- ficulty, and cast anchor about three harquebus-shot within the haven's mouth, on the left hand of the same."
" This land lay stretching itself to the west, which after we found to be but an island of twenty miles long, and not over six miles broad."
They speak of visits of the Indians, and then say
"After they had been divers times aboard the ships, myself with seven more went twenty miles into the river that runs towards the city of Skicoai<, which river they call Occam; and the evening following, we came to an island, which they call Roanoak, distant from the harbor by which we entered, seven ^agues; and at the north end thereof was a village of nine houses." " Beyond this island there is the main land, and over, against this Island, falls into this spacious water, the great river called Occam by the inhaiiitants, on which stands a town called Pomeiock, and six days journey from the same is situate their greatest city called Skicoak." "Into this river falls another great river, called Cipo, in which there is found great stores of muscles, in which there are pearls; likewise there descendeth into this Occam, another river called Nomopam, on the one side whereof stands a great town called Chawanook." "Towards the southwest, four days jour- ney, is situated a town called Sequotan, which is the southernmost
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44 WHICH INLET DID THEY ENTEK r
town of Wingandacoa, near into which, six and twenty years past, there was a ship cast away, whereof some of the people were saved, and those were white people, whom the country people preserved. And after ten days remaining in an out island uninhabited, called Wocokon, they with help of some of the dwellers of Sequotan, fast- ened two boats of the country together, and made masts unto them, and sails of their shirts, and having taken into them such victuals as the country yielded, they departed, after they had remained in this out island three weeks."
This report was accompanied by a sketch of the coast and adjacent country, as they found it, extending from perhaps forty miles north of Roanoke to ten miles south of it ; it has five inlets drawn on it, the southern one is north of the southern end of Roanoke Island, the next perhaps five miles north of that ; the first one north of Roanoke Island, and also north of an island ap- parently "Colliiigton's", is marked "Trinity Harbor'', and there are two north of this, the most northern one, might be "Old Currituck Inlet" ; off these most northern inlets, are anchored the two ships of the adventurers, and inside apparently sailing from "Trinity Harbor" to "Roanoke Island" is a boat with one square sail, full of men ; from these, this sketch and the text of their report, the writer concludes that tliey entered at "'Trinity Harbor,'" north of Roanoke Island, which inlet teas about ivliere ''Caffey'' inlet used to be; that their river Occam was our Albemarle Sound ; that their river Nomopam was our Chowan ; and that AVo- cokon, our Ocracoke, was to them an unknown place; that is, they did not visit it, for if they had, it would be reasonable to suppose their sketch of the coast would have included it. Bancroft in his History of United States says they entered at Wocokon (our Ocracoke) but it is simi)ly an assertion, and can not be proved. Hawks' History of North Carolina gives New Inlet, south of Roanoke Island, as the place of entrance ; and that the Occam was a part of the
WHICH INLET DID THEY ENTER? 45
sound between a line of islands parallel to the coast, one of which was Roanoke ; but, as New Inlet was not open at that time, and the river Nomopam, on which stood "Chawa- nook" does not fall into Roanoke Sound, this theory fails. Mr. AbertjU. S. Civil Eng. follows Bancroft, and toprovide a river Occam, he connects Alligator River with long Shoal River making one long river of them, but the same objec- tion afl'ects his river as that of Hawks' ; he also fails to convince himself that Roanoke Island is seven leagues only from Ocracoke Inlet ; most probably his mistake arises from confounding Pomeiock, a town on Albemarle Sound (at or near Edenton) with Pomouik, near Secotan, on or near Mattamuskeet Lake ; other authors place the entrance of Amadas and Barlowe at either Ocracoke or Hatteras Inlet. John W.Moore, in his history of North Carolina, published in 1880, places the entrance at Trinit}^ Harbor ^'nearly ojyposite Roanoke Island" ; this last is the nearest of any to what the w^-iter considers the facts, but as the inlet entered was seven leagues from Roanoke Island, Caffey Inlet was in all probability the place of entrance.
SOME CHANGES IN THE COAST LINE SINCE 1584.
Mr. Abert, U. S. Civil Eng., in the Table of Condition of Inlets, in his report to War Dept. in 1876, saj^s the in- let known as Hatoraskin 1590, New in 1738, Guntin 1775, Gant in 1795, is the same as that known on U. S. C. Sur- vey chart of 1875 as Oregon : in this he is evidently mis- taken, if we may rely on the evidence of the U. S. C. Survey office, that Oregon Inlet was opened in 1846. In the same table, the Ilattcras Inlet of to-day is given as being iden- tical with that of 1585 ; but the evidence of R. R. Quidley and other residents of Hatteras, must be taken as conclu- sive, that the present Hatteras Inlet was also opened in 1846. He also says :
46 CBLANGES IN THE COAST LINE.
" The same inlets now exist between the outlying islands, and the same shoals are now found off the coast, as were found by the navi- gators of 1584. The beach, banks, barrier reefs, or whatever they may be called, appear to have been much wider than at the present time. This seems to have been notably the case near Cape Hatteras. The preservation of the status of the bars at the inlets for so many years indicates a permanence in the relation of the forces by which they are maintained."
Of the inlets on the coast of North Carolina from near Cape Henry to Ocracoke Inlet, that were open in 1585- 90, not one, except Ocracoke, is open to-day, and Ocra- coke is of little use to navigation : there was no inlet be- tween tliose near, and north of Roanoke Island, and one which appears on the maps as being at Cape Hatteras. The date of closing of the inlet at Cape Hatteras it is im- possible to give, but that there was one admits of no dis- pute ; the old maps give it, and in the report of the last voyage made by John White in 1590, appears this :
" On the twelfth, in the morning we departed from thence, and toward night we came to an anchor at the northeast end of the island of Croatoan, by reason of a breach which we perceived to lie out two or three leagues into the sea; here we rode all that night." "This breach is in thirty -five degrees and a half, and lays at the very north- east point of Croatoan, where goes a fret out of the main sea into the inner waters which part the islands and the main land."
As was the course in those days, White had made the West Indies first, then the coast of Florida, and was coast- ing along towards Roanoke Island, and the day before the event chronicled above had anchored off Cape Lookout, or near Beaufort. Croatoan was that part of the coast lying northeast and southwest, between old Hatteras Inlet and the inlet at Cape Hatteras.
The latitude given in the extract above would place the breach and fret rather north of the present Cape Hatteras, but an error of 15' to 25' in those days, would not be too much to suppose.
CHANGES IN THE COAST LINE. 47
The trend of the coast to-day from Cape Henry to within twenty-five miles of Cape Hatteras is southeast ; for the next tweut^'-five miles it is nearly due south, except that, from a few miles north of the Cape it is a little to the west of south. The old maps of 1585-90 give, just south of Koanoko Island, a coast line running nearly east, and so far, that the extreme point was far east of Cape Platteras, then taking a southwest direction to within a few miles of Cape Hatteras ; it must have heen on this point that White, in his last voyage, just escaped being wrecked, and here also were hills, designated as " Kenrick's ]\Iount" : some heavy storm, or series of storms, or some great convulsion of nature has entirely carried this away, and perha})s opened Loggerhead and New Inlets. Piatt and AVimble shoals are, perhaps, all there is left of this large extent of land.
The charts of Wimble and Dunbibbin, both give Cape Hatteras as jutting out into the ocean like a sharp elbow, while to-day, the cape as shown by the U. S. Coast Sur- vey charts is rounded in and the point all carried away.
These changes, noted al)ove, are well worthy the atten- tion of the U. S Coast Survey and Engineer Department, U. S. A.
B U L L E T I N
ESSEIX: IIsrSTITTJTEl.
Vol. 17. Salem: Apr., May, June, 1885. Nos. 4-6.
ON THE CAKATAX AND STERNUM OF DECAPOD CRUSTACEA.*
BY HOWARD AYERS, Ph.D., Ann Arbor, Mich.
The determination of the homology of the carapax and sternum among the Crustacea is rendered difficult by the endless variety of forms assumed by their constituent parts, and the consequent perplexing differences in the rehition of these parts to each. other. Before stating the conclu- sions and arguments in favor of the solution at which I have arrived after a study of several forms chiefly of the Decapod type, it may conduce to clearness to give in a few words, the main facts and conclusions of the previous writers on this subject.
Although Huxley (1) is the latest writer who expresses views on the homologies of the Crustacean carapax, he offers no new explanation but adheres to the old conception
into a carapax. He writes (in describing Aslacus flu- viatilis) "The carapace, therefore, corresponds in position with the terga and tergal halves of the pleura of all the somites which are thus reflected into it, and the.se somites
•This paper was prcp.iied iu the Miis. Conip. Zoijl., uiuler the direction of Prof. W. Faxon, in tlie ollcgt- year ISS-i-SJ.
ICSSKX INST. hULLKTIN, VOL. XVII. 7 (49)
50 ON THE CAKAPAX AND STERNUM
include all, without exception, from the last thoracic to the ophthalmic. * * * " At the sides of the antennulary and antennary somites the rostral prolongation of the car- apace is the direct continuation outward of the epimeraof these somites, and there is nothing to be compared to an apodeme, but the sternum of the ophthalmic somite after giving oif the lamella which forms the inferomedian ros- trum, is prolonged on each side of the middle line back- wards and outwards into a free, expanded, thin, calcified process which applies itself against the carapace by its upper surface, and by its under surface gives attachment to the anterior gastric muscles. * * * On the dorsal sur- face there is no indication of any division of the carapace into terga corresponding with the sterna of the somites, but it is marked by a well-defined curved groove. * * * " The accompanying diagram explains his views of the so- mite in Astacus.
Milne-Edwards (2) considers the carapax in the major- ity of the Decapods to consist of a single piece, part of
Diagram of crustacean segment; ep, epimerum; es, epistcrnum; s, sternum; t, tergum.
which is furnished by the antennary and mandibulary som- ites respectively. This author states, that while in Squilla the carapax belongs almost entirely to the antennary seg- ment, in Limnetis on the other hand, it pertains chiefly to the mandibulary somite. Furthermore, the tergum of the antennulary segment is entirely wanting in the Deca-
OF DECAPOD CRUSTACEA. 51
pods. He continues (he. cit., p. 233), "J'ai fiiit voir, dans un autre ecrit que le carapace, lors meme qu'elle recouvre hi totulite du thorax aussi hien que toute \a portion cepha- lique du corps doit ctre cousideree comnie une portion de la tete dont une portion dusquelette s'est d6velopp6e d'une maniere excessif, et a chevauche en avant et en arrifere sur les parties voisines ; j'ai etabli aussi qu'elle appartenait au systeme des pieces tergales, et qui celles-ci n'etaient fournies ni par les auneaux ophthalmique ou antennulaire, ni par les zoonites cephaliques posterieures. II me parais- soit probable qu'elle dependait de I'anueau autennaire ou de I'anneau mandibulaire, c'est-a-dire du troisieme ou du quatrieme anneau de hi tete, mais qu'elle ue procedait que d'lmseul ces zoonites. Les faits dont il vient d'etre ques- tion permettent de rectifier une partie de ces conclu- sions, et d'arriver a une approximation plus grande de la verite. Eftectivement I'arceau cephulique de la carapace des Decapodes me semble ne pouvoir etre qu'une depend- ence de I'anneau autennaire, taut a raison connexions avec les autres pieces du squelette tegumentaire, qu'en conse- quence de I'origine des nerfs dont ses parties molles sont pourvues, puisque ces nerfs proviennent des ganglions cerebroides ou sous-a^sophagiens, taudis que les nerfs appartenant au appendices du zoonite suivant, ou anneau mandibulaire, naissent des ganglions post-cesophagiens. Mais I'arceau scapulaire ou posterieur de la carapace de ces Crustaces doit pour des raisons analogues, etre consid6r6 comme 6tant etranger au troisieme zoonite cephalique, et comme appartenant a I'anneau mandibulaire. La carapace serait done un organ plus complexe que je ne le supposait d'abord, et serait formee par deux anneaux tergaux, depen- dant du troisieme et du quatrieme anneaux de la tete, ar- ccaux (jui foiu'naient (rime iudc'i)cMHhince pres(jue complete chez les Paguriens et les Thalassiues, mais ne seraient
52 ON THE CAKAPAX AND STERNUM
represent^s chcz les D6capocles ordinaires que par un seal seo"ment dorsal du k I'ossification diffuse ou fusion des ele- mentes sclerodermique de toute la portion du squelette teg- iimentaire correspondant a ces deux arceaux. Mais chez les Crustaces inferieures, la carapace ne parait avoir d'or- dinaire une composition plus simple, et etre form^etantot par les analogues de I'areeau cephalique seulement, tantot par les representants de I'areeau scapulaire. Ainsi, chez les Squilles, la portion cephalique de la carapace est tres- devellopee ; mais toute la portion posterieure au scapulaire parS,it manquer completcment, et chez les Limnadies, au contraire, I'espece de coquille bivalve, qui tient lieu d'une carapace ordinaire, me parait etre due au developpement excessif de la portion scapulaire seulement, et dependre de I'aimeau mandibulaire, out peut-etre meme de I'un des zoonites suivant. " Owen (3) reflects Milne-Edwards' views throughout as quoted above. Dana (4) differs from Milne-Edwards in that he considers the lateral (ventral) plates of the carapax of crabs to be true /erga instead of epimera {he. cit., p. 27). He infers "that the epistome (or its anterior part) belongs to the second, or to the sec- ond and first normal segments, that is, to the antennulary or to the antennulary and ophthalmic segments. For con- venience of reference I have compiled the following table from the author's statements of his views regarding the number of segments and what parts of each enter into the composition of the crab carapax,
1. Ophthalmic somite. Parts entirely wanting; appendages, how- ever, present.
2. Antennulary somite. Sternum present (probal)ly fused with the ophthalmic sternum into one piece) ; the other parts wanting; appen- dages present.
3. Antennary somite. The parts (sternum, tergum. epislernal plate) present.
4. Manilibulary somite. The sternum, epislernal plates, epimcral plates and tergum present.
or DECAPOD CRUSTACEA. 53
Aftei- slating in a very clear nuimier the facts he Jiad established, the author draws the following couclusious. The carapax of the Bra- chyura includes :
I. The first and second normal segments represented by the epistome,
or its anterior position, and the inter-antennary septum.
II. The third normal segment, represented by the main body of the
carapax, and the anterior portion of the prelabial plate or pal- ate.
III. The fourth normal or mandibular segment i-epresented by the
posterior and outer part of the prelabial plate and the ventral pieces of the carapax.
Concerninir the caiapax of the Macroiira the author again differs from ]\lihie-Ed\vards in designating the lateral and posterior plates of the carapax of Astacus mandibular terga instead of epimcra. After a careful comparative descrip- tion of numerous foi-ms both among the Macronra and the lower Crustacea {loc. cit., pp. 32-37) in which he men- tions several seemingly adverse cases, the author concludes that the origin of the carapax and the disposition of its parts are essentially the same throughout the class.
From the foregoing extracts it will be seen that Dana's views are in advance of those of the other investigators, but there yet remain several points of interest on which it is desirable to collect further evidence. Both Milne- Edwards and Dana have established with a high degree of probability the origin of the carai)ax from the terga of the mandibulary and anteunary somites, but neither of them succeeded in finding a conclusive demonstration of the fact. In the very young Squilla the thoracic and ab- dominal segments of tlie body may, by careful dissection, 1)0 removed from their connection with the carapax, with- out disturl)ing the relation of the parts in intimate connex with the latter. In such a preparation the point of attach- ment will be seen t(^ lie immediately behind the mandibu- lary sternum, fig. 15, z. Since both the op//t/ialmic and the antennulary segments are entire and have no connection
54 ON THE CARAPAX AND STERNUM
with the carapax it follows that the carapax in the young Squilla pertains to the antennary and mandibulary somite — to these and these only. The same is true of the zoea oi Porcellana. The relations of the carapax in the young stages of Cancer and Carcinus could not be made out ac- curately, owing to the poor state of preservation of the specimens at my disposal. Among the Brachyurathe ter- gum of the ophthalmic somite is, present as a distinct plate beneath the carapax and may be exposed by cutting away the rostral region of the carapax, or it may sometimes be seen from behind (e. g., Platyonychus, Actceodes, Scylla). The antennulary tergum, on the other hand, seems to have dis- appeared entirely.
The sternum of the ophthalmic somite, considered by Dana to be wanting among the Brachyura, is present, as it appears to me, in what has hitherto been considered as a portion of the antennary somite and designated the an- tennary septum (compare Huxley, loc. cit., p. 2^)6, tig. 76, c). In Actcef'des, figs. 4, 6 and 7, the sternum of this somite is a distinct cuneiform body, wedged in be- tween the rostrum and the antennary sternum, but sep- arated from both by sutures.
Its connection is more intimate with the antennary ster- num than with the rostrum. The basal joints of the antennce lie in contact with it, since it helps to form the iimer angle of both antennary orbits. Ihis wedge- shaped body extends backward into the facial region and furnishes the calcareous sockets for the bases of the eye- stalks ; but has nothing to do with the orbital region. This latter has arisen by the overgrowth of the rostral region {i. e., forwards) which at the same time has been forced downward into the facial areti. This growth is well illustrated in the scries from IJomarus, thiough Lithodes, Platyonychus, /Scylla and Cancer, to Actoeodes.
OF DECAPOD CRUSTACEA. 55
In Cancer, tig. 3, the connection of the ophthalmic with the antcnnuhiry sternum is still closer and the former is a much thinner plate. In /Sci/IIa, tig. 9, the rostrum is hardly in contact with the ophthalmic sternum, although it is hent down close over it. The suture between the ophthalmic and antennary sterna is obliterated. In Plaly- onychusy fig. 1, the fusion between the two sterna is com- plete. In Palinui-us, figs. 14 and 16, Liihodes, fig. 11, and Homarus, fig. 5, the rostrum has not encroached up- on the ophthalmic somite and the sternum sustains its nor- mal relations to the apjiendages.
Antennulary sternum. The antennulary sternum in Actoeodes is an elongated, bar-shaped plate extending across the facial area immediately below the antennae. The antenuules abut upon its ends, while the ophthalmic sternum is fused to its upper part dividing it into halves. The figure formed by these two plates is that of a short- stemmed T inverted. This plate forms the floor of the antennary sockets. The suture between the antennulary and the antennary sterna is lenticular in form and occu- pied by a semicalcified membrane.
In Cancel' f fig. 3 and Platyonychus, fig. 1, the parts in- cluded in the facial area are much less distinct. In Scylla, fig. 9, this sternal plate lies opposed to the upper margin (surface) of the antennary sternum, in the form of a thin calcareous plate. Its relations to the surroundin<y parts are, however, the same as in Actoeodes. In Liihodes, fig. 11, the antennulary sternum resembles in all respects the ophthalmic, and consists of a smooth, scarcely calci- fied membrane stretched between the antenuules. In Palinurus, figs. 14 and 16, the antennulary sternum is enormously enlarged and projects forward in the form of a truncated pyramid, equivalent to the "nasal region" of Milne-Edwards. Owing to the unusually large size
56 ox THE CARAPAX AND STERNUM
of the antennae, the antenniiles have their insertion at the anterior end of this plate instead of at the sides as would normally be the case. A narrow extension of the main (fold) plate separates the basal joint of the appendages. In Homarus this sternum is moderately developed and occupies its normal position. There is no indication among the Macroura or the Brachyura, of the existence of any other parts of the typical somite in either of these two segments.
Antennary and mandibulary somites. As re- gards the sterna of the third and fourth somites in Chlo- rodius and Scylla, I cannot do better than refer to Dana's admirable description (loc. cit., pp. 24-28). This des- cription of Chlorodius will apply in every particular to Actoeodes, figs. 4, 6 and 7. In Cancer and Platyonichus the facial region is too much fused to admit of any accur- ate distinction of the parts. In JPalinurus the antennary sternum is greatly enlarged and forms the lower part of the nasal projection. At its upper termination it furnishes the basal portion of the antennuhiry sockets : from this point it spreads out rapidly and extends entirely across the ventral surface of the body forming the anterior, lower one-third of the boundary of each antennary socket. The openings of the green glands are near to its outer angle, on the suture separating it from the mandibulary sternum. Its connections with the anterior half or cephalic portion of the carapax are very distinct and in the form of a beaded suture. The mandibular sternum is separated from the episternal pieces by a short suture, these latter in turn are separated from the epimerals by a suture passing backward and inward toward the median ventral line. In Lithodes, figs. 11 and 13, and Homarus, figs. 5 and 17, the epister- nals and epimerals of both antennary and mandibulary somites are present and consequentlj' one is able to
ox DECAPOD CRUSTACEA. 57
trace the connection of the two portions of the carapax with comparative ease. The episternals and epimerals of the antennary segment are calcified. The former appear on either side of the epistome or sternum as an oblong plate extending backward, downward and outward and also furnish the upper plate of the entrance to the gill- chamber. The epimcral plate is folded inward close upon the episternum of either side and is only to be seen when the edges of the carapax are spread apart. The episterna and epimera of the mandibular segment are represented by slightly calcified membranes more or less folded upon themselves. These plates are related to the mandibular sternum in a manner similar to that stated for that of the corresponding plates of the preceding segment. In Squilla the antennary sternum is especially prominent and reaches backward and downward in the form of a half cylinder, the sides of which are formed by the large episternal plates. The carapax is almost entirely made up by the antennar}^ tergnm, and the antennary somite furnishes fur- ther, fully one-half of the length of the cephalo-thoracic region of the body of this crustacean. The statement that the terga of the thoracic somites are covered by the ceph- alo-thoracic shield is not strictly true. The first two terga (counting from behind forwards) are entire and free, the third is united by a membrane to the posterior edge of the cephalothorax. The remaining terga are incomplete and luiite with the carapax in a line curving from the point of attachment of the third, outwards and forwards on cither side of the median dorsal line of the body (fig. 21).
Sternal plates, etc. Milne-Edwards considers the small calcareous plates found at the base of the thoracic appendages, which in the adult state are more or less fused with the sterna u( the respective segments, to be the ho- mologues of the episternal pieces of the typical arthropod
KSSKX INST. lU'M.KTIN, VOL. XVII. 8
58 ON THE CAKAPAX AND STERNUM
somite. From embryological evidence it appears very probable that these pieces originate as simple projections of the outer posterior angle ot" each sternal plate and that they are apparently cut oil' by the appearance of false su- tures at a later period of development. The figures illus- trating this point (figs. 18, 19, 22) hardly need any explanation beyond that given in the description of the plates. A comparison of figs. 18 and 22 is conclusive.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. Iluxley, T. H. Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals (chapter ou Crustacea).
London, 1878.
2. Milne-Edwards. Observations sur le Squelette Tegumentaire des Crustaces
Decapodes et siir la Morpliologie de ces Animaux. Ann. Sci. Natiirelles Ser. 3e, T. XVI, pp. 221-291. Pis. 8-U. Paris, 1851. Consult also Lemons sur I'Anat. et la Phys., etc., T. 10, p. 212. Paris, 1872.
3. Owen, R. Lectures ou the Conipar.ative Anatomy and Physiology of Inverte-
brate Animals, p. 301. London, 1855.
4. D.ana, James D. Homologiesof the Carapax among Crustacea. U.S. exploring
expedition,]S38-'42, Vol. XIII, pp. 23-28, 32-35. Atlas, pi. 11, fig. 9d and 16, fig. 9c. Philadelphia, 18.52. Also On the markings of the carapax of Crabs. Anier. Journal of Science and Arts, 2d Ser., Vol. XI, p. 95. (Jan., '51.)
EXPLANATION OF PLATES II AND III.
KEFERENCE LETTERS.
a antennule n membranous space
a' antenna o eye or orbit
as antennular sternum os ophtlialmic sternum
a's antennal sternum pg processes for attachment of gastric
a't antennal tergum muscles
a'<p plates of antennal tergum r rostrum
ap appendage s sternum
e epimeral plate sp sternal piece
e' epimeral groove t tergum
/ labrum tht thoracic tergum
g plate covering green gland y suture between mandibular and
g' plate between antennule and car- antennal sternum
ai)ax X .«uture between epimeral and tergal TO mandibular skeleton plates of mandibular segment
mem membrane z point of attachment of carapax to ms mandibular sternum body
mt mandibular tergum mp anterior mandibular epimeral
plate.
Fig. 1. Ventral view of carapax of an immature Platyonichus ocellatus, caustic soda, acetic acid preparation; natural size. Fig. 2. Ventral view of the earapax of Etiius dentatus; natural size.
ON DECAPOD CRUSTACEA. 59
Fig. 3. Carapaxof Cancer boreftlis prepared in caustic soda, ventral view with the fiont slightly inclined forwards; natural size.
Figs. 4, 6 and 7. Carapax ot Actreodes specie.^? prepared in caustic soda and acetic acid; viewed from above, below and in front, respectively.
Fig. 5. Front view of the carapax of Homarus americanus witli the appendages removed, fresh specimen, natural size.
Fig. 8. Ventral view of the connection of the mandibular episternum with the mandibular epimeron in Scylla tranquebarica; natural size.
Fig. 9. Carapax of Scylla tranquebarica itom an alcoholic specimen; natural size.
Fig. 10. Carapax of Chlorodius floridanus, alcoholic specimen ; enlarged .
Figs. 11 and 13. Front and ventro-lateral views of the carapax oi lAthodes maia alcoholic specimen; natural size.
Fig. 12. Basal joints of right antenna of Ilomarus americanus showing the posi- tion of the green gland; natural size.
Figs. 14, IG and 20. Lateral, frontal and ventral views of the carapax of Palinu- rus prepared in caustic soda; natural size.
Fig. 15. Ventral view of young Squilla, tlie thorax and abdomen of which have been removed by careful dissection; s shows the point of attachment of the thorax ; enlarged ten diameters.
Fig. 17. Lateral view of carapax of Homarus americanus, caustic soda prepara- tion ; natural size.
Fig. 18. Sternum of megalops of Cancer horealis, showing the episternal pieces as projecting angles of the sternal plates; enlarged ten diameters.
Fig. 19. Sternum of zoea of Cancer; eulai-ged fifteen diameters.
Fig. 21. Lateral view of a sagittal section of cephalo-thoraeic region of Squilla, caustic soda preparation; natural size.
Fig. 22 Ventral view of sternum of Cancer horealis (prepared in caustic soda) showing the "episternal pieces" of Milne-Edwards; natural size.
Fig. 23. Ventral view of a young Pinnixa; enlarged ten diameters.
Annual Meeting, Monday, May 18, 1885.
The annual meeting this evening at 7.30 o'clock. The President in the chair. Records of the last annual meeting read and approved.
The reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, Auditor, Li- brarian, Curators and Committees were read and duly accepted and ordered to be placed upon tile.
Mr. T. F. Hunt, chairman of the committee on n(mii- nations, reported the following list of officers, which was duly elected ; Messrs. Israel and UniAM having been appointed to collect, assort and count the votes.
60 ANNUAL MEETING, MAY 18.
PRESIDENT :
HENRY WHEATLAND.
VICE-PRESIDENTS :
Abnku C. Goodell, Ju. Daniel B. Hagar.
Fredekick W. Putnam. Robert S. Rantoul.
SECRETARY : TREASURER :
George M. Whipple. George D. Phippen.
AUDITOR: LIBRARIAN:
Richard C. Manning. "William P. Upuam.
CURATORS :
History— llEVRY F. Waters. j»/an?«scrj>«s— Willi AJi P. Upham. ArchcBology—VnET>EKiCK W. Putnam. Kumismatics—MATTHKW A. Stickney. Geology— BET'S J AMlti F. MCDANIEL.
Jiotany-GKOviGE D. Phippen. Zoology— KDWAiiJi S. :Mokse. Horticulture- Music— Joshua PinppEN, Jr. Painting cf Sculpture— T. F. Hunt.
Technology— Kv>\viii C. Bolles.
COMMITTEES :
Finance .•
The President, Chairman ex off.
The Treasurer, ex off.
Geo. R. Emmerton. David Pingree.
Henry M. Brooks.
Library .-
Charles W. Palfray. Henry F. King. William Neilson.
William D. Northend. Theodore M. Osborne.
The Librarian, ex off.
Publication .•
Edward S. Atwood. James A. Emmerton. Edwin C. Bolles.
Henry F. Waters. B. F. McDaniel. T. F. Hunt.
Lecture .- Robert S. Rantoul. Frederick W. Putnam. Asios H. Johnson.
Fielder Israel. A. L. Huntington.
Field Meeting .• The Secretary, Cliairman ex off. GEORGE A. Perkins, Salem. G. D. Phippen, Salem.
George Cogswell, Brad lord. Frank K. Kimball, Salem.
Francis II. Appleton, Peabody, Ehen N. Walton, Salem.
Nathaniel A. Horton, Salem. Winfield S. Xevins, Salem.
E. S. Morse, Salem. John U. Sears, Salem.
THE KETKOSPECT OF THE YEAK. Gl
THE KETKOSPECT OF THE YEAK
compiled from the scveial reports read at the meeting and remarks of the members in relation thereto, presents the work of tiie Institute in the various departments since the last annual meeting.
Members. — Changes occur in the list of our associates by the addition of new names and the withdrawal of some by resignation, removal from the county or vicinity, or by death. We have received notice of the decease of nine- teen, during the year, who have been enrolled on our list of members.
Francis Gregory Sanborn, son of Eastman and ISIary Call Lawrence (Gregory) Sanborn, born in Andover, Mass., Jan. 18, 1838, a graduate of Phillips Academy, Andover, in 1858 ; he early turned his attention to out- door studies, becoming especially proficient in entomology and conchology ; he had been connected with the jNIassa- chusetts Board of Agriculture, the Bussey Institution, the Geological Survey of Kentucky, the Smithsonian In- stitution, and had been a Curator of the Worcester Natural History Society ; died in Providence June 5, 1884. Ad- mitted a member January 15, 1866.
James B. Batcheller, for many years a teacher in the public schools of Salem and Marblehead, and for eighteen years a member of the School Committee in his native town. He was son of Kev. David Batcheller of Worces- ter, a methodist clergyman, and Elizabeth C. Bowler, of Marblehead, in which town he was born June 25, 1814; a graduate of Weslcyan University in 1845 ; professor of mathematics in Burlingt<m, N. J. ; died in jNlarblehcad, July 1, 1884. Admitted a member Sept. 8, 18G8.
62 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.
David Brainerd Brooks, son of John and Harriet (Manning) Brooks, born in Salem, Aug. 7, 1824, died in Salem, July 9, 1884 ; bookseller and stationer in Salem and Boston. Admitted a member jNIarch 12, 1856. He began his business career in the bookstore of John P. Jewett, subsequently a partner, John P. Jewett & Co.
William Saunders, a well-known and distinguished veterinary surgeon for many years in Salem ; his practice extending into Boston and the counties of Essex and Middlesex; son of AVilliam and Elizabeth (Britchers) Samiders, born in Helma, Devonshire, England, Nov. 27, 1817, came to Salem with his father in 1830, died in Sa- lem, July 23, 1884. Elected to membership March 12, 1856.
Alfred Amos Abbott, son of Hon. Amos and Esther Macke}^ (West) Abbott, born in Andover, Mass., May 30, 1820 ; a graduate of Union College in 1841 ; lawyer in Peabody and Salem; for several years District Attorney and the clerk of the courts of Essex County from Sept. 27, 1870, to his decease. Died in Peabody, Oct. 27, 1884. Elected to membership Dec. 30, 1867.
William H. Palmer, son of Asa and Mary (Fletcher) Palmer, born in New Hampshire, March 9, 1811 ; trader in Salem, Mass. ; died Oct. 29, 1884. Elected to mem- bership Feb. 4, 1863.
Isaac J. Osbun, son of Franklin and IMary E. (Taylor) Osbun, born in Windsor, Richland county, Ohio, May 19, 1850; graduated at Granville College, Ohio, 1872 ; after keeping school one year he sailed for Europe and spent one year in the University of Tubingen and the next year iit Heidelberg where he studied chemistry and physics under the famous Robert AVilhelm Bunsen. In
THE RETROSrECT OF THE YEAR. 63
1875 he returned to this country ; from 1876-83 was teacher in chemistry and physics in the IMass. State Nor- mal School in Salem ; he then entered upon the duties of Professor of Chemistry and Physics in Denison University, Granville, Ohio, and continued his labors there until a few weeks previous to his death which occurred Dec. 8, 1884. Elected to membership July 2, 1877.
Esther Clarke Mack, daughter of P^lisha and Harriet (Clarke) Mack, born in Worthington, Mass., Sept. 25, 1821. The family returned to Salem in 1827. Died in Salem, Dec. 24, 1884. Admitted to membership Dec. 5, 1882.
Edavard B. Ames, son of Burpee and Hannah (Brown) Ames, born in Salem, March 4, 1815 ; a well known citi- zen, senior member of the firm of Ames and Melcher, painters in Salem, having been in business upwards of forty years; died January 15, 1885. Admitted to mem- bership March 29, 1854.
Nathaniel B. Perkins, son of Joseph Perkins, born in Salem, Oct. 3, 1813 ; for many years cashier of the Mer- chants National Bank, Salem ; died Feb. 8, 1885. Ad- mitted to membership Dec. 14, 1853.
Aaron Goldthwaite, son of Aaron Goldthwaite, ])orn in Salem, March 9, 1822 ; of the well-known firm of Goldthwaite & Day, carpenters and contractors ; died in Salem, Feb. 11, 1885. Admitted to meml)ership Feb. 15, 1854.
Lemuel B. Hatch, the well-known coal and wood dealer, for more than forty years on Derby street ; died March 1, 1885 ; he was the son of James and Opal (Bon- ney) Hatch; born in Hanson, Mass., Sept. 1, 1806. Admitted to membership March 1, 18G9.
04 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.
Elizabeth B. Perkins, daughter of Edward B. and Elizabeth P. (Barrett) Perkuis, born in Salem, Jan. 1, 1850, died April 8, 1885. Admitted to membership March 21, 1881.
George Leeds, sou of Benjamin Bass and Sally (Bab- cock) Leeds ;born m Boston, Oct. 25, 1816 ; fitted for col- lege at Milton Academy, graduated at Amherst College, 1835, Andover Theological School, 1839 ; rector of Grace Church, Utica, N. Y. ; St. Peter's, Salem; St. Peter's, Philadelphia, and Grace Church, Baltimore ; D.D. Trinity College, 1861 ; died, in Philadelphia, of apoplexy, April 16, 1885. Admitted to membership Feb. 28, 1855.
John Chapman Towne, son of Joseph and Lydia (Chapman) Towne, born at Salem, June 16, 1834 ; in early life a printer in the office of the Salem Register, afterwards, for many years, teller in the Naumkeag Na- tional Bank, Salem ; died April 23, 1885. Admitted to membership July 1, 1863.
Leonard Withington, son of Joseph Weeks and Eliz- abeth (White) Withington, born in Dorchester, Mass., Aug. 9, 1789 ; a graduate of Yale College, 1814 ; ordained over the First Church in Newbury, Mass., Oct. 30, 1816, and continued the active pastor of that church 42 years, when he became senior Pastor; died Apr. 22, 1885. Original member.
George Pickman Farrington, the oldest druggist in Salem, son of William and Mary (Ward) Farrington, born in Salem, Aug. 29, 1808; died April 29, 1885. Admitted to membership June 9, 1864.
Charles Eugene Fabens, son of Charles Henry and Euphrasia (Fabens) Fabens, born in Cayenne, S. A., March 27, 1845 ; merchant in Salem and Boston, residing:
THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. t)5
in Salem, where he died Jan. 22, 1885. Admitted to membershiip Feb. 20, 1871.
Field Meetings have been attended with more than usual interest.
The first on Wednesday June 18, 1884, atTopsfield, in commemoration of a meeting held for the completion of the organization of the Essex County Natural History So- ciety, fifty years ago, in that town ; its location in the ge- ographical centre of the county, before the introduction of railroads, was considered a very suita})le and convenient place for the holding of conventions and other gatherings, possessing a general county interest. The morning was passed at the residence of Mr. Thomas W. Peirce, whose extensive grounds, fine gardens and conservatories were opened to the visitors. The afternoon session in the Town Hall was largely attended ; the speakers were the Presi- dent and Messrs. E. S. Morse, John Robinson, B. F. Mc- Daniel, S. P. Fowler and J. J. H. Gregory. The progress made in Zoology, Botany, Geology and the kindred branches of science since 1834, especially with reference to the increasing attention devoted to these studies, in this county was fully discussed. Mr. Fowler, who was present at the meeting fifty years since, gave an account of the gathering and spoke of those who were present, all of whom, with a few exceptions, have passed away.
Second Meeting at Annisquam, Gloucester, Wednes- day, July 16, 1884. The morning was spent at the sea- side Laboratory of Prof. Alphcus Hyatt in observing the work of the students, also in visiting the beaches and other objects of interest. At the afternoon session remarks were oftered by the president, ^Messrs. Kingsley and Hyatt of the Lal)oratory giving a full account of the meth(jds of instruction. Mr. James S. Jewett, Hon. Jonas H. French
K.SSKX INST. BULLKTIN, VOL. XVII 9
66 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.
and Hon. James Davis, mentioned interesting incidents in tlie History of Annisquara. Mr. A. C. Perkins of Brook- lyn, N. Y., and N. A. Horton of Salem, also addressed the meeting.
Third, at Asbury Grove, Hamilton, Thursday, July 31, 1884, postponed from the preceding day on account of the weather. In the forenoon a botanical excursion was made to Pleasant Pond under the direction of Mr. Sears. At the meeting in the afternoon, the president and Messrs J. F. Almy, John H. Sears, George D. Phippen, F. AV. Put- nam, B. F. McDaniel and N. A. Horton were the speakers.
Fourth, at old Newbury on Thursday, August 28, 1884. In the morning the party went to Pkmi Island and on the return visited the ethnological collections of Mr. Alfred Osgood, also several of the old houses in Newbury and Newburyport. The afternoon session was held in the ves- try of the First Church. The President after a few intro- ductory remarks called upon Capt. Luther Dame who read a paper on the life and times of Sir William Pepperell, exhibiting several original manuscripts and old family relics ; Alfred Osgood spoke on ethnology ; Stephen H. Phillips took for his subject, the early settlers of Newbury ; Rev. B. F. McDaniel spoke on the mineralogy of Newbury ; Rev. Messrs. F. Israel of Salem, and George Osgood of Kensington, N. H., alluded to the Rev. Dr. Withington, for nearly seventy years, the worthy and beloved pastor of this church and this people ; Mr. D. B. Hagar made some closing remarks and offered a vote of thanks for fa- vors received.
Two Geological Excursions, a sequel to the Field Meetings, have taken place under the direction of Rev. B. F. McDaniel, the curator of this department.
First, on Monday, Oct. 13, 1884, to the famous locality
THE RETROSrECT OF THE YEAR. G7
in Newbury oldtown popularly kuown as "the Devil's Den." For over forty years it has been visited by miner- alogists for the fine specimens that have made it famous allover the country, and still the supply is abundant. Other openino^s have been made near by, the most noted of Avhich is the "Basin."
Specimens of the following minerals, some of them very fine, were brought home. Noble serpentine, common serpentine, retinalite, wollastonite, chrysolite, massive garuet, nemalite, calcite, chalybite and dolomite. The nol)le serpentine and wollastonite are easily obtained, and are very fine at the "Den," Avhile at the "Basin," the common serpentine and retinalite abound.
Second, on Monday, Nov. 10, 1884, to the Quarry near Lynntield Centre. A stop was made at Ship Rock in Pea- body, after which the drive was continued to Lynnfield. The Quarry was reached at half-past eleven o'clock. Ham- mers and drills were soon in use and good specimens of brucite and serpentine were found in abundance. An increased interest in the study of geology has been awak- ened, and the result will probably be an interesting ad- dition to the already large collection of Essex County Minerals in the Museum.
jSIeetings. Regular meetings occur on the first and third Monday evenings of each montli. At these the fol- lowing conmmnications were read and lectures delivered :
From E. A. Silshee, talk upon "Criticism of Poetry," jSte2)hen IT. PhilUjjs, "Witchcraft not exceptional in
Salem."
Charles A. Benjamin, " On an adjacent Peninsula." A. O. Ilobbs of Bridgeport, Conn., lecture "On the
History of Locks."
William G. Barton of Salem, essay on "Thoreau, Fhigg
and Burrouirhs."
68 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.
Perdval Loivell of Boston, an illustrated lecture "On Korea" (a native Korean was present on the stage, in national costume).
Edivard Atkinson of Boston, a familiar talk upon the subject "Lack of Gumption."
John II. /Sears, Flowering of plants, December, 1884. W. J. Hoffman of Washington, D. C, "Hugo Ried's account of the Indians of Los Angeles, California, with notes by W. J. Hoffman."
William L. Welch, "Opening of Hatteras Inlet."
Oliver Thayer, "Early recollections of the upper portion of Essex Street, Salem."
Robert 8. Rantoul, "Some material for a History of the iS'ame and Family of Rentoul, Riutoul, Rantoul."
E, P. Crowell of Amherst, "The commission of the Captain of a Salem Privateer, in the Revolutionary war."
In addition to the lectures and communications present- ed at the meetings the following lectures have been de- livered in the rooms of the Institute.
Lectures. Mrs. /S'c7i?<??i«c/zer of Boston, an illustrated lecture "On the Madonna in Art, "Tuesday, Nov. 11, 1884.
G. D. Hendrickson, an illustrated lecture "On the won- derland of America, the Yellowstone National Park," Monday, Dec. 8, 1884.
Edward 8. Morse, six lectures on Japan and the Japa- nese, on Wednesdays, Dec. 17, 24, 31, 1884 and Jan. 7, 14, 21, 1885.
Mrs. Abby 8age Richardson, three lectures : first "Rob- ert and Elizabeth (Barrett) Browning," Wednesday, Apr. 22, 1885 ; second, "Sir Walter Scott," Wednesday, Apr. 29 ; third, "The modern Spirit of Poetry," Wednesday, May 6.
THE KETROSrECT OF THE YEAR. 69
Library. — The additions to the Library for the year (May, 1884, to May, 1885) have been as follows :
Bii Donation.
Folios 13
Quartos, 2f;3
Octavos, 1,531
Duorlecimos , 543
Sexdeeinios, 264
Octodecimos, 6C
Total of bound volumes 2,f)S0
Pamphlets aud serials • . ll.C.!5
Total of donations, 14,315
By Exchange.
Folios, 1
Quartos, 10
Octavos, 1S8
Duodecimos, 15
Total of bound volumes 2U
Pamphlets and serials, 2,483
Total of exchanges, 2,6y7
By Purchase.
Folios, . . . • 1
Quartos, . . - 5
Octavos 117
Duodecimos, 191
Sexdecimos, • . . . . 60
Octodecimos, 6
Total of bound volumes - . . . 3»0
Pamphlets, 7
Total of purchases, • . 387
Total of donations 14,315
Total of exchanges 2,697
Total of purchases 3S7
Total of additions, . . . . • 17,399
Of the total number of pamphlets and serials, 5,072 wore pamphlets, and 9,053 were serials.
The donations to the Library for the year have been received from one hundred and seventy individuals and forty-six societies aud governmental departments. The
70 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.
exchanges from seven individuals and from one hundred and fifty-five societies and incorporate institutions, of which seventy-nine are foreign ; also from editors and pub- lishers.
The annual examination of the Library has been made and it is found to be in as good order and condition as our limited resources permit.
The accessions have been more numerous than for many years. Among what may be termed the customary dona- tions may be classed the Congressiomd Record, documents, etc., from E. F. Stone representative U. S. Congress; congressional documents from the Department of the Inte- rior, and others from the various departments of the gov- ernment ; Mass. State documents from the General Court Representatives ; agricultural papers from the secretary of the Mass. Horticultural Society ; the transactions of vari- ous societies; besides books and pamphlets in smaller or larger quantities from the members and others, a list of too great length to be read at this time.
Among special donations maybe mentioned: — From Geo. R. Lord, a portion of the library of the late Nathl. Lord, amounting to 470 vols., and 2,384 pamphlets; among the latter, religious periodicals hold a prominent place. From the library of the late William Sutton, 1,319 vols., and 1,558 pamphlets, a donation very valua- ble in historical works and state documents. A collection of pamphlets from the estate of Robert and Elizabeth R. Peele. A nearly complete file of the Salem Register and 1,039 numbers of religious magazines from Chas. M. Richardson. Harper's Magazine and other periodicals to the number of 289 from Jas. A. Chamberlain. From the estate of INIrs. Martha P. AValcott, 95 vols., and 665 pamphlets, including periodicals. 67 volumes of scientific works from Mrs. Wm. S. Cleveland. From Mrs. M. C.
THE RETROSTECT OF THE YEAR. 71
Farley, 48 vols., chiefly state and government documents. A large numl)er of religious works and pamphlets from Eev. Hugh Elder. Some very valuable school books from Miss Elizabeth Lauder. From Sam'l Chamberlain, besides volumes, religious and educational periodicals. Thirty religious works from Capt. George Upton. From Dr. William Mack an addition to the musical library as well as to other departments.
The Art Library is constantly receiving very valual^le accessions of volumes and periodicals.
Our most excellent and efficient Assistant Librarian, whose usefulness we all recognize, has especially called my attention to the pressing necessity of more room. Al- most every department is receiving from time to time, additions of more or less magnitude, and all are crowded to overflowing ; there is scarcely a case where a proper arrangement of volumes or pamphlets can be made, on ac- count of the limited room. One deep shelf has three rows of books ; a case of newspapers has the space in the centre occupied with books piled up in bulk, and no access to them without removing the tier of papers in front ; one can easily imagine the labor of finding a specified book of that lot.
The space reserved for the exchanges of foreign socie- ties has for some time been filled to repletion.
A portion of our recent donations has been accommo- dated by putting up temporary shelves in the ante-room occupied by the historical museum. This, however, sep- arates them from other books of the same class in the general library. Others are piled in bulk on the gallery floor, preventing their circulation and making them nearly inaccessible for reference.
The two cases at the rear of the lower hall have already double rows of directories on nearly every shelf.
72
THE RETROSPECT OF THE TEAR.
From this statement of facts it can readily be seen how urgent is the need of greater accommodations and ad- ditional shelf-room.
Respectfully submitted,
Wm. p. Upham,
Librarian.
Donations or exchanges have been received from the folio wins: :
Adams, Miss Hannah C, Beverly,
Adelaide, Royal Society of South Australia,
Agassiz, Alexander, Cambridge,
Albany, N. Y., State Library,
Alnwick, Eng., Berwickshire Naturalists' Club,
Altenburg, Naturforschende Geselischaft des Osterlandes
American Association for the Advaucemeut of Science,
American Ornithologists' Union,
Amherst College Library,
Anagnos, M., South Boston,
Andovor Theological Seminary, ....
Andrews, William P.,
Archaeological Institute of America,
Archer, Miss Rebecca, . . . Newspapers
Auckland, N. Z., Auckland Institute, ...
Baltimore, Md., Historical Society, ...
Baltimore, Md., Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Md., Johns Hopkins University, Library of
Historical and Political Science, Baltimore, Md., Peabody Institute, Bamberg, Naturforschende Geselischaft, . Bancroft, Rev. C. F. P., Andover, Batavia, K. Natuurkundige Verceniging, . Bayley, Miss Elizabeth S., ....
Bayley, Miss Harriet K., Boston, Belfast, Ireland, Naturalists' Field Club, . Bell, Charles H., Exeter, N. H., Berkeley, Cal., University of California, . Berlin, Geselischaft Naturforschender Freunde, Berlin, Vercin zur Beforderung des Gartenbaues Bern, Naturforschende Gesellscliaft,
Vols. 11
THE KETROSPKCT OF THE YEAR.
73
Blake, Francis E., Boston, ....
BoUes, Rev. E. CD.D., ....
Bonn, Naturhistorisclier Verciii,
Bostou, American Academy of Arts mid Sciences
Boston, Appalachian Mountain Club,
Boston Board of Health,
Boston, Bostonian Society, ....
Boston, City of,
Boston City Hospital,
Boston, Massachusetts General Hospital,
Boston, Massachusetts Historical Society,
Bostou, Massachusetts Horticultural Society, .
Boston, Massachusetts Medical Society,
Bostou, Massachusetts State Board of Health, Lunacy
and Charity,
Boston, Massachusetts State Library, Boston, National Association of Wool Manufacturers, Boston, New England Historic, Genealogical Society, Boston Overseers of the Poor, ....
Bostou Public Library,
Boston Scientific Society,
Boston Society of Natural History, .... Boylston, E. D., Amherst, ....
Bradlee, Rev. C. D., Boston, ....
Bremen, Naturwisseuschaftlicher Verein, Bristol, Eng., Naturalists' Society, Brooklyn, N. Y., Brooklyn Library,
Brown, Henry A.,
Browne, Albert G Newspapers
Brunswick, Me., Bowdoin College Library,
Bruxelles, Soci6t6 Beige de Microscopic,
Bryant, James S., Hartford, Conn.,
Buenos Aires, Sociedad Cientiflca Argentina,
Buffalo, N. Y., Historical Society,
Buffalo, N. Y., Young Men's Association,
Caen, Academic des Sciences, Arts et Belles Lettres,
Calcutta, Geological Survey of India, ...
Cambridge, Harvard University Library, ...
Cambridge, Museum of Comparative Zoology, .
Cambridge, Peab')dy Museum of American Archaeology
and Ethnology,
Canada Royal Society,
Cannon, H. W., Washington, D. C
KSSEX INSr. BULLKTIX, VOL. XVII. 10
Pani .
1
397
2
2
2
12
4 5
3
3
19
1 1 2 2 5 117 1 1 9
<4 THE liETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.
Vols. Pan).
Carpenter, Kev. C. C, Mt. Vernon, N. II 1
Cassel, Vcrciu I'iir Nuturkunde, 1
Cliamberluin, James A., 289
Chamberlain, Samuel, 12 335
Champaign, 111., State Laboratory of Natural History, . 1
Cbever, Miss S. A., Melrose, 1
Chicago, 111., Historical Society, 1 1
Chicago, 111., Public Library, 1
Cincinnati, 0., Society of Natural History, ... 4
Clarke, Rev. DeWitt S., 1
Cleveland, Mrs. William S., 67
Cogswell, George, Bradford, 1 1
Cole, Mrs. N. D., Newspapers, G4
CoUett, John, Indianapolis, Ind., 2
Conant, W. P., Wasliington, D. C, . . Newspapers, 2 08
Coolidge, tJonry J., Boston, 1 8
Copenhague, Societe Botanique, 5
Cordoba, Acadeniie Nacional de Ciencias, ... 3
Courtenay, William A., Charleston, S. C, ... 1
Cowley, Charles, Lowell, 2
Cox, William R., Washington, D. C, . • . . 3
Crowell, Rev. E. P., D.D., Amherst, .... 1
Crundeu, F. M., St. Louis, Mo 2
Currier, John M., Castlelon, V't., 1
Cushing, Thomas, Boston, 1
Cutter, A. E. Charlestown, 1
Danzig, Naturforscliende Gesellschaft, .... 1
Darmstadt, Verein fiir Eidkunde, 1
Davenport, la.. Academy of Natural Sciences, . . 1
Davis, Charles H. S., Meriden, Conn., ... 1
Davis, James, Gloucester, ...... 1
Davis, II. S., & Co., Pittsburgh, Pa., .... 1
Dennett, W. S., Saco, Me., 1
Denver, Colorado Scientilic Society, .... 1
Dewing, Miss Mary E., 1 2
Donnell, E. J., New York,N. Y., 1
Doolittle, Miss E., Troy, N. Y., 1
Dresden, Nalurwissenschaltliche Gesellscliaft, " Isis," . 2
Dublin, Royal Irish Academy, 5
Dublin, Royal Society, 1 13
Durkheim. Pollichia, Naturwisseuschaftlicher Verein der
Rheinpfalz, 4
Eaton, Mrs. C. F., U 68
THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.
Eddy, Robert H., Boston, .
Edinburgh. Royal Society,
Elder, Rev. Hugh, ....
Ellery, Harrison, Chelsea,
Emden, Naturforscliende Gesellschaft,
Emmerlon, James A.,
Erfurt, K. Akademiegemeiuniltziger Wissenschaften,
Erlangen, Physikalisch-medicinische Societiit,
Essex, Eng., Essex Field Club, ....
Falmonth,Eng., Eoyal Cornwall Polytechnic Society.
Farley, Misses, ....
Farley, Mrs. M. C, .
Fewkes, J. Walter, Cambridge,
Folger, William C., Nantucket,
Folsam, A. A., Boston,
Folwell, William W., Minneapolis, Minn.,
Foote & Horton, Newspapers
Forbes, S. A., Champaign, 111.,
Francisco, Miss M. A.,
Frankfurt, Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesell
schaft,
Freiburg, Naturforschende Gesellschaft,
French, A. D. Weld, Boston,
Frothingham, T. G., Boston,
Garman, Samuel, Cambridge, .
Gen&ve, L'Institut National Genevois,
Giessen, Oberhessische Gesellschaft liir Natur. u
kunde,
Good, Peter B., Plainfleld, N. J.,
Goodell, Mrs. A. C, Jr., .
Gorlitz, Naturforschende Gesellschaft,
Green, Samuel A., Boston,
Greenough, James C, Amherst,
Guss, A. L., Wasliingtou, I). C,
Guthrie, Malcolm, Liverpool, Eng.,
Halifax, Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science,
Halle, K. Leopoldiniscli— Carolinische deutsche Akade
mie der Naturforscher,
Halle, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir SacUsen u
Thiiringen,
Hamburg, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein,
Hamburg, Verein fiir N;iturwissenschaniiclie Unterhal
tung, ...
Heil
Newspapers
Vols. Pam.
1
20 225 1
1 1 14
1 1
52
1
18 580
1
2
1
1
7
1
76
THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.
Hamilton, R. I., Narragansett Historical Publishing Com
pany,
Harlem, Societfi Hollanclaise des Sciences, Hartford, Conn., Trinitj' College, Hassam, John T., Boston,
Hill & Nevins,
Hitchcock, E., Amherst, .... Hobarton, Royal Society of Tasmania, Howard, George E., Lincoln, Neb.,
Hunt, T. F.,
Huntoon, D. T. V., Canton, Illinois Department of Agriculture, Iowa City, la.. State Historical Society,
Ipswich, Town of,
Israel, Rev. Fielder, Newspapers,
.James, U. P., Cincinnati, O , .
Kato, H., Toliio, Japan, ....
Kimball, Mrs. James, ....
Kingsley, J. S., Maiden, ....
Kjobenhavn, K. D. Videnskabernes Selskab,
Konigsberg, Physikalisch-okonomische Geselh
Lander, Miss Elizabeth, ....
Langworthy, Rev. I. P., Boston,
Lansing, Mich., Secretary of the State Boa
culture,
Lansing, Mich., State Agricultural College, Lansing, Mich., State Library, Lausanne, Societe Vandoise des Sciences, Lawrence, George N., New York, N. Y., Lawrence Public Library, Lawrence, William, "Washington, D. C,
Lee, F. H.,
Leeds, Josiah W., Philadelphia, Pa., Leeds, Philosophical and Literary Society, Le Mans, Soci6t6 d'Agriculturc Sciences et
Sarthe,
Liege, Society Royale des Sciences, Lincoln Library Trustees, Littlelield, George E., Boston, Locke, Silas M.,
London, Eng., Conchological Society, London, Eng., Royal Society, Lord, George R.,
chaft
dof
Arts
Agri
de la
45
TllK KKTUOSPECT OF THE YEAR.
77
Vols. Pain.
Lovell, W. H., Worcester, 1
Lowell, Old Residents' Association, .... 1
Liinebiirnf, Natnrwisscnschaftlicher Veri-in, ... 1
Luxcnibonrii. L'In.stitut Koyal Grand Ducal, ... 1
L3'on, L'Academie dcs Sciences, Arts ct Belles Lettres, . 1
Mack, William, 46 210
Madison, Wis., State Historical Society, ... 1 3
Madrid, Sociedad Espaiiola de Historia Natural, . . 4
Manchester, Ens., Literary and Philosophical Society, . 2 3
Manchester, Rev. L. C, Lowell, 75
Manning, Miss Rebecca, 1
Manning, Robert, Newspapers, 72
Marietta, O., I\Iarietta College, 7
McDaniel, Rev. B. F., 12 29
Meek, Henry M., 2
Melcher, B. Redford, Saco, Me., 1
Meriam,H. C, I
Merrill, William, Jr., West Newbury, .... 1
Mexico, Museo Nacional 1
Milwaukee, Wis., City Pnblie Museum, .... 4
Montreal, Natural History Society, 1
Morse, E. S., 221
Miinster, Westfalische Provinzial Verein, ... 1
Murdock, J. B., Philadelphia, Pa., 1
Nashville, Tennessee Historical Society, .... 1
Neuchatel, Soci6t6 des Sciences Naturelles, ... 1
Nevins, W. S., Newspapers,
Newark, New Jersey Historical Society, ... 1 3
New Haven, Conn., Academy of Arts and Sciences, . i
Neiv Haven, Conn., N. H. Colony Historical Society, . 2
New Haven, Conn., Yale College Library, ... 3
New York, N. Y., Academy of Sciences, ... 2
New York, N. Y., American Geographical Society, . 6
New York, N. Y., Astor Library, 1
New York, N. Y., Cliamber of Commerce, ... 1
New York, N. Y., Genealogical and Biographical Society, 4
New York, N. Y., Linnaeau Society, .... 1
New Yoik, N. Y., Mercantile Library Association, . 3
New York, N. Y., Microscopical Society, ... 4
Nichols, Andrew, Jr., Dan vers, 5
Northampton, Smith College, 1
Northend, William I)., 5 44
Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition, Editorial Commit- tee, 1
|
3ls. |
I'am . |
|
2 |
|
|
1 |
|
|
4 |
50 |
|
7 |
|
|
1 |
|
|
3 |
270 |
|
12 |
|
|
3 |
|
|
10 |
|
|
1 |
1 |
|
2 |
148 |
78 THE KETKOSPECT OF THE YEAR.
Nourse, Miss Dorcas C,
Noyes, S. B., Brooklyu, N. Y.,
Oliver, H. K.,
Osgood, John C, Newspapers,
Ottawa, Geological and Natural History Survey,
Packard, A. S., Providence, R. I.,
Page, Miss Annie L., Danvers, . . Newspapers,
Palfray, C.W.,
Paris, SociSte d'Acclimatation,
Paris, Socifite d'Anthropologie,
Patch, IraJ.,
Peaslee, John B., Cincinnati, O.,
Peele, Robert, J Estate of the late, . . .
Peele, Elizabeth R., >
Peet, Rev, S. D., Clinton, Wis., 6
Peirce, Henry B., Boston, 8
Perkins, George A., 12
Perley, Sidney, Boxford, 2
Perry, Rev. William Stevens, Davenport, la., . . 1
Philadelphia, Pa., Academy of Natural Sciences, . . 29
Philadelphia, Pa., American Philosophical Society, . 8
Philadelphia, Pa., Historical Society of Pennsylvania, . 3
Philadelphia, Pa., Library Company, .... 2
Philadelphia, Pa., Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, . 1
Philadelphia, Pa., Zoological Society, .... 2
Phillips, Henry, Jr., Philadelphia, Pa., .... 2
Phillips, Stephen H., 3
Phillips, Mrs. Stephen H., 7
Pickering, Miss Mary O., ... Newspapers, 6 25
Pool, Wellington, Wenhani, 3
Porter, Rev. E. G., Lexington, ..... 1
Poughkeepsie, N. Y., Vassar Brothers' Institute, . 1
Providence, Rhode Island Historical Society, ... 1 1
Providence, R. I., Public Library, 9
Putnam, Rev. A. P., D.D., Brooklyn, N.Y., . . . 3
Putnam, F. W., Cambridge, . . Newspapers, 20
Putnam, H.W., 61 33
Rantoul, R. S., Newspapers, 30 197
Reeve, J. T., Appletou, Wis., . . Circular,
Regensburg, K. Baierische Botanische Gesellschaft, . 1
Regensburg, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, . . I
Rice, Franklin P., Worcester, 1
Richardson, Charles M., .... Newspapers, 1 1039
Richardson, F. P., 6
THE RKTHOSPRCT OF THE YEAR.
7i)
Kichiiioiul, Virginia Historical Society, .... Kiga, Naturlbrscheuder Verein, ....
Koijiiison, John,
Kobinson, Mrs. Joiin,
Sale, Joliii, Chelsea,
Snleiii, Peabody Academy of Science, Newspapers
Sampson, Davenport & Co., Boston, ... San Francisco, California Academy of Sciences, . Sau Francisco, Cal., Mercantile Library Association, Sargent, Charles S., Brookliue, .... Sawyer, Sanniel E., Gloucester, ....
Scudder, S. H., Cambridge,
S'Gravenhage, Nederlandsche Entomologische Vereen
i?:in5? ." . .
Shanghai, China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,
Sillars, Walter A., Dauvers,
Smith, George Plumer, Philadelphia, Pa.,
Suell, Miss Annie E., .... Newspapers
Springfield, City Library Association,
Springfield, Mo., Drury College, ....
Sticknev, George A. D.,
St. John, New Brunswick Natural History Society, St. Louis, Mo., Academy of Science, ... St. Louis, Mo., Historical Society, .... St. Louis, Mo., Public School Library, Stockholm, Entomoiogiska Foreningen, .
Stockiu, A. C, Boston,
Stone, A. R. Maps
Stone, E. F., Washington, D. C,
Stone, Miss Mary H.
Stone, Robert, Newspapers
Story, Miss E. A.,
St. Paul, Minnesota Historical Society, .
St. Pfilersbourg, Academic Impfiriale des Sciences,
St. Petersburg, Imperial Botanical Garden,
St. Petersburg, Societas Entomologica Rossica,
Sutton, William, Estate of the late,
Sydney, Royal Society of New South Wales, .
Tasmania Government Statistician,
Taunton, Eng., Somersetshire Archaeological and Natu
ral History Society,
Taunton Public Library,
Titus, Rev. Anson, Amesl)ury,
Vols.
1319
1 1
380
U7 30
1 1 31 2 1 1558
80
THK RKTROSPECT OF THE YEAR.
Tokio, Japan, Tokio Daigaku,
Topeka, Kau., State Board of Aji:riculture,
Topeka, Kan., State Historical Society,
Topeka, Kan., Washburn College,
Toronto, Canadian lu.stitute,
Tuckerinan, L. S.,
Unknown, ....
Upham, William P.,
Upsal, Societu Koyale des Sciences
Upton, George,
Upton, Winslow, Providence, R. I,
Urbano, O., Central Ohio Scientific Association
U. S. Bureau of Education,
U. S. Chief of Engineers,
U. S. Chief Signal Office,
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
U. S. Department of Agriculture,
U. S. Department of the Interior,
U. S. Department of State,
U. S. Fish Commission,
U. S. Geological Survey, .
U. S. Life Saving Service,
U. S. National Museum,
U. S. Naval Observatory,
U. S. Patent Office,
U. S. Postmaster General,
U. S. Treasury Department,
U. S. War Department,
Vose, George L., Boston, .
Wagner, E. C, Girardville, Pa.,
Walcott, Mrs. Martha P., Estate of tiie late.
Waring, George E., Jr., Newport, U. I., .
Washington, D. C, Bureau of Ethnology,
Washington, D. C, Smithsonian Institution,
Waters, J. Linton,
Waters, Misses,
Waters, Stanley,
Waterville, Me., Colby University,
Watson, S. M., Portland, Me., .
Weston, Charles H.,
Wheatland, Miss M. G.,
Whipple, George M.,
Whipple, S. K., Newburyport, .
Map.*-
Vols. 1
THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.
«1
Vols.
Pam. 13
420
2
fi
34
1
171 2
Whitcher, Mary, Sluikcr Village, N. H., .... Whitney, Mrs. 11. M., Lawreuce, . Newspapers,
Whittier, Daniel H., Boston, .... Chart,
Whittredge, Charles E.,
Wien, K. K., Zoologisch-botanische Gesellschaft, . . 1
Wien, Verein zur Verbreitung Naturwissenschaltlicher
Kenntnisse, 1
Wiesbaden, Nassauischer Verein, 1
Wilder, Marshall P., Boston, 4
Willson, Rev. E. B., 21
Wincliell, N. H., Minneapolis, Minn., .... 2
Winnipeg, Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society,
Winsor, Justin, Cambridge,
Winthrop, Robert C, Boston,
Woods, Mrs. Kate T., 2
Worcester, American Antiquarian Society,
Wright, Harrison, Wilkes-Barre, Pa., .... 3
Wiirzburg, Physikalisch-Medicinische Gesellschaft, . 1 2
The following have been received from editors or publishers :—
Nature.
Newton Transcript.
New York Chamber of Com- merce Journal.
Our Dumb Animals.
Peabody Press.
Quaritch's Catalogue.
Sailors' Magazine and Seamen's Friend.
Salem Evening News.
Salem Evening Telegram.
Salem Gazette.
Salem Observer.
Salem Register.
American Journal of Science.
Bay State Monthly.
Cape Ann Bulletin.
Chicago Journal of Commerce.
Danvers Mirror.
Essex Co. Statesman.
Fireside Favorite.
Gardener's Monthly and Horti- culturist.
Groton Landmark.
Ipswich Chronicle.
Lawrence American.
Lynn Bee.
Manifesto, The.
Marblehead Messenger.
Musical Herald.
Musical Record.
Nation, The.
Naturalists' Leisure Hour and Monthly Bulletin.
Turner's Public Spirit. Voice, The.
West Newbury Messenger. Zoologischer Anzeiger.
Horticultural. The Trustees of the Essex Agricult- ural Society having accepted, for the second time, the invi-
E.SSEX INST. BULLKTIN, VOL. XVII. 1 1
82 THE KETKOSPECT OF THE YEAR.
tatioii of the authorities and citizens of Salem to hold their Amiual Cattle Show and Fair at the "Willows" in Salem, Sept. 23 and 24, 1884, the Institute deemed it advisable to suspend its own horticultural exhibition and to unite cordially with the Trustees of the Agricultural Society in making their undertaking a success.
An account of the Exhibition will be found in the Trans- actions of the Agricultural Society for the year 1884.
Museum. The specimens in natural history, including those in archjeologjs which have been received during the year have been placed on deposit with the Trustees of the Peabody Academy of Science, in accordance with previous arrangements. Those of an historical character, or which possess an artistic interest, have been placed in the rooms, and have been received from the following contributors :
The Peabody Academy of Science, Tennessee Historical Society, Miss Mary O. Piclcering, Miss E. A. Story, Edvviu N. Peabody, Dr. Wra. Maclv, Miss C Eoberts of Philadelphia, Mr. Nathan Pierce, Miss Lizzie C Ward of Boston (this donation is a crayon portrait of her brother, Geu. Fred Ward of Salem, who was killed iu China iu 1861, having risen to a high rank in the Chinese army; the portrait is neatly framed and now hangs in the western ante-room of Phnnmer Hall;) William K. Cloutman, E. S. Bowditch, K. S. Eantonl, Geo. JM. Whip- ple, Geo. L. Ames, W. A. Keazar, Miss M. A. Francisco, E. N. Larra- bee, T. F. Hunt, B. D. Hill and Amos Ilentield.
The ART EXHIBITION opeucd on Thursday, j\Iay 15, 1884, and closed on the 24th iust., the eighth under the auspices of the Institute. These exhibitions of Essex County work, vary in interest with each passing year.
The collection was smaller than that of the preceding, and the paintings of Benson, Barry and Whitney and a few others, who contributed then, were missed from the screens ; however, the exhibition was quite attractive and many of the sea views were line and well executed .
THE RETROSrECT OF THE YEAR.
83
The followinu; is the list of contributors
Miss Mary Allen. John P. Benson. Mrs. C. A. Benjamin. Miss Martha O. Barrett. Miss M. C. BoUes. Mrs. M. A. Bovie. Miss M. M. Brooks. Miss Anna N. Benjamin. Bates &Brigham. ISIissM. J. Butler. Miss Harriet E. Carlton, Cam- bridge. Miss Lizzie Chever. Miss C. M. Colcord, Swamp-
scott. Miss Ida Caller. Miss A. L. ChadwicI:. Miss E. W. Chadwick. Joseph A. Davis. Miss Ellen M. Dole.
" Grace G. Dalton.
" Edith Dalton.
" M. E. Dockham. Arthur W. Dow, Ipswich. Kilby W. Elwell, Gloucester. W. B. Eaton. Miss Lizzie J. Emery.
" A. Endicott.
" E. W. Fiske.
" C. S. Fiske.
" Elizabeth B. Gardner.
" Bessie W. Gardner.
" May Gardner.
" Carrie Goldthwaite.
" Grace D. Glidden, Wen- ham. Sidney P. Guild, Lynn. Mrs. George Harrington. IT. B. Harrington. Miss Anna Hyde.
■' Jennie Hyde.
Miss A. L. Hobbs, Haverhill.
" M. L. Hill.
" Lucy B. Hood.
" L. D. Harris. G. W. Harvey. Mrs. S. K. Hart. Miss Edith Harlow. Arthur Harlow. E. D. Harlow. Miss Mabel W. Haskell.
" Anna B. Holdeu, Provi- dence, R. I. Mrs. H. F. Jacobs. Miss I. S. Jackson. Frank R. Kimball. Miss S. S. Kimball.
" Mary L. King.
" Louisa Lander. Mrs. John H. Langmaid. E. C. Larrabee. Warren Marston, Gloucester. Mrs. H. N. Mudge, Marblehead. Ernest Machado. Miss McMullen. Miss T. R. Nason,
" Martha W. Nichols.
" Northend. Mrs. T. M. Osborne. Miss H. F. Osborne.
" E. T. Oliver.
" Bessie S. Osgood.
" Edith P. Pickering.
" Abbie G. Pingree.
" M. E. Phippen.
" Helen Philbrick.
" Anna B. Perkins.
" L. Perkins. James Powers. Miss Lottie Perkins.
" Minnie Pond.
" A. L. Pior.sou.
84
THK KETKOSPECT OF THE YEAR.
Miss Elizaljeth A. Finnock.
" A. P. Pitman.
" A. M. Qiiiinby. C. C. Redmond. Beverly Eantoul. Miss Rautoul.
" Carrie L. Read.
" Lizzie L. Read. Mrs. J. H. Roberts. Miss M. E. Roberts.
" B. P. Smith.
" M. T. Smith.
" M. Simonds. Mrs. N. G. Simonds. Arthur L. Sanders. Miss S. E. Smith.
Mrs. Joseph Synionds. Miss A. C. Syraonds.
" S. Sweetser.
" M. K. Stevens. IMrs. G. L. Streeter. Miss Delia Sheldon. Mrs. S. E. Thayer. Miss A. S. Tukey. Miss I. V. Upton. Miss L. L. A. Very.
" Gertrude M. Very. Mrs. S. E. Varney. Miss F. White. Charles II. Woodbury, Lynn. Mrs. K. T. Woods. Henry Whipple.
Excursion. — On Wednesday, May 21, 1884, a party of lifty members and friends Ictt Salem on an excnrsion to Maucli Chunk, Luray Cave, the Natural Bridge in Virginia and Washington. Vice President F. W. Putnam was with the party, and while at the Natural Bridge gave a lecture on the geology of that vicinity, stating his theory of the formation of the bridge. There are two ways by which ravines are cut. First, like that of Niagara and the cailons of Colorado and its tributaries. Secondly, like that of caves. The limestone of this region is probably lower Silurian and the strata are tilted at many angles. Beginning at the Lace Water Falls, a mile above the bridge, the strata are vertical. They here begin to incline more and more towards the horizontal, which position is reached at the bridge. The limestone water, percolating through the tissurcs between the strata, acts l)oth chemically and mechanically upon them, working out a deeper channel, and at the same time depositing incrusting matter as it seeks the level of drainage. This ravine was once a vast cave, the bridge being the only remaining relic of the
THE KETROSrECT OF THE YEAR. 85
roof. Tliis has stood heoaiise its limestone is more crys- talline than that ahove and below it. It is lliiity and is probably corniferous.
Stalactites and stalagmites are formed in the old cham- bers of the caves by the percolation of water through the fissures in the rocks, while the degradation and channeling are going on in the new chambers. In the case of the Natural Bridge, this action went on faster than the build- ing process, hence the roof became too thin to sustain its weight and fell in, leaving the fragment forming the bridge to tell the story. The professor then told the company of the formati(m of caves in general, many of which he has explored, making psirticular mention of the Mammoth cave and of peculiar formations found in it.
Rev. B. F. McDaniel explained the formation of tufa and the varieties of incrusting minerals in caves. Col. H. C. Parsons, the proprietor, told of the caves in the neighborhood. Several of them have been opened, but not thoroughly explored. Until they can be prop- erly opened up, he deems them unsafe for amateur ex- plorers.
This estate of Mr. Parsons, of some 2,000 acres, com- piises a horse-shoe range of lofty, wooded hills, enclosing the basin on whose slopes lie the hotels and the owner's residence. The Horse Shoe opens towards the east and conmiands a iriand and beautiful view of the Blue Rid^e, forest-covered and mist-crowned, rising 4,300 feet above the sea. A little to the left the glint of broken granite alone shows where the river burst through, and at the right the crest lowers so that the Peaks of Otter may overlook.
86 THE RETROSrECT OF THE YEAR.
The Grovelancl Flower Mission, thirty-eight in number, ladies and gentlemen, came to Salem June 24 b}^ joint invitation of the Peabody Academy of Science and the Essex Institute.
They were entertained by the two societies and visited the various points of interest in and about Salem.
Financial. — The following is the Treasurer's Report of the receipts and expenditures of the past year (condensed for printing) :
RECEIPTS.
Balance of last year's account $0 94
Income of General account,
Assessments of members, $S11 00
Publications, l^G 03
Use of Hall, Excursions, etc., 218 35
Bank Dividend 20 00
Return State tax, 8 91
Salem Athenreum, portion of expense, 20(5 40
1,460 99
Income of Historical Fund, 1'2 00
" " Nat. Hist. Soc. Fund, 36 00
" " Davis Fund, 392 68
" " Ditmore Fund, 180 40
" " Manuscript Fund, 26 96
" " Ladies' Fair Fund, . . . . . . . CO 00
" " Derby Fund, 17 30
" Howes Fund, 1,430 00
" " Story Fund, 563 00
2,718 34
Bequest of Robert Peelc and sister 2,000 00
Income from the same, 135 00
2,135 00
Balance due the Treasurer, 117 52
THE KETROSrECT OF THE YEAR. 87
EXPENDITURES. I'aid on General Account.
Salaries, 1,882 00
Publications, 807 07
Fuel and Gas, 233 53
Binding, Printing, Stationery, etc., 119 37
Uepairs, expressage. etc., 171 38
Fire Insurance prem 122 50
Salem Athenreum, as per agreement, 350 00
3,085 85
Paid on Ilistorical account, 53 25
" " Nat. Hist, account, 53 25
lOG 50
" " Ditmore annuity, 110 00
Paid Legatee— Augustus Story's Estate, . . . . 5G3 00
073
Interest Davis fund, funded in Savings Bank, ... 12 G8
Interest Manuscript fund, funded in Savings Bank, . . 2G 96
Interest Derby fund, funded in Savings Bank, ... 17 30
Deposit Salem Savings Bank, part of Robert Peele and sister's
legacy, 1,500 00
1,55G 01
Paid note at Salem National Bank and Interest, . . . 410 50 410 50
$0,132 79
The invested funds are now $47,3S9 51
Examined and approved by the Auditor, May 18, 1SS5.
The secretary in concluding his report says, "In addi- tion to the acciiinulations of former years which it has been impossible to arrange on the shelves for Avant of room, there have been added since the last annual meet- ing, many books and a great collection of pamphlets, to say nothing of the large amount of printed matter, such as circulars, notices, etc. The subject of increased accommodations is, it is true, an old story, but as donations continue to How into the building the necessity of more shelf-room forces itself on the attention of the officers of the Institute and those who frequent the library. The subject is again brought to the attention of the directors in the hope that before another year shall have passed, some decided action in this direction will be taken."
jLi.ETiN Essex Inst.
BULLETIN Essex Inst.
BULLETIN
ESSiBX: IlNrSTITXJTE.
Vol. 17. Salem: July, Aug., Sept., 1885. Nos. 7-9.
INDIAN GAMES.
BY ANDREW McFAULAND DAVIS.
" There are," says Father Breheuf in his account of %vhat was worthy of note among the Hiirons in 1636,^ "three kinds of games particularly in vogue with this peo- ple ; cross, platter, and straw. The first two are, they say, supreme for the health. Does not that excite our pity? Lo, a pof)r sick person, whose body is hot with fever, whose soul foresees the end of his days, and a mis- cral)le sorcerer orders for him as the only cooling remedy, a game of cross. Sometimes it is the invalid himself who may perhaps have dreamed that he will die unless the country engages in a game of cross for his health. Then, if he has ever so little credit, you will see those wdio can ])est play at cross arrayed, village against village, in a beautiful field, and to increase the excitement, they will wager with each other their beaver skins and their neck- laces of porcelain beads."
" Sometimes also one of their medicine men will say that the whole country is ill and that a game of cross is
1 Kelatioas des J(isuites, Quebec, 1858, p. 113. ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XVII. 12 (89)
90 INDIAN GAMES.
needed for its cure. It is not necessary to say more. The iieAvs incontinently spreads everywhere. The chiefs in each viUage give orders that all the youths shall do their duty in this respect, otherwise sonic great calamity will overtake the country."
LACROSSE.
In 1007, Nicolas Perrot, then acting as agent of the French government, was received near Saut Sainte Marie with stately courtesy and formal ceremony by the ^Sliamis, to whom he was deputed. A few days after his arrival, the chief of that nation gave him, as an entertainment, a game of lacrosse.^ " More than two thousand persons assembled in a great plain each with his cross. A wooden ball about the size of a tennis Ijall was tossed in the air. From that moment there was a constant movement of all these crosses which made a noise like that of arms which one hears during a battle. Half the savages tried to send the ball to the northwest the length of the field, the others wished to make it go to the southeast. The con- test which lasted for a half hour was doubtful."
In 1763, an army of confederate nations, inspired by the subtle influence of Pontiac's master mind, formed the purpose of seizing the scattered forts held by the English along the northwestern frontier. On the fourth day of June of that year, the garrison at Fort Michilimackinac, unconscious of their impending fate, thoughtlessly lolled at the foot of the palisade and whiled away the day in watching the swaying fortunes of a game of ball which was being played by some Indians in front of the stock- ade. Alexander Henry, who was on the spot at the time,
^ Histoire de I'Am^rique Scptentrionale par JM. dc I5acqueville de la rotheiie, Paris, 172'2, Vol. ll, 124 et seq.
INDIAN GAMES. 91
8:13^3 that the game played by these Indians was "Baggati- way, called by the Canadians h jea de la Crosse."^
Parkman* conclndes a vivid description of the surprise and massacre of the garrison at Michiliraackinac, based upon authentic facts, as follows: "Rushing and striking, tripping their adversaries, or hurling them to the ground, they pursued the animating contest ainid the laughter and applause of the spectators. Suddenly, from the midst of the multitude, the ball soared into the air and, descending in a wide curve, fell near the pickets of the fort. This was no chance stroke. It was part of a preconcerted scheme to insure the surprise and destruction of the gar- rison. As if in pursuit of the ball, the players turned and came rushing, a maddened and tumultuous throno;, towards the gate. In a moment they had reached it. The amazed English had no time to think or act. The shrill cries of the ball-players were changed to the ferocious war-whoop. The warriors snatched from the squaws the hatchets which the latter, with this design, had concealed beneath their blankets. Some of the Indians assailed the spectators without, while others rushed into the fort, and all was carnage and confusion."
Thus we see that the favorite game of ball of the North American Indians, known to-day, as it was in 1636, by the name of " lacrosse," was potent among them as a reme- dial exercise or superstitious rite to cure diseases and avert disaster ; that it formed part of stately ceremonials which were intended to entertain and amuse distinguished guests ; and that it was made use of as a stratagem of war.
» Travels and Adventures in Canada, etc.. by Alexander Henry, New York, 1809, p. 78; Travels througli the Inierior parts of North America, by Jonathan Carver London, 1778, p. 19. The Book of the Indians, by Samuel G. Drake, Boston, 1841, Book V, Ch. Ill, p. 52.
< The Conspiracy of Pontiac, by Francis Parkman, Boston, 1870. Vol. i. p. ;5:?0.
92 INDIAN GAMES.
by means of which to lull the suspicions of the enemy and to gtiin access to their forts.
The descriptions of lacrosse Avhich have been transmitted to us, would often prove unintelligible to one who had never seen the game played. The writers of the accounts which have come down to us from the early part of the seventeenth century were men w^hose lives were spent among the scenes which they described and they had but little time, and few opportunities for careful writing. The individual records though somewhat confused enable us easily to identify the game, and a comparison of the different accounts shows how thoroughly the main features of the game have been preserved.
Lacrosse is played to-day as follows : The number of players on the opposing sides should be equal. Regular stations are assigned in the rules for playing the game, for twelve on each side. Goals, each consisting of two upright posts or staffs, generally about six feet apart and of equal height, are })lanLed at each end of the field. The length of the field and its bounds are determined by the character of the ground and the skill of the players. The effort of each side is to prevent the ball from passing through the goal assigned to its protection, and equally to try to drive it through the opposite goal. Under no cir- cumstances can the ball be touched during the game, while within the bounds, l)y the hands of the players. Each player has a racket, the length of which, though op- tional, is ordinarily from four to five feet. One end of this racket or bat is curved like a shepherd's crook, and from the curved end a thong is carried across to a point on the handle about midway its length. In the space thus enclosed between the thong and tlie handle, which at its broadest part should not exceed a foot in width, a flat network is interposed. This forms the bat. It is with
INDIAN GAMES. 93
this that the phi3"or picks up aiitl throws the ball used in the game, which should be about eight or nine inches in circumference. The ball is placed in the centre of the field by the umpire, and when the game is called, the op- posing pla3'ers strive to get possession of it with their rackets. The play consists in running with it and throw- ing it, with the design of driving it between the adversary's goal posts ; and in defensive action, the purpose of which is to prevent the opponents from accomplishing siinihir de- signs on their part. As the wind or the sunlight may favor one side or the other on any tiekl, provision is gen- erally made for a change of goals during the match. The stations of the players and the minor rules of the game are unimportant in this connection.
The oldest attempt at a detailed description of the game is given by Nicolas Perrot who from 16(32 to 1699 spent the greater part of his time as coureur de bois, trader, or government agent, among the Indians of the far West. It is of him that Abbe Ferland says, " Courageous man, honest writer and good observer, Perrot lived for a long- time among the Indians of the West who were very much attached to him." His accounts of the maimers and cus- toms of the North American Indians have been liberally used by subsequent writers and as the part treating of games is not only very full but also covers a very early period of history, it is doubly interesting for purposes of comparison with games of a later day. Ile^ says, "The savages have many kinds of games in which they delight. Their natural fondness for them is so great that they will neglect food and drink, not only to join in a game but even to look at one. There is among them a certain game
» Memoire 8urles Moeiirs, Coustumes et Relligion rtes Sauvapes de rAiiieri<iue Septeutiiouale, jtar Nicolas I'criol, Leipzig cl I'aris, 1804, |». 43, el stij.
94 INDIAN GAMES.
of cross which is very similar to our tennis. Their cus- tom in playing it is to match tribe against tribe, and if the numbers are not equal they render them so by with- drawing some of the men from the stronger side. You see them all armed with a cross, that is to say a stick which has a large portion at the bottom, laced like a racket. The ball with which they play is of wood and of nearly the shape of a turkey's egg. The goals of the game are fixed in an open field. These goals face to the east and to the west, to the north and to the south." Then follows a somewhat confused description of the method and the rules of the contest from which we can infer that after a side had won two goals they changed sides of the field with their opponents, and that two out of three, or three out of five goals decided the game.
Reading Perrot's description in connection with that given by de la Potherie of the game played before Perrot by the Miamis, helps ns to remove the confusion of the account. Abbe Ferland*^ describes the game. He was a diligent student of all sources of authority upon these subjects and was probably familiar with the modern 2;ame. His account of the Indinn game follows that of Perrot so closely as to show that it was his model. It is, however, clear and distinct in its details, free from the confusion which attends Perrot's account and might al- most serve for a description of the game as played by the Indians to-day. Perrot was a frontier-man and failed when he undertook to describe anything that required careful and exact use of language. We can only interpret him intelligently by combining his descriptions with those of other writers and applying our own knowledge of the game as we see it to-day. He is, however, more intelligible
fiCours d'Hiotoire du Canada, par J. B. A. Ferlaud, Quebec, 1801, Vol. I, p. l.ft.
INDIAN GAMES. 95
when he gets on more general gronnd, and after having disposed of the technicalities of the game, he proceeds: " Men, women, boys and girls are received on the sides whicii they make up, and they wager between themselves more or less according to their means." ' " These games ordinarily begin after the melting of the ice and they last even to seed time. In the afternoon (me sees all the players bedecked^ and painted. Each jjarty has its leader who addresses them, announcing to his players the hour fixed for opening tiie game. The jilayers assemble in a crowd in the middle of the lield and one of the leaders of the two sides, having the ball in his liands casts it into the air. Each one then tries to throw it to- Avards the side where he ought to send it. If it falls to the earth, the player tries to draw it to him with his cross. If it is sent outside the crowd, then the most active play- ers, by closely pursuing it, distinguisii themselves. You hear the noise which they make striking against each other and warding off blows, in their strife to send the ball in the desired direction. When one of them holds the ball between his feet, it is for him, in his unwilling- ness to let it go, to avoid the blows which his adversaries incessantly shower down upon his feet. Should he hap- pen to be wounded at this juncture, he ahme is responsil)le for it. It has happened that some have had their legs broken, others their arms and some have been killed. It is not uncommon to see among them those who are crip- pled for life and who could only be at such a game by an
' I translate apiffez, " bedecked," assuinini!: from the context that the author meant to writu "attifez." We have, el8eu'here, accounts which show that ball- players, even though compelled to play with scant clothing, still covered them- selves with their ornaments. J. M. Stanley in his Portraits of North American Indians, Smitiisonian AUscellaneous Collections, Wasliington. 1802, Vol. ii, p. i;{, Bay.s that tlie "Creek" Ijall-players first appear on the ground in costume. " Dur- ing the play they divest themselves of all their ornaments which are usually dis- played on thc:?c occasions for the purpose of betting on the result of the play. "
96 INDIAN GAMES.
act of shoer obstinacy. When accidents of this kind hiippcn, the unfortunate withdraws quietly from the game if he can do so. If his injury will not permit him, his relations carry him to the cabin and the game continues until it is finished as if nothing had happened."
"When the sides are equal the players will occupy an entire afternoon without either side gaining any advan- tage ; at other times one of the two will gain the two games that they need to win. In this game you would say to see them run that they looked like two parties who wanted to fight. This exercise contril)utes much to render the savages alert and prepared to avoid blows from the tomahawk of an enemy, when they find them- selves in a combat. Without being told in advance that it was a game, one might truly believe that they fought in open country. Whatever accident the game may cause, tliey attribute it to the chance of the game and have no ill will towards each other. The suifering is for the wounded, who bear it contentedly as if nothing had hap- pened, thus making it appear that they have a great deal of courage and are men."
" The side that wins takes whatever has been put up on the game and Avhatever there is of profit, and that without any dispute on the part of the others when it is a question of paying, no matter what the kind of game. Neverthe- less, if some person who is not in the game, or Avho has not bet anything, should throw the ball to the advan- taofe of one side or the other, one of those whom the throw would not help would attack him, demanding if this is his afiiiir and why he has mixed himself with it. They often come to quarrels about this and if some of the chiefs did not reconcile them, there would be blood shed and perhaps some killed."
Originally, the game was open to any nunil)er of com-
INDIAN GAMES. 97
petitors. Accordino: to the Kelation of 1636, "Village was pitted against village," " Tribe was matched against tribe," says Perrot. The number engaged in the game described by La Potherie^ was estimated by him at two thousand. LaHontan' says that "the savages commonly played it in large com[)anies of three or four hundred at a time," while Charlevoix"^ says the number of players was v^ariabic and adds " for instance if they are eighty," thus showing about the number he would expect to find in a game. When Morgan" speaks of six or eight on a side, he must allude to a later period, probably after the game was modified by the whites who had adopted it among their amusements. ^-
Our earliest accotmts of the game as played by the In- dians in the south are about one hundred years later than the corresponding records in the north. Adair" says the
8Vol. II, P.12G.
' Memoiies de L'Amciriqiie SBptentrionale, ou la Suite ties Voyages de Mr. Le Baiou <le Lallontan, Amsicnlam, 1705, Vol. ir, p. 113.
>" Ilistoire tie la Xouvellc France. Journal d'un Voyage, etc., par le P. do Char- levoi-x, Paris, 1744. Vol. ill, p. 319.
" League of the Iroquois, by Lewis H. Morgan, Rochester, 18.51, p. 294.
"The game is also mentioned in An Account of ttie Remarkable Occurrences in the Life and Travels of Col. Jame."! Smith during his Captivity with the Indians in the years 1755-17.V.). Cincinnati, 1S70, p. 78. It is described by Col. William L. Stone in his Lite of Brant, Albany, IStJu, Vol. II, p. 448. In one game of which he speaks, the ball was started by a young and beautiful .squaw wlio was elaborately dre^sed for tlie occasion. Nolwitll^landing tlie extent and value of Col. Stone's contributions to the literature on'the subject of tlie North American Indians, he makes the erroneous stati-ment that "The Six Nations had adopted from the Whites the popular game of ball or cricket." See p. 44.'), same volume, c.f. The Memoir upon tlie late War in Nortli America, n.i.'j-noO, by JI. Poucliot, translated and edited by Franklin B. Hough, Vol. 11, p. 1U.7. A game of ball is also described in Historical Collections of Georgia, by the Rev. George White, .3d edition, New Vork, 1855, p. 670, whicli took place in Walker County, Georgia, between Chatooga and Chicamauga. The ball was thrown up at the centre. The bats were described as curiously carved spoons. If the ball touched the ground the play stopped and it was thrown up again. Rev. J. Owen Dor.sey in a piper entitled "Omaha Soci- ology," printed in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, etc., 1881-1882, Washington, 1884, §230, p. 330, describes the game amongst the Oniahas.
•'The History of the American Indians, particularly those Nations adjoining to the Mississippi, etc., by James Adair, London, 1775, p. 399. ESSUX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XVII 13
98 INDIAN GAMES.
gamesters are eqiuil in iiiiml)er and speaks of "the crowd of players" preventing the one who "catches the ball from throwing it off with a long direction." Bossu^* says, "they are forty on each side," while Bartram^^ says, "the inhab- itants of one town play against another in consequence of a challenge." From this it would seem that among those Indians, as at the North, the number of players was gov- erned only by the circumstances under which the game was played.
The ball, originally of wood,''' w^as replaced by one made of deer skin. Adair gives the following description of its manufacture : "The ball is made of a piece of scraped deer- skin, moistened, and stuffed hard with deer's hair, and strongly sewed with deer's sinews."'^
According to Morgan the racket has undergone a similar change, from a curved wooden head to the curved stick with open network, but we have seen in the earliest de- scription at our command, that in the days of Perrot the cross was "laced like a racket."'^
The game was played not only by the Indians of our Coast, but Powers'^ found it also among the Californian In- dians. He describes a game of tennis played by the Pomo Indians in Russian River Vallc}^ of which he had heard nothing among the northern tribes. "A ball is rounded out of an oak knot as large as those used by school boys, and it is propelled by a racket which is constructed of a
"Travels through that Part of North America formerly called Louisiana, by ]SIr. BosBu, Captain in the Fiench Marines. Translated Irom the French by John Rein- hold Forster, London, 1771, Vol. I, p. 304.
15 Travels through North and South Carolina, etc., by William Bartram, Philadel- phia, 1791, p. 508.
i»La Potherie, Vol. ii, p. 126; Perrot, p. 44.
" p. 400.
»8Lea}j;ue of the Iroquois, p. 298; Perrot p. 44.
"Contributions to Nortli American Etlinology, Vol. ni, p. 151. Tribes of Cali- fornia by Steplien Powers; The same game is described among the Meewocs in The Native Races of the Pacific States by H. H. Bancroft, Vol. i, p. 393.
INDIAN GAMES. 99
long slender stick, bent double and bound together, leav- ing a circular hoop at the extremity, across which is woven a coarse meshwork of strings. Such an implement is not strong enough for batting the ball, neither do they bat it, but simply shove or thrust it along the ground."
Paul Kane'-'*' describes a game played among the Chi- nooks. He says "They also take great delight in a game with a ball which is played by them in the same manner as the Cree, Chippewa and Sioux Indians. Two poles are erected about a mile apart, and the company is divided into two bands armed with sticks, having a small ring or hoop at the end with which the ball is picked up and thrown to a great distance, each party striving to get the ball past their own goal. They are sometimes a hundred on a side, and their play is kept up with great noise and excitement. At this play they bet heavily as it is gener- ally played between tribes or villages."
Domenech^^ writing about the Indians of the interior, calls the game "cricket," and says the players were cos- tumed as follows : "Short drawers, or rather a belt, the ])ody being tirst daubed over with a layer of bright colors ; from the belt (which is short enough to leave the thighs free) hangs a long tail, tied up at the extremity with long horse hair ; round their necks is a necklace, to which is attached a floating mane, dyed red, as is the tail, and fall- ing in the way of a dress fringe over the chest and shoulders. * * In the northwest, in the costume indispensable to the players, feathers are sometimes substituted for horse hair." He adds "that some tribes play with two sticks" and that it is played in "winter on the ice." "The ball is made of wood or brick covered with kid-skin leather, sometimes of
'"Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of Nortii America by Paul Kane, p. 190; H. n. Bancroft's Native Races, Vol. i, p. 2U.
2> Seven Years' Residence in the Great Deserts of Xortli America by tlic Abb<S Km. Doniene<-.h, Vol. U, pp. i'Ji, l\)i.
100 INDIAN GAMES.
leather curiously interwoven." Schoolcr.aft describes the game as played in the winter on the ice.^^
It will be observed that the widest difference prevails in the estimate of the distance apart at which the goals are set. Henry, in his account of the game at Michilimackinac says "they are at a considerable distance from each other, as a mile or more." Charlevoix places the goals in a game with eighty players at "half a league apart" meaning prob- ably half a mile. LaHontan estimates the distance between the goals at "five or six hundred paces." Adair,^^ who is an intelligent writer, and who was thoroughly conversant with the habits and customs of the Cherokees, Choctaws, and Chicasaws estimates the length of the field at "five hundred yards," while Romans^* in describing the goals uses this phrase "they fix two poles across each other at about a hundred and fifty feet apart." Bossu^^ speaks as if in the game which he saw played there was but a single goal. He says "They agree upon a mark or aim about sixty yards off, and distinguished by two great poles, be- tween which the ball is to pass."
The goals among the northern Indians were single posts at the ends of the field. It is among the southern Indians that we first hear of two posts being raised to form a sort of gate through or over which the ball must pass. Adair says, "they fix two bending poles into the ground, three yards apart below, but slanting a considerable way out- 's Schoolcraft's North American Iiuiians, Vol II, p. 7s; See also Ball-play among the Dacolas, in Philander Prescott's paper, Ibid, Vol. iv, p. 64.
2'Henry, p. 78; Charlevoix Vol. iii, p. 319; Kane's Wanderings, p. 189; LaUou- tan, Vol. II, p. 11.3; Adair, p. 400.
"♦A concise Natural History of East and West Florida, by Capt. Bernard Ro- mans, New York, 1776, p. 79.
''^Vol. I, p. 304; Similarly, Pickett (History of Alabama, Vol. I, p. 92) describes a game among tlie Creeks in whicli there was but one goal, consisting of two poles erected in the centre of the Held between which the ball must pass to count one. lie cites "Bartram," and the " Narrative of a Mission to the Creek Nation by Col. Marinus WiUett," as his authorities. Neither of theui sustains him on thi.-* point.
INDIAN GAMES. 101
wards. The party tluit happens to throw the ball over these counts one ; but if it be thrown underneath, it is cast back and played for as usual." The ball is to be thrown "through the lower part" of the two poles which are fixed across each other at about one hundred and fifty feet apart, according to Romans. In Bossu's account it is "between" the two great poles which distinguish the mark or aim, that "the ball is to pass." On the other hand, Bartram, describing what he saAV in North Carolina, speaks of the ball "being hurled into the air, midwaj'- between the two high pillars which are the goals, and the party who bears ofi* the ball to their pillar wins the game."
In some parts of the south each player had two rackets between which the ball was caught. For this purpose they were necessarily shorter than the cross of the north- ern Indians. Adair says, "The ball sticks are about two feet long, the lower end somewhat resembling the palm of a hand, and which are worked with deer-skin thongs. Be- tween these they catch the ball, and throw it a great dis- tance. "^^
That this was not universal thi-oughout the south would appear from Bossu's account who says, "Every one has a battledoor in his hand about two feet and a half long, made very nearly in the form of ours, of walnut, or chestnut wood, and covered with roe-skins." Bartram also says that each person has "a racquet or hurl, which is an imple- ment of a very curious construction somewhat resembling a ladle or little hoop net, with a handle near three feet in length, the hoop and handle of wood and the netting of thongs of raw-liide or tendons of an animal."
Catlin-^ saw the game played by the Choctaws on their
'«Adair, p. 400; A Narrative of the Military Adventures of Colonel Marinus VVil- lett, p. 109.
'"Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs and Condition of llie Nortli Amer- ican Indians, by George Catlin, Vol. il, p. 123 et seq.
102 INDIAN GAMES.
Western Reservation. They used two rackets. In this game the old men acted as judizcs.
The game was ordinarily started by tossing the ball into the air in the centre of the field. This act is represented by Perrot as having been performed by one of the leaders in the game, but it is more in accord witb the spirit in "which the game was played, that it should have been done by some outsider. Bossu says, "An old man stands in the middle of the place appropriated to the play, and throws up into the air a ball of roe-skins rolled about each other," while Powers^^ says that among the Calitornian Indians this act was performed by a squaw. The judges started the ball among the Choctaws.^ Notwithstanding the differ- ences in the forms of the goals, their distance apart and the methods of play disclosed in all these descriptions, the game can only be regarded as the same. The historians who have preserved for us the accounts of the ancient southern games from which quotations have been made, are all Englishmen except Bossu, and he entered the coun- try not by the way of Quebec but byway of New Orleans. It is not strange, therefore, that we do not find in use amongst them the name which the early French fathers and traders invariably applied to the game. The descrip- tion, however, given by these writers, of the racket used in the south, corresponds so closely with the crook from which the game took the name hy which it is known, that we must accept the game as a modified form of lacrosse. From Maine to Florida, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, we trace a knoAvledge of it. We have found it in use among the confederate nations of the north and of the south and among scattered tribes throughout the country.
In the majority of instances the natural instincts of those
»6Contribulion8 to North American Ethnology, Vol. ill, p. 151. '"Catliu, Vol. 11, p.l'ij.
INDIAN GAMES. 103
who participated in the strife were stimuUited by local pride. The reputation of their tribe or their village rested upon the result. Ardent as the spirit of the contest must necessarily have been under such circumstances, among a people where courage and physique counted for so much, their intense passion for gambling intervened to fan into fiercer flames the spirits ot the contesting players and to inspire them to more earnest etlorts. Stakes, often of the utmost consequence to the players and their back- ers, were wagered upon the games. A reputation for courage, for skill and for endurance, was the most valua- ble possession ot the Indian. The maintenance of this was to a certain extent involved in each game that he played. Oftentimes in addition to this, all of his own pos- sessions and the property of his friends and neighbors in the form of skins and beads were staked upon the result of the contest. In games where so much was involved,. we need not be surprised to learn from Perrot that limbs were occasionally broken and that sometimes players were even killed. In the notes to Perrot's Memoir it is stated that some anonymous annotator has written across the n)argin of Perrot's manuscript at this point :^ " False, nei- ther arms nor legs are broken, nor are players ever killed." AVc scarcely need the corroboratory statements of La Po- therie"^ that " these games are ordinarily followed by bro- ken heads, arms and legs, and often people are killed at them ;" and also of Lallontan,*^ that "they tear their skins and break their legs" at them, to satisfy us that Perrot rather than his critic is to be believed. If no such state- ments had been made, we should infer that so violent a game, on which stakes of such vital importance were placed, could not be played by a people like the Indians, except with such results.
>o Perrot, Note I, Ch. X, p. 187. »» Vol. ii, pp. 12U-127. "Vol. u, p. ns.
104 INDIAN GAMES.
Notwithstanding the violence of the game and the deep interest which the players and spectators took in it, the testimony of historians is nniform to the effect that ac- cidental injuries received during its progress produced no ill will. We have seen that Perrot states that if any- one attempted to hold the ball with his feet, he took his chance of injury, and that those who were injured retired quietly from the field. Adair says, "It is a very unusual thing to see them act spitefully, not even in this severe and tempting exercise." Bossu bears testimony to the same effect, in the following words : "The players are never displeased ; some old men, who assist at the play, become mediators, and determine that the play is only intended as a recreation, and not as an opportunity of quarrelling."
Where the game was played by appointment in response to a challenge, the men and women asseml)led in their best ornaments, and danced and sang during the day and night previous to that of the appointed day. The players supplicated the Great Spirit for success. Female relations chanted to him all the previous night and the men fasted from the previous night till the game was over.^^ The players wore but little in the way of covering. Ro- mans speaks of them as being "almost naked, painted and ornamented with feathers ;" and Bossu says they were "na- ked, painted with various colours, having a tyger tail fast- ened behind, and feathers on their heads and arms."
It is not astonishing that a game which called for such vigorous exercise^* and which taxed the strength, agility and endurance of the players to such a degree, should be described by writers in terms which showed that they
»« Adair, p. 401 ; Bos.sii, Vol. I, p. 304 ; and Willctl'.s Narrative p. 109.
•♦ Ferlaud, Vol. I, p. 134, and Major C. Swan in a Keport concerning the Creeks in 1791, Schoolcrall, Vol. V, p. 277, assert that the Whites excel the Indians at this game.
INDIAN GAMES. 105
looked upon it rather in tiio lii^lit of a manly contest than as an amusement. Xeveitheless the young people and the women often took part in it. Perrot tells us so, and both Romans and Bossu say that after the men were through, the women usually played a game, the bets on which were generally high. Powers^represents the squaws among the Californian Indians as joining the game.
Dexterity in the game lay in the skilful use of the rack- et ; in rapid running ; in waylaying an adversary when he was in possession of the ball ; in avoiding members of the opposing side when the player himself was running with the ball for the goal, and in adroitly passing the ball to one of the same side when surrounded by opponents. To give full scope to skill in the use of the racket, great stress was laid upon the rule that the ball was not to l^e touched by the hand. Perrot says, " if it falls to the earth he tries to draw it to him with his cross." Charlevoix says, "Their business is to strike the ball to the post of the adverse party without letting it fall to the ground and without touching it with the hand." Adair says, " They are not allowed to catch it with their hands."
The early writers were struck with the fact that the char- acter of the exercise in this game was fitted to develop the young warriors for the war path, and they commented on the practice that they thus acquired in rapid running and iu avoiding blows from an instrument in the hands of an adversary.
When Ave review the various features of the game which its chroniclers have thought worthy of record, we can but conclude that it was rather a contest of grave importance to the players than a mere pastime, nor can we fail to ac- cept the concurrent testimony as to the widespread terri-
" Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. in, p. 151. KSSKX INST. BULLKTIX, VOL. XVII. 14
lOf) INDIAN GAMES.
tory ill which it was domesticated, as additional evidence of the extent of the intercourse which prevailed among the native tribes of this country.
PLATTEK OR DICE.
The second in the list of games given by Father Bre- benf is that which he calls "platter." Writers who des- cribe the habits of the Indians at the north have much to say concerning this game. According to Lescarbot, Jac- ques Cartier saw it played, and recorded his observations.^^
Sagard Theodat ^^ devotes considerable space to it. Both Father Brebeuf, in his Relation in 1636, and Father Lalemant, in his Relation in 1639, give long accounts of the game, the causes for its being played, the excesses in gamljling to wdiich it leads, and the methods which pre- vail in its practice. In PerrotV^ work there is a good de- scription of the game, although not so full as his account of lacrosse, from which we have already quoted. La Potherie and Lallontan barely mention it. Lafitau^' in his searching analysis of the manuscripts deposited at Que- bec, while seeking for traces of his theory that a resem- blance existed between the habits of the Indians and those of the ancient dwellers in eastern Europe, found an un- usual quantity of material bearing on this particular topic, which he has reproduced in his book. Charlevoix*", in a letter dated June 8, 1721, says, "As I was returning through a quarter of the Huron village, I perceived a num- ber of these Indians, who seemed much heated at play. I
3« Histoire de la Nouvelle Fiance par Marc Lescarbot, Nouvelle Edition, Paris 186G, Vol. Ill, p. 754.
" Histoire du Canada, etc., par Gabriel Sagard Theodat; Nouvelle Edition, Paris, 1806, Vol. I, pp. 243-'244.
s> p. 50.
3» Mojurs des Sauvages Amcriquaius, etc., par le P. Lafitau, Paris, 17-i, Vol. II, p. 339.
«» Vol. Ill, pp. 260-1.
INDIAN GAMES. 107
approached them and found that the sjame they were play- ing at was what they called the game of platter. This is the game to which the Indians are addicted above all others. They sometimes lose their rest and in some de- gree their very senses at it. They stake all they are worth, and several of them have been known to continue at it till they have stript themselves stark naked and lost all their movables in their cabin. Some have been known to stake their liberty for a certain time. This circumstance proves beyond all doubt how passionately fond they are of it, there being no people in the world more jealous of their liberty than our Indians."
In the description which Charlevoix then gives, he has relied partly upon personal observations and also to some extent, upon acccmnts which were at that time in manu- script in Quebec and which were easily accessible to him. He was himself an intelligent observer and a cul- tivated man. His history and his letters, although not free from the looseness of expression which pervades con- temporaneous accounts show on the whole the disci- pline of an educated mind. We learn from him and from the authorities heretofore enumerated that two players only from each side could participate in this game at any given time during its progress. The necessary imple- ments were a bowl and a number of dice fashioned some- what like apricot seeds, and colored differently upon the upper and lower sides. Generally, one side was white and the other black. The number of these dice was gen- erally six. There was no tixed rule as to the materials of which they were made ; sometimes they were of bone ; sometimes the stones of fruits were used. The impor- tant point was that the centre of gravity of each die should be so placed, that when it was throAvn into the air, or when the Ixnvl in which it was placed, was \ io-
108 INDIAN GAMES,
lently twirled, there would be an even chance as to which of its two sides the die would settle upon when it lodged ; and in the game as it was played in early times that the Avhole number of dice used should be uniform in the col- oring of the sides, each die having the different sides of different colors. The dice were phiced in the ])owl which was generally of wood, between the two players who were to cast them in behalf of their respective sides. These casters or throwers were selected by each side and the prevailing motives in their choice were generally based upon some superstitious belief in their luck. Per- haps this one had dreamed that he would win. Perhaps that one was believed to possess some magic power, or some secret ointment which when applied to the dice would cause them to turn up favorably for his side.*^ The spectators were generally arranged in seats along the sides of the cabin*^, placed in tiers so that each person could have a view of the players. They were in more senses than one deeph'' interested in the game. When the cast was to be made the player would strike the bowl upon the ground so as to make the dice jump into the air*^ and would then twirl the bowl rapid h^ around. During this process and until it stopped its revolutions and the dice finally settled, the players addressed the dice and beat themselves on their breasts.** The spectators during the same period filled the air with shouts and invoked aid from their own protecting powers, while in the same breath they poured forth imprecations on those of their adversaries. The number of points allected the length of the game and was entirely optional. If six dice were used
*i Relations des Jesiiites, Relation en I'Annee, 1G36, p, 113, *"- Ibiil, Relation en l'Ann<5e, 1039, p. 95. *3 Sagiird Theodat, Vol. I. p. 243. ** Shea's Hennepin, p. 300.
INDIAN GAMKS. 109
and all came up of the same color, the throw counted five.*'* If five of them were of the same color it counted one. Any lower number failed to count. If the caster was unsuccessful he gave place to another, but so long as he continued to win his side would retain him in that position.*^
The game was often ushered in with singing. Like la- crosse it was prescribed as a remedy for sickness or in consequence of dreams, and the sufferer in whose behalf the game was played was borne to the cabin in which it was to take place. Preliminary fasting and continence were observed, and every efi()rt made that superstition could suggest to discover who would be the lucky thrower and who could aid the caster by his presence at the con- test. Old men, unable to walk thither, were brought up on the shoulders of the young men that their presence might be propitious to the chances of the game.*^ The excitement which attended one of these games of chance was intense, especially Avhen the game reached a critical point and some particular throw was likely to terminate it. Charlevoix says the games often lasted for five or six days^'* and oftentimes the spectators concerned in the game, "are in such an agitation as to be transported out of themselves to such a degree that they quarrel and fight, which never happens to the Hurons, except on these occa- sions or when they are drunk."
Perhaps rum was responsil)lc also for these quarrels ; for in the early accounts wc are told that losses were phil- osophically accepted. Father Brebeuf tells of a party
<' Amoti)? the Delawares it rcquircil eiplit counts of five to win. History of tlie Mission of the United Bretliren among the Indians, etc., G. H. Losliiel. Translated by C. I. Latrobc. Part i, Cli. viii, p. IOC.
<• Charlevoix, Vol. in. p. 201. <' Jbid. p. 202.
*'Loi.kiel (p. lOr.) saw a frame between two Iroquois towns which lasted eight days. Sacrifices for hick were oflereil by the side.^ each night.
110 INDIAN GAMES.
who had lost their legghigs at one of these games and Avho returned to their village in three feet of snow as cheertul in appearance as if they had won. There seems to have been no limit to which they would not go in their stakes while under the excitement of the game. Clothing, wife, family and sometimes the personal liberty of the player himself rested in the hazard of the die.*^
The women often played the game by themselves, though apparently with less formality than characterized the great matches. The latter frequently assumed the same local characteristics that we have seen in the game of lacrosse, and we hear of village being pitted against village as a frequent feature of the game.^"
Morgan^^ describes a game played by the Iroquois with buttons or dice made of elk-horn, rounded and pol- ished and blackened on one side. The players spread a blanket on the ground; and the dice were tossed with the h:md in the air and permitted to fall on the blanket. The counts were determined as in the game of platter by the color of the sides of the dice which were exposed when they settled. The number of the dice was eight.
In Perrot's'- description of the game of platter he al- ludes to a game, played with eight dice, on a blanket in precisely this way, but he adds that it was practised by women and girls. La Potherie^^ says that the women sometimes play at platter, but (n-dinarily they cast the fruit stones with the hand as one throws dice.
Under the name of "hubbub" this game has also been
"Chtirlevoix, Vol. in, p. 261. Le Gniiid Voyage du Pays des Hurons, par Ga- briel Siigard Theodat, Paris, 163-2, Nouvelle Edition, Paris, 18(55, p. 85; llelations do Jesiiites, Relation de la Nouvelle France, en PAnn^e 1639, pp. 95-96; Lafitau, Vol. II, p. 341.
r I Perrot. p. 43; Flistoirc du Canada, par F. X. Garneau. Vol. i, p. 115. 61 League of the Iroquois, p. 30i. " Perrot, p. 50. '^ La Polherie, Vol. ill, p. 23.
INDIAX OAMF.S. Ill
described by observers anionir the Aheiuikis. Ogilby^* says; "Iluhliub is Hve small Bones in a small Tray; the Bones be like a Die, but something Hatter, black on the one side and white on the other, which they place on the Ground, against which violently thumping the Platter, the Bones mount, changing Colour with the windy whisking of their Hands to and fro ; which action in that sport they much use, smiting themselves on the Breasts and Thighs, crying out Hub Hul) Hub ; they may be heard playing at this game a quarter of a mile off. The Bones being all black or white make a double Game ; if three of one colour, and two of another, then they afford but a single game ; four of a colour and one differing is nothing. So long as the Man wins he keeps the Tray, but if he lose the next Man takes it."
There is but little said about this game in the south by writers. It evidently had no such hold there as among the Hurons and the tribes along the Lakes. Lawson^ saw it played in North Carolina with persimmon stones as dice. While this fixes the fact that the game had a home among the southern Indians, the way in which it has been slighted by the majority of writers who treat of that sec- tion shows that it was not a favorite game there.
To what shall ^ve ascribe this? Its hold upon the north- ern Indians shows that it was peculiarly ada[)ted to the temperament of the natives, and we should naturally ex- pect to find it as much in use among the tribes of the south as with those of the north. An explanation for this may possibly be found in the difference of the cli- mate. The game was especially adapted for the winter, and while its practice was evidently not exclusively con-
»* America, being an Accurate Description of tlie New World, etc. Collected and Translated by John Ogilby. London, 1G70. Book ii, Ch. ii, p. 155. "> History of North Carolina by John Lawson, London, 1718, p. 176.
112 INDIAN GAMES.
fined to that season, it is possible that its greater hold upon the affections of the Indians of the north arose from their being obliged to resort to in-door amnscmcnts during the protracted winters in that region. From this necessity the southern Indians being in a measure exempt, they continued their out-door games as usual and never became so thoroughly inftituated with this game.
Informal contests were often held between players, in which the use of the bowl or platter was dispensed wath. The dice were held in the hand and then tossed in the air. They were allowed to fall upon some prepared surface, generally a deerskin spread for the purpose. The same rules as to the color of the surfaces of the dice when they settled in their places governed the count. This form of the game is sometimes described as a separate game. Boucher^*' calls it PaquessenJ'^ The women of Oregon played it with marked beaver teeth. ^^ Among the Twa- nas it was played with beaver or muskrat teeth. ^^ Pow- ers*'' saj^s that among the Nishinams, a tribe living on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada between the Yuba and Cos- umnes rivers, " a game of dice is played by men or women, two, three or four together. The dice, four in number, consist of two acorns split lengthwise into halves, with the outsidos scraped and painted red or black. They are shak- en in the hand and thrown into a wide flat basket, woven in ornamental patterns. One paint and three whites, or
""True and Genuine Description of New France, etc., by Pierre Bouclier, Pnris, 1644. Transliited under title "Canaduia the Seventeeutli Century," Montreal, 188.J, p. 57.
'^'Played by women and girls. Sagard Theodat, Ilistoire du Canada, Vol. i, p. 244.
*9Contribution8 to North American Ethnology, Vol. I, p. 20fl, George Gibfcs; H. H. Bancroft's Native Races, Vol. i, p. 244; The Nortlivvest Coast by James G. Swan, p. 158.
''» Bulletin, U. S. Geological Survey. Vol. in. No. 1, April 5, 1877. liev. M. Eels.
•° Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. Ill, p. ;J32.
i
TNDIAX GAMES. 113
vice versa, score nothing ; two of each score one ; four alike score four. The thrower keeps on throwing until he makes a blank throw, when another takes the dice. When all the players have stood their turn, the one who has scored the most takes the stakes."
The women of the Yoknts,*^^ a Californian tribe which lived in the San Joaquin valley near Tulare Lake, had a similar game. Each die was half a large acorn or walnut shell filled with pitch and powdered charcoal and inlaid with bits of bright colored al^aloni shell. Four squaws played and a fifth kept tally with fifteen sticks. There were eight dice and they scooped them up with their hands and dashed them into the basket, counting one when two or five fiat surfaces turned up.
Schoolcraft*^- says "one of the principal amusements of a sedentary character is that of various games, success in "which depends on luck in numbers. These games, to which both the prairie and forest tribes are addicted, assume the fascination and intensity of gambling ; and the most valued articles are often staked upon the luck of a throw. For this purpose the prairie tribes commonly use the stones of the wild plum or some analogous fruit, upon which various devices indicating their arithmetical value are burned in, or engraved and colored, so as at a glance to reveal the character of the pieces." Among the Dacota tribes this is known by a term which is translated the "game of plum stones." He gives illustrations of the devices on five sets of stones, numbering eight each. "To play this game a little orifice is made in the ground and a skin put in it ; often it is also pla3'ed on a robe."*"" The women and the young men play this game. The bowl is lifted with one
«» Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. m, p. 377. «= Schoolorall'H Indian Tribi-s, Vol. ii, pp. 71, 72.
•s Domenccli. Vol. ii, p. 191; First Annual Report of lUiveau of Ethnolofry, Smithsonian, I8M, p. lur,.
ESSEX IN.ST. BUI.I.KTIK, VOL. XVIf. 15
114 INDIAN GAMES.
hand and rudely pushed down to its place. The plum stones fly over several times. The stake is first put up by all who wish to play. A dozen can play at once if desirable. Schoolcraft^* describes still another form of the game which he found among the Chippewas, in which thirteen pieces or dice were used. Nine of them were of bone and were fashioned in figures typifying fish, serpents, etc. One side of each was painted red and had dots burned in with a hot iron. The brass pieces were circular having cue side convex and the other concave. The convex side was bright, the concave dark or dull. The red pieces were the winning pieces and each had an arithmetical value. Any number of players might play. A wooden bowl, curiously carved and ornamented, was used. This form of the game may have been modified by contact with the whites. It seems to be the most complex*'^ form in which the game appears. The fact still remains however, that in some form or other we find the game in use across the entire breadth of the continent.^"
STRAW^ OR INDIAN CARDS.
The third game mentioned by Father Brebeuf was that which was called straw. We have seen that the first of these games called for strength, agilit^'and endurance. It was as free from elements of chance as any human contest
«« Vol. II, p. 72.
•* See .nlsoa simpler form of the game described by Philander Prescott among the Dacotas.— Sclioolcraft, Vol. iv, p. 64. The tendency of the modern Indian.s to elaborate the game maybe traced in the descri})tion of "Plumstone shooting" given in " Omaha Sociology" by Rev. J. Owen Dorscy. Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Wash- ington, 1884, p. 335.
''" Col. James Smith describes the game among the Wyandots. xVn Account ot the Remarkable Occurrences in the Life and Travels of Col. James Smith, during his Captivity with the Indians in the Years 1755-1759. Cincinnati, 1870, p, 46. Tanner also describes it. He calls it Beg-gasah or dice. Tanner's Narrative, New York, 1830, p. 114.
INDIAN OAMES. 11')
can be. The victory belonged to the side which counted amongst its numbers those phiyers who were the fleetest runners, the most skilful throwers and the most adroit dodg- ers. The second was purely a game of chance. If hon- estly played no other element entered into its composition. The third which we are now about to consider Avas much more complicated in its rules than either of theothers. It closely resembled in some respects several of our modern gambling games. The French found it very difficult to comprehend and hence the accounts of it which they have given are often confused and perplexing. Boucher" says, "Our French people have not yet been able to learn to play it well ; it is full of spirit and these straws are to the Indians what cards are to us." Latitau"^ after quoting from Boucher says, "Baron de la Ilontan also made out of it a game purely of the mind and of calculation, in which he who best knows how to add and subtract, to multiply and divide with these straws will surely win. To do this, use and practice are necessary, for these savages are noth- ing less than good calculators."
"Sieur Perrot, who was a celebrated traveller, and that European whom the savages of New France have most honored, left a description of this game in his manuscript Memorial.^ I would gladly have inserted it here but it is so obscure that it is nearly unintelligible." Charlevoix ad- mits that he could understand nothing of the game, ex- cept as played by two persons in its simplest form and adds that he was told that " there was as much of art as of chance in the game and that the Indians are great cheats at it."«='
"p. 57. MVol. II, p. 351.
•» Charlevoix, Vol. iii, p. 319; Fatlier Tailhan who edited Perrot says he has not been any more successful tlian his predecessors and the game of straws re- mains to him an unsolved enigma. Perrot, Notes to Ch. X, p. 18S.
116 INDIAN GAMES.
Where Lafitau and Charlevoix, aided by opportunities to investigate the game itself, have failed, it Avould seem to be useless for us to attempt. Perrot has indeed succeeded in making his account hopelessly involved. There is however much information to be derived from it and the obscure points are after all unimportant unless one should actually wish to reproduce the game in practice. In that event there are many points connected with the counts which Avould prove troublesome.
To play the game, a number of straws or reeds uniform in size and of equal length were required. They were generally from six to ten inches long. The number used in the game was arbitrary. Lawson puts it at fifty-one. Charlevoix at two hundred and one. The only essential points were that the numbers should be odd and that there should be enough of them so that when the pilew^as divid- ed into two parts, a glance would not reveal which of the two divisions contained the odd number of straws. In its simplest form, the game consisted, in separating the heap of straws into two parts, one of which each player took, and he whose pile contained the odd number of straws was the winner. Before the division was made the straws were subjected to a manipulation, somewhat after the man- ner of shufiling cards. They were then placed upon the deer-skin or upon whatever other article was selected as a surface on which to play. The player Avho was to make the division into two heaps, with many contortions of the body and throwing about of the arms, and with constant utter- ances to propitiate his good luck, would make a division of the straws with a pointed bone or some similar instru- ment, himself taking one of the divisions while his adver- sary took the other. They would then rapidly separate the straws into parcels numbering ten each and determine from the fractional remainders, who had the odd number.
INDIAN GAMES. 117
The speed with which this process of counting was car- ried on was always a source of wonder to the lookers-on, and the fact that the counting was done by tens is almost invariably mentioned. Between two people betting simply on the odd number no further rules were necessary. To determine which had the heap containing the odd number, there was no need to foot up the total nuinl)er of tens. It was to be settled by what was left over after the last pile of complete tens was set aside. The number itself miojht be either one, three, live, seven or nine. In the more compli- cated form of the game, this led to giving difterent values to these numbers, the nine being always supreme and the one on which the highest bets were wagered. It was gen- erally understood that the holder of this numl^er swept the board taking all bets on other numbers as Avell as those on the nine. It was easy to bet beads against beads and skins against skins, in a simple game of odd or even, but when the element of different values for different combinations was introduced, some medium of exchange was needed to relieve the complications. Stones of fruit were employed just as chips or counters are used in modern gambling games, and a regular bank was practically instituted. Each player took a certain number of these counters, as the equivalent of the value of the merchandise which he proposed to hazard on the game, whether it was a gun, a blanket, or some other article. Here we have all the machinery of a regular gambling game at cards, but the resemblance does not stop here. The players put up their bets precisely as they now do in a game of faro, selecting their favorite number and tixing the amount, measured in the standard of the game, which they wished to hazard. " By the side of the straws which are on the ground arc found the {grains) counters," says Perrot, " which the players have bet on the game." In another place, the
118 INDIAN GAMES.
method of indicating the bets is stated as follows: "he (meaning apparently the one who has bet) is also obliged to make two other heaps. In one he Avill place live, in the other seven straws, with as many (grains) countevs as he pleases." These phrases may fairly be interpreted to mean that a record of the bets, somewhat of the same style as that kept with conntcrs upon a ftiro table, was constantly before the players. Complicated rules determined when the players won or lost ; when the bets were to be doubled and when thoy were to abide the chance of another count. Tlic loser at the game, even after all that he had with him was gone, w^as sometimes permitted to ccmtinue the game on his promise to pay. If ill luck still pursued him the winner could refuse him credit and decline to play for stakes that he could not see.
The g.'imc often lasted for several days, one after an- other of the sides relieving his comi-ades at the play until one of the two sides had lost everything, it being, says Pcrrot,'''"a maxim of the savages not to quit play until one side or the other had lost everything." Those who had bet at the game had the right to substitute any person whom they pleased to play for them. "Should an}^ dis- pute arise on this point," says Perrot, "between the winners and the losers, the disi)utants backed by their re- spective sides would probably come to blows, blood would be shed and the whole thing would be very ditHcult to settle." Cheating often took place at this game. Its ex- posure was considered praiseworthy and its practice de- nounced. If doubts were expressed as to the accuracy of a count, the matter was peacefully adjusted by a re-count by two of the spectators.
" This game of straw," says Perrot, from whose ac-
'0 p. I'J.
I
INDIAN GAMES. 119
count wc have made tlie foregoing digest, " is ordinarily held in the cabins of the chiefs, which are large, and are, so to speak, the Academy of the Savages." He concludes his account with the statement that the women never play it." . The authority on this game whom Ogilby quotes slides over the difficulties of the description with the state- ment that " many other whimsies be in this game which would be too long to commit to paper." Abbe Ferland"'- epitomizes the results of his investigation of this game as follows : " Memory, calculation and quickness of eye- sight were necessary for success."
Like the game of dice or platter it was essentially a house game, and like platter it is rarely mentioned by writers who describe the habits of Indians in the south, Lawson describes it, but in slightly modified form, as fol- lows : " Indian Cards. Their chiefest game is a sort of Arithmetick, which is managed by a parcel of small split reeds, the thickness of a small Bent; these are made very nicely, so that they part, and are tractable in their hands. They are fifty-one in number, their length about seven inches ; when they play, they throw part of them to their antagonist; the art is, to discover, ui)on sight, how many you have, and what you throw to him that plaj's with you. Some are so expert at their numbers, that they will tell ten times together, what they throw out of their hands. Although the whole play is carried on with the quickest motion it is possible to use, yet some are so expert at this Game, as to win great Indian Estates by this Play. A good sett of these reeds, fit to play withal are valued and sold for a dressed doe-skin."
A. MY. Chase'^ speaks of " native games of cards
"Seealso Shea's Hennepin, p. 300. " Vol. I, p. 134.
"Overland Monthly, Vol. ii, p. 4.33, Dorsey fonnd a survival of Ihe same in use among the Oinahas. He called it •• stick counting." Third Annual Keport, Bureau of Kthnology, p. 338.
120 INDIAN GAMES.
iimong the Coquelles and Makneatanas, the pasteboards being bundles of sticks." He furnishes no description of the games, but uses the same phrase which was applied by Lawson in North Carolina and by Boucher in Canada.
Frank H. Cushing^* speaks of a game of " Cane-cards " among the Zuui which he says "would grace the most civilized society with a refined source of amusement." He was not able fully to comprehend it.
In the list of games, there is none of which we have any detailed account, which compares with straws as played by the northern tri))es, in elaborateness of con- struction. The unfortunate confusion which prevails throughout Perrot's description of the method of counting, and the way in which the point was shirked l)y all other writers on the subject, prevents any attempt at analysis. So far as we can see, the rules were arbitrary and not based upon any calculations of the laws of chance. If some other detailed account of the game should be discov- ered it would be mterestiug to follow up this question and ascertain how far the different combinations which affected the counts were based ui)on a theory of proba])ili- ties and how far they were arbitrary.
It will of course be noticed that the game described by Lawson was relieved from much of this complication. The dexterity required to make a throw of such a nature that the player could tell exactly the number of reeds with which he had parted, was of course remarkable aud naturally called forth expressions of surprise. But there were apparently no other combinations resting upon the thr5w than the simple guess at the number thrown. Trav- ellers in California have described the game in still sim- pler form in which we see hints of the more complex
'«Tlic Century, Vol. xxvi, p. 3S. My Adventures in Zuui.
INDIAN OAMES. 121
game. Here the " sticks" were thrown in the air and an iraniediate gness was made whether the number thrown was odd or even. An umpire kept the account with other sticks and on this connt the bets were adjusted.''^
Wherever Ave find it and whatever tlie form in use, whether simple or complicated, like games of lacrosse and platter the occasion of its play was but an excuse for in- dulgence in the inveterate spirit of gambling which every- where prevailed.
CHUNKEE OK HOOP AND POLE.
Among the Indians at the south, observers noted and described a game of great antiquity, of which we have no record during historical times among those of the north, unless we should classify the game of javelin described by Morgan"'^ as a modified form of the same game. The gen- eral name by which this game was known was chunkee. AVlicn Iberville arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi he despatched a party to explore the river. The officer who kept the "Journal do la fregate, le Marin" was one of that party and he recorded the fact that the Bayagoulas and Mougoulachas passed the greater part of their time in playing in this place with great sticks which they throw after a little stone, which is nearly round and like a bul- let.'' Father Gravier descended the river in 1700 and at the village of Iloumas he saw a "fine level square where from morning to night there are young men who exercise
"Kotzebue, A Vojage of Discovery, etc. London. 1821. Vol. i, p. 2S2 nnd Vol. in, p. 41, note. W. H. Emory, U. S. and Mexican Boundary Survey, Vol. i, p. ill, says : " The Yuraas played a game with bticks like jackstrawa." Stanley, Smith- sonian MisccUaueous Collections, Vol. ii, p. ."JS, gives among his "Portraits of North American Indians," a picture of a game whicli he describes as " played ex- clusively by women. They hold in their hands twelve sticks about six inches in length which they drop upon a rock. The sticks that fall across each other are counted lor game."
'« League of the Iroquois, p. 300. '".Margry, Decouvcrtes, etc., Vol. 4, p. 26L
KSSIiX INST. UULLICTIN, VUL. XVII. 16
122 INDIAN GAMES.
themselves in running after a fiat stone wliicli the}^ tlirow in tlie air from one end of tlie square to the other, and which they try to have fall on two cylinders that they roll where they think the stone will fall. "^^ Adair gives the following description of the same game : "The warriors have another favorite game, called 'chungke\ which, with propriet}^ of language may be called 'Running hard labour.' They have near their state house^" a square piece of ground well cleaned, and fine sand is carefully strewed over it, when requisite, to promote a swifter motion to what they throw along the surface. Only one or two on a side play at this ancient game. They have a stone about two fingers broad at the edge and two spans round ; each party has a pole of about eight feet long, smooth, and tapering at each end, the points fiat. They set off abreast of each other at six yards from the end of the playground ; then one of them hurls the stone on its edge, in as direct a line as he can, a considerable distance toward the middle of the other end of the square. When they have run a few yards, each darts his pole anointed with bears' oil, with a proper force, as near as he can guess in proportion to the motion of the stone, that the end may lie close to the stone. When this is the case, the person counts two of the game, and, in pro- portion to the nearness of the poles to the mark, one is counted, unless by measuring, both are found to be at an equal distance from the stone. In this manner, the play- ers will keep running most part of the day, at half speed, under the violent heat of the sun, staking their silver or- naments, their nose-, finger- and ear-rings ; their breast-, arm- and wrist-plates, and even all their wearing apparel, except that which barely covers their middle. All the
'8 Shea's Early Voyages, Albany, 18G1, p. 143.
'" Consult E. G. Squier.— AboriKiiiiil Monuments of N. Y., Smilhsonian Contri- butious to Knowledge, Vol. II, pp. lo5-U and uote p. 13(J.
INDIAN GAMES. 123
American Indians are much addicted to this game, which to us appears to be a task of stupid drudgery ; it seems, however, to be of early origin, when their forefathers used diversions as simple as their manners. The hurling stones they use at present were from time immemorial rubbed smooth on the rocks and with prodigious labor ; and they are kept with the strictest religious care, from one genera- tion to another, and are exempted from being buried with the dead. They belong to the town where they are used, and are carefully preserved."®*^
Lieut. Timberlake^^ describes the game as he saw it played among the Cherokees where it Avas known by the name of "Xettecawaw." "Each player has a pole about ten feet long, with several marks or divisions. One of them bowls around stone with one flat side, and the other convex, on which the players all dart their poles after it, and the nearest counts according to the vicinity of the bowl to the marks on his pole. "
Romans saw it among the Choctaws. He says, "The manner of phiying the game is thus : they make an alley of al)out two himdred feet in length, where a very smooth clayey ground is laid, which when dry is very hard : they play two together having each a straight pole about fifteen feet long ; one holds a stone which is in the shape of u truck, which he throws before him over this alley, and the instant of its departure, they set off and run ; in running the}'- cast their poles after the stone ; he that did not tiu-ow it endeavors to hit it; the other strives to strike the pole of his antagonist in its flight so as to prevent the pole of his opponent hitting the stone. If the first should strike the stone he counts one for it, and if the other by the
s'See also Historical Collections, Louisiana and Florida. B. F. French [Vol.
], second series, p. H. New York, 1875.
s' Memoirs of Lieut. Henry Timberlake, etc., London, 1765, p. 77.
124 INDIAN GAMES.
dexterity of his cast should prevent the pole of his oppo- nent hitting the stone, he counts one, but should both miss their aim the throw is renewed."
Le Page du Pratz^- describes the game as practised among the Natchez. He calls it "Xe Jeu de la Ferche which would be better named de la crosse." Dumont who was stationed at Natchez and also on the Yuzoo, describes the game and speaks of it as "La Crosse.'*^
Adair is correct when he speaks of the antiquity of this game. When he dwells upon the fact that these stones are handed down from generation to generation, as the prop- erty of the village, he brings these tribes close to the mound dwellers. Squier,^* speaking of discoidal stones, found in the mounds, says, "It is known that among the Indian tribes of the Ohio and along the Gulf, such stones were in common use in certain favorite games." Lucien Carr^^ describes and pictures a chuukce stone from Ely Mound, Va. Lewis and Clarke^^ describe the game as played among the Mandans. This tribe had a wooden platform prepared on the ground between two of their lodges. Along this platform the stone ring was rolled and the sticks were slid along the floor in pursuit of it. Catlin®^ describes the game as played by the same tribe. They had a carefully prepared pavement of clay on which they played. The "Tchunkee" sticks were marked with bits of leather and the counts of the game were affected by the position of the leather on or near which the ring lodged.
82 Histoire de la Louisiane, Paris, 1758, Vol. ill, p. 2.
''5 Miinioires Historiques sur la Louisiane, Paiis, 1753. Vol. i, p. 202.
"1 Ancient Monuments of the Mi.ssissippi Valley, p. 223.
"Sloth Annual Report Peahody Museum, p. 93. See alt>o Schoolcraft't; Indian tribes. Vol. i, p. 83.
scLewis and Clarke's Expedition, Phila., 1814, Vol. i, p. 143.
»'' Vol. I, p. 132 et seq. Dorsey describes two ibrnis of the game in use among theOmahas: " shooting at the rolling wheel" and ".stick and ring." Third An- nual Kei'ort, Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 335-336. cf. Travels in the Interior of America, in the years 1809, 1810 and 1811, by John Bradbury, p. 12C.
INDIAN (JAMES. 125
Tlie Moj.ives are accustomed to phi}- a similar game which has been described under the name " Hoop and Pole".*^ A simihir game was played by the Xavajoes.^
The Yumas played a game with two poles fifteen feet long and a ring a few inches in diameter.^" Kane^^ says that the Chualpays at FortColville on the Columbia "have a game which they call 'AlkoUock,' which requires consid- erable skill. A smooth, level piece of ground is chosen, and a slight barrier of a couple of sticks placed length- wise is laid at each end of the chosen spot, ])eing irom forty to fifty feet apart and only a few inches high. The two players, stripped naked, are armed with a very slight spear, about three feet long, and finely pointed with bone ; one of them takes a ring made of bone or some heavy Avood and Avound with cord. The ring is about three inches in diameter, on the inner circumference of which are fastened six beads of difierent colors, at equal dis- tances, to each of which a separate value is attached. The ring is then rolled along the ground to one of the barriers and is followed at the distance of two or three yards b}^ the players, and as the ring strikes the barrier and is falling on its side, the spears are thrown, so that the ring may fall on them. If any one of the spears should be covered by the ring, the owner counts according to the colored bead on it. But it generally hapi)ens from the dexterity of the players that the ring covers both spears and each counts according to the color of the beads above his spear. They then play towards the other
«» Lieut. A. W. Whipple in Pac. R. R. Rep., Vol. Ill, p. 114; Harper's M.ig., Vol. XVII, p.46.{; Domenecli, Vol. II, p. 197; H. H. Bancroft's Native Riices, Vol. I, p. 3'.t3, p. 517 and note 133. The Martial Experiences of the California Volunteers by Kdward Carlsen. Overland, A'ol, vii, Xo. 41. 2nd Series, p. 494.
*» Major E. A. Backus in Si-hoolcraft, Vol. iv, p. 214.
"" W. n. Emory, U. S. and Mexican Boundary Survey, Vol. I, p. 111.
'« Kane's Wanderings, p. 310; II. U. Baucrolt's Xntive Races, Vol. i, p. 280.
126 INDIAN GAMES.
barrier, and so on until one party has obtained the number agreed upon for the game."
In his "Life among the Apaches,"^- Colonel Cremony describes the hoop and pole game as played by the Ap- aches. With them the pole is marked with divisions throughout its whole length and these divisions are stained different colors. The object of the game is to make the hoop fall upon the pole as near the butt as possible, grad- uated values being applied to the different divisions of the pole. The women are not permitted to approach within a hundred yards while the game is going on."^
Those who have described this game in the various forms in which it has been presented dwell upon the fact that it taxed the strength, activity and skill of the play- ers. In this respect it rivalled lacrosse. In geographi- cal range the territory in which it was domesticated was nearly the same.
There are many, doubtless, who would decline to rec- ognize the discoidal stones of the mounds as chunkee stones, but it can not be denied that the "'^ nettecawavf' of the C/herokees^*, the "hoop and pole" of the Mojaves and Apaches'*^, the second form of " spear and ring" de- scribed by Domenech,"" the " alkollock" of the Chualpays^^ and the chunkee of Romans and Adair are the same game.
"2 Life among the Apaches, by John C. Cremony, p. 302.
9' The Hawaiians were accustomed to hurl a piece of liard lava along narrow trenches prepared for the i)urp08e. The stone which was called Maika closely resembled a chunkee stone. It is described as being in the sliape of a small wlieel or roller, three inches in diameter and an inch and a half tliick, very smooth and highly polished. This game appears to have been limited to a contest of skill in rolling or luirling the stone itself. Tlie additional interest which Avas given by luirling tlie spears at it while in motion was wanting. Narrative of the U. S. Exploring Expedition by Cliarles Wilkes, London, 1S45, Vol. iv, p. .5.").
>'*Timberlake, p. 77.
•f^ Whipple, Pac. R. R. Rep., Vol. in, p. lU; Cremony, p. 302; Harper's Mag., Vol. XVII, p. 4C3.
'» Domeuech, Vol. ii, p. 197. •' Kane's Wanderings, p. 310.
INDIAN GAMES. 127
The chiinge from the discoidal stone to the ring; the dilierent materials of which the ring is made, whether of stoue,"^ of bone,"^ of wood/''*' or of cord ;^*'^ whether wound with cord^*'^ or plain ; the different lengths of the spears varying from three feet^°^' to ten feet^'^* and even reaching fifteen feet in length among the MojaveS ;^'^ the dilierent markings of the spear^**^ and the ring ;^*'' the different wa>s of preparing the ground, whether tamping Avith clay,"^^ or flooring with timber,^*''' or simply removing the vegetation, ^^"^ — all these minor differences are of little consequence. The striking fact remains that this great number of tribes, so widely separated, all played a game in which the prin- cipal requirements were, that a small circular disk should be rolled rapidly along a prepared surface and that pre- pared wooden implements, similar to spears, should be launched at the disk while in motion or just at the time waien it stopped. Like lacrosse, it was made use of as an opportunity for gambling, but owing to the restriction of the ground on which it could be played, the number of players were limited, and to that extent the interest in the contests and the excitement attendant upon them were proportionally reduced.
OTHEK ATHLETIC GAMES.
In addition to the games of lacrosse, platter or dice, straws and chunkee, there were other games, some of an athletic nature, some purely of chance, which observers have described, some of which are mentioned only in
»» Lewis and Clarke, Vol. I, p. 143; Catlin, Vol. I, p. 132.
»» Kane's Wamieriiigs, p. 310. '"» Creniony, p. 302.
>»' Whipple, Pac. li. R. Rep., Vol. Ill, p. 114. "'Kane's Waiideiirigs, p. 310.
>M Ibid. '«♦ Tiiiiberlake, p. 77; Creaiony, p. 302.
'»» Whipple. Pac. R. K. llep., Vol. ill, p. 114.
'"•Ciemony, p. 302; Doinenecli, Vol. ii, p. 197; Timberlake, p. 77.
»*" Kane's Wanderings, p. 310. "" Catlin, Vol. i, p. 132.
"""Lewis and Clarke, Vol. i, p. 143. »" Domenech, V^ol. ii, p. 197.
128 INDIAN GAMES.
limited areas, while others, like the games above men- tioned, were played by Indians scattered over a wide ter- ritory and apparently having l)ut little in common. Some of these games were but modified forms of those which have been already described. Such, for instance, is a game of ball which is described by Lafitau^^ and by Charle- voix."^ This closely resembled lacrosse in its general methods of play, bnt as no rackets were used, it was less dangerous and less excitinjr. Goals Avere erected at each end of the field, separated by live hundred paces accord- ing to Lafitau. The players were divided into sides. The ball was tossed into the air in the centre of the field. When it came down the players of each side strove to catch it. He who was successful ran in the direction of the goal which he wished to reach. The players of the opposide side pursued him and did what the}' could to prevent him from accomplishing his ()l)ject. When it was evident that the runner could gain no more ground, he would pass the ball, if possible, to some i)layer upon the same side and his success in accomplishing this was de- pendent largely upon his skill. The game is probably not so old as lacrosse, for the ball is described as being larger and softer than the one used in lacrosse, thus indi- cating that it belonged to the period when the stuffed doer-skin ball was used in that game.
Both Duniont and Le Page du Pratz describe this game with this diflerence,"'^ that the ball, according to their descriptions, was incessantly tossed in the air. Romans says that this game was played among the women ; and Lafitau, who describes it separately, adds that in this form it was only played by girls. He also says that the Abena- kis indulged in a similar game, using an inflated bladder
I'lLafltau, Vol. II, p. 353. >'" Cliarlevoix, Vol. Ill, p. 31'.). "3 Diiraout, Vol. I, p. 201; Lcl'age, Vol. I, p. 378.
INDIAN GAMES. 120
for a ])all ; and that the Florida Indians fixed a willow cage upon a pole in such a way that it could revolve and tried to hit it with a ball so as to make it turn several times."*
Joutel in his historical journal describes a curious game as follows : " Taking a short stick, very smooth and greased that it may be the harder to hold it fast, one of the elders throws it as far as he can. The young men run after it, snatch it from each other, and at last, he who remains possessed of it has the first lot.""^
Football is found at the north. Ogilby"'^ says : " Their goals are a mile long placed on the sands, which are as even as a board ; their ball is no bigger than a hand ball, which sometimes they mount in the air with their naked feet, sometimes it is swayed by the multitude, sometimes also it is two days before they get a goal, then they mark the ground they win, and I)egin there the next day. Before they come to this sport they paint themselves, even as when they go to war." At the south it was " likewise a favorite manly diversion with them.""'
Certain forms of ball-pla}^ which were neither lacrosse nor chunkee, but which resembled these games were found in difierent localities. Such for instance is the game which Catlin"** saw played by the Sioux women. Two balls were connected with a string a foot and a half long. Each woman was armed with a stick. They were divided into equal sides. Goals were erected and the play was in some respects like lacrosse. Stakes were wagered on the game. This game is also described by Domenech,"^ who says the women wore a special costume which left the limbs free and that
>i* L:i(Uau, Vol. ii, p. 358.
"'■' Fieiicli's Historical Collections of Louisiana, Vol. i, p. 188; .Saiiford's His- tory of the United States before the Revolution, p. clxxxii.
»'" Ogilby, Book II, Chap, ii, p. 156. See also Smith's Narrative, p. 77. 1" Bartraiu, p. 509. i>« Vol. il, p. 146. "' Vol.U, p. 196.
ESSEX INST. BULLETIN VOL. XVII 17
130 INDIAN GAMES.
the game was " unbecoming and indecent." Powers^-" found a game among the Nishinams, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, not fiir from Sacramento, which in some respects also resembled lacrosse. He says " The ^Ti'-kel ' is the only really robust and athletic game they use, and is played by a large company of men and boys. The piece^^^ is made of raw-hide or nowadays of strong cloth, and is shaped like a small dumb-bell. It is laid in the centre of a wide, level space of ground, in a furrow, hollowed out a few inches in depth. Two parallel lines are drawn equidistant from it, a few paces apart, and along these lines the opposing parties, equal in strength, range themselves. Each player is equipped with a slight, strong staff, from four to six feet long. The two cham- pions of the party take their stations on opposite sides of the piece, which is thrown into the air, caught on the staff of one of the others, and hurled by him in the direction of his antagonist's goal. With this send-off there ensues a wild chase and a hustle, pell-mell, higgledy-piggledy, each party striving to bowl the piece over the other's goal. These goals are several hundred yards apart.
In an article in the Overland Monthly, ^" A. W. Chase describes a game in vogue among the Oregon Indians which he says was identical with hockey, as follows : "Sides being chosen, each endeavors to drive a hard ball of pine wood around a stake and in different directions ; stripped to the buff, they display great activity and strength, whack- ing away at each other's shins, if they are in the way, with a refreshing disregard of bruises. The squaws assist in the performance by beating drums and keeping up a monoto- nous chant."
"" Contributions to North American Ethnology. Vol. ill, p. 333. >-' Tlie equivalent in the ginne, of the bail in lacrosse. '2''' Vol. II, p. 433. See also Smith's Narrative, p. 77
INDIAN GAMES. 131
In the first of the two frames of "spcnr and ring," de- scribed by Donienech, ^'-■' the pla3^ers are divided into sides. The stone ring, about three inches in diameter, is tixed upright on the chosen ground, and players two at a time, one from each side, endeavor to throw their spears through the ring. The spears are marked along their length with little shields or l)its of leather, and the count is aliected by the number of these that pass through the ring. He also mentions a game^-* among the Natchez in which the ring was a " huge stone" and the spear a "stick of the shape of a bat."
If we classify Domenech's first game of "spear and ring " among those which resemble chunkee, rather than as a form of chunkee itself, we shall probably be com- pelled to pursue the same course with Morgan's game of "javelin" to which we have already alluded.^-'' In this game the players divided into sides. Each player had an agreed number of javelins. The ring, which was either a hoop or made solid like a wheel by winding with splints, was about eight inches in diameter. The players on one side were arranged in a line and the hoop was rolled before them. They hurled their javelins. The count of the game was kept by a forfeiture of javelins. Such as hit the mark were safe, but the javelins which did not hit were passed to the players of the other side who then had an opportunity to throw them at the hoop from the same spot. If these players were successful the javelins were forfeited and laid out of the play. If, however, they in turn failed the javelins were returned to their original owners. The hoop was then rolled by the other side and the process continued until one of the sides had forfeited all their javelins.
'" Vol. II. 1)1). 107-8.
"4 He does not give his authority for this game. Ho has evidently copied in his book from other writers, but BeMojn indlcuted whether his descriptioiib are baweil upon p<-Tsoii:il observ.ilioii ">r<|uoteil. "<* League of the Iroquois, p. :;00.
132 INDIAN GAMES.
OTHER GAMES OF CHANCE.
There was diversity in the forms of the games of simple chance as well as in the athletic games, and besides those which have been already described, the Indians on the Pa- cific Coast had a great variety of games, or forms of the same game, in which, in addition to the element of chance in- volved in determining the numbers or positions of certain sticks or counters, there was also an opportunity for the player who was manipulating them to deceive by dexter- ous sleight of hand. The simplest form in which this is found is guessing in which hand a small stone or bone is held. It would hardly seem that this artless effort could be transformed into an amusing and exciting game ; j^et it has attracted the attention of all travellers, and scarcely any writer, who treats of the habits of the Pacific coast In- dian, fails to give a full account of this simple game. Lewis and Clarke, '^^ when writing about the Indians near the mouth of the Columbia, say : "The games are of two kinds. In the first, one of the company assumes the oflSce of banker and plays against the rest. He takes a small stone, about the size of a bean, which he shifts from one hand to another with great dexterity, repeating at the same time a song adapted to the game and which serves to divert the attention of the company, till having agreed on the stakes, he holds out his hands, and the antagonist wins or loses as he succeeds or fails at guessing in which hand the stone is. After the banker has lost his money or whenever he is tired, the stone is transferred to another, who in turn challenges the rest of the company.^-' In the
''"'Lewis and Clarke, Vol. II, 140; and also II, 94.
"' See also, Adventures on the Columbia River, by Ross Cox. p. l.")8; The Ore- gon Territory, by John Dunn, p. 93 ; Four Years in British Columbia, by Command- er R. O. May ne, p. ■27.1 ; it was played by the Comanches In Texas with a bullet, Robert S. Neighbors in Schoolcralt, Vol. II, p. 133; by the Twanas with one or two boues, Bulletin U. S. Geol. Survey, Vol. Iii, Ho. 1, p. Sil, liev. M. Eels.
INDIAN GAMES. 133
account iriven 1)}' George Gibbs''^^ the count of the game among the tribes of western Washington and northwest- ern Oregon, was kept by means of sticks. Each side took live or ten small sticks, one of which was passed to the winner on each guess, and the game was ended when the pile of one side was exhausted. According to him, "The backers of the party manipulating keep up a con- stant drumming with sticks on their paddles which lie before them, singingan incantation to attract good fortune." Powers describes another form into which the game devel- oped among the Indians of central California. It is "played with a bit of wood or a pebble which is shaken in the hand, and then the hand closed upon it. The oppo- nent guesses which finger (a thumb is a finger with them) it is under and scores one if he hits, or the other scores if he misses. They keep tally with eight counters. "^^^
Schwatka, in his recent exploration of the Yukon found this game among the Chilkats. It was called la-Jtell. Two bones were used. One was the king and one the queen. His packers gambled in guessing at the bones every after- noon and evening after reaching camp.^"°
The simplicity of the game was modified by the intro- duction of similar articles in each hand, the question to be decided being in which hand one of them having a speci- fied mark should be found. Kanc^^^ thus describes such a game among the Chinooks : "Their games are few. The one most generally played amongst them consists in hold- ing in each hand a small stick, the thickness of a ijfoose quill, and about an inch and one-half in length, one })lain, the other distinguished by a little thread wound round
'"Contributions to North American EtlmoJoKy, Vol. i, p. 200. '" Contribntions to North American ElhmilnKj', Vol. iii. \i\\. .•?;{2-3. ""Along Al!isk:i'.-i Great lilver. IJy Fiiduiic .Srlnvalka, p. 71. '" Kane's Wandcrln;;s, p. lf'9.
134 INDIAN GAMES.
it, the opposite party being required to guess in which hand
the marked stick is to be found. A Chinook will play
at this simple game for days and nights together, until he
has gambled away everything he possesses, even to his wife>i^2
Among the Utahs this form of the game was common : 'JA row of players consisting of five or six or a dozen men is arranged on either side of the ten^ facing each other. Before each man is placed a bundle of small twigs or sticks each six or eight inches in length and pointed at one end. Every tete-a-tete couple is provided with two cylindrical bone dice carefully fashioned and highly polished which measure about two inches in length and half an inch in di- ameter, one being white and the other black, or sometimes ornamented with a black band." At the rear, musicians were seated who during the game beat upon rude drums. ^^'^ In this game it will be noticed that the players paired off and apparently each man played for himself.
Still another element is introduced in another form of the game, which increases the opportunity afforded the one who manipulates the bones for dexterity. This form of the game is repeatedly alluded to by Powers. While relat- ing the habits and customs of the Gualala, whose homes were near Fort Ross, he describes what he calls the gam- bling game of "wi and tep^' and says that one description with slight variations will answer for nearly all the tribes of central and southern California. After describmg the mak- ing up of the pool of stakes, he adds : "They gamble with four cylinders of bone about tAvo inches long, two of which are plain, and two marked with rings and strings tied round the middle. The game is conducted by four old and ex-
>" See also, Overland, Vol. ix, p. 163, Powers; H. H. Bancroft's Native Races, Vol. I, i>. 24^1; Clay balls are sometimes nsert, Ibid, Vol. I,p..'?53; Tlie Northwest Coast, James G. Swan, p. 158; Montana as it is, Granville Stuart, p. 71.
"a Edwin R. Barker in tlie Ameiican Naturalist, June, 1S77, Vol. XI, p. 051.
INDIAN GAMES. 135
periencedmen, frequentl}^ grey heads, two for each party, squatting on their knees on opposite sides of the fire. They have before them a quantity of fine dry grass, and with their hands in rapid and juggling motions before and be- hind them, they roll up each piece of bone in a little ball and the opposite party presently guess in which hand is the marked bone. Generally only one guesses at a time, which he does with,the word 7ej9' (marked one), and 'wi' (^plainonc). If he guesses right for both players, they simply toss the bones over to him and his partner, and nothing is scored on either side. If he guesses right for one and wrong for the other, the one for whom he guessed right is 'out', but his partner rolls up the bones for an- other trial, and the guesser forfeits to them one of his twelve counters. If he guesses wrong for both, they still keep on and he forfeits two counters. There are only twelve counters and when they have been all won over to one side or the other, the game is ended. "'^* Sometimes the same game was played without going through the for- mality of wrapping the pieces in grass, simply shaking them in the hands as a preliminary for the guessing. '^^
A slightly diflerent method prevails among the Indians of Washington and northwestern Oregon. Ten disks of hard wood, each about the diameter of a Mexican dollar and somewhat thicker, are used. "One of these is marked and called the chief. A smooth mat is spread on the ground, at the ends of which the opposing players are seated, their friends on either side, who are provided with the requisites for a noise as in the other case. The party holding the disks has a bundle of the fibres of the cedar
1" Powers in Contributions to Nortli American Ethnology, Vol.iii, x>\). OO-l.l^; 189-:m.
"= Contributions to Nortli American Ethnology, Vol. Ill, 332 ; Altjcandcr IJoss's Adveulures, pp. 308, 30'J.
136 INDIAN GAMES.
bark, in Avhich be envelops tbcm, and after rolbng tbem about, tears the bundle into two parts, his opponent guess- ing in which bundle the chief lies."'^^ The same game is described by Kane, except that the counters, instead of be- ing wrapped in one bundle which is afterward torn in two, are originally wrapped in two bundles. ^^^
Still another complication of the guessing game was de- scribed by Mayne.^^^ Blankets were spread upon the ground on which sawdust was spread about an inch thick. In this was placed the counter, a piece of bone or iron about the size of a half a crown, and one of the players shuffled it about, the others in turn guessing where it was.
The game of "moccasin" was but a modification of this game. As described by Philander Prescott three mocca- sins were used in this game by the Dacotas. The bone or stick was slipped from one to another of the moccasins by the manipulators, and the others had to guess in which moccasin it was to be found. Simple as this description seems, the men would divide into sides, playing against each other, and accompanying the game with singing. ^^
Among the Zunis, the guessing game was exalted to the nature of a sacred festival. Frank H. Gushing"^ gives the following account of its practice. "One morning the two chief priests of the bow climbed to the top of the houses, and just at sunrise called out a 'prayer message' from the mount-environed gods. Eight players went into a kli- ivi-tain to fast, and four days later issued forth, bearing four large wooden tubes, a ball of stone, and a bundle of thirty-six counting straws. With great ceremony, many
'SO Contributions to Nortli American Ethnology, Gibbs, Vol. i, p. 200. 137 Kane's Wanderings, p. 189; Swan's Nortliwest Coast, p. 157; Kels iu Bulletin U. S. G. Surv., Vol. Ill, No, 1.
i'" Mayne's British Columbia, [>• 275.
"» Schoolcniit, Vol. IV, p. (U; Domenech, Vol. ii, p. 192.
''"The Century, Vol. xxvi, p. 37.
INDIAN GAMES. 137
prayers and incantations, the tubes were deposited on two mock mountains of sand, either side of the 'grand plaza.' A crowd began to gather. Larger and noisier it gi*ew, until it became a surging, clamorous, black mass. Grad- ually two piles of fabrics, — vessels, silver ornaments, neck- laces, embroideries, and symbols representing horses, cattle and sheep — grew to large proportions. Women gathered on the roofs around, wildly stretching forth arti- cles for betting, until one of the presiding priests called out a brief message. The crowd became silent. A booth was raised, under which two of the players retired ; and when it was removed the four tubes were standing on the mound of sand. A song and dance began. One by one three of the four opposing players were summoned to guess under which tube the ball was hidden. At each guess the cries of the opposing party became deafening, and the mock struggles approached the violence of com- bat. The last guesser found the ball ; and as he victo- riously carried the latter and the tubes across to his own mound, his side scored ten. The pro.cess was repeated. The second guesser found the ball ; his side" scored fifteen setting the others back five. The counts numbered one hundred ; but so complicated were the winnings and los- ings on both sides, with each guess of either, that hour after hour the game went on, and night closed in. Fires were built in the plaza, cigarettes were lighted, but still the game continued. Noisier and noisier grew the dan- cers ; more and more insulting and defiant their songs and epithets to the opposing crowd, until they fairly gnashed their teeth at one another, but no l)lows. Day dawned upon the still uncertain contest ; nor was it until the sun again touched the western horizon, that the hoarse, still defiant voices died away, and the victorious party l)orc oil' their 'mountains of gifts from the gods. '"
KSSEX INSr. BUI.I.KllN, \t>L. XVII. 18
138 INDIAN GAMES.
The picturesque description of Gushing brings before our eyes the guessing game in its highest form of de- velopment. Among the tribes of the East, if it had a home at all, it was practised in such an inobtrusive way as not to attract the attention of writers who have described their habits and customs. The nearest approach to it which we can find is a guessing game described by Henne- pin, as follows : "They take kernels of Indian corn or something of the kind, then they put some in one hand, and ask how many there are. The one who guesses wins."
Mackenzie^" fell in with some Indians near the Pacific coast who travelled with him a short distance. They carried with them the implements for gaml)ling. Their game was different from the guessing games which have been heretofore described. "There were two players and each had a bundle of about fifty small sticks neatly pol- ished, of the size of a quill, and five inches long. A cer- tain number of their sticks had red lines round them and as many of these as one of the players might find con- venient were curiously rolled up in dried grass, and ac- cording to the judgment of his antagonist respecting their number and marks he lost or won."
The same game was seen at Queen Charlotte Islands by Francis Poole. "■^ He says there were in this game from "forty to fifty round pins or pieces of wood, five inches long by one-eighth of an inch thick, painted in black and blue rings and beautifully polished." These pins were divided into two heaps under cover of bark fibre and the opposite player guessed odd or even for one of the })iles.
CONTESTS OF SKILL.
Lewis and Clarke"' describe a game among the Ore- iron Indians which can neither be called an athletic jjame
m Alexander Mac.l;ei)zie's Voyages in 1789 and 1793. London, 1801, p. 311. 1*2 Queen Chailotle Jslamls, a uarralive, etc., p. 325. "' Vol. ii, p. 140.
INDIAN GAMES. 139
nor a game of chance, but which seems to have been a simple contest of skill. "Two pins are placed on the floor, about the distance of a foot from each other, and a small hole made behind them. The players then go about ten feet from the hole, into which they try to roll a small piece, resembling the men used at draughts ; if they succeed in putting it into the hole, they win the stake ; if the piece rolls between the pins, but does not go into the hole, nothing is won or lost ; but the wager is wholly lost if the chequer rolls outside the pins."
Morgan"^ describes a winter contest of skill among the Iroquois, which he calls snow-snake. The so-called snakes were made of hickory. They were from five to seven feet in length, a quarter of an inch in thickness, tapering from an inch in width at the head to about half an inch at the tail. The head was round, turned up (slightly and weighted with lead. This implement was shot along the snow crust, by hand, with great speed, and a point in the game was gained by the snake which ran the greatest distance. When there w^ere a number of players divided into sides, if there were two, three or more snakes of the same side which were in advance of the snakes of the other side, all such counted. Such contests usually took place between tril)os and aroused a great degree of spirit and the usual amount of betting. In sim- pler form, Sagard Theodat descril)cs this kind of amuse- ment.
OTHER AMUSEMENTS OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN.
Under the name of " Fuseaux" La Potherie^*"' describes a similar winter game of the children. He further says the women only played at platter or dice. The children
"* League ol' the Iroquois, p. 303. '■" Vol. in, p. 24.
140 INDIAN GAMES.
played at lacrosse, seldom at platter. We have seen that the women in some parts of the country joined in the la- crosse games. Sometimes they played it by themselves and sometimes they plaj^ed other ball games which closely re- semble that game. Romans describes a woman's game in which they tossed up a ball which was to be caught before it reached the ground ; but in the meantime the one who tossed it had to pick up a small stick from the ground.
The women of the Natchez^*''', according to Le Page du Pratz, played with three pieces of cane, each eight or nine inches long, flat on one side and convex on the other Avith engravings on the convex side. Two were held in the open palm of the left hand and the third was dropped round side down upon the ends of the two, so that all would fall to the ground. If two convex surfaces came up the player Avon. He also says, and in this Romans concurs, that the Avomeu Avere very reluctant to be seen Avhile playing.
Among the Natchez, the young girls played ball Avith a deer-skin ball slutfed with Spanish moss. Other than that they seemed to him to have no games.'" The young Choctaws, according to Romans, engaged in Avrestling, run- ning, heaving and lifting great weights and playing ball. Hennepin says, " the children play Avith boAvs and Avith two sticks, one large and one small. They hold the little one in the left, and the larger one in the right hand, then Avith the larger one they make the smaller one ^y up in the air, and another runs after it, and throws it at the one Avho sprang it. They also make a ball of flags or corn leaves, which they throw in the air and catch on the end of a pointed stick."
"0 La Page du Pratz, Vol. in, p. 2; Domenech, Vol. ii, p. 192. i«' Li^ Page du Pratz, Vol. Ill, p. 2.
INDIAN GAMES. 141
Powers"*^ descril)es a game among the children of the Nishinams which consisted in tossing hnnches of clover from one to another, and another in which the boys placed themselves upon three bases and tossed a ball across from one to the other. Points were won as in base ball by run- ning bases, if possible, without being put out by the one who at the time had the ball. The Choctaw^** boys made use of a cane stalk, eight or nine feet in length, from which the obstructions at the joints had been removed, much as boys use what is called a putty blower. The Zufii children are said to play checkers with fragments of pcjt- tery on flat stones. ^^
Kunning matches, swimming, wrestling, the simple ball-games which are hinted at rather than described, practice in archery and hurling the spear or javelin, fur- nished the Indian youth with such amusements as could be derived outside the contests in which his eiders partic- ipated. Most of these latter were so simple as to be easily understood by the very young, and we can readily comprehend how deeply the vice of gambling must have been instilled in their minds, when they saw it inaugu- rated with such solemn ceremonials and participated in with such furor l)y their elders.
Our information concerning the hal)its of the Indians comes from a variety of sources. Some of it is of very recent date, especially that which deals with the Indians of the Pacific coast. The early Relations of the French Fathers were faithful, and, as a rule, intelligent records of events which the priests themselves witnessed. The accounts of the French and Indian traders and travellers
'•" Contributions to Ncrtli Anieiicon Ethnology, Vol. ui p, 331. '" Romjins, p. 7!); Boesu, Vol. I, p. 306. "wThc Century, Vol. xxvi, p. 28, Cubhing.
142 INDIAN GAMES.
are neither as accurate nor as reliable as those contained in the Relations. Some of these authors faithfully re- corded what they saw ; others wrote to make books. They difier widely in value as authorities and must be judged upon their individual merits.
Much of our information concerning the manners and customs of the natives of the Pacific coast is derived from the publications of our national government. The re- ports which are collated in these documents are from a great number of observers and are not uniform in character, but many of them have great value. As a whole, the work was well done and in a scientific manner.
The narration of the difierent games tells its own story. Lacrosse is found throughout the country ; platter or dice is distributed over an area of equal extent ; chun- kee was a southern and \^estern game ; straws a north- ern game with traces of its existence in the west ; the guessing game was apparently a western game. Every- where, gambling prevailed to the most shocking extent.
There are writers who seek to reduce the impressions of the extravagance indulged in by tlie Indians at these games. The concurrence of testimony is to the eflect that there Avas no limit to which they would not go. Their last blanket or bead, the clothing on their backs, their wives and children, their own liberty were sometimes hazarded ; and if the chances of the game went against them the penalty was paid with unflinching firmness. The delivery of the wagered wives, Lescarbot tells us, was not always accomplished with ease, but the attempt would be faithfully made and probabl}' was often successful. Self-contained as these people ordinarily were, it is not a matter of surprise that the weaker among them should have been led to these lengths of extravagance, under the high
INDIAN GAMES. 143
pressure of excitement Avhich was deliberately maintained during the progress of their games. ''^ From one end of the land to the other these scenes were ushered in with ceremonies calculated to increase their importance and to awaken the interest of the spectators. The methods used were the same among the confederations of the north and of the south ; among the wandering tribes of the interior ; among the dwellers in the Pueblos ; and among the slothful natives of the Pacific coast.
The scene described by Gushing, where, at the sum- mons of the " prayer-message," the Zuuis gathered upon the house-tops and swarmed in the Plaza, to hazard their property, amid prayers and incantations, upon a guess under which tube the ball was concealed, is widely dif- ferent from that depicted by the Jesuit Fathers in Canada, where the swarthy Hurons assembled in the Council House at the call of the medicine man and in the presence of the sick man, wagered their beads and skins, upon the
1" The following extracts will illustrate these points: They will bet all they have, even to their wives. It is true, however, that the delivery of the wagered women is not easy. They mock tlie winners and point their lingers at them (Lescarbot, Vol. ill, p. 754); all that they possess, so that if unfortunate, as some- times lias happened, they return home as uaked as your hand (Laleuiant Kelation, 1639); their goods, their wives, their children (Ferland Vol. I, p. 134); some have been known to f-take their liljerty for a time (Cliarlevoix, Vol. Ill, 319); have been known to stake tlieir liberty upon the issue of these games, offering themselves to their opi)onents in case they get beaten (Catlin, Vol. i, p. 132); I have known sev- eral of them to gamble tlieir liljerty away (Lawson, \). 17G); a Canadian Indian lost his wife and family to a Frenchman (Sagard Theodat, Histoire du Canada Vol. i, p. 243); they wager their wives (A. Colquhon Grant, Journal Royal Geog. Soc, London, Vol. xxvii, p. 299); their wives and children (Irving's Astoria, Vol. ii, p. 91); their liberty (I'arkei's Journal of an Exploring Tour, pp. 249-:)0); Dome- uech has never known men to bet their wives (Vol. ii, )». 191); women betas well as men (Komans, p.79; Am. Naturalist, Vol. XI, No. G, 551); Philander Prescott (Schoolcraft, Vol. IV, p. (>4); Gushing (Century, Vol. xxvi, p. 28); the liberty of a woman wagered by herself (Lalemant, Relation 1639); women are never seen to bet (Lc I'age du Pratz, Vol. ill, p. 2; Maync Br. Col., p.27<i); rash gambling some- limes f(dlc)wed by suiridc (Koni.ms p.7'.i; lirebeuf. Relation 1031;).
144 INDIAN GAMES.
cast of the dice. It differs equally from the scene which travellers have brought before our eyes, of the Chinooks, beating upon their paddles and moaning forth their mo- notonous chants, while gathered in a ring about the player, who with dexterous passes and strange contor- tions manipulated the stone and thus added zest to the guess which was to determine the ownership of the prop- erty staked upon the game. The resemblances in these scenes are, however, far more striking than the differ- ences. Climate and topography deterniine the one. Race characteristics are to be found in the other.
ZH^^L:
^,,, BULLETIN
ESSEX: iisrsTiT-crTE.
Vol. 17. Salem: Oct., Nov., Dec, 1885. Nos. 10-12.
ANCIEXT AND INIODERN METHODS OF ARROW- RELEASE.
RY EDWAItD S. MORSE.
AYhen 1 began collecting data illustrating the various methods of releasing the arrow from the bow as prac- ticed by different races, I was animated only by the idlest curiosity. It soon became evident, however, that some importance might attach to preserving the methods of handling a weapon which is rapidly being displaced in all parts of the world by the musket and ritie. While tribes still survive Avho rely entirely on this most ancient of weapons, using, even to the present day, stone-tipped arrows, there are other tribes using the rifle where the bow still survives. There are, however, entire tribes and nations Avho have but recently, or within late historic times, abandoned the bow and arrow, its survival being seen only as a plaything for children.
It was not till I had accumulated (piite a collection of sketches and other memoranda illustrating the methods of arrow-release, not only of existing but of ancient races, as shown by frescos and rock sculpture, that I realized that even so trivial an art as that of releasing the arrow
ESSEX INST. BUI.LKTIN, VOL. XVII 1!) (145)
146 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
might possibly lead to interesting results in tracing the affinities of past races.
I am led to publish the data thus far collected, incom- plete as they are, with the intention of using the paper in the form of a circular to send abroad, with the hope of securing further material for a more extended memoir on the subject.
My interest in the matter was lirst aroused by having a Japanese friend shoot with me. Being familiar with the usual rules of shooting as practiced for centuries by the English archers, and not being aware of more than one way of properly handling so simple and primitive a weapon as the bow and arrow, it was somewhat surprising to find that the Japanese practice was in every respect to- tally unlike ours. To illustrate: in the English practice, the bow must be grasped with the firmness of a smith's vice ; in the Japanese practice, on the contrary, it is held as lightly as possible ; in both cases, however, it is held vertically, but in the English method the arrow rests on the left of the bow, while in the Japanese method it is placed on the right. In the English practice a guard of leather must be worn on the inner and lower portion of the arm to receive the impact of the string ; in the Japanese practice no arm-guard is required, as by a curious fling or twirl of the bow hand, coincident with the release of the arrow, the bow (which is nearly circular in section) re- volves in the hand, so that the string brings up on the outside of the arm where the impact is so light that no protection is needed. In the English method the bow is grasped in the middle, and consequently the arrow is dis- charged from a point equidistant from its two ends, while the Japanese archer grasps the bow near its lower third and discharges the arrow from this point. This al- together unique method, so far as I am aware, probably arose from the custom of the archers in feudal times
OF ARROW-RELEASE. 147
shooting in a kneeling posture from behind thiek wooden shields which rested on the ground. While all these feat- ures above mentioned arc quite unlike in the two peo- ples, these dissimilarities extend to the method of drawing the arrow and releasing it. In the English method the string is drawn with the tips of the first three fingers, the arrow being lightly held between the first and second fin- gers, the release being effected by simply straightening the fingers and at the same time drawing the hand back from the string ; in the Japanese method of release the string is drawn back by the bent thumb, the forefinger aiding in holding the thumb down on the string, the arrow being held in the crotch at the junction of the thumb and finger.
These marked and important points of difference be- tween the two nations in the use of a weapon so simple and having the same parts, — namely, an elastic stick, a simple cord, a slender barbed shaft, — and used by the two hands, naturally led me to inquire further into the use of the bow in various parts of the world, and to my amaze- ment I found not only a number of totally distinct meth- ods of arrow-release with modifications, or sub-varieties, but that all these methods had been in vogue from early historic times. Even the simple act of bracing or string- ing the bow varies quite as profoundly with difitn-ent races.
The simplest form of release is that which children the world over naturally adopt in first using the bow and arrow, and that is grasping the arrow between the end of the straightened tinnnl) and the first and second joints of the bent forefinger. I say naturally, because I have noticed that American as well as Indian and Japanese children in- variably grasp the arrow in this way in the act of shooting. With a light or weak bow, such a release is the simplest
148
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
and best ; and in this release it makes but little difference upon which side of the bow the arrow rests, provided the bow is held vertically. This release, however, prevents the drawing of a stiff bow unless one possesses enormous
Figs. 1 and 2. Primaiy release.
strength in the fingers. Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate this re- lease. Arrows used in this release are usually knobbed at the nock, or proximal end of the arrow, for conven-
^^^^^^~
Fig. 3. Knobbed .arrow from Oregon.
ience of holding ; and an arrow of this form indicates a release of this or of a similar nature (Fig. 3).
The Ainos of Yezo practice this simple release. Their bow is short and highly strung Avhen in use, and an arm-
OF ARROW-RELEASE. 149
guard is not required, as the recoil of tlie string, from the high tension of the bow, is arrested before striking the arm. Some of the old English archers also avoided the use of the arm-guard by using highly strung bows.
It is recorded that the Demerara Indians of South America practice this form of release ; and from a photo- graph of a Ute Indian in my possession I should infer that that tribe also practiced this release. Col. James Stevenson informs me that when the Navajos shoot at prairie dogs they use this release, so that the arrow will not penetrate the ground if it misses its mark; and Mr. Daniel S. Hastings informs me that the Chippewa Indians sometimes practice this release.
I am indebted to Dr. S. J. iNIixter for a photograph which he made for me, of an old jNIicmac Indian in the act of releasing the arrow in the primary way. The man is one of the oldest Micmacs in the Cascapedia settlement on the north shore of the Bay of Chaleur and he informed Dr. Mixtcr that he often used the bow when a boy, and prac- ticed the release as represented. He also said that the other tribes in that part of Canada in the use of the bow drew the arrow in the same way. A member of the Pe- nobscot tribe at Moosehead Lake gave me the primary release as that practiced by the tribe, and seemed incred- ulous when I told him that there were other niethods of draAving the arrow.
This primitive method of releasing the arrow I shall designate as the Primary release.
The next form of release to be considered is one which is a direct outgrowth from the primary release. This re- lease consists in grasping the arrow with the straightened thumb and bent forefmgcr, while the ends of the second and third lingers arc brought to bear on the strin^f to as-
150
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
sist in drawing. Figs. 4 and 5 illustrate the attitude of the hand in this release. Mr. Paul Mamegowena, an Ottawa Indian, informs me that his tribe practice this release, and he illustrated the method to me. Through the courtesy of Mr. Frank Hamilton Gushing I was enabled to make inquiries of a number of Zuui chiefs in regard to their
Figs. 4 and 5. Secondary release.
method, and the release practiced by them differed in no respect from that of the Ottawas.
Mr. Daniel S. Hastings, formerly civil engineer on the Northern Pacific Railroad writes to me as follows regarding the Chippewa Indians of northern Wisconsin : " I have watched the Indians so as to find out their manner of draw- ing back the bow-string and releasing the arrow, and I find they all agree in one respect : they all grasp the arrow
OF ARROW-KELEASE. 151
between the thumb and forefinger. Some of them use the thumb and forefinger alone, while others use the second, and still others add the second and third fingers to as- sist in pulling the string back, and let the string slip off the ends of the second and third fingers at the same instant the arrow is released from between the thumb and fore- finger." This release, though clearly distinct from the primary release, is an advance upon it in the added as- sistance of one or two fingers in pulling back the string ; and the description given by Mr. Hastings is confirmatory of the natural relations existing between the two releases. For this reason it will be designated as the Secondary re- lease.
]\Ir. La Flcsche, an intelligent Omaha, showed me a release practiced by his people which diftcrs sufiiciently from the secondary release to warrant its recognition as a separate form. In this release the forefinger, instead of being bent, is nearly straight with its tip, as well as the tips of the second and third fingers, pressing or pulling on the string, the thumb, as in the primary and secondary release, active in assisting in pinching the arrow and pulling it back. This release I shall call the Tertiary release. (See Figs. 6 and 7.)
Lieut. A. W. Vogdes, U. S. A., has informed me that the Sioux, Arapahoes, and Cheyenne practice the tertiary release ; and Col. James Stephenson has noticed this re- lease practiced not only by the two latter tribes but by the Assinil)oins, Comanches, Crows, Blackfeet, and Navajos. Mr. La Flesche and Lieut. Vogdes informed me that the tribes using this release held the bow nearly hori- zontally.
In holding the bow horizontally the release-hand is held with the palm uppermost, the arrow, of course, resting on the bow. In the Zuni and Ottawa practice, the bow
152
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
being held vertically or nearly so, the arrow is placed at the left of the bow. It is possi])le that originally the bow was held horizontally, bnt necessities arising, as in shoot- ing in a forest, or shooting side by side with others closely appressed, the bow was required to be held vertically. In thus turning the bow-hand in the only way it could be turned conveniently, the arrow would be brought to the left of the bow vertical.
As will be shown further on, the position of the arrow
Figs. 0 and 7. Tertiary release.
either to the right or to the left of the bow vertical is de- termined in most cases by the method of release.
In the primary and secondary releases, however, it makes but little diflerence on which side the arrow is placed ; and some tribes, using the bow vertical, place the arrow to the right, and this is probably a quicker way of adjusting the arrow when shooting rapidly. Col. James Stevenson informs me that Navajo Indians practice thr'^e methods of release, namely, the primary release already
OF ARROW-KELEASE. 153
alludecl to, the tertiary release, and a variety of the INIed- itoraiieaii release, which will be described further on.
Durins: the recent visit of the Siamese embassy to this country, I obtained from its members through the cour- tesy of Mr. Wilberforce Wyke, interpreter, some inter- esting facts concerning the use of the bow in Siam. It was curious to find that the Siamese practiced the tertiary release ; with this difference, however, that one finger only is used on the string instead of two. j\[r. Nai Tuan illus- trated the method to me, and explained that little use was made of the bow and arrow, its practice l)eing conlined to the shooting of small birds and fishes.
ISIajor Snayh of the embassy told me that poisoned ar- rows were also used, in which case the bow was held hori- zontally, and the bow-hand grasped not only the bow, but a grooved l)()ard iu which the arrow rested. In the last centur}', it was customary for the Turkish archer to use a grooved piece of horn which was held in the bow-hand directed towards the string. In this grooved piece the an-ow ran, and by this contrivance the bow could be drawn much further back, even to the extent of bringing the head of the arrow four or five inches within the bow. Ac- cording to AVilkinson, the ancient Kg3'ptians were familiar with this curious adjunct to the bow.
E. H. Man, Esq., in his work on the Andaman Island- ers,^ p. 141, says that the inhabitants of Great Andaman " place the arrow in position between the thumb and top joint of the forefinger, and draw the string to the mouth with the middle and third finger." As Mr. Man in this description does not speak of the forefinger as bent and
> On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islanrls. By Edward Horace Man. Reprinted from tlic Journal of Ihe AnthropolKgical Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.
ESSKX INST. IJULLKTIN, VOL. XVII 20
154 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
pressed against the arrow, the release practiced by these people must be the tertiary release.
We have thus far cousidered three methods of release, of which the thumb and bent forefinger appressed forms the simplest and probably one of the earliest forms ; and this we have called the primary release. The secondary release differs only in the application of the tips of the second finger, or second and third fingers, to the string, and must be regarded as a development of the primary release, though forming a distinct methcxl. The third re- lease diflers in the position of the forefinger, which, instead of being bent and pressed against the arrow, is nearly straight, its tip, as well as the tips of the second and some- times that of the third finger, engaging the string. This constitutes the tertiary release.
We come now to consider a release which by document- ary evidence has been in vogue among the northern Med- iterranean nations for centuries, and among the southern Mediterranean nations for tens of centuries. It is the oldest release of which we have any knowledge. It is practiced to-day by all modern English, French, and American archers, and is the release practiced by Euro- pean archers of the Middle Ages. This release consists in drawing the string back with the tips of the first, second, and third fingers, the balls of the fingers clinging to the string, with the terminal joints of the fingers slightly flexed. The arrow is lightly held between the first and second fingers, the thumb straight and inactive.
Since this release has been practiced by the IMcditerra- nean nations from early historic times, it may with pro- priety be called the Mediterranean relea.se. The following figures (Figs. 8 and 9) illustrate this form of release.
In the practice of this release, the attrition of the string on the fingers is so severe that a leather glove or leather
OF ARROW-RELEASE.
155
finger-tips are worn, though some archers are enabled by long service to shoot with their lingers unprotected. Roger Ascham, in his " Toxophilus," written in 1544, says : " A shootinge glove is chieflye for to save a man's fingers from hurtinge, that he may be able to beare the sharpe stringe to the uttermoste of his strengthe. And when a man shooteth, the might of his shoote lyeth on the foremost finger, and on the ringman ; for the middle
Figs. 8 and 9. Mediterranean release.
finger which is longest, like a lubber, starteth back, and beareth no weight of the stringe in a manner at all ; therefore the two fingers must have thicker leather, and that must have thickest of all whereon a man lowseth most, and for sure lowsinge the foremost finger is most apt, because it holdeth best, and for that purpose nature hath, as a man would say, yocked it with the thoumbc."
Hansard, in his " Book of Archery," states that the Flem- ings use the first and second fingers only, a method adopted by some English bowmen. This FU'Uiing variety of the
156 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
INIediteiTanean release, as we shall soon see, was probably the usual form in the Middle Ages. Among the many curious matters of interest concerning archery, which may be found in Hansard's book, is the description of a quaint l)lack-letter volume which the author dug out in the Koyal Library of Paris. This volume was written at the close of the thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth century. It is entitled "The Book of King Modus," and is a treatise on the use of the bow in hunting. Among other matters is a chapter of " Instructions in the Art of Archery ;" and in regard to the release, it says that "you draw the arrow with three fingers, holding the nock between the forefinger and the next thereto."
Associated with this release is the necessity of placing the arrow on the left of the bow held vertically. This position is necessitated by the fact, that as the string is pulled back the friction of the fingers which clutch the arrow tends to swing the arrow to the right ; at the same time the friction of the fingers on the string causes the string to rotate somewhat to the right, and this tends to displace the arrow.
In a release of this nature, the arrow must be to the left of the bow vertical ; and carved figiu'cs, manuscript draw- ings, and sculpture, in which the arrow is represented otherwise in connection with the ^Mediterranean release, must be incorrect. This release is unquestionably an advance on the others thus far described, as it enables the drawing of a stiifer bow, and is exceedingly delicate and smooth at the instant of loosing the arrow.
Mr. John Murdock, who accompanied the United States Signal Sui'vey Expedition to the nortliwcst coast of Alaska, has kindly furnished me the information that the Eskimo of Point Barrow practice the Mediterranean release, using, however, only the first and second fingers in drawing the string. I am also indebted to ^Ir. Mur-
OF ARROW-RELEASE. 157
dock for calling my attention to two other references cenccrning the practice of archery among these Arctic people.
Mr. Lndwig Kunilien, natnralist of the Howgate Polar Expedition, says of the Cumberland Sound Eskimo, "In shooting this weapon the string is placed on the tirst joint of the first and middle tingers of the right hand." ^
The Kranse brothers state that the natives of East Cape, Siberia, do not hold the arrow between the thumb and tirst tinger, but between the tirst and middle fingers.^
Neither of these descriptions is complete, and yet both indicate unmistakably the Mediterranean release. It was somewhat surprising to find this release among the tribes of Eskimo, for I bad supposed that the arrow-re- lease of this people would be either in the form of the primary or secondary release. As a confirmation of this unlooked-for method of shootins: amonor the west-coast
Fig. 10. Point Barrow Eskimo arrow, half size, a, end view.
Eskimo at least, Mr. Murdock called my attention to the shape of the nock end of their arrow, which was greatly flattened at right angles to the nock, so that it offered greater convenience for grasping between the fin- gers. It is possible also that this peculiar flattening may have something to do with the flight of the arrow. This flattening of the arrow I have never observed before ; and an arrow of this shape must indicate unmistakably the method of release employed, for in no other form of release with which I am familiar could the arrow be dis- charged. Fig. 10 gives the appearance of this arrow.
» Bulletin of the U. S. K.ntion.il Museum, No. 1.5, p. 37. ' Deutbcbe gcograiihischc Bliiltcr, Vol. I, p. 33.
158
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
If Mr. Man's information be correct, then the tribes inhabiting the Little Andaman practice the Mediterranean release. In his work on the Andaman Islanders before alluded to, the author says (p. 141) that the Jar'awa, or the tribes which inhabit the Little Andaman and southern portions of the Great Andaman, "adopt the plan usual amons: ourselves of holdings the nock of the arrow inside the string by means of the middle joints of the fore and
Figs. 11 and 12. Mongolian release.
middle fingers, and drawing the string wnth the same joints." While the four releases thus far described may be con- sidered successive modifications of each other, though I do not mean to imply that they are so necessarily, the release which we are about to examine is an entirely in- dependent form, having no relation to the others. In this release the string is drawn by the llexed thumb bent over
OF ARROW-RELEASE.
159
the string, the end of the forefinger assisting in holding the thumb in tliis position. Figs. 11 and 12 iUustrate this release. The arrow is held at the junction of the thumb and forefinger, the base of the finger pressing the arrow against the bow. For this reason the arrow is always placed to the right of the bow vertical.
This release is characteristic of the Asiatic races, such as the Manchu, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Turk, and doubt- less other cognate peoples. The Persians also practice this release, which they probably accjuired from Ihcir prox- imity to, and association (friendly and otherwise) with, Asititic people of past times.
As this release is practiced almost exclusively by Mon- golian nations, it may be called the Mongolian release.
In this release the thumb is protected by a guard of some kind. With the Manchu, Chinese, and Turk, as well as with the Persian, this guard consists of a thick ring, which is worn near the base of the thumb. The thick edge of the ring is brought to l)ear upon the string Chinese thumb-ring, as it is drawn back, and at the same time the string is quickly released by straightening the thumb. The ring may be made of any hard material, such as horn, bone, ivory, quartz, agate, or jade. These rings are often very expensive. I was shown one in Canton that was valued ^. ,, at three hundred dollars. Fi":. 13
Fir. l-t. _ O
Chinese thumb-ring of jiuie. illustrates au ordinary liom ring such
in section. ^.^ n\ >
as the Cantonese use.
Fig. 14 shows a Chinese thum1)-riug in section, made
of jade. This ring, being used with bows having thicker
strings, is correspondingly larger. The Korean thumb-ring
is quite unlike that used by the Chinese, as will l)e seen
Fig. 13.
100
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
by Fig. 15. The ring is thin, and from its shape is evi- dently used to protect the bail of the thumb. The string is not engaged by the edge of the ring, as in the Chinese
Fig. 15. KoiCiin thumb-ring.
method, but rests upon the side of the ring.^ The Japanese archer, instead of using a thumb-ring, is provided with a
Fig. IG. Japanese nicher'6 glove (portion only shown).
glove consisting of thumb and two fingers. The wrist of the glove is firmly bound to the wrist by a long band,
» I was told by a Korean ambassador in Tokio, that in archery the Koreans are taught to draw the arrow with either hand, but considered the left hand most effi- cient. In illustrating the method ot release he drew the arrow with his left hand. The bow is firmly grat^ped, and an arm-guard is worn.
OF ARROW-KELEASE. 161
which is fastened to one tlap, passes through a hole in the opposite Ihip, thus enabling it to be pulled up like a noose, and then is wound tightly about the wrist several times. The thumb of the glove is much thickened, and is very hard and stift* (Fig. 16). Its operation is like that of the Korean thumb-ring.
In the Korean and Japanese practice the first and second fingers assist in holding the thumb bent on the string, while in the Manchu release only the first finger is so
Fig. 17. Manchu.
used, the other three fingers being inactive and closed. There are doubtless other modifications of this release ; the essential features however remain the same.
A young Japanese from the north of Japan, in illustrating to me his method of release, drew the string back with the thumb and interlocked forefinger as already described, and assisted the drawing back of the string with the tips of the second and third fingers, as shown in the secondary release.
The accompanying figure illustrates the attitude of the shaft hand of a Manchu as seen from above, which I sketchedfromaManchusoldier at Canton. (Fig. 17.) The
ESSKX INST. BULLliTIN, VOL, XVU 21
102 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
Persians and Turks use the thumb-ring in the same way. Fig. 18, representing the Persian thuml)-ring, is copied from a drawing given in Meyrick's " Ancient Armour." Han- sard, referring to another author, says that "one of the early Turkish Sultans occupied his leisure in manufacturing these rings," distributing them as presents among his favor- ite pashas ; and adds also that the carnelian thumb-rings may be easily procured in the Bazaars of Constantinople. Some notes in regard to Persian archery may be found in " Hansard's Book of Archery," p. IM.
The " Archers' liegister " pul)lished a number of notes from a manuscript copy of " Anecdotes of Turkish Archery procured from C(mstantinoplc by Sir Robert Ainslie, and translated by his interpreter, at the request of Sir Joseph Banks, Baronet, 1797," from which we quote : —
" The bow, instead of being drawn with three fingers on the string, according to our mode, was drawn l)y the right thumb, with the arrow placed on the string im- mediately above it. A thumb-piece, or guard of bone, answering the purpose of our 'tips,' was worn. It covered the ball of the thumb, one end being made as a Fig?^ ling «^-iitl passed over the joint. A pro-
persian thumb-ring. jecUug touguc in the iusidc prevented the string slipping oif the guard into the angle of the thumb formed by the bent joint. The inside of the guard was lined with leather. A curious contrivance, consist- ing of a horn-groove several inches in length, fixed on a foundation of wood attached to a leather strap and buckle, was fastened on the bow-hand. The groove pro- jected inwards. The arrow was hiid in this groove, which rested on the thumb, and was rather higher on the outside, as the arrow was shot on the right side of the bow, on the contrary side to what it is in England."
OF ARROW-RELEASE.
163
There are doubtless other forms of release, but those already given probably comprise the principal and most efficient ones.
At Singapore I was enabled to secure, through the kind- ness of D. F. A. Hervey, Esq., of Malacca, a Malay release of the Temiang tribe, originally from Sumatra. The bow was held in an horizontal position (a hole being made in the centre of the bow through which the arrow passed), the three fingers bent over the string, and the arrow held between the first and second fingers, the thumb straiij^ht-
Fig. 19. Temiang release.
ened, and the little finger partially straightened and bear- ing against the string as in the figure (Fig. 19). This was a weak release, and was used only in the shooting of small game and fish. An entirely difierent form of release is used by this people in shooting fire at the spirit of sick- ness. The bow is perforated as in the bow above men- tioned ; the arrow has a shoulder near the distal end which prevents it passing through the hole, and the nock is fas- tened to the string. A ball of inlhunmablc material is loosely placed on the end of tiie arrow, and when the arrow is released it is suddenly checked by its shoulder striking
164 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
the bow and the fire-ball is projected into the air by its momentum. The release in this act is shown in Fig. 20.
The first finger passes above the string and under the ar- row, the thnmb being straightened and the arrow grasped between the thumb and finger. This is a most awkward and inefficient release ; and as the descriptions of this and the previous Malay release were given me by an old man, who was at the time being questioned by Mr. Hervey in the interest of philology, it is possible that the releases may have been incorrectly described.
The releases thus far given comprise those forms which have been studied from life.
It now remains for us to examine the releases of ancient
Fig. 20. Temiang release when shooting at spirit of sickness.
peoples which are made known to us through illuminated manuscripts, frescos, rock sculpture, and other graphic methods. From the conventional way in which many of these are depicted, great difficulty is encountered in prop- erly interpreting the exact method of release intended. In many cases, especially in certain forms of the ancient Egyptian, as shown in the frescos, and early Grecian, as represented on their decorative vases, it is well nigh im- possible to recognize any mode in which the arrow could be drawn. In some cases the release might be intended
OF ARROW-RELEASE. 165
to represent either of two or three kinds. That many re- leases are represented incorrectly there can be no donbt. In tignres of Eiryptian archers, the hand is depicted as daintily pnlling the arrow in a way that could not possibly accomplish the drawing of a stiff bow ; and that the Egyptian archer used a stiff boAV is seen in the vigorous manner in which he is represented as bracing it with knee pressed against its middle, while tying the cord above.
It will be best, however, to give a description of those releases that can be clearly interpreted, beginning with the Assyrian. I had a brief opportunity of studying the won- derful collection of Assyrian slabs at the British Museum, and also the Assyrian collections at the Louvre. In the various scenes of war and hunting so graphically depicted, the most perfect representations of archers in the act of drawing the bow are given.
At the outset I met with a very curious and unaccount- able discrepancy in the form of release employed, and that was when tlie archer was represented with iiis right side, or shaft hand, toward the observer, the hand was with few exceptions in the attitude of the primary or secondary release ; whereas if the archer was represented with his left side, or bow hand, toward the observer, the release with few exceptions represented the ^Mediterranean re- lease. Or, in other words, as one faces the sculptured slab the archers, who are represented as !^hooting towards the right, show with few exceptions either the primary or secondary release, while those shooting towards the left are with few exceptions practicing the Mediterranean release !
If in every case the Assyrians were represented on the left, as one faces the tablet, fighting the enemy on the right, then one might assume that the enemy was prac- ticing a different release. In au Eg} ptian fresco, for ex-
166 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
ample, where Rameses II. is depicted in his chariot fighting the Arabs, the enemy is represented as practicing a differ- ent release. While in many cases the Assyrians are on the left of the picture, in other cases they are on the right, and shooting towards the left. It is therefore diffi- cult to decide which release was practiced by them ; and all the more so, since, with very few exceptions, the re- leases are perfect representations of forms practiced to- day, which have already been described. I have suspected that in one or two cases the Mongolian release might have been intended, though in no case is the thumb-ring repre- sented, though other details of arm-guards, bracelets, etc., are shown with great minuteness.
Taking the releases as they are represented in the sculpt-
Fig, -21. Assyrian.
ures without regard to the discrepancies above noted, it is an extremely interesting fact that all the earlier Assy- rian archers, that is, of the time of Assurnazirpal, or 884 B. C, the release represented is the primary one, as shown in Ficr. 21 : while in the archers of the reign of Assurbar- nipal, or 650 B. C, the secondary release is shown, or a variety of it, in which the tips of all three fingers are on the string, as shown in Fig. 22. Between these two epochs the sculptures ranging from 745-705 B. C, notably a slab representing the campaign of Sennacherib showing assault on the Kouyunjik Palace, both the primary and secondary releases arc represented. If any reliance can
OF ARROW-RELEASE.
167
be placed on the accunicy of these figures, an interesting rehition is shown in the development of the secondary from the primary release, as urged in the first part of this paper. Possibly a proof that the primary release is iu-
Fig. 22. Assyrian.
tended is shown in the fact that the arrows are represent- ed with the nock end bull)ous.
On tablets in the British ^Museum of this intermediate age, or during the reign of Tiglath Pileser, is the first rep- resentation of an archer with the ri<i:ht side towards the
Fig. 23. Assyii.'in.
observer practicing the Mediterranean release: and on slabs of the date of 650 B. C, one showing Assurbarni- pal's second war against Ehim, and another one represent- ing the siege of the city of Al-ammu, a number of archers with their right towards the observer are practicino- the IMediterranean release (Fig. 23). In the Mediterranean release, which, as 1 have before remarked, is represented,
108
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
with few exceptions, by all the archers having the bow- hand toAvards the observer, there are two varieties shown : one in which three finn:ers are on the strin^r, and another
Fig. 24. Assyrian.
with only two fingers drawing the bow, as shown in the accompanying figures (Figs. 24, 25). The Mediterra- nean release occurs in Assyrian sculpture as early as 884
25. Assyrian.
B. C, as shown on a marble slab in the British INIuseum representing the siege of a city by Assurnazirpal (Fig. 26). A curious form is shown in Fig. 27, showing Assur-
Fig. 26. Assyrian.
barnipal in a chariot, shooting lions. The string below is concealed by the archer's arm. The secondary release is probably intended.
OF ARROW-RKLEASE.
169
111 regard to the bow-hand, the thumb is sometimes rep- resented as straiu:ht and guidin*^ the arrow, and in other cases as braced inside of the bow. In this connection it may be interesting to note that in the earliest Assyrian bows the ends of the bows are straight and blunt, the nocks being a simple groove and the string being tied
Fig. 27. Assyrian.
whenever the bow is braced, as in certain modern Indian and Aino practice. Other bows are shown at this period with a nock somewhat oblique, and it is possible that the string might have been looped and slipped into tiic notch, as in the modern English bow.
In the later slabs, that is 650 B.C., the ends of the bow are shown al)ruptl3' l)cnt, the bent portion in some cases
Fig. 28. Fig. 21). Fijj, 30.
being carved to represent a bird's head. In the bracing of this bow the string has a permanent loop, and the assist- ance of a second person is required to slip this loop over the point of the nock while the archer is employed in bending the bow, Avhich is done hy drawing the ends of the bow towards him, the knee at the same time l)eing pressed in the middle of the bow. (Figs. 28, 29, 30.) In
ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XVII 22
170 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
the earlier reign, the arrows are shown with hirger nocks and the barbs, long and narrow, with their outer edges gen- erally parallel to the shaft. The nock end of the arrow is bulbous, as before remarked; and if this is correctly represented it would settle the question as to the primary release being the one intended. In the later slabs, the arrow has shorter barbs, with the feathers taperjug forward towards the point, and the nock end of the arrow is not bulbous.
A more careful study than I was able to give to these sculptures maj^ pr()b:i])ly modify the general statements here made concerning the variations in time of the bow and arrow.
Concerning the practice of archery among the ancient Eg_yptians, Wilkinson in his classical work mentions only two forms of release. He says their mode of drawing the bow was either with the thumb and forefinger or with the first and second fingers.^ Rawlinson makes the same state- ment.^ These two forms as detined by these authors would be the primary and Mediterranean releases.
If the representations of the drawings and frescos in ancient Egyptian tombs, as given by Rosallini, Lepsius, and others, are to be relied on, then the ancient Egyptians practiced at least three, and possibly four, definite and distinct methods of release.
That many of the releases depicted in these old sculpt- ures and frescos are conventional simply, there can be no doubt ; indeed, some of the releases are plainly impossible, notably that form which shows the archer daintily draw- ing back a stifi' bow with the extreme tips of the first two fingers and thumb. Again, the figure of Rameses II. (see
Manners and Customs of the Aucieut Egyptians, 2ud series, Vol, 1., p. 307. 'Hibloi-y ol' Ancient Egypt, Vol. I., p. 474.
OF AEROW-KELEASE.
171
Wilkinson, Vol. I., p. 307), which shows the bow vertical while the shaft-hand is inverted, that is, with palm upper- most, is an equally impossible attitude. Other releases identity themselves clearly with forms already described, and with slight latitude in the interpretation of the con- ventional forms we may identify these as belonging to known types.
The earliest releases are those depicted on the tombs of Beni Hassan of the time of Usurtasen L, Avhich according
Fig. 31. Early Egyptian.
to the conservative chronology of Professor Lepsius dates 2380 B.C. Here the Mediterranean release is unmistak- ably shown. The following figure (Fig. 31) from these tombs, copied from Rosallini's great work, indicates this form of release in the clearest manner. In these figures it is interesting to observe that the arrow is drawn to the ear, and also that the archers are represented as shootin<' with the left as well as with the right hand.
Makingastride of over a thousandyears and coming down to the time of Seti I. ( 1259 B.C.), we have represented a release as well as a mode of drawing the arrow al)ovo and
172
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
behind the ear, which recalls in the action of the arm cer- tain forms of the Mongolian release. (Fig. 32.) It is true the attitude of the hand might be interpreted as rep- resenting the thumb and bent forefinsrer as shown in the
Egyptian. Seti I.
primary release, but the free and vigorous drawing of the bow as shown in the figure could not possibly be accom- plished in the primary form with a bow of any strength. Furthermore, the attitude assumed by the Manchu and
Fig. 33. Egyptian. Kamescs II.
Japanese archer in the Mongolian release vividly recalls this picture of Seti. Egyptologists state that Seti I. was occupied early in his reign with wars in the east and in re- sisting the incursions of Asiatic tribes ; and we venture to
OF ARROW-RELEASE.
173
offer the suggestion that during these wars he might have acquired tlie more vigorous release as practiced by the Asiatics.^ Whatever may be the method depicted in the drawing of Seti, it is quite unlike the releases of the time of Usurtasen, and equally unlike the figures of Kameses II., which are so often portrayed.
In Figs. 33, 34, copied from Rosallini, the thuml) and the forefinger partially bent may be intended to represent the primary release, as in no other way could be inter- preted the bent forefinger and straightened thumb holding
Fig. 34. Egyptian. Rameses 11.
the tip of the arrow, with three other fingers free from the string.
In the British Museum are casts of a hunting scene, and also of battle scenes of the time of Rameses II., in which the shaft -hand of the archer is in an inverted position. This form of release associated with a vertical bow is an impos- sible one. Either the hand is wrongly drawn, or the atti- tude of the bow is incorrectly given. The only explanation of this discrepancy is the assumption that the bow was
> It would be extremely interesting to know whether any object answering the purpose of a thumb-ring has ever been found among the relics of ancient Egypt.
174
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
Fig. 35. Egyptian.
really held in an horizontal position, and the release prac- ticed was the one I have designated as the tertiary release. The Egyptian artist, igno- rant of perspective drawing and utterly unable to represent a bow foreshortened, has drawn the bow in a vertical position. As a further proof of this, we find that the tribes of North American In- dians and the Siamese who practice the terti- ary release usually hold the bow in an horizontal position. An examina- tion of the accompany- ing figures Avill make this clear. Fig. 35 is copied from the cast re- ferred to in the British jNIuseum ; Fig. 36, from \yilkinson,Vol, i., p. 307; Fig. 37, from Wilkinson, Vol. i., p. 309. Reginald Stuart Poole, Esq., of the British Musenm, has
kindly sent me an out- Fig. 37. Egyptian. jj^^^ ^^ ^j^^ ^^^^j, ^^^^ ^^
the ancient Egyptian arrow which shows a straight and
Fig. 36. Egyptian.
OF ARROW-RELEASE.
175
cylindrical shaft. Figs. 38, 39, 40, and 41 are copied from Rosallini. Fig. 38 is probably intended for the pri- mary, Fig. 39 the tertiary probably, and Figs. 40 and 41 the Mediterranean form.
Turning now to the practice of archery among the an- cient Grecians, we sliould expect to tind among tliese peo-
Fig. 38. Efryptian.
pie, at least, the most distinct and truthful delineations of the attitude of the hand in shooting. Hansard, in his "Book of Arciiery," p. 428, says of the ancient Greek archers, "Like the moderuTui-ks, Persians, Tartars, and many other Orientals, they drew the bow-string with their thumb, the arrow being retained in i)lace by the forefinger. Many
Fig. 39. Egyptian.
sculptures extant in public and private collections, es- pecially those splendid casts from the Island of Egina now in the British Philosophical and Literary Institution, represent several archers drawing the bow-string as I have described."
A study of a number of ancient Grecian releases as shown in rock sculpture and on decorated vases reveals only one release that might possibly be intended to repre- sent the Mongolian method, and this is shown on a Greek
176
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
vase (black figures ou red) figured in Auserlesene Vaser- bilder. With this exception the releases thus far examined are as various, and many of them quite as enigmatical, as those seen among the ancient Egyptians. I puzzled for a long time over these sculptures from the temple of
Fif?. 40. Egyptian.
Athena to which Mr. Hansard refers, and was forced to coine to the conclusion that, despite their acknowledged ac- curacy, the release was an impossible one. It was not till sometime after that T learned that the figures had been care- fully restored by Thovaldseu, and the restored parts com-
\
Fig. 41. Egyptian.
prised the hands and arms, as well as the extremities of most of the figures. With this information I had occasion to hunt up a history of these figures, and found the follow- ing in a work by Eugene Plon entitled "Thovaldsen his Life and Works," republished in this country by Roberts Broth- ers. The figures were restored by Thovaldsen in 1816. Among the restored i)arts were the hands of the archers. " The statues were in Parian marble, and he used so much
OF ARKOW-RELEASE. 177
care in matching the tints of the new })ieces as almost to deceive a practiced eye. He was frequently asked by vis- itors to the Atelier whicii were the restored parts. *I can- not say,' he would reply hiughing; 'I neglected to mark them, and I no longer remember. Find them out for yourself if you can'" (p. 56). Of these restorations, however, it is possible that Mr. Hansard was not aware, though if he had ever attempted drawing a bow in the manner represented in these figures, he would have seen the absurdity as well as the impossibility of the attitude; and, furtliermore, had he been at all familiar with the Mongolian release he would have seen that there was reall}'' no approach to the form as employed by the Man- chu, Korean, Japanese, or Turk. The following figure (Fig. 42) is sketched fiom the set of casts in the Mu- seum of Fine Arts in Boston. An examination of these
Fig. 42. ThovaUlsen's restoration of haml.
figures will show that the angle made by the shaft-liand in relation to the bow-hand is also inaccurate. A release that might at first sight suggest the Mongolian form is shown in the accompanying figure (Fig. 43) representing an Amazon archer, which is painted on a Greek vase of the 4th cen- tury B.C. The forefinger seems to be holding the end of the thumb, l)ut the thumb is not hooked over the string as it ought to be. If the hand l)e correctly drawn it repre- sents quite well the tertiary release; and this supposition is borne out by two sculptures, one from the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Piiigalia (Fig. 44), and another from
KSSKX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XVII 'J3
178
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
Lycia, Asia Minor. (Fig. 45.) In these two examples the hand seems to be in the attitude of drawing the bow, with the fingers partially bent on the string, and the thumb
Fig. 43. Amazon archer.
assisting in holding the arrow ; and this is the form ot the tertiary release.
The earliest Greek release that I have seen is represented
Fig. 44. Phigalia.
on a block of stone sent to this country by the Assos Ex- hibition, and now the property of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. It is supposed to date about 2200 B. C.
Fig. 45. Lycia, Asia Minor.
In this figure the hand is vigorously grasping the string, with the first and second fingers abruptly bent, the third and fourth fingers apparently having been broken away. (Fig. 46.)
OF ARRO"\V-UELEASE. 179
If this release really represent a permanent form of shooting, then this form should have been designated the primary release ; but, so far as 1 have learned, it seems to be a temporary mode resorted to onl}' under special con- ditions. In testing the stiffness of a bow, for example, the string is grasped in this manner. An instance of this is seen on one of the Assyrian slabs, where the king is represented as trying a bow. I was informed by a Zuui chief that when shooting in a great hurry the string was vigorously clutched by three or four fingers, the arrow being held against the first finger by the thumb.
The Ainos on the west coast of Yezo also informed me
V
Fig. 40. Assos.
that when shooting in great haste the string was clutched in precisely this manner. In the use of a bow of any strength, the attrition of the string on the fingers nuist be very severe ; and only a hand as tough, and as thoroughly calloused as the paw of an animal, could endure the fric- tion of the string in such a release. For convenience of reference this form may be referred to provisionally as the Archaic release.
In abas-relief in marble rci)rcscnting Heraklcs drawing a bow, a figure of which is given in Ra3^et's Monuments de VArt Antique, it is rather curious that the hand is rep- resented as clutching the string in the vigorous manner just described. The date of this work is put down as the fourth or fifth century B. C. Doubts have been expressed
180
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
as to the genuineness of this work. Dr. Alfred Emerson has expressed his belief in the "American Journal of Archreology," Vol. i., p. 153, that the work is a modern fraud. In the following number of the Journal Mr. Furtwangler defends the work, but would place it not earlier than the first century B. C. He says it is not ar-
Fig. 47. Grecian.
chaic, but archaistic. Whether the work be genuine or spurious I am not competent to judge. I may venture to say, however, that the attitude of the shaft-hand is very inaccurate. However absurd the drawing of the hand often is in these early Greek releases, the artists have rarely failed to adjust the arrow correctly in relation to
Fig. 48. Grecian.
the bend of the bow and the angle made by the string in tension. In this bas-relief of Heraklcs, however, the at- titude of shooting is one of which no artist capable of mak- ing so robust and correct a body and pose would be guilty, and it certainly lends some weight to the supposition of Dr. Emerson as to the possible character of the work.
OF ARKOW-IIELEASE.
181
The iiccoinpanying figures are interesting as showing the conventional and even grotesque ways in which the arrow release is often represented on early Grecian vases. Figs. 47 and 48 are copied from Weiner Vorlaye Blatter^ Series D, Taf. IX, XII. Fig. 47 shows the hand reversed, with the thumb below instead of above. It is possible to shoot an arrow in this way but hardly probable that so awkward and unnatural an attitude would be taken. This release is intended to represent the tertiary release. Fig. 48 as drawn is an impossible release, though this release also may be intended to represent the tertiary release, the thumb beinir straiiiiit, and the arrow beins: held between
Fig. 49. Grecian. Fig. 50. Grecian.
the thumb and forefinger, while the second finger, and in Fig. 48 the second, third, and fourth fingers are on the string.
In Monuments Inedits., Vol. i., Plate lt., is figured the famous Chalcidian or Achilles vase, supposed to have been made in the early part of the sixth century B. C. Here the archer is shown left-handed. Assuming the drawinjr to be correct, the release represents the archaic form (Fig. 49).
Another release figured in the same volume, Plate xx., may be intended to represent the tertiary release (see Fig. 50). On Plate l., \^)1. ii., of the same work is fig-
182
ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
ured a Grecian vase of the fourth century B. C, on which are depicted two releases which are probably the tertiary form (Fig 51). Ou Plate xvrii. of the same volume is fi^^ured an archaic Etruscan vase on which a curious de-
[Fig. 51. Grecian.
liueation of an archer is given. The bow-hand is so well drawn that one is almost inclined to imagine that some mechanical device for releasing the arrow is intended by the curious representation of the shaft-hand (Fig. 52). Three other curious releases are shown in Figs. 53, 54 and
Fig. 52. Etruscan.
55, the latter copied from a Greek vase (black figures on red) supposed to be of the sixth century B. C. All these, though incorrectly represented, are probably intended for the tertiary release. Fig. 56 is copied from a figure given in Auserleseue Vaserbilder, representing a Greek vase of
OF ARROW-RELEASE.
183
the sixth century B. C lu this the archer's hand most certainly suggests the Mongolian release. It is true the thumb is not bent on the string, but it is bent with the second and presumably the tirst linger pressing against it. Concerning ancient Persian releases, only two have fallen
Fig. 63. Grecian.
Fig 54. Grecian (bas-relief).
under my notice. One is preserved on a silver cup of the Sassanid Dynasty, fifth century B. C. This is figured m Monuments Inedits., Vol. iii., Plate 51. In this figure the ])ow is a typical ]\Ianchu. The release is unquestion- ably a variety of the INIongolian release, the second and
Fig. 55. Grecian.
Fig. 30. Grecian.
third fingers aiding the thumb, while the index finger is straight and inactive. The hand has attached to it a curious gear of leather, apparently held by a band al)out the wrist. Whether this
184 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
guard similar to that used by the Japanese it is difficult to determine. (Fig. 57.)
In the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. VII., Part I., p. 258, 1883, is a communication from Major General A. Cunningham, entitled "Relics from Ancient Persia in Gold, Silver, and Copper." These ob- jects were found on the northern bank of the Oxus. Judg- ing from the coins, the author regards the deposit as having been made not later than 180 or 200 years B. C. Among the relics was a stone cylinder, upon which were represented two Persian soldiers capturing two Scythians. The rep- resentations of the hands are too imperfect for one to judge with any precision of the character of the release in-
tended. The attitude of the hand in every case, however, suggests the Mongolian release. The bow is short, and of a form similar to the Manchu bow of to-day. It is in- teresting to notice that the Scythians are represented as shooting left-handed, and in this connection to recall the advice which Plato gives in regard to archery, — that both hands should be taught to draw the bow, adding that the Scythians draw the bow with either hand.
In regard to Chinese archery in ancient times, the clas- sics of China abound in allusions to archery, and there can be no doubt that the release as practiced to-day is identical with the release practiced three thousand years
OF ARROW-RELEASE. 185
airo. The Analects of Confucius, the Doctrine of the ^Slcan, and other ancient writings bear ample testimony to the hiirh esteem in which this manly art was held.
In the Shi King, or book of ancient Chinese poetry (translation of Legge) , the following allusions refer to the use of the thumb-ring, which was also called a thimble, and also apdn chi, or finger regulator.
" "With archer's thimble at his girdle hung."
And again, —
" Each right thumb wore the metal guard."
Concerning Japanese archery methods in past times,
Fig. 53. Japanese.
what little evidence we have on the sul)ject points to a Mongolian form of release. The archers have always formed a favorite study for the Japanese artist, and many details of the bow and arrow and attitudes of the archer may be got from old paintings and drawings. The rep- resentations of the hand in shooting, though often drawn conventionally, are easily interpreted as releasing the ar- row after the Mongolian method. Fig. 58 is copied from a vigorous drawing, showing the attitude of the shaft- hand in the attitude of release. In the Shinto temple at jNliyajima is a picture over two hundred years old, in which the archer's hand is shown in the attitude of the
ESSKX INST. I5ULLI.11N, VOL. XVII 'Ji
18G ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
]\Iongolian release. A picture of Tanniu, painted one hundred and fifty years ago and supposed to be a copy of a Chinese subject six or seven hundred years old, shows plainly the Mongolian release. In a picture by Keion, seven hundred years old, the archer is represented in the act of wetting with his tongue the tips of the first two fingers of his hand ; and this certainly suggests the Japa- nese form of the Mongolian release.
Among the Emperor's treasures at Nara is a silver ves- sel supposed to be of the time of Tempei Jingo (765 A. D.), upon which is depicted a hunting-scene. Here the release, if correctly depicted, suggests the Mediterranean form. The bow is Mongoloid. The vessel is probably Persian : it is certainly not Japanese. The earliest allu- sions to Japanese archery are contained in "Kojiki, or Records of Ancient Matters," of which its translator, Mr. Basil Hall Chamberlain, says : " It is the earliest authentic literary product of that large division of the human race which has been variously denominated Turanian, Scythian, and Altaic, and even precedes by at least a century the most ancient extant literary compositions of non- Aryan India." These- records take us back without question to the 7th century of our era. In this work allusion is made to the heavenly feathered arroio, to the vegetable ivax-tree bow and deer boiv, and also to the elboio pad. It is diffi- cult to understand the purpose of the elbow pad in arch- ery, assuming the same practice of the bow in ancient times as in present Japanese methods. It is difficult to believe that a pad on the elbow was needed to protect that part from the feeble impact of the string. If the pad WHS a sort of arm-guard surrounding the elbow, then one might surmise the use of a highly strung bow of ]Mon- golian form held firmly and not permitted to rotate as in the Japanese style.
OF ARROW-RELEASE. 187
The peculiar twist given the l)ow by the Japanese archer is, so for as I know, unique in archery practice. In Siani, a bow of curious construction is used for throw- ing clay balls. The l)all is held in a nettinir, the string of the bow is double, the bow-hand has the thumb braced vertically against the inside of the bow, so that it may not interfere with the flight of the ball. A peculiar twist is given the bow, so that the ball passes free from it.
I know of no record to show that the Japanese ever used a bow of this nature ; in the Emperor's treasure- house at Nara, however, is preserved a curious bow nearly a thousand years old, and this is undoubtedly a bow used for throwing clay or stone balls. Instead of a netting to hold the ball there is a perforated leathern piece. This piece is adjusted to the cord a third way down the bow, at al)out the point from which the Japanese archer dis- charges the arrow. AA'hether the Japanese archer ac- quired ithis curious twirl of the bow to protect the feathers from rubbing against its side, or to escape the painful im- pact of the string, or, which is not improbable, acquired this novel twist from using the Iwll-throwing bow it is difficult to determine.
In regard to the release practiced by the various tril)es in India, I have no information.
Through the courtesy of the lamented James Fergus- son, I was permitted to examine his large collection of photographs of Indian Temples ; and in a brief examina- tion of these pictures I discovered a few releases in the sculptures. In the Peroor Temple near Coimbatore, an eight-armed God is represented as holding upright, be- tween the first and second fingers of the right hand, an arrow. It is impossible to conjecture the form of release in this attitude ; though, if the aiTow were carried to the string in this position, the Mediterranean release would be suggested.
188 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
On the southwest face of the temple of Halabeed, My- sore, an archer is shown with the arrow already released ; the attitude of the hand, however, suggests the Mediter- ranean form. In the Valconda, a small, ruined temple near Calamapoor, archers are shown having the tips of all the fingers on the string, in the same position as shown in the later Assyrian release ; and this would indicate the secondary release.
These data are altogether too few and vague to deter- mine the form or forms of release of these people.
Concerning ancient methods of archery in America, l)ut little can be said. Prol)ably the most reliable data are to be found in the few Mexican records which survived the shocking desecration by the Catholic Church at the time of the Conquest.^
An examination of the plates of Kingsborough's" Mexi- can Antiquities" reveals a number of hunters and warriors armed with bows and arrows. The figures at best are somewhat rudely drawn ; those that are in action have the shaft-hand so poorly drawn that in most cases it is difii- cult to make out the release. In the few drawings in which the attitude of the shaft-hand is clearly shown, the tertiary release is probably indicated.
To Mrs. Zelia Nuttall Pinart I am indel)ted for tracings of archers from the Ailas Dnran, Plate i., and Alap2')e Quinatzin i, Plate iv. These, though quite as ambiguous as those to be found in Kingsborough's, can only l)e inter* preted as representing the tertiary release. In the latter
1 The fiercely intolerant ppirit of the representatives of the church is well il- lustrated by the language of a letter written by Zuniarraga, the chief inquisitor of Mexico, to the Franciscan chapter at Tolosa, in January, 1531. The words are as follows : "Very reverend Father, be it known to you that we are very busy in the work of converting the heatlien; of Mhoni. by the grace of God, upwards of one million have been baptized at the hands of the brethren of the order of our Seraphic Father, Saint Francis; live hundred temples have been levelled to the ground, and more than twenty thousanil ligures of tlic devils they worshipped have been broken to pieces and hun\QiX."—Examphi of Iconocliism by the Conqiierors of Mexico, by W. U. Holmes.
OF ARKOW'-RELEASE. 189
work, Plates 00 and 03 of Vol. ii. show apparently a Mediterranean release ; and were there no other reasons for believing that these people practiced the tertiary re- lease, it might be assumed that the Mediterranean release was also practiced. The reasons are, first, that in every case the arrow is pulled to the breast or even lower ; and, second, and of more importance, in every instance when the archer is shown with the right hand toward the observer, the arrow is below the bow-hand, whereas in every case when the archer is shown with the left hand towards the observer, the arrow is above the bow-hand. The bow is represented vertically, as in all rude and early figures ; but the artist, not being able to represent the bow foreshortened and horizontal, has unconsciously indicated the attitude of the tertiary release l)y preserving the atti- tude of the bow in relation to the hand.
We have seen that the Mediterranean release has two forms, in one of which three fingers are brought into action ; in the other only two fingers are so used. Eng- lish authorities say that if one can accustom himself to draw the bow with two fingers, a better release is the re- sult. AVhile the difference between these two forms seems slight, as indeed it is, yet the practice to-day among Eu- ropean and American archers is to draw with three fin- gers. It was evidently not so universally the form in Europe a few centuries ago; for at this time, judging from the few examples we have seen, the archers are al- most always depicted drawing with two fingers. It is true, the directions in the works of these early times as well as allusions to the subject state that three fingers on the string is the proper method of release. Yet the few sculptures, ivory carvings, etchings, manuscripts, draw- ings, etc., to which we have had access, almost invariably depict the two-fingered release.
It would be interesting to kncjw whether the bow has
100 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
become stifFer in later years, requiring three fingers to bend it, or whether (as more probable) the fingers have become weaker, thus requiring more fingers to do the worlv.
It is interesting to find in these early works a uni- formity in the method of release employed, and that the Saxon, Norman, Fleming, French, English, Scandinavian, and Italian practiced essentially the same release.
Hansard says (see the "Book of Archery," p. 77), "All representations of archers which occur in illuminated manuscripts of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries — and I have examined some scores of them — identify the ancient with the modern practice. The pen- and-ink drawings of John de Rous, a bowman as well as contemporary biographer of that Earl of Warwick who, during the Wars of the Red and White Roses, was the setter up and destroyer of many kings, will furnish amusement and information to the curious. The neces- sary slight inclination of the head and neck — ' this laying of the l)ody in the bow,' the drawing with two and with three fingers — are there correctly delineated. They may be lound among the manuscripts in the British Museum."
According to Hansard, Ascham ordered the shooting- glove to be made with three fingers, "and when Henry the Fifth harangued his troops previous to the battle of Agincourt, he endeavoured to exasperate their minds by dwelling on the cruelties in store for them. Addressing his archers, he said the French soldiers had sworn to am- putate their three first fingers, so that they should never more be able to slay man or horse. "^
> Meyiick, in his famous work on "Ancient Aimoni" (Vol. I., p. 9), in speaking of the orijrin of the bow in England, saj-s : " The bow as a weai>on of war was cer- tainly intiodm^ed by tlie Xoinians; tlic Saxons, like the Taheite at the present day, used it merely for killing birds. On this account, in the speech which Henry of fluntington puts into the Conqueror's mouth before the battle, he makes him 6tiguiati:«e the Saxon as ' a nation uot even having arrows.' "
OF ArvKOW-RELEASE. 191
The earliest figure I have met with, illustrating archery in England, was copied from the Saxon manuscripts in the Cotton Library. These manuscripts are of the eighth century. If the wood-cut contained in Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes " is correct, then tlie attitude of the hands shows distinctly the three-fingered Mediterranean release. The bow is short and thick, and has a double curve, something like the Roman bow, from which indeed it might naturally have been derived.^
The following examples have come under my notice in a very hasty and imperfect survey of the field, principally derived from books, engravings, and ivory carvings, re- productions, etc., in museums.
The celebrated Bayeux Tapestry, a copy of which may be seen at the South Kensington Museum, represents the archers in the attitude of the two-fingered Mediterra- nean release, though a few are shown using three fingers. Also the following show the two-fingered form of the ]Med- iterranean release without exception : a fresco in Kumla Church, Vestmanland Co., Sweden, 1492 : a sculptured figure in Avood liy Alljrecht Durer, figured in Som- merard's "Arts of the Middle Ages" (5th Series, Plate XXVII.), also in the same work (10th Series, Plate xxv.) ; a chess piece in iv^ory supposed to be of the tenth or eleventh century; in Meyrick's "Ancient Armour" (Plate VIII., Vol. I.), a figure of a Norman of the eleventh cen- tury, on the doorway of the Cathedral of Amiens, a cast of Avhich may be seen at the Trt)cedero Museum ; and, finally, in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts are a number of Florentine engravings of the early half of the fifteenth century, and these in every case represent in the
> It may be well to state licre that opportunity has not pcrmittdl an examina- tion of sources for early Uo nan releases. On Tiajan'd coluiuu a few releases are ebown, and these arc of the Mcditurraneau form.
192 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
clciircst manner the two-fingered variety of the Mediter- ranean release. A curious form of the Mediterranean release is shown on tlie door of the Church of the Made- leine at Vezelay, a cast of which is to be seen at Troce- dero Museum. In this release the archer has all four lingers on the string, the arrow being held between the second and third fingers. I had supposed that this was a mistake of the artist, as indeed it may have been, but Col. James Stevenson, in describing to me the methods of re- lease among the Navajo Indians of North America, illus- trated a release identical with this four-fingered variety.
In conclusion, it is interesting to observe that all the re- leases thus far described have been practiced from the earliest historic times. Each release with the exception of the primary release, which admits of no variation, has one or more varieties. The secondary release may have the second finger, or the second and third fingers on the string. Some forms of this release in India and Assyria show all the fingers on the string ; it is hardly probable, however, that these are correctly represented. The terti- ary release may have the first and second, or the first, second, and third fingers on the string. The Mediterranean release may be effected with two or three fingers, and in two instances all the fingers, on the string. The Mongolian release may have the assistance onl}' of the first finger as in the Chinese and Manchu, or the first and second fingers as in the Korean and Japanese, — or, if rightly interpreted, the early Persian form, with the second and third only aiding the thumb ; and if the Mongolian release described on page 161 be an established form, then we have here a mixture of Mongolian and secondary.
The persistence of a release in a people is well illustrated in the case of the Aino. For centuries the Ainos have
OF ARROW-RELEASE. 193
buttled with the Japanese, and iiiu.st have been mindful of the superior archery of their enemies ; indeed on all hands, with the exception possibly of the Kamtschadals at the north, the Ainoshave been surrounded by races practicing the Monjiolian release, and yet have adhered to their primitive methods of shooting.
The releases vary in their efficiency and strength. The two strongest and perhaps e(jually powerful releases are the Mediterranean and Mongolian ; and it is interesting to note the fact that the two great divisions of the human family who can claim a history, and who have been all dominant in the affairs of mankind, are the Mediterranean nations and the Mongolians. For three or four thousand years, at least, each stock has had its peculiar arrow-re- lease, and this has persisted through all the mutations of time to the present day. Language, manners, customs, religions have in the course of centuries widely separated these two great divisions into nations. Side by side they have lived ; devastating wars and wars of conquest have marked their contact ; and yet the apparently trivial and simple act of releasing the arrow from the bow has re- mained unchanged. At the present moment the European and Asiatic archer, shooting now only for sport, practice each the release which characterized their remote ancestors.
Want of material will prevent more than a passing ref- erence to a peculiar practice of archery which iNIoselcy alludes to as pedestrial archery. It is a matter of com- mon record that in widely separated parts of the world, as South America, China, and Africa, the archer uses his feet in drawing the bow. In an " Kssay of Archery" by Walter Michael Moseley, 1792, the writer says: "It is recorded l)y ancient writers that the Ethiopians draw the bow with the feet;" and again, Xenophon speaking of the Caducians says : " They had bows which were three cubits long, and
KSSKX INST. UUI.LKTIN, VOL. XVU 25
194 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
arrows two cubits. When they niMtle use of these weapons, they placed their left foot on the bottom of the how, and by that method they drove their arrows with great vio- lence," etc.
It is recorded of the Arabians that they used their bows in the manner above alluded to, by the help of the foot. The release in these cases must ho. of a most vigorous character ; and when in some accounts the archer is rep- resented as resting on his back, with both feet bracing against the bow, the string is probably clutched with both hands, after the manner I have provisionally called the archaic release.
In the following classified list of releases and the peo- ple who practice them, it is shown in a general way that the primary, secondary, and tertiary releases are practiced by savage races to-day, as well as by certain civilized races of ancieut times ; while the Mediterranean and Mongolian re- leases, though originating early in time, have always char- acterized the civilized and dominant races. The exceptions to this generalization are curious : the Little Andaman islanders practicing the Mediterranean release, and the inhabitants of the Groat Andaman Island practicing the tertiary release, are an illustration. The fact that the vari- ous groups of Eskimo practicing the Mediterranean release, and so far as I know being the only people who have de- signed a distinct form of arrow for this method, is exceed- ingly curious. Mr. John Murdock, who is engaged in a careful study of the Eskimo, has expressed to me a sur- mise that certain arts of the Eskimo may have been derived from Greenland through Scandinavian colonists ; and this might explain the anomal}-.
It may be shown that in tribes in which the bow is but little used, and then only for small birds and game, the release is weak or irregular. The data, however, are alto- gether too few to establish any conclusions respecting this.
OF AKROW-RELEASE.
195
CLASSIFIED LIST OF TRIBES AND NATIONS REFERRED TO IN THIS PAPER.
PunrARY uia.i'.vsK.
in:CENT.
Savcifje.
Ainos of Yezo. . Demorara, S. A. . Navajo, N. A. . Chippewa, N. A. Micmac, Canada. Penobscot, N. A. . Ute, N. A. ?
Skcondaky kelkase.
Savage.
Ottawa, N. A.
Ziini, N. A. _ .
Chiiipewa, N. A. . Tertlvry release.
Savage.
Omaha, N. A. .
Sioux, N. A. .
Arapahoes, N. A.
Cheyennes, N. A. •
Assiniboiiis, N. A.
Comanclics, N. A. .
Crows, N. A. .
Bhickfeet.
Navajos, N. A. .
Great Andaman Itilauder Civilized.
Siamese
Mediteuranean release. Civilized.
European Nations. ]
Savage.
Point Barrow Eskimo. Cumberland Sound Esiiimo. East Cape Siberia Esiiimo. Little Andaman Islander.
observed.
pul)lished.
reported.
observed, photograph.
observed, reported.
observed, reported.
published, observed.
observed and published.
reported, published.
196 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS
Mongolian uelkask.
Civilized.
Mancliu soldier, China. . . observed.
Cantonese, China. , . "
Korean "
Japanese. .... "
Turks. published.
Persians. .... '•
Irrkgular release.
Temiangs, Sumatra. . . observed.
ANCIENT.
Primary release.
Civilized.
Assyrian, early.
Egyptian.
Grecian?
Secondary release.
Civilized.
Assyrian, later.
India? Tertiary release.
Civilized.
Egyptian.
Grecian.
Mexican?
Mediterranean release.
Civilized.
Assyrian, later.
Egyptian, early.
Arabian.
Indian.
Eonian. Middle Ages,
English.
French.
Norman.
Fleming.
Saxon.
Swede.
Florentine.
OF ARROW-RELEASE. 11)7
Mongolian release.
Civilized.
Cliinese. Scythian. Persian. Egyptian. Greek. ?
AUCUAIC KELEASE?
Civilized.
Ancient Greek.
It is hardl}' necessary to call attention to the importance of a more systematic study of the methods of archery and paraphernalia of the archers than has yet been done. I would point out the necessity of observing greater care in copying drawings, rock-inscriptions, frescos, bas-reliefs, etc., as to the minor details, — such as the position of the hand, the shape and character of the ends of the bow and arrow, and the shape of the feathers ; also the possi- bility and importance of identifying among ancient ol)jects and drawings arm-guards, thumb-rings, arrow-rests, etc. Travellers and explorers ought also not only to observe the simple fact that such and such people use bows and arrows, but they should accurately record, (1) the atti- tude of the shaft hand; (2) whether the boAV is held vertically or horizontally; (3) whether the arrow is to the right or to the left of the bow vertical ; and (4), of which no comment has been made in this paper, whether extra arrows are held in the bow-hand or shaft-hand. The method of bracing the bow is of importance also.
The remarkable persistence of certain forms of arrow- release among various nations leads me to believe, that, in identifying the affinities of past races, the method of using the bow may form another point in establishing or dis- proving relationships. By knowing with more certainty the character and limitation of the forms of arrow-release,
198 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS OF ARROW-RELEASE.
another clew may be got as to the date and nature of frag- ments of sculpture representing the hand. The peculiar attitude of the archer might lead to the interpretation of armless statues.
The author would be very grateful for any information regarding the methods of arrow-release of tribes and peo- ples. Particularly would he desire the release as practiced by the Veddahs of Ceylon, the Ilill tribes of India, the tribes of Africa, South America, and especially the Fue- gans. Indeed, any information regarding the methods of arrow-release in any part of the world would be accept- able. Such material in the shape of descriptions, photo- graphs, drawings, and if possil)le specimens of bows and arrows, may be sent to the author, Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A., for which full credit will be given in a future publication on this subject.
In addition to those already mentioned in these pages to whom the author is under obligations, he would men- tion Gen. Charles A. Loring, Mr. Edward Robinson, Prof. Otis T. Mason, Rev. W. C. Winslow, Mr. T. F. Hunt, Dr. W. S. Bigelow, Prof. John Robinson, Mr. S. R. Koeller, and Prof. E. F. Fenollosa, who have in various ways rendered him kind assistance.
3 2044 106 258 932
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